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247135	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Sudan	Music of Sudan	The rich and varied music of Sudan has traditional, rural, northeastern African roots and also shows Arabic, Western or other African influences, especially on the popular urban music from the early 20th century onwards. Since the establishment of big cities like Khartoum as melting pots for people of diverse backgrounds, their cultural heritage and tastes have shaped numerous forms of modern popular music. In the globalized world of today, the creation and consumption of music through satellite TV or on the Internet is a driving force for cultural change in Sudan, popular with local audiences as well as with Sudanese living abroad. Even after the secession of South Sudan in 2011, the Sudan of today is very diverse, with five hundred plus ethnic groups spread across the territory of what is the third largest country in Africa. The cultures of its ethnic and social groups have been marked by a complex cultural legacy, going back to the spread of Islam, the regional history of the slave trade and by indigenous African cultural heritage. Though some of the ethnic groups still maintain their own African language, most Sudanese today use the distinct Sudanese version of Arabic. Due to its geographic location in Africa, where African, Arabic, Christian and Islamic cultures have shaped people's identities, and on the southern belt of the Sahel region, Sudan has been a cultural crossroads between North, East and West Africa, as well as the Arabian Peninsula, for hundreds of years. Thus, it has a rich and very diverse musical culture, ranging from traditional folk music to Sudanese popular urban music of the 20th century and up to the internationally influenced African popular music of today. Despite religious and cultural objections towards music and dance in public life, musical traditions have always enjoyed great popularity with most Sudanese. Apart from singing in Standard Arabic, the majority of Sudanese singers express their lyrics in Sudanese Arabic, thereby touching the feelings of their national audience as well as the growing number of Sudanese living abroad, notably in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries. Even during times of wide-ranging restrictions of public life imposed by the government, public concerts or the celebration of weddings and other social events with music and dance have always been part of cultural life in Sudan. Folk music and other traditional musical forms Rural traditional music and dance As in other African regions, the traditional musical styles of Sudan are ancient, rich and diverse, with different regions and ethnic groups having many distinct musical traditions. Music in Africa has always been very important as an integral part of religious and social life of communities. Performances of songs, dance and instrumental music are used in rituals and social ceremonies like weddings, circumcision rites or to accompany the long camel treks of the Bedouins. In these performances, music always has been a social event, marked by the combination of performers, lyrics, music and the participation of the community, like dancing or other types of sharing a musical event. Traditional music and its performance have been handed down from generation to generation by accomplished musicians to younger generations and was not written down, except in recent times by formally trained musicians or ethnomusicologists. In contrast to traditional Arabic music, most Sudanese music styles are pentatonic, and the simultaneous beats of percussion or singing in polyrhythms are further prominent characteristics of Sudanese sub-Saharan music. The music of Sudan also has a strong tradition of lyrical expression that uses oblique metaphors, speaks about love, the history of a tribe or the beauty of the country. In his essay 'Sudanese Singing 1908–1958, author El Sirr A. Gadour translated an example for the lyrics of a love song from the beginning of the 20th century as follows: One of the most typical East African instruments, called tanbūra or kissar in Nubian music, was traditionally played by the singers as the usual accompaniment for such songs, but this Sudanese lyre has largely been replaced in the 20th century by the Arabic oud. Drums, hand clapping and dancing are other important elements of traditional musical performances, as well as the use of other African instruments, like traditional xylophones, flutes or trumpets. One example for this are the elaborate wooden gourd trumpets, called al Waza,Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: played by the Berta people of the Blue Nile state. The History of the World in 100 Objects features a large wooden slit drum in the shape of a buffalo from southern Sudan, probably made in the 19th century for traditonal performances of a larger ensembles or to summon warriors that is now held in the British Museum in London. The role of women in traditional music In many ethnic groups, distinguished women play an important role in the social celebration of a tribe's virtues and history. In her report about women as singers in Darfur, the ethnomusicologist Roxane Connick Carlisle recounts her fieldwork during the 1960s in three ethnic groups. She describes the common traits of these bards from the Zaghawa ethnic group like this: Another traditional form of women's role in oral poetry are the songs of praise or ridicule of singers in western Sudan, called Hakamat. These are women of high social standing, respected for their eloquence, intuition and decisiveness, who may both incite or vilify the men of their tribe, when engaged in feuds with other tribes. The social impact of these Hakamat can be so strong, that they have been invited by peacebuilding initiatives in Darfur to exert their influence for conflict resolution or contemporary social issues, like environmental protection. Sudanese women are also known both at home and in Egypt for their spiritual musical performances called zār, believed to be able to exorcise evil spirits from possessed individuals. Zikr rituals as religious forms of recitation and performance The numerous brotherhoods of Sufi dervishes in Sudan are religious, mystical groups that use prayers, music and ritual dance to achieve an altered state of consciousness in an Islamic tradition called zikr (remembrance). These ritualized zikr ceremonies are, however, not considered by the faithful as musical performances, but as a form of prayer. Each order or lineage within an order has one or more forms for zikr, the liturgy of which may include recitation, instrumental accompaniment by drums, dance, costumes, incense, and is sometimes leading to ecstasy and trance. Zikr rituals are most often celebrated on late Friday afternoons, like the one at the tomb of Sheikh Hamed el-Nil in Omdurman. Brass bands and the origins of modern Sudanese music From the early 1920s onwards, radio, records, film and later television have contributed to the development of Sudanese popular music by introducing new instruments and styles. Already during the Turkish-Egyptian rule and later during the Anglo-Egyptian condominium until independence, first Egyptian, and then British military bands left their mark, especially through the musical training of Sudanese soldiers and by introducing Western brass instruments. According to social historian Ahmad Sikainga, "Sudanese members of military bands can be regarded as the first professional musicians, taking the lead in the process of modernization and indigenisation." Today still, such marching bands represent a characteristic element in Sudan, playing the National Anthem on Independence Day and other official celebrations. Development of modern Sudanese music The 1920s: haqeeba, the origin of modern popular music in Sudan The strongest stylistic influence in the development of modern popular Sudanese music has become known as haqeeba music (pronounced hagee-ba and meaning "briefcase"). The name haqeeba, however, was only applied much later to popular songs from the 1920s, when radio presenter Ahmed Mohamed Saleh talked about old records, collected in his briefcase for his show haqeebat al-fann (artistic briefcase), that he presented on Radio Omdurman during the 1940s. In terms of the history of music of Sudan, the label haqeeba applies to an important change in the development of modern music: A new urban style of singing and lyrics was evolving, moving away from tribal folk songs and the melodies of religious, devotional singing. This style was inaugurated by the singer Muhamad Wad El Faki, as well as others like Muhamad Ahmed Sarour, who were later inspired by Wad El Faki. These songs were initially inspired by the vocal tradition of Islamic praise chanting for the prophet Muhammad, known as madeeh. Gradually, melodies known from madeeh were used by singers like Wad El Faki and others to accompany new, non-religious lyrics. During his childhood years at a religious school, called khalwa in Sudan, Wad El Faki had learned recitation in classical Arabic, voice control and correct pronunciation. According to El Sirr A. Gadour, Wad El Faki "did not belong to any of the main ethnic communities in Omdurman. This freed him from a narrow identity and made him a 'general' singer, crossing the tribal barrier to broader national affiliation." Haqeeba started as essentially vocal music, sung by a lead singer and a chorus, with percussion coming from the tambourine-like tar frame drum. It was performed at weddings and other social occasions and soon became popular. – During the 1930s, the first commercial 78 rpm gramophone records of Sudanese musicians such as Muhamad Ahmed Sarour and Khalil Farah were recorded in Cairo and marketed from Omdurman, from where this new music spread to listeners in greater Khartoum and other urban centres.Ille, Enrico. (2019) Sudan: Modern and contemporary performance practice. In Sturman, Janet (ed.). The SAGE international encyclopedia of music and culture. p. 2094ff. , 9781483317748 1930s – 1950s: rise of popular music through records, radio and music halls Since the mid-1920s, modern instruments such as pianos, accordions and violins, as well as records and record players were imported. In the 1930s, a number of music companies opened in Sudan, among them the Gordon Memorial College musical company. One of its members, called Mohamed Adam Adham, composed the piece Adhamiya, one of the earliest formal Sudanese compositions, that is still often played. The pioneers of this era were often singer-songwriters, including the prolific Abdallah Abdel Karim, called Karouma, the innovative Ibrahim al-Abadi and Khalil Farah, a poet and singer, who wrote the lyrics and music for the patriotic song Azza fi Hawak and was active in the Sudanese national movement.Verney, 2006, p. 398 Al-Abadi was known for an unorthodox style of fusing traditional wedding poetry with music. Further, a specific style of rhythmic choral singing by Sudanese women evolved out of praise singing during the 1930s, called Tum Tum. Originating from Kosti on the White Nile, the lyrics of tum tum were romantic, but sometimes also talking about the difficulties of female life. The music was danceable and became quickly popular in urban centres. The 1940s saw an influx of new names due to the rise of music programmes at Radio Omdurman. Notable performers included Ismail Abdul Mu'ain, Hassan Attia and Ahmed al Mustafa. Another singer-songwriter was Ibrahim al Kashif, who was called the Father of modern singing. Al Kashif sang in the style of Mohamed Ahmed Sarour, a pioneer of haqeeba, and relied on what Abdel Karim Karouma had started, renewing popular singing styles. For live performances, there were also two dance halls in Khartoum, St James' and the Gordon Music Hall. Subsequently, Sudanese popular music evolved into what is generally referred to as "post-haqeeba", a style dominating in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s. This period was marked by the introduction of instruments from both East and West, such as the violin, accordion, oud, tabla or bongo drums. Further, a big band style with a string section and brass instruments came into existence. Post-haqeeba music, mixed with Egyptian and Western elements has also been called al-aghani al-hadith (modern songs). 1960s – 1980s: the Golden Age of popular music in Sudan In the 1960s, American pop stars became well known, which had a profound effect on Sudanese musicians like Osman Alamu and Ibrahim Awad, the latter becoming the first Sudanese musician to dance on stage. Under these influences, Sudanese popular music saw a further Westernisation and the introduction of electric guitars and brass instruments. Guitar music also came from the South of the country, and was played like the Congolese guitar styles. Congolese music like soukous, as well as Cuban Rumba, exerted a profound influence on Sudanese popular music. Starting his career in the late 1950s, the Nubian singer, songwriter and instrumentalist Mohammed Wardi became one of Sudan's first superstars. Despite his exile following the military coup in 1989, his popularity in Sudan and beyond kept rising until his return in 2002 and up to his death in 2012. Singer-songwriter Sayed Khalifa was one of the first Sudanese musicians trained in formal music theory, which he acquired at the Arab Music Institute in Cairo during the early 1950s. Like other Sudanese singers, he performed in both Standard Arabic as well as in the Sudanese form of Arabic, thus appealing both to the educated elite and to the common people. Khalifa is known for his songs Ya Watani (My Homeland) and Izzayakum Keifinnakum (How are you?). Performing from the late 1970s onward, a new popular singer was Mostafa Sid Ahmed. A teacher as a young man, he entered the College of Fine Arts and Music in Khartoum and composed his music to the lyrics of many well-known Sudanese poets like Mahjoub Sharif, often expressing the longing for freedom and the struggle of the Sudanese people against dictatorship. An important development in modern Sudanese music was introduced by the group Sharhabil and his band – formed by a group of friends from Omdurman – namely Sharhabil Ahmed and his fellow musicians Ali Nur Elgalil, Farghali Rahman, Kamal Hussain, Mahaddi Ali, Hassan Sirougy and Ahmed Dawood. Sharhabil's wife and member of the band, Zakia Abdul Gassim Abu Bakr, was the first female guitarist in Sudan. They introduced modern rhythms relating to Western pop and soul music, using electric guitars, double bass, and jazz-like brass instruments, with an emphasis on the rhythm section. Their lyrics were also poetic and became very popular. Up to the late 2010s, Sharhabil's band has been one of the leading names in Sudanese music, performing both at home as well as internationally. Another popular group of the late 1970s were called The Scorpions and Saif Abu Bakr'. Since the 1940s, women had slowly become socially acceptable on the musical scene: Well-known singers were Um el Hassan el Shaygiya and most of all, Aisha al Falatiya, who as early as 1943 was the first woman to sing on Sudanese radio. Another outstanding female singer and political activist of the years before and after Sudan's independence in 1956 was Hawa Al-Tagtaga, who left a long lasting influence for the "moral and cultural legitimacy she bestowed on younger generations of Sudanese women singers who follow her tradition", as critic Magdy El Gizouli put it. During the 1970s, a wave of new women's groups became prominent on stage and the radio. Most famous among these was a band composed of three sisters called Al Balabil (The Nightingales). They formed as a band in 1971, appeared on many live and TV shows and became very popular across East Africa. The 1980s saw the rise of Hanan Bulu-bulu, a singer, whose performances were sensual and provocative. She was eventually detained by the authorities and even beaten up by hardliners. International popular genres like Western dance music, rock or pop music and African-American music have had a profound effect on modern Sudanese music. As in other African countries, one of these influences were the military brass bands. Playing in such bands attracted many young military recruits, who later carried their newly learned music style and instruments over to popular music. The result was a kind of dance music, referred to as (Sudanese) jazz, which was not related to the American style of jazz, but similar to other modern dance music styles throughout East Africa. Prominent band leaders in this era include Abdel Gadir Salim and Abdel Aziz El Mubarak, both of whom have achieved international fame and distribution of their albums. In retrospect, the 1960s up to the 80s were called 'The Golden Age of Sudanese popular music'. This period was documented by re-issued albums in 2018, when researchers from the US and Germany were looking for still existing recordings from that era. Out of this research, several digitised albums of popular music from Sudan were digitally remastered. These included stars like Abdel Aziz El Mubarak, Kamal Tarbas, Khojali Osman, Abu Obeida Hassan, Kamal Keila, Sharhabil Ahmed, Hanan Bulu Bulu, Samira Dunia and, most famously, Mohammed Wardi and have become available on the international market. A special place among musicians from Sudan can be granted to composer, musician and music director Ali Osman, who settled in Cairo in 1978 and became one of the important figures in Egypt for classical and contemporary music in the European tradition. After his beginnings in Sudan as a self-taught rock musician, he later turned to classical music and composed symphonic works of Sudanese or Egyptian inspiration that have been performed internationally. 1990s – 2000s: restrictions through sharia law and the decline of popular music After a military coup in 1989, the imposition of sharia law by an Islamist government brought about the closing of music halls and outdoor concerts, as well as many other restrictions for musicians and their audiences. Many of the country's most prominent musicians or writers were barred from public life, and in some cases even imprisoned. Others, like Mohammed al Amin, whose personal style of playing the oud influenced other musicians, and Mohammed Wardi, took exile in Cairo or other places. Traditional music suffered too, with East African zār ceremonies, where women conjure and exorcise evil spirits through music and dance, interrupted and deemed as 'pagan'. In this context of ceremonies for women, the singer Setona, born in Kordofan and raised in Khartoum, before she emigrated to Cairo in 1989, published two albums, called Tariq Sudan and Queen of Hena, with some of her songs related to henna ceremonies. Another singer and composer of popular songs, who appeared on Sudan's musical scene in the 1990s, is Nada Al-Qalaa. Through her songs, video clips and media interviews, Al-Qalaa has presented conservative views on social life and gender roles. This and the support by wealthy patrons in Sudan and Nigeria has caused criticism, accusing her of being close to the military government. On the other hand, her music and public appearance has earned her a wide following for more than twenty years. The popular singer Abu Araki al-Bakheit was banned from performing political songs, but he eventually managed to continue performing in defiance of the authorities and had a comeback in 2019 during the Sudanese revolution. Others, like the southern Sudanese singer Yousif Fataki had all their tapes erased by Radio Omdurman. Other performers that continued to be popular during this time include Abdel Karim al Kabli or Mahmoud Abdulaziz, both with a notably long and diverse history of performance and recordings, as well as Mohammed al Amin and Mohammed Wardi. Occasionally accompanying Wardi and poetry recitals, blind oud player Awad Ahmoudi has been known for his distinct style of playing the oud in his typical style and pentatonic scales. Another musician, who started his career in the late 1980s and also suffered from harassment by the military government, is Omer Ihsas. A native of southern Darfur, he and his band have played and spread their message of peace and reconciliation both in camps for internally displaced people in Darfur, as well as in Khartoum and on international stages. Foreign musicians, who became popular in Sudan, included reggae superstar Bob Marley and American pop singer Michael Jackson, while the funk of James Brown inspired Sudanese performers such as Kamal Keila. The spread of international pop music through radio, TV, cassette tapes and digital recordings also prompted a growing number of Sudanese musicians to sing in English, connecting their music with the outside world. – Even though the government of the time discouraged music, dance and theatre, the College of Music and Drama of Sudan University of Science and Technology in Khartoum, in existence since 1969, continued to offer courses and degrees, thus giving young people a chance to study music or theatre. 2000s – present Reggae, hip hop and rap As in other countries, reggae, rap or hip hop music combines local talents and international, young audiences, both in live performances as well as on the internet. In 2018, Sudanese journalist Ola Diab published a list of contemporary music videos by upcoming artists, both from Sudan and the Sudanese diaspora in the US, Europe or the Middle East. One of them is the Sudanese–American rapper Ramey Dawoud and another the Sudanese–Italian singer and songwriter Amira Kheir. Ever since the Sudanese Revolution started in December 2018, musicians, poets and visual artists have been playing an important part in the mainly youth driven movement. Referring to its impact at the sit-in outside the Sudanese army headquarters on April 25, 2019, 'Dum' (trans. 'blood'), a song by Sudanese-American rap musician Ayman Mao was called the "Anthem of Sudan's Revolution". According to Ola Diab, "young urban musicians have used their musical talents and creativity to express the revolt of protesters against President Al Bashir and his regime." International artists, such as the popular Australian hip hop musician Bangs, who was born in Juba, South Sudan, see these genres as an avenue for peace, tolerance, and community for millions of African youth, who are powerful in numbers but politically marginalised. As the example of South Sudanese singer Emmanuel Jal shows, the lyrics have the ability to reach even child soldiers to imagine a different lifestyle. Jimmie Briggs, the author of the book Innocence Lost: When Child Soldiers Go to War (2005) concurred: "A music group is not an army, but it can get powerful social messages out before trouble starts." Urban contemporary music of the 21st century Since producing music in recording studios, using modern instruments and digital media, has become available in Sudan, growing numbers of people are listening to private (online) radio stations like Capital Radio 91.6 FM or are watching music videos. As in other countries with restrictions of freedom of expression, the use of smartphones offers especially young, urban and educated people, and most importantly, Sudanese women, a relatively safe space for exchange with their friends or distant relatives, as well as access to many sources of entertainment, learning or general information. Until the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19, permission for public concerts had to be obtained by the Ministry of Culture as well as by the police, and after 11 pm, all public events had to end. As the mostly young audiences did not have enough money to pay for tickets, most concerts, for example in the National Theatre in Omdurman, the garden of the National Museum of Sudan or the Green Yard sports arena in Khartoum, were offered free of charge. Musical performances were also organized in the premises of the French, German or British Cultural centres, giving young artists a chance to perform in a sheltered environment. Workshops with visiting artists and festivals like the international Sama Music Festival have given opportunities to young Sudanese musicians to improve their skills and experience. Famous local artists of this era are the musicians of Igd al-Jalad, a group known for its critical expression for many years, the popular singer Nancy Ajaj or the pop group Aswat Almadina, all of them singing more or less obvious lyrics about their love of the country, which they claim as their heritage and future, despite the ruling government of the time. Islam Elbeiti is a young Sudanese female bass player, radio presenter, and social change activist. As members of the important group of the Sudanese diaspora, Alsarah & The Nubatones, Sinkane or the rapper Oddisee are examples for musicians with a Sudanese background living in the US. Following their musical studies at Ahfad University for Women in Omdurman, as well as by participating in workshops and concerts at the German cultural institute in Khartoum, a band of young women called Salute yal Bannot ('Respect for the girls') became well known in 2017. Their song African Girl has scored more than 130,000 views on YouTube alone and earned them an invitation to the popular music show Arabs Got Talent in Beirut. After leaving this band, one of their lead singers, composers and keyboard player Hiba Elgizouli has been pursuing her own career as a singer-songwriter and produced her own music videos. A new trend in Sudanese urban music since the 2010s is called Zanig and has become popular as a form of underground music, spread through bootleg recordings, live shows and sound systems on public transport. It was described in the following way by cultural journalist and fellow of the Rift Valley Institute, Magdi el Gizouli:This bootleg musical genre, pioneered by the King Ayman al-Rubo, is a fusion of West African beats and Egyptian mahrajanat style, with frequent accelerations and deceleration and techno-style repetition. Zanig queens sing about "antibaby pills" and the agency of "MILFs" and introduce themselves with maxims like: "If you follow the sugar mummies you'll end up driving six cars, and if you follow the little buds you'll waste your money in restaurants".In 2020, a local branch of the Arabic Oud House (Bayt al-Ud al-Arabi) was opened in Khartoum, dedicated to teaching the Arabic musical instruments oud and qanun as well as classical Arabic musical tradition, and as a centre for events and exchange. Bait al Oud is a network of musical centres, started by renowned Iraqi oud player and composer Naseer Shamma, with headquarters in Cairo and branches in Alexandria, Egypt, as well as in Constantine, Algeria and Abu Dhabi, UAE. See also List of Sudanese singers Sudanese literature References Notes Reference notes Works cited Further reading Ahmed, Alrumaisa. (2017) Dr. Ali Al Daw: Music as heritage. Andariya Cultural Magazine al-Fātiḥ, Ṭāhir. Anā Ummdurmān: tārīkh al-mūsīqá fī al-Sūdān Badri, Leena. (2020) Behind the sounds of Sudan: Preserving and celebrating our musical history. Banning, Eyre. (2018). New releases of Sudanese music. Afropop Worldwide Ille Enrico (2019). Sudan: Modern and contemporary performance practice, In Sturman, Janet (ed.) The SAGE international encyclopedia of music and culture. p. 2094ff. Locale.sd. A brief introduction to Haqeeba, illustrated document and audio files on the role of Haqeeba music in Sudan Elbagir, Yousra. Letter from Africa: How poetry is taking on state censorship in Sudan. BBC Africa Yāsīn, Muʻāwiyah Ḥasan. 2005. Min tārīkh al-ghināʼ wa-al-mūsīqá fī al-Sūdān. Omdurman: Markaz ʻAbd al-Karīm Mīrghanī al-Thaqāfī. Three volumes in Arabic on the history of singing and music in Sudan. External links Selected discography The Rough Guide to the music of Sudan (2005) 330 records from Sudanese and South Sudanese musicians on discogs Two Niles to sing a melody: The violins & synths of Sudan Sounds of Sudan – Abdel Gadir Salim, Abdel Aziz El Mubarak, Mohamed Gubara To audio files or music videos Selected music videos by Sudanese festival producer Randa Hamid Zikr at the Hamid El-Nil Mosque in Omdurman on YouTube Music and history in the two Sudans, podcast by Afropop Worldwide Five songs that defined Sudan's golden era, with links to music videos with English translation Audio files of a historical Haqeeba song by Abdel Karim Karouma, French National Library. Abu Obaida Hassan & his tambour: The Shaigiya sound of Sudan Jazz, Jazz, Jazz, The Scorpions & Saif Abu Bakr Muslims and Christians, Kamal Keila Original Sudanese tapes, Nagat Abdallah Sudan tapes – Al Balbil Solo The Rough Guide to the Music of North Africa, CD 1997 Sudanese recording label Munsphone on discogs Annotated discography by sudanupdate.org Selected music videos with English translation and notes by The Sounds of Sudan on YouTube BBC Radio 4 on Sudan's newest generation of musicians (audio programme) Field recordings from 1980 of traditional music of the Gumuz ethnic group in Sudan's Blue Nile State Field recordings from 1980 of traditional music of the Ingessana and Berta peoples in Sudan's Blue Nile State Sudanese music Sudanese society Sudanese culture	[ -0.005225624889135361, 0.6935129761695862, -0.842186689376831, -0.5938435792922974, -0.398770272731781, 0.3824235200881958, 0.21974416077136993, 0.23269028961658478, -0.8929837942123413, -0.7615565657615662, 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247136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisse%20Dekker	Wisse Dekker	Wisse Dekker (26 April 1924 – 25 August 2012) was a Dutch businessman. He was the CEO of Philips from 1982 to 1986. From 1988 until 1992 he was chairman of the European Round Table of Industrialists. References 1924 births 2012 deaths Chairmen of Philips Dutch chief executives in the manufacturing industry Dutch chief executives in the technology industry Dutch businesspeople Dutch corporate directors People from Eindhoven Road incident deaths in the Netherlands Recipients of the Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg	[ 0.06320981681346893, -0.009005624800920486, -0.5139005780220032, 0.13623349368572235, -0.3897913098335266, 0.9196879267692566, 0.7332333326339722, -0.17520976066589355, -0.35428959131240845, -0.05605463311076164, 0.6940117478370667, 0.4024922847747803, 0.1443614810705185, 0.21577240526676178, -0.42828992009162903, -0.3228834271430969, 0.045967165380716324, -0.18922065198421478, -0.5334392189979553, -0.5670443773269653, -0.419616162776947, -0.2924741506576538, 0.17147935926914215, 0.12103302031755447, 0.007026320323348045, 0.045713115483522415, -0.1824328601360321, -0.041221991181373596, 0.4515681266784668, -0.6279422640800476, 0.3140797019004822, 0.7859159111976624, 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247137	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp%20Zaurus	Sharp Zaurus	The Sharp Zaurus is the name of a series of personal digital assistants (PDAs) made by Sharp Corporation. The Zaurus was the most popular PDA during the 1990s in Japan and was based on a proprietary operating system. The first Sharp PDA to use the Linux operating system was the SL-5000D, running the Qtopia-based Embedix Plus. The Linux Documentation Project considers the Zaurus series to be "true Linux PDAs" because their manufacturers install Linux-based operating systems on them by default. The name derives from the common suffix applied to the names of dinosaurs. History In September 1993, Sharp introduced the PI-3000, the first in the Zaurus line of PDAs, as a follow-on to Sharp's earlier Wizard line of PDAs (the Wizard also influenced Apple's Newton). Featuring a black and white LCD screen, handwriting recognition, and optical communication capabilities among its features, the Zaurus soon became one of Sharp's best selling products. The PI-4000, released in 1994, expanded the Zaurus' features with a built-in modem and facsimile functions. This was succeeded in 1995 by the PI-5000, which had e-mail and mobile phone interfaces, as well as PC linking capability. The Zaurus K-PDA was the first Zaurus to have a built-in keyboard in addition to handwriting recognition; the PI-6000 and PI-7000 brought in additional improvements. In 1996 Sharp introduced the Sharp Zaurus ZR-5800. It used the same compact design, ports and pointing device as the previous Zaurus models. The changes were mostly in the ROM. It came with 2 MB RAM and a backlit 320x240 LCD display. During this time, Sharp was making significant advances in color LCD technology. In May 1996, the first color Zaurus was released; the MI-10 and MI-10DC were equipped with a five-inch (12.7 cm) color thin-film transistor (TFT) LCD screen. This model had the ability to connect to the internet, and had a built-in camera and audio recorder. Later that year, Sharp developed a forty-inch (100 cm) TFT LCD screen, the world's largest at the time. In December, the MI-10/10DC Zaurus was chosen as the year's best product by Information Display Magazine in the United States. Sharp continued to make advancements in display technology; the Zaurus gained additional multimedia capabilities, such as video playback, with the introduction of the MI-E1 in Japan in November 2000. The MI-E1 was also the first Zaurus to support both Secure Digital and Compact Flash memory cards, a feature which would become standard on future models as well. Although the MI series sold well in Japan, it was never released in either the USA or Europe, and the Japanese user interface was never translated into any other language. The machines released outside Japan were the Linux based SL series, the first of which was the SL-5000D "developer edition". This was shortly followed by the SL-5500; both used 'Embedix' - an embedded version of the Linux operating system developed by Lineo - combined with Qtopia, the Qt toolkit-based embedded application environment developed by Trolltech. The development of the MI series in Japan was continued for a while, but the MI-E25DC has been officially declared to be the last MI-Series Zaurus. Sharp has continued development of the SL series in Japan releasing the SL-C700, C750, C760 and C860 models which all feature 640x480 VGA screen resolution. They are all based on faster 400 MHz Intel XScale technology, although the SL-C700 was flawed and the apparent speed was the same as the 206 MHz SL-5500. All four of the SL-C models are clamshell type devices with the unusual ability to rotate the screen. This allows the device to be used in landscape mode with the keyboard, much like a miniature notebook PC, or in portrait mode as a PDA. Sharp introduced a very different device from the clamshells in the form of the SL-6000 in early 2004; the SL-6000L (Wi-Fi only, no Bluetooth) was sold in North America, the last and only device since the 5xxx series to be officially sold outside Japan. It returned to the slider form of the 5xxx, but with a VGA display; a slider with a few key buttons covered a thumbboard. There was a joint project with IBM; the 6000 did not gain mass popularity and Amazon sold off their remaindered stock. In October 2004 Sharp announced the SL-C3000 - the world's first PDA with an integrated hard disk drive (preceding the Palm Life Drive). It featured a similar hardware and software specification to the earlier C860 model; the key differences were that it only had 16 MB of flash memory yet gained an internal 4 GB Hitachi microdrive, a USB Host port, and "lost" the serial port (in some cases the components were not fitted to the motherboard or were incapable of driving the regular serial adaptor cables). The keyboard feel and layout changed somewhat, and most owners preferred it over the 760/860. In March 2005 the C3000 product was joined by the SL-C1000 which returned to the traditional 128 MB flash memory but lost the internal micro-drive. The C1000 was cheaper, lighter, faster in execution due to running from flash memory, but would require the user to "waste" the SD or CF card slots to fit a memory card for mass storage; at the time the largest card supported was 1GB. The C1000 cannot be upgraded to fit an internal micro-drive because vital components were missing, but the space can be used to fit internal Bluetooth and Wi-Fi modules using the USB host facility. In June 2005, Sharp released the SL-C3100, which had flash capacity of the C1000 yet also had the micro-drive, and proved a very popular model indeed. The 1000, 3000 and 3100 models were overclockable, boosting the device's ability to play back video more smoothly. In March 2006 the latest model launched, predictably labelled as the SL-C3200. It is basically an SL-C3100 but with the newer 6 GB Hitachi micro-drive and another tweak to the case colours. The Intel PXA270 CPU is a later variant, and some would regard as inferior because it cannot be overclocked so highly. The kernel gained a vital tweak to the Sharp proprietary SD/MMC module and allowed 4GB SD cards to be used (and this was quickly borrowed by 3000 and 3100 owners). The software package gained text-to-speech software from Nuance Communications and an upgraded dictionary. While the SL series devices have long been sold only in Japan, there are companies in Japan who specialise in exporting them worldwide; sometimes without modifying them at all, sometimes an English conversion is available at extra cost. Not all Zaurus models came from Sharp with universal (100/110/240 V) power supplies (the Zaurus takes a regulated 5 V/1 A supply), so either an additional or an exchanged power adaptor would be needed, and not all exporters provide this by default. When buying directly from an exporter in Japan, the buyer is liable for import duties and taxes, and attempting to avoid them can be a criminal offense. There are also companies in the US, UK and DE who are unofficial resellers; one notable example is Trisoft who prepare and certify the device to "CE" standard compliance. Since there is no official export channel from Japan, Sharp offers no warranty or repair service outside Japan, so foreign buyers are dependent on their chosen reseller to handle repairs, usually by sending to their agent in Japan who acts as if the device was owned and used in Japan in order to have it repaired by Sharp, before sending it back to the owner. Whilst Zauruses are actually quite robust devices, due to their miniaturization they are not easily repairable by casual electronics hobbyists. In January 2007, it was reported that Sharp would discontinue production of the Zaurus line after February 2007. Later, in March, a European supplier tried to buy a batch of Zauruses as demand was still strong and noticed that they were all manufactured after Sharp's original cut-off date, however, Sharp was not able to explain its plans. Their later units were the WS003SH and WS004SH which, whilst adding wireless and cellular phone and data features, ran the Windows Mobile 5.0 operating system/application suite. Models Personal Information (PI) series Pi² T, proof of concept model presented in April 1992 PI-3000, the first model, introduced to the Japanese market on October 1, 1993 PI-4000/FX, second generation with ink and fax capabilities, on sale in Japan June 1994 PI-5000/FX/DA, first model capable of syncing data to a personal computer, going on sale in November 1994. PI-4500, introduced in January 1995 PI-6000/FX, featuring a new handwriting recognition software, on sale in Japan August 1995. PI-6000DA, adding a digital adapter for cellular phones, introduced on December 12, 1995 PI-7000, dubbed AccessZaurus (アクセスザウルス) sports a built in modem, is introduced in February 1996. Note: Confusingly, Sharp made another unit called the "PI-7000 ExpertPad", which was a Newton based device, not a Zaurus. PI-6500, was introduced to the Japanese market with a list price of 55,000 Yen on November 22, 1996. Measuring 147x87x17 mm and weighing 195 g including the batteries, it sports a 239x168 dot matrix display and 715 KB of user addressable memory. PI-8000, went on sale on January 24, 1997 with a list price of 80,000 Yen. It featured a 319x168 dot matrix display, 711KB user addressable memory, measuring 157 x 90 x 17 mm, and weighing 215 g including batteries. PI-6600, the last AccessZaurus with a 239 x 168 dot matrix display, measuring 147 x 87 x 17 mm and a weight of 195 g including batteries. It went on sale in Japan on September 25, 1997. K-PDA (ZR) series ZR-3000, 320x240 touch screen, 1 MB RAM. ZR-3500, similar to the ZR-3000, with new internal 14.4/9.6 kbit/s modem. ZR-5000/FX, a clam-shell model only sold outside Japan, going on sale in January 1995. ZR-5700 ZR-5800 Having a touch screen and 2 MB of RAM. MI series MI-10DC/10, nicknamed ColorZaurus, was the first model to have a color display. The DC model featured a digital camera and was initially priced 155,000 Yen. The MI-10 was listed as 120,000 Yen. Both models went on sale on June 25, 1996. MI-506DC/506/504, PowerZaurus MI-110M/106M/106, ZaurusPocket MI-610/610DC, PowerZaurus MI-310, ZaurusColorPocket MI-EX1, Zaurus iCRUISE - This was the first PDA with a 640x480 resolution display MI-C1-A/S, PowerZaurus MI-P1-W/A/LA, Zaurus iGeti MI-P2-B, Zaurus iGeti - More internal software, more Flash MI-P10-S, Zaurus iGeti - Larger RAM and Flash than P1/P2 MI-J1, Internet Dictionary Zaurus MI-E1, First vertical display model - mini keyboard MI-L1, Stripped down E1 - lacks display backlight MI-E21, Enhanced version of E1 - double RAM and ROM size MI-E25DC, a MI-E21 with an internal 640 x 480 digital camera Other MI Series related devices BI-L10, Business Zaurus - Mono screen, 4 Mb IRDA, Network Adapter MT-200, Communications pal - Keyboard input, limited I/O MT-300, Communications pal - 4 MB flash, restyled MT-300C, Communications pal - CDMAone version Browser Board, MT-300 with NTT DoCoMo specific software Linux based SL series SL-5000D, a developer edition of the SL-5500, containing 32 MB of RAM. (2001) SL-5500 (Collie), the first new Zaurus to be sold outside Japan, is based on the Intel SA-1110 StrongARM processor running at 206 MHz, has 64 MB of RAM and 16MB Flash, a built-in keyboard, CompactFlash (CF) slot, Secure Digital (SD) slot, and Infrared port. (2002) SL-A300 (Discovery), an ultra-light PDA with no keyboard, sold only in Japan (2003) SL-5600 (Poodle), the successor to the SL-5500, with greater processing capability, increased RAM and an inbuilt speaker and microphone. Based on the Intel XScale 400 MHz processor. However some had a Cache bug on the PXA-250 processor (easily fixed!). Popular ROMs for the SL-5600 include Watapon, Synergy, and OpenZaurus. (2002) SL-B500, name of the SL-5600 in Japan SL-C700 (Corgi), a clam-shell model and the first PDA to use Sharp's "System LCD", sold only in Japan. (2003) SL-C750 (Shepherd), an improved version of the SL-C700 with longer battery life, a faster processor and updated software, sold only in Japan. (2003) SL-C760 (Husky), an improved version of the SL-C700 with double the internal flash storage of the SL-C750 and a larger battery, sold only in Japan. (2004) SL-C860 (Boxer), similar to SL-C760, it contains a software upgrade which allows it to be recognised as a USB storage device and has built in English-Japanese translation software, sold only in Japan. (2004) SL-6000 (Tosa) (2005), the successor to the SL-5600, available in 3 versions: SL-6000N, 4" VGA display, Intel XScale PXA255 400 MHz processor, 64 MB flash memory, 64 MB SDRAM, CF and SD slots, and IR port. Built in microphone, speaker, USB host port. There seems to be a version called HC-6000N equipped with Microsoft Windows Mobile 2003 Second Edition, and a handheld from Hitachi called FLORA-ie MX1 with same hardware, both are only available in Japan. SL-6000L, same as SL-6000N, also with built-in 802.11b Wi-Fi. SL-6000W, same as SL-6000N, also with built-in 802.11b Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. SL-C3000 (Spitz), similar to SL-C860, the SL-C3000 contains a USB host port to allow the connection of USB devices such as keyboards and mice. It also features an Intel Xscale PXA270 416 MHz CPU. While that model features only 16 MB flash storage it has a 4 GB Hitachi HDD and was the first PDA to feature a hard disk. It is sold only in Japan. SL-C1000 (Akita), similar to SL-C3000, but with 128 MB Flash ROM instead of HDD. SL-C3100 (Borzoi), similar to SL-C3000, Flash ROM has been increased 128 MB, still has 4 GB HDD. SL-C3200 (Terrier), latest clam-shell model, released on March 17, 2006, similar to SL-C3100. HDD has been increased to 6 GB, comes with updated dictionary, text to speech software from Nuance Communications and TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) test. Operating systems These are frequently called 'ROMs' in the community because the Zaurus' OS is usually stored in embedded flash memory, and are installed using a flashing tool. There's also a special "rescue" mode NOR flash (or P2ROM in newer models) in all Zauruses since the 5xxx series which allows recovery from a corrupted OS. OpenZaurus, which uses the OPIE or GPE graphical user interfaces and is designed for the power user. OpenZaurus does not include the proprietary software that comes with Sharp's distribution. OpenZaurus development has been dropped in favour of Ångström which is also based on the OpenEmbedded build environment, but supports a larger range of devices, not limited to Zauri. Ångström distribution, the replacement for OpenZaurus. OpenZaurus no longer is being developed for, as its developers now work on Ångström distribution. Ångström is an OpenEmbedded build system based Zaurus distribution with its current images being console and an X11 GPE based ROM. pdaXrom, a distribution based on the X graphics system and the matchbox/openbox user interface. Cacko, an alternative to the original Sharp ROM, it is based on the same Qt graphics system with as many underlying parts of the OS upgraded as possible yet still maintains full compatibility and allows the proprietary Sharp applications to be run. In August 2007 a port of Gentoo Linux was started which offers some promise. Zubuntu, based on the ARM port of Ubuntu for the clam-shell models C3x00 et al., SL-6000 was started in 2008. Arch Linux ARM has been ported in 2015 on the C3x00 models. For the Sharp and Cacko ROMs, there are third party and somewhat experimental kernels such as "Tetsu's" (a Japanese Zaurus expert) which offer interesting optimisations and drivers for unusual hardware. It is possible to replace only the Linux kernel which can give better performance while maintaining compatibility and retaining installed software that comes with a "stock" ROM. As well as the choice of GUI (qt/qtopia, X11 + matchbox, X11 + E17 etc.), one key difference is the choice of whether the kernel was built with using ARM standard EABI or not, and whether it uses software or hardware floating point (code using hardware floating point is actually slower because the hardware doesn't support it, so those instructions cause an exception which then has to be handled by the kernel, with noticeable overhead). There was a port of OpenBSD for several Zaurus models. The port is available on the SL-C3000, SL-C3100, and SL-C3200 with development continuing in order to expand support to the C860 and C1000. This port of OpenBSD does not however replace the original operating system entirely, nor is it made available as a ROM image, instead it uses the original Linux install as a bootloader and installs the same as OpenBSD would on any other platform. There is also a NetBSD port is in development, based on the work from OpenBSD. In early September 2016, the OpenBSD Project ceased support for the Zaurus port of their operating system. Software With the switch to the Linux operating system the Zaurus became capable of running variations of a wide variety of proprietary and open source software, including web and FTP servers, databases, and compilers. Developers have created several replacement Linux distributions for the Zaurus. Software provided by Sharp includes basic PDA packages such as a datebook, addressbook, and to do list. These PIM applications are fairly unsophisticated, and a number of individuals and groups have developed alternatives. One popular - and free - alternative that runs on the Sharp ROM and OpenZaurus as well as Windows and Linux is the KDE PIM/Platform-independent set of applications. KDE PIM/PI is based on PIM applications from the KDE desktop suite for Linux. KDE PIM/PI includes KOrganizer/Platform-independent (or KOPI), KAddressbook/Platform-independent (or KAPI), K-OpieMail/pi (or OMPI), K-Phone/pi (kppi) and PwM/PI, a password manager with strong encryption. In addition to standard PDA applications there are many programs available that are more commonly associated with desktop and laptop computers. Among these are a selection of office programs, web browsers, media applications and many others. References External links Official Japan Zaurus Site Personal digital assistants Linux-based devices Embedded Linux Zaurus Qt (software)	[ -0.36406368017196655, -0.003101292997598648, -0.21775396168231964, 0.345816969871521, 0.24829384684562683, 0.30663779377937317, -0.09413565695285797, 0.16271094977855682, 0.34285107254981995, -0.11138131469488144, -0.4213126003742218, 0.6634352207183838, 0.15306356549263, 0.41068586707115173, -0.2627525329589844, 0.3419223725795746, 0.290354460477829, 0.12124572694301605, -0.22452163696289062, -0.02237199805676937, 0.0033133800607174635, -0.5136374831199646, 0.5216788053512573, -0.42670685052871704, -0.3512434959411621, 0.5230350494384766, 0.3945116400718689, 0.327442467212677, 0.04767116159200668, 0.36423632502555847, 0.23218365013599396, 0.6253629326820374, -0.35081198811531067, -0.38228389620780945, -0.4152044951915741, 0.17057181894779205, -0.5382372736930847, 0.28258538246154785, -0.1384371519088745, -0.7930310368537903, 0.02632223255932331, 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247144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20aquarium%20diseases	List of aquarium diseases	The following is a list of aquarium diseases. Aquarium fish are often susceptible to numerous diseases, due to the artificially limited and concentrated environment. New fish can sometimes introduce diseases to aquaria, and these can be difficult to diagnose and treat. Most fish diseases are also aggravated when the fish is stressed. Common aquarium diseases include the following: Freshwater Saltwater Cryptocaryon (marine ich) Marine Velvet or Coral Reef Fish Disease Anemonefish Disease Both Uncategorized Myxobacteriosis Ichthyobodo (costia) Quarantine The goal of quarantine is to prevent problems in the main tank due to sickness. A quarantine tank should be used before to introduce any newly acquired animals in the main tank and to treat fish that are already sick. By doing this, the aquarist can avoid the spread of the disease and make it easier to treat the fish. See also Fish diseases and parasites References Bibliography Encyclopedia of Aquarium and Pond Fish (2005) (David Alderton), DK Publishing, External links Help with Stress, Disease and Death Theaquariumwiki.com Diseases Fish diseases Aquarium	[ -0.04822881892323494, 0.48362207412719727, -1.041312575340271, -0.08690696954727173, -0.21086260676383972, 0.15377174317836761, 0.6621174216270447, 0.37963995337486267, -0.8135809898376465, -0.6362123489379883, -0.33906492590904236, 0.24352483451366425, -0.26372426748275757, 0.9918099641799927, 0.471403032541275, 0.7613427042961121, 0.06080552563071251, 0.6285259127616882, 0.18632610142230988, 0.07564182579517365, -0.4622052013874054, -0.4282565116882324, 0.2988416254520416, -0.7389948964118958, -0.25067904591560364, -0.13812962174415588, 0.16878828406333923, 0.561130702495575, -0.012680962681770325, -0.6995026469230652, 0.09266618639230728, 0.7698826193809509, -0.051226913928985596, 0.6350218057632446, -0.3006502091884613, -0.6163557171821594, 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247149	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Ethiopia	Music of Ethiopia	Ethiopian music is a term that can mean any music of Ethiopian origin, however, often it is applied to a genre, a distinct modal system that is pentatonic, with characteristically long intervals between some notes. The music of the Ethiopian Highlands uses a fundamental modal system called qenet, of which there are four main modes: , , , and . Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor. Some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence. When played on traditional instruments, these modes are generally not tempered (that is, the pitches may deviate slightly from the Western-tempered tuning system), but when played on Western instruments such as pianos and guitars, they are played using the Western-tempered tuning system. Music in the Ethiopian highlands is generally monophonic or heterophonic. In certain southern areas, some music is polyphonic. Dorze polyphonic singing (edho) may employ up to five parts; Majangir, four parts. Musical instruments Chordophones In the highlands, traditional string instruments include the :masenqo (also known as ), a one-string bowed :lute; the :krar (also known as ), a six-string :lyre; and the :begena, a large ten-string lyre. The (a five-string lyre) and :musical bows (including an unusual three-string variant) are among the chordophones found in the south. Aerophones The is a bamboo flute that is common in the highlands. Trumpet-like instruments include the ceremonial used in some regions, and the (animal horn; compare shofar) found mainly in the south. flutes have no finger holes, and produce only two tones, the fundamental and a fourth or fifth interval. These may be metal (generally found in the north) or bamboo (in the south). The Konso and other people in the south play , or pan flutes. It has 6 holes. Idiophones In the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, liturgical music employs the , a sistrum. Additionally, the clergy will use walking stick, called , to maintain rhythm. Rural churches historically used a to call the faithful to prayer. They are made from stone slabs or pieces of wood. The Beta Israel use a small gong called a as liturgical accompaniment, though may also refer to a small bell. The , a lamellophone, is used among the Nuer, Anuak, Majangir, Surma, and other Nilotic groups. Metal leg rattles are common throughout the south. Membranophones The is a large hand drum used in the Orthodox Christian liturgy. Smaller kebero drums may be used in secular celebrations. The , played with a curved stick, is usually found in a secular context such as royal functions or the announcement of proclamations, though it has a liturgical function among the Beta Israel. The Gurage and certain other populations in the lowlands commonly play the , a small hand drum sometimes made of clay. In Gambela Region, the Anuak specify three different kinds of drums: the (small drum), the (medium drum), and the (big drum), with different rhythmic patterns attached to certain song genres. Religious and secular music Religious music is very important and plays significant role to Ethiopian Orthodox society. The term mezmur is instinctively denotes an Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo music. There are also wide range of Islamic music influenced by Somali, Djiboutian and Sudanese culture. Protestant music also plays a dominant role since booming its distribution via CDs in 2000s, and recently it evolves from digital downloads. Some Ethiopian religious music has an ancient Christian element, traced to Yared, who lived during the reign of Emperor Gebre Meskel (Son of Kaleb of Aksumite Empire) in the 6th century. Yared was considered the father of Ethiopian-Eritrean traditional music as well as he composed chant or Zema and the use in liturgical music. Zema is divided into three chant modes: Ge'ez, Ezel and Araray. Manzuma developed around 1907. Sung in Amharic and Oromo most notably in Dire Dawa, Harar and Jimma where Ethiopian Muslims reside. In the Ethiopian Highlands, traditional secular music is played by mostly itinerant musicians called , who are regarded with respect in Ethiopian society. Popular music Ethiopia is a musically traditional country. Popular music is played, recorded and listened to, but most musicians also sing traditional songs, and most audiences choose to listen to both popular and traditional styles. A long-standing popular musical tradition in Ethiopia was that of brass bands, imported from Jerusalem in the form of forty Armenian orphans (Arba Lijoch) during the reign of Haile Selassie. This band, which arrived in Addis Ababa on 6 September 1924, became the first official orchestra of Ethiopia. By the end of World War II, large orchestras accompanied singers; the most prominent orchestras were the Army Band, Police Band, and Imperial Bodyguard Band. From the 1950s to the 1970s, Ethiopian popular musicians included Mahmoud Ahmed, Alemayehu Eshete, Hirut Bekele, Ali Birra, Ayalew Mesfin, Kiros Alemayehu, Muluken Melesse and Tilahun Gessesse, while popular folk musicians included Alemu Aga, Kassa Tessema, Ketema Makonnen, Asnaketch Worku, and Mary Armede. Perhaps the most influential musician of the period, however, was Ethio-jazz innovator Mulatu Astatke. Amha Records, Kaifa Records, and Philips-Ethiopia were prominent Ethiopian record labels during this era. Since 1997, Buda Musique's Éthiopiques series has compiled many of these singles and albums on compact disc. During the 1980s, the Derg controlled Ethiopia, and emigration became almost impossible. Musicians during this period included Ethio Stars, Walias Band and Roha Band, though the singer Neway Debebe was most popular. He helped to popularize the use of (wax and gold, a poetic form of double entendre) in music (previously only used in qiné, or poetry) that often enabled singers to criticize the government without upsetting the censors. Contemporary scene The most prominent internationally acclaimed singers are Aster Aweke, Alemayehu Eshete, Gigi, Teddy Afro, Tilahun Gessesse and Mahmoud Ahmed. Tilahun Gessesse was popular through 20th-century and nicknamed "The Voice" due to his prolong tenor vocal. In 2001, Teddy Afro debut his album Abugida and quickly become famous singer in his generation, nicknamed "Blatenaw" (English: The boy). Some commentators also compare Teddy Afro with Tilahun Gessesse by musical style and patriotic sentiments. Through her performing with prominent Western jazz musicians such as Bill Laswell (who is also her husband) and Herbie Hancock, Gigi has brought Ethiopian music to popular attention, especially in the United States, where she now lives. Through her 1999 album Hagere and "Abebayehosh", Aster Aweke is renowned for her voice that attracted broader audience. Another noteworthy singer is Neway Debebe, who was very popular among the youth of the 1980s and early 1990s with such songs as "Yetekemt Abeba," "Metekatun Ateye," "Safsaf," and "Gedam" – among others. Abatte Barihun has exemplified all four main on his 2005 album Ras Deshen. Éthiopiques producer Francis Falceto criticizes contemporary Ethiopian music for eschewing traditional instruments and ensemble playing in favor of one-man bands using synthesizers. Harvard University professor Kay Kaufman Shelemay, on the other hand, maintains that there is genuine creativity in the contemporary music scene. She further points out that Ethiopian music is not alone in shifting to electronically produced music, a point that Falceto acknowledges. In the West, several bands were also created in recent years to play music inspired by the Éthiopiques series and other examples of Ethiopian music of the '60s and '70s. They include Boston's Either/Orchestra, Imperial Tiger Orchestra (Switzerland), and Le Tigre des platanes (France). New genres of music, popular in western countries, such as EDM, rock and hip hop have been introduced in recent years. Musical acts like Jano Band play a new style of music progressive rock, with a mix of Ethiopian music. Hip hop music started influencing Ethiopian music in the early to mid 2000s and culminated with the creation of Ethiopian hip hop, rhymed in the native Amharic language. The earliest and most influential rappers of the hip hop were Teddy Yo and Lij Michael, with the latter being more commercially successful. The success of both Jano Band and Lij Michael led to their inclusion in the 2017 edition of Coke Studio Africa The electronic dance music in Ethiopia was not fully developed until mid-2010, although some electronic music employment with hip hop element began in the 2000s. In 2018, a DJ and recording artist named Rophnan introduced the country to his own version of electronic dance music, winning the album of the year award and changing the mainstream music scene further. Record labels Since 2016, the most used record label is Hope Music Entertainment, while Minew Shewa Entertainment and Admas Music are used as secondary labels. Hope Music Entertainment, Minew Shewa Entertainment and Dire Tube become the country's online streaming media in recent years. Dire Tube typically recovers older recordings and music videos. The most notable label throughout the 2000s is Nahom Records, which is still active. See also Music and politics in Ethiopia References Ethiopian music	[ 0.28036627173423767, 0.3520301282405853, -0.728508472442627, -0.37194499373435974, -0.1603589802980423, -0.04227243736386299, 0.03405308723449707, 0.5412566065788269, -0.4676870107650757, -0.5051777958869934, -0.36211520433425903, 0.266642302274704, -0.3559705317020416, 0.5589185357093811, -0.3386887013912201, 0.6998186707496643, 0.7538360357284546, 0.17326416075229645, -0.2289736568927765, -0.22764626145362854, -0.34474512934684753, 0.0654071494936943, 0.35479551553726196, 0.4578608274459839, 0.019649820402264595, -0.3037707507610321, 0.4674580991268158, 0.1893342137336731, -0.22291907668113708, -0.42389851808547974, 0.09560239315032959, 1.0604575872421265, 0.00737177487462759, -0.15539254248142242, -0.2402542680501938, 0.22580702602863312, -0.24566484987735748, -0.15867818892002106, -0.34523341059684753, -0.7385552525520325, 0.1736498475074768, -0.41417819261550903, 0.371795654296875, 0.16168329119682312, 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247151	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimicry	Mimicry	In evolutionary biology, mimicry is an evolved resemblance between an organism and another object, often an organism of another species. Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. Often, mimicry functions to protect a species from predators, making it an anti-predator adaptation. Mimicry evolves if a receiver (such as a predator) perceives the similarity between a mimic (the organism that has a resemblance) and a model (the organism it resembles) and as a result changes its behaviour in a way that provides a selective advantage to the mimic. The resemblances that evolve in mimicry can be visual, acoustic, chemical, tactile, or electric, or combinations of these sensory modalities. Mimicry may be to the advantage of both organisms that share a resemblance, in which case it is a form of mutualism; or mimicry can be to the detriment of one, making it parasitic or competitive. The evolutionary convergence between groups is driven by the selective action of a signal-receiver or dupe. Birds, for example, use sight to identify palatable insects and butterflies, whilst avoiding the noxious ones. Over time, palatable insects may evolve to resemble noxious ones, making them mimics and the noxious ones models. In the case of mutualism, sometimes both groups are referred to as "co-mimics". It is often thought that models must be more abundant than mimics, but this is not so. Mimicry may involve numerous species; many harmless species such as hoverflies are Batesian mimics of strongly defended species such as wasps, while many such well-defended species form Müllerian mimicry rings, all resembling each other. Mimicry between prey species and their predators often involves three or more species. In its broadest definition, mimicry can include non-living models. The specific terms masquerade and mimesis are sometimes used when the models are inanimate. For example, animals such as flower mantises, planthoppers, comma and geometer moth caterpillars resemble twigs, bark, leaves, bird droppings or flowers. Many animals bear eyespots, which are hypothesized to resemble the eyes of larger animals. They may not resemble any specific organism's eyes, and whether or not animals respond to them as eyes is also unclear. Nonetheless, eyespots are the subject of a rich contemporary literature. The model is usually another species, except in automimicry, where members of the species mimic other members, or other parts of their own bodies, and in inter-sexual mimicry, where members of one sex mimic members of the other. Mimicry can result in an evolutionary arms race if mimicry negatively affects the model, and the model can evolve a different appearance from the mimic.p161 Mimicry should not be confused with other forms of convergent evolution that occurs when species come to resemble each other by adapting to similar lifestyles that have nothing to do with a common signal receiver. Mimics may have different models for different life cycle stages, or they may be polymorphic, with different individuals imitating different models, such as in Heliconius butterflies. Models themselves may have more than one mimic, though frequency dependent selection favours mimicry where models outnumber mimics. Models tend to be relatively closely related organisms, but mimicry of vastly different species is also known. Most known mimics are insects, though many other examples including vertebrates are also known. Plants and fungi may also be mimics, though less research has been carried out in this area. Etymology Use of the word mimicry dates to 1637. It derives from the Greek term mimetikos, "imitative", in turn from mimetos, the verbal adjective of mimeisthai, "to imitate". Originally used to describe people, "mimetic" was used in zoology from 1851, "mimicry" from 1861. Classification Many types of mimicry have been described. An overview of each follows, highlighting the similarities and differences between the various forms. Classification is often based on function with respect to the mimic (e.g., avoiding harm). Some cases may belong to more than one class, e.g., automimicry and aggressive mimicry are not mutually exclusive, as one describes the species relationship between model and mimic, while the other describes the function for the mimic (obtaining food). The terminology used is not without debate and attempts to clarify have led to new terms being included. The term "masquerade" is sometimes used when the model is inanimate but it is differentiated from "crypsis" in its strict sense by the potential response of the signal receiver. In crypsis the receiver is assumed to not respond while a masquerader confuses the recognition system of the receiver that would otherwise seek the signaller. In the other forms of mimicry, the signal is not filtered out by the sensory system of the receiver. These are not mutually exclusive and in the evolution of wasp-like appearance, it has been argued that insects evolve to masquerade wasps since predatory wasps do not attack each other but this mimetic resemblance also deters vertebrate predators. Defensive Defensive or protective mimicry takes place when organisms are able to avoid harmful encounters by deceiving enemies into treating them as something else. The first three such cases discussed here entail mimicry of animals protected by warning coloration: Batesian mimicry, where a harmless mimic poses as harmful. Müllerian mimicry, where two or more harmful species mutually advertise themselves as harmful. Mertensian mimicry, where a deadly mimic resembles a less harmful but lesson-teaching model. The fourth case, Vavilovian mimicry, where weeds resemble crops, involves humans as the agent of selection. Batesian In Batesian mimicry the mimic shares signals similar to the model, but does not have the attribute that makes it unprofitable to predators (e.g., unpalatability). In other words, a Batesian mimic is a sheep in wolf's clothing. It is named after Henry Walter Bates, an English naturalist whose work on butterflies in the Amazon rainforest (described in The Naturalist on the River Amazons) was pioneering in this field of study. Mimics are less likely to be found out (for example by predators) when in low proportion to their model. This phenomenon is called negative frequency dependent selection, and it applies in most forms of mimicry. Batesian mimicry can only be maintained if the harm caused to the predator by eating a model outweighs the benefit of eating a mimic. The nature of learning is weighted in favor of the mimics, for a predator that has a bad first experience with a model tends to avoid anything that looks like it for a long time, and does not re-sample soon to see whether the initial experience was a false negative. However, if mimics become more abundant than models, then the probability of a young predator having a first experience with a mimic increases. Such systems are therefore most likely to be stable where both the model and the mimic occur, and where the model is more abundant than the mimic. This is not the case in Müllerian mimicry, which is described next. There are many Batesian mimics in the order Lepidoptera. Consul fabius and Eresia eunice imitate unpalatable Heliconius butterflies such as H. ismenius. Limenitis arthemis imitate the poisonous pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor). Several palatable moths produce ultrasonic click calls to mimic unpalatable tiger moths. Octopuses of the genus Thaumoctopus (the mimic octopus) are able to intentionally alter their body shape and coloration to resemble dangerous sea snakes or lionfish. In the Amazon, the helmeted woodpecker (Dryocopus galeatus), a rare species which lives in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina, has a similar red crest, black back, and barred underside to two larger woodpeckers: Dryocopus lineatus and Campephilus robustus. This mimicry reduces attacks on Dryocopus galeatus from other animals. Scientists had falsely believed that D. galeatus was a close cousin of the other two species, because of the visual similarity, and because the three species live in the same habitat and eat similar food. Batesian mimicry also occurs in the plant kingdom, such as the chameleon vine, which adapts its leaf shape and colour to match that of the plant it is climbing, such that its edible leaves appear to be the less desirable leaves of its host. Müllerian Müllerian mimicry, named for the German naturalist Fritz Müller, describes a situation where two or more species have similar warning or aposematic signals and both share genuine anti-predation attributes (e.g. being unpalatable). At first, Bates could not explain why this should be so—if both were harmful why did one need to mimic another? Müller put forward the first explanation and mathematical model for this phenomenon: if a common predator confuses two species, individuals in both those species are more likely to survive. This type of mimicry is unique in several respects. Firstly, both the mimic and the model benefit from the interaction, which could thus be classified as mutualism. The signal receiver also benefits by this system, despite being deceived about species identity, as it is able to generalize the pattern to potentially harmful encounters. The distinction between mimic and model that is clear in Batesian mimicry is also blurred. Where one species is scarce and another abundant, the rare species can be said to be the mimic. When both are present in similar numbers, however, it makes more sense to speak of each as a co-mimic than of distinct 'mimic' and 'model' species, as their warning signals tend to converge. Also, the mimetic species may exist on a continuum from harmless to highly noxious, so Batesian mimicry grades smoothly into Müllerian convergence. The monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a member of a Müllerian complex with the viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus), sharing coloration patterns and display behaviour. The viceroy has subspecies with somewhat different coloration, each closely matching the local Danaus species. For example, in Florida, the pairing is of the viceroy and the queen butterfly, whereas in Mexico the viceroy resembles the soldier butterfly. The viceroy is thus involved in three different Müllerian pairs. This example was long believed to be Batesian, with the viceroy mimicking the monarch, but the viceroy is actually more unpalatable than the Queen. The genus Morpho is palatable, but some species (such as M. amathonte) are strong fliers; birds – even species that specialize in catching butterflies on the wing – find it hard to catch them. The conspicuous blue coloration shared by most Morpho species may be Müllerian, or may be "pursuit aposematism". Since Morpho butterflies are sexually dimorphic, the males' iridescent coloration may also relate to sexual selection. The "orange complex" of distasteful butterfly species includes the heliconiines Agraulis vanillae, Dryadula phaetusa, and Dryas iulia. At least seven species of millipedes in the genera Apheloria and Brachoria (Xystodesmidae) form a Müllerian mimicry ring in the eastern United States, in which unrelated polymorphic species converge on similar colour patterns where their range overlaps. Emsleyan/Mertensian Emsleyan or Mertensian mimicry describes the unusual case where a deadly prey mimics a less dangerous species. It was first proposed by M. G. Emsley as a possible explanation for how a predator can learn to avoid a very dangerous aposematic animal, such as a coral snake, when the predator is very likely to die, making learning unlikely. The theory was developed by the German biologist Wolfgang Wickler who named it after the German herpetologist Robert Mertens. The scenario is unusual, as it is usually the most harmful species that is the model. But if a predator dies on its first encounter with a deadly snake, it has no occasion to learn to recognize the snake's warning signals. There would then be no advantage for an extremely deadly snake in being aposematic: any predator that attacked it would be killed before it could learn to avoid the deadly prey, so the snake would be better off being camouflaged, to avoid attacks altogether. But if the predator first learnt to avoid a less deadly snake that had warning colours, the deadly species could then profit (be attacked less often) by mimicking the less dangerous snake. Some harmless milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum) subspecies, the moderately toxic false coral snakes (genus Erythrolamprus), and the deadly coral snakes (genus Micrurus) all have a red background color with black and white / yellow rings. In this system, both the milk snakes and the deadly coral snakes are mimics, whereas the false coral snakes are the model. Wasmannian In Wasmannian mimicry, the mimic resembles a model that it lives along with in a nest or colony. Most of the models here are social insects such as ants, termites, bees and wasps. Vavilovian Vavilovian mimicry is found in weeds that come to share characteristics with a domesticated plant through artificial selection. It is named after Russian botanist and geneticist Nikolai Vavilov. Selection against the weed may occur either by manually killing the weed, or by separating its seeds from those of the crop by winnowing. Vavilovian mimicry presents an illustration of unintentional (or rather 'anti-intentional') selection by man. Weeders do not want to select weeds and their seeds that look increasingly like cultivated plants, yet there is no other option. For example, early barnyard grass, Echinochloa oryzoides, is a weed in rice fields and looks similar to rice; its seeds are often mixed in rice and have become difficult to separate through Vavilovian mimicry. Vavilovian mimics may eventually be domesticated themselves, as in the case of rye in wheat; Vavilov called these weed-crops secondary crops. Vavilovian mimicry can be classified as defensive mimicry, in that the weed mimics a protected species. This bears strong similarity to Batesian mimicry in that the weed does not share the properties that give the model its protection, and both the model and the dupe (in this case people) are harmed by its presence. There are some key differences, though; in Batesian mimicry, the model and signal receiver are enemies (the predator would eat the protected species if it could), whereas here the crop and its human growers are in a mutualistic relationship: the crop benefits from being dispersed and protected by people, despite being eaten by them. In fact, the crop's only "protection" relevant here is its usefulness to humans. Secondly, the weed is not eaten, but simply destroyed. The only motivation for killing the weed is its effect on crop yields. Finally, this type of mimicry does not occur in ecosystems unaltered by humans. Gilbertian Gilbertian mimicry involves only two species. The potential host (or prey) drives away its parasite (or predator) by mimicking it, the reverse of host-parasite aggressive mimicry. It was coined by Pasteur as a phrase for such rare mimicry systems, and is named after the American ecologist . Gilbertian mimicry occurs in the genus Passiflora. The leaves of this plant contain toxins that deter herbivorous animals. However, some Heliconius butterfly larvae have evolved enzymes that break down these toxins, allowing them to specialize on this genus. This has created further selection pressure on the host plants, which have evolved stipules that mimic mature Heliconius eggs near the point of hatching. These butterflies tend to avoid laying eggs near existing ones, which helps avoid exploitative intraspecific competition between caterpillars — those that lay on vacant leaves provide their offspring with a greater chance of survival. Most Heliconius larvae are cannibalistic, meaning that on leaves older eggs hatch first and eat the new arrivals. Thus, it seems that such plants have evolved egg dummies under selection pressure from these grazing herbivore enemies. In addition, the decoy eggs are also nectaries, attracting predators of the caterpillars such as ants and wasps as a further defence. Browerian Browerian mimicry, named after Lincoln P. Brower and Jane Van Zandt Brower, is a postulated form of automimicry; where the model belongs to the same species as the mimic. This is the analogue of Batesian mimicry within a single species, and occurs when there is a palatability spectrum within a population. Examples include the monarch and the queen from the subfamily Danainae, which feed on milkweed species of varying toxicity. These species store toxins from its host plant, which are maintained even in the adult (imago) form. As levels of toxin vary depending on diet during the larval stage, some individuals are more toxic than others. Less palatable organisms, therefore, mimic more dangerous individuals, with their likeness already perfected. This is not always the case, however. In sexually dimorphic species, one sex may be more of a threat than the other, which could mimic the protected sex. Evidence for this possibility is provided by the behaviour of a monkey from Gabon, which regularly ate male moths of the genus Anaphe, but promptly stopped after it tasted a noxious female. Aggressive Predators Aggressive mimicry is found in predators or parasites that share some of the characteristics of a harmless species, allowing them to avoid detection by their prey or host; this can be compared with the story of the wolf in sheep's clothing as long as it is understood that no conscious deceptive intent is involved. The mimic may resemble the prey or host itself, or another organism that is either neutral or beneficial to the signal receiver. In this class of mimicry, the model may be affected negatively, positively or not at all. Just as parasites can be treated as a form of predator, host-parasite mimicry is treated here as a subclass of aggressive mimicry. The mimic may have a particular significance for duped prey. One such case is spiders, amongst which aggressive mimicry is quite common both in luring prey and disguising stealthily approaching predators. One case is the golden orb weaver (Nephila clavipes), which spins a conspicuous golden colored web in well-lit areas. Experiments show that bees are able to associate the webs with danger when the yellow pigment is not present, as occurs in less well-lit areas where the web is much harder to see. Other colours were also learned and avoided, but bees seemed least able to effectively associate yellow-pigmented webs with danger. Yellow is the colour of many nectar-bearing flowers, however, so perhaps avoiding yellow is not worthwhile. Another form of mimicry is based not on colour but pattern. Species such as the silver argiope (Argiope argentata) employ prominent patterns in the middle of their webs, such as zigzags. These may reflect ultraviolet light, and mimic the pattern seen in many flowers known as nectar guides. Spiders change their web day to day, which can be explained by the ability of bees to remember web patterns. Bees are able to associate a certain pattern with a spatial location, meaning the spider must spin a new pattern regularly or suffer diminishing prey capture. Another case is where males are lured towards what seems to be a sexually receptive female. The model in this situation is the same species as the dupe. Beginning in the 1960s, James E. Lloyd's investigation of female fireflies of the genus Photuris revealed they emit the same light signals that females of the genus Photinus use as a mating signal. Further research showed male fireflies from several different genera are attracted to these "femmes fatales", and are subsequently captured and eaten. Female signals are based on that received from the male, each female having a repertoire of signals matching the delay and duration of the female of the corresponding species. This mimicry may have evolved from non-mating signals that have become modified for predation. The listrosceline katydid Chlorobalius leucoviridis of inland Australia is capable of attracting male cicadas of the tribe Cicadettini by imitating the species-specific reply clicks of sexually receptive female cicadas. This example of acoustic aggressive mimicry is similar to the Photuris firefly case in that the predator's mimicry is remarkably versatile – playback experiments show that C. leucoviridis is able to attract males of many cicada species, including cicadettine cicadas from other continents, even though cicada mating signals are species-specific. Some carnivorous plants may also be able to increase their rate of capture through mimicry. Luring is not a necessary condition however, as the predator still has a significant advantage simply by not being identified as such. They may resemble a mutualistic symbiont or a species of little relevance to the prey. A case of the latter situation is a species of cleaner fish and its mimic, though in this example the model is greatly disadvantaged by the presence of the mimic. Cleaner fish are the allies of many other species, which allow them to eat their parasites and dead skin. Some allow the cleaner to venture inside their body to hunt these parasites. However, one species of cleaner, the bluestreak cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus), is the unknowing model of a mimetic species, the sabre-toothed blenny (Aspidontus taeniatus). This wrasse resides in coral reefs in the Indian and the Pacific Oceans, and is recognized by other fishes that then let it clean them. Its imposter, a species of blenny, lives in the Indian Ocean—and not only looks like it in terms of size and coloration, but even mimics the cleaner's "dance". Having fooled its prey into letting its guard down, it then bites it, tearing off a piece of its fin before fleeing. Fish grazed on in this fashion soon learn to distinguish mimic from model, but because the similarity is close between the two they become much more cautious of the model as well, so both are affected. Due to victims' ability to discriminate between foe and helper, the blennies have evolved close similarity, right down to the regional level. Another interesting example that does not involve any luring is the zone-tailed hawk, which resembles the turkey vulture. It flies amongst the vultures, suddenly breaking from the formation and ambushing its prey. Here the hawk's presence is of no evident significance to the vultures, affecting them neither negatively or positively. Parasites Parasites can also be aggressive mimics, though the situation is somewhat different from those outlined previously. Some predators have a feature that draws prey; parasites can also mimic their hosts' natural prey, but are eaten themselves, a pathway into their host. Leucochloridium, a genus of flatworm, matures in the digestive system of songbirds, their eggs then passing out of the bird in the faeces. They are then taken up by Succinea, a terrestrial snail. The eggs develop in this intermediate host, and must then find a suitable bird to mature in. Since the host birds do not eat snails, the sporocyst has another strategy to reach its host's intestine. They are brightly coloured and move in a pulsating fashion. A sporocyst-sac pulsates in the snail's eye stalks, coming to resemble an irresistible meal for a songbird. In this way, it can bridge the gap between hosts, allowing it to complete its life cycle. A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) changes the colour of the abdomen of workers of the canopy ant Cephalotes atratus to make it appear like the ripe fruits of Hyeronima alchorneoides. It also changes the behaviour of the ant so that the gaster (rear part) is held raised. This presumably increases the chances of the ant being eaten by birds. The droppings of birds are collected by other ants and fed to their brood, thereby helping to spread the nematode. In an unusual case, planidium larvae of some beetles of the genus Meloe form a group and produce a pheromone that mimics the sex attractant of its host bee species. When a male bee arrives and attempts to mate with the mass of larvae, they climb onto his abdomen. From there, they transfer to a female bee, and from there to the bee nest to parasitize the bee larvae. Host-parasite mimicry is a two species system where a parasite mimics its own host. Cuckoos are a canonical example of brood parasitism, a form of parasitism where the mother has its offspring raised by another unwitting individual, often from a different species, cutting down the biological mother's parental investment in the process. The ability to lay eggs that mimic the host eggs is the key adaptation. The adaptation to different hosts is inherited through the female line in so-called gentes (gens, singular). Cases of intraspecific brood parasitism, where a female lays in a conspecific's nest, as illustrated by the goldeneye duck (Bucephala clangula), do not represent a case of mimicry. A different mechanism is chemical mimicry, as seen in the parasitic butterfly Phengaris rebeli, which parasitizes the ant species Myrmica schencki by releasing chemicals that fool the worker ants to believe that the caterpillar larvae are ant larvae, and enable the P. rebeli larvae to be brought directly into the M. schencki nest. Parasitic (cuckoo) bumblebees (formerly Psithyrus, now included in Bombus) resemble their hosts more closely than would be expected by chance, at least in areas like Europe where parasite-host co-speciation is common. However, this is explainable as Müllerian mimicry, rather than requiring the parasite's coloration to deceive the host and thus constitute aggressive mimicry. Reproductive Reproductive mimicry occurs when the actions of the dupe directly aid in the mimic's reproduction. This is common in plants with deceptive flowers that do not provide the reward they seem to offer and it may occur in Papua New Guinea fireflies, in which the signal of Pteroptyx effulgens is used by P. tarsalis to form aggregations to attract females. Other forms of mimicry have a reproductive component, such as Vavilovian mimicry involving seeds, vocal mimicry in birds, and aggressive and Batesian mimicry in brood parasite-host systems. Bakerian and Dodsonian Bakerian mimicry, named after Herbert G. Baker, is a form of automimicry where female flowers mimic male flowers of their own species, cheating pollinators out of a reward. This reproductive mimicry may not be readily apparent as members of the same species may still exhibit some degree of sexual dimorphism. It is common in many species of Caricaceae. Dodsonian mimicry, named after Calaway H. Dodson, is a form of reproductive floral mimicry where the model belongs to a different species than the mimic. By providing similar sensory signals as the model flower, it can lure its pollinators. Like Bakerian mimics, no nectar is provided. Epidendrum ibaguense (Orchidaceae) resembles flowers of Lantana camara and Asclepias curassavica, and is pollinated by monarch butterflies and perhaps hummingbirds. Similar cases are seen in some other species of the same family. The mimetic species may still have pollinators of its own though. For example, a lamellicorn beetle, which usually pollinates correspondingly colored Cistus flowers, is also known to aid in pollination of Ophrys species that are normally pollinated by bees. Pseudocopulation Pseudocopulation occurs when a flower mimics a female of a certain insect species, inducing the males to try to copulate with the flower. This is much like the aggressive mimicry in fireflies described previously, but with a more benign outcome for the pollinator. This form of mimicry has been called Pouyannian mimicry, after Maurice-Alexandre Pouyanne, who first described the phenomenon. It is most common in orchids, which mimic females of the order Hymenoptera (generally bees and wasps), and may account for around 60% of pollinations. Depending on the morphology of the flower, a pollen sac called a pollinia is attached to the head or abdomen of the male. This is then transferred to the stigma of the next flower the male tries to inseminate, resulting in pollination. Visual mimicry is the most obvious sign of this deception for humans, but the visual aspect may be minor or non-existent. It is the senses of touch and olfaction that are most important. Inter-sexual mimicry Inter-sexual mimicry occurs when individuals of one sex in a species mimic members of the opposite sex to facilitate sneak mating. An example is the three male forms of the marine isopod Paracerceis sculpta. Alpha males are the largest and guard a harem of females. Beta males mimic females and manage to enter the harem of females without being detected by the alpha males allowing them to mate. Gamma males are the smallest males and mimic juveniles. This also allows them to mate with the females without the alpha males detecting them. Similarly, among common side-blotched lizards, some males mimic the yellow throat coloration and even mating rejection behaviour of the other sex to sneak matings with guarded females. These males look and behave like unreceptive females. This strategy is effective against "usurper" males with orange throats, but ineffective against blue throated "guarder" males, which chase them away. Female spotted hyenas have pseudo-penises that make them look like males. Automimicry Automimicry or intraspecific mimicry occurs within a single species. One form of such mimicry is where one part of an organism's body resembles another part. For example, the tails of some snakes resemble their heads; they move backwards when threatened and present the predator with the tail, improving their chances of escape without fatal harm. Some fishes have eyespots near their tails, and when mildly alarmed swim slowly backwards, presenting the tail as a head. Some insects such as some lycaenid butterflies have tail patterns and appendages of various degrees of sophistication that promote attacks at the rear rather than at the head. Several species of pygmy owl bear "false eyes" on the back of the head, misleading predators into reacting as though they were the subject of an aggressive stare. Some writers use the term "automimicry" when the mimic imitates other morphs within the same species. For example, in a species where males mimic females or vice versa, this may be an instance of sexual mimicry in evolutionary game theory. Examples are found in some species of birds, fishes, and lizards. Quite elaborate strategies along these lines are known, such as the well-known "scissors, paper, rock" mimicry in Uta stansburiana, but there are qualitatively different examples in many other species, such as some Platysaurus. Many species of insects are toxic or distasteful when they have fed on certain plants that contain chemicals of particular classes, but not when they have fed on plants that lack those chemicals. For instance, some species of the subfamily Danainae feed on various species of the Asclepiadoideae in the family Apocynaceae, which render them poisonous and emetic to most predators. Such insects frequently are aposematically coloured and patterned. When feeding on innocuous plants however, they are harmless and nutritious, but a bird that once has sampled a toxic specimen is unlikely to eat harmless specimens that have the same aposematic coloration. When regarded as mimicry of toxic members of the same species, this too may be seen as automimicry. Some species of caterpillar, such as many hawkmoths (Sphingidae), have eyespots on their anterior abdominal segments. When alarmed, they retract the head and the thoracic segments into the body, leaving the apparently threatening large eyes at the front of the visible part of the body. Many insects have filamentous "tails" at the ends of their wings and patterns of markings on the wings themselves. These combine to create a "false head". This misdirects predators such as birds and jumping spiders (Salticidae). Spectacular examples occur in the hairstreak butterflies; when perching on a twig or flower, they commonly do so upside down and shift their rear wings repeatedly, causing antenna-like movements of the "tails" on their wings. Studies of rear-wing damage support the hypothesis that this strategy is effective in deflecting attacks from the insect's head. Other forms Some forms of mimicry do not fit easily within the classification given above. Floral mimicry is induced by the discomycete fungus Monilinia vaccinii-corymbosi. In this case, a fungal plant pathogen infects leaves of blueberries, causing them to secrete sugars, in effect mimicking the nectar of flowers. To the naked eye the leaves do not look like flowers, yet they still attract pollinating insects like bees using an ultraviolet signal. This case is unusual, in that the fungus benefits from the deception but it is the leaves that act as mimics, being harmed in the process. It is similar to host-parasite mimicry, but the host does not receive the signal. It has something in common with automimicry, but the plant does not benefit from the mimicry, and the action of the pathogen is required to produce it. Evolution It is widely accepted that mimicry evolves as a positive adaptation. The lepidopterist and novelist Vladimir Nabokov however argued that although natural selection might stabilize a "mimic" form, it would not be necessary to create it. The most widely accepted model used to explain the evolution of mimicry in butterflies is the two-step hypothesis. The first step involves mutation in modifier genes that regulate a complex cluster of linked genes that cause large changes in morphology. The second step consists of selections on genes with smaller phenotypic effects, creating an increasingly close resemblance. This model is supported by empirical evidence that suggests that a few single point mutations cause large phenotypic effects, while numerous others produce smaller effects. Some regulatory elements collaborate to form a supergene for the development of butterfly color patterns. The model is supported by computational simulations of population genetics. The Batesian mimicry in Papilio polytes is controlled by the doublesex gene. Some mimicry is imperfect. Natural selection drives mimicry only far enough to deceive predators. For example, when predators avoid a mimic that imperfectly resembles a coral snake, the mimic is sufficiently protected. Convergent evolution is an alternative explanation for why organisms such as coral reef fish and benthic marine invertebrates such as sponges and nudibranchs have come to resemble each other. See also Biomimicry Chemical mimicry Locomotor mimicry Molecular mimicry Preadaptation Semiotics Mimic octopus Notes References Further reading (a supplement of volume 131 of the journal American Naturalist dedicated to E. B. Ford). Cott, H. B. (1940) Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Methuen and Co, London, Edmunds, M. 1974. Defence in Animals: a survey of anti-predator defences. Harlow, Essex and New York, Longman. . Owen, D. (1980) Camouflage and Mimicry. Oxford University Press, . Ruxton, G. D.; Speed, M. P.; Sherratt, T. N. (2004). Avoiding Attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals and mimicry. Oxford, Oxford University Press. . Stevens, M. (2016). Cheats and deceits: how animals and plants exploit and mislead. Oxford University Press, Wickler, W. (1968) Mimicry in Plants and Animals (translated from the German), McGraw-Hill, New York. . Children's Hoff, M. K. (2003) Mimicry and Camouflage. Creative Education. Mankato, Minnesota, USA, Great Britain. . 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247152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian%20variety	Abelian variety	In mathematics, particularly in algebraic geometry, complex analysis and algebraic number theory, an abelian variety is a projective algebraic variety that is also an algebraic group, i.e., has a group law that can be defined by regular functions. Abelian varieties are at the same time among the most studied objects in algebraic geometry and indispensable tools for much research on other topics in algebraic geometry and number theory. An abelian variety can be defined by equations having coefficients in any field; the variety is then said to be defined over that field. Historically the first abelian varieties to be studied were those defined over the field of complex numbers. Such abelian varieties turn out to be exactly those complex tori that can be embedded into a complex projective space. Abelian varieties defined over algebraic number fields are a special case, which is important also from the viewpoint of number theory. Localization techniques lead naturally from abelian varieties defined over number fields to ones defined over finite fields and various local fields. Since a number field is the fraction field of a Dedekind domain, for any nonzero prime of your Dedekind domain, there is a map from the Dedekind domain to the quotient of the Dedekind domain by the prime, which is a finite field for all finite primes. This induces a map from the fraction field to any such finite field. Given a curve with equation defined over the number field, we can apply this map to the coefficients to get a curve defined over some finite field, where the choices of finite field correspond to the finite primes of the number field. Abelian varieties appear naturally as Jacobian varieties (the connected components of zero in Picard varieties) and Albanese varieties of other algebraic varieties. The group law of an abelian variety is necessarily commutative and the variety is non-singular. An elliptic curve is an abelian variety of dimension 1. Abelian varieties have Kodaira dimension 0. History and motivation In the early nineteenth century, the theory of elliptic functions succeeded in giving a basis for the theory of elliptic integrals, and this left open an obvious avenue of research. The standard forms for elliptic integrals involved the square roots of cubic and quartic polynomials. When those were replaced by polynomials of higher degree, say quintics, what would happen? In the work of Niels Abel and Carl Jacobi, the answer was formulated: this would involve functions of two complex variables, having four independent periods (i.e. period vectors). This gave the first glimpse of an abelian variety of dimension 2 (an abelian surface): what would now be called the Jacobian of a hyperelliptic curve of genus 2. After Abel and Jacobi, some of the most important contributors to the theory of abelian functions were Riemann, Weierstrass, Frobenius, Poincaré and Picard. The subject was very popular at the time, already having a large literature. By the end of the 19th century, mathematicians had begun to use geometric methods in the study of abelian functions. Eventually, in the 1920s, Lefschetz laid the basis for the study of abelian functions in terms of complex tori. He also appears to be the first to use the name "abelian variety". It was André Weil in the 1940s who gave the subject its modern foundations in the language of algebraic geometry. Today, abelian varieties form an important tool in number theory, in dynamical systems (more specifically in the study of Hamiltonian systems), and in algebraic geometry (especially Picard varieties and Albanese varieties). Analytic theory Definition A complex torus of dimension g is a torus of real dimension 2g that carries the structure of a complex manifold. It can always be obtained as the quotient of a g-dimensional complex vector space by a lattice of rank 2g. A complex abelian variety of dimension g is a complex torus of dimension g that is also a projective algebraic variety over the field of complex numbers. Since they are complex tori, abelian varieties carry the structure of a group. A morphism of abelian varieties is a morphism of the underlying algebraic varieties that preserves the identity element for the group structure. An isogeny is a finite-to-one morphism. When a complex torus carries the structure of an algebraic variety, this structure is necessarily unique. In the case g = 1, the notion of abelian variety is the same as that of elliptic curve, and every complex torus gives rise to such a curve; for g > 1 it has been known since Riemann that the algebraic variety condition imposes extra constraints on a complex torus. Riemann conditions The following criterion by Riemann decides whether or not a given complex torus is an abelian variety, i.e. whether or not it can be embedded into a projective space. Let X be a g-dimensional torus given as X = V/L where V is a complex vector space of dimension g and L is a lattice in V. Then X is an abelian variety if and only if there exists a positive definite hermitian form on V whose imaginary part takes integral values on L×L. Such a form on X is usually called a (non-degenerate) Riemann form. Choosing a basis for V and L, one can make this condition more explicit. There are several equivalent formulations of this; all of them are known as the Riemann conditions. The Jacobian of an algebraic curve Every algebraic curve C of genus g ≥ 1 is associated with an abelian variety J of dimension g, by means of an analytic map of C into J. As a torus, J carries a commutative group structure, and the image of C generates J as a group. More accurately, J is covered by Cg: any point in J comes from a g-tuple of points in C. The study of differential forms on C, which give rise to the abelian integrals with which the theory started, can be derived from the simpler, translation-invariant theory of differentials on J. The abelian variety J is called the Jacobian variety of C, for any non-singular curve C over the complex numbers. From the point of view of birational geometry, its function field is the fixed field of the symmetric group on g letters acting on the function field of Cg. Abelian functions An abelian function is a meromorphic function on an abelian variety, which may be regarded therefore as a periodic function of n complex variables, having 2n independent periods; equivalently, it is a function in the function field of an abelian variety. For example, in the nineteenth century there was much interest in hyperelliptic integrals that may be expressed in terms of elliptic integrals. This comes down to asking that J is a product of elliptic curves, up to an isogeny. Important Theorems One important structure theorem of abelian varieties is Matsusaka's theorem. It states that over an algebraically closed field every abelian variety is the quotient of the Jacobian of some curve; that is, there is some surjection of abelian varieties where is a Jacobian. This theorem remains true if the ground field is infinite. Algebraic definition Two equivalent definitions of abelian variety over a general field k are commonly in use: a connected and complete algebraic group over k a connected and projective algebraic group over k. When the base is the field of complex numbers, these notions coincide with the previous definition. Over all bases, elliptic curves are abelian varieties of dimension 1. In the early 1940s, Weil used the first definition (over an arbitrary base field) but could not at first prove that it implied the second. Only in 1948 did he prove that complete algebraic groups can be embedded into projective space. Meanwhile, in order to make the proof of the Riemann hypothesis for curves over finite fields that he had announced in 1940 work, he had to introduce the notion of an abstract variety and to rewrite the foundations of algebraic geometry to work with varieties without projective embeddings (see also the history section in the Algebraic Geometry article). Structure of the group of points By the definitions, an abelian variety is a group variety. Its group of points can be proven to be commutative. For C, and hence by the Lefschetz principle for every algebraically closed field of characteristic zero, the torsion group of an abelian variety of dimension g is isomorphic to (Q/Z)2g. Hence, its n-torsion part is isomorphic to (Z/nZ)2g, i.e. the product of 2g copies of the cyclic group of order n. When the base field is an algebraically closed field of characteristic p, the n-torsion is still isomorphic to (Z/nZ)2g when n and p are coprime. When n and p are not coprime, the same result can be recovered provided one interprets it as saying that the n-torsion defines a finite flat group scheme of rank 2g. If instead of looking at the full scheme structure on the n-torsion, one considers only the geometric points, one obtains a new invariant for varieties in characteristic p (the so-called p-rank when n = p). The group of k-rational points for a global field k is finitely generated by the Mordell-Weil theorem. Hence, by the structure theorem for finitely generated abelian groups, it is isomorphic to a product of a free abelian group Zr and a finite commutative group for some non-negative integer r called the rank of the abelian variety. Similar results hold for some other classes of fields k. Products The product of an abelian variety A of dimension m, and an abelian variety B of dimension n, over the same field, is an abelian variety of dimension m + n. An abelian variety is simple if it is not isogenous to a product of abelian varieties of lower dimension. Any abelian variety is isogenous to a product of simple abelian varieties. Polarisation and dual abelian variety Dual abelian variety To an abelian variety A over a field k, one associates a dual abelian variety Av (over the same field), which is the solution to the following moduli problem. A family of degree 0 line bundles parametrised by a k-variety T is defined to be a line bundle L on A×T such that for all t in T, the restriction of L to A×{t} is a degree 0 line bundle, the restriction of L to {0}×T is a trivial line bundle (here 0 is the identity of A). Then there is a variety Av and a family of degree 0 line bundles P, the Poincaré bundle, parametrised by Av such that a family L on T is associated a unique morphism f: T → Av so that L is isomorphic to the pullback of P along the morphism 1A×f: A×T → A×Av. Applying this to the case when T is a point, we see that the points of Av correspond to line bundles of degree 0 on A, so there is a natural group operation on Av given by tensor product of line bundles, which makes it into an abelian variety. This association is a duality in the sense that there is a natural isomorphism between the double dual Avv and A (defined via the Poincaré bundle) and that it is contravariant functorial, i.e. it associates to all morphisms f: A → B dual morphisms fv: Bv → Av in a compatible way. The n-torsion of an abelian variety and the n-torsion of its dual are dual to each other when n is coprime to the characteristic of the base. In general - for all n - the n-torsion group schemes of dual abelian varieties are Cartier duals of each other. This generalises the Weil pairing for elliptic curves. Polarisations A polarisation of an abelian variety is an isogeny from an abelian variety to its dual that is symmetric with respect to double-duality for abelian varieties and for which the pullback of the Poincaré bundle along the associated graph morphism is ample (so it is analogous to a positive-definite quadratic form). Polarised abelian varieties have finite automorphism groups. A principal polarisation is a polarisation that is an isomorphism. Jacobians of curves are naturally equipped with a principal polarisation as soon as one picks an arbitrary rational base point on the curve, and the curve can be reconstructed from its polarised Jacobian when the genus is > 1. Not all principally polarised abelian varieties are Jacobians of curves; see the Schottky problem. A polarisation induces a Rosati involution on the endomorphism ring of A. Polarisations over the complex numbers Over the complex numbers, a polarised abelian variety can also be defined as an abelian variety A together with a choice of a Riemann form H. Two Riemann forms H1 and H2 are called equivalent if there are positive integers n and m such that nH1=mH2. A choice of an equivalence class of Riemann forms on A is called a polarisation of A. A morphism of polarised abelian varieties is a morphism A → B of abelian varieties such that the pullback of the Riemann form on B to A is equivalent to the given form on A. Abelian scheme One can also define abelian varieties scheme-theoretically and relative to a base. This allows for a uniform treatment of phenomena such as reduction mod p of abelian varieties (see Arithmetic of abelian varieties), and parameter-families of abelian varieties. An abelian scheme over a base scheme S of relative dimension g is a proper, smooth group scheme over S whose geometric fibers are connected and of dimension g. The fibers of an abelian scheme are abelian varieties, so one could think of an abelian scheme over S as being a family of abelian varieties parametrised by S. For an abelian scheme A / S, the group of n-torsion points forms a finite flat group scheme. The union of the pn-torsion points, for all n, forms a p-divisible group. Deformations of abelian schemes are, according to the Serre–Tate theorem, governed by the deformation properties of the associated p-divisible groups. Example Let be such that has no repeated complex roots. Then the discriminant is nonzero. Let , so is an open subscheme of . Then is an abelian scheme over . It can be extended to a Néron model over , which is a smooth group scheme over , but the Néron model is not proper and hence is not an abelian scheme over . Non-existence V. A. Abrashkin and Jean-Marc Fontaine independently proved that there are no nonzero abelian varieties over Q with good reduction at all primes. Equivalently, there are no nonzero abelian schemes over Spec Z. The proof involves showing that the coordinates of pn-torsion points generate number fields with very little ramification and hence of small discriminant, while, on the other hand, there are lower bounds on discriminants of number fields. Semiabelian variety A semiabelian variety is a commutative group variety which is an extension of an abelian variety by a torus. See also Complex torus Motives Timeline of abelian varieties Moduli of abelian varieties Equations defining abelian varieties Horrocks–Mumford bundle References Sources . A comprehensive treatment of the complex theory, with an overview of the history of the subject. . Online course notes. . Description of the Jacobian of the Covering Curves Algebraic curves Geometry of divisors Algebraic surfaces Niels Henrik Abel	[ -0.46403518319129944, -0.477129727602005, -0.20498932898044586, 0.001934864791110158, -0.770129382610321, -0.17988274991512299, -0.3045566976070404, 0.4813932478427887, -0.3730836808681488, -0.7092204093933105, -0.8723683953285217, 0.06895433366298676, -0.7942379117012024, 0.23131361603736877, 0.11491917818784714, 0.8425490260124207, 0.43064960837364197, 0.36696386337280273, -0.8339183330535889, -0.6899695992469788, 0.1958068311214447, 0.14929279685020447, 0.5527483820915222, -0.24730335175991058, 0.23405732214450836, -0.5981313586235046, -0.05338313803076744, 0.4722209572792053, 0.8498623371124268, 0.7108749151229858, -0.22189584374427795, 0.775642991065979, 0.5208926796913147, 0.3033725619316101, -0.041620198637247086, 0.05423450097441673, 0.7460649609565735, -0.11735602468252182, -0.07565893977880478, 0.0483580082654953, 0.8126822113990784, 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247156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Dominica	Music of Dominica	The music of Dominica includes a variety of genres including all the popular genres of the world. Popular music is widespread, with a number of native Dominican performers gaining national fame in imported genres such as calypso, reggae, soca, kompa, zouk and rock and roll. Dominica's own popular music industry has created a form called bouyon, which combines elements from several styles and has achieved a wide fanbase in Dominica. Groups include WCK (Windward Caribbean Kulture), Native musicians in various forms, such as reggae (Nasio Fontaine, Lazo, Brother Matthew Luke), kadans (Ophelia Marie, (Exile One, Grammacks) and calypso (The Wizzard), have also become stars at home and abroad. There is also "Cadence-lypso", the Dominica kadans, which has set the stage for some of the region's most significant musical developments such as zouk and bouyon (another Dominican creation). Like the other Francophone musics of the Lesser Antilles, Dominican folk music is a hybrid of African and European elements. The quadrille is an important symbol of French Antillean culture, and is, on Dominica, typically accompanied by a kind of ensemble called a jing ping band. In addition, Dominica's folk tradition includes folk songs called bélé, traditional storytelling called kont, masquerade, children's and work songs, and Carnival music. Until the late 1950s, the Afro-Dominican culture of most of the island was repressed by the colonial government and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, both of which taught that African-derived music was evil, demonic and uncultured. This perception changed in the mid- to late 20th century, when Afro-Dominican culture came to be celebrated through the work of promoters like Cissie Caudeiron. Characteristics Dominica's terrain is rugged, which has fostered distinct regional traditions. The northern, eastern, southern, western and central parts of the island are music areas. The villages of Wesley and Marigot are also unique in their preservation of English language and music rather than the more French-based styles of the rest of the island. Dominican folk music is an oral tradition, learned informally through watching others perform. As of 1987, most performers of traditional music were either over 50 years old or under 35, which indicates an ongoing revival of previously declining traditions. Music is evaluated based on both characteristics of the music, such as complex syncopated rhythms, as well as social factors, such as the ability of the performers to improvise and respond to their surroundings and to keep the audience excited and participating in the music. Characteristics of Dominican music include the West African use of call and response singing, clapping as a major part of rhythm and lyrical, dance and rhythmic improvisation. Lyrics are almost all in Dominican Creole French, and are traditionally sung by women (chantwèl), while the instrumental traditions are predominantly practiced by men. Drums, generically known as lapo kabwit, are the most prominent part of Dominica's instrumental tradition. Folk music Dominican folk music includes, most influentially, the French Antillean quadrille tradition, the jing ping style of dance music, as well as bélé and heel-and-toe polka. Traditional Carnival music includes chanté mas and lapo kabwit. Folk music on Dominica has historically been a part of everyday life, including work songs, religious music and secular, recreational music. The quadrille is one of the most important dance of the Dominican folk tradition, which also includes the lancer and distinctive forms of several dances, many of them derived from European styles. The bidjin (biguine), mereng (méringue), sotis (schottische), polka pil (pure polka), vals o vyenn (Viennese waltz) and mazouk (mazurka) are particularly widespread. Bélé Bélé are folk songs of West African origin, traditionally performed recreationally in the evening during the full moon, and more rarely, lavèyé (wakes). The bélé tradition has declined in the 20th and 21st century, but is still performed for holidays like Easter, Independence Day, Christmas, Creole Day (Jounen Kwéyòl) and patron saint festivals held annually in the Parishes of Dominica, especially in the Fèt St.-Pierre and the Fèt St.-Isidore for fishermen and workers respectively. All bélé are accompanied by an eponymous drum, the tanbou bélé, along with the tingting (triangle) and chakchak (maracas). Bélés start with a lead vocalist (chantwèl), who is followed by the responsorial chorus (lavwa), then a drummer and dancers. Traditional dances revolve around stylized courtship between a male and female dancer, known as the kavalyé and danm respectively. The bélé song-dances include the bélé soté, bélé priòrité, bélé djouba, bélé contredanse, bélé rickety and bélé pitjé. Quadrille The quadrille is a dance form that is an important symbol of French Antillean culture, not just in Dominica, but also Martinique, Guadeloupe and other Francophone islands. Dominican quadrilles are traditionally performed by four sets of couples in subscription picnics or dances, and in private parties. However, the quadrille tradition now only survives at holidays and festivals. The Dominican quadrille generally has four figures, the pastouwèl, lapoul, lété and latrinitez. Some regions of Dominica, such as Petite Savanne, are home to local variants such as the caristo. Many quadrilles are found across Dominica under a wide variety of names. In addition to the standard quadrille, the lancer is also an important Dominican dance. Accompaniment for the quadrille is provided by a four-instrument ensemble called a jing ping band. Jing ping Jing Ping is a kind of folk music originated on the slave plantations of Dominica, also known colloquially as an accordion band. In Dominican folk music, jing ping bands accompany a circle dance called the flirtation, as well as the Dominican quadrille. Jing ping bands are made up of a boumboum (boom pipe), syak or gwaj (scraper-rattle), tambal or tanbou (tambourine) and accordion. The double bass and banjo are also sometimes used. Bamboo flutes led the jing ping ensembles before the 1940s, when accordions were introduced. The Dominican flute tradition declined as a result, despite their additional use in serenades, until being revived after the National Independence Competitions. Chanté mas The chanté mas (masquerade song) tradition is based around pre-calypso Carnival music performed in a responsorial style by partygoers. The Dominican Carnival masquerade lasted for two days of parading through the streets, with a singer dancing backwards in front of the drummer on a tanbou lélé. Chanté mas lyrics are traditionally based on gossip and scandal, and addressed the personal shortcomings of others. Other folk music Dominica's folk musical heritage includes work songs, storytelling, children's music and masquerade songs. Dominican work songs are accompanied by the tambou twavay drum, and are performed by workers while gathering fruit, building roads, fishing, moving a house or sawing wood. Many are responsorial, and are generally short and simple, with the lyrical text and rhythm tying into the work to be accompanied. On modern Dominica, work songs are rarely performed. The kont, or storytelling, folk tradition of Dominica was focused around entertainment for night-time festivals, funeral wakes and feasts and festivals. Modern kont is mostly performed during major festival competitions. Most kont storytellers work with local traditions, such as legends and history, and provide an ethical or moral message. A one line theme song, often based around a duet between two characters, recurs throughout most kont performances. Unlike most Dominican folk songs, children's songs and musical games are mostly in English. They were originally in the same Creole as the rest of the island, but have come to be primarily of English, Scottish, and Irish derivation. Children's musical traditions include ring games and circle dances, and music accompanied by thigh-slapping and circle dancing. Early popular music Dominican popular music history can be traced back to the 1940s and '50s, when dance bands like the Casimir Brothers and, later, The Swinging Stars, became famous across the island. Their music was a dance-oriented version of many kinds of Caribbean and Latin popular music, such as Cuban bolero, Brazilian samba, the merengue from the Dominican Republic, Trinidadian calypso, and American funk. By the beginning of the 1960s, calypso and Trinidadian steelpan became the most popular styles of music on Dominica, replacing traditional Carnival music like chanté mas and lapo kabwit. Early recording stars from this era included Swinging Busters, The Gaylords, De Boys an Dem and Los Caballeros, while chorale groups also gained fans, especially Lajenne Etwal, Siflé Montan'y and the Dominica Folk singers. These early popular musicians were aided by the spread of radio broadcasting, beginning with WIDBS and later Radio Dominica. Of these early popular musicians, a few pioneering the use of native influences. The Gaylords’ hits, such as "Ti Mako", "Pray for the Blackman", "Lovely Dominica" and "Douvan Jo", were either English or the native Creole, (kwéyòl). By the end of the 1960s and beginning of the 1970s, American rock and roll, soul and funk had reached Dominica and left lasting influences. Funky rock-based bands like Voltage Four, Woodenstool and Every Mother's Child became popular. The first internationally known bands from Dominica were 1970s groups such as Exile One and Grammacks. These bands were the stars of the cadence-lypso scene, which was the first style of Dominican music to become popular across the Caribbean. By the 1980s, however, Martinican zouk and other styles were more popular. In 1988, WCK formed, playing an experimental fusion of cadence-lypso with the island’s jing ping sound. The result became known as bouyon, and has re-established Dominica in the field of popular music. Calypso In the 1960s, calypso and steelband music became very popular and indeed replaced lapo kabwit and chanté mas as the music of carnival, particularly in the capital Roseau. Many of the traditional songs were performed in the new calypso beat. Calypsonians and Calypso Monarch competitions emerged and became extremely popular. Steelbands emerged all around the country. The older musicians and bands had moved on and were replaced by the younger musicians. Bands such as Swinging Stars, The Gaylords, De Boys an Dem, Los Caballeros and Swinging Busters surfaced and began to cut records. The emergence of radio, first WIDBS and later Radio Dominica helped to spread the music. Calypso has been popular in Dominica since the 1950s; the first Calypso King was crowned in 1959. Popular calypso in Dominica has always been closely associated with steelpan music. The first wave of Dominican steelpan includes such bands as Esso, Shell and Regent, Vauxhall and Old Oak. Cadence (kadans)/compas In the 1970s, a wave of Haitian, mostly musicians, to Dominica and the French Antilles (Guadeloupe and Martinique) brought with them the kadans, a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences. This was followed by mini-jazz like Les Gentlemen, Les Leopards, Les Vikings de Guadeloupe and others. Later in the decade and into the 1980s, the French Antilles became home to a style of cadence music called cadence-lypso. Gordon Henderson's Exile One innovated this style, as well as turned the mini-jazz combos into guitar-dominated big bands with a full-horn section and the newly arrived synthesizers, paving the way for the success of large groups like Grammacks, Experience 7, among others. Drawing on these influences, the supergroup Kassav' invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs including "Zouk-La-Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni". Kassav' formed in Paris in 1978. Cadence-lypso The most influential figure in the promotion of Cadence-lypso was the Dominican group Exile One (based on the island of Guadeloupe) that featured mostly the cadence rampa of Haiti and calypso music from the English-speaking Caribbean. It was pushed in the 1970s by groups from Dominica, and was the first style of Dominican music to find international acclaim. Dominica cadence music has evolved under the influence of Dominican and Caribbean/Latin rhythms, as well as rock and roll, soul, and funk music from the United States. By the end of the 1970s, Gordon Henderson defined Cadence-lypso as "a synthesis of Caribbean and African musical patterns fusing the traditional with the contemporary". Aside from Exile One, other bands included the Grammacks, Black Roots, Black Machine, Naked Feet, Belles Combo, Mantra, Black Affairs, Liquid Ice, Wafrikai, Midnighte Groovers and Milestone, while the most famous singers included Bill Thomas, Chubby Marc, Gordon Henderson, Linford John, Janet Azouz, Sinky Rabess, Tony Valmond, Jeff Joseph, Mike Moreau and Anthony Gussie. Ophelia Marie is a popular singer of cadence-lypso in the 1980s. Cadence-lypso was influenced by nationalist movement that espoused Rastafari and Black Power. Many groups performed songs with intensely ideological positions, and much of the repertoire was in the vernacular Creole language. Gordon Henderson, Exile One's leader and founder, coined the name "Cadence-lypso" in his full band that used a full-horn section and was the first to use the synthesizers in kadans. Many mini-jazz from Haiti and the French Antilles followed this format. The band is considered by some to be one of the pioneers of soca. During the early 1970s, they initiated a fusion of cadence and calypso "Cadence-lypso" that would later become soca music. Exile One was the most promoted Creole band of the Caribbean. The first to sign a production contract with major label Barclay Records. The first to export kadans music to the four corners of the globe: Japan, the Indian Ocean, Africa, North America, Europe, The Cape Verde islands. Recent popular music During the 1980s, cadence-lypso’s popularity declined greatly. Some Dominican performers remained famous, such as Ophelia, a very renowned singer of the period. Popular music during this time was mostly zouk, a style pioneered by the French Antillean band Kassav, who used styles of folk music of Martinique and Guadeloupe. Soca, a kind of Trinidadian music, was also popular at the time, producing bands like Windward Caribbean Kulture. The '80s also saw a rise in popular for jazz and the formation of several jazz bands, while groups like Exile One began exploring tradition rhythms from jing ping and lapo kabwit. Zouk The inspiration for Zouk's style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian compas, as well as music called cadence-lypso – Dominica cadence popularized by Grammacks and Exile One. Elements of gwo ka, tambour, ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk. Though there are many diverse styles of zouk, some commonalities exist. The French Creole tongue of Martinique and Guadeloupe is an important element, and are a distinctive part of the music. Generally, zouk is based around star singers, with little attention given to instrumentalists, and is based almost entirely around studio recordings. Music authors Charles De Ledesma and Gene Scaramuzzo trace zouk's development to the Guadeloupean gwo ka and Martinican bèlè (tambour and ti bwa) folk traditions. Ethnomusicologist Jocelyn Guilbault, however, describes zouk as a synthesis of Caribbean popular styles, especially Dominica cadence-lypso, Haitian cadence, Guadeloupean biguine. Zouk arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using elements of previous styles of Antillean music, as well as imported genres. Zouk-love Zouk Love is the French Antilles cadence or compas, characterized by a slow, soft and sexual rhythm. The lyrics of the songs often speak of love and sentimental problems. The music kizomba from Angola and cabo-love from Cape Verde are also derivatives of this French Antillean compas style, which sounds basically the same, although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genres. A main exponent of this subgenre is Ophelia Marie of Dominica. Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies, the Netherlands, and Africa. Grammacks, Exile One, Ophelia Marie, and many Dominican bands played cadence-lypso (Dominica Kadans) that later influenced zouk love in the French Antilles. Nowadays, zouk-love is called the French Antilles cadence or compas. Popular artists include French West Indian artists Edith Lefel and Nichols, or like Netherlands-based Suzanna Lubrano and Gil Semedo, the African artist Kaysha. Soca The calypsonian Lord Shorty of Trinidad was the first to define his music as "soca" during 1975 when his hit song “Endless Vibrations” was causing major musical waves on radio stations and at parties and clubs not just throughout his native T&T but also in far off metropolitan cities like New York, Toronto and London. Soca was originally spelled Sokah which stands for the “Soul of Calypso” with the “kah” part being taken from the first letter in the Sanskrit alphabet and representing the Power of movement as well as the East Indian rhythmic influence that helped to inspire the new soca beat. Shorty stated in a number of interviews that the idea for the new soca beat started with the rhythmic fusion of Calypso rhythms with East Indian rhythms that he used in his hit "Indrani" recorded in 1972. The soca beat was solidified as the popular new beat that most of the T&T Calypso musicians would start adopting by the time Shorty had recorded his big crossover hit “Endless Vibrations” in 1974. Shorty also recorded a mid-year album in 1975 called “Love In The Caribbean” that contains a number of crossover soca tracks before setting off on an album distribution and promotion tour. During his 1975 “Love In The Caribbean” album promotion and distribution tour Shorty pass thru the isle of Dominica on his way back to Trinidad and saw Dominica's top band Exile One perform at the Fort Young Hotel. Shorty was inspired to compose and record a Soca and Cadence-lypso fusion track called “E Pete” or “Ou Petit” which can be viewed as the first of its kind in that particular Soca style. Shorty sought and got help with the Creole lyrics he used in the chorus of his “E Pete” song by consulting with Dominica's 1969 Calypso King, Lord Tokyo, and two creole lyricists, Chris Seraphine and Pat Aaron while he was in Dominica. The song “E Pete” thus contains genuine Creole lyrics in the chorus like "Ou dee moin ou petit Shorty" (meaning "you told me you are small Shorty"), and is a combination of Soca, Calypso, Cadence-lypso and Creole. Shorty's 1974 Endless Vibrations and Soul of Calypso brought Soca to regional and international attention and fame and helped to solidify the rapidly growing Soca Movement led by Shorty. Soca developed in the early 1970s and grew in popularity in the late 1970s. Soca's development as a musical genre included its early fusion of calypso with Indian musical instruments, particularly the dholak, tabla and dhantal, as demonstrated in Lord Shorty's classic compositions "Ïndrani", "Kalo Gee Bull Bull" and "Shanti Om". Bouyon Bouyon is a fusion of Jing ping, Cadence-lypso and traditional dances namely bèlè, Quadrille, chanté mas and lapo kabwit, Mazurka, Zouk and other styles of Caribbean music, developed by a band called Windward Caribbean Kulture (later WCK). WCK was among the most prominent of '80s Dominican soca bands. They began using native drum rhythms such as lapo kabwit and elements of the music of jing ping bands, as well as ragga-style vocals. Bouyon is popular across the Caribbean, and is known as jump up music in Guadeloupe and Martinique. The best-known band in the genre was Windward Caribbean Kulture "WCK" in 1988 by experimenting a fusion of Jing Ping and Cadence-lypso. While the Cadence-lypso sound is based on the creative usage of acoustic drums, an aggressive up-tempo guitar beat, and strong social commentary in the local Creole language, this new music created by the "WCK" band focused more on the use of modern technology with strong emphasis on keyboard rhythmic patterns. Bouyon has diversified into multiple subgenres. These include bouyon soca, bouyon-muffin, reketeng, and bouyon gwada. Bouyon soca Bouyon soca, sometimes referred to as Jump up soca, is a fusion genre that typically blends old bouyon rhythms from the '90s and soca music. Bouyon soca is a term coined by non-Dominican producers and musicians, mainly from St Lucia, who embrace both Soca from Trinidad and Bouyon music from Dominica and so find it natural to produce blends of both music genres. Bouyon is a music genre that originated in Dominica that is distinguishable from its older "colleague" Soca. In Dominica while there may have been the occasional fusions, bouyon has always maintained a very clear, recognizable and different style from soca. Outside of Dominica the Bouyon Soca fusion style is popular in islands like Antigua, Saint Lucia, Guadeloupe and Martinique and is a natural evolution from Zouk and Soca fusions that were popular there during the 1980s. Alternative music Religious music, influenced by American gospel, has become an important part of Dominican popular music in the 1990s. Calypso has also retained much popularity in Dominica, as has Jazz. The band Impact has fused jazz with Caribbean music. Other styles include steelpan, which has declined popularity despite the efforts of groups like Dancehall. Music institutions and festivals The Caribbean Carnival is an important part of Dominican culture. Originally featuring masquerade songs (chanté mas) and other local traditions, traditional Carnival, Mas Domnik, came to be dominated by imported calypso music and steel bands in the early 1960s; calypso appealed to Carnival-goers because the lyrical focus on local news and gossip was similar to that of chanté mas, despite a rhythmic pattern and instrumentation which contrast sharply with traditional Dominican Mas Domnik music. After a fire in 1963, the traditional Carnival was banned, though calypso and steelpan continued to grow in popularity. Modern Carnival on Dominica takes place on the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, and is a festive occasion during which laws against libel and slander are suspended. The modern Dominican Carnival is heavily based on the Trinidadian celebration, but is not as commercialized due to a lack of corporate sponsorship. The World Creole Music Festival takes place on the island of Dominica, in Festival City, Roseau, which is run by the governmental Dominica Festivals Commission. The National Independence Competitions are an important part of Dominican musical culture. They were founded by Chief Minister of Dominica Edward Olivier Leblanc in 1965, and promote the traditional music and dance of Dominica. The government of Dominica also promotes Dominican music through the Dominican Broadcasting Station, which broadcasts between 20% and 25% local music as a matter of policy. References Notes External links Dominica: Creole Crossroads Center for Traditional Music and Dance	[ -0.06755946576595306, 0.3793109655380249, -0.008870776742696762, -0.4808877110481262, -0.2716803252696991, -0.056759871542453766, 0.04986661300063133, 0.9677968621253967, -1.2282212972640991, -0.4633955955505371, -0.39073699712753296, 0.6713400483131409, -0.060489721596241, 0.2175014615058899, -0.01815931126475334, 0.9185431003570557, 0.6534316539764404, 0.1958913803100586, 0.17933949828147888, -0.581613302230835, -0.5145971179008484, -0.2559717893600464, 0.21090947091579437, 0.6610141396522522, 0.6296059489250183, -0.1934851109981537, 0.22898639738559723, 0.5411861538887024, -0.027783820405602455, -0.5837652683258057, -0.462347149848938, 0.5510979890823364, -0.1671193540096283, -0.13450592756271362, 0.4500783085823059, -0.210870623588562, -0.21044178307056427, -0.6350852847099304, -0.5797277688980103, -0.13630890846252441, 0.27564096450805664, -0.23125849664211273, 0.4187057614326477, 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247158	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mek	Mek	Mek or Mek may refer to: Mek people, an indigenous tribe of West Papua, Indonesia Mek languages, a family of Papuan languages spoken by the Mek peoples Mek (comics), a comic mini series by Warren Ellis MEK Compound, in Fallujah, Iraq, a compound used by the U.S. military from 2003 to 2009 Master encryption key, a type of key in cryptography Methyl ethyl ketone or butanone, a solvent, used also to weld some plastics Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase, an important enzyme in biochemical MAPK/ERK pathways Mu Epsilon Kappa Society, an organization of anime clubs Meelo Evaru Koteeswarudu, a Telugu television show Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár or Hungarian Electronic Library, a digital library Mojahedin-e Khalq or People's Mujahedin of Iran, an exiled Iranian organization Mobile Einsatzkommandos, German police special units Mek, variant of Makk, a royal title used in the Sudan Language and nationality disambiguation pages	[ 0.2413831204175949, 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247159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina%20Beach	Marina Beach	Marina Beach is a natural urban beach in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, along the Bay of Bengal. The beach runs from near Fort St. George in the north to Foreshore Estate in the south, a distance of , making it the longest natural urban beach in the country. The Marina is primarily sandy, unlike the short, rocky formations that make up the Juhu Beach in Mumbai. The average width of the beach is and the width at the widest stretch is . Bathing and swimming at the Marina Beach are legally prohibited because of the dangers, as the undercurrent is very turbulent. It is one of the most crowded beaches in the country and attracts about 30,000 visitors a day during weekdays and 50,000 visitors a day during the weekends and on holidays. During summer months, about 15,000 to 20,000 people visit the beach daily. History Before the 16th century, there were frequent incident of inundation of land near the coast due to rise in sea level. When the sea withdrew, several ridges and lagoons were left behind. On the southern side of Fort St. George, one such sand ridge ran from the mouth of the Cooum River to the present site of the Presidency College. On the rear side of the ridge was a huge depression on which the college grounds were later developed. The ridge is the site of the present-day beach. When Fort St. George was built in 1640, the sea was too close to the fort. The building of the harbour near the fort resulted in sand accretion to the south of the fort and the harbour and the sea, which was washing the ramparts of the fort, moved afar at about 2.5 km away from the fort creating a wide beach between the land and the sea. Before the Madras harbour was built, the beach was just a strip of mud, teeming with mudskippers. The beach washed up close to the present day road for a long time until the harbour was built in 1881. Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff, the governor of Madras from 1881 to 1886, who was captivated by the beach on an earlier visit to the city in the late 1870s, conceived and built the promenade along the beach in 1884 by extensively modifying and layering with soft sand. He also gave it the name Madras Marina in the same year. Since the early 19th century, a number of public buildings were constructed fronting the beach. Ever since the harbour was built, the area south of the port has accreted significantly, forming the present day's beach mainly due to the presence of wave breakers laid for the construction of the harbour, although the coast in the northern region has undergone severe erosion. Eventually, the north-drifting current widened the beach to its present extent. The beach was formed as a result of arresting the littoral drift by the port's breakwater. The area of the beach is increasing 40 sq m every year due to progradation. Since the creation of the promenade in 1884, there were several additions along the stretch. The country's first aquarium was established as one of the first additions in 1909. Shortly after the Independence, the Triumph of Labour statue and the Gandhi statue in 'march to Dandi' stride, which has been duplicated on the lawns of the Parliament House, were erected on the beach. In 1968, a number of statues of icons of Tamil literature was erected to mark the first World Tamil Conference, including Avvaiyar, Tiruvalluvar, Kambar, Subramania Bharathiyar, Bharathidasan, the European Bishop Caldwell, G. U. Pope and Veeramamunivar. Anna memorial was built in 1970 and the MGR memorial in 1988, shortening the stretch at its northern end. Later addition was a statue for Kamaraj. In December 2016, the then chief minister of Tamil Nadu J. Jayalalithaa was also buried here, inside the M.G.R. Memorial campus and a foundation stone for construction of a memorial for her there has been laid. On 8 August 2018, former chief minister of Tamil Nadu M. Karunanidhi was buried beside his mentor Annadurai at the Marina Beach. Ecology Environment The Marina beach was famed for its pristine beauty, jolly ambiance, and rich ecosystems. However, since the middle of the 20th century, the beach and water have become polluted. Proliferation of plastic bags, human waste, and other pollutants have rendered many parts of the beach unusable. In recent years, many voluntary organisations have taken up the task of cleaning up the Marina and protecting the ecosystem. Particular efforts include protection of olive ridley turtle nests along the Neelankarai section of the beach. Flora and fauna Marina Beach lies on the stretch of coast where olive ridley sea turtles, a species classified as Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (critically endangered), nest during mating season, chiefly between late October and April peaking from mid-January to mid-February. The Ennore–Mamallapuram zone, on which the beach lies, is one of the three major nesting grounds on the Indian coast. However, with the expansion of the shrimp trawling fishery in the eastern coast of India in the mid-1970s, several individuals of the species are washed ashore dead every year. The eggs laid by the females along the beach are also sold in the local market by the fishermen and traders. In 1977, a recovery programme was started by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute. Many volunteer organisations in the city, such as the Students' Sea Turtle Conservation Network and the Sea Turtle Protection Force of the TREE Foundation, get involved in conservation of the species along the coast. Meiofaunal composition at the Marina Beach chiefly includes turbellarians, nematodes, polychaetes, oligochaetes, and harpacticoids. Species of gastrotrichs are also found in the region. Common fishes found along the beach include mullets, sharks, silver bellies, rays, ribbon fish, skates, whitebait, dussumieria, Jew fish, horse mackerel, crabs, seer, pellona, pomfret, perches, lactarius, lethrinus, flying fish, engraulis, sardines, lobsters, sabre fish, barracuda, hilsa, tunny fish, Indian salmon, leather jackets, cookup, breams, catfish, snappers, synagris, bonito, soles, polynemus, and prawns, among others. Dimensions and characteristics The Marina is a natural urban sandy beach along the Coramandel coast on the Bay of Bengal. Primarily sandy, the beach spans about , running from near Fort St. George in the north to Besant Nagar in the south and is the longest natural urban beach in India. The average width of the beach is and the width at the widest stretch is . Infrastructure and activities Marina beach is a major tourist attraction of the city. People visiting Chennai make a point to visit the beach. It is also the main place for the local people to escape from the summer heat. The beach is popular for its shops and food stalls run by about 500 shops run by about 1,212 vendors. The memorials and statues, morning walk, joggers' track, lovers' spot, aquarium, and the like make it a hangout for people of all ages. Kite flying and beach cricket are common sports at the beach, and there are also facilities for pony rides. Beach cricket at the Marina dates back several decades. However, Chennai City Police has banned it at different points due to its interference with traffic and beach walkers. The sea is generally rough and waves are strong. There are fishermen colonies present at both ends of the beach. There are also joyrides, merry-go-rounds and mini giant wheels along the stretch, although they are installed without permission from any government agency. There are two swimming pools along the stretch—the Marina swimming pool and the Anna swimming pool. The Marina swimming pool was built in 1947 and is located on a 1.5-acre compound opposite the Presidency College. The pool is 100 m long and 34 m wide, bigger than the standard Olympic pool size of 50 m × 25 m and is deep. The shallow end is 3.5 feet deep. It is maintained by Corporation of Chennai. It underwent renovation in 1994 and 2004. On an average, the swimming pool receives 1,500 people. During the summer months of April and May, the footfall is goes up to 2,500 people. As of 2018, there were 30 staff in the pool and six surveillance cameras. The Anna swimming pool is located opposite the clock tower building of the University of Madras and virtually remains hidden behind the Anna Square bus terminus. The pool is said to be the first Olympic size pool to be built in Tamil Nadu. It was constructed in 1976 with a diving board. However, the diving board was removed later during a renovation. The pool is deep. It also has a toddler pool that is . Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu (SDAT) conducts regular coaching camps at the pool. The oval-shaped skating arena at the beach has an outer railing and standing area for people to watch from. As part of the 'Chennai Forever' initiative by the Tamil Nadu government, a tall, artificial waterfall was installed in September 2005 at a cost of 1.5 million. A visitor centre near the Cooum River mouth on the Marina, similar to the Marina Barrage Visitor Centre in Singapore and San Antonio Visitor Center in the United States, has been planned as part of an initiative to create awareness of the need for clean waterways. In 2008, two floating fountains with spray height of 100 feet with colour lights for night view were planned to be installed in sea waters off the beach. In 2010, the Chennai Corporation procured new cleaning equipments to clean the beach at a cost of 8.011 million. These included a sand-cleaning machine capable of cleaning 15,000 m2 area in an hour procured at a cost of 3.267 million, three skid steer loaders to clean narrow lanes commissioned at a cost of 2.652 million, imported lawn mower, ride-on mechanical sweeper, tree pruner and hedge trimmer. An automatic ticket-vending machine at a cost of 170,000 was also commissioned at the Marina swimming pool for managing the crowd. The corporation also planned to construct two more public conveniences at the beach. About 150 corporation staff, including a junior engineer, maintains the lawns and service lanes on the beach. As of 2013, the 3.1-km stretch of the beach from the Triumph of Labour statue to the lighthouse has 31 high-mast lamps. According to police statistics, about 5,000 people use the 2-km-long Loop Road daily for their morning walk. As of 2017, there were 1,544 vendors on the beach, which increased to 1,962 by 2019. In 2019, the Corporation decided to restrict the licensed vendors to 900. There are toilets at six locations across the stretch and about 175 sanitary workers deployed at the beach on shift basis. The beach had facility to park 2,271 two-wheelers, 457 cars, and 80 vans and buses. Structures along the beach Being the city's primary area for recreation, the entire stretch features numerous statues and monuments that have come up over the years along the beach promenade, called Kamaraj Salai. While the beach stretches along the eastern side of the road, the western side is dotted with various governmental institutions and historic and stately buildings from the British rule all along its length. Victory War Memorial, a memorial for the warriors who lost their lives in the World Wars, marks the northern end of the beach. Memorials for C. N. Annadurai, M. G. Ramachandran, J. Jayalalithaa and M. Karunanidhi, former chief ministers of Tamil Nadu, are present on the northern end of the promenade known as the Anna Square. As of May 2018, a Lilliputian Children's Traffic Park was under construction near the Anna Memorial adjacent to the Anna Swimming Pool at a cost of 20.7 million. The traffic park measures 4,140 square meters, with facilities such as a viewing gallery, walking track, children's play area, traffic sign boards, and a riding track. All along the length of the promenade, stone statues adorn the roadside area of the beach starting from the Triumph of Labour statue, the first statue erected in the beach, near the memorials at the Anna Square to Mahatma Gandhi statue near the lighthouse. Most statues are of national or local legends while others have symbolic significance like the Triumph of Labour statue. The statues along the promenade are (from north to south): Robert Caldwell (erected on 2 January 1968) Kambar (erected on 2 January 1968) Ilango Adigal (erected on 7 November 1971) Triumph of Labour (erected on 25 January 1959) Bharathiyar (erected on 2 January 1968) Kannagi statue (erected on 2 January 1968/re-erected on 3 June 2006) Subhas Chandra Bose (erected on 15 December 1997) Thiruvalluvar (erected on 2 January 1968) George Uglow Pope (erected on 2 January 1968) Annie Besant Bharathidasan (erected on 2 January 1968) Swami Vivekananda (erected on 12 July 1964) Avvaiyar (erected on 2 January 1968) Mahatma Gandhi (erected on 14 April 1959) Veerama Munivar (erected on 2 January 1968) Kamaraj Periyar E. V. Ramasamy Earlier present near Gandhi statue traffic island was a statue for Sivaji Ganesan, which was erected on 21 July 2006. Following a court order, it was shifted on 3 August 2017 to a newly built memorial at Adyar. The other side of the road houses several historical buildings and institutions including the Chepauk Cricket Stadium, the University of Madras, the Presidency College, Vivekananda House, Queen Mary's College, Inspector General of Police Headquarters, All India Radio—Chennai, Dr. Annie Besant Park. Renovation In February 2008, the Chennai Corporation, previously known as The Madras Corporation, took up the Marina Renovation Project with improved landscaping, seating arrangements, walkways, and lighting along the promenade, and architectural elements such as plazas, gazeboes, and pergolas were installed all along the stretch including 4 m-wide non-slippery granite footpaths near the service lane, another 5 m-wide footpath, and 15 m-wide lawns. The blueprint of the renovation project included ornamental fountains, exclusive parking lots for two- and four-wheelers, a children's play area, bus shelters, ramps for physically challenged, and food courts. The whole length of the stretch from Triumph of Labour Statue to the Lighthouse measuring 3.1 km has been divided into 14 harmonious landscaped galleries dotting its span, each with an element of drama attached to the design in the form of small theatre-type galleries where visitors can sit. All the 14 sections vary significantly from one another and were designed in such a way as to the differentiation of sections not leading to any break in the walkway, which is a continuous walking stretch from the Triumph of Labour Statue to the Kamaraj Statue. One of these galleries is flanked by two semi-circular stainless-steel pergolas resting on wire-cut brick columns. The galleries can accommodate over 1,000 people. The choice of natural stones and pillars used in each section of the promenade was based on the type of the buildings on the other side of the road. The walkway was designed as low-lying as is necessary to have a clear view of the beach from the road. A total of 428 octagonal poles with seagull-shaped light fittings and additional high-mast lamps have been erected. Ten modern stainless steel bus shelters have been erected near the beach. There is a skating rink behind the Gandhi Statue which has been improved with hand rails and tiles on the periphery under the project. A total of 14 galleries with seating arrangements and a 4-m internal walkway along the sands and fountains have been created on the stretch from the Anna Square to the Lighthouse. This stretch has uninterrupted pavement and a sub-road parallel to the main road. Five reverse osmosis plants capable of providing 30,000 litres of drinking water an hour free of cost to visitors is under construction. As part of the beautification project, the decade-old 250-watt lamps were replaced with 690 anti-corrosive lamps along Kamaraj Salai and the service road. The renovation was completed in December 2009 at a cost of 259.2 million. Although initially the corporation planned to outsource security personnel to protect the renovated structures, the plan was dropped and about 50 corporation staff were employed to man the stretch. In 2009, a 4.5-km-long stretch along the beach was announced plastic-free zone, prohibiting the sale and use of plastic. In November 2010, the corporation imposed a fine of 100 on the usage of plastic items that are less than 20 µm thick on the entire stretch. Within a couple of years since the ban, the use of plastics on the beach was reduced by 70 percent. In 2012, the government allotted 89 million for the renovation of the memorials of Anna and MGR. This include 12 million and 43 million towards renovation of Anna Memorial and MGR Memorial, respectively, 34 million towards additional construction at the MGR Memorial. In 2012, the corporation allotted 48.4 million for installing two high-mast lamps, a police watchtower, and a giant chess board and an interactive fountain in the children's play area. This also includes relocation of the shops to specific locations on the sand at a cost of 41.2 million. In 2017, plans to revamp the beach under the Swadesh Darshan scheme of the Indian government at a cost of 500 million have been drawn. Safety measures and policing The Marina continues to remain the most dangerous place to bathe or swim, recording the highest number of drownings in the state of Tamil Nadu. Bathing and swimming are illegal at Marina beach since the undercurrent in the region is very strong, and there are no lifeguards stationed here. As many people throng the beach, quite often there are drowning mishaps. An estimated five sea-bathers are drowned every month at the beach, and most of the swimmers are dragged by the tides into the debris of a tramp ship SS Damatis that sank off the beach during a cyclone in 1966. Police personnel and lifeguards constantly patrol the whole area, which is divided into seventy-two sections, by means of horses and all-terrain vehicles (known as beach buggies). Five spots off the beach, including near the Anna Square, Kannagi Statue, Triumph of Labour Statue and behind Vivekananda House, have been identified by the police as extremely unsafe due to the presence of whirlpools and rock projections in the seabed. In 2010, 75 people drowned in the sea along the 5-km stretch of the beach. Of this, the 1-km stretch from Anna Square to the Anna swimming pool is considered the most dangerous with as many as 29 persons drowning in the sea in 2010. The deep sea in this stretch is considered to still hold parts of the smacked ship. In 2011, in addition to the tie-up with Coast Guard security personnel, the city police planned for a tie-up with the fire and rescue services department to provide a stand-by rescue team at the beach to save people from drowning. The rescue team, equipped with a rubber boat and a motor-fitted boat, was planned to be stationed at the Anna Square police station or the Marina police station. The law-enforcing agencies is planning to bring the beach under close watch by means of two watchtowers and at least a dozen surveillance cameras. The Chennai Corporation has agreed in principle to create the security infrastructure based on a proposal sent by the Greater Chennai Police. The watchtowers are proposed to be erected behind the Triumph of Labour statue and the Gandhi statue. In August 2012, the government sanctioned six more all-terrain vehicles for patrolling the beach. In December 2012, in a measure to regulate parking and to control the entry of vehicles into the beach, the Chennai Corporation decided to install drop gates at seven entry points on the beach's service lane, including near the PWD Building, Subash Chandra Bose statue, Dr. Annie Besant statue, Vivekanandar Illam, Avvaiyar statue, Veeramamunivar statue and the lighthouse. Despite intensive patrolling, illegal bike races and night races are also held along the stretch, resulting in public nuisances and, at times, death of the racers. Controversies With a length of 13 km, including a 6 km promenade, the Marina is considered the world's second longest urban beach, although there exist in fact several longer beaches, including Praia do Cassino (254 km) in Brazil, Cox's Bazar (120 km) in Bangladesh, Padre Island on the U.S. Gulf Coast, Ninety Mile Beach in Australia and Ninety Mile Beach (88 km) in New Zealand. However, unlike most beaches, Marina is a natural sandy urban beach similar to the Copacabana beach in Rio de Janeiro, helping it earn the title. In December 2001, the Kannagi statue, which was erected in 1968 on the occasion of a World Tamil Conference held in Chennai, was removed for traffic maintenance reason as part of modernisation of the beach, which led to a huge protest and demonstration by the opposition Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party. When the DMK later came to power, the statue was installed in the same place on 3 June 2006 by the DMK party chief M. Karunanidhi. On 9 August 2003, an open-air stage located 350 ft from the sea on the sands of the Marina called Seerani Arangam, constructed in 1970, which was used by religious groups and political parties to address gatherings, was demolished by the state government in order to modernise the beach. This spot was a place where rallies were held for the freedom movement during the British Raj, and the stage was considered a symbol of the historical events that had taken place in the Marina. This created a great controversy. Incidents In 1966, a tramp ship SS Damatis sank near the Marina due to a cyclone in the region. The beachfront was severely damaged by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The tsunami waves, caused due to an M 9.2 magnitude earthquake at about 257 km south-southeast of Banda Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia, on the Indian Ocean floor on 26 December 2004 at 6.20 am IST, struck the beach, which is about 2028 km North West from the epicentre, at 8.40 am IST. The reported height of the tsunami waves at the beach was 6 m which washed away about 206 persons on the beach, most of whom were morning joggers and children playing cricket on the beach, including a few tourists. With the assistance of the World Bank, the government built 2,000 temporary Marina beach shelters each measuring about 250 sq.ft. to house families affected by the tsunami at a cost of 172.3 million. However, in 2012, new houses for residents of tenements on the Marina Beach was planned to be taken up under a Disaster Preparedness Project of the state government. As a visible change in the beach immediately after the tsunami, the intertidal area was much flatter on 27 December 2004, which usually featured a gentle slope. However, the usual slope started to appear 4 days after the tsunami and normal profile was restored in about 15 days. The receding wave after the tsunami lasted for more than 24 h. Post tsunami, there was a distinct variation in the distribution of sand grains in the beach until the 4th day. However, from the 5th day after the tsunami, normal composition of sand grains appeared to have been restored at different depths. The tsunami also resulted in various geomorphological changes in the region such as those in the contour of the 2,000 km-long Burma Plate, which sits atop the India plate, resulting in a rise in the land level of Chennai, ranging between 0.5 cm and 3 cm. Following the tsunami, there was a distinct increase in the meiofaunal density in the beach. Various meiofauna found in the beach after tsunami include foraminiferans (Elphidium sp.), cnidarians (Halammohydra sp., Psammohydra sp.), turbellarians (Otoplana sp., Macrostomum sp.), nemertines, nematodes (Halalaimus setosus, Desmodora sp., Chromadora sp., Sabatieria sp., Steineria sp., Metapselionema sp.), gastrotrichs (Chaetonotus sp., Thaumastoderma sp.), rotifers, kinorhynchs (Cateria sp.), polychaetes (Hesionides sp.), archiannelids (Polygordius madrasensis, Saccocirrus minor), oligochaetes (Marionina sp.), harpacticiod copepods (Arenosetella indica, Psammastacus acuticaudatus, Leptastacus euryhalinus, Emertonia minuta, Sewellina reductus), ostracods (Polycope sp.), isopods (Angeliera phreaticola), halacarids (Halacarus sp.), insects, and various other species. Marina Beach was also the venue of the 2017 pro-Jallikattu protests. The mass gathering of more than a million people in protest of the ban on the traditional bull-riding sport Jallikattu at the Marina beach in Chennai for 10 consecutive days turned several eyes on the city's beach from across the nation. The leader-less movement grew much bigger as protests began in other cities across the country and later by Tamils in 15 countries including United States of America, UK, China, Japan and Singapore. The protest came to end only after the ban was revoked after the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 was amended by the state government to allow the sport. Events Being the most prominent open space in the city, the Marina Beach hosts several events throughout the year. The annual Independence Day and the Republic Day ceremonial parades and airshows are held along the promenade along with the unfurling of the national flag in the Marina. The annual idol-immersion event following the Hindu festival of Vinayaka Chathurthi takes place at the beach where most of the idols of Lord Ganesh kept on display during the festival in the city is immersed into the sea. The event occurs in the month of August–September. The beach is also the venue for several marathon and walkathon campaigns throughout the year conducted for various cause. The beach receives the maximum number of visitors on the Kannum Pongal day, a day in the festival season of Pongal in mid-January, when about 150,000 people come to the beach. The annual Chennai Marathon managed by Chennai Runners is held in the beach starting from the Anna Square to Annai Velankanni Church on the Elliot's Beach in Besant Nagar. It is India's biggest city marathon and is also said to be South India's richest marathon, in which over 1,000 athletes and more than 20,000 people participate, which includes various categories such as a 21-km run for professional athletes, a city run for everybody, a junior run for children, a master's run for senior citizens and a wheelchair run for the disabled. From 2016, the Marina Runnerz Marathon managed by Marina Runnerz Running Group is held every year in the last weekend of February, this event prides itself on promoting running along Marina Beach, the second longest Urban beach in the world. In 2008, the beach played host to India's first International Beach Volleyball Championship, BSNL FIVB Chennai Challenger:2008, from 15 to 20 July to popularise beach volleyball. The event was organised by the Beach Volleyball Club and was sponsored by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited. Eleven Indian teams along with 60 teams from 21 countries participated in the 6-day-long tournament offering a total prize money of US$40,000 in the men's and US$6,400 in the women's events. In March 2016, "My leader" campaign was launched in this historical place. The main focus of this event was to attract youngsters to take up politics. Transportation Kamaraj Salai, a six-lane road and one of the arterial roads of Chennai City, runs alongside the beach providing a sea view starting from the Victory War Memorial near the Cooum River delta till the lighthouse to the south. The road extends further south beyond the lighthouse where it is known as the 'Santhome High Road', running away from the sea but parallel to the beach till Santhome. The Metropolitan Transport Corporation has a terminus called the 'Anna Square' terminus at the northern end of the beach, Triplicane Terminus near Kannagi statue/Pycrofts Road, Vivekananda House (Ice House) Terminus and Foreshore Estate terminus. Railway stations alongside the beach include the Chepauk, the Tiruvallikeni and the Lighthouse MRTS railway stations. The Poonamallee–Lighthouse (Line 4) section of the Chennai Metro (Phase II) under construction will connect the beach with other parts of the city. There was a plan to build a 9.7-km elevated road along the beach connecting the lighthouse with the East Coast Road in the south at a cost of 10,000 million. However, the plan was dropped due to opposition from the public such as the 'Save Chennai Beaches' campaign. Legacy Although the beach promenade was created in 1884, the sandy shore has been mentioned in the literature much earlier. The beach shore has a mentioning in the verse no. 2297 of the 4000 Divya Prabandham written by Peyalwar. The verse, dating back to 7th century CE, was written in Tamil, and it says that the sea was so rich with white waves bringing to the shore very precious gems like red corals and white pearls and that the light of the dusk (moonlight) falls on these gems at the shore and makes the area brightened with beautiful colours. Grant Duff, the governor of Madras who developed the beach promenade, recalls in his memoirs: Grant Duff christened it the Madras Marina in 1884, the same year when the beach promenade was created, on which he explains in a letter: In New India, the newspaper that was run by Annie Besant, the Irish theosophist and Home Rule advocate, the beauty of Marina Beach was described back in 1914. On 6 October 1914, Anne Besant wrote, She also added that Madras Future developments In January 2014, the corporation announced a makeover of the 2.8-km stretch on the southern part of the beach from Lighthouse to Foreshore Estate, including development of walkways, benches, a gallery, bicycle tracks, concrete roads, service trenches, rainwater trenches and streetlight fittings at an estimated cost of 400 million. The development would provide alternative accommodation to vendors of the existing market on the Marina Loop Road by commissioning of a modern fish market on the stretch. The loop road connecting the Lighthouse and Foreshore Estate, which is currently a 20-metre-wide road, will be converted to a four-lane concrete road barricaded on both sides with stainless steel pillared railings and will pass all along the Santhome coast of the Marina Beach. A 2.4-metre-wide bicycle track, a 3.3-metre-wide walkway and a 2.5-metre-wide gallery will be developed on the eastern side of the road. The western side of the road will have a fish market with cold storage facilities as well as a walkway. The corporation also plans to develop more than 300 heritage pillars, each 1.2 metres tall, on the western side of Kamaraj Salai opposite the beach. The uniformly designed heritage pillars will be made of granite and iron on the stretch from All India Radio to Swami Sivananda Salai. The pillars would replace the existing walls of various institutions to improve aesthetics around the beach. In 2018, the Corporation revealed plans to make the beach disabled-friendly. As of 2019, the Greater Chennai Corporation was exploring the feasibility of conducting water sports on the Marina beach. In popular culture Marina Beach has been featured in numerous Tamil movies, including the 2012 Tamil movie Marina that is entirely based upon the lives of child workers in the beach. The entire story and screenplay for the comedy hit film Kadhalikka Neramillai were conceived on Marina Beach and the "Enna Paarvai" song sequence in the film was filmed in this beach. See also Elliot's Beach Golden Beach List of beaches in India References Further reading External links Tourist attractions in Chennai Beaches of Tamil Nadu Geography of Chennai	[ 0.15226046741008759, -0.5852172374725342, 0.28063446283340454, -0.15410345792770386, 0.9794395565986633, -0.24298396706581116, -0.053470853716135025, -0.03982370346784592, -0.3688527047634125, -0.5589559674263, -0.6142995357513428, 0.1053861454129219, -0.013404428027570248, 0.6297527551651001, 0.041388172656297684, 0.1812487095594406, 0.15935572981834412, 0.07669796794652939, 0.353663831949234, -0.021636994555592537, -0.3094523847103119, -0.5326296091079712, -0.11125287413597107, 0.1806463897228241, -0.19351711869239807, -0.04016110673546791, 0.8091259598731995, 0.7464424967765808, -0.05541055276989937, -0.0617438368499279, 0.1484357714653015, -0.19277679920196533, -0.3307807147502899, -0.08831773698329926, 0.27065855264663696, -0.4420183300971985, -0.034011110663414, -0.39022260904312134, 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247160	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MKO	MKO	MKO may refer to: ISO 639:mko or Mingang Doso, a language of Nigeria Mojahedin-e-Khalq Organization, Iran Mauna Kea Observatories, Hawaii Münchener Kammerorchester, Munich chamber orchestra IATA code for Davis Field airport, Muskogee, Oklahoma Mary-Kate Olsen, American designer and businessperson Markona railway station, Odisha, India MKO Abiola (1937–1998), Nigerian businessperson	[ 0.033127281814813614, 0.28835391998291016, -0.1647251397371292, -0.1889781504869461, 0.21545250713825226, 0.46179458498954773, 0.5012293457984924, 0.2640683054924011, -0.5909000635147095, -0.08278574794530869, -0.6277483701705933, -0.2820083498954773, -0.5319089889526367, 0.40716180205345154, 0.19894824922084808, 0.28523650765419006, 0.34340593218803406, 0.4486899673938751, -0.25867512822151184, -0.47694674134254456, 0.04760441184043884, 0.12716315686702728, 0.2926757037639618, 0.3129886984825134, 0.1549161672592163, 0.10259132832288742, 0.24383480846881866, 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247162	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional%20Municipality%20of%20York	Regional Municipality of York	The Regional Municipality of York, also called York Region, is a regional municipality in Southern Ontario, Canada, between Lake Simcoe and Toronto. The region was established after the passing of then Bill 102, An Act to Establish The Regional Municipality of York in 1970. It replaced the former York County in 1971, and is part of the Greater Toronto Area and the inner ring of the Golden Horseshoe. The regional government is headquartered in Newmarket. The 2021 census population was 1,173,334, with a growth rate of 5.7% from 2016. The Government of Ontario expects its population to surpass 1.5 million residents by 2031. The largest settlements in York Region include Markham, Vaughan and Richmond Hill. History At a meeting in Richmond Hill on May 6, 1970, officials representing the municipalities of York County approved plans for the creation of a regional government entity to replace York County. The plan had been presented in 1969 by Darcy McKeough, the Ontario Minister of Municipal Affairs, taking about a year to determine municipal boundaries within the new regional government. The Regional Municipality of York was created by Act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1970 (Bill 102 An Act to Establish The Regional Municipality of York), which took effect on January 1, 1971. The creation of the regional municipality resulted in the consolidation of the fourteen former municipalities of York County into nine new municipalities: The township of Whitchurch merged with the town of Stouffville to create the town of Whitchurch–Stouffville, ceding land to Aurora, Newmarket, and Richmond Hill to the west of the proposed Highway 404 and annexing a northern strip of land from the township of Markham. The western boundary of the new town of Markham was defined to be at Yonge Street, where its northern boundary was formed with Richmond Hill (to which it ceded land) and its western boundary with the new town Vaughan. The new town of Vaughan would consist of all communities in the area bounded by Markham and Richmond Hill in the east, Metro Toronto in the south, the periphery of the regional municipality in the west, and the new township of King in the north. The townships of Georgina, North Gwillimbury, and Sutton were merged into the township of Georgina, and the East Gwillimbury neighbourhood of East Gwillimbury Heights was merged into Newmarket. King formed the northwestern part of the new region, but the eastern lot from Bathurst Street to Yonge Street was ceded to Newmarket, Aurora, and Oak Ridges, the last of which became a part of Richmond Hill. The boundary between Aurora and Newmarket was defined to be St. John's Sideroad, and Newmarket's northern boundary was defined to be Green Lane. The towns of Aurora, Newmarket, and Richmond Hill were defined to be the growth centres for the regional municipality, which was to become a greenbelt between the denser urban areas of Toronto to the south and Barrie to the north. The growth centres were each restricted to grow to a maximum population of 25,000 by 2000, and the regional municipality to 300,000. The municipal realignment merged 40% of East Gwillimbury's population into Newmarket. The council of East Gwillimbury voted to amalgamate with Newmarket, but Newmarket council opposed the amalgamation. In the plan presented by McKeough, the councils of the towns of Newmarket and Aurora were given ten years to decide whether or not to amalgamate. The internal municipal realignments resulted in some politicians residing in a new municipality from that which they represented at the time of realignment. The reeve of Whitchurch Township resided in the western portion of the town that was annexed by Aurora, three East Gwillimbury councillors resided in land annexed by Newmarket, including its future mayor Ray Twinney, and King councillor Gordon Rowe was a resident of Oak Ridges, which became part of Richmond Hill. Hydro Commissions Because of the mix of urban and rural areas in the Region, the provision of electricity was governed in a different manner from the rest of the regional services: the hydro-electric commissions and public utilities commissions that existed at the end of 1970 continued to provide electricity within their respective areas; the councillors of the former Township of Vaughan and the trustees of the former Police Village of King City became members of new Hydro-Electric Commissions for their respective areas; Ontario Hydro continued to have responsibility for providing electricity to those portions of the Region that were not served by any of the above commissions. Electric distribution was partially rationalized in 1978, when: hydro-electric commissions were established for all area municipalities except East Gwillimbury (but it could establish a commission later on, subject to Ontario Hydro's consent); effective January 1, 1979, all assets of the former commissions in the Region were transferred to the new commissions; Ontario Hydro withdrew its provision of services from all areas except those in East Gwillimbury, Georgina, King and Whitchurch-Stouffville; Georgina, King and Whitchurch-Stouffville could take over responsibility for such areas at a later date, subject to Ontario Hydro's consent Police The York Regional Police was also created at this time, amalgamating the fourteen town, township, and village police forces. Geography York Region covers 1,762 square kilometres from Lake Simcoe in the north to the city of Toronto in the south. Its eastern border is shared with Durham Region, to the west is Peel Region, and Simcoe County is to the northwest. A detailed map of the region showing its major roads, communities and points of interest is available. Towns and cities in York Region include: Town of Aurora Town of East Gwillimbury Town of Georgina Township of King City of Markham Town of Newmarket City of Richmond Hill City of Vaughan Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville There is also one First Nation with an Indian reserve, where the Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation reside on Georgina Island, Fox Island and Snake Island. York Region's landscape includes farmlands, wetlands and kettle lakes, the Oak Ridges Moraine and over 2,070 hectares of regional forest, in addition to the built-up areas of its municipalities. The highest point in the region is within the rolling hills of the moraine near Dufferin St. & Aurora Side Road at 360m ASL (1,243 feet) Climate York Region is situated in the humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) zone with warm summers and cold winters, ample snowfall, more in the northern part of York region much of it derived from the wind driven snowbelt streamer activity. Government The region is governed by York Regional Council, which consists of 20 elected representatives from each of the constituent towns and cities in the region. These include each of the nine mayors, and 11 regional councillors who are elected from the constituent municipalities as follows: 1 from Georgina 1 from Newmarket 2 from Richmond Hill 3 from Vaughan 4 from Markham The leader of Council is referred to as "Regional Chair and CEO". Wayne Emmerson, a former mayor of Whitchurch-Stouffville, was elected to this office in December 2014. In October 2008, York Regional Municipality was named one of Greater Toronto's Top Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc. Federal and provincial representation Starting with the 2015 federal election, York Region encompasses all or part of the federal electoral districts of Aurora—Oak Ridges—Richmond Hill, King—Vaughan, Markham—Stouffville, Markham—Thornhill, Markham—Unionville, Newmarket—Aurora, Richmond Hill, Thornhill, Vaughan—Woodbridge, and York—Simcoe. Provincially, York Region is represented in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario by Members of Provincial Parliament for the electoral districts of Aurora—Oak Ridges—Richmond Hill, Markham—Unionville, Newmarket—Aurora, Markham—Thornhill, Markham—Stouffville, Richmond Hill, Thornhill, King—Vaughan, Vaughan—Woodbridge, and York—Simcoe. Economy The economy of York Region is diverse. In general, the economy includes a full range of businesses from industrial to high-tech to rural/agricultural. New developments continually consume space year after year, and tend to be focused along the Yonge Street corridor from Vaughan/Richmond Hill in the south to Newmarket/Aurora in the north. There are ongoing conflicts between conservationists and developers over land use. Most contentious is the conflict use of the Oak Ridges Moraine. Shopping Major shopping centres in York Region include: Aurora North Smart Centre (Aurora) Hillcrest Mall (Richmond Hill) Green Lane Centre (East Gwillimbury) King Square Shopping Mall (Markham) Markville Shopping Centre (Markham) Pacific Mall (Markham) The Promenade Shopping Centre (Vaughan) Times Square (Richmond Hill) Langham Square (Markham) Upper Canada Mall (Newmarket) Woodside Mall (Markham) Vaughan Mills (Vaughan) First Markham Place (Markham) Demographics The 2021 census population by Statistics Canada was 1,173,334 residents. It is the third-largest census division in Ontario, next to that of Toronto and Peel Region, and seventh-largest in Canada. Its population density of 585.9 residents per square kilometer is the 11th highest in Canada. In the 2016 Canadian census, English is the mother tongue of 47.6% of the residents of York Region. Cantonese is the mother tongue for 9.9% of the population, followed by Mandarin (7.2%), Italian (5.0%), Russian and Persian (3.4% each). The most common ethnic and pan-ethnic origins in the Regional Municipality of York were as follows: Health care There are currently three hospitals within the Municipality of York including: Markham Stouffville Hospital Mackenzie Richmond Hill Hospital Southlake Regional Health Centre All three hospitals are part of the Local Health Integration Network (LHIN) Hospital Partnerships. In 2011 the construction of Mackenzie Vaughan Hospital was approved by the Minister of Health and Long-Term Care, Deb Matthews. The hospital site is proposed within the City of Vaughan at Major Mackenzie Drive on the east side of Highway 400. Current plans include a new $80 million building. Boomerang Health, in Vaughan, is a centre that provides multidisciplinary rehabilitation and medical services geared specifically for children and adolescents, in collaboration with The Hospital for Sick Children. Transportation The arterial road network in York Region is a grid, with most roads running north–south or east–west. This was done under the orders of British surveyor Augustus Jones during the 1790s. York Region assigned approximately 50 roads as York Regional Routes, meaning that the cost of maintaining of these roads is paid for by York Region. The major highways in the Region are: Highway 7 (east-west) Highway 9 (east-west) Highway 48 (north-south) Highway 400 (north-south) Highway 404 (north-south) Highway 407 (east-west) Highway 427 (north-south) Former highways include: Highway 11 (north-south) Highway 27 (north-south) Highway 47 (east-west) Highway 49 (east-west) Highway 50 (north-south) Note: Highway 27 and Highway 50 are still referred to as such on municipal road signs, but are no longer provincial highways. Air transportation Most air travel is served by Toronto Pearson International Airport, which is outside of York Region and is Canada's largest airport. Buttonville Municipal Airport is a regional airport in Markham, used for general aviation and business aircraft. There are also a few unpaved airports serving the region: Hare Field in Holland Landing (East Gwillimbury), Belhaven Airport in Georgina, and Stouffville Aerodrome north of Stouffville. Public transportation York Region is served by: York Region Transit (YRT), which includes the Viva bus rapid transit network GO Transit, which offers bus and train service Toronto Transit Commission (TTC), which has several bus routes which cross York's southern border, and which provide service along many north–south arterial streets in Vaughan, Richmond Hill and Markham. Since December 17, 2017, Vaughan has been served by the University portion of the Line 1 Yonge-University of Toronto's subway system, and a future extension of the Yonge Street portion of the line will eventually serve Richmond Hill and Markham. Until 2001, the towns of York Region operated separate public transit services, which did not connect very well with each other. YRT was created by the Regional Government to combine five of these services: Vaughan Transit Markham Transit Richmond Hill Transit Aurora Transit - merged in 1999 with Newmarket Transit Newmarket Transit Since 2001, bus routes have been extensively enhanced in the five communities which had pre-existing services, but YRT's services to East Gwillimbury is limited to two routes, and service to King, Georgina and Whitchurch-Stouffville are even more limited due to the relatively small populations in each of those towns. Water Water in southern York is provided by Toronto Water and Peel Region by way of 3 pumping stations and reservoirs (Bayview, Dufferin and Milliken (tank and underground reservoir)) using water from Lake Ontario. Keswick and Sutton obtain water from Lake Simcoe by way of water treatment plants. The remainder of York obtains water from a combination of water from Lake Ontario and underground wells. Some wells are maintained by the Region and the rest privately. Georgina -water from Lake Simcoe and private wells East Gwillimbury - region and private wells Newmarket - region wells and water from Lake Ontario Whitchurch-Stouffville - Region wells, water from Lake Ontario, private wells Markham - water from Lake Ontario and private wells Richmond Hill - water from Lake Ontario and private wells Aurora - water from Lake Ontario and private wells Vaughan - water from Lake Ontario and private wells King - water from Lake Ontario, Region and private wells Water is distributed from 14 water pumping stations and stored at 37 elevated tanks and reservoirs: List of water tanks Reesor Park water tank - built 1971, now out of service and dismantled Newmarket - 211 Harry Walker Parkway South Richmond Hill - 81 Coons Road Schomberg - 186 Church Street, built 1997 King - 60 Fisher Street, built 1982 Stouffville - 12519 Tenth Line, built 1984 Stouffville - Bethesda Rd, built 2005 Aurora - 126 Allenvale Drive, 240 Orchard Heights Boulevard, built 1984 Aurora - 180 Bloomington Road, built 2008 Markham - 4355 14th Avenue Treatment Plants Sutton Water Treatment Plant - closed Georgina Water Treatment Plant - replaces Sutton plant Keswick Water Treatment Plant Schomberg Water Treatment Plant Education Four public school boards operate primary and secondary institutions in York Region, Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir (CSCM), Conseil scolaire Viamonde (CSV), the York Catholic District School Board (YCDSB), and the York Region District School Board (YRDSB). CSV and YRDSB operate as secular public school boards, the former operating French first language institution, whereas the latter operated English first language institutions. The other two school boards, MonAvenir and YCDSB, operate as public separate school boards, the former operating French first language separate schools, the latter operating English first language separate schools. YRDSB is the largest public school board in the region, operating 175 elementary schools, and 33 secondary schools. YCDSB operates 83 elementary schools, and 15 secondary schools, while MonAvenir operates five elementary schools, and two secondary schools. CSV is the smallest public school board in the York Region, operating three elementary schools, and one secondary school in the region. Along with public schools, the region also holds a number of religious and private schools including: As-Sadiq Islamic School (Vaughan) Academy for Gifted Children (Richmond Hill) Country Day School (King) Holy Trinity School (Richmond Hill) Leo Baeck Day School (Vaughan) Ner Israel Yeshiva College (Vaughan) Netivot HaTorah Day School (Vaughan) Pickering College (Newmarket) St. Andrew's College (Aurora) St. Thomas of Villanova College (King) Town Centre Montessori Private School (Markham) Toronto Waldorf School (Vaughan) In addition to primary and secondary levels of education, the region is also home to post-secondary institutions such as Seneca College. The college operates three campuses spread throughout York Region, in King, Markham and Newmarket, as well as additional campuses in Toronto. The region presently does not host a university. News media York Region Media Group CKVR - CTV Two (based in Barrie) CFU758 - 90.7 RAV FM (Vaughan) CKDX 88.5FM - Foxy 88-5 (Newmarket) CFMS-FM - 105.9 The Region (Markham) CIWS-FM - WhiStle Community Radio Whitchurch–Stouffville York's news media is also served by the outlets based in Toronto. Attractions York Region has an unusual assortment of points of interest, ranging from nature reserves to pioneer-era museums, to a modern amusement park. Vaughan's major attractions include the McMichael Canadian Art Collection, in the community of Kleinburg, that features works by Canadian artists including Inuit and First Nations artists. Canada's Wonderland, which features roller coasters and other rides, concerts and fireworks shows, is also in Vaughan. Heritage sites and historical museums in the Region include: Hillary House National Historic Site (Aurora) Historic Main Street Newmarket (Newmarket) Georgina Military Museum (Georgina) Georgina Village Museum (Georgina) King Township Museum (King) Markham Museum (Markham) RHLS Narrow Gauge Railway (Whitchurch–Stouffville) Sharon Temple National Historic Site (East Gwillimbury) Whitchurch-Stouffville Museum (Whitchurch–Stouffville) York-Durham Heritage Railway (Whitchurch–Stouffville) Following is a sample of other attractions in the area: Applewood Farm Winery (Whitchurch–Stouffville) Canadian Heritage Humber River Fred Varley Art Gallery (Markham) Canada's Wonderland (Vaughan) Oak Ridges Trail Puck's Farm (King) Richmond Hill Centre for the Performing Arts Sutton-Zephyr Trail Willow Springs Winery (Whitchurch–Stouffville) Words Alive Literary Festival (East Gwillimbury) Bare Oaks Family Naturist Park (East Gwillimbury) York Demonstration Forest (Whitchurch–Stouffville) Travel Region York Region lies within the Central Counties of Ontario, a tourism related association. Protected areas Baker Sugarbush Conservation Area Boyd Conservation Area Bruce's Mill Conservation Area Duclos Point Provincial Nature Reserve Gold Creek Conservation Area Holland Landing Prairie Provincial Nature Reserve Kortright Centre for Conservation Lake St. George Conservation Area Mabel Davis Conservation Area Milne Park Pickering Lands Preservation Site Rogers Reservoir Conservation Area Sheppards Bush Conservation Area Sibbald Point Provincial Park Thornton Bales King Conservation Area Wesley Brooks Memorial Conservation Area (known as "Fairy Lake" locally) Whitchurch Conservation Area Willow Beach Conservation Area Sister city Omsk (Russia) The Region of York signed a "Twinning Agreement" with the city of Omsk, Russia, on August 28, 1997, after it signed a "Friendship Agreement" one year previous. Adjacent census divisions See also List of municipalities in Ontario Greater Toronto Area Province of Toronto List of secondary schools in Ontario#Regional Municipality of York References External links 1971 establishments in Ontario Populated places established in 1971 York	[ -0.5944648385047913, -0.05730350688099861, 0.4177626967430115, 0.23809517920017242, -0.18682332336902618, 0.38835397362709045, -0.17489919066429138, 0.6862096190452576, 0.14270497858524323, -0.7603086233139038, -0.1658533811569214, -0.1661970615386963, 0.5435399413108826, 0.03698841482400894, -0.5295876860618591, 0.8812707662582397, -0.6043842434883118, 0.6205114722251892, -0.5502380132675171, -0.7602264881134033, -0.16658835113048553, -0.6122634410858154, 0.048163220286369324, 0.7046862244606018, -0.1056753471493721, 0.554247260093689, 0.8965557813644409, 0.0549812838435173, -0.4024723768234253, 0.29049816727638245, -0.6271356344223022, 0.21345624327659607, -0.019726375117897987, -0.2603711187839508, 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247163	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Uruguay	Music of Uruguay	The most distinctive music of Uruguay is to be found in the tango and candombe; both genres have been recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Uruguayan music includes a number of local musical forms such as murga, a form of musical theatre, and milonga, a folk guitar and song form deriving from Spanish and italian traditions and related to similar forms found in many American countries. Folk music Charrúa people used wooden drums, hornpipes, flutes, seashells to play music. Other folk musical instruments are marimba and musical bow. Uruguayan tango Tango has been recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The modern field of tango music and dance arose in Buenos Aires, Argentina as well as Montevideo. Carlos Gardel, the great tango singer, was born in France and raised in Buenos Aires, but in 1920 after becoming famous he registered his birthplace as being in Tacuarembó, Uruguay, probably to avoid problems with French authorities during an upcoming tour of France. Other Uruguayan tango musicians, among the most important names, were director Francisco Canaro and his violinist Modesto Ocampo. Also the singer Julio Sosa. One of the best-known tangos in the world, "La Cumparsita", was written by Uruguayan composer Gerardo Matos Rodríguez. Modern tango includes the late poet Horacio Ferrer, who contributed lyrics to several of the most important tango works by Argentinian composer Astor Piazzolla; celebrated singer-songwriter Malena Muyala and Valeria Lima. As did Piazzolla, Uruguayan composer Miguel del Aguila has also elevated tango to the classical music level in chamber and orchestral works like Concierto en Tango (Grammy nominated 2015), Tango Trio, Salon Buenos Aires (Grammy nominated 2010), Disagree! and many other works. The Uruguayan-Argentinian band Bajofondo is a multi-award winning project which aims to create a more contemporary version of tango and other musical styles of the Río de la Plata region. Juan Campodónico's Campo consists of a mix of musical styles, including tango, which released album was nominated for a MTV Europe Music Awards, the Grammys, and Latin Grammys. Candombe Candombe has recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Candombe originates from the Río de la Plata, where African slaves brought their dances and percussion music. The word tango then referred to the traditional drums and dances, as well as the places where dancing occurred. Candombe rhythms are produced by drum ensembles, known as cuerdas, which include dozens of drummers and feature three drum sizes: tambor repique, tambor chico and tambor piano, known as tambores de candombe. Popular candombe musicians include Hugo Fattoruso and Rubén Rada. Fattoruso has been a longtime part of both the Uruguayan and Latin American music scene, including as a member of rock band Los Shakers, and swing band The Hot Blowers, as well as Brazilian Milton Nascimento and the Latin jazz and Acid Jazz group Opa. It was in the 1970s the most important Latin band in the United States according to the magazine Down Beat. The Afro-Uruguayan rhythm Candombe has played a significant role in Uruguayan culture for over 200 years. The rhythm is created by the use of three drums (tambores); tambor piano, tambor chico and tambor repique. The piano is the largest in size and the lowest in pitch of the three tambores. The rhythmic base of Candombe, its function similar to that of the upright or electric bass. The chico (literally "small") is the smallest in size and highest in pitch of the three tambores, serving as the rhythmic pendulum. The tambor repique (ricochet) embellishes Candombe's rhythm with improvised phrases. Each of the three tambores is played with an open hand (mano) and a stick (palo) in the other. At a minimum, one of each of the three tambores must be present. The purest form of Candombe takes place each Sunday night on the streets of Montevideo, where many drummers assemble, playing their drums under the moonlit sky. Isla de Flores is the main street that joins Cuareim and Ansina, Candombe's two main social groups. For over a century spontaneous cuerdas have paraded on this street, and continue to do so today (Isla de Flores is also known by its other name, Carlos Gardel). As the cuerda slowly makes its way through the narrow streets of Montevideo, this contagious rhythm takes with it all in its path, surrounded on all sides by the neighborhood people moving their bodies to the rhythm of Candombe. At intervals the cuerda will pause, and by setting a fire, will heat their drums' skins for tuning purposes. Milonga The milonga was an Argentine/Uruguayan style of song that was popular in the 1870s. The milonga was derived from an earlier style of singing known as the 'payada de contrapunto'. The song was set to a lively tempo, and often included musical improvisation. Over time, dance steps and other musical influences were added, eventually giving rise to the tango. Milonga music is still used for dancing, but the milonga dancing of today is derivative of tango. Murga Murga is a kind of Montevidean musical theatre for Carnival celebrations. A traditional murga group comprises a chorus and three percussionists and this is the type of murga performed on stages at Carnival. The singers perform in harmony using up to five vocal parts. Vocal production tends to be nasal and loud with little variation in volume. The percussion instruments, derived from the European military band, are the bombo (a shallow bass drum worn at the waist and played horizontally), redoblante (snare drum) and platillos (cymbals). The two most important pieces of the performance are the opening song (saludo) and the exit song (retirada or despedida). Popular music Canto popular Canto popular (popular song), which arose around 1975, eschewed contemporary instrumentation, including electric instruments, allowing only native styles and rhythms. This can be compared to Spanish-language singer-songwriter developments like nueva canción, nueva trova and tropicalismo. Daniel Viglietti was by far the most important Uruguayan exponent of canto popular; his song "A Desalambrar" became an international popular classic. Canto popular peaked in about 1977. Uruguayan artists involved in canto popular include Alfredo Zitarrosa, El Sabalero and Los Olimareños. Candombe beat Candombe beat began in the late 1960s with El Kinto, a band featuring Ruben Rada and Eduardo Mateo. Emerging at the same time as Los Shakers they forged their own identity with very little Western influence. The beat of candombe formed the rhythm, bossa nova played a large role in its chords and structure, as did traditional Uruguayan folk music. Mateo and Rada would both go on to have successful solo careers, and the music's influence would play a large role in Popular Music and Uruguayan rock. Totem was the most important group of Candombe Beat in the early 1970s. One of the later exponents of candombe beat was Jaime Roos whose popularity in Uruguay began in the 1970s and has continued through to the 21st century. Cumbia By mid-2015, the Uruguayan bands Rombai and Márama of the emerging subgenres "cumbia cheta" and "cumbia pop" enjoyed great success all over Latin America even before publishing their first albums; particularly in their home country and in Argentina, where in a given moment they had together nine songs at the Spotify Top Ten ranking. Other Uruguayan bands of success are: Toco Para Vos, VI-EM, Toco Para Bailar and Golden Rocket. Uruguayan rock Rock and roll first broke into Uruguayan audiences with the arrival of British band The Beatles in the early 1960s. A wave of bands appeared in Montevideo, including Los Shakers, Los Mockers, Los Iracundos and Los Malditos, who became major figures in the so-called Uruguayan Invasion of Argentina. With the coming of the military dictatorship in 1973, the Uruguayan rock scene effectively died; since the mid-1980s it has resurged. Since the beginning of the 2000s Uruguayan rock has achieved a great popularity. Popular bands like La Vela Puerca, No Te Va Gustar, El Cuarteto de Nos, La Trampa or Buitres have a massive following in the Southern Cone. Annual festivals throughout the country like Pilsen Rock in Durazno, Semana de Lavalleja and Minas & Abril in Minas, or Semana de la Cerveza in Paysandú, peaked more than 100,000 people several years with some of those groups as closing guests. Other important bands are: Trotsky Vengaran, Hereford, Once Tiros, Bufón, La Triple Nelson and La Tabaré. Classical music The modern conductors Gisele Ben-Dor and Carlos Kalmar are renowned in their field. Abel Carlevaro, a classical guitar virtuoso performer is worldwide known for having established a new school of instrumental technique. Among the best-known composers of Uruguay we find Eduardo Fabini, Miguel del Aguila, Luis Cluzeau Mortet and Hector Tosar. There are several classical orchestras performing countrywide. The SODRE (acronym for "Official Service for broadcasting Radio, TV, and Performing Arts") is the main institution generating cultural activities for the whole country. Created in 1929, it manages a symphonic orchestra, a chamber music and ballet ensembles, a choir, among others. Among its past artistic directors, was the Uruguayan classical composer, Pedro Ipuche Riva. Montevideo's City Hall has several orchestras performing classical as well as popular music, like the Orquesta Filarmónica de Montevideo. Other genres The Oscar-winning singer-songwriter Jorge Drexler has a prolific career, mostly on the Latin rock genre. Luciano Supervielle has collaborated with him, as well as with Juan Campodónico and is a member of Bajofondo. Since 1997 La Teja Pride (stylized as latejapride* or ltp*) is an alternative hip hop band/collective from Montevideo. In the 1990s El Peyote Asesino was also a prominent hip-hop band, and Plátano Macho also ventured into rap. Goodfellas also known as 'Buenos Muchachos' is an alternative rock band from Montevideo. Latin rock band Abuela Coca alongside Chala Madre are the most representative reggae bands; both also mix ska and rock. Santé Les Amis is a six-member project, born in 2007 in Montevideo, leading the electronic, disco punk and rock pop music in the country. Fede Graña & Los Prolijos developed polka, folk rock and funk. Reytoro is a thrash and heavy metal band. Meanwhile, the metal band Cuchilla Grande defines its style as "metal criollo". The singer-songwriter Pablo Sciuto has a long history and prolific career, working together with important artists in the world. 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247165	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiara	Tiara	A tiara (from , from ) is a jeweled, ornamental crown traditionally worn by women. It is worn during formal occasions, particularly if the dress code is white tie. History Today, the word "tiara" is often used interchangeably with the word "diadem", and tiara is often translated to a word similar to diadem in other languages. Both words come from head ornaments worn by ancient men and women to denote high status. As Geoffrey Munn notes, "The word 'tiara' is actually Persian in origin—the name first denoted the high-peaked head-dresses of Persian kings, which were encircled by 'diadems' (bands of purple and white decoration). Now, it is used to describe almost every form of decorative head ornament." Ancient Greeks and Romans used gold to make wreath-shaped head ornaments, while the Scythians' resembled a stiff halo that would serve as the inspiration for later Russian kokoshniks. The use of tiaras and diadems declined along with the decline of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity. Late 18th century-present In the late 18th century, Neoclassicism gave rise to a revival of tiaras, but this time it was a solely female adornment. Jewelers taking inspiration from Ancient Greece and Rome created new wreaths made from precious gemstones. Napoleon and his wife Joséphine de Beauharnais are credited with popularizing tiaras along with the new Empire style. Napoleon wanted the French court to be the grandest in Europe and had given his wife many parures which included tiaras. Queen Elizabeth II is said to have the largest and most valuable collection of tiaras in the world, many of which are heirlooms of the British royal family. She is often seen wearing them on state occasions. The Queen inherited many of them, especially from Queen Alexandra. Queen Mary purchased the Grand Duchess Vladimir tiara in the 1920s. It consists of numerous interlocking diamond circles. Pearl drops can be attached inside the circles or emeralds. Queen Mary had a tiara made for the Delhi Durbar held in 1911 in India. It is now on loan for wearing by the Duchess of Cornwall, wife of Charles, Prince of Wales. Queen Elizabeth II commissioned a ruby and diamond tiara. A gift of aquamarines she received as a present from the people of Brazil were added to diamonds to make a new tiara. Other queens, empresses, and princesses regularly wear tiaras at formal evening occasions. The Swedish Royal Family have a collection as do the Danish, the Dutch, and Spanish monarchies. Many of the Danish royal jewels originally came into the collection when Princess Louise of Sweden married the future King Frederick VIII of Denmark. The Romanov dynasty had a collection up until the revolution of 1917. The Iranian royal family also had a large collection of tiaras. Since the Iranian Revolution, they are housed at the National Jewelry Museum in Tehran. Although usually associated with women of reigning and noble families, tiaras have been worn by commoners as well, especially rich American socialites like Barbara Hutton. Tiaras are generally a semi-circular or circular band, usually of precious metal, decorated with jewels and are worn as a form of adornment. (On rare occasions, usually when the actual tiara is exceptionally old and valuable due to its history, gemstones and previous ownership, realistic copies may be made and worn in place of the original due to insurance considerations.) Tiaras are worn by women around their head or on the forehead as a circlet on very formal or high social occasions. Tiaras are frequently used to "crown" the winners of beauty pageants. During the Victorian Age in the United States, tiaras were being seen on non-royal ladies of means. By the 1920s, the tiara and similar tiara headbands became popular in the United States. They were worn not only with formal ballroom gowns, but became popular with the flappers and their parties. Costume jewellery tiaras Tiaras made of plastic, rhinestones, Swarovski crystals, or any other non-precious material are considered costume jewelry. They are worn by women on special occasions such as homecoming or prom and at their quinceañera (fifteenth birthday) or wedding. They are also worn by the winners of beauty pageants and children dressing up as Disney princesses. Stage and screen Tiaras are often worn by actresses in film, plays, and television. In 2013, Cartier created a replica of the ruby and diamond tiara they had originally made in 1956 for Princess Grace of Monaco for the film Grace of Monaco, starring Nicole Kidman. See also Aigrette Circlet Civic crown Coronet Crown Diadem Elizabeth II's jewels Headband Laurel wreath Liangbatou Military tiara Mural crown Papal tiara The Swedish Royal Family's jewelry Tainia References External links The Royal Collection tiaras of Queen Elizabeth II Crowns (headgear) Types of jewellery	[ 0.27263712882995605, -0.23037998378276825, -0.12451208382844925, 0.3846474885940552, 0.02159898541867733, -0.12859968841075897, 0.5868951082229614, -0.07064547389745712, -0.4296393096446991, 0.09894219785928726, -0.5477467775344849, 0.6336215138435364, -0.3734782338142395, 0.6846569180488586, -0.3602471947669983, 0.14572574198246002, 0.3862593173980713, 0.8363819122314453, -0.05697450041770935, -0.389544278383255, -0.20753800868988037, -0.026451067999005318, 0.4324648082256317, -0.09781111776828766, 0.939994215965271, -0.02526240237057209, 0.1697801947593689, -0.2641538381576538, 0.3466832935810089, 0.37043824791908264, -0.04540810361504555, 0.3041272759437561, 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247166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Carlucci	Frank Carlucci	Frank Charles Carlucci III ( ; October 18, 1930 – June 3, 2018) was an American politician and diplomat who served as the United States Secretary of Defense from 1987 to 1989 in the administration of President Ronald Reagan. He was the first Italian American to serve as in that position. Carlucci served in a variety of senior-level governmental positions, including Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity in the Nixon administration, Deputy Director of the CIA in the Carter administration, and Deputy Secretary of Defense and National Security Advisor in the Reagan administration. Early life Carlucci was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the son of Roxann (née Bacon) and Frank Charles Carlucci, Jr., an insurance broker. His father was of Italian and Swiss descent. His grandfather was from Santomenna, Italy. After graduating from Wyoming Seminary in 1948, Carlucci attended Princeton University, where he roomed with Donald Rumsfeld. Carlucci graduated with an A.B. from the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University in 1952 after completing a 153-page senior thesis, "Two American Businesses in Costa Rica." He then attended Harvard Business School for an M.B.A. in 1954–1955. He was an officer in the US Navy from 1952 to 1954. He joined the US Foreign Service and worked for the US State Department from 1956 to 1969. Early career In 1961, Carlucci was the second secretary at the US Embassy in the Congo. During that time, Patrice Lumumba, the first prime minister of independent Congo, was killed in January 1961 during the Congo Crisis. According to subsequently-released US government documents, US President Dwight Eisenhower ordered the CIA to eliminate Lumumba. Minutes of an August 1960 National Security Council meeting confirm that Eisenhower told CIA chief Allen Dulles to "eliminate" the Congolese leader. The official notetaker, Robert H. Johnson, testified to that before the Senate Intelligence Committee in 1975. However, subsequent investigations indicate that Lumumba was ultimately executed by an order of a political rival, Moïse Tshombe, who led the State of Katanga, with Belgian assistance. According to Robert B. Oakley, Carlucci befriended the future Congo Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula in 1959-1960, who was then a Congolese Member of Parliament. According to James Schlesinger, Adoula began a White House meeting with President John F. Kennedy with the question "" ("Where is Carlucci?"). Kennedy first responded, "Who the hell is Carlucci?" He then sent Dean Rusk to find him. Oakley added that that instance was "the beginning of Carlucci's meteoric rise!" A fictionalized 2000 biopic, Lumumba, directed by Raoul Peck, portrayed Carlucci as being involved during his service in Congo in the murder of Lumumba. Carlucci furiously denied the claims and successfully went to court to prevent his being named in the film when it was released in the United States. Service in presidential administrations In 1969, when US President Richard Nixon persuaded U.S Representative Donald Rumsfeld to leave his seat to become the director of the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), the agency created by Sargent Shriver to fight Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty, Rumsfeld had Carlucci transferred to OEO from the State Department to head up the Community Action Program. Carlucci was Undersecretary of Health, Education and Welfare when Caspar Weinberger was secretary during the Nixon administration. Carlucci became Ambassador to Portugal and served in that position from 1974 to 1977. He was remembered in Portugal among the winners of the coup of 25 November 1975. The Carlucci American International School of Lisbon, the oldest American school in the Iberian Peninsula, is named after him. Carlucci was Deputy Director of the CIA from 1978 to 1981, under Director Stansfield Turner. Department of Defense Carlucci was United States Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1981 to 1983. He served as United States National Security Advisor from 1986 to 1987, where he appointed Colin Powell, later his successor, as US Deputy National Security Advisor. Carlucci became US Secretary of Defense in 1987 after Caspar Weinberger resigned for being involved in the Iran-Contra Affair. Carlucci served in that position until the end of the Reagan administration, on January 20, 1989. Carlucci was notable during the administration for advocating an arms build-up to hasten the end of the Cold War, a policy that Reagan followed. Later life Business Carlucci served as chairman of the Carlyle Group from 1992 to 2003 and chairman emeritus until 2005. He had business interests in the following companies: Ashland Global Holdings, General Dynamics, Westinghouse, Neurogen, CB Commercial Real Estate, Nortel, BDM International, Quaker Oats, and Kaman. Carlucci was at one time a director of the private security firm Wackenhut and was a co-founder and senior member of the Frontier Group, a private-equity investment firm. Carlucci was an advisory board member of G2 Satellite Solutions and the Chairman Emeritus of Nortel Networks. Organizations Carlucci was affiliated with the Project for the New American Century (PNAC), a conservative think tank. He was Chairman Emeritus of the US-Taiwan Business Council after he had been been Chairman from 1999 to 2002; he was succeeded in 2003 by William Cohen. Carlucci was a member of the Board of Trustees of the RAND Corporation and was a founding co-chair of the Advisory Board for RAND's Center for Middle East Public Policy. He was also a member of the Honorary Board of the Drug Policy Alliance, a group that advocates drug legalization. Personal life and death Carlucci was married to Billie Jean Anthony from 1954 until the couple divorced in 1974. They had two children. Carlucci was later married to Marcia McMillan Myers from 1976 until his death. They had one daughter. Carlucci died on June 3, 2018, from complications of Parkinson's disease, at his home in McLean, Virginia, at the age of 87. Honors Grand-Cross of the Order of Prince Henry, Portugal (November 24, 2003) References External links Foreign Service Journal article on his Lifetime Contributions to American Diplomacy Award. 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247167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendant	Pendant	A pendant is a loose-hanging piece of jewellery, generally attached by a small loop to a necklace, which may be known as a "pendant necklace". A pendant earring is an earring with a piece hanging down. Its name stems from the Latin word pendere and Old French word pendr, both of which translate to "to hang down". In modern French, pendant is the gerund form of pendre ("to hang") and also means "during". The extent to which the design of a pendant can be incorporated into an overall necklace makes it not always accurate to treat them as separate items. In some cases, though, the separation between necklace and pendant is far clearer. Overview Pendants are among the oldest recorded types of bodily adornment. Stone, shell, pottery, and more perishable materials were used. Ancient Egyptians commonly wore pendants, some shaped like hieroglyphs. Pendants can have several functions, which may be combined: Award (i.e., Scouting Ireland Chief Scout's Award, Order of CúChulainn) Identification (i.e., religious symbols, sexual symbols, symbols of rock bands) Ornamentation Ostentation (i.e., jewels). Protection (i.e., amulets, religious symbols) Self-affirmation (i.e., initials, names) The many specialized types of pendants include lockets which open, often to reveal an image, and pendilia, which hang from larger objects of metalwork. Types Throughout the ages, pendants have come in a variety of forms to serve a variety of purposes. Amulet Though amulets come in many forms, a wearable amulet worn around the neck or on the arm or leg in the form of a pendant is the most common. These are objects believed to possess magical or spiritual power to protect the wearer from danger or dispel evil influences. Talisman Similar to an amulet, a talisman is an object believed to possess supernatural traits. However, while an amulet is strictly a defensive object, a talisman is meant to confer special benefits or powers upon the wearer. Locket A locket is a small object that opens to reveal a space which serves to hold a small object, usually a photograph or a curl of hair. They typically come in the form of a pendant hanging from a necklace, though they will occasionally be hung from a charm bracelet. Medallion A medallion is most often a coin-shaped piece of metal worn as a pendant around the neck or pinned onto clothing. These are generally granted as awards, recognitions, or religious blessings. Painting Pendant is the name given to one of two paintings conceived as a pair. Functional pendants Tools worn as pendants include Maori pounamu pendants. Shepherd's whistles, bosun's whistles, and ocarinas can also be made as pendants. Portable astronomical and navigational instruments were made as pendants. In the first decade of the 21st century, jewellers started to incorporate USB flash drives into pendants. Fashion pendants Fashion pendants include a small creative piece often made from precious or non-precious stones and metals like diamonds or pearls hanging freely from a chain or necklace. These are generally worn as a statement piece or a fashion ornament. Other types Harness pendant See also Boule de Genève Petit chien à bélière References Jewellery components Necklaces Types of jewellery	[ 0.6355673670768738, -0.12510383129119873, -0.26182296872138977, 0.2834452986717224, -0.17532840371131897, -0.030551934614777565, 0.2654590606689453, -0.14079314470291138, -0.3968733847141266, -0.07715332508087158, -0.8231977820396423, 0.21057817339897156, -0.08656927943229675, 0.3337368667125702, -0.5282145142555237, 0.2997865676879883, 0.7050899267196655, 0.49216359853744507, -0.24765703082084656, -0.2747388184070587, -0.5713810324668884, -0.12450818717479706, -0.07707412540912628, -0.12381549179553986, 0.5542340874671936, 0.28654906153678894, 0.15160490572452545, -0.15240724384784698, 0.0013287662295624614, -0.12933851778507233, 0.37087249755859375, 0.5394492745399475, 0.2731972634792328, -0.32465603947639465, 0.09442608058452606, -0.424347847700119, 0.13600634038448334, -0.7131142616271973, -0.3646858334541321, -1.1031562089920044, 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247169	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Argentina	Music of Argentina	The music of Argentina includes a variety of traditional, classical and popular genres. One of the country's most significant cultural contributions is the tango, which originated in Buenos Aires and its surroundings during the end of the 19th century and underwent profound changes throughout the 20th century. Folk music was particularly popular during the 20th century, experiencing a "boom" in popularity during the 1950s and 1960s thanks to artists such as Atahualpa Yupanqui and Mercedes Sosa, prominent figures of the Nuevo cancionero movement. In the mid-to-late 1960s, the countercultural scene of Buenos Aires originated Argentine rock (known locally as rock nacional, Spanish for "national rock"), considered the earliest incarnation of Spanish-language rock for having an autochthonous identity that differed from that of England or the United States. It was widely embraced by the youth and since then has become part of the country's musical identity as much as traditional music. According to the Harvard Dictionary of Music, Argentina also "has one of the richest art music traditions and perhaps the most active contemporary musical life. Folk music Folk music—called música folklórica or folklore in Spanish, from the English folklore—comes in many forms, developed in different parts of Argentina with different European and indigenous influences. Among the first traditional folk groups to record extensively in Argentinia, three of the most influential were from the northwest: Los Chalchaleros from the Province of Salta Los Fronterizos also from the Province of Salta and the Ábalos brothers from Santiago del Estero Province. Becoming nearly instant successes following their first albums around 1950, they inspired a revival of the genre in Argentinia. The folklorists Sixto Palavecino, Jorge Cafrune, Facundo Cabral and the folkloric group known as Los Manseros Santiagueños, as well as Los Nocheros are included in the genre. Between 1960 and 1974, Leda Valladares created a documentary series, known as the Mapa musical argentino (Musical Map of Argentina), taping traditional folk music throughout the country. The recordings she made were funded by the National Endowment of the Arts and directed by Litto Nebbia for Melopea Records. A famous soloist in the genre is guitarist Eduardo Falú, known for the many compositions that set traditional poetry into music. Traditional folk music became increasingly important during the protest movement against the military dictatorship and the community divisions of the 1970s, with artists like Mercedes Sosa and Atahualpa Yupanqui, contributing to the development of nueva canción. Soledad Pastorutti ('La Sole') has brought folklore to a new audience, and in the early 21st century Juana Molina has proposed a fusion between electronic music and folklore with ambient sounds, a gentle voice and short zambas. In 2004 the album Cantor de Cantores, of Horacio Guarany was candidate to the Latin Grammy Award for Best Folk Album. Notable Folk Music Festivals A well-known venue for Argentine folklore music, the Cosquín National Folklore Festival, has been gathering musicians from the genre annually since 1961. A modest event at first, the festival has grown to include folk musicians from neighboring countries and Asia, as well as from throughout Argentina, itself. Focusing on folklore music, the festival nevertheless features talent from the worlds of tango, acoustic music and international culture. On the same time of year is made the Cosquín Rock festival. Cosquín National Folklore Festival typically includes representatives from all musical genres created or developed in Argentina: Variations of Argentine Folk Music By Region Andean music In northern Argentina, on the borders with Bolivia and Chile, the music of the Andes reflects the spirit of the land with the sounds of local wind, percussion and string instruments. Jaime Torres is a famous Argentine/Bolivian charango player. Chacarera Originating in Santiago del Estero, this folk music is accompanied by Spanish guitars and bombo legüero. The name originates from the word "chacra" ("farm"), as it was usually danced in rural areas, but it slowly made its way to the cities of that area. It is one of the few Argentine dances for couples where the woman has an equal opportunity to show off. Chamamé Accordion-based Chamamé arose in the northeastern region (provinces of Corrientes, Chaco, Formosa & Misiones) a mostly mestizo area with many settlers from Poland, Ukraine and Germany. Polkas, Mazurkas and waltzes came with these immigrants, and soon mixed with the Spanish music already present in the area. Chamamé was not very popular internationally in the 20th century, though some artists, such as Argentine superstar Raúl Barboza, became popular later in the century. In the early 21st century Chango Spasiuk, a young Argentine of Ukrainian descent from Misiones province, has once again brought chamamé to international attention.The main basis of all the music of this area on the banks of the Paraná River is its roots in the music of Paraguay across the water. Popular music Tango Tango arose in the brothels, bars and port areas of Buenos Aires, where waves of Europeans poured into the country mixing various forms of music. The result, tango, came about as a fusion of disparate influences including: old milonga – songs of the rural gauchos (originating in Andalucia) habanera – Cuban music polka and mazurka – Slavic music contradanse – Spanish music flamenco – from Andalucia Italian folk music That combination of European rhythms, brought to Argentinia and Uruguay by traders and immigrants, developed into the swinging milonga around 1900. The milonga quickly became the popular dance of Buenos Aires and slowly evolved into modern tango; since 1930, tango has changed from a dance-focused music to one of lyric and poetry, thanks to vocalists like Carlos Gardel, Roberto Goyeneche, Hugo del Carril, Tita Merello, Susana Rinaldi, Edmundo Rivero and Ignacio Corsini, was equally well known as a folk singer. The golden age of tango (1930 to mid-1950s) mirrored the golden age of Jazz and Swing in the United States, featuring large orchestral tango groups, too, like the bands (known as "Orquestas típicas") led, in particular, by Francisco Canaro, Julio de Caro, Osvaldo Pugliese, Aníbal Troilo, Juan d'Arienzo, and Alfredo De Angelis. After 1955, as the Nueva canción and Argentine rock movements stirred, tango became more intellectual and listener-oriented, led by Ástor Piazzolla's new tango. Many of the musicians that helped Piazzolla promote nuevo tango went on to develop important careers of their own, like violinist Antonio Agri, fellow bandoneón virtuosi José Libertella and Rodolfo Mederos and pianists Horacio Salgán and Pablo Ziegler, who earned a 2005 Grammy Award. Today, tango continues to produce new exponents, has experienced a major revival, and the rise of neo tango is a global phenomenon with groups like Tanghetto, Bajofondo and Gotan Project. In May 2019, the first Orquesta típica in the United States of America, Típica Messiez, debuted in a live performance at the Lincoln Center in NY. The 10 instrument Orquesta plays original and traditional tango music. Rock and roll Argentine rock and roll is commonly known as Argentine rock or Rock Nacional (national rock). In common use, the term includes also rock and pop from Uruguay, due to the common culture, and the existence of many bands with members of both nations (for example, the website Rock.com.ar lists many bands from Uruguay, and YouTube playlists of Argentine rock commonly include bands from both countries). Though the Rock Nacional usually includes hard core bands, in general terms it incorporates the following genres: Pop; (Virus, Los Abuelos de la Nada, Fito Páez), Ska; (Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Los Auténticos Decadentes), Reggae; (Los Pericos), Funk; (Sumo), Country; (Sui Generis, Las Pastillas del Abuelo, Pedro y Pablo, León Gieco) and Blues; (Manal, Memphis La Blusera). Argentine rock & pop in English language; (Triddana, Octafonic, Maxi Trusso, Siamés). 1960s At the time (late 60s), popular music was a style called ritmo latino, a mainstream pop genre. Bohemian hangouts in Buenos Aires and Rosario were the cradles of the genre, relying heavily on British rock influences, but in the mid-1960s musicians began exploring local musical roots, creating a local sound. Musicians like Litto Nebbia of Los Gatos began recording their own kind of rock. Los Gatos' "La balsa", released early in their year, established the distinctive sound of Argentine rock. In 1967, in the city of Quilmes, formed one of the most important bands in the history of Argentine rock and roll: Vox Dei. 1970s By 1970 Argentine rock had become established among middle class youth (see Almendra, Pescado Rabioso and Sui Generis). In the 80s, Argentine rock bands became popular across Latin America and elsewhere (Serú Girán, Soda Stereo, Virus, Rata Blanca, Enanitos Verdes, Riff, Charly García). From that decade become a staple of popular culture with many cultural/social styles: underground, mainstream oriented, some associated with: the working class (La Renga, Los Violadores, Hermética, Divididos, Attaque 77, Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota) and underclass youth (Viejas Locas, 2 Minutos, Flema, Jóvenes Pordioseros, Intoxicados, La 25, Los Gardelitos). 1980s and 1990s Argentine rock and roll was the most listened-to music among youth in the late 80s and 90s; its influence and success has expanded internationally owing to a rich and uninterrupted evolution. Popular bands and solo singers include Charly García, Indio Solari, Xavier Moyano, Skay Beilinson, Fabiana Cantilo, Andrés Ciro Martínez, Andrés Calamaro, Javier Calamaro, Sandra Mihanovich, Litto Nebbia, Juanse, :es:Pequeña Orquesta Reincidentes, La Renga, Vox Dei, Enanitos Verdes, Las Pelotas, Horcas, Los Tipitos, Carajo, Tren Loco, Jauría, Cabezones, Jóvenes Pordioseros, Kapanga, Guasones, Divididos, Attaque 77, La 25, Pez, El Otro Yo, Los Auténticos Decadentes, Casi Justicia Social, Rata Blanca, Mancha de Rolando, Viejas Locas, La Beriso, Intoxicados, Estelares, Árbol, Catupecu Machu, Almafuerte, Malón, Bersuit Vergarabat, Massacre Palestina, 2 Minutos, Los Piojos, Él Mató a un Policía Motorizado, Salta la Banca, Alejandro Toledo, Cadena Perpetua, In Corp Sanctis, Enanitos Verdes, Banda de Turistas, Los Frenéticos, The Tormentos, The Broken Toys, Satan Dealers, Pelea de Gallos, Valle de Muñecas, Autopista, normA, Bôas Teitas, Los Barreiro, Los Primitivos, El Violinista del Amor & los Pibes que Miraban, Chillan Las Bestias, Crema del Cielo, Thes Siniestros, Los Lotus, The Hates, The Vulcanos, Cuadros Invitados, Error Positivo, Fantasmagoria, Los Acetones, Viaje an Ixtlan, Agente Naranja, Satélite Kingston, The Tandooris, Gram D Mori, The Jacqueline Trash, Los Alamos, Rubin y Los Subtitulados, Sick Porky, Hacia Dos Veranos, Caballeros de la Quema, Turf, Ciro y los Persas. Former bands include Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota, Soda Stereo, El Reloj, Pescado Rabioso, Serú Girán, Invisible, Los Gatos, Callejeros, Almendra, Los Violadores, Riff, V8, Ratones Paranoicos, A.N.I.M.A.L., Hermética, Latorre. Popular Argentine rock musicians include Charly García, Gustavo Cerati, Andrés Calamaro, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Indio Solari, Litto Nebbia, Fito Páez and Pappo. 2000 Electronic Argentine electronic music experienced a surge of popularity in the 1990s. Rocker Gustavo Cerati switched to electronica in 1999. Electronic dance parties and shows like Creamfields BA are favorites among thousands. Prominent electronica DJs include veteran Diego Ro-K, Hernán Cattáneo who has played Burning Man, and drum and bass star Bad Boy Orange. Indietronica bands like Entre Ríos have also become popular. Bajofondo Tango Club and the Gotan Project have fused tango with electronica. From the Zizek Club in Buenos Aires, ZZK Records began in 2007 to create a fusion of electronica and cumbia. Pop Pop bands have seen great popularity, topped by Bandana, the most popular. Other artists in this genre include Miranda! with a touch of "electro" sound, Alejandro Lerner, Axel (singer), Valeria Lynch, María Jimena Pereyra and Babasónicos, of lasting popularity. Artists combining experimentation with glam include Airbag and Juana la Loca, in addition to Arbol, an artist combining hardcore with pop and violins. In the 2010s, Lali became the biggest exponent of pop music in Argentina. Following her debut in 2013, many artists have incursed in the genre, including Tini, Oriana, J Mena, and Emilia. Cuarteto Cuarteto, or Cuartetazo, is a form of dance music similar to Merengue. It became popular in Argentinia during the 1940s, beginning with the genre's namesake and innovator, Cuarteto Leo and underwent a revival in the 1980s, especially in Córdoba. A national idol emerged in the brief career of Rodrigo in the late 1990s. The most popular and enduring cuarteto singer is La Mona Jiménez, who has released more than 100 albums and continues recording; his work inspired other musicians in the genre. Cumbia Cumbia is an important part of contemporary Argentine music, originally derived from the Colombian cumbia. This genre become popular slowly from the 1960s with the irruption in Argentina of the important Colombian bands Los Wawancó and Cuarteto Imperial. Argentine bands and soloists of cumbia originated in the north of the country and in Santa Fe province, the first regions where cumbia become popular. In the next decades cumbia widespread by all the country, becoming in the late 1990s the most popular music in the lower class. In 1999, in the north of the Greater Buenos Aires, originated a lyric style of cumbia named cumbia villera (slum cumbia), who is aggressive and explicit (similar to punk rock or gangsta rap). From the 2000s to nowadays, cumbia become the most listened music genre among the youth. Current popular acts Los Palmeras, Los del Fuego, Damas Gratis, Los Leales, Agapornis, La Nueva Luna, Amar Azul, Los Lamas, Flor de Piedra, Meta Guacha, Mala Fama, Supermerk2, La Liga, Ráfaga, Jambao, Grupo Trinidad, Antonio Ríos, Daniel Agostini, Karina, Dalila, Sebastián Mendoza, Mario Luis, Mario Pereyra, Sonido Mazter, Antonio Rios, Organización X, Los Astros and Grupo Green. Popular defunct bands and deceased solo acts include: Los del Bohío, Los Wachiputos, Los Wachiturros, Yerba Brava, Pibes Chorros, La Base Musical, Grupo Sombras, Leo Mattioli and Gilda. Urbano music Cachengue Cachengue, also known as Cumbiatón or Cumbia turra, is a form of Argentine cumbia that is heavily influenced by Reggaeton which became popular in Argentina during the 2010s. Artists and groups such as Los Wachiturros, Nene Malo and others became popular in mid-2011 foreign countries spreadly popularity in countries such as Bolivia, Chile and Uruguay. L-Gante started releasing new songs of this style such as "L-Gante Rkt" with Papu DJ and "L-Gante: Bzrp Music Sessions, Vol. 38" with Bizarrap. DJ Fer Palacio would start bundling up famous Reggaeton songs and would remix it to make it his own version in his "Previa and Cachengue" containing Cumbiatón with EDM influences which his video reached millions of views. Following new producers such as Facu Vazquez, DJ Alex and many others would start creating this sound in Argentina. Trap Trap music, although a recent novelty in Argentina and the rest of Latin America, in reality, is nothing new. It’s been around since the early 90s, when the unique mixture of electronic and hip-hop genres was born in Atlanta, Georgia. Usually including lyrics that are harsh and bleak, trap artists often use the genre as a platform for expressing their tough experiences on the street, the stark realities of a life spent in poverty, and their personal struggles for success. The word ‘trap’ refers to the places where drug deals are made. Telling the stories of the North American lower class, the emerging genre gave a voice to a generation that felt marginalized by society. The use of social media has also allowed Argentine trap artists to achieve fame and recognition much more quickly than their North American predecessors. One of these artists is Duki, who boasted over 47 million views with his single ‘Si Te Sentís Sola.’ As one of Argentina’s biggest names in trap, Duki combines rhythms found in both reggaetón and rap; his music is a unique blend of trap’s tough original sounds and more rhythmic electronic Latin American genres. Córdoba-born Paulo Londra is another young trap artist. Still living with his parents, the 20-year old rose to fame back in January 2017 with his single ‘Relax.’ Countering aggressive stereotypes often associated with trap music, Londra is keen to do things his way. His songs, which are all about positivity, good vibes, and gratitude, avoid the usual trap references to violence and drugs. Keen to push the boundaries and stray beyond the boxes of traditional trap, he’s probably the most polite trap artist around. Having already worked with the likes of Bad Bunny and J Balvin, his videos often push the view count beyond the 100 million mark. Cumbia pop By mid-2015, the Uruguayan and Argentine band Agapornis of the emerging subgenres "cumbia cheta" and "cumbia pop" enjoyed great success all over Latin America even before publishing their first albums; particularly in their home country and in Argentina, where in a given moment they had together nine songs at the Spotify Top Ten ranking. Other Uruguayan bands of success are: Toco Para Vos, , Toco Para Bailar and Golden Rocket. Other Genres and Their Representative Artists Soul/Funk Power of Soul Rap Fémina Illya Kuryaki and the Valderramas Reggae , Todos Tus Muertos, Dread Mar-I and Fidel Nadal. Art music Jazz Though much of Argentinia's jazz scene revolves around the new tango popularized by Ástor Piazzolla in the 1960s, Argentine musicians have created or interpreted a considerable body of be-bop, straight-ahead and latin jazz, since then. 1950s Among the first to garner a wide audience was guitarist Oscar Alemán who, after performing with Brazilian artists, moved to Paris and performed for legendary dancer Josephine Baker; his swing style earned him a loyal following through the 1940s and 1950s. The popularity of mambo and latin jazz, generally, during the 1950s opened doors for drummer Tito Alberti, who recorded frequently with Cuban "mambo king" Dámaso Pérez Prado and popularized the genre locally with his renowned "Jazz Casino." The later emergence of the use of synthesizers in jazz found an Argentine adherent in Jorge Anders, whose quartet became known for modal jazz compositions like Suave como un amanecer in 1965. One of his frequent collaborators, pianist Gustavo Kereztesachi, became acclaimed for his airy interpretations of John Coltrane and Oliver Nelson standards, as well as for compositions of his own like the swinging The gun and Como luces esta noche. 1960s Following the emergence of "new tango" in the 1960s, one of Piazzolla's fellow bandoneónists he influenced most became a noted jazz composer in his own right. Rodolfo Mederos' 1976 album Fuera de broma 8 fused be-bop with tango and acoustic rock; Mederos has since recorded numerous albums and film scores. His success with jazz fusion inspired others, like fellow bandoneónist Dino Saluzzi, guitarist Lito Epumer and alto sax man Bernardo Baraj. 1970s to 1990s Later in the 1970s and through the 1990s, drummer Pocho Lapouble became well known for his jazz trio and film scores. Argentine jazz saxophonists have also become prominent in their genre. Alto saxophonist Andrés Boiarsky, who emerged in 1986 performing the film score for Hombre mirando al sudeste ("Man Facing Southeast"), records extensively to this day, collaborating with latin jazz greats like Paquito D'Rivera and Claudio Roditi. Carlos Franzetti's work and arrangements for the 1992 feature film, The Mambo Kings, earned him a Latin Grammy. Notable Argentine Jazz Music The best-known Argentine jazz musician internationally is probably Leandro Gato Barbieri. The tenor saxophonist worked with renowned big band orchestra conductor Lalo Schifrin in the early 1960s, shortly before Schifrin became internationally known for his composition of the theme to Mission: Impossible. Hired by jazz trumpeter Don Cherry, the two recorded Complete Communion in 1965, an album that secured their reputation in the jazz world. Barbieri went on to record his influential Caliente! (1976), an album combining latin jazz and experimental work such as his own and jazz fusion great Carlos Santana's, as well as Qué pasa (1997), which draws more deeply from Argentine folklore roots. Growing from the Jazzología series begun by local jazz enthusiast Carlos Inzillo in 1984, the Buenos Aires Jazz Festival has, since 2002, attracted legends and newcomers from all major jazz genres, as well as avant-garde sounds. The festival has been graced by performers like Kenny Barron, Michael Brecker, Dee Dee Bridgewater, Herbie Hancock, Freddie Hubbard, Ron Carter and Chucho Valdés. Classical music The Buenos Aires Philharmonic has its home in the renowned Colón Opera House. Founded in 1946, it is considered one of the more prestigious orchestras in its nation, and has received several honors in 60 years of history. Another well established orchestra is the Argentine National Symphony Orchestra. Prominent Argentine composers in the genre include symphonic composer Juan José Castro, Alberto Williams, who was known for his early fusion of nativist and classical genres, Carlos Guastavino, known for his romanticist works, Judith Akoschky and Alberto Ginastera, a composer considered one of the most important Argentine contributors to classical music. Internationally known performers include pianist Martha Argerich, violinist Alberto Lysy, guitarist María Isabel Siewers, tenor José Cura, mezzo-soprano Margherita Zimmermann, and pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim, who has directed the Orchestre de Paris, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the Berlin State Opera. Les Luthiers are included in the genre. Multimedia Selections: Fuga y misterio. Ástor Piazzolla, music. Dancers: Vincent Morelle and Marilyne Lefor. (New Tango) Por una cabeza. Carlos Gardel, music and vocals; Alfredo Le Pera, lyrics. (Classic Tango) Medley. John Michel, cello and Mats Lidstrom, piano. (Milonga) See also Tango Public domain music References Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis Fairley, Jan and Teddy Peiro. "Vertical Expression of Horizontal Desire". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 304–314. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Fairley, Jan. "Dancing Cheek to Cheek...". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 315–316. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Fairley, Jan. "An Uncompromising Song". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 362–371. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Latin American Music Styles "Fanfarria Latina". La Fanfarria del Capitán. Retrieved 2013-10-28. Capitan Official External links BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Tango. Accessed 25 November 2010. BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): The Humahuaca Valley. 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247171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biphobia	Biphobia	Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality and bisexual people as individuals. It is a form of homophobia against those in the bisexual community. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a genuine sexual orientation, or of negative stereotypes about people who are bisexual (such as the beliefs that they are promiscuous or dishonest). Other forms of biphobia include bisexual erasure. Etymology and usage Biphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia. It derives from the English neo-classical prefix bi- (meaning "two") from bisexual and the root -phobia (from the , phóbos, "fear") found in homophobia. Along with transphobia and homophobia, it is one of a family of terms used to describe intolerance and discrimination against LGBT people. The adjectival form biphobic describes things or qualities related to biphobia, and the less-common noun biphobe is a label for people thought to harbor biphobia. The term biphobia was first introduced in 1992 by researcher Kathleen Bennett to mean "prejudice against bisexuality" and "the denigration of bisexuality as a life-choice." It has subsequently been defined as "any portrayal or discourse denigrating or criticizing men or women on the sole ground of their belonging to this [bisexual] socio-sexual identity, or refusing them the right to claim it." Biphobia need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology (i.e., an anxiety disorder). Its meaning and use typically parallel those of xenophobia. Forms Denial and erasure Biphobia can lead people to deny that bisexuality is real, asserting that people who identify as bisexual are not genuinely bisexual, or that the phenomenon is far less common than they claim. One form of this denial is based on the heterosexist view that heterosexuality is the only true or natural sexual orientation. Thus anything that deviates from that is instead either a psychological pathology or an example of anti-social behavior. Another form of denial stems from binary views of sexuality: that people are assumed monosexual, i.e. homosexual (gay/lesbian) or heterosexual (straight). Throughout the 1980s, modern research on sexuality was dominated by the idea that heterosexuality and homosexuality were the only legitimate orientations, dismissing bisexuality as "secondary homosexuality". In that model, bisexuals are presumed to be either closeted lesbian/gay people wishing to appear heterosexual, or individuals (of "either" orientation) experimenting with sexuality outside of their "normal" interest. Maxims such as "people are either gay, straight, or lying" embody this dichotomous view of sexual orientation. Some people accept the theoretical existence of bisexuality but define it narrowly, as being only the equal sexual attraction towards both men and women. Thus the many bisexual individuals with unequal attractions are instead categorized as either homosexual or heterosexual. Others acknowledge the existence of bisexuality in women, but deny that men can be bisexual. Some denial asserts that bisexual behavior or identity is merely a social trend – as exemplified by "bisexual chic" or gender bending – and not an intrinsic personality trait. Same-gender sexual activity is dismissed as merely a substitute for sex with members of the opposite sex, or as a more accessible source of sexual gratification. Situational homosexuality in sex-segregated environments is presented as an example of this behavior. Biphobia is common from the heterosexual community, but is frequently exhibited by gay and lesbian people as well, usually with the notion that bisexuals are able to escape oppression from heterosexuals by conforming to social expectations of opposite-gender sex and romance. This leaves some that identify as bisexual to be perceived as "not enough of either" or "not real." An Australian study conducted by Roffee and Waling in 2016 established that bisexual people faced microaggressions, bullying, and other anti-social behaviors from people within the lesbian and gay community. Bisexual erasure (also referred to as bisexual invisibility) is a phenomenon that tends to omit, falsify, or re-explain evidence of bisexuality in history, academia, the news media, and other primary sources, sometimes to the point of denying that bisexuality exists. Yoshino (2000) writes that there are three concepts that cause invisibility within bisexuality: "The three invisibilities can be seen as nested within each other; the first affects straights, gays, and bisexuals; the second affects only gays and bisexuals; and the third affects only bisexuals." Forms of social standards and expectations, religion, and integrating the same-sex attraction aspect of bisexuality with homosexuality contribute to invisibility. Allegations that bisexual men are homophobic One cause of biphobia in the gay male community is that there is an identity political tradition to assume that acceptance of male homosexuality is linked to the belief that men's sexuality is specialized. This causes many members of the gay male community to assume that the very idea that men can be bisexual is homophobic to gay men. A number of bisexual men feel that such attitudes force them to keep their bisexuality in the closet and that it is even more oppressive than traditional heteronormativity. These men argue that the gay male community have something to learn about respect for the individual from the lesbian community, in which there is not a strong tradition to assume links between notions about the origins of sexual preferences and the acceptance thereof. These views are also supported by some gay men who do not like anal sex (sides, as opposed to both tops and bottoms) and report that they feel bullied by other gay men's assumption that their dislike for anal sex is "homophobic" and want more respect for the individuality in which a gay man who does not hate himself may simply not like anal sex and instead prefer other sex acts such as mutual fellatio and mutual male masturbation. Claims of bisexuals adapting to heteronormativity Some forms of prejudice against bisexuals are claims that bisexuality is an attempt in persecuted homosexuals to adapt to heteronormative societies by adopting a bisexual identity. Such claims are criticized by bisexuals and researchers studying the situation of bisexuals for falsely assuming that same-sex relationships would somehow escape persecution in heteronormative cultures by simply identifying as bisexual instead of homosexual. These researchers cite that all countries with laws against sex between people of the same sex give the same punishment regardless of what sexual orientation the people found guilty identify as, that any countries where same-sex marriage is illegal never allow marriages between people of the same sex no matter if they identify as bisexual instead of homosexual, and that laws against "gay" male blood donors invariably prohibit any man who had sex with other men from donating blood no matter if he identifies as homosexual or as bisexual. The conclusion made by these researchers is that since there is no societal benefit in identifying as bisexual instead of identifying as homosexual, the claim that bisexuals are homosexuals trying to adapt to a heteronormative society is simply false and biphobic and causes bisexuals to suffer a two-way discrimination from both LGBT society and heteronormative society that is worse than the one-way discrimination from heteronormative society that is faced by homosexuals. It is also argued that such two-way discrimination causes many bisexuals to hide their bisexuality to an even greater extent than homosexuals hide their sexuality, leading to underestimations of the prevalence of bisexuality especially in men for whom such assumptions of "really being completely gay" are the most rampant. In the book Bi: Notes for a Bisexual Revolution, Eisner (2013) mentions Obradors-Campos' argument that bisexual individuals endure stigma by heterosexuals as well as gay and lesbian individuals. Eisner (2013) also writes, "some forms of biphobic stigma frequently observed in gay and lesbian communities: that bisexuals are privileged, that bisexuals will ultimately choose heterosexual relationships and lifestyles, that bisexual women are reinforcing patriarchy, that bisexuality is not a political identity, that bisexual women carry HIV to lesbian communities, and so on." Negative stereotypes Many stereotypes about people who identify as bisexual stem from denial or bisexual erasure. Because their orientation is not recognized as valid, they are stereotyped as confused, indecisive, insecure, experimenting, or "just going through a phase". The association of bisexuality with promiscuity stems from a variety of negative stereotypes targeting bisexuals as mentally or socially unstable people for whom sexual relations only with men, only with women, or only with one person at a time is not enough. These stereotypes may result from cultural assumptions that "men and women are so different that desire for one is an entirely different beast from desire for the other" ("a defining feature of heterosexism"), and that "verbalizing a sexual desire inevitably leads to attempts to satisfy that desire." As a result, bisexuals may bear a social stigma from accusations of cheating on or betraying their partners, leading a double life, being "on the down-low", and spreading sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. This presumed behavior is further generalized as dishonesty, secrecy, and deception. Bisexuals can be characterized as being "slutty", "easy", indiscriminate, and nymphomaniacs. Furthermore, they are strongly associated with polyamory, swinging, and polygamy, the last being an established heterosexual tradition sanctioned by some religions and legal in several countries. This is despite the fact that bisexual people are as capable of monogamy or serial monogamy as homosexuals or heterosexuals. Effects The mental and sexual health effects of biphobia on bisexual people are numerous. One study showed that bisexuals are often trapped in between the binaries of heterosexuality and homosexuality, creating a form of invalidation around their sexual identity. This often leads to recognized indicators of mental health issues such as low self-esteem and self-worth. These indicators and pressures to "choose" a sexual identity can, in many cases, lead to depression as they may feel they live in a culture that does not recognize their existence. While doing research on women at high-risk of HIV infection, one study, from the Journal of Bisexuality, concluded that bisexual women in the high-risk cohort studied were more likely to engage in various high risk behaviors and were at a higher risk of contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. These behaviors have been attributed to the unlikeliness of bisexuals discussing their sexuality and proper protection with health professionals for fear of judgement or discrimination, causing them to become undereducated on the issue(s). In the book, Bi: Notes for a Bisexual Revolution, Eisner (2013) discusses the suicidality statistics amongst bisexual identifying individuals as compared to heterosexuals, gays, and lesbians. Eisner (2013) referred to a Canadian study that found bisexual women had higher rates of suicidality as compared to heterosexual and lesbian women; the study also found that bisexual men also had increased rates of suicidality as compared to heterosexual and gay men Bisexual-identified people may face disparities in harsher degrees than their gay and lesbian peers. In the U.S. in particular, for example, they may face: Lower success rates for refugee applications; may also be the case in Canada and Australia Higher levels of intimate partner violence Higher likelihood of youth risk behavior amongst high school students Higher likelihood of anxiety and mood disorders amongst bisexual women and men who report having sex with both sexes Higher likelihood of living on less than $30,000 a year Lower levels of reporting feeling "very accepted" in the workplace Lower likelihood of being out to the important people in their lives "Bisexuals report higher rates of hypertension, poor or fair physical health, smoking, and risky drinking than heterosexuals or lesbians/gays" "Bisexual women in relationships with monosexual partners have an increased rate of domestic violence compared to women in other demographic categories" "Many, if not most, bisexual people do not come out to their healthcare providers. This means they are getting incomplete information (for example, about safer sex practices)" "Bisexual women were more likely to be current smokers and acute drinkers" Intersectional perspectives Women's issues Feminist positions on bisexuality range greatly, from acceptance of bisexuality as a feminist issue to rejection of bisexuality as reactionary and anti-feminist backlash to lesbian feminism. A bisexual woman filed a lawsuit against the lesbian feminist magazine Common Lives/Lesbian Lives, alleging discrimination against bisexuals when her submission was not published. A widely studied example of lesbian-bisexual conflict within feminism was the Northampton Pride March during the years between 1989 and 1993, where many feminists involved debated over whether bisexuals should be included and whether or not bisexuality was compatible with feminism. Common lesbian-feminist critiques leveled at bisexuality were that bisexuality was anti-feminist, that bisexuality was a form of false consciousness, and that bisexual women who pursue relationships with men were "deluded and desperate". However, tensions between bisexual feminists and lesbian feminists have eased since the 1990s, as bisexual women have become more accepted within the feminist community. Nevertheless, some lesbian feminists such as Julie Bindel are still critical of bisexuality. Bindel has described female bisexuality as a "fashionable trend" being promoted due to "sexual hedonism" and broached the question of whether bisexuality even exists. She has also made tongue-in-cheek comparisons of bisexuals to cat fanciers and devil worshippers. Lesbian feminist Sheila Jeffreys writes in The Lesbian Heresy (1993) that while many feminists are comfortable working alongside gay men, they are uncomfortable interacting with bisexual men. Jeffreys states that while gay men are unlikely to sexually harass women, bisexual men are just as likely to be bothersome to women as heterosexual men. Donna Haraway was the inspiration and genesis for cyberfeminism with her 1985 essay "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century" which was reprinted in Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (1991). Haraway's essay states that the cyborg "has no truck with bisexuality, pre-oedipal symbiosis, unalienated labor, or other seductions to organic wholeness through a final appropriation of all powers of the parts into a higher unity." Race While the general bisexual population as a whole faces biphobia, this oppression is also aggravated by other factors such as race. In a study conducted by Grady L. Garner Jr. titled Managing Heterosexism and Biphobia: A Revealing Black Bisexual Male Perspective, the author interviews 14 self-identified black bisexual men to examine how they cope with heterosexism and biphobia in order to formulate coping strategies. Data from the interviews revealed that 33% of the participants reported heterosexism and biphobia experiences, while 67% did not. He explains that the internalization of negative sociocultural messages, reactions, and attitudes can be incredibly distressing as bisexual black males attempted to translate or transform these negative experiences into positive bisexual identity sustaining ones. See also Media portrayals of bisexuality Bisexuality in the United States Bisexual community Heteronormativity History of bisexuality International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia (biphobia was added to the name of the day in 2015) List of phobias Victimization of bisexual women References Further reading Garber, Marjorie (1995). Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life, pp. 20–21, 28, 39. Fraser, M., Identity Without Selfhood: Simone de Beauvoir and Bisexuality, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1999. p. 124–140. The fencesitters? Suspicions still haunt the bi/homo divide - article in Xtra, Gay & Lesbian news site, 2006] External links Bialogue/GLAAD Bisexuality Packet for Mental Health Professionals Curiouser and curiouser by Mark Simpson Bisexuality Basics, UC Riverside LGBT Resource Center, Riverside, CA Bisexuality Discrimination against LGBT people LGBT terminology Prejudice and discrimination by type Anti-LGBT sentiment LGBT and society	[ 0.5486746430397034, 0.5067259073257446, -0.8970877528190613, 0.010863094590604305, -0.8650643825531006, -0.07294245809316635, 0.7613847851753235, 0.48163139820098877, -0.37041330337524414, -0.28868311643600464, -0.43052658438682556, 0.03054189309477806, -0.8089413642883301, 0.1004529818892479, 0.09364241361618042, 0.5345157384872437, -0.04533793032169342, 0.7129539847373962, 0.035590581595897675, 0.16700410842895508, -0.29008355736732483, -0.34048327803611755, -0.39567846059799194, -0.3239401876926422, 0.16373899579048157, -0.26788413524627686, 0.8890770077705383, 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247172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humbaba	Humbaba	In Ancient Mesopotamian religion, Humbaba ( Assyrian spelling), also spelled Huwawa ( Sumerian spelling) and surnamed the Terrible, was a monstrous giant of immemorial age raised by Utu, the Sun / justice / truth god. Humbaba was the guardian of the Cedar Forest, where the gods lived, by the will of the god Enlil, who "assigned [Humbaba] as a terror to human beings. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeated this great enemy." Description "When he looks at someone, it is the look of death." "Humbaba's roar is a flood, his mouth is death and his breath is fire! A hundred leagues away he can hear any [rustling?] in his forest! Who would go down into his forest!" In various examples, his face is scribed in a single coiling line like that of the coiled entrails of men and beasts, from which omens might be read. Another description from Georg Burckhardt's translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh says, "he had the paws of a lion and a body covered in thorny scales; his feet had the claws of a vulture, and on his head were the horns of a wild bull; his tail and phallus each ended in a snake's head." However, another description in a tablet sold to a museum in Sulaymaniyah in 2011 is more positive about Humbaba: "Where Humbaba came and went there was a track, the paths were in good order and the way was well trodden ... Through all the forest a bird began to sing: A wood pigeon was moaning, a turtle dove calling in answer. Monkey mothers sing aloud, a youngster monkey shrieks: Like a band of musicians and drummers daily they bash out a rhythm in the presence of Humbaba." In this version of the story, Humbaba is beloved of the gods and a kind of king in the palace of the forest. Monkeys are his heralds, birds his courtiers, and his entire throne room breathes with the aroma of cedar resin. The tablet goes on to portray Gilgamesh as an aggressor who destroys a forest unnecessarily, and Humbaba's death is lamented by Enkidu. Demise Humbaba is first mentioned in Tablet II of the Epic of Gilgamesh. After Gilgamesh and Enkidu become friends following their initial fight, they set out on an adventure to the Cedar Forest beyond the seventh mountain range, to slay Humbaba (Huwawa): "Enkidu," Gilgamesh vows, "since a man cannot pass beyond the final end of life, I want to set off into the mountains, to establish my renown there." Gilgamesh offers Humbaba a series of gifts while beseeching him to allow the king to find his hidden home in the cedar forest, saying, "Couldn't I get close to you and your family? Just hand over your terrors to me! I want to become your kinsman!" As Gilgamesh proceeds, Humbaba hands over his "terrors". The gifts given by Gilgamesh were: his older sister, En-me-barage-si, to be Humbaba's wife his younger sister, Ma-tur, to be Humbaba's concubine [a gap in the text] eca-flour and a water-skin of cool water big shoes tiny shoes rock-crystal, nir stone, and lapis lazuli While Gilgamesh distracts this spirit of the cedar forest, the crew of fifty unmarried young men he has brought on the adventure are felling cedar timber, stripping it of its branches "so as to lay them down at the foot of the hills" to be hauled away. Thus the adventure reveals itself in the context of a timber raid, bringing seized cedar lumber to Mesopotamia, barren of timber. Having lowered Humbaba's guard, Gilgamesh approaches him ... "from behind, as one does with a ... snake. He made as if to kiss him, but then punched him on the cheek with his fist." Defeated, Humbaba appeals to a receptive Gilgamesh for mercy, but Enkidu convinces Gilgamesh to slay Humbaba. In a final effort, Humbaba tries to escape but is decapitated by Enkidu, or in some versions by both heroes together. His head is put in a leather sack, which is brought to Enlil, the god who set Humbaba as the forest's guardian. Enlil becomes enraged upon learning of his death and redistributes Humbaba's terrors / auras: "He gave Humbaba's first aura to the fields. He gave his second aura to the rivers. He gave his third aura to the reed-beds. He gave his fourth aura to the lions. He gave his fifth aura to the palace. [one text has debt slaves] He gave his sixth aura to the forests. [one text has the hills] He gave his seventh aura to Nungal." No vengeance was laid upon the heroes, though Enlil condemns their treatment of Humbawa: "He should have eaten the bread that you eat, and should have drunk the water that you drink! He should have been honored." As his death approaches, and Gilgamesh is oppressed with his own mortality, the gods remind him of his great feats: "... having fetched cedar, the unique tree, from its mountains, having killed Humbaba in the forest ..." Depictions The iconography of the apotropaic severed head of Humbaba, with staring eyes, flowing beard and wild hair, is well attested from the First Babylonian dynasty, continuing into Neo-Assyrian art. It fades away during the Achaemenid rule, however, the image seems to have diffused into adjacent cultures: J.S. McKenzie (2001) described Humbaba heads in a Nabatean tomb frieze at Petra. The severed head of the monstrous Humbaba found a Greek parallel of the gorgoneion, the protective amulet depicting the gorgon's head from the Perseus myth. Perseus similarly employed the head of the gorgon Medusa (the original of the gorgoneion) which he kept hidden in a leather sack. Archaic Greek depictions of the gorgoneion (see picture, right) often render it bearded, an anomaly for the female gorgon. The Egyptian New Kingdom deity Bes bears a striking resemblance to Humbaba, although he is thought to have entered Egypt from sub-Saharan Africa, rather than Mesopotamia. 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247174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edimmu	Edimmu	The edimmu or ekimmu, were a type of utukku in the Mesopotamian religion of Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia, similar in nature to the preta of the Hindu religions or the Jiangshan of Chinese mythology. They were envisioned as the ghosts of those who were not buried properly. They were considered vengeful toward the living and might possess people if they did not respect certain taboos, such as the prohibition against eating ox meat. They were thought to cause disease and inspire criminal behavior in the living, but could sometimes be appeased by funeral repasts or libations. The edimmu were also thought to be completely or nearly incorporeal, "wind" spirits that sucked the life out of the susceptible and the sleeping (most commonly the young). In modern fiction Games The magazine Dragon #25 (May 1979) includes ekimmu in an article which describes them as a form of a vampire and give stats for them to use for Dungeons & Dragons. They are described as being able to stay invisible, even while they are attacking. The 1990 role-playing game "Night Life" offers Ekimmu as an NPC Race (and an optional selection for the player character's undead race selection at the start of the game). They are described as being created "when someone vows to look after the grave of the deceased and then fails to." The ekimmas are a species of vampires in the 2015 game The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt. They are depicted as large bat-like bipedal creatures that can turn partially invisible and haunt dungeons and ruins. Edimmus are monsters featured in the videogame RuneScape. Graphic Novel In Hellblazer volume 22, Constantine is given the skin of a 200-year old ekimmu by another ekimmu named Julian who has taken on the appearance of a pre-teen British schoolgirl. He heats it up and makes a salve to rub on the scabs of a skin condition he gets because of something which happened in Liverpool. It is said to be similar to an opiate and helps the pain. 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247185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akalat	Akalat	The akalats (stressed on the second syllable) are medium-sized insectivorous birds in the genus Sheppardia. They were formerly placed in the thrush family, Turdidae, but are more often now treated as part of the Old World flycatcher family, Muscicapidae. They include ten Sub-Saharan forest-dwelling species: Short-tailed akalat, Sheppardia poensis Bocage's akalat, Lowland akalat, Equatorial akalat, Sharpe's akalat, East coast akalat, Gabela akalat, Rubeho akalat, Usambara akalat, Iringa akalat, Taxonomy and etymology The genus Sheppardia was introduced in 1909 by the South African ornithologist Alwin Karl Haagner with the East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi) as the type species. The name of the genus was chosen to honour the collector and farmer P. A. Sheppard. Richard Bowdler Sharpe, who had never visited Africa, associated the akalats, in their Bulu appellation, with birds of "different kinds" occurring in the forest understorey. His main collector in West Africa, George L. Bates, denoted them more specifically as "little members of the genus Turdinus, which are called in Fang and Bulu "Akalat"....". The latter genus denoted a group of Old World babblers, currently classed as near-babblers in the genus Illadopsis. David Armitage Bannerman's volumes on West African birds, published from 1930 through to 1951, became well-established reference works for the region, and retained the name akalat for Trichastoma, which is Illadopsis. Reichenow however classed Turdinus batesi as an Alethe, then in the Turdidae (thrushes and flycatchers), followed by Jackson and Sclater in 1938 who applied it to Sheppardia specifically. Mackworth-Praed and Grant (1953, 1955) and Williams (1963 - 1980s) retained their usage. In 1964 the name was still recorded as denoting both groups, namely the Malococincla, i.e. Illadopsis near-babblers in West Africa, and the Sheppardia chats in East African literature, though the latter convention prevailed in modern times. Yet the calls of the aforementioned species only doubtfully agree with the akalat's appellation as an omen of death. It is recorded that the akalat's forest song, respectively referred to as "boofio" and "woofio" by the Bulu and Ntumu peoples, is believed by them to predict the death of a near parent who bids them farewell with this song. 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247187	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20the%20Americas	Music of the Americas	The music of the Americas is very diverse since, in addition to many types of Native American music, the music of Europe and the music of Africa have been found there for some five centuries, creating many hybrid forms that have influenced the popular music of the world. See also Canadian music American music Latin music Caribbean music Culture of the Americas	[ -0.04007638245820999, 0.27923187613487244, -0.35876867175102234, 0.03942820802330971, 0.1637493222951889, -0.10400380194187164, 0.043828412890434265, 0.8271063566207886, -0.7327995300292969, -0.7844878435134888, -0.002199383918195963, 0.08911590278148651, 0.1853446364402771, 0.7267773747444153, -0.5240737795829773, 0.5183774828910828, 0.5236711502075195, 0.4817551076412201, -0.5057826638221741, -0.2432156354188919, -0.3768250644207001, 0.014460277743637562, 0.4901156723499298, 0.3004288971424103, 0.5002246499061584, -0.363603800535202, -0.31810855865478516, -0.019495006650686264, -0.018566478043794632, 0.09801050275564194, -0.6104632019996643, 0.3258967697620392, -0.3592891991138458, -0.13040012121200562, -0.252729207277298, -0.3431263566017151, -0.7292547225952148, -0.19453804194927216, -0.08540146052837372, -0.5555254817008972, 0.2410876750946045, -0.10776881128549576, 0.8741500973701477, 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247194	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufous%20thrush	Rufous thrush	The rufous thrushes, also known as flycatcher-thrushes, are medium-sized insectivorous birds in the genus Stizorhina of the thrush family Turdidae. These are African forest dwelling species. They are sometimes placed in the genus Neocossyphus. Species The following species are currently recognized: References External links Taxa named by Harry C. 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247196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex-positive%20movement	Sex-positive movement	The sex-positive movement is a social and philosophical movement that seeks to change cultural attitudes and norms around sexuality, promoting the recognition of sexuality (in the countless forms of expression) as a natural and healthy part of the human experience and emphasizing the importance of personal sovereignty, safer sex practices, and consensual sex (free from violence or coercion). It covers every aspect of sexual identity including gender expression, orientation, relationship to the body (body-positivity, nudity, choice), relationship-style choice, and reproductive rights. Sex-positivity is "an attitude towards human sexuality that regards all consensual sexual activities as fundamentally healthy and pleasurable, encouraging sexual pleasure and experimentation." The sex-positive movement also advocates for comprehensive sex education and safe sex as part of its campaign. The movement generally makes no moral distinctions among types of sexual activities, regarding these choices as matters of personal preference. Overview The terms and concepts of sex-positive (German: sexuell positiv) (or, alternately sex-affirmative (sexuell bejahend)) and sex-negative (sexuell negativ) are generally attributed to Wilhelm Reich. His hypothesis was that some societies view sexual expression as essentially good and healthy, while others have a generally negative view of sexuality and seek to repress and control libido. Other terms used to describe this concept include pro-sex, or pro-sexuality.The sex-positive movement does not, in general, make moral or ethical distinctions between heterosexual or homosexual sex, or masturbation, regarding these choices as matters of personal preference. Other sex-positive positions include acceptance of BDSM and polyamory as well as asexuality. The sex-positive movement is also concerned with the teaching of comprehensive and accurate sex education in schools.Some sex-positive theorists have analyzed sex-positivity in terms of the intersection of race/culture, gender, sexuality, class, nationality, and spirituality. Because of the vastness of the sex-positivity movement, it has been challenging for people to reach an agreed upon definition of the term "sex-positivity". Several definitions of sex-positivity have been offered by sexologist Carol Queen:Sex-positive, a term that's coming into cultural awareness, isn't a dippy love-child celebration of orgone – it's a simple yet radical affirmation that we each grow our own passions on a different medium, that instead of having two or three or even half a dozen sexual orientations, we should be thinking in terms of millions. "Sex-positive" respects each of our unique sexual profiles, even as we acknowledge that some of us have been damaged by a culture that tries to eradicate sexual difference and possibility.It’s the cultural philosophy that understands sexuality as a potentially positive force in one’s life, and it can, of course, be contrasted with sex-negativity, which sees sex as problematic, disruptive, dangerous. Sex-positivity allows for and in fact celebrates sexual diversity, differing desires and relationships structures, and individual choices based on consent. History Main articles: 1960s counterculture, Free Love and Sexual revolution In general use, the term sexual liberation is used to describe a socio-political movement, witnessed from the 1960s into the 1970s. However, the term has been used at least since the late 1920s and is often attributed as being influenced by Freud's writing on sexual liberation and psychosexual issues, as well as Wilhelm Reich, who originally coined the term. During the 1960s, a shift in the ways people thought about sexuality began to take place, heralding a period of de-conditioning in some circles away from old world antecedents, and developing new codes of sexual behavior, many of which have since been integrated into the mainstream. The 1960s also heralded a new culture of "free love" with millions of young people embracing the hippie ethos and preaching the power of love and the beauty of sex as a natural part of ordinary life. Hippies believed that sex and sexuality were natural biological phenomena which should be neither denied nor repressed. Changes in attitudes reflected a perception that traditional views on sexuality were both hypocritical and male-chauvinistic. Sexual liberalization heralded a new ethos in experimenting with open sex in and outside of marriage, contraception and the pill, public nudity, gay liberation, legalized abortion, interracial marriage, a return to natural childbirth, women's rights, and feminism. Historian David Allyn argues that the sexual revolution was a time of "coming-out": about premarital sex, masturbation, erotic fantasies, pornography use, and sexuality. The term sex-positive first came in into use in the United States in the late 1990s with the founding of the Center for Sex and Culture in San Francisco, California and The Center for Sex Positive Culture in Seattle, Washington. In 2009 Sex Positive World began in Portland, Oregon. As of 2019 there are more than sixteen chapters of the nonprofit, in five countries. Sex-positive feminism Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a movement that began in the early 1980s. Some became involved in the sex-positive feminist movement in response to efforts by anti-pornography feminists, such as Catharine MacKinnon, Andrea Dworkin, Robin Morgan and Dorchen Leidholdt, to put pornography at the center of a feminist explanation of women's oppression. This period of intense debate and acrimony between sex-positive and anti-pornography feminists during the early 1980s is often referred to as the "Feminist Sex Wars". Other sex-positive feminists became involved, not in opposition to other feminists, but in direct response to what they saw as patriarchal control of sexuality. Some authors who have advocated sex-positive feminism include Erika Lust, Ellen Willis, Susie Bright, Patrick Califia, Gayle Rubin, Carol Queen, Avedon Carol, Tristan Taormino, Diana Cage, Nina Hartley, and Betty Dodson. Sex-positive feminism gives attention and acknowledges the importance of women's right to explore their bodies, sexual desire, and considers that sexual violence does not have to prevent the vindication of female desire. This movement demands the preservation of freedom and is against norms that are present in the sexual sphere. It also encourages and demands respect for variety and sexual dissidence without allowing itself to be harmed by intense anti-sex pressure from critics. Sex-positive feminism affirms that the discourse on women's sexual pleasure is silenced and marginalized in today's world. Suppressing sexual dialogue with the supposed purpose of protecting women will only make them appear, according to this perspective, as the weaker sex. Women could have difficulty defending themselves with the classification as victims. Over time, women have been classified as sexually passive, while men are recognized as sexually aggressive, so intercourse is considered an activity in which women "submit" to men's desire. Another factor that continues to minimize female desire is the lack of consensus and research on it, a product of the social repression that women have had to endure over the centuries, which has led to prejudices and generalizations. The sexual hierarchy system places heterosexuality, marriage and procreation at the top, which causes many women to fear the sexual system that predominates in today's world. Pleasure and sexuality are human rights that have been subjugated by an old-fashioned patriarchal social construction. Pro-sex feminism endeavours to cultivate sexuality as a site of political resistance. By using the "pleasure" factor in their favour, a significant contribution to the contemporary queer theory and politics has been made by using sexual and feminist "empowerment." Opposition In opposition, some feminists believe sex positivity perceives disadvantage in women but makes them easier to oppress. Some, largely religious and particularly Judeo-Islamic-Christian, conservative opposition to sex-positivity sees human sexuality as a destructive force except under the contract of a marriage. Sexual acts are ranked hierarchically, with marital heterosexuality at the top of the hierarchy and masturbation, homosexuality, and other sexualities that deviate from societal expectations closer to the bottom. Medicine and psychiatry are said to have also contributed to sex-negativity, as they may designate some forms of sexuality that appear on the bottom of this hierarchy as being pathological (see Mental illness). Multiple feminists, such as Verkerk, Glick, and Bauer have criticized iterations of sex-positivity due to concerns about its effectiveness in challenging patriarchal norms. The aforementioned feminists are "sex-critical" rather than "sex-negative". Scholar, Verkerk, acknowledges this by stating that "there are both harmful and liberating aspects of female sexual objectification and an accurate account of it must consider both. Critics also take issue with the commodification of sexuality. Women are told both to invest in western standards of beauty and sexualization while also becoming a "consumable object themselves.' Sex-positive feminism has also been criticized for its emphasis on defeating the patriarchal gender norms through personal life choices, "rather than to dismantle, critique, expose, or challenge systematic discrimination and violence. The SlutWalk received criticism of its efficacy as an activist event. SlutWalk's purpose was to reclaim the word "slut" and counteract victim-blaming. Despite the aim of the slut-walk, critics point out that the word, "slut" had not been reclaimed. Rather, the word slut had become reified. Critics of the SlutWalk also suggest that the focus on revealing clothing "ultimately displace[s] the sombre and deadly issues of rape, domestic violence, sexual abuse, and street harassment." Lastly, the SlutWalk received criticism for lack of consideration of the hyper-sexualization that women of colour face. Black Women's Blue Print penned an open letter to the slut-walk explaining that Black women cannot "afford to label" themselves as those in the slut-walk do. In the 21st century Since the early 2000s, the sex-positivity movement has continued to move closer into the mainstream. The advent of social media has made the sex-positivity movement more accessible by giving advocates of the movement platforms to promote their beliefs to a wide audience of followers. By extending the reach of the movement, sex-positivity has come to be inclusive of all sorts of sex and sexuality. Shaming has become an area of particular interest within the sex-positivity movement, encouraging people to be more open and accepting of the different experiences people have with sex and sexuality. Slut-shaming, prude-shaming and kink-shaming have all been challenged by the sex-positivity movement in an effort to allow all people to feel supported by and included in the movement. Pop culture has also played a large role in bringing the sex-positivity movement into the mainstream. Celebrities, including Lady Gaga, Amber Rose, Jessica Biel, Cameron Diaz, Taylor Swift and many others, have spoken publicly about their experiences with slut-shaming, sexuality, sexual assault, body acceptance and overall sexual health and responsibility. In 2018, Viceland, an American television station, began airing a sex-positive series called Slutever, hosted by Karley Sciortino. In recent years sex positive concepts have found their way into dance clubs through sex positive parties in cities like Berlin and Vienna. See also Center for Sex Positive Culture Comprehensive sex education Free love Positive youth development Relationship anarchy Right to sexuality Sexecology Sex-positive feminism Sexual revolution References Philosophy of sexuality Sexuality and society	[ 0.5533751845359802, 0.04349189251661301, -0.135359987616539, 0.11049281060695648, -0.6857523918151855, 0.13503563404083252, 0.3227265775203705, 0.4527651369571686, 0.042180877178907394, -0.16369657218456268, -0.49424394965171814, 0.48425593972206116, -0.5069235563278198, 0.38022124767303467, 0.046248529106378555, 0.3247312307357788, 0.1286068558692932, 0.2422143518924713, 0.18514910340309143, 0.20314688980579376, -0.8057133555412292, -0.16553373634815216, -0.09380686283111572, -0.10032975673675537, 0.13856293261051178, -0.174704447388649, 0.6507068872451782, -0.09952202439308167, -0.41054943203926086, 0.1687461882829666, 0.26969170570373535, 0.3552163541316986, -0.33842188119888306, 0.4539043605327606, 0.09115125983953476, 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247198	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockjumper	Rockjumper	The rockjumpers are medium-sized insectivorous or omnivorous birds in the genus Chaetops, which constitutes the entire family Chaetopidae. The two species, the Cape rockjumper, Chaetops frenatus, and the Drakensberg rockjumper, Chaetops aurantius, are endemic residents of southern Africa. The Cape rockjumper is a resident of the West Cape and south-west East Cape, and the orange-breasted (or Drakensberg) rockjumper is distributed in the Lesotho Highlands and areas surrounding them in South Africa. The two rockjumpers have been treated as separate species but differ in size and plumage. The ranges do not overlap, but come close to doing so. Taxonomy and systematics Originally, these birds were placed in the thrushes, and they have also been placed with the Old World warblers and the babblers, but recent DNA studies indicate these birds are actually members of a basal group of oscines within the infraorder Passeri along with their sister-family the rockfowl (Picatharthidae), Their latin names derive from descriptions of their appearance. "Frenatus" refers to the "bridled" or black-and-white head pattern, while "Aurantius" refers to the orange coloration. Description These are small birds with mostly black, white, and red plumage. Both species have long, white tipped black tails, black throats, broad white submoustachial lines and eyebrows, rufous or orange bellies and rumps, and grey and black patterned backs and wings. Females have similar pattern to males, but duller. The iris is red and the bills and legs are black. Their wings are very small and they do not fly very often. They spend most of their lives running and jumping among rocks and grasses while hunting insects. Behaviour and ecology Diet and feeding The rockjumpers feed in groups, foraging on the ground. The groups can number up to 6 birds (for Cape) and 12 birds (for Drakensberg), but the groups may also spread out quite widely during feeding. Insects are the major part of the diet, although small vertebrates are reported to be taken by Cape rockjumpers. A range of insects are taken, including caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers, beetles and flies. In addition to insects other prey include lizards and geckos, amphibians, scorpions, annelid worms and spiders. Breeding They are monogamous and pairs establish territories which are defended year round. In the Cape rockjumper the territories vary in size from . Both species employ helpers, usually the young of previous broods, to aid the breeding pair in raising the young. Nests are built out of grass on the ground (in contrast to rockfowl, which build mud nests in colonies). The clutch size is two eggs for the Cape and two to three eggs for the Drakensberg. Both sexes incubate the clutch for 19–21 days. Chicks fledge at 19–21 days, although they are fed by the parents and helpers for up to 4 weeks following fledge. 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247201	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossypha	Cossypha	Cossypha are small insectivorous birds, with most species called robin-chats. They were formerly in the thrush family Turdidae, but are now more often treated as part of the Old World flycatcher Muscicapidae. These are African woodland dwelling species, but some have become adapted to sites around human habitation. The name Cossypha for the genus was introduced by the Irish zoologist Nicholas Aylward Vigors in 1825. The word comes from the Classical Greek kossuphos for a blackbird or thrush. The genus contains the following species: Mountain robin-chat, Cossypha isabellae Archer's ground robin, Cossypha archeri Olive-flanked ground robin, Cossypha anomala Cape robin-chat, Cossypha caffra White-throated robin-chat, Cossypha humeralis Angolan cave chat, Cossypha ansorgei Grey-winged robin-chat, Cossypha polioptera Blue-shouldered robin-chat, Cossypha cyanocampter Rüppell's robin-chat, Cossypha semirufa White-browed robin-chat, Cossypha heuglini Red-capped robin-chat, Cossypha natalensis Chorister robin-chat, Cossypha dichroa White-headed robin-chat, Cossypha heinrichi Snowy-crowned robin-chat, Cossypha niveicapilla White-crowned robin-chat, Cossypha albicapilla References Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors	[ -0.17171929776668549, 0.3387282192707062, -1.5245918035507202, -0.7432010173797607, -0.3650105893611908, 0.5249125957489014, 0.9112431406974792, 0.7167202830314636, -0.472532719373703, -0.32701966166496277, -0.00943208672106266, -0.028784241527318954, 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247202	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%20%28disambiguation%29	Prisoner (disambiguation)	A prisoner is someone incarcerated in a prison, jail or similar facility. Prisoner(s) or The Prisoner(s) may also refer to: Prisoner of war, a soldier in wartime, held as by an enemy Political prisoner, someone held in prison for their ideology Literature La Prisonnière (The Prisoner), the fifth volume of Marcel Proust's novel In Search of Lost Time The Prisoner, a 1916 novel by Alice Brown The Prisoner, the alternate English title of Les Louves, a 1956 French novel by Boileau-Narcejac The Prisoner, the fifth novel in the Henderson's Boys series by Robert Muchamore "The Prisoner", a short story found in The Soft Voice of the Serpent by South African author Nadine Gordimer The Prisoner, a work based on the 1960s television series, by Thomas M. Disch The Prisoner, the first volume in the "Kent Family Saga" by Karyn Monk "The Prisoner", a 1956 short story by Christopher Anvil Theatre, film, and television Theatre The Prisoner, English title of the Italian opera by Luigi Dallapiccola, Il prigioniero The Prisoners, English title of the Latin play by Titus Maccius Plautus, Captivi The Prisoners (play), a Caroline era stage play by Thomas Killigrew Film The Prisoner (1920 film), a German silent drama film The Prisoner (1923 film), featuring Boris Karloff Prisoners (1929 film), an early talking film The Prisoner (1949 film), a German film The Prisoner (1955 film), starring Sir Alec Guinness The Prisoner (1963 film), a 1963 Australian TV play Island of Fire, a 1991 Hong Kong film starring Jackie Chan, also known as The Prisoner Prisoners (1982 film), an unreleased US–New Zealand drama film The Prisoner (2013 film), a short film Prisoners (2013 film), an American thriller film The Prisoner or: How I Planned to Kill Tony Blair, a 2007 documentary TV The Prisoner, a 1967–68 UK television series starring Patrick McGoohan The Prisoner (video game), a 1980 computer game based upon the series The Prisoner (2009 miniseries), a remake of the 1967 series Prisoner (TV series), an Australian soap opera that ran from 1979 to 1986, also known as Prisoner: Cell Block H in the UK and the USA and Caged Women in Canada "Prisoner" (Law & Order: Criminal Intent), a 2005 episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent "Prisoners" (Gotham), an episode of Gotham "Prisoners" (Stargate SG-1), an episode of Stargate SG-1 "The Prisoners" (The Walking Dead) "The Prisoner" (Voltron: Legendary Defender), a season 5 episode of Voltron: Legendary Defender "Chapter 6: The Prisoner", 2019 episode of The Mandalorian Music The Prisoners, British band Albums Prisoners (album), a 2012 album by Canadian metal band The Agonist Prisoner (Cher album), 1979 The Prisoner (album), a 1969 album by Herbie Hancock Prisoner (The Jezabels album), 2011 Prisoner (Ryan Adams album), 2017 Songs "Prisoner" (311 song), 1997 "Prisoner" (Dokken song), 1988 "The Prisoner" (Howard Jones song), 1989 "Prisoner" (Jeffree Star song) "Prisoner" (The Weeknd song) featuring Lana Del Rey, 2015 "Prisoner" (Miley Cyrus song) featuring Dua Lipa, 2020 "Prisoner" (Dance Gavin Dance song), 2020 "Prisoner" (Love Theme from Eyes of Laura Mars), by Barbra Streisand from the 1978 film "The Prisoner", by The Clash released on Black Market Clash "The Prisoner", by England Dan & John Ford Coley from Nights Are Forever "The Prisoner", by Iron Maiden from The Number of the Beast "Prisoners", by John Denver from Rocky Mountain High "The Prisoner", by Roger Daltrey from One of the Boys "Prisoner", by Ryan Adams from Prisoner "Prisoner", by Steve Angello from Wild Youth "The Prisoner", by Tears For Fears from The Hurting "Prisoner", by The Jezabels from Prisoner "Prisoners", by The Vapors from the Canadian release of New Clear Days Other uses The Prisoners (painting), an 1883 painting by Polish painter Jacek Malczewski The Prisoner, later stage name for professional wrestler Kevin Wacholz Prisoner 24601, the number assigned to Jean Valjean, the main character in Victor Hugo's 1862 novel Les Misérables The main character of 1967–1968 TV series "The Prisoner", usually addressed in the series as Number Six The Prisoner (video game), 1980 See also Prisoners in Paradise, a 1991 album by Europe Prisoner's dilemma Detention (imprisonment) Convict Inmate telephone system Prison officer	[ 0.09238550066947937, 0.1378190964460373, -0.5717028379440308, 0.2703482508659363, 0.1362960785627365, -0.137886643409729, 0.5458475351333618, -0.046274587512016296, -0.7521841526031494, 0.05166230723261833, -0.5115365386009216, -0.3529919981956482, -0.5016340017318726, 0.505143940448761, 0.04760155454277992, 0.5343167185783386, 0.2982148230075836, 0.08150359988212585, -0.05529676377773285, -0.2705182433128357, -0.20096933841705322, -0.016821393743157387, -0.2988220751285553, 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247205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caryophyllaceae	Caryophyllaceae	Caryophyllaceae, commonly called the pink family or carnation family, is a family of flowering plants. It is included in the dicotyledon order Caryophyllales in the APG III system, alongside 33 other families, including Amaranthaceae, Cactaceae, and Polygonaceae. It is a large family, with 81 genera and about 2,625 known species. This cosmopolitan family of mostly herbaceous plants is best represented in temperate climates, with a few species growing on tropical mountains. Some of the more commonly known members include pinks and carnations (Dianthus), and firepink and campions (Lychnis and Silene). Many species are grown as ornamental plants, and some species are widespread weeds. Most species grow in the Mediterranean and bordering regions of Europe and Asia. The number of genera and species in the Southern Hemisphere is rather small, although the family does contain Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis), the world's southernmost dicot, which is one of only two flowering plants found in Antarctica. The name comes from Caryophyllus, an obsolete synonym of Dianthus. Description Despite its size and the somewhat doubtful mutual relationships, this family is rather uniform and easily recognizable. Most are herbaceous annuals or perennials, dying off above ground each year. A few species are shrubs or small trees, such as some Acanthophyllum species. Most plants are non-succulent; i.e. having no fleshy stems or leaves. The nodes on the stem are swollen. The leaves are almost always opposite, rarely whorled. The blades are entire, petiolate, and often stipulate. These stipules are not sheath-forming. The hermaphroditic flowers are terminal, blooming singly or branched or forked in cymes. The inflorescence is usually dichasial at least in the lower parts, which means that in the axil of each peduncle (primary flower stalk) of the terminal flower in the cyme, two new single-flower branches sprout up on each side of and below the first flower. If the terminal flowers are absent, then this can lead to monochasia, i.e. a monoparous cyme with a single flower on each axis of the inflorescence. In the extreme, this leads to a single flower, such as in Githago or Arenaria. The flowers are regular and mostly with five petals and five sepals, but sometimes with four petals. The sepals may be free from one another or united. The petals may be entire, fringed or deeply cleft. The calyx may be cylindrically inflated, as in Silene. The stamens number five or 10 (or more rarely four or eight), and are mostly isomerous with the perianth. The superior gynoecium has two to five carpels (members of a compound pistil) and is syncarpous; i.e. with these carpels united in a compound ovary. This ovary has one chamber inside the ovary. The fruit may be a utricle with a single seed or a capsule containing several seeds. Systematics Currently, Amaranthaceae and Caryophyllaceae are sister groups and considered closely related. Formerly, Caryophyllaceae were considered the sister family to all of the remaining members of the suborder Caryophyllineae because they have anthocyanins, and not betalain pigments. However, cladistic analyses indicate Caryophyllaceae evolved from ancestors that contained betalain, reinforcing betalain as an accurate synapomorphy of the suborder. This family is traditionally divided in three subfamilies: Alsinoideae: no stipules, petals not united Silenoideae: no stipules, petals united Paronychioideae: fleshy stipules, petals separate or united The last, however, are a basal grade of rather primitive members of this family, not closely related, but simply retaining many plesiomorphic traits. Instead of a subfamily, most ought to be treated as genera incertae sedis, but Corrigiola and Telephium might warrant recognition as Corrigioleae. The Alsinoideae, on the other hand, seem to form two distinct clades, perhaps less some misplaced genera. Finally, the Silenoideae appear monophyletic at least for the most part, if some of the taxa misplaced in Alsinoideae are moved there; it may be that the name Caryophylloideae would apply for the revised delimitation. However, hybridization between many members of this family is rampant—particularly in the Silenoideae/Caryophylloideae—and some of the lineages of descent have been found to be highly complicated and do not readily yield to cladistic analysis. Genera Acanthophyllum Achyronychia – onyxflower, frost-mat Agrostemma – corncockles Allochrusa Alsinidendron Ankyropetalum Arenaria – sandworts Balkana Bolanthus Bolbosaponaria Brachystemma Bufonia Cardionema Cerastium – mouse-ear chickweeds Cerdia Colobanthus – pearlworts Cometes Corrigiola – strapworts Cucubalus Cyathophylla Dianthus – carnations and pinks Diaphanoptera Dicheranthus Drymaria Drypis Eremogone Eudianthe Facchinia Geocarpon Graecobolanthus Gymnocarpos Gypsophila – gypsophilas, baby's-breath Habrosia Haya Heliosperma Herniaria – ruptureworts Holosteum – jagged chickweeds Honckenya Illecebrum Kabulia Krauseola Kuhitangia Lepyrodiclis Lochia Loeflingia Lychnis – campions, catchflies Melandrium Mesostemma Microphyes Minuartia – sandworts, stitchworts Moehringia – sandworts Moenchia – upright chickweeds Myosoton Ochotonophila Ortegia Paronychia – chickweeds Pentastemonodiscus Petroana Petrocoptis Petrorhagia (previously known as Tunica) Philippiella Phrynella Pinosia Pirinia Pleioneura Plettkia Pollichia Polycarpaea Polycarpon Polytepalum Psammophiliella Pseudostellaria Pteranthus Pycnophyllopsis Pycnophyllum Reicheella Sabulina Sagina – pearlworts Sanctambrosia Saponaria – soapworts Schiedea Scleranthopsis Scleranthus – knawels Sclerocephalus Scopulophila Selleola Silene – campions, catchflies Spergula – spurreys Spergularia – sea-spurreys Sphaerocoma Stellaria – chickweeds, stitchworts Stipulicida Thurya Thylacospermum Uebelinia Vaccaria Velezia Wilhelmsia Xerotia Unplaced Dadjoua described in 1960 in Fl. Iran and accepted by Catalogue of life, but unplaced by Plants of the World Online. References External links Family Caryophyllaceae - Pink Plant Life Forms Caryophyllales families	[ -0.003860335797071457, 0.3814306855201721, -0.49058741331100464, 0.11256258934736252, -0.0668637603521347, 0.21157459914684296, 0.13517750799655914, 0.9375861883163452, 0.15600818395614624, 0.11515528708696365, 0.06184093654155731, 0.2061775028705597, -1.0592982769012451, 0.4371042251586914, -0.16456176340579987, 0.5186970233917236, 0.23466208577156067, 0.6445918083190918, 0.03675243631005287, -0.37715741991996765, -0.557111918926239, -0.5495825409889221, 0.08288782089948654, -0.4289490282535553, 1.0898033380508423, -0.5829121470451355, 0.13828863203525543, -0.03814344480633736, 0.7055672407150269, -0.15453287959098816, 0.1513117253780365, 0.8200141191482544, 0.5159707069396973, -0.36077257990837097, -0.010154614225029945, 0.03712776303291321, -0.053873203694820404, -0.5770535469055176, 0.17550557851791382, -1.0586415529251099, 0.26103925704956055, -0.027864739298820496, 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247215	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawm	Shawm	The shawm () is a conical bore, double-reed woodwind instrument made in Europe from the 12th century to the present day. It achieved its peak of popularity during the medieval and Renaissance periods, after which it was gradually eclipsed by the oboe family of descendant instruments in classical music. It is likely to have come to Western Europe from the Eastern Mediterranean around the time of the Crusades. Double-reed instruments similar to the shawm were long present in Southern Europe and the East, for instance the ancient Greek, and later Byzantine, aulos, the Persian sorna, and the Armenian duduk. The body of the shawm is usually turned from a single piece of wood, and terminates in a flared bell somewhat like that of a trumpet. Beginning in the 16th century, shawms were made in several sizes, from sopranino to great bass, and four- and five-part music could be played by a consort consisting entirely of shawms. All later shawms (excepting the smallest) have at least one key allowing a downward extension of the compass; the keywork is typically covered by a perforated wooden cover called the fontanelle. The bassoon-like double reed, made from the same arundo donax cane used for oboes and bassoons, is inserted directly into a socket at the top of the instrument, or in the larger types, on the end of a metal tube called the bocal. The pirouette, a small wooden attachment with a cavity in the center resembling a thimble, surrounds the lower part of the reed—this provides support for the lips and embouchure. Since only a short portion of the reed protrudes past the pirouette, the player has only limited contact with the reed, and therefore limited control of dynamics. The shawm's conical bore and flaring bell, combined with the style of playing dictated by the use of a pirouette, gives the instrument a piercing, trumpet-like sound, well-suited for outdoor performances. Etymology In English the name first appears in the 14th century. There were originally three main variant forms, (1) ( or ), (2) ( or , all plural forms in Middle English), and (3) (or ), each derived from a corresponding variant in Old French: , , and (the plural of ), each in turn derived from the Latin ('reed'), or its Vulgar Latin diminutive form, . (The name of a somewhat different reed instrument, the chalumeau, also shares this etymology.) The early plural forms were often mistaken for a singular, and new plurals were formed from them. The later reduction in the 15th and 16th centuries to a single syllable in forms such as schalme, shaume, shawme, and finally (in the 16th century) shawm, was probably due to this confusion of plural and singular forms. In German the shawm is called (or for the larger members of the family —also in English in the 14th century—later corrupted to and finally in the 17th century to Pommer) This is borne out by the very similar names of many folk shawms used as traditional instruments in various European nations: in Spain, many traditional shawms with different names can be found, such as the Castilian, Aragonese, and Leonese dulzaina (sometimes called chirimía, a term that derives from the same Old French word as shawm); the Valencian and Catalan shawms (, , or gralla) or the Navarrese gaita. In Portugal there is an instrument called ; and the name of the Italian shawm is (or: , ). However, it is also possible that the name comes from the Arabic (), a traditional oboe from Egypt, as the European shawm seems to have been developed from similar instruments brought to Europe from the Near East during the time of the Crusades. This Arabic name is itself linguistically related to many other Eastern names for the instrument: the Arabic , the Turkish zūrnā, the Persian surnāy, the Chinese suona, the Javanese , and the Hindu or sanayi. Use Instruments resembling the medieval shawm can still be heard in many countries today, played by street musicians or military bands. The latter use would have been familiar to crusaders, who often had to face massed bands of Saracen shawms and nakers, used as a psychological weapon. It must have had a profound effect, for the shawm was quickly adopted by Europeans, to accompany dance as well as for military purposes. The standard outdoor dance band in the fifteenth century consisted of a slide trumpet playing popular melodies, while two shawms improvised countermelodies over it. In many Asian countries, shawm technique includes circular breathing allowing continuous playing without pauses for air. By the early 16th century the shawm had undergone considerable development. The harsh tonality of the medieval shawm had been modulated somewhat by a narrowing of the bore and a reduction in the size of the fingerholes. This also extended the range, enabling the performer to play the notes in the second octave. Larger sizes of shawm were built, down to the great bass in B, two octaves and a major third below the soprano in D. However, the larger sizes were unwieldy, which made them somewhat rare. The smaller sizes of shawm, chiefly the soprano, alto and sometimes the tenor, were more often coupled with the Renaissance trombone, or sackbut, and the majestic sound of this ensemble was much in demand by civic authorities. The shawm became standard equipment for town bands, or waits, who were required to herald the start of municipal functions and signal the major times of day. The shawm became so closely associated with the town waits ( in German and in Italian) that it was also known as the wait-pipe. Before the discovery of a still shawm aboard the shipwreck of the Mary Rose, instrument historians had been puzzled by references to "still shawms", or "soft" shawms, that were said to have a sound that was less shrill than earlier shawms. The still shawm disappeared from the musical scene in the 16th century; the instrument found on the Mary Rose is the only surviving example. A reproduction has been made and played. Combined with a pipe and tabor, it provides a "very effective bass part" that would have produced "rich and full sound, which would have provided excellent music for dancing on board ship". The shawm was reserved almost exclusively for outdoor performance—for softer, indoor music, other instruments such as the crumhorn and cornamuse were preferred. These were double reed instruments fitted with a capsule that completely enclosed the reed, which softened the sound but still did not allow for any variation in dynamics. Known by the Spanish term chirimia, the shawm remains an important ritual instrument among Maya peoples of Highland Guatemala. Accompanied by a drum, the chirimia is frequently used in processions and in certain ritual dances, such as the Dance of the Conquest (Baile de la Conquista), and this is still played today. Progeny of the shawm A tenor shawm in C with a single key [without the customary lower extension to G], with a range of a perfect twelfth, was described as a nicolo according to Michael Praetorius in his Syntagma Musicum II (1619), pages 23 and 36, but was not illustrated. Praetorius does, however, illustrate in Plate 13 in the supplementary volume of illustrations, the (1620), along with crumhorns, a bassett:nicolo which has the outward appearance of a capped shawm with four keys, but in fact conceals a mostly cylindrical bore. (The range of the bassett: nicolo descended to the A below great C and was just over four feet in length; a shawm of this range, i.e., with a conical bore, would require more than 9 feet of bore length.) Oboe The shawm inspired the later 17th-century hautbois, an invention of the French musician Martin Hotteterre (d. 1712). He is credited with devising essentially a brand-new instrument, one which borrowed several features from the shawm, chiefly its double reed and conical bore, but departed from it significantly in other respects, the most important departure being the fact the player places his lips directly on the reed with no intervening pirouette. Around 1670, the new French began replacing the shawm in military bands, concert music and opera; by 1700, the shawm had all but disappeared from concert life, although as late as 1830 shawms could still be heard in German town bands performing their municipal functions. Curiously, the Germans and Dutch continued to manufacture an ornate version of the shawm, called , well after the introduction of the French . Several examples of this instrument survive in European collections, although its exact musical use is unclear. Dulcian/bassoon The 16th-century proclivity for building instruments in a full range of sizes was naturally extended to the shawm, but the extreme length of pipe of the bass instruments meant that few were built and played, due to their cumbersome size. A solution was devised whereby the bore was in effect "folded back" upon itself, creating a much more manageable instrument. The new instrument is often referred to as the dulcian, and was called curtal in England, or in Germany and Italy, and in Spain. The dulcian, like the first oboes, employed direct lip-to-reed contact, which allowed for much greater control over the sound than was offered by shawms. This led to the dulcian becoming very popular, serving as a bass both to the other shawms and even to indoor ensembles that did not feature shawms, afforded by its ability to play quietly. The dulcian was the forerunner to the bassoon, which like the oboe was a Baroque invention. Charumera The , or , is a double-reed instrument in traditional Japanese music descended either from shawms brought to Japan by Portuguese Christian missionaries, or possibly Iberian traders in the 16th century. It is sometimes used in kabuki theatre performances. It is also strongly associated in popular culture with street vendors of ramen, who played a distinctive melody on it to attract customers. Modern performances Instruments of the Middle Ages and Renaissance—David Munrow and The Early Music Consort of London City of Lincoln Waites (The Mayor of Lincoln's own Band of Musick) Many recordings by Piffaro, The Renaissance Band feature shawms See also Bombard, a shawm of Brittany Gyaling, a Tibetan shawm-type instrument Hirtenschalmei or "shepherd's shawm" Hornpipe, a similar instrument with bagpipe fingering Piffero, a similar instrument from Italy which is still used in Italian folk music Taepyeongso, a shawm-type instrument used in folk music in Korea References Bibliography Baines, Anthony. 1967. Woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, reprinted with corrections 1977, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult. London: Faber & Faber . Unaltered reprinted, New York: Dover Publications, 1991. External links Video of a band in Germany in Lubeck 2017 playing "shawms"; the Germans call this instrument a "Schalmei". Definitely will bring a smile to your face! 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247216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranthaceae	Amaranthaceae	Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus Amaranthus. It includes the former goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae and contains about 165 genera and 2,040 species, making it the most species-rich lineage within its parent order, Caryophyllales. Description Vegetative characters Most species in the Amaranthaceae are annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs; others are shrubs; very few species are vines or trees. Some species are succulent. Many species have stems with thickened nodes. The wood of the perennial stem has a typical "anomalous" secondary growth; only in subfamily Polycnemoideae is secondary growth normal. The leaves are simple and mostly alternate, sometimes opposite. They never possess stipules. They are flat or terete, and their shape is extremely variable, with entire or toothed margins. In some species, the leaves are reduced to minute scales. In most cases, neither basal nor terminal aggregations of leaves occur. Inflorescence and flowers The flowers are solitary or aggregated in cymes, spikes, or panicles and typically perfect (bisexual) and actinomorphic. Some species have unisexual flowers. Bracts and bracteoles are either herbaceous or scarious. Flowers are regular with an herbaceous or scarious perianth of (one to) mostly five (rarely to eight) tepals, often joined. One to five stamens are opposite to tepals or alternating, inserting from a hypogynous disc, which may have appendages (pseudostaminodes) in some species. The anthers have two or four pollen sacs (locules). In tribe Caroxyloneae, anthers have vesicular appendages. The pollen grains are spherical with many pores (pantoporate), with pore numbers from a few to 250 (in Froelichia). One to three (rarely six) carpels are fused to a superior ovary with one (rarely two) basal ovule. Idioblasts are found in the tissues. Fruits and seeds The diaspores are seeds or fruits (utricles), more often the perianth persists and is modified in fruit for means of dispersal. Sometimes even bracts and bracteoles may belong to the diaspore. More rarely the fruit is a circumscissile capsule or a berry. The horizontal or vertical seed often has a thickened or woody seed coat. The green or white embryo is either spirally (and without perisperm) or annular (rarely straight). Chromosome number The basic chromosome number is (rarely 6) mostly 8–9 (rarely 17). Phytochemistry Widespread in the Amaranthaceae is the occurrence of betalain pigments. The former Chenopodiaceae often contain isoflavonoids. In phytochemical research, several methylenedioxyflavonols, saponins, triterpenoids, ecdysteroids, and specific root-located carbohydrates have been found in these plants. Photosynthesis pathway Although most of the family use the more common photosynthesis pathway, around 800 species are plants; this makes the Amaranthaceae the largest group with this photosynthesis pathway among the eudicots (which collectively includes about 1,600 species). Within the family, several types of photosynthesis occur, and about 17 different types of leaf anatomy are realized. Therefore, this photosynthesis pathway seems to have developed about 15 times independently during the evolution of the family. About two-thirds of the species belong to the former Chenopodiaceae. The first occurrence of photosynthesis dates from the early Miocene, about 24 million years ago, but in some groups, this pathway evolved much later, about 6 (or less) million years ago. The multiple origin of photosynthesis in the Amaranthaceae is regarded as an evolutionary response to inexorably decreasing atmospheric levels, coupled with a more recent permanent shortage in water supply as well as high temperatures. Species with higher water-use efficiency had a selective advantage and were able to spread out into arid habitats. Distribution Amaranthaceae is a widespread and cosmopolitan family from the tropics to cool temperate regions. The Amaranthaceae (sensu stricto) are predominantly tropical, whereas the former Chenopodiaceae have their centers of diversity in dry temperate and warm temperate areas. Many of the species are halophytes, tolerating salty soils, or grow in dry steppes or semi-deserts. Economic importance Some species, such as spinach (Spinacia oleracea) or forms of beet (Beta vulgaris) (beetroot, chard), are used as vegetables. Forms of Beta vulgaris include fodder beet (Mangelwurzel) and sugar beet. The seeds of Amaranthus, lamb's quarters (Chenopodium berlandieri), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) are edible and are used as pseudocereals. Dysphania ambrosioides (epazote) and Dysphania anthelmintica are used as medicinal herbs. Several amaranth species are also used indirectly as a source of soda ash, such as members of the genus Salicornia (see glasswort). A number of species are popular garden ornamental plants, especially species from the genera Alternanthera, Amaranthus, Celosia, and Iresine. Other species are considered weeds, e.g., redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus) and alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), and several are problematic invasive species, particularly in North America, including Kali tragus and Bassia scoparia. Many species are known to cause pollen allergies. Systematics In the APG IV system of 2016, as in the previous Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classifications, the family is placed in the order Caryophyllales and includes the plants formerly treated as the family Chenopodiaceae. The monophyly of this broadly defined Amaranthaceae has been strongly supported by both morphological and phylogenetic analyses. The family Amaranthaceae was first published in 1789 by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in Genera Plantarum, p. 87–88. The first publication of family Chenopodiaceae was in 1799 by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in Tableau du Regne Vegetal, 2, p. 253. The older name has priority and is now the valid scientific name of the extended Amaranthaceae (s.l. = sensu lato). Some publications still continued to use the family name Chenopodiaceae. Phylogenetic research revealed the important impact of the subfamily Polycnemoideae on the classification (see cladogram): if Polycnemoideae are considered a part of Chenopodiaceae, then Amaranthaceae (s.str. = sensu stricto) have to be included, too, and the name of the extended family is Amaranthaceae. If Polycnemoideae would be separated as its own family, Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae (s.str.) would form two distinct monophyletic groups and could be treated as two separate families. Amaranthaceae (s.l.) includes the former families Achyranthaceae , Atriplicaceae , Betaceae , Blitaceae , Celosiaceae , Chenopodiaceae nom. cons., Corispermaceae , Deeringiaceae , Dysphaniaceae nom. cons., Gomphrenaceae , Polycnemaceae , Salicorniaceae , Salsolaceae , and Spinaciaceae . The systematics of Amaranthaceae are the subject of intensive recent research. Molecular genetic studies revealed the traditional classification, based on morphological and anatomical characters, often did not reflect the phylogenetic relationships. The former Amaranthaceae (in their narrow circumscription) are classified into two subfamilies, Amaranthoideae and Gomphrenoideae, and contain about 65 genera and 900 species in tropical Africa and North America. The Amaranthoideae and some genera of Gomphrenoideae were found to be polyphyletic, so taxonomic changes are needed. Current studies classified the species of former Chenopodiaceae to eight distinct subfamilies (the research is not yet completed): Polycnemoideae, which are regarded as a basal lineage, Betoideae, Camphorosmoideae, Chenopodioideae, Corispermoideae, Salicornioideae, Salsoloideae, and Suaedoideae. In this preliminary classification, the Amaranthaceae s.l. are divided into 10 subfamilies with approximately 180 genera and 2,500 species. Genera A short synoptic list of genera is given here. For further and more detailed information, see the subfamily pages. References External links The family Amaranthaceae at APWebsite. Genera of Amaranthaceae at Germplasm Resources Information Network (USDA) Amaranthaceae at Tropicos Amaranthaceae in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database IUCN link: Amaranthaceae threatened species Stanley L. Welsh, Clifford W. Crompton & Steven E. Clemants (2003): Chenopodiaceae in Flora of North America Kenneth R. Robertson & Steven E. Clemants (2003): Amaranthaceae in Flora of North America Gelin Zhu, Sergei L. Mosyakin & Steven E. Clemants (2003): Chenopodiaceae in Flora of China Bojian Bao, Thomas Borsch & Steven E. 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247224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrub%20robin	Scrub robin	The scrub robins or bush chats are medium-sized insectivorous birds in the genus Cercotrichas. They were formerly in the thrush family, (Turdidae), but are more often now treated as part of the Old World flycatcher family, (Muscicapidae). They are not closely related to the Australian scrub-robins, genus Drymodes in the family Petroicidae. The genus name Cercotrichas is from Ancient Greek kerkos, "tail" and trikhas, "thrush". Scrub robins are mainly African species of open woodland or scrub, which nest in bushes or on the ground, but the rufous-tailed scrub robin also breeds in southern Europe and east to Pakistan. The genus contains the following species: Karoo scrub robin, Cercotrichas coryphaeus Forest scrub robin, Cercotrichas leucosticta Bearded scrub robin, Cercotrichas quadrivirgata Miombo scrub robin, Cercotrichas barbata Black scrub robin, Cercotrichas podobe Rufous-tailed scrub robin, Cercotrichas galactotes Kalahari scrub robin, Cercotrichas paena Brown-backed scrub robin, Cercotrichas hartlaubi White-browed scrub robin, Cercotrichas leucophrys Brown scrub robin, Cercotrichas signata References Further reading	[ 0.3511999845504761, 0.013071988709270954, -1.2635722160339355, -0.29783895611763, -0.11199896782636642, 0.3929712772369385, 0.4585912227630615, 0.27409055829048157, -0.5000225305557251, 0.11180758476257324, 0.06043129786849022, 0.4259512424468994, -0.44060492515563965, -0.0917697548866272, -0.8104763031005859, 0.9458454847335815, 0.45737648010253906, 0.027697518467903137, 0.3203909397125244, -0.09282272309064865, -0.31882765889167786, -0.7736498117446899, 0.12491379678249359, 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247237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droseraceae	Droseraceae	Droseraceae is a family of carnivorous flowering plants, also known as the sundew family. It consists of approximately 180 species in three extant genera. Representatives of the Droseraceae are found on all continents except Antarctica. Description Droseraceae are carnivorous herbaceous plants that may be annuals or perennials. Their leaves are alternate and adaxially circinate, with at least one leaf surface containing hairs with mucilage-producing glands at the tip. Their flowers are bisexual, usually with three carpels and five sepals, petals and stamens. Their pollen grains are triporate or multiporate and released in tetrads. Despite being carnivorous, their flowers are insect-pollinated, typically with white to purple flowers that close at night. They produce small seeds that are dispersed by wind and water. Most of the members of Droseraceae are contained in the genus Drosera, the sundews. Both Dionaea and Aldrovanda have only one extant species. Drosera species trap prey by secreting a sticky substance from hairs on their leaves. Dionaea and Aldrovanda both use snap-traps that close rapidly when the leaves are disturbed. Dionaea is terrestrial, while Aldrovanda is strictly aquatic. Like carnivorous plants of other families, the Droseraceae are able to supplement their nutrient intake, especially that of nitrogen, by capturing and digesting small animals such as insects. In this way, these plants are able to thrive in nutrient-deficient areas, such as sphagnum bogs. Drosera Drosera is one of the largest genera of carnivorous plants, and individual species vary extensively in their specific morphology. Common to all members of Drosera are highly modified leaves lined with tentacle-like glandular trichomes. At the end of each trichome, a bead of highly viscous mucilage is secreted, which resembles a drop of dew. The mucilage is a fairly pure aqueous solution of acidic polysaccharides with high molecular weights, which makes the mucilage not only highly viscous, but also very sticky, so much so, a single drop of mucilage may be stretched to lengths of up to a meter and cover one million times its original surface area. Insects and other prey animals are attracted by the smell of this mucilage and become stuck in it. Such snares are termed “flypaper traps”, but the trapping mechanism of sundews is often erroneously described as “passive”. In fact, sundew traps are quite active and sensitive, and the disturbance of one or a few trichomes quickly triggers an action potential that stimulates the rapid movement of other trichomes toward the prey. The leaf then curls in on itself, enveloping the prey for digestion. Four Drosera subgenera are recognized today: subgenus Regiae and subgenus Arcturia are each monotypic (D. regia and D. arcturi, respectively), and the remaining Drosera are divided into two clades, subgenus Ergaleium and subgenus Drosera. Dionaea Dionaea muscipula, better known as the Venus flytrap, is a globally famous carnivorous plant and according to Charles Darwin, “one of the most wonderful in the world.” The leaves of Dionaea are also highly modified and form a “snap-trap” that quickly shuts when a stimulus is detected. Three large trichomes extend outward on the inner surface of the trap. Two of these three hairs must be stimulated within a certain amount of time to trigger the trap. The trap closes as the result of a flipping of the trap lobes from a position where the exterior of the trap is concave to one where the exterior is convex. This movement can begin as soon as 0.4 seconds after stimulation and can be completed after one second. Aldrovanda Aldrovanda vesiculosa, also called the waterwheel plant, is a free-floating, rootless, aquatic plant. It is less well-known than its relative Dionaea muscipula, but the two have similar trap structures. In 1875, Darwin described Aldrovanda as "a miniature aquatic Dionaea". The trap of Aldrovanda is aquatic and is smaller and faster than that of Dionaea. In addition, while two stimuli are required to close a trap in Dionaea, only one is required in Aldrovanda. The trap of Aldrovanda closes about ten times faster than that of Dionaea. Etymology The type genus for the Droseraceae is Drosera, which was described and named by Linnaeus in 1753. The name was derived from the Greek word “droseros”, meaning “dewy” or “drops of water”. The Principia Botanica, published in 1787, states “Sun-dew (Drosera) derives its name from small drops of a liquor-like dew, hanging on its fringed leaves, and continuing in the hottest part of the day, exposed to the sun.” Phylogeny In 1867, Bentham and Hooker placed six genera in the Droseraceae: Dionaea, Aldrovanda, Drosera, Drosophyllum, Byblis, and Roridula. Although these genera had significant differences in leaf and flower morphologies, they were grouped together on the basis of insect traps that appeared to be homologous. In 1922, Byblis and Roridula were moved into a new family, the Byblidaceae (and later further split out, forming the Roridulaceae). In the 1990s, both morphological and molecular evidence began to build that Drosophyllum differed from the other genera in the Droseraceae, Drosophyllum, another monotypic genus (Drosophyllum lusitanicum being the only species), exhibits a flypaper-type trap similar to those of Drosera, but Drosophyllum does not actively curl its leaves to envelop captured prey animals. This important morphological distinction led researchers to question the validity of this taxon’s placement in Droseraceae. Other significant trait differences in Drosophyllum include pollen structure, trichome anatomy, and a woody stem with a deep taproot. Ultimately, Drosophyllum was shown to be more closely related to the carnivorous liana Triphyophyllum and the noncarnivorous liana Ancistrocladus, and is, thus, classified elsewhere (to be specific, its own monotypic family Drosophyllaceae). and APG III (2009) placed it into its own family, the Drosophyllaceae. This left only the three genera (Dionaea, Aldrovanda, Drosera) that are classified as Droseraceae today. Despite some debate, taxonomists have tended to include at least two of these three genera, and, in general, all three, in this family since at least 1906. Separate families for Dionaea and Aldrovanda have been proposed in the past. These were Dionaecae, proposed in 1933, and Aldrovandaceae, proposed in 1949. Ultimately, molecular and morphological evidence support the inclusion of all three, confirming that the Droseraceae are a monophyletic group. Molecular evidence also shows that the two genera with traps that snap shut (Dionaea and Aldrovanda) are more closely related to each other than to Drosera, suggesting snap traps evolved only once. The family Droseraceae is part of the order Caryophyllales in the Superasterid clade within the core eudicots. The family totals nearly 200 species. Caryophyllales are divided into two major suborders: Caryophyllineae, which contains the “core” Caryophyllales, such as Cactaceae and Amaranthaceae and is sister to the Polygonineae – the “non-core” Caryophyllales. This non-core clade is where Droseraceae is placed. Recent molecular and biochemical evidence (see the AP-Website) suggests the carnivorous taxa in the order Caryophyllales (the families Droseraceae, Drosophyllaceae, Nepenthaceae, and the species Triphyophyllum peltatum) all belong to the same clade, which does not consist only of carnivorous plants, but also of some noncarnivorous plants such as those in the family Ancistrocladaceae. The fossil record of Droseraceae is the richest of any carnivorous plant family. Fossil pollen has been attributed to several extant, as well as extinct, genera, although some are of questionable validity. Evolution Darwin concluded that carnivory in plants was convergent, writing in 1875 that Utricularia and Nepenthes were not “at all related to the Droseraceae.” This remained a subject of debate for over a century. In 1960, Leon Croizat concluded that carnivory was monophyletic, and placed all the carnivorous plants together at the base of the angiosperms. Molecular studies over the past 30 years have led to a wide consensus that Darwin was correct, with studies showing that carnivory evolved at least six times in the angiosperms, and that trap designs such as pitcher traps and flypaper traps are analogous rather than homologous. The origin of carnivory within the ancestors of the Droseraceae has been dated to 85.6 million years ago, with the evolution of snap-traps dated to 48 million years ago. Researchers have hypothesized that carnivory in the Droseraceae began with simple flypaper traps, followed by movement of tentacles in some Drosera-like species, followed by movement of leaves, leading eventually to the development of snap-traps in Dionaea and Aldrovanda by increasing the speed of the leaf movements and altering the morphology of the leaves. Due to the sister relationship of Dionaea and Aldrovanda, it is likely that the snap-trap mechanism only evolved once, but it is unknown if the common ancestor was terrestrial or aquatic. 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247238	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Palomino	Carlos Palomino	Carlos Palomino (born August 10, 1949) is a retired Mexican professional boxer. Palomino is a former World Welterweight Champion and member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Palomino is also an actor who has been featured in several television shows and films. He achieved a considerable amount of fame during the 1970s, especially among Mexican and Southern California fans. Early life He moved to Los Angeles, California from his native Mexico when he was ten years old. Amateur boxing career Palomino was an All-U.S. Army champion in 1971 and 1972. As an amateur, Palomino won the 1972 National AAU Light Welterweight Champion at 137 lb., defeating eventual Olympic gold medalist Ray Seales. He was discharged from the Army later that year and enrolled at Orange Coast College and later Long Beach State, where he obtained a degree. Professional boxing career In 1972, his name was becoming better known in California. This was likely caused by the number of his fights taking place there. He won five fights (one by knockout) in 1973. In 1974, Palomino went through an increment in quality of opposition. He won six fights and lost one. He beat David Arellano twice, by a decision in ten and by knockout in nine, as well as Tommy Howard, by decision in ten, but he lost to Andy Price, who was a title contender at the time, by decision in ten in San Diego. In 1975, he won four fights, and drew in two. He and Zovek Baraja had two bouts that year, the first one resulting in a ten-round draw and the second one being a nine-round knockout win for Palomino. He also drew with Hedgemon Lewis. WBC Welterweight Championship After winning two fights in 1976, Palomino found himself and his trainers travelling to London, where an internationally televised world championship bout awaited him against WBC world Welterweight champion John H. Stracey, a British boxing teacher who had dethroned José Nápoles as world champion. Palomino became a world champion on the night of June 22 of that year at Wembley Arena, after Stracey eventually succumbed to a blistering body attack and was put on the canvas twice from left hooks to the liver. Many Mexicans who viewed Nápoles, a Cuban born resident of Mexico, as another countryman, saw this as a revenge from Stracey. He waited six months for his next fight, against another very popular boxer of Mexican background: cross-town rival Armando Muñíz. This was a fight that had many fans guessing who'd win it for months before it happened, but it also made history in the boxing books: When Palomino and Muñíz met, on January 21, 1977, it was the first time in boxing history two college graduates met for a world title. Palomino earned a degree in recreation administration from Long Beach State, while Muniz had graduated from Cal State Los Angeles, where he majored in Spanish and minored in math, and was working toward a graduate degree in administration. Palomino and Muniz (now a high school teacher in California) fought what the book The Ring: Boxing in the 20th. Century has described as one of the best fights of 1977. After 14 rounds, all three judges had the fight tied on their scorecards, but Palomino scored two knockdowns in the fifteenth and final round and he retained the world title by a knockout in that final round. A return to London resulted in an 11th-round knockout victory over Dave Boy Green, after which he defended against Everaldo Costa Azevedo and Jose Palacios, Azevedo being defeated by decision in fifteen and Palacios by knockout in thirteen. Azevedo was actually beating Palomino for the first 10 rounds of the fight. In 1978, he defended his crown with a win over Ryu Sorimachi by a knockout in seven, a knockout in nine over Mimoun Mohatar, and a decision in fifteen in his long-awaited rematch with Muniz. His championship run ended in 1979, when he traveled to Puerto Rico, where he was defeated on January 13 by hometown boxer Wilfred Benítez via a controversial fifteen-round split decision. Referee Zach Clayton scored the fight 145–142 in Palomino's favor, but judges Jay Edson and Harry Gibbs disagreed. Edson scored the bout 146-142 for Benítez. Gibbs also scored for Benítez, 146–143. Palomino vs. Durán In his next fight, Palomino met legendary Roberto Durán on June 22 of that year at Madison Square Gardens, in another nationally televised bout, as part of the Larry Holmes–Mike Weaver world Heavyweight championship bout's undercard. Palomino lost to Duran by decision in ten rounds, and he announced his retirement from boxing right away. Boxing comeback Palomino began his comeback on January 10, 1997, beating Ismaél Díaz by a knockout in round nine. He won four fights that year, including one over former world champion Rene Arredondo, but when he lost by decision in ten to former Oscar De La Hoya world title challenger Wilfredo Rivera on May 30, 1998, he decided to retire for good, and has stayed in retirement ever since. After boxing Acting career In 1978 while still the WBC Welterweight Champion, Palomino appeared as 'Carlos Navarone' in the ABC sitcom Taxi. Appearing in the second episode of the opening season ("One-Punch Banta"), he spars with Tony Banta (Tony Danza – himself a former professional boxer with a 9–3 record) and takes a dive. Palomino appears as himself in an episode of "The White Shadow" in 1979. In 1980, Miller Lite beer signed Palomino as a spokesman as part of a television commercial campaign that also included Walt Frazier and other noted athletes. As a consequence of the enjoyable experience and the media exposure that followed, he decided to launch a career as an actor. He participated in a number of movies and television series, before deciding to launch a boxing comeback at the age of 48, in 1997. Palomino appeared on Star Trek: Voyager episode "The Fight". This episode was original aired on March 24, 1999. Palomino was elected as chairman of the California State Athletic Commission, where he performed for a few years. He is now involved in charity work, most notably Tony Baltazar's charity organization, and he travels around the United States to attend charity events and do autograph shows. IBHF Palomino was selected to the International Boxing Hall of Fame on January 8, 2004. He was inducted on June 13. Personal life On March 14, 1980, his younger brother, Paul Palomino – a member of the U.S. boxing team en route to Poland for a competition – was killed in the crash of LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007. On December 19, 2008, Palomino's girlfriend, Daliene Ingram, was featured in an episode of Are You Smarter Than A Fifth Grader?. Her daughter Alexa, a fifth grader, was the extra classmate at the Mystery Desk for the occasion. Professional boxing record See also List of Mexican boxing world champions List of WBC world champions List of welterweight boxing champions References External links Carlos Palomino ESPN article by Tim Graham (June 11, 2004) Miller Light 1981 television commercial 1949 births Living people Boxers from Sonora Sportspeople from San Luis Río Colorado Welterweight boxers World boxing champions World Boxing Council champions World welterweight boxing champions Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers United States Army soldiers American male boxers	[ -0.36816051602363586, 0.10805631428956985, -0.5994157195091248, 0.16626985371112823, -0.1631368100643158, 0.35628288984298706, 0.31894272565841675, 0.7656494975090027, -0.3424566388130188, 0.03645530343055725, 0.4593527913093567, 0.7788036465644836, -0.46217650175094604, -0.40853533148765564, -0.459606796503067, 0.2862515449523926, 0.004517871420830488, 0.3214980959892273, -0.38643878698349, -0.17962026596069336, 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247243	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochoa	Cochoa	The cochoas (from cocho, Nepali for Cochoa purpurea) are medium-sized frugivorous, insectivorous and molluscivorous birds in the genus Cochoa. Their bright contrasting plumage patterns, sexual dimorphism and feeding habits made their systematic position difficult to ascertain in early times, Richard Bowdler Sharpe placed them with the Prionopidae in 1879 while many considered them as some kind of aberrant thrush. The genus was previously included in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae but molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that it is more closely related to the thrush family Turdidae. These are southeast Asian forest-dwelling species, often found near water. The genus contains the following species: Purple cochoa, Cochoa purpurea Green cochoa, Cochoa viridis Sumatran cochoa, Cochoa beccarii Javan cochoa, Cochoa azurea References Bird genera	[ -0.49911049008369446, 0.44704368710517883, -0.619672417640686, -0.1836968958377838, 0.0394110344350338, 0.21590226888656616, 0.20891603827476501, 0.9336035847663879, -0.2836514413356781, -0.14266104996204376, -0.06641563773155212, 0.04414353519678116, -0.6515184044837952, -0.3796274960041046, -0.6530601978302002, 0.36272647976875305, 0.6482884883880615, 0.5771474242210388, 0.032240718603134155, -0.27554112672805786, -0.07946158200502396, -0.8202201724052429, 0.017050065100193024, -0.15659324824810028, 0.059906598180532455, 0.18154001235961914, -0.31831130385398865, 0.7787097692489624, 0.7919823527336121, 0.04500250518321991, 0.11015722155570984, 0.9524633288383484, 1.0950927734375, -0.04750414192676544, -0.15291506052017212, 0.32143890857696533, -0.3175111711025238, -0.40374231338500977, 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247252	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%20thrush	Palm thrush	The palm thrushes are medium-sized insectivorous birds in the genus Cichladusa. They were formerly in the thrush family Turdidae, but are now treated as part of the Old World flycatcher Muscicapidae. These are tropical African species which nest in palm trees or buildings. The genus includes the following species: Collared palm thrush, Cichladusa arquata Rufous-tailed palm thrush, Cichladusa ruficauda Spotted palm thrush, Cichladusa guttata References Taxa named by Wilhelm Peters	[ -0.3004184365272522, 0.1700979322195053, -1.2980438470840454, -0.32853078842163086, 0.040285732597112656, 0.469028502702713, 0.2704671621322632, 0.8157380819320679, -0.7051822543144226, -0.01616322435438633, 0.0028573935851454735, 0.568335771560669, -0.3880263566970825, 0.3102966547012329, -0.041722506284713745, 0.775037407875061, -0.01607464998960495, 0.4428028464317322, 0.41847044229507446, -0.5583746433258057, -0.10015208274126053, -0.8041902780532837, 0.6980668902397156, -0.3311159014701843, 0.525718092918396, 0.007818072102963924, 0.42597687244415283, 0.9146224856376648, 0.38165757060050964, 0.1493900567293167, -0.2773069441318512, 0.9200344681739807, 0.35505104064941406, 0.08284870535135269, 0.17961978912353516, -0.1410594880580902, -0.4135890603065491, 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247253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax%20%28British%20band%29	Anthrax (British band)	Anthrax are an English anarcho-punk band formed in Gravesend, Kent, England, in 1980. They recorded their first demo in 1981 and went on to release two 7" EPs on Crass Records and Small Wonder Records. They appeared on compilations released by Crass Records, Mortarhate Records and Fightback Records. They toured outside the UK twice in the Netherlands with Dutch band The Ex. In 2007, the band issued a compilation album, One Last Drop, which included demos, both EPs, the Mortarhate compilation track and two live tracks. The band reformed in 2010, releasing new (and debut) album All for the Cause in 2012. Two split singles followed in 2015. Line-up Oskar – vocals Gareth – bass Pete – drums Dee – guitar Laurence Windle – bass Shaun – rhythm guitar Discography Demos 81 Demo (Tape 1981) Capitalism Gives Opportunities in Life, Anarchy Gives Life (Tape 1982) EPs Capitalism is Cannibalism (EP, Crass Records, 1982) They've Got It All Wrong (EP, Small Wonder Records, 1983) One Last Drop / Welcome (CD single, Happy Release 2, 2009) Split EP (DL, 2015) [w/PedAgree Skum, Dog Shite, SLUG] Split EP (7"/DL, 2015) [w/Hagar the Womb] Album All for the Cause (LP/CD/DL, 2012) Compilation tracks "All the Wars" on Bullshit Detector Volume 2 (LP Compilation, Crass Records, 1982) "It'll Be Alright on the Night" on Who? What? Why? Where? When? (LP Compilation, Mortarhate Records, 1983) "Violence Is Violence 82" on We Don't Want Your Fucking War! (LP Compilation, Fightback Records, 1984) Reissue "Capitalism is Cannibalism" EP, on A Sides. Part Two. 1982-1985 (LP Compilation, Crass Records 1985) "It'll Be Alright on the Night", on We Won't Take No More (CD Compilation, Go Kart Records, 2001) "It'll Be Alright on the Night", on Who? What? Why? Where? When? (CD Compilation,Mortarhate Records, 2003) "Violence Is Violence 82", on We Don't Want Your Fucking War! (CD Compilation, Mortarhate Records, 2006) One Last Drop (Compilation CD, Happy Release Records, 2007) References External links Interview with vocalist Oskar on Scanner Zine website conducted in 2008 Anarcho-punk groups English punk rock groups Musical groups established in 1980 Musical groups disestablished in 1984 People from Gravesend, Kent Musical groups from Kent	[ 0.6570063829421997, 0.23387132585048676, -0.8246532082557678, -0.6956793069839478, -0.6339947581291199, 0.6782109141349792, 0.6443339586257935, 0.1446344554424286, 0.01698564551770687, 0.1944151073694229, 0.18703986704349518, 0.12637411057949066, -0.945118248462677, 0.4636695683002472, -0.015182403847575188, 0.02805442549288273, -0.01952059380710125, 0.4115332365036011, -0.36229512095451355, -0.2980891168117523, 0.0698469877243042, -0.08018887042999268, 0.16904155910015106, 0.28388485312461853, 0.2679733633995056, 0.1379658579826355, 0.2971852719783783, -0.37062403559684753, 0.25663357973098755, -0.14992544054985046, 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247254	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magpie-robin	Magpie-robin	The magpie-robins or shamas (from shama, Bengali and Hindi for C. malabaricus) are medium-sized insectivorous birds (some also eat berries and other fruit) in the genus Copsychus. They were formerly in the thrush family Turdidae, but are now treated as part of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae. They are garden- and forest-dwelling species found in Africa and Asia. The genus Copsychus was introduced by the German naturalist Johann Georg Wagler in 1827. The type species was subsequently designated as the Oriental magpie-robin (Copsychus saularis) by the English zoologist George Robert Gray in 1840. The name Copsychus is from the Ancient Greek kopsukhos or kopsikhos, meaning "blackbird". The genus contains 13 species: The Seychelles magpie-robin is one of the most endangered birds in the world, with a population of less than 250, although this is a notable increase from just 16 in 1970. 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247256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shama	Shama	Shama may refer to: Shama (film), a 1946 Bollywood film Shama (magazine), an Urdu language film and literary magazine published from 1939-1999 Shama (TV series), a 2011 Television Show Shama District, Ghana Shama, Ghana, capital of the district Shama (Ghana parliament constituency) Shama language, a Kainji language of Nigeria Shema Yisrael, daily prayer in Judaism another name for Draupadi, wife of Pandavas the proper name of star HD 99109 Shamas or Magpie-robins, of the genera Copsychus and Trichixos Shama or Samatva, a Hindu philosophy term meaning to have equal consideration or reserved judgement See also Shamas (disambiguation) Shamma, a traditional garment worn by men in the highlands of Ethiopia	[ 0.21723344922065735, 0.35496270656585693, -0.5413492918014526, -0.26722362637519836, -0.41754212975502014, 0.7449393272399902, 0.669063925743103, -0.09378417581319809, -0.6361804008483887, 0.028958259150385857, -0.4856094419956207, 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247261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann%E2%80%93Roch%20theorem	Riemann–Roch theorem	The Riemann–Roch theorem is an important theorem in mathematics, specifically in complex analysis and algebraic geometry, for the computation of the dimension of the space of meromorphic functions with prescribed zeros and allowed poles. It relates the complex analysis of a connected compact Riemann surface with the surface's purely topological genus g, in a way that can be carried over into purely algebraic settings. Initially proved as Riemann's inequality by , the theorem reached its definitive form for Riemann surfaces after work of Riemann's short-lived student . It was later generalized to algebraic curves, to higher-dimensional varieties and beyond. Preliminary notions A Riemann surface is a topological space that is locally homeomorphic to an open subset of , the set of complex numbers. In addition, the transition maps between these open subsets are required to be holomorphic. The latter condition allows one to transfer the notions and methods of complex analysis dealing with holomorphic and meromorphic functions on to the surface . For the purposes of the Riemann–Roch theorem, the surface is always assumed to be compact. Colloquially speaking, the genus of a Riemann surface is its number of handles; for example the genus of the Riemann surface shown at the right is three. More precisely, the genus is defined as half of the first Betti number, i.e., half of the -dimension of the first singular homology group with complex coefficients. The genus classifies compact Riemann surfaces up to homeomorphism, i.e., two such surfaces are homeomorphic if and only if their genus is the same. Therefore, the genus is an important topological invariant of a Riemann surface. On the other hand, Hodge theory shows that the genus coincides with the -dimension of the space of holomorphic one-forms on , so the genus also encodes complex-analytic information about the Riemann surface. A divisor is an element of the free abelian group on the points of the surface. Equivalently, a divisor is a finite linear combination of points of the surface with integer coefficients. Any meromorphic function gives rise to a divisor denoted defined as where is the set of all zeroes and poles of , and is given by The set is known to be finite; this is a consequence of being compact and the fact that the zeros of a (non-zero) holomorphic function do not have an accumulation point. Therefore, is well-defined. Any divisor of this form is called a principal divisor. Two divisors that differ by a principal divisor are called linearly equivalent. The divisor of a meromorphic 1-form is defined similarly. A divisor of a global meromorphic 1-form is called the canonical divisor (usually denoted ). Any two meromorphic 1-forms will yield linearly equivalent divisors, so the canonical divisor is uniquely determined up to linear equivalence (hence "the" canonical divisor). The symbol denotes the degree (occasionally also called index) of the divisor , i.e. the sum of the coefficients occurring in . It can be shown that the divisor of a global meromorphic function always has degree 0, so the degree of a divisor depends only on its linear equivalence class. The number is the quantity that is of primary interest: the dimension (over ) of the vector space of meromorphic functions on the surface, such that all the coefficients of are non-negative. Intuitively, we can think of this as being all meromorphic functions whose poles at every point are no worse than the corresponding coefficient in ; if the coefficient in at is negative, then we require that has a zero of at least that multiplicity at – if the coefficient in is positive, can have a pole of at most that order. The vector spaces for linearly equivalent divisors are naturally isomorphic through multiplication with the global meromorphic function (which is well-defined up to a scalar). Statement of the theorem The Riemann–Roch theorem for a compact Riemann surface of genus with canonical divisor states Typically, the number is the one of interest, while is thought of as a correction term (also called index of speciality) so the theorem may be roughly paraphrased by saying dimension − correction = degree − genus + 1. Because it is the dimension of a vector space, the correction term is always non-negative, so that This is called Riemann's inequality. Roch's part of the statement is the description of the possible difference between the sides of the inequality. On a general Riemann surface of genus , has degree , independently of the meromorphic form chosen to represent the divisor. This follows from putting in the theorem. In particular, as long as has degree at least , the correction term is 0, so that The theorem will now be illustrated for surfaces of low genus. There are also a number other closely related theorems: an equivalent formulation of this theorem using line bundles and a generalization of the theorem to algebraic curves. Examples The theorem will be illustrated by picking a point on the surface in question and regarding the sequence of numbers i.e., the dimension of the space of functions that are holomorphic everywhere except at where the function is allowed to have a pole of order at most . For , the functions are thus required to be entire, i.e., holomorphic on the whole surface . By Liouville's theorem, such a function is necessarily constant. Therefore, . In general, the sequence is an increasing sequence. Genus zero The Riemann sphere (also called complex projective line) is simply-connected and hence its first singular homology is zero. In particular its genus is zero. The sphere can be covered by two copies of , with transition map being given by Therefore, the form on one copy of extends to a meromorphic form on the Riemann sphere: it has a double pole at infinity, since Thus, its divisor (where is the point at infinity). Therefore, the theorem says that the sequence reads 1, 2, 3, ... . This sequence can also be read off from the theory of partial fractions. Conversely if this sequence starts this way, then must be zero. Genus one The next case is a Riemann surface of genus , such as a torus , where is a two-dimensional lattice (a group isomorphic to ). Its genus is one: its first singular homology group is freely generated by two loops, as shown in the illustration at the right. The standard complex coordinate on yields a one-form on that is everywhere holomorphic, i.e., has no poles at all. Therefore, , the divisor of is zero. On this surface, this sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ... ; and this characterises the case . Indeed, for , , as was mentioned above. For with , the degree of is strictly negative, so that the correction term is 0. The sequence of dimensions can also be derived from the theory of elliptic functions. Genus two and beyond For , the sequence mentioned above is 1, 1, ?, 2, 3, ... . It is shown from this that the ? term of degree 2 is either 1 or 2, depending on the point. It can be proven that in any genus 2 curve there are exactly six points whose sequences are 1, 1, 2, 2, ... and the rest of the points have the generic sequence 1, 1, 1, 2, ... In particular, a genus 2 curve is a hyperelliptic curve. For it is always true that at most points the sequence starts with ones and there are finitely many points with other sequences (see Weierstrass points). Riemann–Roch for line bundles Using the close correspondence between divisors and holomorphic line bundles on a Riemann surface, the theorem can also be stated in a different, yet equivalent way: let L be a holomorphic line bundle on X. Let denote the space of holomorphic sections of L. This space will be finite-dimensional; its dimension is denoted . Let K denote the canonical bundle on X. Then, the Riemann–Roch theorem states that The theorem of the previous section is the special case of when L is a point bundle. The theorem can be applied to show that there are g linearly independent holomorphic sections of K, or one-forms on X, as follows. Taking L to be the trivial bundle, since the only holomorphic functions on X are constants. The degree of L is zero, and is the trivial bundle. Thus, Therefore, , proving that there are g holomorphic one-forms. Degree of canonical bundle Since the canonical bundle has , applying Riemann–Roch to gives which can be rewritten as hence the degree of the canonical bundle is . Riemann–Roch theorem for algebraic curves Every item in the above formulation of the Riemann–Roch theorem for divisors on Riemann surfaces has an analogue in algebraic geometry. The analogue of a Riemann surface is a non-singular algebraic curve C over a field k. The difference in terminology (curve vs. surface) is because the dimension of a Riemann surface as a real manifold is two, but one as a complex manifold. The compactness of a Riemann surface is paralleled by the condition that the algebraic curve be complete, which is equivalent to being projective. Over a general field k, there is no good notion of singular (co)homology. The so-called geometric genus is defined as i.e., as the dimension of the space of globally defined (algebraic) one-forms (see Kähler differential). Finally, meromorphic functions on a Riemann surface are locally represented as fractions of holomorphic functions. Hence they are replaced by rational functions which are locally fractions of regular functions. Thus, writing for the dimension (over k) of the space of rational functions on the curve whose poles at every point are not worse than the corresponding coefficient in D, the very same formula as above holds: where C is a projective non-singular algebraic curve over an algebraically closed field k. In fact, the same formula holds for projective curves over any field, except that the degree of a divisor needs to take into account multiplicities coming from the possible extensions of the base field and the residue fields of the points supporting the divisor. Finally, for a proper curve over an Artinian ring, the Euler characteristic of the line bundle associated to a divisor is given by the degree of the divisor (appropriately defined) plus the Euler characteristic of the structural sheaf . The smoothness assumption in the theorem can be relaxed, as well: for a (projective) curve over an algebraically closed field, all of whose local rings are Gorenstein rings, the same statement as above holds, provided that the geometric genus as defined above is replaced by the arithmetic genus ga, defined as (For smooth curves, the geometric genus agrees with the arithmetic one.) The theorem has also been extended to general singular curves (and higher-dimensional varieties). Applications Hilbert polynomial One of the important consequences of Riemann–Roch is it gives a formula for computing the Hilbert polynomial of line bundles on a curve. If a line bundle is ample, then the Hilbert polynomial will give the first degree giving an embedding into projective space. For example, the canonical sheaf has degree , which gives an ample line bundle for genus . If we set then the Riemann–Roch formula reads Giving the degree Hilbert polynomial of Because the tri-canonical sheaf is used to embed the curve, the Hilbert polynomial is generally considered while constructing the Hilbert scheme of curves (and the moduli space of algebraic curves). This polynomial is and is called the Hilbert polynomial of an genus g curve. Pluricanonical embedding Analyzing this equation further, the Euler characteristic reads as Since for , since its degree is negative for all , implying it has no global sections, there is an embedding into some projective space from the global sections of . In particular, gives an embedding into where since . This is useful in the construction of the moduli space of algebraic curves because it can be used as the projective space to construct the Hilbert scheme with Hilbert polynomial . Genus of plane curves with singularities An irreducible plane algebraic curve of degree d has (d − 1)(d − 2)/2 − g singularities, when properly counted. It follows that, if a curve has (d − 1)(d − 2)/2 different singularities, it is a rational curve and, thus, admits a rational parameterization. Riemann-Hurwitz formula The Riemann–Hurwitz formula concerning (ramified) maps between Riemann surfaces or algebraic curves is a consequence of the Riemann–Roch theorem. Clifford's theorem on special divisors Clifford's theorem on special divisors is also a consequence of the Riemann–Roch theorem. It states that for a special divisor (i.e., such that ) satisfying the following inequality holds: Proof Proof for algebraic curves The statement for algebraic curves can be proved using Serre duality. The integer is the dimension of the space of global sections of the line bundle associated to D (cf. Cartier divisor). In terms of sheaf cohomology, we therefore have , and likewise . But Serre duality for non-singular projective varieties in the particular case of a curve states that is isomorphic to the dual . The left hand side thus equals the Euler characteristic of the divisor D. When D = 0, we find the Euler characteristic for the structure sheaf is by definition. To prove the theorem for general divisor, one can then proceed by adding points one by one to the divisor and ensure that the Euler characteristic transforms accordingly to the right hand side. Proof for compact Riemann surfaces The theorem for compact Riemann surfaces can be deduced from the algebraic version using Chow's Theorem and the GAGA principle: in fact, every compact Riemann surface is defined by algebraic equations in some complex projective space. (Chow's Theorem says that any closed analytic subvariety of projective space is defined by algebraic equations, and the GAGA principle says that sheaf cohomology of an algebraic variety is the same as the sheaf cohomology of the analytic variety defined by the same equations). One may avoid the use of Chow's theorem by arguing identically to the proof in the case of algebraic curves, but replacing with the sheaf of meromorphic functions h such that all coefficients of the divisor are nonnegative. Here the fact that the Euler characteristic transforms as desired when one adds a point to the divisor can be read off from the long exact sequence induced by the short exact sequence where is the skyscraper sheaf at P, and the map returns the th Laurent coefficient, where . Generalizations of the Riemann–Roch theorem The Riemann–Roch theorem for curves was proved for Riemann surfaces by Riemann and Roch in the 1850s and for algebraic curves by Friedrich Karl Schmidt in 1931 as he was working on perfect fields of finite characteristic. As stated by Peter Roquette, The first main achievement of F. K. Schmidt is the discovery that the classical theorem of Riemann–Roch on compact Riemann surfaces can be transferred to function fields with finite base field. Actually, his proof of the Riemann–Roch theorem works for arbitrary perfect base fields, not necessarily finite. It is foundational in the sense that the subsequent theory for curves tries to refine the information it yields (for example in the Brill–Noether theory). There are versions in higher dimensions (for the appropriate notion of divisor, or line bundle). Their general formulation depends on splitting the theorem into two parts. One, which would now be called Serre duality, interprets the term as a dimension of a first sheaf cohomology group; with the dimension of a zeroth cohomology group, or space of sections, the left-hand side of the theorem becomes an Euler characteristic, and the right-hand side a computation of it as a degree corrected according to the topology of the Riemann surface. In algebraic geometry of dimension two such a formula was found by the geometers of the Italian school; a Riemann–Roch theorem for surfaces was proved (there are several versions, with the first possibly being due to Max Noether). An n-dimensional generalisation, the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem, was found and proved by Friedrich Hirzebruch, as an application of characteristic classes in algebraic topology; he was much influenced by the work of Kunihiko Kodaira. At about the same time Jean-Pierre Serre was giving the general form of Serre duality, as we now know it. Alexander Grothendieck proved a far-reaching generalization in 1957, now known as the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem. His work reinterprets Riemann–Roch not as a theorem about a variety, but about a morphism between two varieties. The details of the proofs were published by Armand Borel and Jean-Pierre Serre in 1958. Later, Grothendieck and his collaborators simplified and generalized the proof. Finally a general version was found in algebraic topology, too. These developments were essentially all carried out between 1950 and 1960. After that the Atiyah–Singer index theorem opened another route to generalization. Consequently, the Euler characteristic of a coherent sheaf is reasonably computable. For just one summand within the alternating sum, further arguments such as vanishing theorems must be used. See also Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem Kawasaki's Riemann–Roch formula Hilbert polynomial Moduli of algebraic curves Notes References Borel, Armand & Serre, Jean-Pierre (1958), Le théorème de Riemann–Roch, d'après Grothendieck, Bull.S.M.F. 86 (1958), 97–136. Grothendieck, Alexander, et al. (1966/67), Théorie des Intersections et Théorème de Riemann–Roch (SGA 6), LNM 225, Springer-Verlag, 1971. See pages 208–219 for the proof in the complex situation. Note that Jost uses slightly different notation. , contains the statement for curves over an algebraically closed field. See section IV.1. . A good general modern reference. Vector bundles on Compact Riemann Surfaces, M. S. Narasimhan, pp. 5–6. Misha Kapovich, The Riemann–Roch Theorem (lecture note) an elementary introduction J. Gray, The Riemann–Roch theorem and Geometry, 1854–1914. 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247262	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20eye	Private eye	Private eye or Private Eye may refer to: Private investigator, a hired detective Private Eye, a British news, investigative and satirical magazine Film and television Private Eyes (1953 film), a film starring The Bowery Boys The Private Eyes (1976 film), a Hong Kong film starring Michael Hui The Private Eyes (1980 film) a film starring Don Knotts and Tim Conway Private Eye (1987 film), a 1987 TV film starring Josh Brolin Private Eye (TV series), a 1987–1988 American series based on the film Private Eye (film), a 2009 South Korean film Private Eyes (TV series), a 2016 Canadian series starring Jason Priestley Literature The Private Eye, a 2013 comics series by Brian K. Vaughan and Marcos Martín Private Eyes (play), a 1996 play by Steven Dietz "Private Eye", a 1949 short story by Lewis Padgett (Henry Kuttner and C. L. Moore) Music "Private Eye" (song), a 2001 song by Alkaline Trio "Private Eye", a song on the album Adultery by Dog Fashion Disco Private Eyes (Hall & Oates album), 1981 "Private Eyes" (song), the title song Private Eyes (Tommy Bolin album), 1976 Other uses Private Eye (1983 video game), a game from Activision Private Eye (1996 video game), a game from Brooklyn Multimedia Private Eye Project, an American educational program See also Privatize, to transfer ownership from the public to the private sector	[ 0.19392931461334229, 0.12944337725639343, 0.061262764036655426, 0.09841515868902206, -0.05677122622728348, 0.34980666637420654, 0.30248361825942993, 0.29337865114212036, -0.6061039566993713, 0.17799703776836395, -0.45936062932014465, 1.0018635988235474, -0.09251474589109421, 0.061526309698820114, 0.1564784198999405, 0.23837624490261078, 0.7480490803718567, 0.07135052978992462, -0.2563580572605133, -0.486432284116745, -0.43066349625587463, -0.41087061166763306, 0.554627001285553, 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247265	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes%20of%20the%20Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Atlantiques%20department	Communes of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department	The following is a list of the 546 communes of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020): Communauté d'agglomération Pau Béarn Pyrénées Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque Communauté de communes Adour Madiran (partly) Communauté de communes du Béarn des Gaves Communauté de communes du Haut Béarn Communauté de communes de Lacq-Orthez Communauté de communes des Luys en Béarn Communauté de communes du Nord-Est Béarn Communauté de communes du Pays de Nay (partly) Communauté de communes de la Vallée d'Ossau References Pyrenees-Atlantiques	[ -0.18965677917003632, 0.4949204921722412, -0.7212146520614624, -0.4204283058643341, -0.6222347617149353, 0.3228756785392761, 0.6063010096549988, 0.7263361215591431, -0.6010629534721375, -1.2288442850112915, -0.8044610619544983, 0.4965638220310211, -0.28265896439552307, 0.5098874568939209, 0.03926103562116623, 0.9002744555473328, 0.5191828608512878, 0.3724569082260132, 0.2289588451385498, -1.067038655281067, -0.3845366835594177, 0.01271537970751524, 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247269	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus%20%28disambiguation%29	Cyprus (disambiguation)	Cyprus is an island country in Europe in the east Mediterranean, officially known as the Republic of Cyprus. Cyprus may also refer to: Places British Cyprus Cyprus (island), the island that Republic of Cyprus and self-declared Northern Cyprus is located on Cyprus, London, an area of London, United Kingdom, named after the island Kingdom of Cyprus (1192–1489) Roman Cyprus, a small senatorial province within the Roman Empire Transportation Cyprus Airways (1947–2015) Cyprus (1816 ship) MV Cyprus C, an Empire F type coaster in the service of Malglaive Shipping Ltd 1948–1950 SS Cyprus, a U.S. ship launched and sunk in 1907 Cyprus, a brig seized by convicts in the Cyprus mutiny of 1829 45605 Cyprus, a British LMS Jubilee Class locomotive Other uses Cyprus (domino game) Cyprus (European Parliament constituency), a European Parliament constituency covering the state of Cyprus Cyprus (wine) Cyprus DLR station, a metropolitan transport station serving the area of Cyprus, London (see above) Tabby cats, once known as Cyprus cats in England See also Northern Cyprus, a self-declared state Cypres, an automatic activation device for parachuting Cy-près doctrine, an equitable legal doctrine dealing with charitable trusts Cypress (disambiguation) Cypris (disambiguation)	[ 0.18276146054267883, 0.1985788494348526, -0.14134256541728973, -0.1324952244758606, 0.13834866881370544, -0.07469720393419266, 0.02118792198598385, 0.19326892495155334, -0.8427537679672241, 0.35498473048210144, -0.5228340029716492, -0.019679831340909004, -0.7804114818572998, 0.0954066812992096, -0.4206996262073517, 0.7928664088249207, 0.3297244608402252, 0.5686757564544678, 0.12738578021526337, -0.4609752297401428, 0.11265432089567184, -0.034770894795656204, 0.2872430980205536, 0.056975141167640686, -0.40653178095817566, 0.3608733117580414, 0.7932897210121155, 0.3902844190597534, -0.41993698477745056, -0.07499559968709946, -0.06163628771901131, -0.08555193245410919, -0.15984246134757996, -0.04616860672831535, 0.44846707582473755, 0.442322313785553, -0.02338760532438755, -0.33295539021492004, -0.24433831870555878, 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247274	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended%20family	Extended family	An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents like father, mother, and their children, aunts, uncles, grandparents, and cousins, all living in the same household. Particular forms include the stem and joint families. Description In some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the immediate family. These families include, in one household, relatives in addition to an immediate family. An example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children due to old age. In modern Western cultures dominated by immediate family constructs, the term has come to be used generically to refer to grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins, whether they live together within the same household or not. However, it may also refer to a family unit in which several generations live together within a single household. In some cultures, the term is used synonymously with consanguineous family. A stem family, a kind of extended family, first discussed by Frédéric Le Play, parents will live with one child and his/her spouse, as well as the children of both, while other children will leave the house or remain in it, unmarried. The stem family is sometimes associated with inegalitarian inheritance practices, as in Japan and Korea, but the term has also been used in some contexts to describe a family type where parents live with a married child and his or her spouse and children, but the transfer of land and moveable property is more or less egalitarian, as in the case of traditional Romania, northeastern Thailand or Mesoamerican indigenous peoples. In these cases, the child who cares for the parents usually receives the house in addition to his or her own share of land and moveable property. In an extended family, parents and their children's families may often live under a single roof. This type of joint family often includes multiple generations in the family. Three to four generations stay together under a single roof. The joint family follow common culture, have equal rights over property and celebrate all the festivals and functions of the family together. They are a coherent group. From culture to culture, the variance of the term may have different meanings. With globalization, increasing urbanization people have become more individualistic and consider family secondary. In the joint family, the workload is shared among the members. The patriarch of the family (often the oldest male member) is the head of the household. Grandparents are usually involved in the raising process of the children along with guidance and education. Like any family unit, the success and structure are dependent on the personalities of the individuals involved. Amy Goyer, AARP multigenerational issues expert, said the most common multigenerational household is one with a grandparent as head of the household and his adult children having moved in with their children, an arrangement usually spurred by the needs of one or both to combine resources and save money. The second most popular is a grandparent moving in with an adult child's family, usually for care-giving reasons. She noted that 2.5 million grandparents say they are responsible for the basic needs of the grandchild living with them. The house often has a large reception area and a common kitchen. Each family has their own bedroom. The members of the household also look after each other when a member is ill. Sociology Often, it has been presumed that extended family groups sharing a single household enjoy specific advantages, such as a greater sense of security and belonging due to sharing a wider pool of members to serve as resources during a crisis, and more role models to help perpetuate desired behavior and cultural values. However, even in cultures in which adults are expected to leave home after marriage to begin their own nuclear-based households, the extended family often forms an important support network offering similar advantages. Particularly in working-class communities, grown children tend to establish their own households within the same general area as their parents, aunts, uncles, and grandparents. These extended family members tend to gather often for family events and to feel responsible for helping and supporting one another, both emotionally and financially. While contemporary families may be considered more mobile in general than in the past, sociologists find that this has not necessarily resulted in the disintegration of extended family networks. Rather, technological aids such as the Internet and social networking sites such as Facebook are now commonly used to retain contact and maintain these family ties. Particularly in the case of single-parent households, it can be helpful for extended family members to share a single household in order to share the burden of meeting expenses. On the other hand, sharing a household can present a disadvantage depending on the sizes and number of families involved, particularly when only a few members shoulder most of the responsibility to meet expenses for the family's basic needs. An estimated 49 million Americans (16.1% of the total population) live in homes comprising three or more generations, up from 42 million in 2000. This situation is similar in Western Europe. Another 34 percent live within a kilometer of their children. Around the world In many cultures, such as in those of Asians, Middle Easterners, Africans, Indigenous peoples like Native Americans and Pacific Islanders, and Latin Americans and Caribbeans, even for Eastern Europeans and Southern Europeans (Orthodox/Catholic countries), extended families are the basic family unit. That is to say the modern western nuclear family is not the norm. Even in Western Europe, extended families (mostly of the stem type) were also clearly prevalent, England being a rare exception. In Britain and the United States, during the Industrial Revolution (approximately 1750 to 1900), more people lived in extended families than at any time before or since. It is common for today's world to have older children in nuclear families to reach walking up to driving age ranges before meeting extended family members. Geographical isolation is common for middle-class families who move based on occupational opportunities while family branches "retain [their] basic independence". Some extended families hold family reunions or opportunities for gathering regularly, normally around holiday time frames, to reestablish and integrate a stronger family connection. This allows individual nuclear families to connect with extended family members. Australian Aborigines are another group for whom the concept of family extends well beyond the nuclear model. Aboriginal immediate families include aunts, uncles and a number of other relatives who would be considered "distant relations" in the context of the nuclear family. Aboriginal families have strict social rules regarding whom they can marry. Their family structure incorporates a shared responsibility for all tasks. Where families consist of multiple generations living together, the family is usually headed by the elders. More often than not, it consists of grandparents, their sons, and their sons' families in patriarchal and especially patrilineal societies. Extended families make discussions together and solve the problem. Indian subcontinent Historically, for generations South Asia had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system or undivided family. The joint family system is an extended family arrangement prevalent throughout the Indian subcontinent, particularly in India, consisting of many generations living in the same home, all bound by the common relationship. A patrilineal joint family consists of an older man and his wife, his sons and unmarried daughters, his sons’ wives and children. The family is headed by a patriarch, usually the oldest male, who makes decisions on economic and social matters on behalf of the entire family. The patriarch's wife generally exerts control over the household, minor religious practices and often wields considerable influence in domestic matters. Family income flows into a common pool, from which resources are drawn to meet the needs of all members, which are regulated by the heads of the family. Recent trend in the United States In the early stages of the twentieth century, it was not very common to find many families with extended kin in their household, which may have been due to the idea that the young people in these times typically waited to establish themselves and start a household before they married and filled a home. As life expectancy becomes older and programs such as Social Security benefit the elderly, the old are now beginning to live longer than prior generations, which then may lead to generations mixing together. According to results of a study by Pew Research Center in 2010, approximately 50 million (nearly one in six) Americans, including rising numbers of seniors, live in households with at least two adult generations, and often three. It has become an ongoing trend for elderly generations to move in and live with their children, as they can give them support and help with everyday living. The main reasons cited for this shift are an increase in unemployment and slumped housing prices and arrival of new immigrants from Asian and South American countries. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there were 2.7 million grandparents raising their grandchildren in 2009. The dramatic increase in grandparent-headed households has been attributed to many factors including parental substance abuse. In 2003, the number of U.S. "family groups" where one or more subfamilies live in a household (e.g. a householder's daughter has a child. The mother-child is a subfamily) was 79 million. Two-point-six million of U.S. multigenerational family households in 2000 had a householder, the householder's children, and the householder's grandchildren. That's 65 percent of multigenerational family households in the U.S. So it is twice as common for a grandparent to be the householder than for adult children to bring parents into their home. The increase in the number of multigenerational households has created complex legal issues, such as who in the household has authority to consent to police searches of the family home or private bedrooms. Besides the legal issues that multigenerational households could create, there are issues that may arise from households where the grandparents are the sole guardians. The Supporting Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Act was signed into law on July 7, 2018 after unanimously passing the U.S. House and Senate. It was first introduced in the Senate on May 10, 2017 by Senators Susan Collins (R-ME) and Bob Casey Jr. (D-PA). Out of this came The Supporting Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Advisory Council which will identify, promote, coordinate, and disseminate to the public information, resources, and the best practices available to help grandparents and other older relatives both meet the needs of the children in their care and maintain their own physical and mental health and emotional well-being. Mexico Mexican society is composed of three-generational units consisting of grandparents, children, and grandchildren. Further close relationships are maintained with the progenitors of these families and are known as kin or "cousins". When one is born, they are born into two extended families, a kinship group of sometimes 70 people. The group traditionally acts as a cohesive unit, pooling resources and influence. The extended family also consists of spouses and siblings. This is in contrast to the two generational American nuclear family. Some scholars have used the term "grand-family" to describe the close relationship between grandparents, children, and grandchildren in Mexican society. Larissa A. Lomnitz and Marisol Perez-Lizaur, for example, describe the grand-family as "the basic unit of family solidarity in Mexico", where basic family obligations between grandparents, children, and grandchildren include "economic support, participation in family rituals, and social recognition". Economic background Economic background has become a very prominent factor in the likelihood of living in an extended family. Many families who live in low-income areas are beginning to move in with one another for financial and emotional support. The relative economic deprivation of racial and ethnic minorities leads to higher levels of extended family involvement; primarily because blacks and Latinos have less money and education than whites, they are more likely to give and receive help from kin. Having family on which one can rely is very important in times of economic hardship especially if there are children involved. Living in an extended family provides constant care for children and support for other members of the family as well. Analysis of the National Survey of Families and Households suggests there are differences between whites and other ethnic groups because of economic differences among racial groups: blacks and Latinos less often have the economic resources that allow the kind of privatization that the nuclear family entails. Extended kinship, then, is a survival strategy in the face of economic difficulties. Being able to rely on not only two parents but grandparents, aunts, uncles, brothers, and sisters helps to create a support system which in turn brings families closer together. Living in an extended family provides many things that a nuclear family does not. The number of multigenerational households has been steadily rising because of the economic hardships people are experiencing today. According to the AARP, multigenerational households have increased from 5 million in 2000 to 6.2 million in 2008. "There's no question that with some ethnicities that are growing in America, it is more mainstream and traditional to have multigenerational households. We're going to see that increasing in the general population as well," says AARP's Ginzler. While high unemployment and housing foreclosures of the recession have played a key role in the trend, Pew Research Center exec VP and co-author of its multigenerational household study Paul Taylor said it has been growing over several decades, fueled by demographic and cultural shifts such as the rising number of immigrants and the rising average age of young-adult marriages. The importance of an extended family is one that many people may not realize, but having a support system and many forms of income may help people today because of the difficulties in finding a job and bringing in enough money. 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247279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobianchi	Autobianchi	Autobianchi () was an Italian automobile manufacturer, created jointly by Bianchi, Pirelli and Fiat in 1955. Autobianchi produced only a handful of models during its lifetime, which were almost exclusively small cars, with the biggest being the short-lived Autobianchi A111, a small family car. Autobianchis were priced higher than Fiat models of similar size and the brand was used by Fiat to test innovative concepts which later found their way into mainstream Fiat vehicles; these concepts included fibreglass bodies and front-wheel drive. The most famous Autobianchi models include the A112 released in 1969, a small hatchback very popular in Italy for racing, and which ceased production in 1986; as well as the Y10, which was the first car to use Fiat's new FIRE (Fully Integrated Robotised Engine). With the Primula model, Fiat was able to introduce and proof an innovative front-engine, front-drive layout, which enabled an especially large interior volume and ultimately became the predominant front engine/drive layout, worldwide. Autobianchi was subsequently purchased by the Fiat group and integrated into the operations of Lancia. The Autobianchi marque survived in Italy until 1995, when Y10 production ended. History Origins Bianchi, founded by Edoardo Bianchi in 1885 and now remembered primarily as a bicycle manufacturer, was also active in passenger car manufacturer from 1899. Bianchis were in general high-end luxury cars, made with high attention to detail. The company's factory in Abruzzi was destroyed by bombing during World War II. Edoardo Bianchi himself died in 1946 in a car accident, and the ownership of the firm passed to his son, Giuseppe. Even though a new, modern facility was constructed in Desio after the war, economic conditions forced Giuseppe not to resume passenger car production, but rather to focus on bicycles, motorcycles and commercial vehicles. Bianchi bicycles are still manufactured. Bianchi's general manager, Ferruccio Quintavalle, wanted to take advantage of the company's extensive experience in manufacturing cars and ordered the preparation of studies and prototypes of possible new models. Soon it became apparent that resuming passenger car production would not be feasible without a help of stronger partner. Therefore, Bianchi turned to large industrial groups Fiat and Pirelli with a proposal to form a new company to produce automobiles. Thus, the Autobianchi company was born, with the agreement signed by the three parties on 11 January 1955 and share capital of 3 million lira, 33% of which belonged to the Bianchi family. A new, modern, purpose-built plant for the production of Autobianchi cars was erected on an area of 140,000 square metres in Desio. Each of the partners had a clearly defined role and interest in the venture. Fiat was to provide the technical base and components for the assembly of the cars. It was seeking to capture the premium niche of the small car market, at that time occupied by coachbuilders such as Moretti and Vignale, who were building their models on Fiat chassis. Pirelli, which was to supply tires for the cars, sought to expand their OEM market share. Bianchi, was assigned the duties of preparing the bodies and assembling complete vehicles; a step towards their desired return to full passenger car production. The Bianchina The first car to be produced by the new company was the Bianchina, whose name was a tribute to Edoardo Bianchi's first 1899 car. The Bianchina was based on Fiat 500 mechanicals – with its two-cylinder, air-cooled engine mounted in the rear – but featured a completely new stylish body designed by Luigi Rapi, who was in charge of Fiat's special body unit and helped to set up production in Desio. With many premium design and equipment features, the Bianchina was an upscale city car, positioned above the Fiat 500 in the market. Marketed as a "second vehicle in the household", and a luxurious "recreational vehicle", also being targeted at affluent middle-class women, it mirrored the increasing affluence in Italian society. The first Bianchina rolled from the production lines in Desio on September 11, 1957, and had the unusual body style of a two-door landaulet, called "Trasformabile". It remained the sole body style until 1960, when a two-door "Cabriolet" full convertible was introduced, followed by a three-door estate version, the "Panoramica" and a two-door saloon, the "Berlina". Finally, two van versions were launched: one resembling a two-seater version of the Panoramica, and another, with a raised and expanded cargo section. Stellina and Primula – Autobianchi pioneers new concepts Five years after the debut of the Bianchina, at the 1963 Turin Motor Show, a completely new Autobianchi model debuted: the Autobianchi Stellina. A two-door spider based on the Fiat 600D's chassis was distinguished by its fibreglass body, designed by Tom Tjaarda. It was Italy's first car with such a body. The vehicle was only produced for two years (1964 and 1965) and only 502 Stellinas were made. Nevertheless, the model was an important step in the development of new technology for Fiat and the rest of the automotive industry. Its lofty price-tag of almost a million lira further emphasized the elevated status of the Autobianchi brand within the Fiat empire. Even more important was the following year's presentation, the Autobianchi Primula. It was Fiat's first attempt at a front-wheel drive car with a transverse engine, a configuration popularized by the British Mini and allowing for very compact and efficient utilization of the body space. Designed by Fiat's technical director, Dante Giacosa, it was launched under the Autobianchi brand to test market reaction to the new concept. The Primula's particular configuration of front wheel drive with a transverse engine, but with a gearbox on the end of the engine and unequal length drive shafts, rather than a gearbox in the sump like the Mini, became universal; as did its use of conventional steel suspension in almost all other cars with the exception of Citroen – usually MacPherson struts at the front and a "dead" rear axle. Indeed, Peugeot in facelifting their 305 range on the early 1980s switched from their former adherence to the Mini in-sump gearbox to the Primula's end-on gearbox configuration. The Primula is thus a car design of far greater significance than is often realised, as its design influence spread far beyond even the mainstream high volume Fiats such as the 127 and the 128 of the late 1960s. Even though the new Autobianchi was priced higher than Fiat models of similar size, the car met with a favorable reception. Fiat would gradually move all of its models to front-wheel drive. Throughout its production run the Primula was available as a two-door or five-door saloon, three-door of five-door hatchback, and two-door coupé, with either a 1,221 cc or a 1,197 cc four-cylinder engine. The top-of-the-line Primula Coupé S used a 75 PS (SAE) 1,438 cc four-cylinder from the Fiat 124 Special. The lack of a fifth gear limited the high-end capacity of all Primula models. Into the 1970s Facing a crisis in the motorcycle market, Bianchi was forced to sell its share in Autobianchi and the company was finally fully integrated into Fiat S.p.A. in 1968. 1969 marked many important developments for the marque. First of all, Bianchina production was finally stopped. Moreover, Autobianchi was positioned within the Fiat Group under the control of the newly acquired luxury marque Lancia. And significantly, two new Autobianchi models were launched this year: the Autobianchi A111 and Autobianchi A112, both named after their internal Fiat development codes, in a similar fashion to coeval Fiat-branded vehicles. The A111 was derived from Primula mechanicals, but much bigger and more spacious, marking the first (and only) entry of the brand into the small family car class. As usual, it was priced higher than similar Fiat models, notably the first front-wheel drive Fiat per se, the Fiat 128, and did not much find much favour with customers. After little more than 50,000 A111s were made, production ended in 1972. The A112 was much more successful. A modern, front-wheel drive supermini it was in many ways similar to the Innocenti Mini, which gained substantial popularity in Italy, following on from the popularity of the original Mini throughout Europe. Similarly, the A112 saw strong demand and built a loyal following, reinforced by the introduction of Abarth sporting versions and Autobianchi's engagement in racing with modified versions of the model. With Primula production ceasing in 1970 and the quick demise of the A111, Autobianchi became effectively a one-model brand. Consequently, the A112 was marketed as a Lancia from the mid-1970s in most markets, except for Italy, France and Israel, where it retained the Autobianchi branding until the end of production. Discontinuation The A112 continued in production for 17 years, with frequent, often substantial, changes. After production over 1,250,000, the last A112 was built in May 1986 and was replaced by the Autobianchi Y10, based mechanically on the Fiat Panda. Branded as a Lancia for most export markets (except for France and Israel, until 1989), it retained Autobianchi badging and branding in Italy. The Desio plant closed in 1992 and the Y10 replaced by the Lancia Y (branded as Lancia in all markets including Italy), the Autobianchi brand ended in 1996. The rights to the brand are now held by the Registro Autobianchi, the official club of the marque in Italy. References External links Registro Autobianchi Car manufacturers of Italy Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of Italy Fiat Bianchi (company) Italian companies established in 1955 Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1955 Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1995 Italian automotive pioneers	[ 0.6029554009437561, -0.16284187138080597, 0.4184412360191345, -0.13644397258758545, 0.22888733446598053, 0.45287829637527466, -0.11360857635736465, -0.040692027658224106, 0.08451373875141144, -0.05714176595211029, 0.3511267304420471, 0.5075346827507019, -0.08849166333675385, 0.3735796809196472, -0.3631822168827057, -0.36543333530426025, 0.43171969056129456, 0.20826639235019684, -0.003859020071104169, -0.44384682178497314, 0.4176328778266907, 0.3642538785934448, 0.3140648901462555, 0.18266445398330688, -0.5863145589828491, 0.2203814834356308, 0.5675005316734314, 0.3605411648750305, 0.14968757331371307, 0.026760555803775787, 0.4694726765155792, 0.3536679744720459, 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247287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%20Vegas%20Aviators	Las Vegas Aviators	The Las Vegas Aviators, formerly known as the Las Vegas 51s and Las Vegas Stars, are a Minor League Baseball team of the Triple-A West and the Triple-A affiliate of the Oakland Athletics. They are located in Summerlin South, Nevada, a community in Las Vegas. The Aviators play their home games at Las Vegas Ballpark, a new 10,000-seat facility. The team previously played at Cashman Field from 1983 to 2018. They were members of the Pacific Coast League (PCL) from 1983 to 2020 and won the PCL championship as the Stars in 1986 and 1988. History Las Vegas Stars (1983–2000) The Las Vegas Pacific Coast League franchise traces its roots to the Portland Beavers who entered the PCL in 1919 after a two-year hiatus. The team relocated to Spokane, Washington, in 1973, becoming the Spokane Indians. The franchise moved once again in 1983, becoming the Las Vegas Stars. The Stars, who were the Triple-A affiliate of the San Diego Padres, became the first professional sports team to play in Las Vegas since the Las Vegas Wranglers baseball club who played from 1947 to 1952 and 1957 to 1958. The Stars' inaugural season was quite successful, posting an 83–60 record and winning the first-half championship for the Southern Division leading to a playoff berth, but eventually losing to the Albuquerque Dukes. The following season, the Stars posted another successful campaign, going 71–65 and winning their second division championship (first half), but ultimately losing in the league semifinals to the Hawaii Islanders. After a dismal 1985 campaign, the Stars finished the 1986 season with an 80–62 record and won the second half of the Southern Division. In the league semifinals, the Stars defeated the Phoenix Firebirds, 3–2, and went on to win their first PCL championship, defeating the Vancouver Canadians in five games. The Stars won their second PCL championship in 1988, once again defeating Vancouver, this time in four games. After winning five division titles and two league championships in their first six years, the Stars hit a skid, posting a .500 or better record only four times and winning shares of only two division championships in the following 12 years. The Stars were unable to advance past the first round of the playoffs in both seasons that they qualified. The team's affiliation with the Padres ended after the 2000 season. Las Vegas 51s (2001–2018) In 2001, Las Vegas became the top farm club of the Los Angeles Dodgers. The new affiliation was accompanied by rebranding to the Las Vegas 51s in reference to Area 51, a military base located north-northwest of Las Vegas legendary for rumors of its housing UFOs and other extraterrestrial technology. The team adopted a logo featuring a grey alien head and introduced an extraterrestrial mascot named Cosmo. A new affiliate, moniker, and appearance did not translate into improved performance on the field. The 51s experienced only two winning seasons during their eight years as the Triple-A Dodgers. Their only division title came under manager Brad Mills in 2002 as the team posted the best record in the league at 85–59, but lost three games to one to the eventual PCL champion Edmonton Trappers. On March 24, 2008, Mandalay Baseball Properties sold the 51s franchise to Stevens Baseball Group. There were no plans to move the team, and talks of building a new stadium to replace the ageing Cashman Field became stagnant. The Dodgers and the 51s had a rocky relationship during their eight-year affiliation. The Dodgers were not pleased with Cashman Field, which barely met the standards for Triple-A baseball. It had no weight room or indoor batting cages, and it was decrepit compared to other stadiums in the league. Citing the inadequacies of Cashman and lack of planning for a replacement, Los Angeles decided not to renew their player development contract (PDC) with Las Vegas after the 2008 season. Following the departure of the Los Angeles Dodgers, the 51s signed a PDC with the Toronto Blue Jays, marking the first time that the 51s were affiliated with an American League club. The only time the team finished over .500 with the Blue Jays was in 2012 when Marty Brown led the team to a 79–64 second-place finish. The Blue Jays ended their affiliation with the 51s after the season. In April 2013, the team was purchased by Summerlin Las Vegas Baseball Club LLC, a joint venture of Howard Hughes Corp and Play Ball Owners Group, including investors Steve Mack, Bart Wear, and Chris Kaempfer, with intentions of moving it to a proposed stadium in Summerlin near the Red Rock Resort Spa and Casino. The 51s became affiliated with the New York Mets in 2013 when they were the only Triple-A team left without an MLB parent. They won back-to-back division titles in 2013 and 2014 under manager Wally Backman, but were eliminated in the Pacific Conference championship series on both occasions. In 2017 the 51s became one of the first teams to participate in the Copa de la Diversión initiative and for selected games played as the Reyes de Plata ("Silver Kings"). The name was a nod to Nevada being the "Silver State" and a homage to the contribution migrant workers made to the mining industry of Nevada. In October 2017, the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority approved a 20-year, $80 million naming rights agreement to help pay for the new $150 million 10,000-seat ballpark which opened in 2019. Las Vegas Ballpark, located in Summerlin, includes 22 suites, a center field pool, kids' zone, and several bars. Construction began in 2018 and was completed for the 2019 season. In late 2017, the Mets announced plans to move its Triple-A affiliation to the Syracuse Mets beginning in 2019, meaning the 51s would be in need of a new major league affiliate. Las Vegas Aviators (2019–present) Following the conclusion of the 2018 season, Las Vegas signed a two-year PDC with the Oakland Athletics that runs through 2020. In addition to having a new major league affiliate in 2019 and playing in a new ballpark, the team also changed its name to the Las Vegas Aviators. The name is in reference to aviation pioneer Howard Hughes. The team's new logo depicts a pilot wearing a flight helmet and utilizes their new color scheme of navy blue, orange, tangerine, gold, yellow, and gray. Their first home game at Las Vegas Ballpark was a 10–2 win against the Sacramento River Cats on April 9 before a sellout crowd of 11,036. Las Vegas secured the win with a five-run second inning in which Skye Bolt scored the winning run when he came home on a fielding error. Aviators pitchers Chris Bassitt and Daniel Mengden combined to strikeout 14 Sacramento batters. The start of the 2020 season was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic before ultimately being cancelled on June 30. In conjunction with Major League Baseball's restructuring of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Aviators were organized into the Triple-A West. Las Vegas ended the season in third place in the Western Division with a 62–58 record. No playoffs were held to determine a league champion; instead, the team with the best regular-season record was the declared the winner. However, 10 games that had been postponed from the start of the season were reinserted into the schedule as a postseason tournament called the Triple-A Final Stretch in which all 30 Triple-A clubs competed for the highest winning percentage over that stretch. Las Vegas finished the tournament tied for 13th place with a 3–3 record. Season-by-season records Media The Las Vegas Aviators are covered by Las Vegas' two daily newspapers, the Las Vegas Review-Journal and Las Vegas Sun. Every Aviators game is broadcast by KRLV 920-AM, with Russ Langer as the broadcast's play-by-play man. Several prominent sports radio and television personalities made their start as broadcaster for the Stars and 51s, most notably Fox Sports' Colin Cowherd. Broadcasters Bob Blum (1985–2005) Dick Calvert (1983) Colin Cowherd (1987–1988) Joe Hawk (1983) Ken Korach (1989–1995) Russ Langer (2000–present) Tim Neverett (1996–2003, 2005–2006) Paul Olden (1984–1987) Jerry Reuss (1994–1995,1999, 2005–present) Jon Sandler (1993–1999) Dom Valentino (1983–1985, 1987–1989) Rich Waltz (1990–1992) Roster Award winners PCL MVP 1983 – Kevin McReynolds 1986 – Tim Pyznarski 1988 – Sandy Alomar, Jr. 1989 – Sandy Alomar, Jr. 2001 – Phil Hiatt 2009 – Randy Ruiz 2010 – J. P. Arencibia PCL Rookie of the Year 2017 – Amed Rosario PCL Manager of the Year 2002 – Brad Mills 2014 – Wally Backman 2019 – Fran Riordan PCL Executive of the Year 1992 – Don Logan 1998 – Don Logan 2018 – Don Logan Notable alumni Roberto Alomar Sandy Alomar, Jr. Pete Alonso Carlos Baerga Bruce Bochy Larry Bowa (manager) Jolbert Cabrera Chin-Feng Chen Michael Conforto David Cooper Joey Cora Ike Davis Cody Decker Jake deGrom Edwin Encarnación Andre Ethier Wilmer Flores Éric Gagné Nomar Garciaparra (rehab) Ozzie Guillén Robert Gsellman Tony Gwynn D. J. Houlton Edwin Jackson Matt Kemp Ty Kelly John Kruk Seth Lugo Russell Martin Gary Matthews, Jr. Steven Matz Kevin McReynolds Brad Mills (Manager) Norihiro Nakamura T.J. Rivera Amed Rosario Cody Ross David Ross Jerry Royster (Manager) Benito Santiago Dominic Smith Noah Syndergaard Joe Thurston Kevin Towers (General Manager) Shane Victorino Jayson Werth Zack Wheeler Steve Yeager (hitting coach) References External links Official website Statistics from Baseball-Reference Pacific Coast League teams San Diego Padres minor league affiliates Los Angeles Dodgers minor league affiliates Toronto Blue Jays minor league affiliates New York Mets minor league affiliates Oakland Athletics minor league affiliates Baseball teams established in 1983 Professional baseball teams in Nevada Sports teams in Las Vegas 1983 establishments in Nevada Triple-A West teams	[ 0.09927505999803543, -0.13354793190956116, -0.5342310070991516, 0.3326377868652344, 0.058712705969810486, -0.23459599912166595, 0.1385214626789093, 0.31609973311424255, -0.3486908972263336, -0.3053385317325592, 0.19621111452579498, 0.5053572058677673, -0.13842034339904785, 0.04966529458761215, 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247288	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial%20fraction%20decomposition	Partial fraction decomposition	In algebra, the partial fraction decomposition or partial fraction expansion of a rational fraction (that is, a fraction such that the numerator and the denominator are both polynomials) is an operation that consists of expressing the fraction as a sum of a polynomial (possibly zero) and one or several fractions with a simpler denominator. The importance of the partial fraction decomposition lies in the fact that it provides algorithms for various computations with rational functions, including the explicit computation of antiderivatives, Taylor series expansions, inverse Z-transforms, and inverse Laplace transforms. The concept was discovered independently in 1702 by both Johann Bernoulli and Gottfried Leibniz. In symbols, the partial fraction decomposition of a rational fraction of the form where and are polynomials, is its expression as where is a polynomial, and, for each , the denominator is a power of an irreducible polynomial (that is not factorable into polynomials of positive degrees), and the numerator is a polynomial of a smaller degree than the degree of this irreducible polynomial. When explicit computation is involved, a coarser decomposition is often preferred, which consists of replacing "irreducible polynomial" by "square-free polynomial" in the description of the outcome. This allows replacing polynomial factorization by the much easier to compute square-free factorization. This is sufficient for most applications, and avoids introducing irrational coefficients when the coefficients of the input polynomials are integers or rational numbers. Basic principles Let be a rational fraction, where and are univariate polynomials in the indeterminate over a field. The existence of the partial fraction can be proved by applying inductively the following reduction steps. Polynomial part There exist two polynomials and such that and where denotes the degree of the polynomial . This results immediately from the Euclidean division of by , which asserts the existence of and such that and This allows supposing in the next steps that Factors of the denominator If and where and are coprime polynomials, then there exist polynomials and such that and This can be proved as follows. Bézout's identity asserts the existence of polynomials and such that (by hypothesis, is a greatest common divisor of and ). Let with be the Euclidean division of by Setting one gets It remains to show that By reducing the last sum of fractions to a common denominator, one gets and thus Powers in the denominator Using the preceding decomposition inductively one gets fractions of the form with where is an irreducible polynomial. If , one can decompose further, by using that an irreducible polynomial is a square-free polynomial, that is, is a greatest common divisor of the polynomial and its derivative. If is the derivative of , Bézout's identity provides polynomials and such that and thus Euclidean division of by gives polynomials and such that and Setting one gets with Iterating this process with in place of leads eventually to the following theorem. Statement The uniqueness can be proved as follows. Let . All together, and the have coefficients. The shape of the decomposition defines a linear map from coefficient vectors to polynomials of degree less than . The existence proof means that this map is surjective. As the two vector spaces have the same dimension, the map is also injective, which means uniqueness of the decomposition. By the way, this proof induces an algorithm for computing the decomposition through linear algebra. If is field of complex numbers, the fundamental theorem of algebra implies that all have degree one, and all numerators are constants. When is the field of real numbers, some of the may be quadratic, so, in the partial fraction decomposition, quotients of linear polynomials by powers of quadratic polynomials may also occur. In the preceding theorem, one may replace "distinct irreducible polynomials" by "pairwise coprime polynomials that are coprime with their derivative". For example, the may be the factors of the square-free factorization of . When is the field of rational numbers, as it is typically the case in computer algebra, this allows to replace factorization by greatest common divisor computation for computing a partial fraction decomposition. Application to symbolic integration For the purpose of symbolic integration, the preceding result may be refined into This reduces the computation of the antiderivative of a rational function to the integration of the last sum, which is called the logarithmic part, because its antiderivative is a linear combination of logarithms. There are various methods to compute decomposition in the Theorem. One simple way is called Hermite's method. First, b is immediately computed by Euclidean division of f by g, reducing to the case where deg(f) < deg(g). Next, one knows deg(cij) < deg(pi), so one may write each cij as a polynomial with unknown coefficients. Reducing the sum of fractions in the Theorem to a common denominator, and equating the coefficients of each power of x in the two numerators, one gets a system of linear equations which can be solved to obtain the desired (unique) values for the unknown coefficients. Procedure Given two polynomials and , where the αi are distinct constants and deg P < n, partial fractions are generally obtained by supposing that and solving for the ci constants, by substitution, by equating the coefficients of terms involving the powers of x, or otherwise. (This is a variant of the method of undetermined coefficients.) A more direct computation, which is strongly related to Lagrange interpolation, consists of writing where is the derivative of the polynomial . The coefficients of are called the residues of f/g. This approach does not account for several other cases, but can be modified accordingly: If then it is necessary to perform the Euclidean division of P by Q, using polynomial long division, giving P(x) = E(x) Q(x) + R(x) with deg R < n. Dividing by Q(x) this gives and then seek partial fractions for the remainder fraction (which by definition satisfies deg R < deg Q). If Q(x) contains factors which are irreducible over the given field, then the numerator N(x) of each partial fraction with such a factor F(x) in the denominator must be sought as a polynomial with deg N < deg F, rather than as a constant. For example, take the following decomposition over R: Suppose and , that is is a root of of multiplicity . In the partial fraction decomposition, the first powers of will occur as denominators of the partial fractions (possibly with a zero numerator). For example, if the partial fraction decomposition has the form Illustration In an example application of this procedure, can be decomposed in the form Clearing denominators shows that . Expanding and equating the coefficients of powers of gives and Solving this system of linear equations for and yields . Hence, Residue method Over the complex numbers, suppose f(x) is a rational proper fraction, and can be decomposed into Let then according to the uniqueness of Laurent series, aij is the coefficient of the term (x − xi)−1 in the Laurent expansion of gij(x) about the point xi, i.e., its residue This is given directly by the formula or in the special case when xi is a simple root, when Over the reals Partial fractions are used in real-variable integral calculus to find real-valued antiderivatives of rational functions. Partial fraction decomposition of real rational functions is also used to find their Inverse Laplace transforms. For applications of partial fraction decomposition over the reals, see Application to symbolic integration, above Partial fractions in Laplace transforms General result Let f(x) be any rational function over the real numbers. In other words, suppose there exist real polynomials functions p(x) and q(x)≠ 0, such that By dividing both the numerator and the denominator by the leading coefficient of q(x), we may assume without loss of generality that q(x) is monic. By the fundamental theorem of algebra, we can write where a1,..., am, b1,..., bn, c1,..., cn are real numbers with bi2 − 4ci < 0, and j1,..., jm, k1,..., kn are positive integers. The terms (x − ai) are the linear factors of q(x) which correspond to real roots of q(x), and the terms (xi2 + bix + ci) are the irreducible quadratic factors of q(x) which correspond to pairs of complex conjugate roots of q(x). Then the partial fraction decomposition of f(x) is the following: Here, P(x) is a (possibly zero) polynomial, and the Air, Bir, and Cir are real constants. There are a number of ways the constants can be found. The most straightforward method is to multiply through by the common denominator q(x). We then obtain an equation of polynomials whose left-hand side is simply p(x) and whose right-hand side has coefficients which are linear expressions of the constants Air, Bir, and Cir. Since two polynomials are equal if and only if their corresponding coefficients are equal, we can equate the coefficients of like terms. In this way, a system of linear equations is obtained which always has a unique solution. This solution can be found using any of the standard methods of linear algebra. It can also be found with limits (see Example 5). Examples Example 1 Here, the denominator splits into two distinct linear factors: so we have the partial fraction decomposition Multiplying through by the denominator on the left-hand side gives us the polynomial identity Substituting x = −3 into this equation gives A = −1/4, and substituting x = 1 gives B = 1/4, so that Example 2 After long division, we have The factor x2 − 4x + 8 is irreducible over the reals, as its discriminant is negative. Thus the partial fraction decomposition over the reals has the shape Multiplying through by x3 − 4x2 + 8x, we have the polynomial identity Taking x = 0, we see that 16 = 8A, so A = 2. Comparing the x2 coefficients, we see that 4 = A + B = 2 + B, so B = 2. Comparing linear coefficients, we see that −8 = −4A + C = −8 + C, so C = 0. Altogether, The fraction can be completely decomposed using complex numbers. According to the fundamental theorem of algebra every complex polynomial of degree n has n (complex) roots (some of which can be repeated). The second fraction can be decomposed to: Multiplying through by the denominator gives: Equating the coefficients of and the constant (with respect to ) coefficients of both sides of this equation, one gets a system of two linear equations in and , whose solution is Thus we have a complete decomposition: One may also compute directly and with the residue method (see also example 4 below). Example 3 This example illustrates almost all the "tricks" we might need to use, short of consulting a computer algebra system. After long division and factoring the denominator, we have The partial fraction decomposition takes the form Multiplying through by the denominator on the left-hand side we have the polynomial identity Now we use different values of x to compute the coefficients: Solving this we have: Using these values we can write: We compare the coefficients of x6 and x5 on both side and we have: Therefore: which gives us B = 0. Thus the partial fraction decomposition is given by: Alternatively, instead of expanding, one can obtain other linear dependences on the coefficients computing some derivatives at in the above polynomial identity. (To this end, recall that the derivative at x = a of (x − a)mp(x) vanishes if m > 1 and is just p(a) for m = 1.) For instance the first derivative at x = 1 gives that is 8 = 4B + 8 so B = 0. Example 4 (residue method) Thus, f(z) can be decomposed into rational functions whose denominators are z+1, z−1, z+i, z−i. Since each term is of power one, −1, 1, −i and i are simple poles. Hence, the residues associated with each pole, given by are respectively, and Example 5 (limit method) Limits can be used to find a partial fraction decomposition. Consider the following example: First, factor the denominator which determines the decomposition: Multiplying everything by , and taking the limit when , we get On the other hand, and thus: Multiplying by and taking the limit when , we have and This implies and so . For , we get and thus . Putting everything together, we get the decomposition Example 6 (integral) Suppose we have the indefinite integral: Before performing decomposition, it is obvious we must perform polynomial long division and factor the denominator. Doing this would result in: Upon this, we may now perform partial fraction decomposition. so: . Upon substituting our values, in this case, where x=1 to solve for B and x=-2 to solve for A, we will result in: Plugging all of this back into our integral allows us to find the answer: The role of the Taylor polynomial The partial fraction decomposition of a rational function can be related to Taylor's theorem as follows. Let be real or complex polynomials assume that satisfies Also define Then we have if, and only if, each polynomial is the Taylor polynomial of of order at the point : Taylor's theorem (in the real or complex case) then provides a proof of the existence and uniqueness of the partial fraction decomposition, and a characterization of the coefficients. Sketch of the proof The above partial fraction decomposition implies, for each 1 ≤ i ≤ r, a polynomial expansion so is the Taylor polynomial of , because of the unicity of the polynomial expansion of order , and by assumption . Conversely, if the are the Taylor polynomials, the above expansions at each hold, therefore we also have which implies that the polynomial is divisible by For is also divisible by , so is divisible by . Since we then have and we find the partial fraction decomposition dividing by . Fractions of integers The idea of partial fractions can be generalized to other integral domains, say the ring of integers where prime numbers take the role of irreducible denominators. For example: Notes References External links Make partial fraction decompositions with Scilab. 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247290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel%20Petiot	Marcel Petiot	Marcel André Henri Félix Petiot (17 January 1897 – 25 May 1946) was a French doctor and serial killer. He was convicted of multiple murders after the discovery of the remains of 23 people in the basement of his home in Paris during World War II. He is suspected of the murder of around 60 victims during his lifetime, although the true number remains unknown. Early life Marcel Petiot was born on 17 January 1897 in Auxerre, Yonne, France. At the age of 11, Petiot fired his father's gun in class and propositioned a female classmate for sex. In his teenage years, he robbed a postbox and was charged with damage of public property and theft. Petiot was ordered to undergo a psychiatric evaluation, resulting in charges being dropped when it was discovered that he had a mental illness. Later accounts make various claims of Petiot's delinquency and criminal acts during his youth, but it is unclear whether they were invented afterwards for public consumption. A psychiatrist reaffirmed Petiot's mental illness on 26 March 1914. After being expelled from school many times, he finished his education in a special academy in Paris in July 1915. Petiot volunteered for the French Army in World War I, entering service in January 1916. He was wounded and gassed during the Second Battle of the Aisne, and exhibited more symptoms of a breakdown. Petiot was sent to various rest homes, where he was arrested for stealing army blankets, morphine, and other army supplies, as well as wallets, photographs, and letters; he was jailed in Orléans. In a psychiatric hospital in Fleury-les-Aubrais, Petiot was again diagnosed with various mental illnesses, but was returned to the front in June 1918. He was transferred three weeks later after he allegedly injured his own foot with a grenade, but was attached to a new regiment in September. A new diagnosis was enough to get him discharged with a disability pension. Medical and political career After the war, Petiot entered the accelerated education program intended for war veterans, completed medical school in eight months, and became an intern at the mental hospital in Évreux. He received his medical degree in December 1921 and moved to Villeneuve-sur-Yonne, where he received payment for his services both from the patients and from government medical assistance funds. At this point, Petiot was already using addictive narcotics. While working at Villeneuve-sur-Yonne, he gained a reputation for dubious medical practices, such as supplying narcotics and performing illegal abortions, as well as for petty theft. Petiot's first murder victim might have been Louise Delaveau, an elderly patient's daughter with whom Petiot had an affair in 1926. Delaveau disappeared in May of that year, and neighbors later said they had seen Petiot load a trunk into his car. Police investigated but eventually dismissed her case as a runaway. That same year, Petiot ran for mayor of Villeneuve-sur-Yonne and hired somebody to disrupt a political debate with his opponent. He won, and while in office embezzled town funds. The following year, Petiot married Georgette Lablais, the 23-year-old daughter of a wealthy landowner and butcher in Seignelay. Their son Gerhardt was born in April 1928. The prefect of Yonne received many complaints about Petiot's thefts and shady financial dealings. He was eventually suspended as mayor in August 1931 and resigned. However, Petiot still had many supporters, and the village council also resigned in sympathy with him. Five weeks later, on 18 October, he was elected as a councilor of Yonne Département. In 1932, he was accused of stealing electricity from the village and lost his council seat. By this point, he had already moved to Paris. In Paris, Petiot attracted patients by using fake credentials, and built an impressive reputation for his practice at 66 Rue de Caumartin. However, there were rumors of illegal abortions and excessive prescriptions of addictive remedies. In 1936, Petiot was appointed médecin d'état-civil, with authority to write death certificates. The same year, he was briefly institutionalized for kleptomania, but was released the following year. He persisted in tax evasion. World War II activities After the 1940 German defeat of France, French citizens were drafted for forced labor in Germany. Petiot provided false medical disability certificates to people who were drafted. He also treated the illnesses of workers who had returned. In July 1942, he was convicted of overprescribing narcotics, even though two addicts who would have testified against him had disappeared. He was fined 2,400 francs. Petiot later claimed that during the period of German occupation, he was engaged in Resistance activities. He supposedly developed secret weapons that killed Germans without leaving forensic evidence, planted booby traps all over Paris, had high-level meetings with Allied commanders, and worked with a (nonexistent) group of Spanish anti-fascists. There is no evidence to support any of these statements. However, in 1980, he was cited by former U.S. spymaster Col. John F. Grombach as a World War II source. Grombach had been founder and head of a small independent espionage agency, later known as "The Pond", which operated from 1942 to 1955. Grombach asserted that Petiot had reported the Katyn Forest massacre, German missile development at Peenemünde, and the names of Abwehr agents sent to the U.S. While these claims were not supported by any records of other intelligence services, in 2001, some "Pond" records were discovered, including a cable that mentioned Petiot. Fraudulent escape network Petiot's most lucrative activity during the Occupation was his false escape route. Under the codename "Dr. Eugène", Petiot pretended to have a means of getting people wanted by the Germans or the Vichy government to safety outside France. Petiot claimed that he could arrange a passage to Argentina or elsewhere in South America through Portugal, for a price of 25,000 francs per person. Three accomplices, Raoul Fourrier, Edmond Pintard, and René-Gustave Nézondet, directed victims to "Dr. Eugène", including Jews, Resistance fighters, and ordinary criminals. Once victims were in his control, Petiot told them that Argentine officials required all entrants to the country to be inoculated against disease, and with this excuse injected them with cyanide. He then took all their valuables and disposed of the bodies. At first, Petiot dumped the bodies in the Seine, but he later destroyed the bodies by submerging them in quicklime or incinerating them. In 1941, Petiot bought a house at 21 Rue le Sueur, near the Arc de Triomphe. He purchased the house the same week that Henri Lafont returned to Paris with money and permission from the Abwehr to recruit new members for the French Gestapo. Petiot failed to keep a low profile. The Gestapo eventually found out about him and by April 1943, they had heard all about this "route" for the escape of wanted persons, which they assumed was part of the Resistance. Gestapo agent Robert Jodkum forced prisoner Yvan Dreyfus to approach the supposed network, but Dreyfus simply vanished. A later informer successfully infiltrated the operation, and the Gestapo arrested Fourrier, Pintard and Nézondet. Under torture, they confessed that "Dr. Eugène" was Marcel Petiot. Nézondet was later released, but three others spent eight months in prison, suspected of helping Jews to escape. Even under torture, they did not identify any other members of the Resistance because they knew of none. The Gestapo released the three men in January 1944. Discovery of murders On 11 March 1944, Petiot's neighbors in Rue Le Sueur complained to police about a foul stench in the area and large amounts of smoke billowing from a chimney of the house. Fearing a chimney fire, the police summoned firemen, who entered the house and found a roaring fire in a coal stove in the basement. In the fire, and scattered in the basement, were human remains. In addition to those found in his basement, human remains were also found in a quicklime pit in the back yard and in a canvas bag. In his home, enough body parts were found to account for at least ten victims. Also scattered throughout his property were suitcases, clothing, and assorted property of his victims. The media reaction was an intense media circus, with news reaching Switzerland, Belgium, and Scandinavia. Evasion and capture During the intervening seven months, Petiot hid with friends, claiming that the Gestapo wanted him because he had killed Germans and informers. He eventually moved in with a patient, Georges Redouté, let his beard grow, and adopted various aliases. During the liberation of Paris in 1944, Petiot adopted the name "Henri Valeri" and joined the French Forces of the Interior (FFI) in the uprising. He became a captain in charge of counterespionage and prisoner interrogations. When the newspaper Resistance published an article about Petiot, his defense attorney from the 1942 narcotics case received a letter in which his fugitive client claimed that the published allegations were mere lies. This gave police a hint that Petiot was still in Paris. The search began anew – with "Henri Valeri" among those who were drafted to find him. Finally, on 31 October, Petiot was recognized at a Paris Métro station, and arrested. Among his possessions were a pistol, 31,700 francs, and 50 sets of identity documents. Trial and sentence Petiot was imprisoned in La Santé Prison. He claimed that he was innocent and that he had killed only enemies of France. He said that he had discovered the pile of bodies in 21 Rue le Sueur in February 1944, but had assumed that they were collaborators killed by members of his Resistance "network". However, the police found that Petiot had no friends in any of the major Resistance groups. Some of the Resistance groups he spoke of had never existed, and there was no proof of any of his claimed exploits. Prosecutors eventually charged him with at least 27 murders for profit. Their estimate of his gains ran to 200 million francs. Petiot went on trial on 19 March 1946, facing 135 criminal charges. René Floriot acted for the defense, against a team comprising state prosecutors and twelve civil lawyers hired by relatives of Petiot's victims. Petiot taunted the prosecuting lawyers, and claimed that various victims had been collaborators or double agents, or that vanished people were alive and well in South America under new names. He admitted to killing 19 of the 27 victims found in his house, and claimed that they were Germans and collaborators – part of a total of 63 "enemies" killed. Floriot attempted to portray Petiot as a Resistance hero, but the judges and jurors were unimpressed. Petiot was convicted of 26 counts of murder, and sentenced to death. On 25 May 1946, Petiot was beheaded, after a stay of a few days due to a problem in the release mechanism of the guillotine, and buried at Ivry Cemetery. See also Carlingue John Bodkin Adams Thomas Neill Cream Hawley Harvey Crippen H. H. Holmes William Palmer (murderer) Maxim Petrov Harold Shipman Michael Swango List of serial killers by number of victims References Bibliography Tomlins Marilyn Z. (2013) Die in Paris, Raven Crest Books, London: Jourdan Edouard (2017) Devil's Score: A tale of decadent omen, Amazon Publishing External links Tomlins, Marilyn Z. "Dr. Petiot Will See You Now" in Crime magazine 1897 births 1946 deaths Burials at Ivry Cemetery 20th-century French criminals Executed French people Executed people from Burgundy Executed serial killers French male criminals French military personnel of World War I French murderers of children French people convicted of murder French people convicted of tax crimes French people of World War II French politicians French serial killers Male serial killers Medical practitioners convicted of murdering their patients Medical serial killers People convicted of murder by France People executed by France by decapitation People executed by guillotine People executed by the Provisional Government of the French Republic People from Auxerre	[ -0.1610327661037445, -0.10241174697875977, -0.8620993494987488, 0.04389163479208946, 0.12595154345035553, 1.0197155475616455, 0.7241336703300476, -0.4457383453845978, -0.004267555195838213, -0.5779483318328857, -0.1559380143880844, 0.5613003373146057, 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247296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20abelian%20group	Free abelian group	In mathematics, a free abelian group is an abelian group with a basis. Being an abelian group means that it is a set with an addition operation that is associative, commutative, and invertible. A basis, also called an integral basis, is a subset such that every element of the group can be uniquely expressed as an integer combination of finitely many basis elements. For instance the two-dimensional integer lattice forms a free abelian group, with coordinatewise addition as its operation, and with the two points (1,0) and (0,1) as its basis. Free abelian groups have properties which make them similar to vector spaces, and may equivalently be called free the free modules over the integers. Lattice theory studies free abelian subgroups of real vector spaces. In algebraic topology, free abelian groups are used to define chain groups, and in algebraic geometry they are used to define divisors. The elements of a free abelian group with basis may be described in several equivalent ways. These include formal sums which are expressions of the form where each is a nonzero integer, each is a distinct basis element, and the sum has finitely many terms. Alternatively, the elements of a free abelian group may be thought of as signed multisets containing finitely many elements with the multiplicity of an element in the multiset equal to its coefficient in the formal sum. Another way to represent an element of a free abelian group is as a function from to the integers with finitely many nonzero values; for this functional representation, the group operation is the pointwise addition of functions. Every set has a free abelian group with as its basis. This group is unique in the sense that every two free abelian groups with the same basis are isomorphic. Instead of constructing it by describing its individual elements, a free group with basis may be constructed as a direct sum of copies of the additive group of the integers, with one copy per member Alternatively, the free abelian group with basis may be described by a presentation with the elements of as its generators and with the commutators of pairs of members as its relators. The rank of a free abelian group is the cardinality of a basis; every two bases for the same group give the same rank, and every two free abelian groups with the same rank are isomorphic. Every subgroup of a free abelian group is itself free abelian; this fact allows a general abelian group to be understood as a quotient of a free abelian group by "relations", or as a cokernel of an injective homomorphism between free abelian groups. The only free abelian groups that are free groups are the trivial group and the infinite cyclic group. Definition and examples A free abelian group is an abelian group that has a basis. Here, being an abelian group means that it is described by a set of its elements and a binary operation conventionally denoted as an additive group by the symbol (although it need not be the usual addition of numbers) that obey the following properties: The operation is commutative and associative, meaning for all elements and Therefore, when combining two or more elements of using this operation, the ordering and grouping of the elements does not affect the result. contains an identity element (conventionally denoted with the property that, for every Every element in has an inverse element such that A basis is a subset of the elements of with the property that every element of may be formed in a unique way by choosing finitely many basis elements choosing a nonzero integer for each of the chosen basis elements, and adding together copies of the basis elements for which is positive, and copies of for each basis element for which is negative. As a special case, the identity element can always be formed in this way as the combination of zero basis elements, according to the usual convention for an empty sum, and it must not be possible to find any other combination that represents the identity. The under the usual addition operation, form a free abelian group with the The integers are commutative and associative, with 0 as the additive identity and with each integer having an additive inverse, its negation. Each non-negative is the sum of copies and each negative integer is the sum of copies so the basis property is also satisfied. An example where the group operation is different from the usual addition of numbers is given by the positive rational numbers which form a free abelian group with the usual multiplication operation on numbers and with the prime numbers as their basis. Multiplication is commutative and associative, with the number as its identity and with as the inverse element for each positive rational The fact that the prime numbers forms a basis for multiplication of these numbers follows from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, according to which every positive integer can be factorized uniquely into the product of finitely many primes or their inverses. If is a positive rational number expressed in simplest terms, then can be expressed as a finite combination of the primes appearing in the factorizations of The number of copies of each prime to use in this combination is its exponent in the factorization of , or the negation of its exponent in the factorization The polynomials of a single with integer coefficients, form a free abelian group under polynomial addition, with the powers of as a basis. As an abstract group, this is the same as (an isomorphic group to) the multiplicative group of positive rational numbers. One way to map these two groups to each other, showing that they are isomorphic, is to reinterpret the exponent of the prime number in the multiplicative group of the rationals as instead giving the coefficient of in the corresponding polynomial, or vice versa. For instance the rational number has exponents of for the first three prime numbers and would correspond in this way to the polynomial having the same coefficients for its constant, linear, and quadratic terms. Because these mappings merely reinterpret the same numbers, they define a bijection between the elements of the two groups. And because the group operation of multiplying positive rationals acts additively on the exponents of the prime numbers, in the same way that the group operation of adding polynomials acts on the coefficients of the polynomials, these maps preserve the group structure; they are homomorphisms. A bijective homomorphism is called an isomorphism, and its existence demonstrates that these two groups have the same properties. Although the representation of each group element in terms of a given basis is unique, a free abelian group has generally more than one basis, and different bases will generally result in different representations of its elements. For example, if one replaces any element of a basis by its inverse, one gets another basis. As a more elaborated example, the two-dimensional integer lattice consisting of the points in the plane with integer Cartesian coordinates, forms a free abelian group under vector addition with the basis For this basis, the element can be written where 'multiplication' is defined so that, for instance, There is no other way to write in the same basis. However, with a different basis such as it can be written as Generalizing this example, every lattice forms a finitely-generated free abelian group. The integer lattice has a natural basis consisting of the positive integer unit vectors, but it has many other bases as well: if is a integer matrix with then the rows of form a basis, and conversely every basis of the integer lattice has this form. For more on the two-dimensional case, see fundamental pair of periods. Constructions Every set can be the basis of a free abelian group, which is unique up to group isomorphisms. The free abelian group for a given basis set can be constructed in several different but equivalent ways: as a direct sum of copies of the integers, as a family of integer-valued functions, as a signed multiset, or by presentation of a group. Products and sums The direct product of groups consists of tuples of an element from each group in the product, with pointwise addition. The direct product of two free abelian groups is itself free abelian, with basis the disjoint union of the bases of the two groups. More generally the direct product of any finite number of free abelian groups is free abelian. The integer lattice, for instance, is isomorphic to the direct product of copies of the integer The trivial group is also considered to be free abelian, with basis the empty set. It may be interpreted as an empty product, the direct product of zero copies For infinite families of free abelian groups, the direct product is not necessarily free abelian. For instance the Baer–Specker group an uncountable group formed as the direct product of countably many copies was shown in 1937 by Reinhold Baer to not be free abelian, although Ernst Specker proved in 1950 that all of its countable subgroups are free abelian. Instead, to obtain a free abelian group from an infinite family of groups, the direct sum rather than the direct product should be used. The direct sum and direct product are the same when they are applied to finitely many groups, but differ on infinite families of groups. In the direct sum, the elements are again tuples of elements from each group, but with the restriction that all but finitely many of these elements are the identity for their group. The direct sum of infinitely many free abelian groups remains free abelian. It has a basis consisting of tuples in which all but one element is the identity, with the remaining element part of a basis for its group. Every free abelian group may be described as a direct sum of copies with one copy for each member of its basis. This construction allows any set to become the basis of a free abelian group. Integer functions and formal sums Given a one can define a group whose elements are functions from to the integers, where the parenthesis in the superscript indicates that only the functions with finitely many nonzero values are included. If and are two such functions, then is the function whose values are sums of the values in that is, This pointwise addition operation gives the structure of an abelian group. Each element from the given set corresponds to a member the function for which and for which for Every function in is uniquely a linear combination of a finite number of basis elements: Thus, these elements form a basis and is a free abelian group. In this way, every set can be made into the basis of a free abelian group. The elements of may also be written as formal sums, expressions in the form of a sum of finitely many terms, where each term is written as the product of a nonzero integer with a distinct member These expressions are considered equivalent when they have the same terms, regardless of the ordering of terms, and they may be added by forming the union of the terms, adding the integer coefficients to combine terms with the same basis element, and removing terms for which this combination produces a zero coefficient. They may also be interpreted as the signed multisets of finitely many elements Presentation A presentation of a group is a set of elements that generate the group (meaning that all group elements can be expressed as products of finitely many generators), together with "relators", products of generators that give the identity element. The elements of a group defined in this way are equivalence classes of sequences of generators and their inverses, under an equivalence relation that allows inserting or removing any relator or generator-inverse pair as a contiguous subsequence. The free abelian group with basis has a presentation in which the generators are the elements and the relators are the commutators of pairs of elements Here, the commutator of two elements and is the product setting this product to the identity causes to so that and commute. More generally, if all pairs of generators commute, then all pairs of products of generators also commute. Therefore, the group generated by this presentation is abelian, and the relators of the presentation form a minimal set of relators needed to ensure that it is abelian. When the set of generators is finite, the presentation of a free abelian group is also finite, because there are only finitely many different commutators to include in the presentation. This fact, together with the fact that every subgroup of a free abelian group is free abelian (below) can be used to show that every finitely generated abelian group is finitely presented. For, if is finitely generated by a it is a quotient of the free abelian group over by a free abelian subgroup, the subgroup generated by the relators of the presentation But since this subgroup is itself free abelian, it is also finitely generated, and its basis (together with the commutators forms a finite set of relators for a presentation As a module The modules over the integers are defined similarly to vector spaces over the real numbers or rational numbers: they consist of systems of elements that can be added to each other, with an operation for scalar multiplication by integers that is compatible with this addition operation. Every abelian group may be considered as a module over the integers, with a scalar multiplication operation defined as follows: However, unlike vector spaces, not all abelian groups have a basis, hence the special name for those that do. A free module is a module that can be represented as a direct sum over its base ring, so free abelian groups and free are equivalent concepts: each free abelian group is (with the multiplication operation above) a free and each free comes from a free abelian group in this way. As well as the direct sum, another way to combine free abelian groups is to use the tensor product of The tensor product of two free abelian groups is always free abelian, with a basis that is the Cartesian product of the bases for the two groups in the product. Many important properties of free abelian groups may be generalized to free modules over a principal ideal domain. For instance, submodules of free modules over principal ideal domains are free, a fact that writes allows for "automatic generalization" of homological machinery to these modules. Additionally, the theorem that every projective is free generalizes in the same way. Properties Universal property A free abelian group with basis has the following universal property: for every function from to an abelian group , there exists a unique group homomorphism from to which extends . Here, a group homomorphism is a mapping from one group to the other that is consistent with the group product law: performing a product before or after the mapping produces the same result. By a general property of universal properties, this shows that "the" abelian group of base is unique up to an isomorphism. Therefore, the universal property can be used as a definition of the free abelian group of base . The uniqueness of the group defined by this property shows that all the other definitions are equivalent. It is because of this universal property that free abelian groups are called "free": they are the free objects in the category of abelian groups, the category that has abelian groups as its objects and homomorphisms as its arrows. The map from a basis to its free abelian group is a functor, a structure-preserving mapping of categories, from sets to abelian groups, and is adjoint to the forgetful functor from abelian groups to sets. However, a free abelian group is not a free group except in two cases: a free abelian group having an empty basis (rank zero, giving the trivial group) or having just one element in the basis (rank one, giving the infinite cyclic group). Other abelian groups are not free groups because in free groups must be different from if and are different elements of the basis, while in free abelian groups the two products must be identical for all pairs of elements. In the general category of groups, it is an added constraint to demand that , whereas this is a necessary property in the category of abelian groups. Rank Every two bases of the same free abelian group have the same cardinality, so the cardinality of a basis forms an invariant of the group known as its rank. Two free abelian groups are isomorphic if and only if they have the same rank. A free abelian group is finitely generated if and only if its rank is a finite number , in which case the group is isomorphic to . This notion of rank can be generalized, from free abelian groups to abelian groups that are not necessarily free. The rank of an abelian group is defined as the rank of a free abelian subgroup of for which the quotient group is a torsion group. Equivalently, it is the cardinality of a maximal subset of that generates a free subgroup. The rank is a group invariant: it does not depend on the choice of the subgroup. Subgroups Every subgroup of a free abelian group is itself a free abelian group. This result of Richard Dedekind was a precursor to the analogous Nielsen–Schreier theorem that every subgroup of a free group is free, and is a generalization of the fact that every nontrivial subgroup of the infinite cyclic group is infinite cyclic. The proof needs the axiom of choice. A proof using Zorn's lemma (one of many equivalent assumptions to the axiom of choice) can be found in Serge Lang's Algebra. Solomon Lefschetz and Irving Kaplansky argue that using the well-ordering principle in place of Zorn's lemma leads to a more intuitive proof. In the case of finitely generated free abelian groups, the proof is easier, does not need the axiom of choice, and leads to a more precise result. If is a subgroup of a finitely generated free abelian group , then is free and there exists a basis of and positive integers (that is, each one divides the next one) such that is a basis of Moreover, the sequence depends only on and and not on the basis. A constructive proof of the existence part of the theorem is provided by any algorithm computing the Smith normal form of a matrix of integers. Uniqueness follows from the fact that, for any , the greatest common divisor of the minors of rank of the matrix is not changed during the Smith normal form computation and is the product at the end of the computation. Torsion and divisibility All free abelian groups are torsion-free, meaning that there is no non-identity group element and nonzero integer such that . Conversely, all finitely generated torsion-free abelian groups are free abelian. The additive group of rational numbers provides an example of a torsion-free (but not finitely generated) abelian group that is not free abelian. One reason that is not free abelian is that it is divisible, meaning that, for every element and every nonzero integer , it is possible to express as a scalar multiple of another element . In contrast, non-trivial free abelian groups are never divisible, because in a free abelian group the basis elements cannot be expressed as multiples of other elements. Symmetry The symmetries of any group can be described as group automorphisms, the invertible homomorphisms from the group to itself. In non-abelian groups these are further subdivided into inner and outer automorphisms, but in abelian groups all non-identity automorphisms are outer. They form another group, the automorphism group of the given group, under the operation of composition. The automorphism group of a free abelian group of finite rank is the general linear group , which can be described concretely (for a specific basis of the free automorphism group) as the set of invertible integer matrices under the operation of matrix multiplication. Their action as symmetries on the free abelian group is just matrix-vector multiplication. The automorphism groups of two infinite-rank free abelian groups have the same first-order theories as each other, if and only if their ranks are equivalent cardinals from the point of view of second-order logic. This result depends on the structure of involutions of free abelian groups, the automorphisms that are their own inverse. Given a basis for a free abelian group, one can find involutions that map any set of disjoint pairs of basis elements to each other, or that negate any chosen subset of basis elements, leaving the other basis elements fixed. Conversely, for every involution of a free abelian group, one can find a basis of the group for which all basis elements are swapped in pairs, negated, or left unchanged by the involution. Relation to other groups If a free abelian group is a quotient of two groups , then is the direct sum . Given an arbitrary abelian group , there always exists a free abelian group and a surjective group homomorphism from to . One way of constructing a surjection onto a given group is to let be the free abelian group over , represented as formal sums. Then a surjection can be defined by mapping formal sums in to the corresponding sums of members of . That is, the surjection maps where is the integer coefficient of basis element in a given formal sum, the first sum is in , and the second sum is in . This surjection is the unique group homomorphism which extends the function , and so its construction can be seen as an instance of the universal property. When and are as above, the kernel of the surjection from to is also free abelian, as it is a subgroup of (the subgroup of elements mapped to the identity). Therefore, these groups form a short exact sequence in which and are both free abelian and is isomorphic to the factor group . This is a free resolution of . Furthermore, assuming the axiom of choice, the free abelian groups are precisely the projective objects in the category of abelian groups. Applications Algebraic topology In algebraic topology, a formal sum of -dimensional simplices is called a -chain, and the free abelian group having a collection of -simplices as its basis is called a chain group. The simplices are generally taken from some topological space, for instance as the set of -simplices in a simplicial complex, or the set of singular -simplices in a manifold. Any -dimensional simplex has a boundary that can be represented as a formal sum of -dimensional simplices, and the universal property of free abelian groups allows this boundary operator to be extended to a group homomorphism from -chains to -chains. The system of chain groups linked by boundary operators in this way forms a chain complex, and the study of chain complexes forms the basis of homology theory. Algebraic geometry and complex analysis Every rational function over the complex numbers can be associated with a signed multiset of complex numbers , the zeros and poles of the function (points where its value is zero or infinite). The multiplicity of a point in this multiset is its order as a zero of the function, or the negation of its order as a pole. Then the function itself can be recovered from this data, up to a scalar factor, as If these multisets are interpreted as members of a free abelian group over the complex numbers, then the product or quotient of two rational functions corresponds to the sum or difference of two group members. Thus, the multiplicative group of rational functions can be factored into the multiplicative group of complex numbers (the associated scalar factors for each function) and the free abelian group over the complex numbers. The rational functions that have a nonzero limiting value at infinity (the meromorphic functions on the Riemann sphere) form a subgroup of this group in which the sum of the multiplicities is zero. This construction has been generalized, in algebraic geometry, to the notion of a divisor. There are different definitions of divisors, but in general they form an abstraction of a codimension-one subvariety of an algebraic variety, the set of solution points of a system of polynomial equations. In the case where the system of equations has one degree of freedom (its solutions form an algebraic curve or Riemann surface), a subvariety has codimension one when it consists of isolated points, and in this case a divisor is again a signed multiset of points from the variety. The meromorphic functions on a compact Riemann surface have finitely many zeros and poles, and their divisors form a subgroup of a free abelian group over the points of the surface, with multiplication or division of functions corresponding to addition or subtraction of group elements. To be a divisor, an element of the free abelian group must have multiplicities summing to zero, and meet certain additional constraints depending on the surface. Group rings The group ring , for any group , is ring whose additive group is the free abelian group over . When is finite and abelian, the multiplicative group of units in has the structure of a direct product of a finite group and a finitely generated free abelian group. References Abelian group theory Properties of groups Free algebraic structures	[ -0.06903482228517532, -0.010223692283034325, -0.6396281719207764, -0.0455191396176815, -0.7761547565460205, -0.20811177790164948, 0.09513638913631439, -0.20609238743782043, -0.23020361363887787, -0.6731950044631958, -0.9311904907226562, -0.1595115214586258, -1.056514859199524, 0.10631781071424484, 0.11425755172967911, 0.6094984412193298, 0.37852561473846436, 0.6208344101905823, -0.9670924544334412, -0.8041290044784546, 0.321760892868042, 0.5124723315238953, 0.2841002941131592, -0.22720560431480408, 0.6284395456314087, -0.3421627879142761, 0.3877456486225128, 0.3058337867259979, 1.014984369277954, 0.7755606174468994, -0.05868013948202133, 0.7743889689445496, 0.44538167119026184, 0.41999444365501404, 0.3611527681350708, -0.14319415390491486, 0.29258912801742554, 0.01252825278788805, -0.0581028051674366, -0.21048878133296967, 0.6243642568588257, -0.03328878805041313, 0.11036405712366104, 0.5923459529876709, 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247297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SST	SST	SST may refer to: Arts and entertainment SST: Salo-Salo Together, a former Philippine TV show Stadium Super Trucks, American racing series Music S.S.T. Band (Sega Sound Team), a Japanese music band SST Records, an independent record label "S.S.T." (song), song by Prince Organizations SST Inc. also known as ShotSpotter Inc. Silicon Storage Technology, Inc, former US semiconductor manufacturer School of Science and Technology, high school in Oregon, US School of Science and Technology, Singapore Special Security Team, a counter-terrorist unit of the Japanese Coast Guard Athletes Sara Sorribes Tormo, Spanish tennis player Science and technology SST (Menter’s Shear Stress Transport), a model used in fluid dynamics Salt spray test, a method of measuring corrosion resistance of materials and surface coatings Sea surface temperature Serum-separating tube, used in venipuncture Socioemotional selectivity theory, a life-span theory of motivation Solid-state transformer, a type of transformer Somatostatin, a peptide hormone Steady state topography, a research methodology in cognitive neuroscience and neuromarketing Super Sound Tracing, a demodulation technique for FM tuners by Sony Total sum of squares, in statistics Computing Single Stream Transport, used by DisplayPort Structured Stream Transport, MIT data transport protocol Telescopes Solar Submillimeter Telescope, located in the "El Leoncito" Astronomical Complex Space Surveillance Telescope, a military telescope located at Exmouth, Western Australia. Spitzer Space Telescope, NASA infrared space observatory Swedish Solar Telescope Time Samoa Standard Time or Samoa Time Zone Singapore Standard Time Transportation SST class blimp Supersonic transport, aircraft Training Submarines, (US Navy hull classification symbol: SST) Mitsubishi SST, a concept car by Mitsubishi Twin Clutch SST, a twin-clutch transmission developed by Mitsubishi Safe Secure Trailer, see US Office of Secure Transportation Other uses Seed Science and Technology, a journal about seed science published by the International Seed Testing Association SST (typeface) Swiss Solvency Test, a framework for the regulation of the insurance industry in Switzerland Serious Sam: Tormental, a video game by Gungrounds Sales and Services Tax, a type of tax in Malaysia	[ 0.23184527456760406, -0.18430401384830475, 0.129150390625, 0.37008094787597656, -0.36075836420059204, -0.3442387580871582, 0.2701338231563568, 0.43152427673339844, -0.47576257586479187, -0.4104419946670532, 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247302	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obscene%20Publications%20Acts	Obscene Publications Acts	Since 1857, a series of obscenity laws known as the Obscene Publications Acts have governed what can be published in England and Wales. The classic definition of criminal obscenity is if it "tends to deprave and corrupt," stated in 1868 by Lord Justice Cockburn, in Regina v. Hicklin, now known as the Hicklin test. Timeline of legislation There have been several Acts of Parliament of this name: Obscene Publications Act 1857 Obscene Publications Act 1959 Obscene Publications Act 1964 Of these, only the 1959 and 1964 acts are still in force in England and Wales, as amended by more recent legislation. They define the legal bounds of obscenity in England and Wales, and are used to enforce the removal of obscene material. Irish law diverged from English law in 1929, replacing the OPA 1857 with a new Irish act. Key cases under the Obscene Publications Act Scottish prohibitions on obscene material are to be found in section 51 of the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982. See also Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 – defines 'extreme pornography' and details offences Censorship in the United Kingdom References External links Article on the Acts Conditions of Charge for Obscene material Laws in the United Kingdom Obscenity law Book censorship in the United Kingdom Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom United Kingdom pornography law	[ 0.5149360299110413, 0.38993045687675476, -0.35749030113220215, -0.35204365849494934, -0.07592863589525223, -0.10848908871412277, 0.43846821784973145, 0.8168208003044128, -0.6391209959983826, 0.25063905119895935, -0.3770292103290558, 0.29714348912239075, -0.5252822041511536, 0.9851030707359314, -0.37349942326545715, 0.615509033203125, -0.09303992241621017, 0.6095352172851562, -0.04317330941557884, -0.1343761384487152, -0.47898682951927185, 0.25615596771240234, 0.286914199590683, -0.5518733263015747, 0.3558622896671295, -0.7541090250015259, 0.5269654989242554, -0.5446951389312744, 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247303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torment	Torment	Torment may refer to: The feeling of pain or suffering Causing to suffer, torture Films Torment (1924 film), a silent crime-drama Torment (1944 film) (Hets), a Swedish film Torment (1950 British film), a British thriller film Torment (1950 Italian film), an Italian drama film Torment (1986 film), an American horror film Torment (1994 film), or Hell, French drama film Torment (2013 film), a Canadian horror film Novels Torment (1951), title of the republished novel Better Angel (1933) Torment (novel) (2010), by Lauren Kate Torment, a 1999 novel set in the Planescape realm of Dungeons & Dragons Albums Torment (Six Feet Under album), 2017 Torment (Zoogz Rift album), 1989 The Torment, a 1990 album by Seventh Angel Other Planescape: Torment, a 1999 computer role-playing game Torment: Tides of Numenera, a 2017 computer role-playing video game Mount Torment, in the U.S. state of Washington Torment (comics), storyline for Peter Parker: Spider-Man Torment (Magic: The Gathering) (2002), set of cards in the card game Magic: The Gathering	[ 0.0200065728276968, 0.38616320490837097, -0.6493290662765503, 0.22790297865867615, -0.40926456451416016, 0.28294098377227783, 0.6383001804351807, -0.3086152970790863, -0.6533300280570984, -0.08427230268716812, -0.4309530556201935, 0.44202128052711487, 0.07449514418840408, 0.770194411277771, 0.4887826144695282, 0.41057485342025757, 0.5504130721092224, 0.01533144898712635, -0.4821311831474304, -0.37015846371650696, -0.6384115219116211, -0.3281830847263336, 0.5962470173835754, -0.1496758759021759, -0.7038694024085999, 0.10168734192848206, 0.03826773166656494, 0.37485435605049133, -0.09537719190120697, 0.2188740372657776, -0.28304919600486755, 0.17640022933483124, -0.27524620294570923, -0.1137562170624733, -0.38965219259262085, -0.04293154925107956, -0.2524448037147522, -0.17960330843925476, -0.3111353814601898, -0.5134652256965637, 0.3532350957393646, -0.09780925512313843, 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247304	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternal	Eternal	Eternal(s) or The Eternal may refer to: Eternity, an infinite amount of time, or a timeless state Immortality or eternal life God, the supreme being, creator deity, and principal object of faith in monotheism Comics, film and television Eternals (comics), a fictional race of superhumans in the Marvel Comics universe Eternals (film), a 2021 film based on the comics characters Eternal (film), a 2005 horror film The Eternal (film) or Trance, a 1998 horror film Eternal (Doctor Who), a fictional race of cosmic beings from the TV series Doctor Who Eternal Pictures, an international film distribution company "Eternal", an episode of the TV series Eleventh Hour Eternal, a fictional warship captained by Andrew Waltfeld in the Gundam anime universe Music Eternal (group), British girl group The Eternal (band), Australian rock band Eternal, British doom metal band featuring Electric Wizard member Jus Oborn Eternal Records, an American record label Eternal (record label), a Taiwanese record label Albums Eternal (Branford Marsalis album) or the title song, 2004 Eternal (Eternal album), 1999 Eternal (Isley Brothers album) or the title song, 2001 Eternal (Jamie O'Neal album), 2014 Eternal (Klaus Schulze album), 2017 Eternal (Malevolent Creation album) or the title song, 1995 Eternal (Samael album), 1999 Eternal (Stratovarius album), 2015 Eternal (War of Ages album) or the title song, 2010 The Eternal (album), by Sonic Youth, 2009 Eternals (album) or the title song, by Seventh Avenue, 2004 Songs "Eternal" (Jin Akanishi song), 2011 "Eternal", by Bone Thugs-n-Harmony from E. 1999 Eternal "Eternal", by Bruce Dickinson from Tyranny of Souls "Eternal", by Chance the Rapper from The Big Day "Eternal", by David Banner from MTA2: Baptized in Dirty Water "Eternal", by Depeche Mode from Spirit "Eternal", by Evanescence from Origin "Eternal", by Front Line Assembly from Total Terror "Eternal", by Holly Herndon from Proto "Eternal", by Into Eternity from The Scattering of Ashes "Eternal", by Johnny Hates Jazz from Magnetized "Eternal", by Mushroomhead from XIII "Eternal", by P.O.D. from Payable on Death "Eternal", by William Joseph from Within "Eternal", by Wumpscut from Blutkind "The Eternal", by Joy Division from Closer Video games Eternal (video game), collectible card video game Paris Eternal, a French esports team in the Overwatch League See also Eternalism (disambiguation) Eternity (disambiguation) Permanent (disambiguation) Transcendence (disambiguation)	[ 0.6095300912857056, 0.2032937854528427, -0.1698179990053177, 0.4982651174068451, -0.36510640382766724, 0.02258056215941906, 0.3691299557685852, 0.44035056233406067, -0.14479456841945648, -0.04649950563907623, -0.713501513004303, 0.2783060669898987, -0.1717640906572342, 0.6486456394195557, 0.5653135776519775, -0.20802241563796997, 0.47597983479499817, 0.5893440246582031, -0.3114270567893982, -0.43406563997268677, -0.5227064490318298, 0.24385882914066315, 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247310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling%20Moss	Stirling Moss	Sir Stirling Craufurd Moss (17 September 1929 – 12 April 2020) was a British Formula One racing driver. An inductee into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame, he won 212 of the 529 races he entered across several categories of competition and has been described as "the greatest driver never to win the World Championship". In a seven-year span between 1955 and 1961 Moss finished as championship runner-up four times and in third place the other three times. Early life Moss was born in London, son of Alfred Moss, a dentist of Bray, Berkshire, and Aileen (née Craufurd). His grandfather was Jewish, from a family that changed their surname from Moses to Moss. He was brought up at Long White Cloud house on the south bank of the River Thames. His father was an amateur racing driver who had come 16th in the 1924 Indianapolis 500. Aileen Moss had also been involved in motorsport, entering prewar hillclimbs at the wheel of a Singer Nine. Stirling was a gifted horse rider as was his younger sister, Pat Moss, who became a successful rally driver in her own right and also married Swedish rally driver Erik Carlsson. Moss was educated at several independent schools: Shrewsbury House School in Surbiton, Clewer Manor Junior School, and the linked senior school, Haileybury and Imperial Service College, located at Hertford Heath, near Hertford. He disliked school and did not attain a good academic performance. At Haileybury, he was subjected to antisemitic bullying because of his Jewish roots. He concealed the bullying from his parents and used it as "motivation to succeed". Moss received his first car, an Austin 7, from his father at the age of nine, and drove it on the fields around Long White Cloud. He purchased his own car at age 15 after he obtained a driving licence. After the Second World War, Moss was ruled exempt from doing the mandatory two-year national service for men his age because he had nephritis. Racing career Moss raced from 1948 to 1962, winning 212 of the 529 races he entered, including 16 Formula One Grands Prix. He competed in as many as 62 races in a single year and drove 84 different makes of car over the course of his racing career. He preferred to race British cars, stating, "Better to lose honourably in a British car than win in a foreign one". At Vanwall, he was instrumental in breaking the German/Italian stranglehold on F1 racing (as was Jack Brabham at Cooper). He remained the English driver with the most Formula One victories until 1991 when Nigel Mansell overtook him after competing in more races. 1948–1954 Moss began his career at the wheel of his father Alfred's 328 BMW, DPX 653. Moss was one of the Cooper Car Company's first customers, using winnings from competing in horse-riding events to pay the deposit on a Cooper 500 racing car in 1948. He then persuaded his father, who opposed his racing and wanted him to be a dentist, to let him buy it. He soon demonstrated his ability with numerous wins at national and international levels, and continued to compete in Formula Three, with Coopers and Kiefts, after he had progressed to more senior categories. His first major international race victory came on the eve of his 21st birthday at the wheel of a borrowed Jaguar XK120 in the 1950 RAC Tourist Trophy on the Dundrod circuit in Northern Ireland. He went on to win the race six more times, in 1951 (Jaguar C-Type), 1955 (Mercedes-Benz 300SLR), 1958 and 1959 (Aston Martin DBR1), and 1960 and 1961 (Ferrari 250 GT). Enzo Ferrari, the founder of Ferrari, approached Moss and offered him a Formula Two car to drive at the 1951 Bari Grand Prix before a full -season in 1952. Moss and his father went to Apulia only to find out that the Ferrari car was to be driven by experienced driver Piero Taruffi and were incensed. Also a competent rally driver, Moss was one of three people to have won a Coupe d'Or (Gold Cup) for three consecutive penalty-free runs on the Alpine Rally (Coupe des Alpes). He finished second in the 1952 Monte Carlo Rally driving a Sunbeam-Talbot 90 with Desmond Scannell and Autocar magazine editor John Cooper as co-drivers. In 1954, he became the first non-American to win the 12 Hours of Sebring, sharing the Cunningham team's 1.5-liter O.S.C.A. MT4 with American Bill Lloyd. In 1953 Mercedes-Benz racing boss Alfred Neubauer had spoken to Moss's manager, Ken Gregory, about the possibility of Moss's joining the Mercedes Grand Prix team. Having seen him do well in a relatively uncompetitive car, and wanting to see how he would perform in a better one, Neubauer suggested Moss buy a Maserati for the 1954 season. He bought a Maserati 250F, and although the car's unreliability prevented his scoring high points in the 1954 Drivers' Championship he qualified alongside the Mercedes front runners several times and performed well in the races. He achieved his first Formula One victory when he won the non-Championship Oulton Park International Gold Cup in the Maserati. In the Italian Grand Prix at Monza he passed both drivers who were regarded as the best in Formula One at the time—Juan Manuel Fangio in a Mercedes and Alberto Ascari in a Ferrari—and took the lead. Ascari retired with engine problems, and Moss led until lap 68 when his engine also failed. Fangio took the victory, and Moss pushed his Maserati to the finish line. Neubauer, already impressed when Moss had tested a Mercedes-Benz W196 at Hockenheim, promptly signed him for 1955. 1955 Moss's first World Championship victory was in the 1955 British Grand Prix at Aintree, a race he was also the first British driver to win. Leading a 1–2–3–4 finish for Mercedes, it was the first time he beat Fangio, his teammate and arch rival, who was also his friend and mentor. It has been suggested that Fangio sportingly allowed Moss to win in front of his home crowd. Moss himself asked Fangio repeatedly, and Fangio always replied: "No. You were just better than me that day." The same year, Moss also won the RAC Tourist Trophy, the Targa Florio (sharing the drive with Peter Collins) and the Mille Miglia. Mille Miglia In 1955 Moss won Italy's thousand-mile Mille Miglia road race, an achievement Doug Nye described as the "most iconic single day's drive in motor racing history." He was paired with motor racing journalist Denis Jenkinson, who prepared pace note for Moss, and the two completed the race in ten hours and seven minutes. Motor Trend headlined it as "The Most Epic Drive. Ever." Before the race, he had taken a "magic pill" given to him by Fangio, and he has commented that although he did not know what was in it, "Dexedrine and Benzedrine were commonly used in rallies. The object was simply to keep awake, like wartime bomber crews." After the win, he spent the night and the following day driving his girlfriend to Cologne, stopping for breakfast in Munich and lunch in Stuttgart. 1956–1962 Moss won the Nassau Cup at the 1956 and 1957 Bahamas Speed Week. Also in 1957 he won on the longest circuit ever to hold a World Championship Grand Prix, the Pescara Circuit, where he again demonstrated his mastery of long-distance racing. The event lasted three hours and Moss beat Fangio, who started from pole position, by a little over 3 minutes. In 1958, Moss's forward-thinking attitude made waves in the racing world. Moss won the first race of the season in a rear-engined F1 car, which became the common design by 1961. At Monza that year, he raced in the "Eldorado" Maserati in the Race of Two Worlds, the first single-seater car in Europe to be sponsored by a non-racing brand—the Eldorado Ice Cream Company. This was the first case in Europe of contemporary sponsorship, with the ice cream maker's colors replacing the ones assigned by the Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (FIA). Moss's sporting attitude cost him the 1958 Formula One World Championship. When rival Mike Hawthorn was threatened with a penalty after the Portuguese Grand Prix, Moss defended him. Hawthorn was accused of reversing on the track after spinning and stalling his car on an uphill section. Moss had shouted advice to Hawthorn to steer downhill, against traffic, to bump-start the car. Moss's quick thinking, and his defence of Hawthorn before the stewards, preserved Hawthorn's 6 points for finishing second behind Moss. Hawthorn went on to beat Moss for the championship title by one point, even though he had won only one race that year to Moss's four. Moss's loss in the championship could also be attributed to an error in communication between his pit crew and the driver at one race. A point was given for the fastest lap in each race, and the crew signaled "HAWT REC" meaning Hawthorn had set a record lap. Moss read this as "HAWT REG" and thought Hawthorn was making regular laps, so did not try to set a fast lap. The crew was supposed to signal the time of the lap, so Moss would know what he had to beat. Moss was as gifted in sports cars as in Grand Prix cars. To his victories in the Tourist Trophy, the Sebring 12 Hours and the Mille Miglia he added three consecutive wins (1958–1960) in the 1000 km Nürburgring, the first two in an Aston Martin (in which he did most of the driving), and the third in a Tipo 61 "birdcage" Maserati, co-driving with the American Dan Gurney. The pair lost time when an oil hose blew off, but despite the wet-weather, they made up the time and took first place. In the 1960 Formula One season, Moss won the Monaco Grand Prix in Rob Walker's Coventry-Climax-powered Lotus 18. Seriously injured in an accident at the Burnenville curve during practice for the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps, he missed the next three races but recovered sufficiently to win the final one of the season, the United States Grand Prix at Riverside, California. For the 1961 Formula One season, run under new 1.5-litre rules, Enzo Ferrari fielded the "sharknose" Ferrari 156 with an all-new V6 engine. Moss's Climax-engined Lotus was comparatively underpowered, but he won the 1961 Monaco Grand Prix by 3.6 seconds, beating the Ferraris of Richie Ginther, Wolfgang von Trips, and Phil Hill, and went on to win the partially wet 1961 German Grand Prix. In 1962, he crashed his Lotus heavily during the Glover Trophy at Goodwood held on Monday 23 April. The accident put him in a coma for a month, and for six months the left side of his body was partially paralysed. He recovered, but retired from professional racing after a private test session in a Lotus 19 the following year, when he lapped a few tenths of a second slower than before. He felt he had not regained his previously instinctive command of the car. He had been runner-up in the Drivers' Championship four years in succession, from 1955 to 1958, and third in each of the next three years. Speed records 1950 At the Autodrome de Montlhéry, a steeply banked oval track near Paris, Moss and Leslie Johnson took turns at the wheel of the latter's Jaguar XK120 to average for 24 hours, including stops for fuel and tyres. Changing drivers every three hours, they covered a total of . It was the first time a production car had averaged over for 24 hours. 1952 Revisiting Montlhéry, Moss was one of a four-driver team, led by Johnson, who drove a factory-owned Jaguar XK120 fixed-head coupé for 7 days and nights at the French track. Moss, Johnson, Bert Hadley and Jack Fairman averaged to take four World records and five International Class C records, and covered a total of . 1957 In August Moss broke five International Class F records in the purpose-built MG EX181 at Bonneville Salt Flats. The streamlined, supercharged car's speed for the flying kilometer was 245.64 mph, which was the average of two runs in opposite directions. Broadcasting career Away from driving, in 1962 he acted as a colour commentator for ABC's Wide World of Sports for Formula One and NASCAR races. He eventually left ABC in 1980. Moss narrated the official 1988 Formula One season review along with Tony Jardine. Moss also narrated the popular children's series Roary the Racing Car, which stars Peter Kay. Return to racing Although ostensibly retired from racing since 1962, Moss did make a number of one-off appearances in professional motorsport events in the following two decades. He also competed in the 1974 London-Sahara-Munich World Cup Rally in a Mercedes-Benz, but retired from the event in the Algerian Sahara. The Holden Torana he shared with Jack Brabham in the 1976 Bathurst 1000 was hit from behind on the grid and eventually retired with engine failure. Moss, at the wheel of the Torana when the V8 engine let go, was criticised by other drivers for staying on the racing line for over ⅔ of the 6.172 km long circuit while returning to the pits as the car was dropping large amounts of oil onto the road. He also shared a Volkswagen Golf GTI with Denny Hulme in the 1979 Benson & Hedges 500 at Pukekohe Park Raceway in New Zealand. In 1980 he made a comeback to regular competition, in the British Saloon Car Championship with the works-backed GTi Engineering Audi team. For the 1980 season Moss was the team's number two driver to team co-owner Richard Lloyd. For the 1981 season Moss stayed with Audi, as the team moved to Tom Walkinshaw Racing management, driving alongside Martin Brundle. Throughout his retirement he raced in events for historic cars, driving on behalf of and at the invitation of others, as well as campaigning his own OSCA FS 372 and other vehicles. In 2004, as part of its promotion for the new SLR, Mercedes-Benz reunited Moss with the 300 SLR "No. 722" in which he won the Mille Miglia nearly 50 years earlier. One reporter who rode with Moss that day noted that the 75-year-old driver was "so good . . . that even old and crippled [he was] still better than nearly everyone else". On 9 June 2011 during qualifying for the Le Mans Legends race, Moss announced on Radio Le Mans that he had finally retired from racing, saying that he had scared himself that afternoon. He was 81. Post racing career Lister Cars announced the building for sale of the Lister Knobbly Stirling Moss at the Royal Automobile Club in London in June 2016. The car is built to the exact specification of the 1958 model, is the only magnesium-bodied car in the world, and is the only car that was ever endorsed by Moss. Brian Lister invited Moss to drive for Lister on three separate occasions, at Goodwood in 1954, Silverstone in 1958 and at Sebring in 1959, and to celebrate these races, 10 special edition lightweight Lister Knobbly cars are being built. The company announced that the cars will be available for both road and race use, and Moss would personally be handing over each car. Honours In 1990, Moss was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame. In the New Year Honours 2000 List, Moss was made a Knight Bachelor for services to motor racing. On 21 March 2000, he was knighted by Prince Charles, standing in for the Queen, who was on an official visit to Australia. He received the 2005 Segrave Trophy. In 2006, Moss was awarded the FIA gold medal in recognition of his outstanding contribution to motorsport. In December 2008, McLaren-Mercedes unveiled their final model of the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren. The model was named in honour of Moss, hence, Mercedes McLaren SLR Stirling Moss, which has a top speed of with wind deflectors instead of a windscreen. In 2016, in an academic paper that reported a mathematical modelling study that assessed the relative influence of driver and machine, Moss was ranked the 29th best Formula One driver of all time. Following Moss's death the Kinrara Trophy race at the Goodwood Revival meeting was renamed in his honour. It is a race for GT cars that competed before 1963. Biographies In 1957, Moss published an autobiography called In the Track Of Speed, first published by Muller, London. In 1963, motorsport author and commentator Ken Purdy published a biographical book entitled All But My Life about Moss (first published by William Kimber & Co, London), based on material gathered through interviews with Moss. In 2015, when he was aged 85, Moss published a second autobiography, entitled My Racing Life, written with motor sports writer Simon Taylor. In 2016, Philip Porter published the first volume of Stirling Moss - The Definitive Biography covering the period from birth up to the end of 1955, one of Moss's greatest years. Popular culture During his driving career, Moss was one of the most recognised celebrities in Britain, leading to many media appearances. In March 1958, Moss was a guest challenger on the TV panel show What's My Line? (episode with Anita Ekberg). In 1959 he was the subject of the TV programme This Is Your Life. On 12 June the following year he was interviewed by John Freeman on Face to Face; Freeman later said that he had thought before the interview that Moss was a playboy, but in their meeting he showed "cold, precise, clinical judgement... a man who could live so close to the edge of death and danger, and trust entirely to his own judgement. This appealed to me". Moss also appeared as himself in the 1964 film The Beauty Jungle, and was one of several celebrities with cameo appearances in the 1967 version of the James Bond film Casino Royale. He played Evelyn Tremble's (Peter Sellers) driver. For many years during and after his career, the rhetorical phrase "Who do you think you are, Stirling Moss?" was supposedly the standard question all British policemen asked speeding motorists. Moss relates he himself was once stopped for speeding and asked just that; he reports the traffic officer had some difficulty believing him. Moss was the subject of a cartoon biography in the magazine Private Eye that said he was interested in cars, women and sex, in that order. The cartoon, drawn by Willie Rushton, showed him continually crashing, having his driving licence revoked and finally "hosting television programmes on subjects he knows nothing about". It also made reference to the amnesia Moss suffered from as a result of head injuries sustained in the crash at Goodwood in 1962. Although there were complaints to the magazine about the cartoons, Moss rang Private Eye to ask if he could use it as a Christmas card. He was one of the few drivers of his era to create a brand from his name for licensing purposes, which was launched when his website was revamped in 2009 with improved content. In 2004, Moss was a supporter of the UK Independence Party. Moss was a Mercedes-Benz Brand Ambassador, having kept a close relationship with the brand, and remained an enthusiast and collector of the brand, which includes the Mercedes-Benz W113, Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren Stirling Moss among others. Personal life and death Moss was married three times. His first wife was Katie Molson; an heir to the Canadian brewer Molson. They were married in 1957 and separated three years later. His second wife was the American public relations executive Elaine Barbarino. They were married in 1964 and divorced in 1968. Their daughter Allison was born in 1967. His third wife was Susie Paine, the daughter of an old friend. They were married from 1980 until his death in 2020. Their son Elliot was born in 1980. In April 1960, Moss was found guilty of dangerous driving. He was fined £50 and banned from driving for one year after an incident near Chetwynd, Shropshire, when he was test-driving a Mini. Moss's 80th birthday, on 17 September 2009, fell on the eve of the Goodwood Revival and Lord March celebrated with an 80-car parade on each of the three days. Moss drove a different car each day: a Mercedes-Benz W196 (an open-wheel variant), the Lotus 18 in which he had won the 1961 Monaco GP, and an Aston Martin DBR1. On 7 March 2010, Moss broke both ankles and four bones in a foot, and also chipped four vertebrae and suffered skin lesions, when he plunged down a lift shaft at his home. In December 2016, he was admitted to hospital in Singapore with a serious chest infection. As a result of this illness and a subsequent lengthy recovery period, Moss announced his retirement from public life in January 2018. Moss died at his home in Mayfair, London, on 12 April 2020, aged 90, after a long illness. Racing record Career highlights Complete Formula One World Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) † Indicates shared drive with Hans Herrmann and Karl Kling. * Indicates shared drive with Cesare Perdisa. ‡ Indicates shared drive with Tony Brooks. [a] After Moss retired from the race he took over the car of Trintignant. Both drivers did not receive any points for their shared drive. Non-championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results Complete 12 Hours of Sebring results Complete 12 Hours of Reims results Complete Mille Miglia results Complete Rallye de Monte Carlo results Complete Bathurst 1000 results Complete British Saloon Car Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.) † Events with 2 races staged for the different classes. References External links Sir Stirling Moss – Official Web Site Stirling Moss in the 24 hours of Le Mans Grand Prix History – Hall of Fame, Stirling Moss Stirling Moss profile at The 500 Owners Association BBC Face to Face interview with Stirling Moss and John Freeman, broadcast 12 June 1960 1929 births 2020 deaths 12 Hours of Sebring drivers 24 Hours of Le Mans drivers BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners Bonneville 200 MPH Club members BRDC Gold Star winners Brighton Speed Trials people British Racing Partnership Formula One drivers British Touring Car Championship drivers Connaught Formula One drivers Cooper Formula One drivers English Formula One drivers English people of Jewish descent English racing drivers ERA Formula One drivers Formula One race winners Formula One team owners Hersham and Walton Motors Formula One drivers International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees Knights Bachelor Maserati Formula One drivers Mercedes-Benz Formula One drivers Officers of the Order 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247311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department%20for%20International%20Development	Department for International Development	The Department for International Development (DFID) was the government department of the United Kingdom responsible for administering foreign aid. The goal of the department was "to promote sustainable development and eliminate world poverty". DFID was headed by the United Kingdom's Secretary of State for International Development. The position was last held between 13 February 2020 and the department's abolishment on 2 September 2020 by Anne-Marie Trevelyan. In a 2010 report by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), DFID was described as "an international development leader in times of global crisis". The UK aid logo is often used to publicly acknowledge DFID's development programmes are funded by UK taxpayers. DFID's main programme areas of work were Education, Health, Social Services, Water Supply and Sanitation, Government and Civil Society, Economic Sector (including Infrastructure, Production Sectors and Developing Planning), Environment Protection, Research, and Humanitarian Assistance. In 2009/10 DFID's Gross Public Expenditure on Development was £6.65bn. Of this £3.96bn was spent on Bilateral Aid (including debt relief, humanitarian assistance and project funding) and £2.46bn was spent on Multilateral Aid (including support to the EU, World Bank, UN and other related agencies). Although the Department for International Development's foreign aid budget was not affected by the cuts outlined by the Chancellor of the Exchequer's 2010 spending review, DFID will see their administration budgets slashed by approximately 19 percent over the next four years. This would mean a reduction in back-office costs to account for only 2 percent of their total spend by 2015. In June 2013 as part of the 2013 Spending Round outcomes it was announced that DFID's total programme budget would increase to £10.3bn in 2014/15 and £11.1bn in 2015/16 to help meet the UK government's commitment to spend 0.7% of GNI (Gross National Income) on ODA (Official Development Assistance). DFID was responsible for the majority of UK ODA; projected to total £11.7bn in 2014/15 and £12.2bn in 2015/16. According to the OECD, 2020 official development assistance from the United Kingdom decreased by 10% to 18.6 billion. In June 2020, Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced DFID was to be merged with the Foreign Office to create the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. The department was scrutinized by the International Development Committee. Secretaries of State The final Permanent secretary was Matthew Rycroft, who assumed office in January 2018. Mission The main piece of legislation governing DFID's work was the International Development Act 2002, which came into force on 17 June 2002, replacing the Overseas Development and Co-operation Act 1980. The Act made poverty reduction the focus of DFID's work, and effectively outlaws tied aid. As well as responding to disasters and emergencies, DFID worked to support the United Nations' eight Millennium Development Goals, namely to: Halve the number of people living in extreme poverty and hunger Ensure that all children receive primary education Promote sexual equality and give women a stronger voice Reduce child death rates Improve the health of mothers Combat HIV & AIDS, malaria and other diseases Make sure the environment is protected Build a global partnership for those working in development. all with a 2015 deadline. History The department had its origins in the Ministry of Overseas Development (ODM) created during the Labour government of 1964–1970, which combined the functions of the Department of Technical Cooperation and the overseas aid policy functions of the Foreign, Commonwealth Relations, and Colonial Offices and of other government departments. After the election of a Conservative government in October 1970, the Ministry of Overseas Development was incorporated into the Foreign Office and renamed the Overseas Development Administration (ODA). The ODA was overseen by a minister of state in the Foreign Office who was accountable to the Foreign Secretary. Though it became a section of the Foreign Office, the ODA was relatively self-contained with its own minister, and the policies, procedures, and staff remained largely intact. When a Labour government was returned to office in 1974, it announced that there would once again be a separate Ministry of Overseas Development with its own minister. From June 1975 the powers of the minister for overseas development were formally transferred to the Foreign Secretary. In 1977, partly to shore up its difficult relations with UK business, the government introduced the Aid and Trade Provision. This enabled aid to be linked to nonconcessionary export credits, with both aid and export credits tied to procurement of British goods and services. Pressure for this provision from UK businesses and the Department of Trade and Industry arose in part because of the introduction of French mixed credit programmes, which had begun to offer French government support from aid funds for exports, including for projects in countries to which France had not previously given substantial aid. After the election of the Conservatives under Margaret Thatcher in 1979, the ministry was transferred back to the Foreign Office, as a functional wing again named the Overseas Development Administration. The ODA continued to be represented in the cabinet by the foreign secretary while the minister for overseas development, who had day-to-day responsibility for development matters, held the rank of minister of state within the Foreign Office. In the early 1980s part of the agency's operations was relocated to East Kilbride in Scotland, with a view to creating jobs in an area subject to long-term industrial decline. The department was separated from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office when a Labour government returned under Tony Blair in 1997. The department and the Foreign Office were yet again merged to form the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office in September 2020 by Boris Johnson's Conservative government. DFID or the ODA's role has been under: Over its history the department for international development and its predecessors have been independent departments or part of the foreign office. In 1997, Labour separated the Department for International Development from the Foreign Office. They also reduced the amount of aid tied to purchasing British goods and services which often led to aid being spent ineffectually. Along with the Nordic countries, DFID generally avoided setting up its own programmes, in order to avoid creating unnecessary bureaucracy. To achieve this, DFID distributed most of its money to governments and other international organisations that had already developed suitable programmes, and let them distribute the money as efficiently as possible. In July 2009, DFID rebranded all its aid programmes with the UK aid logo, to make clear the contributions were coming from the people of the United Kingdom. While the decision was met with some controversy among aid workers at the time, Commons International Development Select Committee Chairman Malcolm Bruce explained the rebranding saying "the name DFID does not reflect the fact that this is a British organisation; it could be anything. The Americans have USAID, Canada has got CIDA." The National Audit Office (NAO) 2009 Performance Management review looked at how DFID had restructured its performance management arrangements over the last six years. The report responded to a request from DFID's Accounting Officer to re-visit the topic periodically, which the Comptroller and Auditor General agreed would be valuable. The study found that DFID had improved in its general scrutiny of progress in reducing poverty and of progress towards divisional goals, however noted that there was still clear scope for further improvement. In 2016, DFID was taken to task with accusations of misappropriation of funding in the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat. Whistleblower Sean McLaughlin commenced legal action against the department in the Eastern Caribbean Court, questioning the DFID fraud investigation process. On 16 June 2020, Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced that the Department for International Development and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office would be brought together to form the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office from 1 September the same year, centralising oversight of the UK foreign aid budget. The stated aim, according to Johnson, was to "unite our aid with our diplomacy and bring them together in our international effort". Three former British Prime Ministers (David Cameron, Gordon Brown and Tony Blair) criticised the plan. Johnson merged the two departments together in September 2020 forming the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. In criticism of the merge, Opposition leader Keir Starmer has kept the shadow departments and ministers in place. Pergau Dam When it was the Overseas Development Administration, a scandal erupted concerning the UK funding of a hydroelectric dam on the Pergau River in Malaysia, near the Thai border. Building work began in 1991 with money from the UK foreign aid budget. Concurrently, the Malaysian government bought around £1 billion worth of arms from the UK, and thus became the subject of a UK government inquiry from March 1994. Ethiopia In February 2015, DFID ended its financial support for a controversial development project alleged to have helped the Ethiopian government fund a brutal resettlement programme. Four million people were forced off their land by security forces while their homes and farms were sold to foreign investors. In early 2017 the department ended £5.2m of support for the all-girl Ethiopian acting and pop group Yegna, called 'Ethiopia's Spice Girls', citing concerns about the effectiveness and value for money of the programme. Budget In 2010, DFID were criticised for spending around £15 million a year in the UK, although this only accounts for 0.25% of their total budget. £1.85 million was given to the Foreign Office to fund the Papal visit of Pope Benedict in September 2010, although a department spokesman said that "The contribution recognised the Catholic Church's role as a major provider of health and education services in developing countries". There has also been criticism of some spending by international organisations with UNESCO and the FAO being particularly weak. The government were also criticised for increasing the aid budget at a time where other departments were being cut. The head of the conservative pressure group TaxPayers' Alliance said that "The department should at least get the same treatment other high priority areas like science did – a cash freeze would save billions." In November 2015, DFID released a new policy document titled "UK aid: tackling global challenges in the national interest". In 2010 the incoming coalition government promised to reduce back-office costs to only 2% of the budget and to improve transparency by publishing more on their website. The budget for 2011–12 was £6.7 billion including £1.4 billion of capital. When the Conflict, Stability and Security Fund, a fund of more than £1 billion per year for tackling conflict and instability abroad, was created on 1 April 2015 under the control of the National Security Council, £823 million was transferred from the DFID budget to the fund, £739 million of which was then administered by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and £42 million by the Ministry of Defence. Subsequently, concern was expressed in the media that the UK aid budget was being spent on defence and foreign policy objectives and to support the work of other departments. International grants table The following table lists committed funding from DFID for the top 15 sectors, as recorded in DFID's International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI) publications. DFID joined IATI in January 2011 but also records grants before that point. The sectors use the names from the DAC 5 Digit Sector list. DFID research DFID was the largest bilateral donor of development-focused research. New science, technologies and ideas were crucial for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, but global research investments were insufficient to match needs and do not focus on the priorities of the poor. Many technological and policy innovations required an international scale of research effort. For example, DFID was a major donor to the International LUBILOSA Programme: which developed a biological pesticide for locust control in support of small-holder farmers in the Sahel. DFID Research commissioned research to help fill this gap, aiming to ensure tangible outcomes on the livelihoods of the poor worldwide. They also sought to influence the international and UK research agendas, putting poverty reduction and the needs of the poor at the forefront of global research efforts. DFID Research managed long-term research initiatives that cut across individual countries or regions, and only funded activities if there was clear opportunities and mechanisms for the research to have a significant impact on poverty. Research was funded through a range of mechanisms, including Research Programme Consortia (RPCs), jointly with other funders of development research, with UK Research Councils and with multilateral agencies (such as the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organisation, World Health Organisation). Information on both DFID current research programmes and completed research can be found on the (R4D) portal Research4Development. From November 2012 all new DFID-funded research was subjected to its DFID Research Open and Enhanced Access Policy. International Development Secretary Andrew Mitchell declared that this will ensure "that these findings get into the hands of those inh the developing world who stand to gain most from putting them into practical use". DFID launched its first Research Strategy in April 2008. This emphasised DFID's commitment to funding high quality research that aims to find solutions and ways of reducing global poverty. The new strategy identified six priorities: Growth Health Sustainable agriculture Climate change Governance in challenging environments Future challenges and opportunities The strategy also highlighted three important cross-cutting areas, where DFID would invest more funding: Capacity building Research communication and uptake Stimulating demand for research See also Imfundo List of development aid agencies Stabilisation Unit References Further reading Victoria C. Honeyman, "New Labour's overseas development aid policy – charity or self-interest?", Contemporary British History, vol. 33, no. 3 (2019), pp. 313–335. External links DFID Homepage DFID's Research4Development (R4D) portal, which provides information on DFID-funded research International Citizen Service Funded by DFID, provides voluntary opportunities for young people aged 18–25 Video clips DFID YouTube channel Foreign relations of the United Kingdom International development agencies United Kingdom, International Development 1997 establishments in the United Kingdom 2020 disestablishments in the United Kingdom	[ 0.2575058341026306, -0.1686442792415619, -0.26313549280166626, -0.3995419144630432, -0.07820306718349457, 0.4484041631221771, -0.30625927448272705, 0.43040770292282104, -0.4800359308719635, 0.1874326765537262, -0.5178767442703247, 0.05968360975384712, 0.1190904751420021, 0.29369351267814636, 0.3400040566921234, -0.3816882073879242, 0.5583459734916687, 0.27476680278778076, 0.5461045503616333, -0.3542103171348572, -0.495225727558136, 0.015779998153448105, -0.7311689853668213, 0.3144663870334625, 0.14625300467014313, 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247315	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status%20quo	Status quo	is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, political, religious or military issues. In the sociological sense, the status quo refers to the current state of social structure and/or values. With regard to policy debate, it means how conditions are, contrasted with a possible change. For example: "The countries are now trying to maintain the status quo with regard to their nuclear arsenals." To maintain the status quo is to keep things the way they presently are. The related phrase status quo ante, literally "the status before", refers to the state of affairs that existed previously. Political usage Via social movements the status quo might be overhauled. These seek to alleviate or prevent a particular issue and often to shape social feeling and cultural expression of a society or nation. The status quo is at least in part rejected by their protagonists – progressives – leading the movement. Advocating to improve the status quo is a persuasive rhetorical device. This is sometimes critiqued as a policy of deliberate ambiguity as not formalizing or defining the adverse situation. In democratic meetings, a casting vote will often be subject to a custom that is cast per the status quo, the heart of Speaker Denison's rule. Clark Kerr reportedly said: "The status quo is the only solution that cannot be vetoed". Karl Marx viewed organized religion as a means for the bourgeoisie to keep the proletariat content with an unequal status quo. See also Status quo bias List of Latin phrases Status Quo (Jerusalem and Bethlehem) References Latin words and phrases Change Cognitive inertia	[ 0.3878980576992035, -0.12872619926929474, -0.4918860197067261, 0.18413466215133667, 0.23814035952091217, 0.069739930331707, 0.3489772081375122, 0.6327656507492065, -0.061535947024822235, -0.32992178201675415, -0.3588799834251404, 0.16295886039733887, -0.487466424703598, 0.6449891924858093, 0.15100324153900146, 0.2276533991098404, 0.65633225440979, 0.5783464908599854, 0.10607752948999405, 0.26085183024406433, -0.4747846722602844, 0.05952327325940132, -0.3163538873195648, -0.5017246603965759, 0.13000072538852692, -0.5121021866798401, -0.21565985679626465, -0.3476397693157196, -0.7935154438018799, 0.1165931224822998, 0.019157661125063896, 0.2929130792617798, -0.4500821530818939, 0.3409935235977173, -0.25518885254859924, 0.1822972148656845, 0.24726362526416779, -0.11633983254432678, -0.3407329022884369, -0.6465275883674622, -0.2290581464767456, 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247319	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravensburg%20%28district%29	Ravensburg (district)	Ravensburg is a Landkreis (district) in the southeast of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from southwest clockwise) Bodensee, Sigmaringen and Biberach, the Bavarian urban district Memmingen and the districts Unterallgäu, Oberallgäu and Lindau. History The district dates back to the Oberamt Ravensburg, which was created in 1810 when the previously free imperial city Ravensburg and the surrounding area became part of Württemberg. In 1938 the Oberamt was converted into a district and most of the Oberamt Waldsee was merged into the new district. In 1973 the district Wangen was merged into the district, together with a few municipalities from the district Saulgau, Überlingen and Biberach. The district is also home to the toymaker Ravensburger. Geography The landscape of the district consists of the Oberschwäbischen Hügelland and Westallgäuer Hügelland hils. Coat of arms The coat of arms show a Lion, the symbol of the Welfen family. This family had their center in Ravensburg, before the area went to the Hohenstaufen family. Cities and municipalities Cities Aulendorf Bad Waldsee Bad Wurzach Isny im Allgäu Leutkirch im Allgäu Ravensburg Wangen im Allgäu Weingarten (Württemberg) Administrative districts Altshausen Bad Waldsee Gullen Leutkirch Mittleres Schussental Vogt Wangen Wilhelmsdorf Fronreute-Wolpertswende Municipalities References External links Official website (German) Tübingen (region) Districts of Baden-Württemberg	[ -0.32383814454078674, 0.7027803659439087, 0.743442177772522, -0.5608309507369995, -0.6340525150299072, 0.2734302878379822, 0.9036046862602234, 0.4810992181301117, -0.3183155655860901, -0.4998997747898102, -0.32407501339912415, -0.23382392525672913, -0.11526795476675034, 0.46924805641174316, 0.029910607263445854, 0.8658913969993591, 0.5829185247421265, 0.43754497170448303, -0.30279067158699036, -0.9432834386825562, -0.001124815782532096, -0.22115767002105713, 0.7190683484077454, 0.22712039947509766, -0.47091755270957947, -0.4430081248283386, 0.6484353542327881, 0.6528024673461914, 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247323	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling%20cycle	Stirling cycle	The Stirling cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the general class of Stirling devices. This includes the original Stirling engine that was invented, developed and patented in 1816 by Robert Stirling with help from his brother, an engineer. The ideal Otto and Diesel cycles are not totally reversible because they involve heat transfer through a finite temperature difference during the irreversible isochoric/isobaric heat-addition and heat-rejection processes. The irreversibility renders the thermal efficiency of these cycles less than that of a Carnot engine operating within the same limits of temperature. Another cycle that features isothermal heat-addition and heat-rejection processes is the Stirling cycle, which is an altered version of the Carnot cycle in which the two isentropic processes featured in the Carnot cycle are replaced by two constant-volume regeneration processes. The cycle is reversible, meaning that if supplied with mechanical power, it can function as a heat pump for heating or cooling, and even for cryogenic cooling. The cycle is defined as a closed regenerative cycle with a gaseous working fluid. "Closed cycle" means the working fluid is permanently contained within the thermodynamic system. This also categorizes the engine device as an external heat engine. "Regenerative" refers to the use of an internal heat exchanger called a regenerator which increases the device's thermal efficiency. The cycle is the same as most other heat cycles in that there are four main processes: compression, heat addition, expansion, and heat removal. However, these processes are not discrete, but rather the transitions overlap. The Stirling cycle is a highly advanced subject that has defied analysis by many experts for over 190 years. Highly advanced thermodynamics is required to describe the cycle. Professor Israel Urieli writes: "...the various 'ideal' cycles (such as the Schmidt cycle) are neither physically realizable nor representative of the Stirling cycle". The analytical problem of the regenerator (the central heat exchanger in the Stirling cycle) is judged by Jakob to rank "among the most difficult and involved that are encountered in engineering". Idealized Stirling cycle thermodynamics The idealized Stirling cycle consists of four thermodynamic processes acting on the working fluid (See diagram to right): Piston motion variations Most thermodynamics textbooks describe a highly simplified form of Stirling cycle consisting of four processes. This is known as an "ideal Stirling cycle", because it is an "idealized" model, and not necessarily an optimized cycle. Theoretically, the "ideal cycle" does have high net work output, but it is rarely used in practical applications, in part because other cycles are simpler or reduce peak stresses on bearings and other components. For convenience, the designer may elect to use piston motions dictated by system dynamics, such as mechanical linkage mechanisms. At any rate, the efficiency and cycle power are nearly as good as an actual implementation of the idealized case. A typical piston crank or linkage in a so named "kinematic" design often results in a near-sinusoidal piston motion. Some designs will cause the piston to "dwell" at either extreme of travel. Many kinematic linkages, such as the well known "Ross yoke", will exhibit near-sinusoidal motion. However, other linkages, such as the "rhombic drive", will exhibit more non-sinusoidal motion. To a lesser extent, the ideal cycle introduces complications, since it would require somewhat higher piston acceleration and higher viscous pumping losses of the working fluid. The material stresses and pumping losses in an optimized engine, however, would only be intolerable when approaching the "ideal cycle" and/or at high cycle rates. Other issues include the time required for heat transfer, particularly for the isothermal processes. In an engine with a cycle approaching the "ideal cycle", the cycle rate might have to be reduced to address these issues. In the most basic model of a free piston device, the kinematics will result in simple harmonic motion. Volume variations In beta and gamma engines, generally the phase angle difference between the piston motions is not the same as the phase angle of the volume variations. However, in the alpha Stirling, they are the same. The rest of the article assumes sinusoidal volume variations, as in an alpha Stirling with co-linear pistons, so named an "opposed piston" alpha device. caveat: Among the many inaccuracies in this article, a co-linear alpha configuration is referenced, above. Such a configuration would be beta. Alternatively, it would be an alpha, that has an unacceptably inefficient linkage system. Pressure-versus-volume graph This type of plot is used to characterize almost all thermodynamic cycles. The result of sinusoidal volume variations is the quasi-elliptical shaped cycle shown in Figure 1. Compared to the idealized cycle, this cycle is a more realistic representation of most real Stirling engines. The four points in the graph indicate the crank angle in degrees. The adiabatic Stirling cycle is similar to the idealized Stirling cycle; however, the four thermodynamic processes are slightly different (see graph above): 180° to 270°, pseudo-isothermal expansion. The expansion space is heated externally, and the gas undergoes near-isothermal expansion. 270° to 0°, near-constant-volume (or near-isometric or isochoric) heat removal. The gas is passed through the regenerator, thus cooling the gas, and transferring heat to the regenerator for use in the next cycle. 0° to 90°, pseudo-isothermal compression. The compression space is intercooled, so the gas undergoes near-isothermal compression. 90° to 180°, near-constant-volume (near-isometric or isochoric) heat addition. The compressed air flows back through the regenerator and picks up heat on the way to the heated expansion space. With the exception of a Stirling thermoacoustic engine, none of the gas particles actually flow through the complete cycle. So this approach is not amenable to further analysis of the cycle. However, it provides an overview and indicates the cycle work. Particle/mass motion Figure 2 shows the streaklines which indicate how gas flows through a real Stirling engine. The vertical colored lines delineate the volumes of the engine. From left to right, they are: the volume swept by the expansion (power) piston, the clearance volume (which prevents the piston from contacting the hot heat exchanger), the heater, the regenerator, the cooler, the cooler clearance volume, and the compression volume swept by the compression piston. Heat-exchanger pressure drop Also referred to as "pumping losses", the pressure drops shown in Figure 3 are caused by viscous flow through the heat exchangers. The red line represents the heater, green is the regenerator, and blue is the cooler. To properly design the heat exchangers, multivariate optimization is required to obtain sufficient heat transfer with acceptable flow losses. The flow losses shown here are relatively low, and they are barely visible in the following image, which will show the overall pressure variations in the cycle. Pressure versus crank angle Figure 4 shows results from an "adiabatic simulation" with non-ideal heat exchangers. Note that the pressure drop across the regenerator is very low compared to the overall pressure variation in the cycle. Temperature versus crank angle Figure 5 illustrates the adiabatic properties of a real heat exchanger. The straight lines represent the temperatures of the solid portion of the heat exchanger, and the curves are the gas temperatures of the respective spaces. The gas temperature fluctuations are caused by the effects of compression and expansion in the engine, together with non-ideal heat exchangers which have a limited rate of heat transfer. When the gas temperature deviates above and below the heat exchanger temperature, it causes thermodynamic losses known as "heat transfer losses" or "hysteresis losses". However, the heat exchangers still work well enough to allow the real cycle to be effective, even if the actual thermal efficiency of the overall system is only about half of the theoretical limit. Cumulative heat and work energy Figure 6 shows a graph of the alpha-type Stirling engine data, where 'Q' denotes heat energy, and 'W' denotes work energy. The blue dotted line shows the work output of the compression space. As the trace dips down, work is done on the gas as it is compressed. During the expansion process of the cycle, some work is actually done on the compression piston, as reflected by the upward movement of the trace. At the end of the cycle, this value is negative, indicating that compression piston requires a net input of work. The blue solid line shows the heat flowing out of the cooler heat exchanger. The heat from the cooler and the work from the compression piston have the same cycle energy. This is consistent with the zero-net heat transfer of the regenerator (solid green line). As would be expected, the heater and the expansion space both have positive energy flow. The black dotted line shows the net work output of the cycle. On this trace, the cycle ends higher than it started, indicating that the heat engine converts energy from heat into work. See also Pseudo Stirling cycle Stirling engine Solar-powered Stirling engine Stirling radioisotope generator References External links I. 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247325	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Levegh	Pierre Levegh	Pierre Eugène Alfred Bouillin (22 December 1905 – 11 June 1955) was a French sportsman and racing driver. He took the racing name Pierre Levegh in memory of his uncle, a pioneering driver who died in 1904. Levegh died in the 1955 Le Mans disaster which also killed 83 spectators during the 1955 24 Hours of Le Mans automobile race. Career Levegh, who was born in Paris, France, was also an ice hockey and tennis player. In motorsport he competed in Formula One for the Talbot-Lago team in 1950 and 1951, starting six races, retiring in three, and scoring no points. At Le Mans he raced for Talbot in four races, finishing fourth in 1951. In 1952, driving single-handedly, his car suffered an engine failure in the last hour of the race with a four lap lead. The failure was due to a bolt in the central crankshaft bearing having come loose many hours earlier in the race, although many fans placed the blame on driver fatigue. Levegh had refused to let his co-driver take over because he felt only he could nurse the car home. In 1953 he came in eighth, and in 1954 he was involved in an accident in the seventh hour of racing. Death In 1955 he was tempted away from Talbot and joined the American John Fitch in racing a Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR. During the 24 Hours of Le Mans, in the third hour of racing, while on the Tribunes Straight, the car of Mike Hawthorn cut into the pits, slowing in front of the Austin-Healey 100S of Lance Macklin. Macklin was forced to make an evasive move away from Hawthorn, pulling across the track into the path of Levegh's faster Mercedes, which was driving just in front of Mercedes teammate Juan Manuel Fangio. Running up the side of Macklin's car, Levegh's car launched into the air, striking high on a retaining wall, disintegrating and scattering components into the crowd. Levegh was killed when he was thrown from the car and his skull crushed by the impact. The flammable magnesium body of the Mercedes quickly ignited in the accident; the combination of the fire and flying car parts killed 83 spectators with over 100 injured. The race was continued in order to avoid a mass exodus of spectators, which would have blocked all access roads needed for use by the responding ambulances. Though Levegh was killed, he may have saved the life of five-time Formula One world champion Fangio, who maintained that a hand-signal from Levegh to slow down, a moment before he struck Macklin's car, was the deliberate warning that had saved Fangio's life. While Mercedes withdrew from the race as a sign of respect to the victims (and later from motor racing in general for the next 30 years), Mike Hawthorn and Ivor Bueb continued in their Jaguar to win the race. The accident was a major contributor to changing attitudes about the acceptance of danger in motor racing and an increase in the desire to make courses safer for spectators and drivers alike. The small British firm of Bristol Cars, whose entrants achieved a 1–2–3 finish in the 2-litre class at Le Mans that year, decided to abandon racing altogether as a result of the tragedy, scrapping all but one of their racing cars. Fitch became a safety advocate and began research into automotive safety, some of which have advanced into motorsport. Levegh is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Complete Formula One World Championship results (key) References External links Remember Le Mans 1955 1955 Le Mans Disaster Pierre Levegh at motorsportmemorial.org 1905 births 1955 deaths 24 Hours of Le Mans drivers Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery Filmed deaths in sports French Formula One drivers French ice hockey players French racing drivers French male sailors (sport) Racing drivers killed while racing Sport deaths in France Sportspeople from Paris World Sportscar Championship drivers	[ -0.10104109346866608, -0.09926306456327438, -0.6258953213691711, 0.26205533742904663, -0.13678768277168274, 1.0733407735824585, 0.0850328579545021, -0.5212942361831665, -0.4357169568538666, -0.7179962396621704, 0.4222394526004791, 0.4255107045173645, -0.23416726291179657, -0.10286714136600494, 0.055687010288238525, 0.3232033848762512, -0.240230992436409, -0.6275917887687683, -0.12595106661319733, -0.19043979048728943, -0.40689677000045776, -0.5132831335067749, -0.1270061731338501, 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247326	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic%20glass	Volcanic glass	Volcanic glass is the amorphous (uncrystallized) product of rapidly cooling magma. Like all types of glass, it is a state of matter intermediate between the closely packed, highly ordered array of a crystal and the highly disordered array of liquid. Volcanic glass may refer to the interstitial material, or matrix, in an aphanitic (fine-grained) volcanic rock, or to any of several types of vitreous igneous rocks. Most commonly, it refers to obsidian, a rhyolitic glass with high silica (SiO2) content. Other types of volcanic glass include the following: Pumice, which is considered a glass because it has no crystal structure. Apache tears, a kind of nodular obsidian. Tachylite (also spelled tachylyte), a basaltic glass with relatively low silica content. Sideromelane, a less common form of tachylyte. Palagonite, a basaltic glass with relatively low silica content. Hyaloclastite, a hydrated tuff-like breccia of sideromelane and palagonite. Pele's hair, threads or fibers of volcanic glass, usually basaltic. Pele's tears, tear-like drops of volcanic glass, usually basaltic. Limu o Pele (Pele's seaweed), thin sheets and flakes of brownish-green to near-clear volcanic glass, usually basaltic. References Volcanology Glass in nature Volcanic rocks	[ 0.055416762828826904, 0.8242172002792358, -0.5117467641830444, 0.35153910517692566, -0.22267913818359375, -0.12010908871889114, 0.36390477418899536, 0.8860471844673157, -0.15093305706977844, -0.02410845272243023, -0.917660117149353, 0.27600187063217163, -0.1003449484705925, 0.6648268103599548, 0.053062472492456436, 0.027310166507959366, 0.6363281011581421, 0.46357545256614685, 0.37246376276016235, -0.17556272447109222, -0.1571234166622162, -0.4507460296154022, 0.3558802902698517, -0.25614193081855774, 0.4613913297653198, -0.31026673316955566, -0.4419340491294861, -0.023770898580551147, 0.2694436013698578, 0.2808868885040283, -0.5024184584617615, 1.1247116327285767, -0.4597919285297394, -0.3184199333190918, 0.19976110756397247, 0.2968696653842926, 0.11305835098028183, -0.39980390667915344, -0.5245466232299805, -0.2917625606060028, 0.4956541359424591, 0.3751385807991028, 0.6792391538619995, 0.8537780046463013, -0.34376785159111023, 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247331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Roskilde	Treaty of Roskilde	The Treaty of Roskilde was concluded on 26 February (OS) or 8 March 1658 (NS) during the Second Northern War between Frederick III of Denmark–Norway and Karl X Gustav of Sweden in the Danish city of Roskilde. After a devastating defeat, Denmark–Norway was forced to give up a third of its territory to save the rest, the ceded lands comprising Blekinge, Bornholm, Bohuslän (Båhuslen), Scania (Skåne) and Trøndelag, as well as her claims to Halland. After the treaty entered into force, Swedish forces continued to campaign in the remainder of Denmark–Norway, but had to withdraw from the Danish isles and Trøndelag in face of a Danish–Norwegian–Dutch alliance. The Treaty of Copenhagen restored Bornholm to Denmark and Trøndelag to Norway in 1660, while the other provinces transferred in Roskilde remained Swedish. Background As the Northern Wars progressed, Charles X Gustav of Sweden crossed the frozen straits from Jutland and occupied the Danish island of Zealand, with the invasion beginning on 11 February 1658. A preliminary treaty, the Treaty of Taastrup, was signed on 18 February 1658 with the final treaty, the Treaty of Roskilde, signed on 26 February 1658. Although Sweden also invaded Romsdal in western Norway, the local farmers rebelled and defied the Swedish taxes and military conscription vigorously. The Swedish governor was forced to send a full company of soldiers and 50 cavalry to collect taxes. The action was not successful, and the area remained largely autonomous. Provisions The treaty's conditions included: The immediate cession of the Danish province Scania (Skåne) to Sweden. The immediate cession of the Danish province Blekinge to Sweden. The immediate cession of the Danish province Halland, which under the terms of the Peace of Brömsebro, negotiated in 1645 was then occupied by Sweden for a term of 30 years, to Sweden. The immediate cession of the Danish province of Bornholm to Sweden. The immediate cession of the Norwegian province of Bohuslän (Båhuslen) to Sweden. This effectively secured for Sweden unrestricted access to western trade. The immediate cession of the Norwegian province of Trøndelag, then including Nordmøre and Romsdal, to Sweden. Danish renunciation of all anti-Swedish alliances. Danish prevention of any warships hostile to Sweden passing through the straits into the Baltic. Restoration of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp to his estates. Danish payment for Swedish occupation forces costs. Danish provision of troops to serve Charles in his broader wars. Aftermath Copenhagen The Swedish king was not content with his stunning victory, and at the Swedish Council held at Gottorp on 7 July, Charles X Gustav resolved to wipe his inconvenient rival from the map of Europe. Without any warning, in defiance of international treaty, he ordered his troops to attack Denmark–Norway a second time. There followed an attack on the capital Copenhagen, whose residents successfully defended themselves with help from the Dutch, who honored their 1649 treaty to defend Denmark against unprovoked invasion by sending an expeditionary fleet and army, defeating the Swedish fleet in the Battle of the Sound and relieving the capital. His army partly trapped at Landskrona and partly isolated on the Danish islands by superior Danish and Dutch forces under Vice-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, Charles was forced to withdraw in 1659. Bornholm and Trøndelag Meanwhile, Norwegian forces succeeded in expelling the Swedish occupiers from Trøndelag. Eventually, the resulting Treaty of Copenhagen in 1660 restored Trøndelag to Norway, and also the island of Bornholm to Denmark. The relinquishment of Trøndelag by the Treaty of Copenhagen reflects strong local resistance to the Swedish occupation. Although the Swedish invasion had been welcomed, or at least not resisted, the Swedes issued conscription orders in Trøndelag and forced 2000 men and boys down to 15 years of age to join the Swedish armies fighting in Poland and Brandenburg. King Carl X Gustav was afraid that the Trønders would rise against their Swedish occupiers, and thought it wise to keep a large part of the men away. Only about one third of the men ever returned to their homes. Some of them were forced to settle in the Swedish province of Estonia, as the Swedes thought it would be easier to rule the Trønders there. Many of Trøndelag's men were already in the Dano-Norwegian army and navy, so the Swedish-forced conscription nearly emptied Trøndelag of males. The result was devastating, as the farms were left without enough hands to harvest the fields, and famine struck the region. Some local historians of Trøndelag have termed this the genocide of the Trønders. The few months of experience with Swedish taxation and conscription left such bitter sentiments that it served to strengthen Dano-Norwegian unity and patriotism, making resistance to Swedish invasions of Denmark–Norway stronger over the next 80 years. Scania According to the ninth article of the Treaty of Roskilde, which ceded Scania (Skåne), the inhabitants of the Scanian lands were assured of their privileges, old laws and customs. However the territories were gradually integrated in the Swedish realm. The nobility was soon amalgamated with the Swedish nobility and introduced into the Swedish House of Lords with the same rights and privileges as the original Swedish noble families. The provincial Scanian Law was replaced by the national Swedish law in 1683. In the same year the national Danish law came into force in Denmark, also replacing provincial laws there. The Swedish Church Ordinance was introduced in 1686. See also Dominium maris baltici Dano-Swedish War (1657–58) List of treaties References External links Freden i Roskilde at the Danish-language Wikisource Scan of the treaty at IEG Mainz Transcription of the treaty at IEG Mainz Second Northern War Northern Wars Roskilde Roskilde Roskilde 1658 in Denmark 1658 treaties Treaties of the Swedish Empire Treaties of Denmark–Norway History of Bohuslän 1658 in Sweden History of Roskilde History of Scania	[ -0.6880542635917664, -0.024041764438152313, 0.6282842755317688, 0.1666676551103592, -0.6867120265960693, -0.38730284571647644, 0.7706438899040222, -0.16686443984508514, 0.12746833264827728, -0.009596903808414936, -0.06928575783967972, 0.09300625324249268, -0.0746891051530838, 1.1133413314819336, -0.8201566338539124, 0.5043371915817261, 0.45034435391426086, 0.1684483140707016, 0.18047286570072174, -0.8140891790390015, 0.32200518250465393, -0.09406866878271103, 0.07261021435260773, 0.5502607226371765, 1.0467201471328735, -0.2789088487625122, 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247332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Islander	Pacific Islander	Pacific Islanders, Pacificer, Pasifika, or Pasefika, are the peoples of the Pacific Islands—particularly those who are indigenous to them. As an ethnic/racial term, it is used to describe the original peoples—inhabitants and diasporas—of any of the three major subregions of Oceania (Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia), distinct from those inhabitants of the Pacific islands who are of Asian or European descent. Melanesians include the Fijians (Fiji), Kanaks (New Caledonia), Ni-Vanuatu (Vanuatu), Papua New Guineans (Papua New Guinea), Solomon Islanders (Solomon Islands), and West Papuans (West Papua). Micronesians include the Carolinians (Northern Mariana Islands), Chamorros (Guam), Chuukese (Chuuk), I-Kiribati (Kiribati), Kosraeans (Kosrae), Marshallese (Marshall Islands), Palauans (Palau), Pohnpeians (Pohnpei), and Yapese (Yap). Polynesians include the Māori (New Zealand), Native Hawaiians (Hawaii), Rapa Nui (Easter Island), Samoans (Samoa and American Samoa), Tahitians (Tahiti), Tokelauans (Tokelau), Niueans (Niue), Cook Islands Māori (Cook Islands) and Tongans (Tonga). Auckland, New Zealand has the world's largest concentration of urban Pacific Islanders living outside of their own countries, and is sometimes referred to as the "Polynesian capital of the world." This came as result of how, during the 20th century and into the 21st century, the country saw a steady stream of immigration from Polynesian countries such as Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands, Niue, and French Polynesia. Extent In the easternmost North Pacific, islands nearing Alaska and Canada were inhabited by people considered to be Indigenous Americans, not Indigenous Oceanians. In the South Pacific, the easternmost island with any human inhabitation was Easter Island, settled by the Polynesian Rapa Nui people. Islands beyond that which neighbor South America and Central America (Clipperton, Galápagos, Revillagigedo, Juan Fernández Islands etc.) are among the last places on earth to have been discovered by humans. Several of the islands were initially used as prisons for Latin American convicts, and today only a small number of them are inhabited, mostly by Spanish-speaking mainlanders. These individuals are not considered Pacific Islanders under the standard ethnically-based definition. In a broad sense, they could still possibly be seen as encompassing a Spanish-speaking segment of Oceania, along with the Easter Island inhabitants, who were eventually colonized by Chileans. Extremely remote Islands not located in the eastern half of the Pacific, such as Baker Island, were also generally uninhabited prior to European discovery. However, Pacific Islanders are believed to have possibly visited some of these isolated locations, including Wake Island. In the case of the uninhabitable Howland Island, there may have even been a brief attempt at settlement. Pacific Islander regions The Pacific islands consist of three main regions. Melanesia Melanesia is the great arc of islands located north and east of Australia and south of the Equator. The name derives the Greek words melas ('black') and nēsos ('island') for the predominantly dark-skinned peoples of New Guinea island, the Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides), New Caledonia, and Fiji. In addition those places listed above, Melanesia includes the Louisiade Archipelago, the Admiralty Islands, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, Western New Guinea (part of Indonesia), Maluku Island, Aru Islands, Kei Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands (part of the Solomon Islands), Loyalty Islands (part of New Caledonia) and various smaller islands. East Timor, while considered to be geographically Southeast Asian, is still generally accepted as being ethnoculturally part of Melanesia. The Torres Strait Islands are politically part of nearby Queensland, Australia, although the inhabitants are considered to be Melanesians rather than Indigenous Australians. This is not the case with other Australian islands that were inhabited by Indigenous peoples prior to European discovery, such as Fraser Island, Great Palm Island and the Tiwi Islands. The Torres Strait Islands could be seen as a Melanesian territory in Australasia, similar to how East Timor is a Melanesian territory in Asia. Norfolk Island was uninhabited when discovered by Europeans, and later became politically integrated into Australia (and by extension, Australasia). The remote island is still sometimes considered to be in Melanesia, as it is close to the region, and has archeological evidence of prehistoric Melanesian inhabitation. New Caledonia (and Vanuatu to a lesser extent) were under French colonial influence from the 19th century onward. Most islands however have historically had close ties to Australia and the United Kingdom, with the United States having had little impact on the region. Micronesia Micronesia includes Kiribati, Nauru, the Marianas (Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands), the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Palau, and the Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae, all in the Caroline Islands). The islands were previously under the influence of colonial powers such as Germany, Spain and Japan, with this lasting from the 16th century up until the end of World War II. Several of the island groups have since developed financially crucial political alignments with the United States. Nauru's main political partner since World War I has been Australia, excluding a brief period of Japanese occupation in World War II. Polynesia The Polynesian islands are scattered across a triangle covering the east-central region of the Pacific Ocean. The triangle is bound by the Hawaiian Islands in the north, New Zealand in the west, and Easter Island in the east. The rest of Polynesia includes the Samoan islands (American Samoa and Samoa [formerly Western Samoa]); Cook Islands; French Polynesia (the Society Islands [Tahiti], Marquesas Islands, Austral Islands, and Tuamotu); Niue Island; Tokelau and Tuvalu; Tonga; Wallis and Futuna; Rotuma Island; Pitcairn Island; Nukuoro; and Kapingamarangi. The majority of islands are most closely aligned to New Zealand/Australia, with others being politically aligned to France or the United States. Hawaii is geographically isolated from Polynesia, and is situated in the North Pacific, unlike the rest of Polynesia, which is in the South Pacific. They are still a part of the subregion for ethnocultural reasons. Easter Island is located in a remote part of the Pacific which is thousands of kilometers removed from both Polynesia and the South American continent. It was annexed by Chile in 1888, and Spanish is now commonly spoken in a bilingual manner, with some having race-mixed with Mestizo Chilean settlers. However, the inhabitants consider their island and its culture to be Polynesian, and do not view themselves as South Americans. Easter Island still currently participates in Pacific Islander affairs, unlike with many other Pacific Islands administered by Latin America, which were all uninhabited during the pre-Columbian era. Ethnic groups The population of the Pacific Islands is concentrated in Papua New Guinea, New Zealand (which has a majority of people of European descent), Hawaii, Fiji, and Solomon Islands. Most Pacific Islands are densely populated, and habitation tends to be concentrated along the coasts. Melanesians constitute over three quarters of the total indigenous population of the Pacific Islands; Polynesians account for more than one-sixth; and Micronesians make up about one-twentieth. Ethnolinguistics Several hundred distinct languages are spoken in the Pacific Islands. In ethnolinguistic terms, those Pacific islanders who reside in Oceania are divided into two different ethnic classifications: Austronesian-speaking peoples — Austronesian peoples who speak the Oceanian languages, numbering about 2.3 million in population, who occupy Polynesia, Micronesia, and most of the smaller islands of Melanesia. Papuan-speaking peoples — Papuan peoples who speak the Papuan languages (the mutually unrelated, non-Austronesian language families), numbering about 7 million in population, and mostly reside on the island of New Guinea and a few of the smaller islands of Melanesia located off the northeast coast of New Guinea. List of Pacific peoples Austronesian-speaking peoples Polynesians Western Polynesian region Samoans Rotumans Uveans Futunans Tokelauans Tongans Tuvaluans Niueans Northeast and South Polynesian region Hawaiians Māori Tahitians Tuamotuans Tubuai Rapans Marquesans Gambier Islanders Cook Islanders Rapanui Melanesians 'Are'are people Kanak people Kwaio people Motuan people Ni-Vanuatu Fijians New Guinea region Bilibil Maisin Motu Tanga Tolai Trobriand Micronesians Marshallese Palauans Carolinians Chamorros Chuukese Yapese Kiribati Kosraeans Pohnpeians Nauruans Papuan-speaking peoples Papua New Guinea region Abelam Angu Baining (Bismarck Archipelago) Baruya Biangai Chambri Duna Etoro Fore Gadsup Gogodala Haroli Hewa Huli Iatmul Kaluli Kwoma Melpa Mian Morkai Min Mundugumor Ogea Orokaiva Sambia Swagap Tairora Telefol Tsembaga Urapmin Wiru Wola Wopkaimin Yaifo Zia Papua region Asmat Bauzi Dani Fayu Kombai Korowai Koteka（Lani, Ekari, Amungme, Moni, Yali） Marind Mek Sawi Wolani West Papua region (see List of ethnic groups of West Papua) Usage by country The umbrella term Pacific Islands may take on several meanings. Sometimes it refers to only those islands covered by the region of Oceania. In some common uses, the term refers to the islands of the Pacific Ocean once colonized by the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, British, French, United States, and Japanese, such as the Pitcairn Islands, Taiwan, and Borneo. In other uses, it may refer to islands with Austronesian linguistic heritage like Taiwan, Indonesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Myanmar islands, which found their genesis in the Neolithic cultures of the island of Taiwan. Australia In Australia, the term was used to describe Australian descendants of people from the over-80 islands in the western Pacific who had been brought to Australia to work on the sugar fields of Queensland—these people were called in the 19th century. The Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 was enacted to restrict entry of Pacific Islanders to Australia and to authorise their deportation. In this legislation, Pacific Islanders were defined as: Despite this, Pacific Islanders were generally held in a much higher regard than Indigenous Australians were during the early 20th century. In 2008, a "Pacific Seasonal Worker Pilot Scheme" was announced as a three-year pilot experiment. It provides visas for workers from Kiribati, Tonga, Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea to work in Australia. Aside from Papua New Guinea, the scheme includes one country each from Melanesia (Vanuatu), Polynesia (Tonga), and Micronesia (Kiribati)—countries that already send workers to New Zealand under its seasonal labour scheme. New Zealand Local usage in New Zealand uses (formerly , or ) to distinguish those who have emigrated from one of these areas in modern times from the New Zealand Māori, who are also Polynesian but are indigenous to New Zealand. In the 2013 New Zealand census, 7.4% of the New Zealand population identified with one or more Pacific ethnic groups, although 62.3% of these were born in New Zealand. Those with a Samoan background make up the largest proportion, followed by Cook Islands Māori, Tongan, and Niuean. Some smaller island populations such as Niue and Tokelau have the majority of their nationals living in New Zealand. To celebrate the diverse Pacific island cultures, the Auckland Region hosts several Pacific island festivals. Two of the major ones are Polyfest, which showcases performances of the secondary school cultural groups in the region, and Pasifika, a festival that celebrates Pacific island heritage through traditional food, music, dance, and entertainment. United States By the 1980s, the United States Census Bureau grouped persons of Asian ancestry and created the category "," which continued in the 1990s census. In 2000, "" and "" became two separate racial categories. According to the Census Bureau's Population Estimates Program (PEP), a "" is,According to the Office of Management and Budget, "" refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. Eight out of 10 Pacific Islanders in the United States are native to the United States. Polynesians make up the largest group, including Native Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, and Tongans. Micronesians make up the second largest, including primarily Chamoru from Guam; as well as other Chamoru, Carolinian from the Northern Mariana Islands, Marshallese, Palauans, and various others. Among Melanesians, Fijian Americans are the largest in this group. There are at least 39 different Pacific Island languages spoken as a second language in the American home. See also Aboriginal Australians Aboriginal Tasmanians Asian American and Pacific Islander Policy Research Consortium Austronesian peoples Indigenous Australians Indigenous peoples of Oceania Pacific Islander Americans References Further reading Lal, B., and K. Fortune, eds. 2000. "The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia." Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. Okihiro, Gary Y. 2015. American History Unbound: Asians and Pacific Islanders. University of California Press.. Smelt, R., and Y. Lin. 1998. Cultures of the world: New Zealand. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark. Thomas, Nicholas. 2010. Islanders: The Pacific in the Age of Empire. Yale University Press. . "Pacific Islanders in the NZEF." New Zealand History Online. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 2019 March 26. External links Asian Pacific Americans in the U.S. Army Native Hawaiian Pacific Islander Association Margaret Mead Hall of Pacific Peoples — exhibit at the American Museum of Natural History Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved March 21, 2013. 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247333	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auchinleck%20Talbot%20F.C.	Auchinleck Talbot F.C.	Auchinleck Talbot Football Club is a Scottish football club based in Auchinleck, near Kilmarnock, Ayrshire. They were members of the Scottish Junior Football Association, winning the Scottish Junior Cup on a record 13 occasions. They play in a local derby against near neighbours and biggest rivals Cumnock Juniors. History Auchinleck Talbot was formed in 1909 and take their name from the 2nd Baron Talbot de Malahide, Richard Wogan Talbot, a landowner who donated the site of their Beechwood Park home. Beechwood Park opened in 1909 with a charity match between The Old Players and The Merchants. Talbot made their team debut the same year when they defeat the juvenile side Highhouse Rangers 4–0. Weeks later they lost their first competitive game at Cronberry Eglinton in the league. Their first win came in September 1909 when they defeated Patna Doon Athletic in their first Scottish Junior Cup tie. The early and middle history of the club is characterised by periods of fluctuating fortune, often related to the economic conditions in this coal mining district of rural Ayrshire. Talbot folded in 1916 due to financial problems and the First World War but made a comeback four years later, ushering in a relatively successful period for the club. The Ayrshire Cup was won in 1920 by defeating Irvine Meadow 3–0 at Rugby Park. That same year they set a club goalscoring record in the Scottish Junior Cup, defeating Craigbank 11–0 at home, a scoreline surpassed in 2008 when defeating Nairn St. Ninian, 13–1. The South Ayrshire League was won for the first time in 1921 and the following year, a terrace was raised at Beechwood Park to accommodate larger crowds ahead of a Junior Cup quarter-final tie against the eventual winners, a Jimmy McGrory inspired St Roch's. Talbot made their first foray to the semi-finals of this tournament in 1924, losing 1–0 to Baillieston at Love Street. In the 1928–29 season however, the club were forced into abeyance due to financial difficulties. Restarting the next year, Talbot suffered a lean decade through the 1930s until a second Ayrshire Cup victory arrived in 1939. The club closed down for the duration of World War II but on resuming after hostilities, they enjoyed another successful spell, winning five trophies in 1947–48 including the first of twelve West of Scotland Cups before lifting the Scottish Junior Cup for the first time in 1949. The 3–2 victory over Petershill at Hampden Park was watched by a then record crowd of 68,837 and it remains the third highest attendance at a Junior Cup final. Talbot's first defence of the trophy drew a record crowd to Beechwood Park when 10,000 people saw Irvine Meadow knock the holders out in the 3rd round. The ground was expanded for the occasion with thousands of tons of mining spoil added to build up the terracing and the "bing" was a feature of the park for a number of years. By the end of the 1950s, the club's fortunes were again on the wane and the 60s was a down-at-heel decade of little success, with a constant battle being fought against vandalism at the ground. This culminated in the pavilion being burned down in 1972. Around this time, Talbot also suffered their record defeat, a humiliating 11–0 reverse at the hands of arch local rivals Cumnock Juniors. From the depths of despair however, a new resolve emerged. A public meeting on the future of the club infused Talbot with new blood. The clubhouse was rebuilt and onfield performances improved under a new manager, Jimsie Kirkland. Willie Knox, a former Raith Rovers and Forfar wing half, was appointed as manager in 1977 and an unprecedented era of success for the club began. The Ayrshire League was won in Knox's first season and in 1979, Talbot's hegemony over the West of Scotland Cup began with the first of nine victories in eleven years. The Scottish Junior Cup proved initially elusive with two successive semi-final losses in 1983 and '84 before Talbot defeated Pollok 3–2 in the Junior Cup Centenary final of 1986, coming back from 2–0 down after fifteen minutes of the game. The club followed up with Junior Cup final victories against Kilbirnie Ladeside in 1987 (after a replay), and Petershill in 1988, becoming the first and so far, only club to win the tournament three times in a row. Talbot added a further two Junior Cup wins under Knox in 1991 and 1992 and when he stepped down as manager in 1993, the number of trophies accumulated under his 16-year tenure stood at 43. Talbot made their seventh Junior Cup final appearance in 2002 under the management of Tam McDonald, a player in the 1980s three-in-a-row side, but lost on the big day for the first time to Linlithgow Rose. Tommy Sloan had joined the club from Kilwinning Rangers as a player–coach under McDonald in 2003 and he stepped up to the managers role later that year, assisted firstly by Iain Jardine, then by Allan McLuckie. Sloan has led the club to a further seven Scottish finals, winning five times. His first victory in 2006 against Bathgate Thistle also comprised one half of a Super League and Junior Cup double, a feat to be repeated in 2015. After escaping relegation on the final day in his first season, Sloan has established Talbot as the preeminent force in the West Super League with the club winning four successive league titles from 2012–13 onwards, and five in total. Off the field, Beechwood Park has also been improved in recent years. A building sub-committee formed in 1989 oversaw the purchase of the Main Stand extension from Hamilton Accies old Douglas Park ground for £30,000 in the 1990s and the 460 seat structure was finally opened around 10 years later. The building committee was subsumed into a larger Beechwood Regeneration Committee in 2013 who continue to upgrade facilities. The club have also been accredited with the Scottish Football Association "Standard" Quality Mark award since 2012. In the eventually cancelled 2019–20 season, a bizarre incident occurred, where Talbot, who were sitting 3rd place, and 12 points off the leaders, Kilwinning Rangers, were awarded the league title. However the debacle was quickly resolved by clearing up that the league was decided on a Points Per Game ratio, rather than calling it as it stood. In 2020, Talbot moved from the SJFA, to join the pyramid system in Scottish football as one of the inaugural members of the West of Scotland Football League. On 11 October 2020, the club announced it would not participate in the inaugural West of Scotland League season due to concerns relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. Scottish Junior Cup finals record Talbot's record in the Scottish Junior Cup is the best of any club by some considerable distance. The 2018–19 final was their 16th appearance at this stage of the competition, ahead of Cambuslang Rangers (11 final appearances) and Petershill (10 appearances). In terms of cup victories, the margin is more marked. Talbot's 13 Junior Cup wins is more than double the total of the next best clubs, Cambuslang Rangers, Parkhead and Petershill, who have all won the tournament five times. Participation in the Scottish Cup Since the 2007–08 season, a Junior club which wins the Scottish Junior Cup or one of the three regional Superleague competitions is eligible to compete in the following season's Senior Scottish Cup. Talbot's victory over Clydebank in the 2009 Junior Cup final saw them enter the Senior tournament for the first time in 2009–10. The club was drawn at home to Highland League side Fort William in their first ever tie, winning the match 7–0. Talbot then defeated Huntly after a replay before eventually losing to Stirling Albion in the third round. In their first three years of qualification, Talbot went out to League opposition although they took Stranraer to a replay in 2013–14. Their greatest run until that point had come two years before, when the club reached the fourth round and faced Scottish Premier League side Hearts at Tynecastle Stadium, losing narrowly 1–0. The club took over 2,000 supporters to Edinburgh for the occasion. Hearts would go on to win the cup. In 2018–19, the club extended their longest run in front of 3,100 crowd at home with a 1–0 fourth round win over Championship side Ayr United; this victory was their first against full-time opponents. Former players Talbot have seen a number of players step up to Senior football over the years, although the club was not as prolific a nursery as some Junior sides. Two Auchinleck men who moved from their local club to the professional game are Hugh Robertson and Kris Doolan. Winger Robertson was signed by Willie Thornton for Dundee from Talbot in 1957 at the age of 17 while working as a miner at Barony Colliery. He was a member of the Dark Blues League title winning side in 1961–62 managed by Bob Shankly and their subsequent European campaigns including an 8–1 rout of FC Cologne at Dens Park. Robertson was capped once for Scotland in a November 1961 World Cup qualification play-off against Czechoslovakia, setting up both Scotland goals for Ian St John in a 4–2 defeat. Shankly himself played for Talbot for a season in 1929 before joining his own local club, the famous Glenbuck Cherrypickers. Kris Doolan was an established player with Kello Rovers when Tommy Sloan signed him for his hometown club aged 20 in 2007. His form at Beechwood earned him recognition at Junior international level for Scotland, winning three caps in the 2008 Junior International Quadrangular Tournament held in the Isle of Man. After a season and a half at Talbot, Doolan signed for Partick Thistle in January 2009 after a successful trial and has gone on to be the club's sixth highest goal scorer of all time. Players and staff Current squad Coaching staff Honours Scottish Junior Cup Winners (13): 1949, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1991, 1992, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2019 Runners-up: 2002, 2012, 2017 SJFA West Region league Winners (7): 2005–06, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2018–19, 2019–20 Runners-up: 2006–07, 2017–18 West of Scotland Cup Winners (12): 1947–48, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1988–89, 2013–14, 2015–16 Sectional League Cup Winners: 2018–19 Ayrshire First Division League Champions (11): 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1989–90, 1990–91, 1991–92, 1994–95, 1996–97 Runners Up (4): 1993–94, 1997–98, 1998–99, 1999–00 Ayrshire Cup Winners (15): 1920, 1939, 1956, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1988, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2005, 2011, 2012, 2017 Ayrshire League Cup Winners (11): 1977–78, 1989–90, 1990–91, 1992–93, 1997–98, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2017–18 Evening Times League Champions Cup Winners: 2013, 2014, 2016 Ayrshire District Cup Winners (7): 1948, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1989, 1992, 1997 Cumnock & Doon Valley Cup Winners (4): 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995 East Ayrshire Cup Winners (4): 1997, 1999, 2000, 2002 Ayrshire Super Cup Winners (5): 1993, 1994, 1995, 1999, 2000 References https://www.heartsfc.co.uk/news/article/auchinleck-talbot-0-5-heart-of-midlothian External links Association football clubs established in 1909 Football clubs in Scotland Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Football in East Ayrshire 1909 establishments in Scotland Auchinleck West of Scotland Football League teams	[ 0.5152226686477661, 0.7297624349594116, -0.4147394001483917, -0.8032553791999817, -0.3718228340148926, -0.17035172879695892, 0.3292143642902374, 0.6012381315231323, -0.1315247118473053, -0.6293918490409851, -0.3213309645652771, 0.11869612336158752, -0.2831679582595825, 1.1962658166885376, 0.3419910669326782, 0.6290333271026611, 0.34425973892211914, 0.7732564210891724, 0.15915663540363312, 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247335	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy	Physiognomy	Physiognomy (from the Greek , , meaning "nature", and , meaning "judge" or "interpreter") is the practice of assessing a person's character or personality from their outer appearance—especially the face. The term can also refer to the general appearance of a person, object, or terrain without reference to its implied characteristics—as in the physiognomy of an individual plant (see plant life-form) or of a plant community (see vegetation). The historical study of physiognomy meets the contemporary definition of a pseudoscience; the credence of the study of physiognomy in the present day varies. The practice was well-accepted by the ancient Greek philosophers, but fell into disrepute in the Middle Ages while practised by vagabonds and mountebanks. It revived and was popularised by Johann Kaspar Lavater, before falling from favor in the late 19th century. Physiognomy in the 19th century is particularly noted as a basis for scientific racism. Physiognomy is sometimes referred to as 'anthroposcopy', a term originating in the 19th century. Ancient physiognomy Notions of the relationship between an individual's outward appearance and inner character are historically ancient, and occasionally appear in early Greek poetry. Siddhars from ancient India defined as identifying personal characteristics with body features. Chinese physiognomy or Chinese face reading () reaches back at least to the Spring and Autumn period. Early indications of a developed physiognomic theory appear in 5th century BC Athens, with the works of Zopyrus (who was featured in a dialogue by Phaedo of Elis), an expert in the art. By the 4th century BC, the philosopher Aristotle frequent referred to theory and literature concerning the relationship of appearance to character. Aristotle was receptive to such an idea, evidenced by a passage in his Prior Analytics: The first systematic physiognomic treatise is a slim volume, (Physiognomonics), ascribed to Aristotle, but probably of his "school", rather than created by the philosopher. The volume is divided into two parts, conjectured as originally two separate works. The first section discusses arguments drawn from nature or other races, and concentrates on the concept of human behavior. The second section focuses on animal behavior, dividing the animal kingdom into male and female types. From these are deduced correspondences between human form and character. After Aristotle, the major extant works in physiognomy are: Polemo of Laodicea, (2nd century AD), in Greek Adamantius the Sophist, (4th century), in Greek An anonymous Latin author, (about 4th century) Ancient Greek mathematician, astronomer, and scientist Pythagoras—who some believe originated physiognomics—once rejected a prospective follower named Cylon because, to Pythagoras, his appearance indicated bad character. After inspecting Socrates, a physiognomist announced he was given to intemperance, sensuality, and violent bursts of passion—which was so contrary to Socrates's image, his students accused the physiognomist of lying. Socrates put the issue to rest by saying, originally, he was given to all these vices, but had particularly strong self-discipline. Middle Ages and Renaissance The term 'physiognomy' was common in Middle English, often written as or , as in the Tale of Beryn, a spurious addition to The Canterbury Tales: . Physiognomy's validity was once widely accepted. Michael Scot, a court scholar for Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, wrote in the early 13th century concerning the subject. English universities taught physiognomy until Henry VIII of England outlawed "beggars and vagabonds playing 'subtile, crafty and unlawful games such as physnomye or 'palmestrye'" in 1530 or 1531. Around this time, scholastic leaders settled on the more erudite Greek form 'physiognomy' and began to discourage the entire concept of 'fisnamy'. Leonardo da Vinci dismissed physiognomy in the early 16th century as "false", a chimera with "no scientific foundation". Nevertheless, Leonardo believed that lines caused by facial expressions could indicate personality traits. For example, he wrote that "those who have deep and noticeable lines between the eyebrows are irascible". Modern physiognomy The principal promoter of physiognomy in modern times was the Swiss pastor Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741–1801) who was briefly a friend of Goethe. Lavater's essays on physiognomy were first published in German in 1772 and gained great popularity. These influential essays were translated into French and English. Thomas Browne Lavater found confirmation of his ideas from the English physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682), and the Italian Giambattista Della Porta (1535–1615). Browne in his Religio Medici (1643) discusses the possibility of the discernment of inner qualities from the outer appearance of the face, thus: He reaffirmed his physiognomic beliefs in Christian Morals (circa 1675): Browne also introduced the word caricature into the English language, whence much of physiognomical belief attempted to entrench itself by illustrative means, in particular through visual political satire. Della Porta's works are well represented in the Library of Sir Thomas Browne including Of Celestial Physiognomy, in which Porta argued that it was not the stars but a person's temperament that influences their facial appearance and character. In De humana physiognomia (1586), Porta used woodcuts of animals to illustrate human characteristics. Both Della Porta and Browne adhered to the 'doctrine of signatures'—that is, the belief that the physical structures of nature such as a plant's roots, stem, and flower, were indicative keys (or 'signatures') to their medicinal potentials. Lavater's critics Lavater received mixed reactions from scientists, with some accepting his research and others criticizing it. For example, the harshest critic was scientist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, who said pathognomy, discovering the character by observing the behaviour, was more effective. Writer Hannah More complained to Horace Walpole, "In vain do we boast ... that philosophy had broken down all the strongholds of prejudice, ignorance, and superstition; and yet, at this very time ... Lavater's physiognomy books sell at fifteen guineas a set." Period of popularity The popularity of physiognomy grew throughout the first quarter of the 18th century and into the 19th century. It was discussed seriously by academics, who believed in its potential. Many European novelists used physiognomy in the descriptions of their characters, notably Balzac, Chaucer and portrait artists, such as Joseph Ducreux. A host of 19th-century English authors were influenced by the idea, notably evident in the detailed physiognomic descriptions of characters in the novels of Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, and Charlotte Brontë. In addition to Thomas Browne, other literary authors associated with Norwich who made physiognomical observations in their writings include the romantic novelist Amelia Opie, and the travelogue author George Borrow. Physiognomy is a central, implicit assumption underlying the plot of Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray. In 19th-century American literature, physiognomy figures prominently in the short stories of Edgar Allan Poe. Phrenology, also considered a form of physiognomy, was created around 1800 by German physician Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Spurzheim, and was widely popular in the 19th century in Europe and the United States. In the U.S., physician James W. Redfield published his Comparative Physiognomy in 1852, illustrating with 330 engravings the "Resemblances between Men and Animals". He finds these in appearance and (often metaphorically) character, e.g. Germans to Lions, Negroes to Elephants and Fishes, Chinamen to Hogs, Yankees to Bears, Jews to Goats. During the late 19th century, English psychometrician Sir Francis Galton attempted to define physiognomic characteristics of health, disease, beauty, and criminality, via a method of composite photography. Galton's process involved the photographic superimposition of two or more faces by multiple exposures. After averaging together photographs of violent criminals, he found that the composite appeared "more respectable" than any of the faces comprising it; this was likely due to the irregularities of the skin across the constituent images being averaged out in the final blend. With the advent of computer technology during the early 1990s, Galton's composite technique has been adopted and greatly improved using computer graphics software. In the late 19th century, it became associated with phrenology and consequently discredited and rejected. Nevertheless, the German physiognomist Carl Huter (1861–1912) became popular in Germany with his concept of physiognomy, called "psycho-physiognomy". Physiognomy also became of use in the field of Criminology through efforts made by Italian army doctor and scientist, Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso, during the mid 19th century, championed the notion that "criminality was inherited and that criminals could be identified by physical attributes such as hawk-like noses and bloodshot eyes". Lombroso took inspiration from the recently released ideologies and studies of Darwin and carried many of the misunderstandings that he had regarding evolution into the propagation of the use of physiognomy in criminology. His logic stemmed from the idea that "criminals were 'throwbacks' in the phylogenetic tree to early phases of evolution". Bearing this in mind, it is reasonable to conclude that "according to Lombroso, a regressive characteristic united the genius, the madman and the delinquent; they differed in the intensity of this characteristic and, naturally in the degree of development of the positive qualities". He believed that one could determine whether one was of savage nature just by their physical characteristics. Based on his findings, "Lombroso proposed that the "born criminal" could be distinguished by physical atavistic stigmata, such as: Large jaws, forward projection of jaw Low sloping forehead High cheekbones Flattened or upturned nose Handle-shaped ears Hawk-like noses or fleshy lips Hard shifty eyes Scanty beard or baldness Insensitivity to pain Long arms relative to lower limbs This interest in the relationship between criminology and physiognomy began upon Lombroso's first interaction with "a notorious Calabrian thief and arsonist" named Giuseppe Villella. Lombroso was particularly taken by many striking personality characteristics that Villella possessed; agility and cynicism being some of them. Villella’s alleged crimes are disputed and Lombroso’s research is seen by many as northern Italian racism toward southern Italians. Upon Villella's death, Lombroso "conducted a post-mortem and discovered that his subject had an indentation at the back of his skull, which resembled that found in apes". He later referred to this anomaly as the "median occipital depression". Lombroso used the term "atavism" to describe these primitive, ape-like behaviors that he found in many of those whom he deemed prone to criminality. As he continued analyzing the data he gathered from said autopsy and comparing and contrasting these results with previous cases, he inferred that certain physical characteristics allowed for some individuals to have a greater "propensity to offend and were also savage throwbacks to early man". As one would assume, these sorts of examinations yielded far-reaching consequences for various scientific and medical communities at the time; in fact, "the natural genesis of crime implied that the criminal personality should be regarded as a particular form of psychiatric disease". Furthermore, these ideals promoted the idea that when a crime is committed, it is no longer seen as "free will" but instead a result of one's genetic pre-disposition to savagery. He had numerous case studies to corroborate many of his findings due to the fact that he was the head of an insane asylum at Pesaro. He was easily able to study people from various walks of life and was thus able to further define criminal types. Because his theories primarily focused on anatomy and anthropological information, the idea of degeneracy being a source of atavism was not explored till later on in his criminological endeavors. These "new and improved" theories led to the notion "that the born criminal had pathological symptoms in common with the moral imbecile and the epileptic, and this led him to expand his typology to include the insane criminal and the epileptic criminal". In addition, "the insane criminal type [was said to] include the alcoholic, the mattoid, and the hysterical criminal". When it comes to modern applications of Lombroso's findings and ideas, there is little to see. Lombroso's ideologies are now recognized as flawed, and regarded as pseudo-science. Many have remarked on the overt sexist and racist overtones of his research, and denounce it for those reasons alone. In spite of many of his theories being discredited, he is still hailed as the father of "scientific criminology". Modern criminology finds many of his teachings incorrect, but he had a great influence over criminology and physiognomy at the time. Modern usage In France, the concept developed in the 20th century under the name morphopsychology, developed by Louis Corman (1901–1995), a French psychiatrist who argued that the workings of vital forces within the human body resulted in different facial shapes and forms. For example, full and round body shapes are considered the expression of the instinct of expansion while the hollow or flat shapes are an expression of self-preservation. The term "morphopsychology" is a translation of the French word morphopsychologie, which Louis Corman coined in 1937 when he wrote his first book on the subject, Quinze leçons de morphopsychologie (Fifteen Lessons of Morphopsychology). Corman was influenced by the French doctor Claude Sigaud (1862–1921), incorporating his idea of "dilation and retraction" into morphopsychology. Scientific validity Research in the 1990s indicated that three elements of personality in particular – power, warmth and honesty – can be reliably inferred. Some evidence indicates people can detect male homosexuality by looking at the pattern of whorls in the scalp, though subsequent research has largely refuted the findings on hair whorl patterns. A February 2009 article in New Scientist magazine reported that physiognomy is living a small revival, with research papers trying to find links between personality traits and facial traits. A study of 90 ice hockey players found a statistically significant correlation between a wider face—a greater than average cheekbone-to-cheekbone distance relative to the distance between brow and upper lip—and the number of penalty minutes a player received for violent acts like slashing, elbowing, checking from behind, and fighting. This revival has been confirmed in the 2010s with the rise of machine learning for facial recognition. For instance, researchers have claimed that it is possible to predict upper body strength and some personality traits (propensity to aggression) only by looking at the width of the face. Political orientation can also be reliably predicted. In 2017, a controversial study claimed that an algorithm could detect sexual orientation 'more accurately than humans' (in 81% of the tested cases for men and 71% for women). A director of research of the Human Rights Campaign accused the study of being "junk science" to the BBC. The director, an 'equity and inclusion strategist' with no scientific background, was criticized by the researchers for "premature judgement". The researchers also criticized GLAAD and HRC's press release for falsely stating the paper was not peer reviewed. In early 2018, researchers, among them two specialists of AI working at Google (one of the two on face recognition), issued a reportedly contradicting study based on a survey of 8,000 Americans using Amazon's Mechanical Turk crowd-sourcing platform. The survey yielded many traits helping to discriminate between gay and straight respondents with a series of yes/no questions. These traits had actually less to do with morphology than with grooming, presentation, and lifestyle (makeup, facial hair, glasses, angle of pictures taken of self, etc.). For more information of this sexual orientation issue in general, see gaydar. In 2020, a study on the use of consumer facial images for marketing research purposes concluded that deep learning on facial images can extract a variety of personal information relevant to marketers and so users' facial images could become a basis for ad targeting on Tinder and Facebook. According to the study, while most of facial images' predictive power is attributable to basic demographics (age, gender, race) extracted from the face, image artifacts, observable facial characteristics, and other image features extracted by deep learning all contribute to prediction quality beyond demographics. Critics of physiognomy say that the human mind tends to extrapolate emotions from facial expressions (e.g., blushing) and physiognomy, with its assumption of permanent characteristics, is only an over-generalization of this skill. Also, if one classifies a person as untrustworthy due to facial features, and treats them as such, that person may eventually behave in an untrustworthy way toward the person holding this belief (see self-fulfilling prophecy). In media In 2011, the South Korean news agency Yonhap published a physiognomical analysis of the current leader of North Korea, Kim Jong-Un. Related disciplines Anthropological criminology Anthropometry Characterology Metoposcopy Palmistry Pathognomy Phrenology Somatotype and constitutional psychology References Further reading Claudia Schmölders, Hitler's Face: The Biography of an Image. Translated by Adrian Daub. University of Pennsylvania Press: 2006. . Liz Gerstein, About Face. SterlingHouse Publisher, Inc. External links Johann Kaspar Lavater On The Nature of Man, Which is the Foundation of the Science Which is called Physiognomy 1775 Selected images from: Della Porta, Giambattista: De humana physiognomonia libri IIII (Vico Equense, 1586). Historical Anatomies on the Web. National Library of Medicine. Women's traits 'written on face' (BBC News Wednesday, 11 February 2009) "On Physiognomy" – An Essay by Arthur Schopenhauer "Composite Portraits", by Francis Galton, 1878 (as published in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, volume 8). "Enquiries into Human Faculty and its Development", book by Francis Galton, 1883. 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247343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benburb%20F.C.	Benburb F.C.	Benburb Football Club is a Scottish football club, based in Govan, Glasgow. Formed in 1885, the club is a member of the Scottish Junior Football Association and currently competes in the West of Scotland Football League. Benburb's colours are blue and white. The team have been managed since July 2015 by former Airdrie defender Paul Lovering. Paul succeeded his father Frank who had been in the job for the previous thirteen seasons. History The origins of the club name are not fully documented, although it has been suggested that the club's name indicates roots in Northern Ireland, with a village of the same name being located there, and a significant battle taking place there during the 1640s. The suggestion is that the club was formed by Northern Irish immigrants to Glasgow, but this is not clear. It appears the first team known as Benburb was formed in the Govanhill area of Glasgow (then a separate burgh) in about 1885. After an aborted merger with a Gorbals team, Crown Athletic, in 1895, a reformed Benburb FC played in the nearby Oatlands neighbourhood until June 1898, when its ground, Braehead Park, was taken over by Glasgow Corporation to be incorporated into the new Richmond Park. That team disbanded, but a 'new' Benburb FC played during the new season later that year and there is thought to be a strong connection between the two clubs. The new Benburb FC eventually found its home in the Govan area, some miles to the north-west of Oatlands. Initially taking over Govandale Park (situated between the south bank of the River Clyde and Govan Old Parish Church) from the defunct Linthouse club in 1900, they moved south as the demands of industry for the land in central Govan increased, first in 1911 to a park on Broomloan Road owned by Govan Police Force, then in 1925 to an open plot at Craigton Park, Drumoyne, immediately north of the Inverclyde Line railway tracks. In spite of the upheaval, they remained members of the various Junior leagues covering the Glasgow area continuously since 1905. From 1932 until 29 March 2014, Benburb was based at the purpose-built Tinto Park, which in its heyday could hold 10,000 spectators but latterly fell badly into disrepair. After the final match on that day – a 2–1 victory against Johnstone Burgh in a Central League Division 1 game – the land was prepared for housebuilding. The 2014–15 season was spent ground-sharing with Neilston Juniors while a new ground was built adjacent to the old one (on the same land which was previously Craigton Park). New Tinto Park, now just north of both the railway and the M8 motorway and fitted with 3G artificial turf, became the new home for the club in summer 2015 (although the facilities were not fully completed until a few months later). New Tinto Park has also been used as the home ground for Rangers W.F.C. from 2015 to 2019, and for Rossvale (originally from Bishopbriggs) since 2019. Harmony Row Juniors now ground share at New Tinto Park Honours Scottish Junior Cup Winners (2): 1933–34, 1935–36 Runners-up (3): 1937–38, 1942–43, 1979–80 Other Honours Central League: 1999–00 West of Scotland Cup: 1940–41, 1941–42, 1982–83, 2001–02 Glasgow Junior League: 1913–14 References External links Daily Record article about new ground plans Daily Record article about last match at Tinto Park Video clip of match at old ground from 2013 Football clubs in Scotland Govan Association football clubs established in 1885 Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Football clubs in Glasgow 1885 establishments in Scotland West of Scotland Football League teams	[ 0.36641910672187805, 0.40965452790260315, 0.1633612960577011, -1.079397201538086, -0.49509522318840027, -0.3588438332080841, 0.36703112721443176, 0.00783406849950552, -0.4535267949104309, 0.1479947865009308, 0.06279465556144714, 0.4126746654510498, -0.6021975874900818, 0.7862606644630432, 0.24916554987430573, 0.35076704621315, 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247344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumnock%20Juniors%20F.C.	Cumnock Juniors F.C.	Cumnock Juniors Football Club are a Scottish football club based in Cumnock, Ayrshire. The Nock play their home games at Townhead Park and compete in the West of Scotland Football League. History Birthed in 1912, they have a history of local and national success. Their nearest neighbours and rivals are Auchinleck Talbot. Both have shared many a hard-fought battle on the field. These matches are often looked upon as Junior football's equivalent to the "Old Firm" with passionate supporters from both sides. In the 1970s and 1980s this game would often attract a crowd of around 6000; although it has dwindled a bit over the years, the respect and rivalry is still noticeable. A Scottish Junior Cup tie between the two sides in the mid-1970s attracted well over 8000 spectators. Cumnock won 2–1. A "senior" team based in Cumnock also competed in the 19th century and participated in the early years of the Scottish Cup. Cumnock Juniors play in black and white. Their change strip is white and blue. From December 2018 until late 2019, the team was managed by local boy and former Queen of the South midfielder, Paul Burns. Tony McInally has been the manager of the club since November 2019. In 2020, Cumnock moved from the SJFA, to join the pyramid system in Scottish football as one of the inaugural members of the West of Scotland Football League. On 10 October 2020, the club announced they would not be participating in the inaugural season of the West of Scotland League due to concerns relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. The two main factors cited were the health and wellbeing of players under the guidelines and fans not being able to attend games. Current squad Coaching staff Honours Scottish Junior Cup Winners: 1978–79, 1988–89 Runners-up: 1949–50, 2007–08 Other honours Ayrshire Cup (7): 1915–16, 1917–18, 1948–49, 1980–81, 1989–90, 2007–08, 2009–2010 Ayrshire District Cup (5): 1971–72, 1983–84, 1986–87, 1989–90, 2002–03 Ayrshire First Division winners (11): 1935–36, 1936–37, 1952–53, 1971–72, 1973–74, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1995–96, 1997–98 Ayrshire League Cup (15): 1936–37, 1948–49, 1952–53, 1966–67, 1970–71, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1995–96, 1996–97, 2000–01, 2001–02 Ayrshire Second Division winners: 1994–95 Ayrshire Super Cup: 1988–89, 1995–96, 1996–97 Cumnock & Doon Cup: 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89 East Ayrshire Cup: 1995–96 References External links Football clubs in Scotland Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Association football clubs established in 1912 Football in East Ayrshire 1912 establishments in Scotland West of Scotland Football League teams Cumnock	[ 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247348	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintal	Quintal	The quintal or centner is a historical unit of mass in many countries which is usually defined as 100 base units, such as pounds or kilograms. It is a traditional unit of weight in France, Portugal, and Spain and their former colonies. It is commonly used for grain prices in wholesale markets in Ethiopia and India, where 1 quintal = 100 kg or 105g. In British English, it referred to the hundredweight; in American English, it formerly referred to an uncommon measure of 100 kilograms. Languages drawing its cognate name for the weight from Romance languages include French, Portuguese and Spanish , Italian , Esperanto , Polish . Languages taking their cognates from Germanicized centner include the German , Lithuanian , Swedish , Polish , Russian and Ukrainian (), Estonian and Spanish . Many European languages have come to translate both the imperial and American hundredweight as their cognate form of quintal or centner. Name The concept has resulted in two different series of masses: Those based on the local pound (which after metrication was considered equivalent to half a kilogram), and those uprated to being based on the kilogram. In Albania (), Ethiopia (kuntal), and India, the 100 kilogram definition may have been introduced via Islamic trade. It is a standard measurement of mass for agricultural products in those countries. In France it used to be defined as 100 (pounds), about 48.95 kg, and has been redefined as 100 kg (), thus called metric quintal with symbol qq. In Spain, the is still defined as 100 , or about 46 kg, but the metric quintal is also defined as 100 kg; In Portugal a quintal is 128 or about 58.75 kg. The German and the Danish are pound-based, and thus since metrication are defined as 50 kg, whereas the Austrian and Swiss since metrication has been re-defined as 100 kg. In Germany a measure of 100 kg is named a . Common agricultural units used in the Soviet Union were the 100-kilogram () and the term "centner per hectare". These are still used by countries that were part of the Soviet Union. English use In English both terms quintal and centner were once alternative names for the hundredweight and thus defined either as 100 lb (exactly ) or as . Also, in the Dominican Republic it is about . The German was introduced to the English language via Hanseatic trade as a measure of the weight of certain crops including hops for beer production. The quintal was defined in the United States in 1866 as 100 kilograms. However, it is no longer used in the United States or by NIST, though it still appears in the statute. In France, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Indonesia and in India, it is still in daily use by farmers. In Brazil and other South American countries, it is used under its alternative spelling of . It is also used in some African countries including Angola. See also Hundredweight References Units of mass Non-SI metric units Customary units of measurement Metricated units ur:قنطار	[ -0.19342508912086487, -0.08158853650093079, -0.025273341685533524, 0.4747488796710968, -0.059507761150598526, 0.7565499544143677, -0.033018697053194046, 0.617772102355957, -0.13368913531303406, -0.09288333356380463, -0.11701592057943344, 0.11363376677036285, 0.3899191915988922, 0.2615116834640503, -0.36074545979499817, 0.17169567942619324, 0.4071916937828064, 0.41568654775619507, -0.4178018867969513, 0.09956952184438705, -0.7231160402297974, 0.016251564025878906, 0.39432963728904724, -0.21381592750549316, 0.3801394999027252, -0.1406523883342743, 0.08542730659246445, -0.1877562701702118, -0.49666139483451843, -0.12686456739902496, -0.2319517880678177, 0.5060959458351135, -0.185805544257164, 0.23653924465179443, -0.2302914261817932, -0.35270529985427856, -0.24183496832847595, -0.23071447014808655, -0.06387621909379959, -0.7241628170013428, 0.1998644769191742, 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247349	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenafton%20Athletic%20F.C.	Glenafton Athletic F.C.	Glenafton Athletic Football Club is a Scottish football club, based in New Cumnock, Ayrshire. Members of the Scottish Junior Football Association, they play in the West of Scotland Football League,. The club has won the Scottish Junior Cup twice, in 1993 and 2017. History Glenafton Athletic were founded in 1930, as the coal mining industry which sustained the local area took an upturn after a period of severe depression. The colliery owned Connel Park ground had long been used by the village's former teams, including senior side Lanemark from 1877 until World War I, then by a previous Junior side, New Cumnock United, who burst brightly on to the scene in 1920 but failed to see out the decade. Glenafton got off to a flying start themselves, winning the South Ayrshire Junior League in their first season and retaining it the following year. By 1932, the South Ayrshire League had dwindled to six clubs, five of whom were admitted to the more North Ayrshire-centred, Western League in 1933. Glens' momentum saw them win a Western League and League Cup double in 1934–35, then lift the Ayrshire Cup in 1936. The club closed down for the duration of World War II. On resuming, the club did not immediately reach their pre-war heights but towards the end of the 1950s things were improving and Glens' second Western League championship was won in 1958–59. Interest in the club was at an all-time high and a record crowd of 8,000 crammed into Connel Park to see Glens' Scottish Junior Cup fifth round tie against Kilsyth Rangers in January 1957. The confines of the old ground, surrounded by old miners rows one mile from the village, led the committee to seek an alternative ground and the 1959–60 season would be the last at Connel Park. The club's new Loch Park ground in the centre of New Cumnock was formally opened in August 1960 with a league game against Cumnock Juniors. The match was ceremonially kicked off by then Motherwell and Scotland star Ian St John, who had been a Junior player himself only three years previously. The club also ushered in this new era with a change in kit colour, from black and white hoops to white with red. Glenafton won three Western League championships in a row from 1961–62 to 1963–64, a feat never achieved outwith wartime and drew closer to the biggest prize in the game with their first Scottish Junior Cup semi-final appearance in 1962, losing 1–0 to Kirkintilloch Rob Roy at Rugby Park. The club went one better the following season. After thrashing Cumnock 5–0 in the quarter-final at Loch Park, then seeing off Bonnyrigg Rose in a second semi-final replay, Glens' lined up against Irvine Meadow at Hampden Park in the first ever all-Ayrshire final. Despite going in front, then missing a penalty at 1–1, Athletic lost the game 2–1 in front of 21,384 spectators. The club entered a period of decline in the late 1960s and early 70s. A Scottish Junior Cup run to the semi-finals in 1978–79 was ended by Cumnock at Rugby Park, but paved the way for improved fortunes. Glens' enjoyed some local cup success and won the Ayrshire League title in 1982–83. Former Partick Thistle and Scotland goalkeeper Alan Rough was appointed as manager in 1990 and proceeded to lead the club to their most successful period. A signing policy of reinstating ex-senior footballers including a clutch from Thistle such as Dave MacFarlane, Alex O'Hara, Jamie Doyle and Alex Kennedy, saw the club reach a record five Junior Cup semi-finals in a row. The club went on to the final in three of those years from 1992 to 1994 and finally lifted the trophy for the first time in 1993 with a 1–0 victory over Tayport at Firhill Stadium. Striker Tom Brown stepped up to Kilmarnock the following season and won the Senior Scottish Cup in 1997, while winning goalscorer John Millar later won the Junior Cup as a player with Arthurlie in 1998 and as a manager with Beith Juniors in 2016 Glens' added the Ayrshire League and Cup that season to complete a memorable treble. Rough moved on in 1995 and Glens' next trophy would be the Jackie Scarlett Cup in 1999–2000, but their win over Kilwinning Rangers denied The Buffs a clean sweep of Junior trophies that season. The Junior Superleague era dawned and Glens' were the last Ayrshire League champions before reconstruction in 2001–02 under manager John McStay. With Tommy Bryce installed in charge the following season, Glens' finished a creditable third in the first combined Super League Premier Division and also won the West of Scotland Cup for the first time in their history. The West Cup was won again in 2005–06 but the club were relegated after a play-off with Lanark United in 2008–09. Having lost a promotion play-off the previous season, Glens' won the Super League First Division title in 2012–13 under Darren Henderson. Henderson left for Hurlford United on the eve of the 2013–14 season leaving Tommy Bryce, who returned to the club for a second spell, to rebuild the squad. Bryce's remodelled side secured a top six finish and made it all the way to the Scottish Junior Cup final for a fifth time where they ironically lost out to Henderson's Hurlford team. Former Raith Rovers and Ayr United player Craig McEwan took charge of the team in January 2015. A player in Glens' losing 2014 Junior Cup final side, McEwan led the club to their first Super League Premier Division championship in 2016–17, before completing the double by defeating local rivals Auchinleck Talbot to win the Scottish Junior Cup for a second time in June 2017. In 2020, Glens' moved from the SJFA, to join the pyramid system in Scottish football as one of the inaugural members of the West of Scotland Football League. On 11 October 2020, McEwan resigned as manager. The club had released a statement earlier announcing they would not be participating in the inaugural season of the West of Scotland League due to concerns relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. Scottish Junior Cup finals record Glenafton have a poor record in Scottish Junior Cup finals with two victories from their six appearances to date. The club appeared in the first all Ayrshire final in 1963 and each subsequent loss has also been to an Ayrshire opponent. Glenafton finally ended this run in 2017 with victory over near neighbours Auchinleck Talbot. Honours Scottish Junior Cup Winners: 1992–93, 2016–17 Runners-up: 1962–63, 1991–92, 1993–94, 2013–14 Other Honours West of Scotland Super League Premier Division winners: 2016–17 West of Scotland Cup winners: 2002–03, 2005–06, 2012–13 Ayrshire First Division winners: 1934–35, 1958–59, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1982–83, 1992–93, 2001–02 West of Scotland Super League First Division winners: 2011–12 Ayrshire Cup: 1935–36, 1961–62, 1988–89, 1992–93, 2000–01 Ayrshire League Cup: 1934–35, 1958–59, 1962–63, 1965–66, 1979–80, 1999–00 Ayrshire District Cup: 1930–31, 1969–60, 1979–80, 1985–86, 1993–94, 1997–98 East Ayrshire Cup: 1997–98 Ayrshire Super Cup: 1997–98 Ayrshire Sectional League Cup: 2005–06, 2014–15 Current squad References External links Club website Football clubs in Scotland Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Association football clubs established in 1930 Football in East Ayrshire 1930 establishments in Scotland New Cumnock West of Scotland Football League teams	[ 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247352	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine%20Meadow%20XI%20F.C.	Irvine Meadow XI F.C.	Irvine Meadow XI Football Club is a Scottish football club, based in Irvine, North Ayrshire. They currently compete in the . The club's home ground is Meadow Park in central Irvine, and they play in royal blue strips. History Formed in 1897, they are one of the most successful Junior clubs still playing. Of the two clubs in Irvine, the other being Irvine Victoria, they are the larger. Meadow have set many attendance records at other Junior clubs' grounds and were at one stage invited to turn senior and play in the Scottish Football League. They decided to remain in the 'juniors' and at present compete in the Western Region Junior League. Irvine Meadow's closest rivals are Kilwinning Rangers, based in the neighbouring town of Kilwinning, and Irvine Victoria who play on the other side of the River Irvine at Victoria Park. An annual derby fixture is played each August to coincide with Irvine's Marymass Festival. After recent dominance in the fixture over the past decade, Meadow lost 3–1 at Victoria Park in 2017, the first time in 11 years that they had not won the match. In recent times, Irvine Meadow have another rivalry with Auchinleck Talbot, with the two often contending against each other for the regional title and cups. Talbot are sometimes regarded as Meadow's largest rivals, despite the distance between the two clubs within Ayrshire. In 1933, the club played two minor cup finals and the replay of one of those over two days due to fixture congestion at the end of the season, winning both (they also won the regional league and another cup that year). Meadow were the first junior club in Scotland to have a home game televised when the 1958 Scottish Junior Cup tie against Fauldhouse United was shown on Scotsport. They are the only junior football club to have travelled by air to a game when they went to St. Andrew's stadium to play Birmingham City in a match in which they lost 4–3. Between 2006 and 2012, Meadow bought players from senior teams such as Brian McGinty and Mark Crilly and did well in the Scottish Junior Cup, as well as winning promotion from the Ayrshire League in 2005–06 and from Super League Division One in 2006–07. They have had a successful period in the subsequent years with Stagecoach West Premier Super League titles in 2008–09, 2010–11 and 2011–12 as well as Evening Times and West of Scotland Cup wins. On 28 November 2009, Meadow became the first junior club to defeat Scottish Football League opposition in a competitive fixture when they beat Arbroath 1–0 in the third round of the 2009–10 Scottish Cup in front of a crowd of over 1,100. The club were then drawn away to SPL side Hibernian in the fourth round. The game, which took place on 9 January 2010, was arguably the biggest game in the club's history. Irvine lost 3–0, but the club stood to make in the region of £55,000 from this fixture, and an estimated 2,000 Meadow fans made the journey to Edinburgh. In the 2011–12 season, Meadow reached the third round of the Scottish Cup, where they hosted First Division side Livingston at Meadow Park. The tie took place on 19 November 2011. Meadow were well beaten 6–0. Former players Gareth Turner and Michael Wardrope were appointed as the new management team in May 2016 to replace the departing Davie Greig, and the pair took charge for the start of the 2016–17 season. On 25 October 2017, the new management of Brian McGinty and Stevie Aitchison took over. In June 2018, Irvine Meadow gained promotion via the play-offs to the West Region Premiership for the 2018–19 season. Brian McGinty resigned as manager on 28 January 2020. The club moved to the senior West of Scotland Football League along with all other West Region Junior teams in 2020. Floodlights were installed at Meadow Park in February 2021 to meet SFA licensing criteria. Current squad Honours Major competitions Scottish Junior Cup Winners (3): 1958–59, 1962–63, 1972–73 Runners-up: 1947–48, 1950–51 SJFA West Region Premiership Champions (3): 2008–09, 2010–11, 2011–12 Minor competitions West of Scotland Cup: 1931–32, 1950–51, 1955–56, 1961–62, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1989–90, 2009–10, 2011–12 Western League / Ayrshire First Division: 1921–22, 1932–33, 1948–49, 1950–51, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1960–61, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1988–89, 1993–94 Western Intermediate League: 1928–29 Ayrshire Second Division: 1998–99 Stagecoach Ayrshire League: 2005–06 Ayrshire Cup: 1898–99, 1900–01, 1903–04, 1913–14, 1931–32, 1953–54, 1957–58, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1983–84, 1984–85, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2010–11 Ayrshire League Cup: 1927–28, 1928–29, 1950–51, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1961–62, 1982–83 Ayrshire District Cup: 1899–1900, 1903–04, 1909–10, 1913–14, 1914–15, 1932–33, 1938–39, 1946–47, 1950–51, 1951–52, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1957–58, 1970–71, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1981–82, 1987–88 Cunninghame District Cup: 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1991–92, 1994–95 North Ayrshire Cup: 1996–97, 2002–03 Western Intermediate League Cup: 1927–28, 1928–29 Irvine & District League: 1910–11 Dryborough Cup 1972–73 Ayrshire Consolation Cup: 1914–15, 1915–16, 1932–33 Ayrshire Charity Cup: 1934–35 Moore Trophy 1932–33, 1938–39 Vernon Trophy: 1949–50, 1952–53, 1960–61 Irvine Herald Cup: 1898–99, 1914–15, 1924–25 St Vincent de Paul Cup:1933–34 Evening Times Super Cup 2005–06, 2009–2010 Stagecoach Super League First Division: 2006–07 Kerr & Smith League Cup: 2003–04 References External links Video clip from 1973 Scottish Junior Cup Final, hosted by National Library of Scotland Football clubs in Scotland Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Football in North Ayrshire Association football clubs established in 1897 1897 establishments in Scotland Irvine, North Ayrshire West of Scotland Football League teams	[ 0.7042506337165833, -0.2661365568637848, 0.2208164483308792, -0.6543334722518921, 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247357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnstone%20Burgh%20F.C.	Johnstone Burgh F.C.	Johnstone Burgh Football Club are a Scottish football club based in Johnstone, Renfrewshire, and play in . History The club were formed in 1956, in response to an article in the "Johnstone & Linwood Gazette" newspaper from a journalist that had been ordered out of the newspaper's office on the corner of Johnstone's Rankine Street by the office manager with instructions not to return until he had a story. The journalist proceeded to ask locals what they thought about forming a new football club to replace the former Scottish league side Johnstone F.C. Their most successful period was in the late 1950s and 1960s when they twice won junior football's top prize – the Scottish Junior Cup. Probably their most successful manager was Jimmy Blackburn who led them to both their Scottish Cup wins as well as West of Scotland Cup and Central League Championship wins. One of our local lads, Bobby Dick, who hails from Elderslie, played what was then right half for the Burgh, and can boast two Scottish Cup winner's medals as well as a number of other medals. In those days the cup final was played at Hampden Park, which made it a day to remember. In later years, Bobby's nephew Alan Donohoe played in goal for the Burgh and was involved in their cup final of 2000. The 1967-68 season was Johnstone Burgh's most successful season: they won the Scottish Junior Cup, beating Glenrothes 2–1 in extra time after a 2–2 draw at Hampden in the first match. Hugh Gilshan scored the winner. The team also won the Central League Championship and the Evening Times Trophy that season. Johnstone Burgh have a home support of around 100–150, though this tends to increase vastly when the team is doing well. An OVD Cup tie between Johnstone Burgh and Glenafton Athletic in February 2000 attracted a crowd of over 2000. In the 2000 Scottish Junior Cup Final against Whitburn, goals by Colin Lindsay, who later had a spell as manager, and John McLay took the game to penalties after a 2–2 draw. Johnstone Burgh won on penalties in their semi-final at Love Street, but failed to repeat this success in the final. Ground Since their foundation, "The Burgh," have been based at James Y. Keanie Park (named after the builder who donated the land the club was built upon). Accordong to "The Juniors, 100 Years A Centenary History of Scottish Football" (McGlone/ McLure) the record attendance was 13,000 v Greenock in the 1963/64 Scottish Junior Cup. The club have much-delayed plans afoot to relocate within the next couple of years to a new ground at the more central Thomas Shanks Memorial Park less than one mile away, built in conjunction with the local council: the perpetually poor drainage at Keanie Park resulting in the regular postponement of home fixtures during the winter months has been a severe financial drain on the side. It was announced that local team Renfrew Juniors will share Keanie Park Stadium with Johnstone Burgh until October 2014 as a new stadium for Renfrew will not be complete for the start of the 2014–15 season. Honours Scottish Junior Cup Winners: 1963–64, 1967–68 Runners-up: 1999–00 Other honours Evening Times trophy winners: 1968–69 West of Scotland Cup winners: 1958–59, 1964–65 Central League champions: 1958–59, 1964–65, 1967–68 Central League Premier Division winners: 2001–02 Central Division Two winners: 1991–92, 2009–10, 2019–20 Glasgow Dryburgh Cup: 1958–59 Evening Times Cup Winners Cup: 2001–02 Notable players past and present After the 1968–1969 season, the most successful in the club's history, Ian Reid signed for Arbroath, Hugh Gilshan for St Mirren, Danny Burke to East Fife and Jim McDonald to Leicester City. The following year, Ally Hunter signed for Kilmarnock after replacing George Connolly in goal at Keanie Park the season before. He went on to play for the full Scotland team. One of the two ball boys from the 1968–69 season, Allan Woods, signed a professional contract with Partick Thistle at just 16 yrs old, under Dave McParland and returned to Johnstone Burgh after three years at Firhill. Tommy Turner: Former St Johnstone, Partick Thistle, Morton and St Mirren midfielder. Malcolm Manley: Former Scotland Schools International; professional with Leicester City and Portsmouth. Allan Woods: Former Scotland Schools international; Partick Thistle midfielder. Frank McAvennie: Former St Mirren, West Ham United, Celtic and Scotland striker. Andy Murdoch: Former Partick Thistle goalkeeper. Gerry Queen: Professional with St Mirren, Kilmarnock, Crystal Palace (English first division 1969–72) and Leyton Orient. External links Website Facebook Twitter References Football clubs in Scotland Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Association football clubs established in 1956 Football in Renfrewshire 1956 establishments in Scotland West of Scotland Football League teams Johnstone	[ 0.5393244028091431, 0.5464648604393005, 0.6822649836540222, -1.018521785736084, -0.12154241651296616, -0.2282019406557083, 0.5229857563972473, -0.05032458156347275, -0.34530842304229736, -0.5456411838531494, -0.15598227083683014, 0.11202889680862427, -0.5496547222137451, 1.1588950157165527, 0.15467125177383423, 0.4642680883407593, 0.37518414855003357, 1.3055649995803833, 0.2111758440732956, -0.5016321539878845, -0.37500667572021484, -0.11128620058298111, 0.3075955808162689, 0.14351604878902435, 0.5522881746292114, 0.42158055305480957, 0.992194414138794, 0.3000677824020386, -0.06976397335529327, -0.48004069924354553, 0.3205736577510834, 0.5041056871414185, -0.0917544886469841, -0.36528122425079346, 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247359	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilbirnie%20Ladeside%20F.C.	Kilbirnie Ladeside F.C.	Kilbirnie Ladeside Football Club are a Scottish football club, from Kilbirnie, North Ayrshire. Based at Valefield Park, they currently play in the West of Scotland Football League. Their main rivals are Beith Juniors. The club nickname, The Blasties, derives from a Robert Burns poem, The Inventory, written in 1786. West of Scotland League In 2020, Kilbirnie moved from the SJFA, to join the pyramid system in Scottish football as one of the inaugural members of the West of Scotland Football League. On 10 October 2020, the club announced they would not be participating in the inaugural season of the West of Scotland League due to concerns relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, citing the inability of fans to be able to attend games as a huge issue for the club. Valefield Park Valefield Park is home to Kilbirnie Ladeside. The average attendance is around two hundred (varying for cup games). History The Blasties (the nickname of Kilbirnie Ladeside) original home of Ladeside Park on Mill Road was partly built on by the army during World War II and the club relocated to Valefield, the home of Glengarnock Vale, another local side. Vale did not re-appear after the war and Valefield Park became Ladeside's permanent ground. Structure Although the ground is small it can comfortably hold up to six hundred spectators. On the north-west side there are two main stands which were both constructed at the start of the new millennium. The ground has around four main turnstiles, two of which are located on Kirkland Road. There is a small snack bar offering a wide range of hot and cold food and a licensed bar located on the south east corner welcoming both home and away support. Current squad As of 28 September 2020 Club staff Honours Scottish Junior Cup Winners: 1951–52, 1976–77 Runners-up: 1986–87 Other honours West of Scotland Cup winners: 2007–08 Scottish Junior League winners: 1903–04 Ayrshire League champions: 1975–76 Western League champions: 1947–48, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1967–68 Ayrshire Cup: 1912–13, 1923–24, 1947–48, 1949–50, 1971–72, 1974–75, 1975–76, 1986–87 Western/Ayrshire League Cup winners: 1923–24, 1931–32, 1938–39, 1988–89, 1994–95, 2009–10 Ardagh Glass Cup Winners 2009, 2016. Notable former players George Stevenson, Motherwell and Scotland. Ernie McGarr, Aberdeen and Scotland. References External links Official site Facebook Twitter Football clubs in Scotland Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Association football clubs established in 1901 Football in North Ayrshire 1901 establishments in Scotland West of Scotland Football League teams Garnock Valley Kilbirnie Ladeside F.C.	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247360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilwinning%20Rangers%20F.C.	Kilwinning Rangers F.C.	Kilwinning Rangers Football Club are a Scottish football club based in the town of Kilwinning, Ayrshire. Formed in 1899, the club competes in the West of Scotland Football League. Nicknamed The Buffs, they play in blue and white hoops. Home matches are played at Buffs Park, within Kilwinning Sports Club, where the club moved prior to the 2019–20 season having spent 90 years at Abbey Park. History Kilwinning Rangers were originally formed as a Juvenile football club in 1899, sharing Blacklands Park with the local senior club - the now defunct Kilwinning Eglinton. In 1902 the club joined the Junior grade however it was three years before the club won their first honour, emerging as winners of the Ayrshire Junior Challenge Cup in 1904–05. They became the first Ayrshire club to win the Scottish Junior Cup in 1908–09 with a 1–0 victory over Strathclyde A second appearance in the final followed in 1909–10, however Kilwinning were defeated 3-0 by Ashfield. Almost a century later, Kilwinning regained the Scottish Junior Cup with a 1–0 victory over Kelty Hearts, in a season which saw them win six out of the seven trophies available to them. Kilwinning became the first Ayrshire side to win the West Super League in 2003–04 however financial issues resulted in the team finishing bottom of the league the following season and subsequently relegated. Most of the following decade was spent in the Ayrshire District League with a promotion to the Super First Division achieved in 2012–13. A promising campaign the following season almost resulted in Kilwinning avoiding relegation, however it was later revealed that the club had fielded an ineligible player for 12 matches and the resulting 19-point deduction relegated the side to the bottom division once again. A change in management occurred in February 2014 with the appointment of Chris Strain and Colin Stewart, although Stewart left to take up a coaching role at Rangers in 2015 and Strain has assumed the role of sole manager since then. The Buffs achieved successive promotions in 2014-15 and 2016–17, courtesy of a play-off victory against Shettleston and maintained their top flight status the following season by defeating Kilsyth Rangers in another play-off. In 2020 the Buffs applied to join the newly formed West of Scotland Football League, which would see them leave the Junior leagues after joining 118 years prior The following year, Kilwinning began their application to join the Scottish Football Association. Nickname Several theories exists as to the origin of the nickname "Buffs." Historic maps of Kilwinning show the site of the present day Abbey Park to have been within an area known as "The Butts,"was an open area used for archery There is no misspelling)a misspelling of which may have led to the synonym. Another theory is that one of the players around that time was a member of the East Kent Regiment of the British Army, who were nicknamed The Buffs. Ground Several grounds were used by the club in the early years of its existence. Initially Kilwinning moved to a ground named Woodwynd Park which was located on Woodwynd itself, between Hamilton Street and Kilrig Avenue. Several years later the club began playing at Claremont Park, near to the now demolished Kilwinning East railway station. The Buffs moved to Abbey Park (near Kilwinning Abbey) in 1929 and remained there until 2019. At the start of the 2019–20 season they relocated to the Kilwinning Sports Club ground in Pennyburn on the outskirts of the town which was upgraded and renamed Buffs Park. In April 2020, the club agreed to buy the former Old Trafford floodlights from non-league York City to upgrade Buffs Park to SPFL standards, however, the plan fell through. A new stand was added ahead of the 2020-21 West of Scotland Football League season. Current squad As of 23 February 2022 First team Development Squad Only including those who have featured in first-team squads in the current season. Management team Manager: Chris Strain Assistant manager: Jim Fleeting Honours Scottish Junior Cup Winners (2): 1908–09, 1998–99 Runners-up (2): 1909–10, 1921–22 West of Scotland Super League Premier Division Winners: 2003–04 Ayrshire District League Winners: 2012–13 Other honours West of Scotland Cup winners(2): 1993–94, 1998–99 Ayrshire First Division winners (3): 1998–99, 1999–00, 2000–01 Western Junior League winners (6): 1920–21, 1922–23, 1927–28, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1965–66 Ayrshire Second Division winners (3): 1980–81, 1988–89, 1990–91 Ayrshire Cup (11): 1904–05, 1908–09, 1934–35, 1976–77, 1985–86, 1994–95, 1997–98, 1998–99, 1999–00, 2001–02, 2017–18 Ayrshire League Cup (2): 1929–30, 1998–99 Ayrshire District Cup (8): 1905–06, 1920–21, 1931–32, 1958–59, 1995–96, 1998–99, 2000–01, 2001–02 North Ayrshire Cup (4): 1995–96, 1997–98, 1999–00, 2000–01 Western Intermediate League Cup: 1929–30 Irvine & District League (3): 1907–08, 1908–09, 1913–14 Eglinton Cup: 2021 Notable players 1. Players that have played/managed in the Scottish Championship or any foreign equivalent or higher than this level (i.e. fully professional league). 2. Players with full international caps. 3. Players that hold a club record or have captained the club. Derek Anderson Jamie Barclay Bob Currie Duncan Currie Garry Fleming Dylan Kerr David McKellar Marc McKenzie Colin Meldrum Carlo Monti Craig Pettigrew Ross Stewart Stephen Swift David Syme Michael Wardrope David Winters References External links Club Website Football clubs in Scotland Football in North Ayrshire Association football clubs established in 1899 Scottish Junior Football Association clubs Kilwinning 1899 establishments in Scotland West of Scotland Football League teams	[ 0.17372258007526398, 0.01945149526000023, 0.39636653661727905, -0.8151682019233704, -0.1887473613023758, -0.48070791363716125, 0.21170783042907715, -0.010980666615068913, -0.2080860435962677, -0.10253220051527023, -0.365971177816391, 0.24923330545425415, -0.38855674862861633, 1.152686357498169, 0.058837227523326874, 0.3909297585487366, 0.5882895588874817, 0.8872726559638977, 0.26436370611190796, -0.7941969037055969, -0.16577929258346558, -0.5328347086906433, 0.5529928803443909, 0.4508972764015198, 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247363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serinus	Serinus	Serinus is a genus of small birds in the finch family Fringillidae found in Europe and Africa. The birds usually have some yellow in their plumage. The genus was introduced in 1816 by the German naturalist Carl Ludwig Koch. Its name is New Latin for "canary-yellow". Many species were at one time assigned to the genus but it became clear from phylogenetic studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences that the genus was polyphyletic. This was confirmed by Dario Zuccon and coworkers in a comprehensive study of the finch family published in 2012. The authors suggested splitting the genus into two monophyletic groups, a proposal that was accepted by the International Ornithologists' Union. The genus Serinus was restricted to the European serin and seven other species while a larger clade from Africa and Arabia was assigned to the resurrected genus Crithagra. 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247364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible%20Belt	Bible Belt	The Bible Belt is a region of the Southern United States in which socially conservative Protestant Christianity plays a strong role in society and politics, and church attendance across the denominations is generally higher than the nation's average. The region contrasts with the religiously diverse Midwest and Great Lakes, and the Mormon corridor in Utah and southern Idaho. Whereas the states with the highest percentage of residents identifying as non-religious are in the West and New England regions of the United States (with Vermont at 37%, ranking the highest), in the Bible Belt state of Alabama it is just 12%, and Tennessee has the highest proportion of evangelical Protestants, at 52%. The evangelical influence is strongest in northern Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, North Carolina, southern and western Virginia, West Virginia, the Upstate region of South Carolina, and East Texas. The earliest known usage of the term "Bible Belt" was by American journalist and social commentator H. L. Mencken, who in 1924 wrote in the Chicago Daily Tribune: "The old game, I suspect, is beginning to play out in the Bible Belt." In 1927, Mencken claimed the term as his invention. The term is now also used in other countries for regions with higher religious doctrine adoption. In the United States Geography The name "Bible Belt" has been applied historically to the South and parts of the Midwest, but is more commonly identified with the South. In a 1961 study, Wilbur Zelinsky delineated the region as the area in which Protestant denominations, especially Southern Baptist, Methodist, and evangelical, are the predominant religious affiliations. The region thus defined included most of the Southern United States, including most of Texas and Oklahoma, and in the states south of the Ohio River, and extending east to include central West Virginia and Virginia, from the Shenandoah Valley southward into Southside Virginia and North Carolina. In addition, the Bible Belt covers most of Missouri and Kentucky and southern parts of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. On the other hand, areas in the South which are not considered part of the Bible Belt include heavily Catholic Southern Louisiana, central and southern Florida, which have been settled mainly by immigrants and Americans from elsewhere in the country, and overwhelmingly Hispanic South Texas. A 1978 study by Charles Heatwole identified the Bible Belt as the region dominated by 24 fundamentalist Protestant denominations, corresponding to essentially the same area mapped by Zelinsky. According to Stephen W. Tweedie, an Associate Professor Emeritus in the Department of Geography at Oklahoma State University, the Bible Belt is now viewed in terms of numerical concentration of the audience for religious television. He finds two belts: one more eastern that stretches from Florida, (excluding Miami, Tampa and South Florida), through Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, the Carolinas, and into Southside Virginia; and another concentrated in Texas (excluding El Paso, and South Texas), Arkansas, Louisiana, (excluding New Orleans and Acadiana), Oklahoma, Missouri (excluding St. Louis), Kansas, and Mississippi. "[H]is research also broke the Bible Belt into two core regions, a western region and an eastern region. Tweedie's western Bible Belt was focused on a core that extended from Little Rock, Arkansas to Tulsa, Oklahoma. His eastern Bible Belt was focused on a core that included the major population centers of Virginia and North Carolina. A study was commissioned by the American Bible Society to survey the importance of the Bible in the metropolitan areas of the United States. The report was based on 42,855 interviews conducted between 2005 and 2012. It determined the 10 most "Bible-minded" cities were Knoxville, Tennessee; Shreveport, Louisiana; Chattanooga, Tennessee; Birmingham, Alabama; Jackson, Mississippi; Springfield, Missouri; Charlotte, North Carolina; Lynchburg, Virginia; Huntsville-Decatur, Alabama; and Charleston, West Virginia. By state Other Bible Belts in the United States In addition to the South, there is a smaller Bible Belt in West Michigan, centered on the heavily Dutch-influenced cities of Holland and Grand Rapids. Christian colleges in that region include Calvin College, Hope College, Cornerstone University, Grace Christian University, and Kuyper College. Much like the South, West Michigan is generally fiscally and socially conservative. There is also a Bible Belt in the western suburbs of Chicago (especially in DuPage County), centered on Wheaton. Christian colleges in that region include Wheaton College, North Central College, Northern Baptist Theological Seminary, and Elmhurst College. Christian publishing houses in that region include Good News Publishers, Intervarsity Press, and Tyndale House. Carol Stream is home to the headquarters of Christianity Today. DuPage County has historically been a fiscally and socially conservative Republican stronghold, though in recent years has become liberal on issues of race and immigration, and in 2016 Donald Trump was the first Republican nominee for president since 1912 to get less than 40% of the vote. Many DuPage County communities which normally vote Republican did not support Donald Trump in 2016. In December 2019, shortly after the U.S. House of Representatives voted to impeach Donald Trump, Christianity Today published a controversial editorial calling for the removal of Trump from office, citing the need to hold him to the same standards to which they held Bill Clinton in the 1990s (who was the last Democratic nominee for president to get less than 40% of the DuPage County vote). History During the colonial period (1607–1776), the South was a stronghold of the Anglican church. Its transition to a stronghold of non-Anglican Protestantism occurred gradually over the next century as a series of religious revival movements, many associated with the Baptist denomination, gained great popularity in the region. The northern colonial Bible Belt (especially New England with its Puritan heritage) frequently performed missionary work in the South. "The centre of Particular Baptist activity in early America was in the Middle Colonies. In 1707 five churches in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were united to form the Philadelphia Baptist Association, and through the association they embarked upon vigorous missionary activity. By 1760 the Philadelphia association included churches located in the present states of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, and West Virginia; and by 1767 further multiplication of churches had necessitated the formation of two subsidiary associations, the Warren in New England and the Ketochton in Virginia. The Philadelphia association also provided leadership in organizing the Charleston Association in the Carolinas in 1751." An influential figure was Shubal Stearns: "Shubael Stearns, a New England Separate Baptist, migrated to Sandy Creek, North Carolina, in 1755 and initiated a revival that quickly penetrated the entire Piedmont region. The churches he organized were brought together in 1758 to form the Sandy Creek Association". Stearns was brother-in-law of Daniel Marshall, who was born in Windsor, Connecticut and "is generally considered the first great Baptist leader in Georgia. He founded Kiokee Baptist Church, the oldest continuing Baptist congregation in the state". Also, Wait Palmer, of Toland, Connecticut, may have influenced African American Christianity in the South: "The Silver Bluff, South Carolina, revival was a seminal development, whose role among blacks rivalled that played by the Sandy Creek revival of the Separate Baptists, to which it was indirectly related. It was probably the same Wait Palmer who had baptized Shubal Stearns in 1751 who came to Silver Bluff in 1775, baptizing and constituting a church. Abraham Marshall, who encouraged the later offshoots, was a Separate Baptist of the Sandy Creek school. The revival at the Silver Bluff plantation of George Galphin (some twelve miles from Augusta, Georgia) had brought David George to the Afro-Baptist faith and had provided a ministry for George Liele". According to Thomas P. Kidd, "As early as 1758, Sandy Creek missionaries helped organize a slave congregation, the Bluestone Church, on the plantation of William Byrd III, which may have been the first independently functioning African American church in North America. The church did not last long, but it reflected the Baptists' commitment to evangelizing African Americans". According to Gayraud S. Wilmore, "The preaching of New England Congregationalists such as Jonathan Edwards about the coming millennium, and his conviction that Christians were called to prepare for it, reached the slaves through the far-ranging missionary work of white evangelists such as Shubal Stearns, Wait Palmer, and Matthew Moore - all of whom left Congregationalism and became Separatist Baptist preachers in the plantation country of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia". Buckle Several locations are occasionally referred to as "the Buckle of the Bible Belt": Abilene, Texas, a city of 117,000, is home to three Protestant universities: the Baptist affiliated Hardin-Simmons University, the Church of Christ's Abilene Christian University, and Methodist founded McMurry University. Nashville, Tennessee, sometimes referred to as "the Protestant Vatican", has over 700 churches, several seminaries, and a number of Christian schools, colleges and universities, including Belmont University, Trevecca Nazarene University, Lipscomb University, Free Will Baptist Bible College and American Baptist College. Nashville is the seat of the National Baptist Convention, USA, the headquarters of the Southern Baptist Convention, the National Association of Free Will Baptists, the Gideons International, the Gospel Music Association, and Thomas Nelson, the world's largest producer of Bibles. Tulsa, Oklahoma, is a city where Protestant and, in particular, Southern Baptist and other evangelical Christian traditions are very prominent. Tulsa is home to Oral Roberts University, Phillips Theological Seminary, and RHEMA Bible Training College (in the suburb of Broken Arrow). A number of prominent Protestant Christians have lived or studied in Tulsa, including Joel Osteen, Kenneth E. Hagin, Carlton Pearson, Kenneth Copeland, Billy Joe Daugherty, Smokie Norful and Billy James Hargis. Tulsa is also home to a number of vibrant Mainline Protestant congregations. Some of these congregations were founded during the oil boom of the early twentieth century and their facilities are noted for striking architecture, such as the art deco Boston Avenue Methodist Church and First Presbyterian Church of Tulsa. The metropolitan area has at least four religious radio stations (KCFO, KNYD, KXOJ, & KPIM), and at least two religious TV stations (KWHB & KGEB). Greenville, South Carolina, is a city where many Baptist churches, particularly Independent Baptist, are located. There are more than one hundred Baptist churches in the Greenville area, as well as Bob Jones University. It also is the home of WTBI radio station which plays old-fashioned Christian music and preaching 24 hours a day. Political and cultural context There has been research that links evangelical Protestantism with social conservatism. In 1950, President Harry S. Truman told Catholic leaders he wanted to send an ambassador to the Vatican. Truman said the leading Democrats in Congress approved, but they warned him, "it would defeat Democratic Senators and Congressmen in the Bible Belt." In presidential elections, the Bible Belt states of Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas have voted for the Republican candidate in all elections since 1980; Oklahoma has supported the Republican presidential candidate in every election since 1968, with Republicans having carried every county in the state in all presidential elections since 2004. Other Bible Belt states have voted for the Republican presidential candidate in the majority of elections since 1980, but have gone to the Democratic candidate either once or twice since then. However, with the exception of Mississippi, historical geographer Barry Vann shows that counties in the upland areas of the Appalachians and the Ozarks have a more conservative voting pattern than the counties located in the coastal plains. Outside the United States Australia In Australia, the term "Bible Belt" has been used to refer to areas within individual cities, which have a high concentration of Christian residents usually centralized around a megachurch, for example: Formerly, the northwestern suburbs of Sydney focusing on The Hills District were traditionally known as the "bible belt", where Hillsong Church is located. Between the 2011 and 2016 census, however, the Christian population of The Hills district got reduced by 18.5% and those without a religion grew from 1 in 8 in 2006 to 1 in 5 in the 2016 census. The Greater Western Sydney area, typically in the City of Fairfield area, in the suburbs between Fairfield and Horsley Park, where the megachurches are St Hurmizd Church, an Assyrian Church of the East and the Apostle Chaldean Catholic Church, a Chaldean Catholic church. Other bible belts include those with high Anglo-Saxon Protestant populations found in the Sutherland Shire, parts of City of Penrith, Camden Council and the Wollondilly Shire. The outer-eastern suburbs of Melbourne, where CityLife Church, Crossway Baptist Church, Stairway Church and Discovery Church are located. The northeastern suburbs of Adelaide focusing on Paradise, Modbury and Golden Grove, where Influencers Church is located The southeastern region of Queensland comprising the towns of Laidley, Gatton and Toowoomba. The Brisbane southern suburbs of Mansfield, Springwood, Carindale and Mount Gravatt. Garden City Assembly of God church, Citipointe Church, Clark Taylor's Worship Centre, and Brisbane Hillsong are notable megachurches in this area. More recently, the far northern suburbs of Perth are forming this reputation, with the focus being on One Church and Globalheart in the suburbs of Merriwa and Joondalup respectively. Toowoomba city in Queensland has long been regarded as fertile ground for Christian fundamentalist right-wing movements that adhere to biblical literalism, particularly those within the Pentecostal and charismatic stream of Christianity. This was exemplified by the highly publicised rise and subsequent fall of Howard Carter and the Logos Foundation in the 1980s. The Logos Foundation and other similar movements that have followed it, operate in a controlling, authoritarian and almost cultish manner, contributing to their notoriety. Other similarly conservative Pentecostal churches within the city have, since that time, banded together into a loose federation known as the Toowoomba Christian Leaders' Network. (note - most traditional church denominations have their own, separate ecumenical group) This network views itself as having a divine mission to 'take the city for the Lord' and as such, endorses elements of religious right-wing political advocacy, such as the Australian Christian Lobby (ACL). ACL's former managing director who was raised in the Logos Foundation and is a former Toowoomba City councillor is Lyle Shelton. These church groups are strongly associated with North American trends such as the New Apostolic Reformation, Dominion theology, Five-fold ministry thinking, Kingdom Now theology and revivalism. They support the achievement of a type of theocratic society where conservative and literal interpretations of the bible are the dominant drivers of government, education, the Arts, the media and entertainment. Churches involved in this group currently include the successor organization to the Logos Foundation, the Toowoomba City Church, along with the Range Christian Fellowship, Spring Street Assembly of God, Christian Outreach Centre, Hume Ridge Church of Christ, Revival Ministries of Australia Shiloh Centre, the Edge Christian Centre and many others. Queensland, just like the American Deep South, is considered to be a major centre for not just biblical groups, but also the homeland of a disproportionate amount of Australia's right-wing and far-right leaning politicians, including but not limited to, Fraser Anning, Pauline Hanson, and Clive Palmer. Canada The province of Saskatchewan has been referred to as Canada's Bible Belt with a significant Catholic, Anabaptist population and other Protestants. Certain areas of Canada's east coast region, such as the province of New Brunswick, also contain significant populations of Catholic, Baptist, Anglican and United faith adherents, up to 85% overall. Denmark In Denmark, rural western Jutland in particular is considered to be the Bible Belt. This is due to the higher number of citizens who are associated (in this particular area) with conservative Lutheran Christian organisations such as the Church Association for the Inner Mission in Denmark, which traditionally have had a very strong resistance to abortion and LGBT rights. Estonia Census results show religious belief in the country is more prevalent in the east running from north to south along the border with Russia, particularly in those areas with large populations of Russian Orthodox, Estonian Orthodox and Orthodox Old Believers. Finland Conservative Laestadianism, a Finnish Lutheran revival, is widespread in northern (Northern Ostrobothnia and Lapland (Finland)) and central parts (Northern Savonia) of Finland. Germany An area in Erzgebirge in Saxony has been described as the "Saxon Bible Belt" with a notable evangelical Protestant/Christian fundamentalist/free church community, as well as some conservative Lutheran parishes that are opposed to same-sex marriage. Nevertheless, the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony approved church resolutions regarding the issue regardless of opinions within those parishes. Lithuania Among its Baltic neighbors Lithuania is in general much more religious, but even in this context, Vilnius with its many churches and adjacent region (Vilnius district and Šalčininkai district municipalities) with larger number of Lithuanian Poles is the most religious region of Lithuania. Both Šalčininkai and Vilnius district municipalities by the ruling Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania – Christian Families Alliance were declared as guarded and ruled by Jesus Christ. Mexico In Mexico, there is what is known as the Rosary Belt (Spanish: Cinturón del Rosario). The term, created by journalist and writer Carlos Monsiváis in 1999, refers to a region comprising the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Querétaro and, in more recent years, Zacatecas, where 90% of the population professes Roman Catholicism, which has a notable influence on local politics and society. Guanajuato, for example, is one of the most important electoral strongholds of the National Action Party, of Christian Democrat tradition, mostly inspired by the Social Doctrine of the Church, and with strong conservative ideals. It was in this region where the first uprisings against the government took place during the Cristero War, demanding an end to the persecution of Catholics in the country as a result of the promulgation of the so-called Calles Law, which restricted Catholic worship in Mexico. Netherlands The Bible Belt of the Netherlands (Dutch: Bijbelgordel) stretches from Zeeland, through the West-Betuwe and Veluwe, to the northern parts of the province Overijssel. In this region, orthodox Calvinists prevail. New Zealand In New Zealand, Mount Roskill, Auckland, contains the highest number of churches per capita in the country, and is the home of several Christian political candidates. The electorate was one of the last in the country to go "wet", in 1999, having formerly been a dry area where the selling of alcohol was prohibited. At the 2013 New Zealand census, the Mangere–Otahuhu local board area of Auckland had the highest concentration of Christians in New Zealand, with 67.7 percent of the local board's 71,000 residents identifying as such. In contrast to other bible belts, both areas tend to vote for left-wing candidates and are both currently represented in parliament by the governing centre-left Labour Party. Norway The Bible Belt of Norway is located mainly in the western and southern parts of the country, especially rural areas of Agder and Rogaland counties, which contains numerous devout Lutherans. Poland South and East parts of Poland are much more religious than North and West. See Poland A and B. Soviet Union Before its independence, Soviet Ukraine was known as the Bible Belt of the Soviet Union, with a significant proportion of Baptists. Sweden The area normally called the Bible Belt of Sweden is centered on Jönköping in southern Sweden and contains numerous free churches. There are also numerous conservative Lutheran Laestadians in the Torne valley area in the far north of the country. United Kingdom In Northern Ireland, the area in County Antrim stretching from roughly Ballymoney to Larne and centred in the area of Ballymena is often referred to as a Bible Belt. This is because the area is heavily Protestant with a large evangelical community. From 1970 to 2010, the MP for North Antrim was Ian Paisley, a Free Presbyterian minister well known for his theological fundamentalism. The town of Ballymena, the largest town in the constituency, is often referred to as the "buckle" of the Bible Belt. See also Banana Belt Blue wall Born again Christian fundamentalism Christian right Conservative holiness movement Cow belt Deep South Evangelicalism in the United States Great Awakening Jesusland map List of belt regions of the United States List of U.S. states by religiosity Quran Belt Rust Belt Southern Baptist Convention Unchurched Belt References Further reading Balmer, Randall H. (2002). Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism. Westminster John Knox Press. Christine Leigh H, (1997), Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt. Knopf. Denman, Stan. (2004). Political Playing for the Soul of the American South: Theater and the Maintenance of Cultural Hegemony in the American Bible Belt. Southern Quarterly, 42(3), 64–72. Hayes, Turner Elizabeth. (1997). Women, Culture and Community: Religion and Reform in Galveston 1880–1920, Oxford University Press. Heatwole, Charles A. (1978). The Bible Belt; a problem of regional definition. Journal of Geography, 77, 50–55. Hill, Samuel S., Lippy, Charles H. & Wilson, Charles R. (2005). Encyclopedia Of Religion In The South. Mercer University Press. Lippy, Charles, H. (1993). Religion in South Carolina. University of South Carolina. Marsden, George M. (1982). Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, 1870–1925. Oxford University Press. Moran, Jeffrey P. (2004). The Scopes Trial and Southern Fundamentalism in Black and White: Race, Region, and Religion. Journal of Southern History, 70(1), 95. Park, Chris C. (1994). Sacred Worlds: An Introduction to Geography and Religion. Routledge. Pettersson, Thorleif & Hamberg, Eva M. (1997). Denominational Pluralism and Church Membership in Contemporary Sweden. Journal of Empirical Theology, 10(2), 61–78. Sparks, Randy J. (2001). Religion in Mississippi. University Press of Mississippi for the Mississippi Historical Society. Stacey, Williams A. & Shupe, Anson. (1984). Religious Values and Religiosity in the Textbook Adoption Controversy in Texas, 1981. Review of Religious Research. 25(4), 321–333. Tweedie, Stephen W. (1978). Viewing the Bible Belt. 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247365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulated%20reality	Simulated reality	Simulated reality is the hypothesis that reality could be simulated—for example by quantum computer simulation—to a degree indistinguishable from "true" reality. It could contain conscious minds that may or may not know that they live inside a simulation. This is quite different from the current, technologically achievable concept of virtual reality, which is easily distinguished from the experience of actuality. Simulated reality, by contrast, would be hard or impossible to separate from "true" reality. There has been much debate over this topic, ranging from philosophical discourse to practical applications in computing. Arguments Simulation argument A version of the simulation hypothesis was first theorized as a part of a philosophical argument on the part of René Descartes, and later by Hans Moravec. The philosopher Nick Bostrom developed an expanded argument examining the probability of our reality being a simulation. His argument states that at least one of the following statements is very likely to be true: Human civilization or a comparable civilization is unlikely to reach a level of technological maturity capable of producing simulated realities or such simulations are physically impossible to construct. A comparable civilization reaching aforementioned technological status will likely not produce a significant number of simulated realities (one that might push the probable existence of digital entities beyond the probable number of "real" entities in a Universe) for any of a number of reasons, such as diversion of computational processing power for other tasks, ethical considerations of holding entities captive in simulated realities, etc. Any entities with our general set of experiences are almost certainly living in a simulation. We are living in a reality in which post-humans have not developed yet and we are actually living in reality. We will have no way of knowing that we live in a simulation because we will never reach the technological capacity to realize the marks of a simulated reality. Bostrom's argument rests on the premises that given sufficiently advanced technology, it is possible to represent the populated surface of the Earth without recourse to digital physics; that the qualia experienced by a simulated consciousness are comparable or equivalent to those of a naturally occurring human consciousness, and that one or more levels of simulation within simulations would be feasible given only a modest expenditure of computational resources in the real world. First, if one assumes that humans will not be destroyed nor destroy themselves before developing such a technology, and that human descendants will have no overriding legal restrictions or moral compunctions against simulating biospheres or their own historical biosphere, then, Bostrom argues it would be unreasonable to count ourselves among the small minority of genuine organisms who, sooner or later, will be vastly outnumbered by artificial simulations. Epistemologically, it is not impossible to tell whether we are living in a simulation. For example, Bostrom suggests that a window could pop up saying: "You are living in a simulation. Click here for more information." However, imperfections in a simulated environment might be difficult for the native inhabitants to identify and for purposes of authenticity, even the simulated memory of a blatant revelation might be purged programmatically. Nonetheless, should any evidence come to light, either for or against the skeptical hypothesis, it would radically alter the aforementioned probability. Computationalism Computationalism is a philosophy of mind theory stating that cognition is a form of computation. It is relevant to the simulation hypothesis in that it illustrates how a simulation could contain conscious subjects, as required by a "virtual people" simulation. For example, it is well known that physical systems can be simulated to some degree of accuracy. If computationalism is correct and if there is no problem in generating artificial consciousness or cognition, it would establish the theoretical possibility of a simulated reality. Nevertheless, the relationship between cognition and phenomenal qualia of consciousness is disputed. It is possible that consciousness requires a vital substrate that a computer cannot provide and that simulated people, while behaving appropriately, would be philosophical zombies. This would undermine Nick Bostrom's simulation argument; we cannot be a simulated consciousness, if consciousness, as we know it, cannot be simulated. The skeptical hypothesis remains intact, however, and we could still be vatted brains, existing as conscious beings within a simulated environment, even if consciousness cannot be simulated. It has been suggested that whereas virtual reality would enable a participant to experience only three senses (sight, sound and optionally smell), simulated reality would enable all five (including taste and touch). Some theorists have argued that if the "consciousness-is-computation" version of computationalism and mathematical realism (or radical mathematical Platonism) are true then consciousnesses is computation, which in principle is platform independent and thus admits of simulation. This argument states that a "Platonic realm" or ultimate ensemble would contain every algorithm, including those that implement consciousness. Hans Moravec has explored the simulation hypothesis and has argued for a kind of mathematical Platonism according to which every object (including, for example, a stone) can be regarded as implementing every possible computation. Dreaming A dream could be considered a type of simulation capable of fooling someone who is asleep. As a result, the "dream hypothesis" cannot be ruled out, although it has been argued that common sense and considerations of simplicity rule against it. One of the first philosophers to question the distinction between reality and dreams was Zhuangzi, a Chinese philosopher from the 4th century BC. He phrased the problem as the well-known "Butterfly Dream," which went as follows: Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he didn't know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi. Between Zhuangzi and a butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation of Things. (2, tr. Burton Watson 1968:49) The philosophical underpinnings of this argument are also brought up by Descartes, who was one of the first Western philosophers to do so. In Meditations on First Philosophy, he states "... there are no certain indications by which we may clearly distinguish wakefulness from sleep", and goes on to conclude that "It is possible that I am dreaming right now and that all of my perceptions are false". Chalmers (2003) discusses the dream hypothesis and notes that this comes in two distinct forms: that he is currently dreaming, in which case many of his beliefs about the world are incorrect; that he has always been dreaming, in which case the objects he perceives actually exist, albeit in his imagination. Both the dream argument and the simulation hypothesis can be regarded as skeptical hypotheses; however in raising these doubts, just as Descartes noted that his own thinking led him to be convinced of his own existence, the existence of the argument itself is testament to the possibility of its own truth. Another state of mind in which some argue an individual's perceptions have no physical basis in the real world is called psychosis though psychosis may have a physical basis in the real world and explanations vary. The dream hypothesis is also used to develop other philosophical concepts, such as Valberg's personal horizon: what this world would be internal to if this were all a dream. In recent years of dream research, the argument of characterizing dreaming as a simulation has become widely accepted, as well as creating theories about the purpose and functions of dreaming. In fact, dream researcher, Tore A. Nielsen wrote in 2010 on his paper, Dream analysis and classification: The reality simulation perspective., that the idea that dreaming is a complex simulation of the world in consciousness during sleep may be a conception of dreaming and simulated reality that many dream researchers would have a hard time coming to accept. As well, dreams place us in this virtually simulated reality that places many characters and people in our lives in the dream. If dreaming was to be a simulated reality, the question arises whether that can be used to describe to social reality that the dream allows us to be in too. Lucid dreaming is characterized as an idea where the elements of dreaming and waking are combined to a point where the user knows they are dreaming, or waking perhaps. The idea of lucid dreaming also poses evidence to the dream argument, the idea that dreaming and being awake or indistinguishable, because of the fact that one know they are dreaming in a lucid dream. They control the characters in the dream and the plot of what is happening to them in the dream. Lucid dreams could be the reality that we all think is a dream which would then make our reality now the dream. Existence of simulated reality unprovable in any concrete sense Known as the idea of Nested Simulations: the existence of simulated reality is seen to be unprovable in any concrete sense as there is an infinite regress problem with the argument: any evidence that is directly observed could be another simulation itself. Even if we are a simulated reality, there is no way to be sure the beings running the simulation are not themselves a simulation and the operators of that simulation are not a simulation. " involves a simulation or an entity in the simulation, creating another instance of the same simulation, running it and using its results" (Pooch and Sullivan 2000). In August 2019, philosopher Preston Greene suggested that it may be best not to find out if we're living in a computer simulation since, if it were found to be true, such knowing may end the simulation. Greene's suggestion is similar to Douglas Adams' humorous idea presented in his 1979 novel The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: that if anyone in the Universe should actually work out 'The Meaning of Life, the Universe and Everything', it would instantly disappear and be immediately replaced with something "even more complex and inexplicable". Philosophical and religious implications Some philosophers and authors (Nick Bostrom's “Are You Living In a Computer Simulation?”, Jean Baudrillard's 1981 Simulacra and Simulation, Iurii Vovchenko's “Answers in Simulation”) tried to address the implications of the simulated reality on mankind's way of life and future. Simulated reality and simulated theory has also been related to Plato's famous "Allegory of the Cave" story from his c. 375BC book, The Republic. Simulated reality has significant implications to the philosophical questions such as the questions of existence of gods, meaning of life, etc. There are attempts to link religion to the simulated reality. In fiction and celebrity takes Simulated reality in fiction has been looked at by many authors, game designers and film directors, most notably explored in the 1999 film The Matrix and portrayed in the 2018 film Ready Player One. Elon Musk, the CEO of Tesla and SpaceX, has had much to say about the concept that our reality is a simulation including: "The odds that we are in base reality is one in billions" which he said at a conference in 2016. Musk has also referenced that the odds of us living in a simulated reality or computer made by others is about a 99.9% chance at various other press conferences and events and most famously, on the Joe Rogan Podcast. See also Artificial life Artificial society Augmented reality Boltzmann brain Computational sociology Consensus reality Demiurge Digital philosophy Digital physics Hyperreality Margolus–Levitin theorem Maya (religion) Metaverse Mind uploading OpenWorm, project to simulate the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans. Philosophy of information Simulated reality in fiction Simulation hypothesis Social simulation Theory of knowledge Tipler's "Omega point" Virtual reality simulator Virtual worlds Major contributing thinkers Nick Bostrom and his simulation argument René Descartes (1596–1650) and his Evil Demon, sometimes also called his 'Evil Genius' George Berkeley (1685–1753) and his "immaterialism" (later referred to as subjective idealism by others) Plato (424/423 BC – 348/347 BC) and his Allegory of the Cave Zhuangzi (around the 4th century BCE) and his Chinese Butterfly Dream References Bibliography Software architecture Concepts in epistemology Metaphysics Science fiction themes Philosophical arguments Thought experiments Internalism and externalism Philosophy of mind Simulated reality Mixed reality Reality by type	[ 0.12381970137357712, 0.21933209896087646, -0.2665410339832306, 0.6117270588874817, 0.08083511888980865, 0.3930007815361023, 0.20191024243831635, 0.2048276960849762, 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247367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carduelis	Carduelis	The genus Carduelis is a group of birds in the finch family Fringillidae. The genus Carduelis was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 by tautonomy based on Carl Linnaeus's specific epithet for the European goldfinch Fringilla carduelis. The name carduelis is the Latin word for the European goldfinch. Many bird species were at one time assigned to the genus, but it became clear from phylogenetic studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences that the genus was polyphyletic. The polyphyletic nature of the genus was confirmed by Dario Zuccon and coworkers in a comprehensive study of the finch family published in 2012. The authors suggested splitting the genus into several monophyletic clades, a proposal that was accepted by the International Ornithologists' Union. The siskins and goldfinches from the Americas formed a distinct clade and were moved to the resurrected genus Spinus, the greenfinches were moved to the genus Chloris, the twite and linnets formed another clade and were moved to the genus Linaria and finally the redpolls were moved to the genus Acanthis. Species The genus Carduelis is now restricted to three European species: References External links Carduelis videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection Bird genera Taxa named by Mathurin Jacques Brisson	[ -0.3713763952255249, -0.06300710141658783, 0.044433340430259705, -0.14764638245105743, 0.30585670471191406, 0.4587411880493164, -0.035956643521785736, 0.1863761991262436, -0.6152273416519165, -0.5312294960021973, 0.31777527928352356, 0.34699633717536926, -0.4448179304599762, -0.3401956558227539, -0.17077365517616272, 0.5863566994667053, 0.06414492428302765, 0.5393505692481995, 0.300877183675766, -0.5577865839004517, -0.3168998956680298, -0.8938522934913635, 0.5235840678215027, -0.21833769977092743, 0.2001352608203888, 0.4916258156299591, 0.13131311535835266, 0.863994300365448, 0.5412408709526062, 0.08339293301105499, 0.010997233912348747, 0.2824706435203552, 0.4003879427909851, 0.07108961045742035, 0.29823362827301025, -0.24720540642738342, -0.41572606563568115, 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247370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicating%20sequential%20processes	Communicating sequential processes	In computer science, communicating sequential processes (CSP) is a formal language for describing patterns of interaction in concurrent systems. It is a member of the family of mathematical theories of concurrency known as process algebras, or process calculi, based on message passing via channels. CSP was highly influential in the design of the occam programming language and also influenced the design of programming languages such as Limbo, RaftLib, Erlang, Go, Crystal, and Clojure's core.async. CSP was first described in a 1978 article by Tony Hoare, but has since evolved substantially. CSP has been practically applied in industry as a tool for specifying and verifying the concurrent aspects of a variety of different systems, such as the T9000 Transputer, as well as a secure ecommerce system. The theory of CSP itself is also still the subject of active research, including work to increase its range of practical applicability (e.g., increasing the scale of the systems that can be tractably analyzed). History The version of CSP presented in Hoare's original 1978 article was essentially a concurrent programming language rather than a process calculus. It had a substantially different syntax than later versions of CSP, did not possess mathematically defined semantics, and was unable to represent unbounded nondeterminism. Programs in the original CSP were written as a parallel composition of a fixed number of sequential processes communicating with each other strictly through synchronous message-passing. In contrast to later versions of CSP, each process was assigned an explicit name, and the source or destination of a message was defined by specifying the name of the intended sending or receiving process. For example, the process COPY = *[c:character; west?c → east!c] repeatedly receives a character from the process named west and sends that character to process named east. The parallel composition [west::DISASSEMBLE \|\| X::COPY \|\| east::ASSEMBLE] assigns the names west to the DISASSEMBLE process, X to the COPY process, and east to the ASSEMBLE process, and executes these three processes concurrently. Following the publication of the original version of CSP, Hoare, Stephen Brookes, and A. W. Roscoe developed and refined the theory of CSP into its modern, process algebraic form. The approach taken in developing CSP into a process algebra was influenced by Robin Milner's work on the Calculus of Communicating Systems (CCS) and conversely. The theoretical version of CSP was initially presented in a 1984 article by Brookes, Hoare, and Roscoe, and later in Hoare's book Communicating Sequential Processes, which was published in 1985. In September 2006, that book was still the third-most cited computer science reference of all time according to Citeseer (albeit an unreliable source due to the nature of its sampling). The theory of CSP has undergone a few minor changes since the publication of Hoare's book. Most of these changes were motivated by the advent of automated tools for CSP process analysis and verification. Roscoe's The Theory and Practice of Concurrency describes this newer version of CSP. Applications An early and important application of CSP was its use for specification and verification of elements of the INMOS T9000 Transputer, a complex superscalar pipelined processor designed to support large-scale multiprocessing. CSP was employed in verifying the correctness of both the processor pipeline and the Virtual Channel Processor, which managed off-chip communications for the processor. Industrial application of CSP to software design has usually focused on dependable and safety-critical systems. For example, the Bremen Institute for Safe Systems and Daimler-Benz Aerospace modeled a fault-management system and avionics interface (consisting of about 23,000 lines of code) intended for use on the International Space Station in CSP, and analyzed the model to confirm that their design was free of deadlock and livelock. The modeling and analysis process was able to uncover a number of errors that would have been difficult to detect using testing alone. Similarly, Praxis High Integrity Systems applied CSP modeling and analysis during the development of software (approximately 100,000 lines of code) for a secure smart-card certification authority to verify that their design was secure and free of deadlock. Praxis claims that the system has a much lower defect rate than comparable systems. Since CSP is well-suited to modeling and analyzing systems that incorporate complex message exchanges, it has also been applied to the verification of communications and security protocols. A prominent example of this sort of application is Lowe’s use of CSP and the FDR refinement-checker to discover a previously unknown attack on the Needham–Schroeder public-key authentication protocol, and then to develop a corrected protocol able to defeat the attack. Informal description As its name suggests, CSP allows the description of systems in terms of component processes that operate independently, and interact with each other solely through message-passing communication. However, the "Sequential" part of the CSP name is now something of a misnomer, since modern CSP allows component processes to be defined both as sequential processes, and as the parallel composition of more primitive processes. The relationships between different processes, and the way each process communicates with its environment, are described using various process algebraic operators. Using this algebraic approach, quite complex process descriptions can be easily constructed from a few primitive elements. Primitives CSP provides two classes of primitives in its process algebra: Events Events represent communications or interactions. They are assumed to be indivisible and instantaneous. They may be atomic names (e.g. on, off), compound names (e.g. valve.open, valve.close), or input/output events (e.g. mouse?xy, screen!bitmap). Primitive processes Primitive processes represent fundamental behaviors: examples include STOP (the process that communicates nothing, also called deadlock), and SKIP (which represents successful termination). Algebraic operators CSP has a wide range of algebraic operators. The principal ones are: Prefix The prefix operator combines an event and a process to produce a new process. For example, is the process that is willing to communicate with its environment and, after , behaves like the process . Deterministic choice The deterministic (or external) choice operator allows the future evolution of a process to be defined as a choice between two component processes and allows the environment to resolve the choice by communicating an initial event for one of the processes. For example, is the process that is willing to communicate the initial events and and subsequently behaves as either or , depending on which initial event the environment chooses to communicate. If both and were communicated simultaneously, the choice would be resolved nondeterministically. Nondeterministic choice The nondeterministic (or internal) choice operator allows the future evolution of a process to be defined as a choice between two component processes, but does not allow the environment any control over which one of the component processes will be selected. For example, can behave like either or . It can refuse to accept or and is only obliged to communicate if the environment offers both and . Nondeterminism can be inadvertently introduced into a nominally deterministic choice if the initial events of both sides of the choice are identical. So, for example, is equivalent to Interleaving The interleaving operator represents completely independent concurrent activity. The process behaves as both and simultaneously. The events from both processes are arbitrarily interleaved in time. Interface parallel The interface parallel operator represents concurrent activity that requires synchronization between the component processes: any event in the interface set can only occur when all component processes are able to engage in that event. For example, the process requires that and must both be able to perform event before that event can occur. So, for example, the process can engage in event and become the process while will simply deadlock. Hiding The hiding operator provides a way to abstract processes by making some events unobservable. A trivial example of hiding is which, assuming that the event doesn't appear in , simply reduces to Examples One of the archetypal CSP examples is an abstract representation of a chocolate vending machine and its interactions with a person wishing to buy some chocolate. This vending machine might be able to carry out two different events, “coin” and “choc” which represent the insertion of payment and the delivery of a chocolate respectively. A machine which demands payment (only in cash) before offering a chocolate can be written as: A person who might choose to use a coin or card to make payments could be modelled as: These two processes can be put in parallel, so that they can interact with each other. The behaviour of the composite process depends on the events that the two component processes must synchronise on. Thus, whereas if synchronization was only required on “coin”, we would obtain If we abstract this latter composite process by hiding the “coin” and “card” events, i.e. we get the nondeterministic process This is a process which either offers a “choc” event and then stops, or just stops. In other words, if we treat the abstraction as an external view of the system (e.g., someone who does not see the decision reached by the person), nondeterminism has been introduced. Formal definition Syntax The syntax of CSP defines the “legal” ways in which processes and events may be combined. Let be an event, and be a set of events. Then the basic syntax of CSP can be defined as: Note that, in the interests of brevity, the syntax presented above omits the process, which represents divergence, as well as various operators such as alphabetized parallel, piping, and indexed choices. Formal semantics CSP has been imbued with several different formal semantics, which define the meaning of syntactically correct CSP expressions. The theory of CSP includes mutually consistent denotational semantics, algebraic semantics, and operational semantics. Denotational semantics The three major denotational models of CSP are the traces model, the stable failures model, and the failures/divergences model. Semantic mappings from process expressions to each of these three models provide the denotational semantics for CSP. The traces model defines the meaning of a process expression as the set of sequences of events (traces) that the process can be observed to perform. For example, since performs no events since the process can be observed to have performed no events, the event , or the sequence of events followed by More formally, the meaning of a process in the traces model is defined as such that: (i.e. contains the empty sequence) (i.e. is prefix-closed) where is the set of all possible finite sequences of events. The stable failures model extends the traces model with refusal sets, which are sets of events that a process can refuse to perform. A failure is a pair , consisting of a trace , and a refusal set which identifies the events that a process may refuse once it has executed the trace . The observed behavior of a process in the stable failures model is described by the pair . For example, The failures/divergence model further extends the failures model to handle divergence. The semantics of a process in the failures/divergences model is a pair where is defined as the set of all traces that can lead to divergent behavior and . Tools Over the years, a number of tools for analyzing and understanding systems described using CSP have been produced. Early tool implementations used a variety of machine-readable syntaxes for CSP, making input files written for different tools incompatible. However, most CSP tools have now standardized on the machine-readable dialect of CSP devised by Bryan Scattergood, sometimes referred to as CSPM. The CSPM dialect of CSP possesses a formally defined operational semantics, which includes an embedded functional programming language. The most well-known CSP tool is probably Failures/Divergence Refinement 2 (FDR2), which is a commercial product developed by Formal Systems (Europe) Ltd. FDR2 is often described as a model checker, but is technically a refinement checker, in that it converts two CSP process expressions into Labelled Transition Systems (LTSs), and then determines whether one of the processes is a refinement of the other within some specified semantic model (traces, failures, or failures/divergence). FDR2 applies various state-space compression algorithms to the process LTSs in order to reduce the size of the state-space that must be explored during a refinement check. FDR2 has been succeeded by FDR3, a completely re-written version incorporating amongst other things parallel execution and an integrated type checker. It is released by the University of Oxford, which also released FDR2 in the period 2008-12. The Adelaide Refinement Checker (ARC) is a CSP refinement checker developed by the Formal Modelling and Verification Group at The University of Adelaide. ARC differs from FDR2 in that it internally represents CSP processes as Ordered Binary Decision Diagrams (OBDDs), which alleviates the state explosion problem of explicit LTS representations without requiring the use of state-space compression algorithms such as those used in FDR2. The ProB project, which is hosted by the Institut für Informatik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, was originally created to support analysis of specifications constructed in the B method. However, it also includes support for analysis of CSP processes both through refinement checking, and LTL model-checking. ProB can also be used to verify properties of combined CSP and B specifications. A ProBE CSP Animator is integrated in FDR3. The Process Analysis Toolkit (PAT) is a CSP analysis tool developed in the School of Computing at the National University of Singapore. PAT is able to perform refinement checking, LTL model-checking, and simulation of CSP and Timed CSP processes. The PAT process language extends CSP with support for mutable shared variables, asynchronous message passing, and a variety of fairness and quantitative time related process constructs such as deadline and waituntil. The underlying design principle of the PAT process language is to combine a high-level specification language with procedural programs (e.g. an event in PAT may be a sequential program or even an external C# library call) for greater expressiveness. Mutable shared variables and asynchronous channels provide a convenient syntactic sugar for well-known process modelling patterns used in standard CSP. The PAT syntax is similar, but not identical, to CSPM. The principal differences between the PAT syntax and standard CSPM are the use of semicolons to terminate process expressions, the inclusion of syntactic sugar for variables and assignments, and the use of slightly different syntax for internal choice and parallel composition. VisualNets produces animated visualisations of CSP systems from specifications, and supports timed CSP. CSPsim is a lazy simulator. It does not model check CSP, but is useful for exploring very large (potentially infinite) systems. SyncStitch is a CSP refinement checker with interactive modeling and analyzing environment. It has a graphical state-transition diagram editor. The user can model the behavior of processes as not only CSP expressions but also state-transition diagrams. The result of checking are also reported graphically as computation-trees and can be analyzed interactively with peripheral inspecting tools. In addition to refinement checks, It can perform deadlock check and livelock check. Related formalisms Several other specification languages and formalisms have been derived from, or inspired by, the classic untimed CSP, including: Timed CSP, which incorporates timing information for reasoning about real-time systems Receptive Process Theory, a specialization of CSP that assumes an asynchronous (i.e. nonblocking) send operation CSPP HCSP TCOZ, an integration of Timed CSP and Object Z Circus, an integration of CSP and Z based on the Unifying Theories of Programming CML (COMPASS Modelling Language), a combination of Circus and VDM developed for the modelling of Systems of Systems (SoS) CspCASL, an extension of CASL that integrates CSP LOTOS, an international standard that incorporates features of CSP and CCS. PALPS, a probabilistic extension with locations for ecological models developed by Anna Philippou and Comparison with the actor model In as much as it is concerned with concurrent processes that exchange messages, the actor model is broadly similar to CSP. However, the two models make some fundamentally different choices with regard to the primitives they provide: CSP processes are anonymous, while actors have identities. CSP uses explicit channels for message passing, whereas actor systems transmit messages to named destination actors. These approaches may be considered duals of each other, in the sense that processes receiving through a single channel effectively have an identity corresponding to that channel, while the name-based coupling between actors may be broken by constructing actors that behave as channels. CSP message-passing fundamentally involves a rendezvous between the processes involved in sending and receiving the message, i.e. the sender cannot transmit a message until the receiver is ready to accept it. In contrast, message-passing in actor systems is fundamentally asynchronous, i.e. message transmission and reception do not have to happen at the same time, and senders may transmit messages before receivers are ready to accept them. These approaches may also be considered duals of each other, in the sense that rendezvous-based systems can be used to construct buffered communications that behave as asynchronous messaging systems, while asynchronous systems can be used to construct rendezvous-style communications by using a message/acknowledgement protocol to synchronize senders and receivers. Award In 1990, “A Queen’s Award for Technological Achievement has been conferred ... on [Oxford University] Computing Laboratory. The award recognises a successful collaboration between the laboratory and Inmos Ltd. … Inmos’ flagship product is the ‘transputer’, a microprocessor with many of the parts that would normally be needed in addition built into the same single component.” According to Tony Hoare, “The INMOS Transputer was as embodiment of the ideas … of building microprocessors that could communicate with each other along wires that would stretch between their terminals. The founder had the vision that the CSP ideas were ripe for industrial exploitation, and he made that the basis of the language for programming Transputers, which was called Occam. … The company estimated it enabled them to deliver the hardware one year earlier than would otherwise have happened. They applied for and won a Queen’s award for technological achievement, in conjunction with Oxford University Computing Laboratory.” See also Trace theory, the general theory of traces. Trace monoid and history monoid Ease programming language XC programming language VerilogCSP is a set of macros added to Verilog HDL to support communicating sequential processes channel communications. Joyce is a programming language based on the principles of CSP, developed by Brinch Hansen around 1989. SuperPascal is a programming language also developed by Brinch Hansen, influenced by CSP and his earlier work with Joyce. Ada implements features of CSP such as the rendezvous. DirectShow is the video framework inside DirectX, it uses the CSP concepts to implement the audio and video filters. OpenComRTOS is a formally developed network-centric distributed RTOS based on a pragmatic superset of CSP. Input/output automaton Parallel programming model References Further reading This book has been updated by Jim Davies at the Oxford University Computing Laboratory and the new edition is available for download as a PDF file at the Using CSP website. Some links relating to this book are available here. The full text is available for download as a PS or PDF file from Bill Roscoe's list of academic publications. External links A PDF version of Hoare's CSP book – Copyright restriction apply, see the page text before downloading. The Annotation of CSP(Chinese Version) Non-profit translation and annotation work based on Prentice-Hall book(1985), Chaochen Zhou's Chinese Version(1988) and Jim Davies's online version(2015). WoTUG, a User Group for CSP and occam style systems, contains some information about CSP and useful links. 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247372	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HKS%20%28company%29	HKS (company)	is a publicly traded company headquartered in Fujinomiya, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan specializing in the production and sales of aftermarket and accessory automotive parts and components. History HKS was formed in 1973 by Hiroyuki Hasegawa, a former engineer for Yamaha Motor Company, and his partner Goichi Kitagawa, while the start up capital was supplied by Sigma Automotive (hence the name HKS). The company began operations by tuning gasoline-powered engines in a dairy-farming shed at the foot of Mount Fuji in Japan. Their goal was to design and build high performance engines and components that major original equipment manufacturers could not, or would not, produce. In July 1974, Hasegawa engineered and built the first commercialized turbocharger kit for passenger automobiles, since then developing turbocharger upgrades and bolt-on turbocharger kits that subsequently became the core business of HKS. Hasegawa also created the first commercially available electronic turbo timer and boost controller. HKS is a publicly traded company with an international sales and distribution network spanning Asia, Europe, Australia and the Americas to support its customer base. The company remains near Mt. Fuji with its main manufacturing and R&D facility in Fujinomiya City, Shizuoka Prefecture. Subsidiary companies have been established in Cambridgeshire, England (HKS Europe), Bangkok, Thailand (HKS Thailand). HKS USA was established in 1982 but shut down operations in 2011 with HKS electing instead to use wholesale distributors to handle their supply chain in the USA instead. Motovicity Distribution was selected as the North American warehouse and in In May 2020, Motovicity Distribution's assets were acquired by Turn 14 Distribution who currently handles authorized distribution of HKS's products in the United States. Products HKS offers Japanese domestic model cars a wide variety of aftermarket parts ranging from engine internals such as connecting rods and camshafts to external parts such as blow off valves, intercooler kits, full exhaust systems, turbo kits, engine management systems and other performance electronics. The company also produced the HKS 700E aircraft engine, under its subsidiary, HKS Aviation, but the subsidiary has since ceased operations. Motorsport In 1984 HKS supported the Fj20et engined 'HKS WORLD TRADE SILVIA S12' competing in the JSS (Japan supersports) championship with driver Seiichi Sodeyama . Since the late 1980s, HKS then competed in many forms of motorsports including drag racing, JTCC, JGTC, F3, D1 Grand Prix, Superbikes, plus many others. They also sponsor many racers to carry the HKS name and to become part of the HKS team. In the past, they notably used the likes of Anthony Reid (Supertouring/JTCC), Tetsuya Kawasaki (drag racing), Nobuteru Taniguchi (D1 Grand Prix and Time Attack), Akira Iida (Time Attack) to drive for their in-house team. In popular culture HKS-tuned cars have been featured in video game series such as Need for Speed and Gran Turismo. See also Winner Car and Driver Supercar Challenge References External links HKS official website HKS Europe official website HKS USA official website Auto parts suppliers of Japan Companies based in Shizuoka Prefecture Automotive motorsports and performance companies Automotive companies established in 1973 Japanese auto racing teams Drag racing organizations Aircraft engine manufacturers of Japan Japanese brands Turbocharger manufacturers Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange	[ 0.7979738712310791, 0.47170141339302063, 0.3493063449859619, -0.028217049315571785, 0.023864690214395523, 0.47782400250434875, -0.6882913112640381, 0.2121364027261734, -0.15852250158786774, 0.37527579069137573, -0.44246333837509155, 0.03246022388339043, 0.06716680526733398, 0.012490048073232174, -0.09971558302640915, 0.08043282479047775, 0.736151933670044, 0.4103757441043854, -0.49264001846313477, -0.4243707060813904, -0.30719709396362305, -0.13553974032402039, 0.8153809905052185, 0.022904619574546814, 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247373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCD	MCD	MCD, Mcd or mcd may refer to: Science Magnetic circular dichroism, with polarized light Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase, an enzyme involved in fatty acid biosynthesis Mesoscale convective discussion, Storm Prediction Center forecast Millicandela (mcd) or Megacandela (Mcd), units of brightness or light intensity Medical Minimal change disease, a disease of the kidney Multicentric Castleman's disease, a sub-type of Castleman's disease Technology Magnetic chip detector, in engines Maxi single or Maxi single Compact Disc Mega CD, a console by Sega Mini compact disc .mcd, a Mathcad document file Transportation Mackinac Island Airport (IATA airport code), in Michigan, US Merced station (Amtrak) (station code), California, US Moscow Central Diameters, commuter rail system in Moscow, Russia Organisations McDonald's, restaurant chain, NYSE stock ticker MCD Productions, an Irish event promoter MCD, an imprint of Farrar, Straus and Giroux Melbourne College of Divinity Municipal Corporation of Delhi Monte Carlo Doualiya, a French public radio service in the Middle East Other uses 1400 (Roman numerals) Minor civil division, a geographical term used by the United States Census Bureau North Macedonia (UNDP code: MCD), a sovereign state in Europe Minecraft Dungeons, a video game M Countdown, a South Korean music TV program See also Measurement, Calibration and Diagnosis, with the Association for Standardisation of Automation and Measuring Systems	[ 0.27743905782699585, 0.22721928358078003, 0.19994863867759705, 0.6507312655448914, 0.028182903304696083, -0.3038625121116638, -0.2925243377685547, 0.06990141421556473, -0.4883776605129242, -0.18062949180603027, -0.6421764492988586, 0.45118701457977295, 0.01337350532412529, 0.4822419285774231, 0.019707055762410164, 0.9000725150108337, 0.5031177997589111, 0.25398340821266174, -0.5246070623397827, -0.14305050671100616, -0.2557101249694824, -0.1803368180990219, 0.20516987144947052, -0.6930841207504272, 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247380	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymnwriter	Hymnwriter	A hymn writer (or hymnwriter or hymnist or hymnographer) is someone who writes the text, music or both of hymns. In the Judeo-Christian tradition the composition of hymns dates back to before the time of David who composed many of the Psalms. The term hymnodist, in the United States more than in other regions, broadens the scope to include the study of hymns. History Early Church and Middle Ages Many hymn writers in the early Church gained prominence and achieved canonisation. Saint John of Damascus (c. 675 or 676 – 749) was noted for his work as a hymn writer; some of the most popular English hymns which are translations of his works include Come ye faithful, raise the strain, Let us rise in early morning and The day of resurrection, all associated with the season of Eastertide and all translated by John Mason Neale. Most early hymnists were anonymous, so it is uncertain how many of them were women. Saint Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) is the earliest known female hymnist outside hymnists recorded in the Bible. Post-Reformation Many leaders of the Reformation, including Martin Luther (1483–1546) himself, were hymn writers; Luther's work included "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A mighty fortress is our God") and "Christ lag in Todesbanden (Christ Jesus lay in death's strong bonds)". Lutherans continued to compose hymns, and some of the popular hymn writers of the 16th and 17th centuries included the three saints commemorated in the American Lutheran Calendar of Saints on 26 October: Philipp Nicolai (1556–1608), Johann Heermann (1585–1647), and Paul Gerhardt (1607–76). Michael Praetorius (1571–1621), and Johann Crüger (1598–1662) also gained renown as German Lutheran hymn writers of that era. In the English-speaking world, the art of writing hymns was brought to prominence by the approximately 750 hymns composed by Isaac Watts (1674–1748), followed by the almost tenfold Watts' output composed a generation later by co-founder of Methodism, Charles Wesley (1707–88). Nineteenth, twentieth and twenty-first centuries Major modern publishers include the Jubilate Group and Stainer & Bell in the UK; CanticaNOVA Publications, World Library Publications and Oregon Catholic Press in the USA; and Willow Publishing in Australia. Leading British hymn writers have included John Henry Newman (1801–1890), John Mason Neale (1818–1866), Timothy Dudley-Smith (born 1926), Michael Perry (1942–96), Michael Saward (1932–2015), Christopher Idle (born 1938), Fred Pratt Green (1903–2000), as well as James Quinn (1919–2010) and Brian Foley (1919–2000). More recent evangelical hymn/song writers have included Stuart Townend (born 1963), Keith Getty (born 1974) and his wife Kristyn Getty (born 1980). Other modern hymn writers include French-American Lucien Deiss (1921–2007) and Australian duo James McAuley (1917–76) and Richard Connolly (born 1927). Hymn writers who have been canonised This list is incomplete. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Catholic (Eastern Catholic and Western Catholic) Saint Ephrem the Syrian (28 January) Saint Hierotheos the Thesmothete (4 October) Saint Cosmas the Melodist (14 October) Saint Romanos the Melodist (1 October) Saint Joseph the Hymnographer (14 June) Saint Kassiana the Hymnographer (7 September) Saint John of Damascus (4 December) Saint Stephen the Sabaite (nephew of John of Damascus, feastday 28 October) Saint Theodulph of Orleans (18 December) Saint Hildegard of Bingen (17 September) Saint Thomas Aquinas (28 January [or 7 March]) Saint Robert Southwell (21 February) Saint Alphonsus Maria de' Liguori (1 August) Blessed John Henry Cardinal Newman (9 October) Lutheran Philipp Nicolai (26 October) Johann Heermann (26 October) Paul Gerhardt (26 October) Anglican John Mason Neale (7 August) See also List of women hymn writers References External links Hymns Occupations in music Songwriters	[ 0.3382241427898407, 0.9843355417251587, -0.4617616832256317, 0.09988594055175781, 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247381	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null%20cipher	Null cipher	A null cipher, also known as concealment cipher, is an ancient form of encryption where the plaintext is mixed with a large amount of non-cipher material. Today it is regarded as a simple form of steganography, which can be used to hide ciphertext. Classical cryptography In classical cryptography, a null is intended to confuse the cryptanalyst. In a null cipher, the plaintext is included within the ciphertext and one needs to discard certain characters in order to decrypt the message. Most characters in such a cryptogram are nulls, only some are significant, and some others can be used as pointers to the significant ones. Here is an example null cipher message, sent by a German during World War I: Taking the first letter of every word reveals the hidden message "Pershing sails from N.Y. June I". A similar technique is to hide entire words, such as in this seemingly innocent message written by a prison inmate but deciphered by the FBI: Taking only every fifth word, one can reconstruct the hidden text which recommends a "hit" on someone: Other options include positioning of the significant letters next to or at certain intervals from punctuation marks or particular characters. Historically, users of concealment ciphers often used substitution and transposition ciphers on the data prior to concealment. For example, Cardinal Richelieu is said to have used a grille to write secret messages, after which the blank spaces were filled out with extraneous matter to create the impression of a continuous text. Usage In general, it is difficult and time-consuming to produce covertexts that seem natural and would not raise suspicion. If no key or actual encryption is involved, the security of the message relies entirely on the secrecy of the concealment method. Null ciphers in modern times are used by prison inmates in an attempt to have their most suspicious messages pass inspection. 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247386	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht%20von%20Wallenstein	Albrecht von Wallenstein	Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein () (24 September 1583 – 25 February 1634), also von Waldstein (), was a Bohemian military leader and statesman who fought on the Catholic side during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). His successful martial career made him one of the richest and most influential men in the Holy Roman Empire by the time of his death. Wallenstein became the supreme commander of the armies of the Imperial Army of Roman-German Emperor Ferdinand II and was a major figure of the Thirty Years' War. Wallenstein was born in the Kingdom of Bohemia into a poor Protestant noble family. He acquired a multilingual university education across Europe and converted to Catholicism in 1606. A marriage in 1609 to the wealthy widow of a Bohemian landowner gave him access to considerable estates and wealth after her death at an early age in 1614. Three years later, Wallenstein embarked on a career as a mercenary by raising forces for the Holy Roman Emperor in the War of Gradisca against the Republic of Venice. Wallenstein fought for the Catholics in the Protestant Bohemian revolt of 1618 and was awarded estates confiscated from the rebels after their defeat at White Mountain in 1620. A series of military victories against the Protestants raised Wallenstein's reputation in the Imperial court and in 1625 he raised a large army of 50,000 men to further the Imperial cause. A year later, he administered a crushing defeat to the Protestants at Dessau Bridge. For his successes, Wallenstein became an Imperial count palatine and made himself ruler of the lands of the Duchy of Friedland in northern Bohemia. An imperial generalissimo by land, and Admiral of the Baltic Sea from 21 April 1628, Wallenstein found himself released from service in 1630 after Ferdinand grew wary of his ambition. Several Protestant victories over Catholic armies induced Ferdinand to recall Wallenstein (Gollersdorf April 1632), who then defeated the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus at Alte Veste. The Swedish king was later killed at the Battle of Lützen. Wallenstein realised the war could last decades and, during the summer of 1633, arranged a series of armistices to negotiate peace. These proved to be his undoing as plotters accused him of treachery and Emperor Ferdinand II ordered his assassination. Dissatisfied with the Emperor's treatment of him, Wallenstein considered allying with the Protestants. However, he was assassinated at Eger in Bohemia by one of the army's officials, with the emperor's approval. Early life Wallenstein was born on 24 September 1583 in Heřmanice, Bohemia, which is the easternmost and largest region in what was then the Holy Roman Empire, in the present-day Czech Republic, into a poor Protestant Wallenstein branch of the Waldstein family who owned Heřmanice Castle and seven surrounding villages. His mother, Markéta Smiřická of Smiřice, died in 1593; his father, Vilém, died in 1595. They had raised him bilingually – the father spoke German while his mother preferred Czech – yet Wallenstein in his childhood had a better command of Czech than of German. His parents' religious affiliations were Lutheranism and Utraquist Hussitism. After their deaths, Albrecht for two years lived with his maternal uncle Heinrich (Jindřich) Slavata of Chlum and Košumberk, a member of the Unity of the Brethren (Bohemian Brethren), and adopted his uncle's religious affiliation. His uncle sent him to the brethren's school at Košumberk Castle in Eastern Bohemia. In 1597, Albrecht was sent to the Protestant Latin school at Goldberg (now Złotoryja) in Silesia, where the then-German environment led him to hone his German language skills. While German became Wallenstein's lingua franca, he is said to have continued to curse in Czech. On 29 August 1599, Wallenstein continued his education at the Protestant University of Altdorf near Nuremberg, Franconia, where he was often engaged in brawls and épée fights, leading to his imprisonment in the town prison. He beat his servant so badly he had to purchase him a new suit of clothes on top of paying compensation. In February 1600, Albrecht left Altdorf and travelled around the Holy Roman Empire, France and Italy, where he studied at the universities of Bologna and Padua. By this time, Wallenstein was fluent in German, Czech, Latin and Italian, was able to understand Spanish, and spoke some French. Wallenstein then joined the army of the Emperor Rudolf II in Hungary, where, under the command of Giorgio Basta, he saw two years of armed service (1604–1606) against the Ottoman Turks and Hungarian rebels. In 1604, his sister, Kateřina Anna, married the leader of the Moravian Protestants, Karel the Older of Zierotin. He then studied at the University of Olomouc (matriculating in 1606). His contact with the Olomouc Jesuits is considered to be at least partially responsible for his conversion to Catholicism that same year. The contributory factor to his conversion may have been the Counter-Reformation policy of the Habsburgs that effectively barred Protestants from being appointed to higher offices at court in Bohemia and in Moravia, and the impressions he gathered in Catholic Italy. However, there are no sources clearly indicating the reasons for Wallenstein's conversion, except for a subjunctive anecdote by his contemporary Franz Christoph von Khevenhüller about the Virgin Mary saving Wallenstein's life when he fell from a window in Innsbruck. Wallenstein was later made a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. In 1607, based on recommendations by his brother-in-law, Zierotin, and another relative, Adam of Waldstein, often mistakenly referred to as his uncle, Wallenstein was made chamberlain at the court of Matthias, and later also chamberlain to archdukes Ferdinand and Maximilian. In 1609, Wallenstein married the Czech Lucretia of Víckov, née Nekšová, of Landek, the wealthy widow of Arkleb of Víckov who owned the towns of Vsetín, Lukov, Rymice and Všetuly/Holešov (all in eastern Moravia). She was three years older than Wallenstein, and he inherited her estates after her death in 1614. He used his wealth to win favour, offering and commanding 200 horses for Archduke Ferdinand of Styria for his war with Venice in 1617, thereby relieving the fortress of Gradisca from the Venetian siege. He later endowed a monastery in his late wife's name and had her reburied there. In 1623, Wallenstein married Isabella Katharina, daughter of Count Karl von Harrach. She bore him two children: a son who died in infancy and a surviving daughter. Examples of the couple's correspondence survive. The two marriages made him one of the wealthiest men in the Bohemian Crown. Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 when the estates of Bohemia rebelled against Ferdinand of Styria and elected Frederick V, Elector Palatine, the leader of the Protestant Union, as their new king. Wallenstein associated himself with the cause of the Catholics and the Habsburg dynasty. In the summer of 1618 Count Thurn led 10,000 troops into Moravia to secure their loyalty to the rebellion. Nobles who wished for a rapprochement with Ferdinand faced a choice. Senior nobleman Zierotin's son-in-law, Georg von Nachod, commanded the Moravian cavalry and his brother-in-law, Wallenstein, the infantry. Both decided to take their regiment into Austria. Nachod's troops rebelled and he fled for his life. Wallenstein's major demanded authorisation from the Estates upon which Wallenstein drew his sword and ran him through,"A fresh major was immediately appointed and displayed greater tractability". Deserting the Bohemians, he marched his regiment to Vienna taking with him the Moravian treasury. There, however, the authorities told him that the money would go back to the Moravians – but he had shown his loyalty to Ferdinand, the future Emperor. Wallenstein equipped a regiment of cuirassiers and won great distinction under Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy in the wars against Ernst von Mansfeld and Gabriel Bethlen (both supporters of the Bohemian revolt) in Moravia. Wallenstein recovered his lands (which the rebels had seized in 1619) and after the Battle of White Mountain (8 November 1620) he secured the estates belonging to his mother's family and confiscated tracts of Protestant lands. He grouped his new possessions into a territory called Friedland (Frýdlant) in northern Bohemia. A series of successes in battle led to Wallenstein becoming in 1622 an imperial count palatine, in 1623 a prince, and in 1625 Duke of Friedland. Wallenstein proved an able administrator of the duchy and sent a large representation to Prague to emphasize his nobility. In order to aid Ferdinand (elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1619) against the Northern Protestants and to produce a balance in the Army of the Catholic League under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, Wallenstein offered to raise a whole army for the imperial service following the bellum se ipsum alet principle, and received his final commission on 25 July 1625. Wallenstein's successes as a military commander brought him fiscal credit, which in turn enabled him to receive loans to buy lands, many of them being the former estates of conquered Bohemian nobles. He used his credit to grant loans to Ferdinand II, which were repaid through lands and titles. Wallenstein's popularity soon recruited 30,000 (not long afterwards 50,000) men. The two armies worked together over 1625–27, at first against Mansfeld. Having beaten Mansfeld at Dessau (25 April 1626), Wallenstein cleared Silesia of the remnants of Mansfeld's army in 1627. His army ravaged and burned down many Silesian towns and villages, including Prudnik, Głogówek, Żory, Pszczyna, Bytom, Rybnik, Koźle and Strzelce Opolskie. At this time he bought from the emperor the Duchy of Sagan (in Silesia). He then joined Tilly in the struggle against Christian IV of Denmark, and afterwards gained as a reward the Duchies of Mecklenburg, whose hereditary dukes suffered expulsion for having helped the Danish king. This awarding of a major territory to someone of the lower nobility shocked the high-born rulers of many other German states. Wallenstein assumed the title of "Admiral of the North and Baltic Seas". However, in 1628 he failed to capture Stralsund, which resisted the Capitulation of Franzburg and the subsequent siege with assistance of Danish, Scottish and Swedish troops, a blow that denied him access to the Baltic and the chance to challenge the naval power of the Scandinavian kingdoms and of the Netherlands. Although he succeeded in defeating Christian IV of Denmark in the Battle of Wolgast and neutralizing Denmark in the subsequent Peace of Lübeck, the situation further deteriorated when the presence of Imperial Catholic troops on the Baltic and the Emperor's "Edict of Restitution" brought King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden into the conflict. Wallenstein attempted to aid the forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth under Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, which were fighting Sweden in 1629. However, Wallenstein failed to engage any major Swedish forces and this significantly affected the outcome of the conflict. Over the course of the war Wallenstein's ambitions and the abuses of his forces had earned him a host of enemies, both Catholic and Protestant, princes and non-princes alike. Ferdinand suspected Wallenstein of planning a coup to take control of the Holy Roman Empire. The Emperor's advisors advocated dismissing him, and in September 1630 envoys were sent to Wallenstein to announce his dismissal. The decision was taken at Regensburg on 13 August 1630 on the following day Wallenstein's financier De Witte committed suicide (having accrued a mountain of debt financing Wallenstein). Wallenstein gave over his army to General Tilly and retired to Jičín, the capital of his Duchy of Friedland. There he lived in an atmosphere of "mysterious magnificence". However, circumstances forced Ferdinand to recall Wallenstein into the field. The successes of Gustavus Adolphus over General Tilly at the Battle of Breitenfeld and the Lech (1632), where Tilly was killed, and his advance to Munich and occupation of Bohemia, required a vigorous response. It was during this time that Wallenstein had taken inspiration from the reforms of Gustavus Adolphus, instituting harsh discipline by providing rewards for bravery and punishment for disorder, thievery, and cowardice and with this in mind Wallenstein raised a fresh army within a few weeks and took to the field. He drove the Saxon army from Bohemia and then advanced against Gustavus Adolphus, whom he opposed near Nuremberg and, after the Battle of the Alte Veste, dislodged. In November the great Battle of Lützen was fought, in which Wallenstein was forced to retreat but, in the confused melee, Gustavus Adolphus was killed. Wallenstein withdrew to winter quarters in Bohemia. In the campaigning of 1633, Wallenstein's apparent unwillingness to attack the enemy caused much concern in Vienna and in Spain. At this time the dimensions of the war had grown more European, and Wallenstein had begun preparing to desert the Emperor. He expressed anger at Ferdinand's refusal to revoke the Edict of Restitution. Historic records tell little about his secret negotiations but some sources indicated he was preparing to force a "just peace" on the Emperor "in the interests of united Germany". With this apparent "plan" he entered into negotiations with Saxony, Brandenburg, Sweden, and France. Apparently the Habsburgs' enemies tried to draw him to their side. In any case, he gained little support. Anxious to make his power felt, he resumed the offensive against the Swedes and Saxons, winning his last victory at Steinau on the Oder in October. He then resumed negotiations. Assassination In December Wallenstein retired with his army to Bohemia, around Pilsen (now Plzeň). Vienna soon definitely convinced itself of his treachery, a secret court found him guilty, and the Emperor looked seriously for a means of getting rid of him (a successor in command, the later emperor Ferdinand III, was already waiting). Wallenstein was aware of the plan to replace him, but felt confident that when the army came to decide between him and the Emperor the decision would be in his favour. On 24 January 1634 the Emperor signed a secret patent (shown only to certain officers of Wallenstein's army) removing him from his command. Finally an open patent charging Wallenstein with high treason was signed on 18 February and published in Prague. In the patent, Ferdinand II ordered Wallenstein brought under arrest to Vienna, dead or alive. Losing the support of his army, Wallenstein now realized the extent of his peril, and on 23 February with a company of some hundred men, he went from Plzeň to Eger/Cheb, hoping to meet the Swedes under Prince Bernhard. After his arrival at Cheb, however, certain senior Scottish and Irish officers in his force assassinated him on the night of February 25. To carry out the assassination, a regiment of dragoons under the command of an Irish colonel, Walter Butler and the Scots colonels Walter Leslie and John Gordon first attacked Wallenstein's trusted officers (Adam Trczka, Vilém Kinský, Christian von Ilow and Henry Neumann), while they attended a feast at Cheb Castle, to which the officers had been invited by Gordon himself. According to historian A.E.J. Hollaender quoting the "holograph account" of Denis MacDonell, aka Dionysius Macdaniel, Irish Captain of Colonel Butler's regiment and participant in the events, Captain Walter Devereux with twelve dragoons and Sergeant Major Geraldine with eight burst into the room from two doors, surprising the feasting guests. Geraldine cried out Vivat Ferdinandus Imperator ("Long live Emperor Ferdinand") with MacDonell responding with Et tota Domus Austriaca ("And the whole House of Austria"). By another account, as quoted in Peter H.Wilson's work on the Thirty Years War, the conspirators entered the room shouting "Who is a good Imperialist?" All Wallenstein's loyal officers present were massacred. Trczka alone managed to fight his way out into the courtyard, only to be shot down by a group of musketeers. A few hours later, Devereux, together with a few companions, broke into the burgomaster's house at the main square where Wallenstein had been lodging, and kicked open the bedroom door. Wallenstein, roused from sleep and unarmed, is said to have asked for quarter but Devereux ran his spear through Wallenstein killing him. The Emperor rewarded the assassins. In 1784, his descendant Vincenc von Wallenstein had the remains of the general and his wife transported from the Carthusian monastery in Valdice, after the monastery was abolished in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II, to St. Anne's Chapel in the town of Mnichovo Hradiště, in the Czech Republic. Obsession with Horoscopes During his stay in Prague in 1625, Wallenstein had the imperial court mathematician Johannes Kepler issue his first horoscope. This was customary at the time, and anyone who was wealthy and influential often had one. After a brief warning not to trust the stars alone, Kepler wrote that his client had a busy, restless mind who strove for new, untried or strange means. The horoscope characterized Wallenstein as a person with great ambition who strove for power. Dangerous enemies may challenge him, but he would mostly win. Wallenstein would continue to be dependent on horoscopes for the next several years prior to his death in 1634. Chronic illness Wallenstein began to suffer joint inflammation in the feet in 1620. It was believed to be a case of gout, or by excessive drinking. His condition deteriorated rapidly. In November 1629 he became so ill that he lay down for weeks. In March 1630 he traveled to Karlovy Vary (Karlsbad) to seek relief. He found it difficult to walk. At the Battle of Lützen in November 1632, he mounted his horse in extreme pain. Half a year later he was no longer able to ride. On his flight to Eger in 1634 he had to be moved around in a wagon or lying in a transport litter. In the 1970s the skeleton of Wallenstein was examined. The inner core of the leg bones showed abnormal changes that suggest terminal syphilis. Legacy The Czech National Museum produced a large exhibition about Wallenstein at the Wallenstein Palace in Prague (current seat of Senate) from 15 November 2007 to 15 February 2008. He is also the subject of Calderón de la Barca's play El prodigio de alemania and Schiller's play trilogy Wallenstein. Wallenstein is a main figure in Alfred Döblin's eponymous novel. Friedrich Schiller was fascinated by Wallenstein, and produced three plays on the subject: "Wallenstein's Camp," "The Piccolomini," and "Wallenstein's Death." Wallenstein appears only in the latter two. Composer Bedřich Smetana honored Wallenstein in his 1859 symphonic poem Wallenstein's Camp, which was originally intended as an overture to a play by Schiller. Josef Rheinberger composed a symphonic tone painting Wallenstein in 1866. The work in four movements is also called a symphony. It was premiered in Munich on 26 November 1866. Composer Vincent d'Indy honored Wallenstein in his 1871 symphonic triptych Wallenstein. Wallenstein is examined by economist Arthur Salz in his book Wallenstein als Merkantilist (Wallenstein as Mercantilist). Ancestry Notes References Sources Cristini, Luca. 1618–1648 la guerra dei 30 anni. Volume 1 da 1618 al 1632 2007 and Volume 2 da 1632 al 1648 2007 Mann, Golo. Wallenstein, his life narrated, 1976, Holt, Rinehart and Winston (). External links The Thirty-Years-War An Exhibition at Prague, Czech Republic, Europe – Dedicated to Albrecht von Wallenstein "Wallenstein: Generalissimo" from Military Heritage magazine Albrecht von Wallenstein – In spite of envy Rulers of Mecklenburg Dukes of Żagań Bohemian people of the Thirty Years' War Field marshals of the Holy Roman Empire 1583 births 1634 deaths Bohemian nobility Generalissimos Knights of the Golden Fleece Palacký University Olomouc alumni University of Altdorf alumni Assassinated military personnel Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism People from Cheb People from Náchod District Albrecht 17th-century German military personnel Czech military leaders 17th-century Bohemian people Military personnel of the Thirty Years' War	[ -0.7761151194572449, 0.21518228948116302, 0.2520603835582733, 0.05861644074320793, -0.6978786587715149, 1.3872976303100586, 0.8082124590873718, -0.7321004867553711, -0.4814598858356476, -0.7880141139030457, 0.01591278426349163, 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247387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Ocean%20%281805%29	HMS Ocean (1805)	HMS Ocean was a 98-gun second-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, launched from Woolwich Dockyard on 24 October 1805. She was the only ship built to her draught, and designed by Sir John Henslow. She was converted to serve as a depot ship in 1841, and was eventually broken up in 1875. Her figurehead is preserved at Queenborough, Kent. Notes References Mid-Victorian RN vessel HMS Ocean. William Loney RN - Background. Retrieved 4 November 2008. Lavery, Brian (2003) The Ship of the Line - Volume 1: The development of the battlefleet 1650–1850. Conway Maritime Press. . 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247388	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combine%20harvester	Combine harvester	The modern combine harvester, or simply combine, is a versatile machine designed to efficiently harvest a variety of grain crops. The name derives from its combining four separate harvesting operations—reaping, threshing, gathering, and winnowing—into a single process. Among the crops harvested with a combine are wheat, rice, oats, rye, barley, corn (maize), sorghum, soybeans, flax (linseed), sunflowers and rapeseed. The separated straw, left lying on the field, comprises the stems and any remaining leaves of the crop with limited nutrients left in it: the straw is then either chopped, spread on the field and ploughed back in or baled for bedding and limited-feed for livestock. Combine harvesters are one of the most economically important labour-saving inventions, significantly reducing the fraction of the population engaged in agriculture. History In 1826 in Scotland, the inventor Reverend Patrick Bell designed (but did not patent) a reaper machine, which used the scissors principle of plant cutting; a principle that is still used today. The Bell machine was pushed by horses. A few Bell machines were available in the United States. In 1835, in the United States, Hiram Moore built and patented the first combine harvester, which was capable of reaping, threshing and winnowing cereal grain. Early versions were pulled by horse, mule or ox teams. In 1835, Moore built a full-scale version with a length of 5.2 m (17 ft) and a cut width of 4.57 m (15 ft); by 1839, over of crops were harvested. This combine harvester was pulled by 20 horses fully handled by farmhands. By 1860, combine harvesters with a cutting, or swathe, width of several metres were used on American farms. A parallel development in Australia saw the development of the stripper based on the Gallic stripper, by John Ridley and others in South Australia by 1843. The stripper only gathered the heads, leaving the stems in the field. The stripper and later headers had the advantage of fewer moving parts and only collecting heads, requiring less power to operate. Refinements by Hugh Victor McKay produced a commercially successful combine harvester in 1885, the Sunshine Header-Harvester. Combines, some of them quite large, were drawn by mule or horse teams and used a bullwheel to provide power. Later, steam power was used, and George Stockton Berry integrated the combine with a steam engine using straw to heat the boiler. At the turn of the twentieth century, horse-drawn combines were starting to be used on the American plains and Idaho (often pulled by teams of twenty or more horses). In 1911, the Holt Manufacturing Company of California, US produced a self-propelled harvester. In Australia in 1923, the patented Sunshine Auto Header was one of the first center-feeding self-propelled harvesters. In 1923 in Kansas, the Baldwin brothers and their Gleaner Manufacturing Company patented a self-propelled harvester that included several other modern improvements in grain handling. Both the Gleaner and the Sunshine used Fordson engines; early Gleaners used the entire Fordson chassis and driveline as a platform. In 1929, Alfredo Rotania of Argentina patented a self-propelled harvester. International Harvester started making horse-pulled combines in 1915. At the time, horse powered binders and stand alone threshing machines were more common. In the 1920s, Case Corporation and John Deere made combines and these were starting to be tractor pulled with a second engine aboard the combine to power its workings. The world economic collapse in the 1930s stopped farm equipment purchases, and for this reason, people largely retained the older method of harvesting. A few farms did invest and used Caterpillar tractors to move the outfits. Tractor-drawn combines (also called pull-type combines) became common after World War II as many farms began to use tractors. An example was the All-Crop Harvester series. These combines used a shaker to separate the grain from the chaff and straw-walkers (grates with small teeth on an eccentric shaft) to eject the straw while retaining the grain. Early tractor-drawn combines were usually powered by a separate gasoline engine, while later models were PTO-powered, via a shaft transferring tractor engine power to operate the combine. These machines either put the harvested crop into bags that were then loaded onto a wagon or truck, or had a small bin that stored the grain until it was transferred via a chute. In the U.S., Allis-Chalmers, Massey-Harris, International Harvester, Gleaner Manufacturing Company, John Deere, and Minneapolis Moline are past or present major combine producers. In 1937, the Australian-born Thomas Carroll, working for Massey-Harris in Canada, perfected a self-propelled model and in 1940, a lighter-weight model began to be marketed widely by the company. Lyle Yost invented an auger that would lift grain out of a combine in 1947, making unloading grain much easier and further from the combine. In 1952 Claeys launched the first self-propelled combine harvester in Europe; in 1953, the European manufacturer Claas developed a self-propelled combine harvester named 'Hercules', it could harvest up to 5 tons of wheat a day. This newer kind of combine is still in use and is powered by diesel or gasoline engines. Until the self-cleaning rotary screen was invented in the mid-1960s combine engines suffered from overheating as the chaff spewed out when harvesting small grains would clog radiators, blocking the airflow needed for cooling. A significant advance in the design of combines was the rotary design. The grain is initially stripped from the stalk by passing along a helical rotor, instead of passing between rasp bars on the outside of a cylinder and a concave. Rotary combines were first introduced by Sperry-New Holland in 1975. In about the 1980s on-board electronics were introduced to measure threshing efficiency. This new instrumentation allowed operators to get better grain yields by optimizing ground speed and other operating parameters. The largest "class 11" combines today have nearly 800 engine horsepower (600 kW) and are fitted with headers up to wide. Combine header Combines are equipped with removable header that are designed for particular crops. The standard header, sometimes called a grain platform, is equipped with a reciprocating knife cutter bar, and features a revolving reel with metal teeth to cause the cut crop to fall into the auger once it is cut. A variation of the platform, a "flex" platform, is similar but has a cutter bar that can flex over contours and ridges to cut soybeans that have pods close to the ground. A flex head can cut soybeans as well as cereal crops, while a rigid platform is generally used only in cereal grains. Some wheat headers, called "draper" headers, use a fabric or rubber apron instead of a cross auger. Draper headers allow faster feeding than cross augers, leading to higher throughputs due to lower power requirements. On many farms, platform headers are used to cut wheat, instead of separate wheat headers, so as to reduce overall costs. Dummy heads or pick-up headers feature spring-tined pickups, usually attached to a heavy rubber belt. They are used for crops that have already been cut and placed in windrows or swaths. This is particularly useful in northern climates such as western Canada, where swathing kills weeds resulting in a faster dry down. While a grain platform can be used for corn, a specialized corn head is ordinarily used instead. The corn head is equipped with snap rolls that strip the stalk and leaf away from the ear, so that only the ear (and husk) enter the throat. This improves efficiency dramatically, since so much less material must go through the cylinder. The corn head can be recognized by the presence of points between each row. Occasionally rowcrop heads are seen that function like a grain platform, but have points between rows like a corn head. These are used to reduce the amount of weed seed picked up when harvesting small grains. Self-propelled Gleaner combines could be fitted with special tracks instead of tires to assist in harvesting rice. These tracks can be made to fit other combines by adding adapter plates. Some combines, particularly the pull type, have tires with a deep diamond tread which prevents sinking in mud. Conventional combine The cut crop is carried up the feeder throat (commonly called the "feederhouse"), by a chain and flight elevator, then fed into the threshing mechanism of the combine, consisting of a rotating threshing drum (commonly called the "cylinder"), to which grooved steel bars (rasp bars) are bolted. The rasp bars thresh or separate the grains and chaff from the straw through the action of the cylinder against the concave, a shaped "half drum", also fitted with steel bars and a meshed grill, through which grain, chaff and smaller debris may fall, whereas the straw, being too long, is carried through onto the straw walkers. This action is also allowed because grain is heavier than straw, which causes it to fall rather than "float" across from the cylinder/concave to the walkers. The drum speed is variably adjustable on most machines, whilst the distance between the drum and concave is finely adjustable fore, aft and together, to achieve optimum separation and output. Manually engaged disawning plates are usually fitted to the concave. These provide extra friction to remove the awns from barley crops. After the primary separation at the cylinder, the clean grain falls through the concave and to the shoe, which contains the chaffer and sieves. The shoe is common to both conventional combines and rotary combines. Hillside leveling In the Palouse region of the Pacific Northwest of the United States the combine is retrofitted with a hydraulic hillside leveling system. This allows the combine to harvest the steep but fertile soil in the region. Hillsides can be as steep as a 50% slope. Gleaner, IH and Case IH, John Deere, and others all have made combines with this hillside leveling system, and local machine shops have fabricated them as an aftermarket add-on. The first leveling technology was developed by Holt Co., a US company in California, in 1891. Modern leveling came into being with the invention and patent of a level sensitive mercury switch system invented by Raymond Alvah Hanson in 1946. Raymond's son, Raymond Jr., produced leveling systems exclusively for John Deere combines until 1995 as R. A. Hanson Company, Inc. In 1995, his son, Richard, purchased the company from his father and renamed it RAHCO International, Inc. In March 2011, the company was renamed Hanson Worldwide, LLC. Production continues to this day. Hillside leveling has several advantages. Primary among them is an increased threshing efficiency on hillsides. Without leveling, grain and chaff slide to one side of separator and come through the machine in a large ball rather than being separated, dumping large amounts of grain on the ground. By keeping the machinery level, the straw-walker is able to operate more efficiently, making for more efficient threshing. IH produced the 453 combine which leveled both side-to-side and front-to-back, enabling efficient threshing whether on a hillside or climbing a hill head on. Secondarily, leveling changes a combine's center of gravity relative to the hill and allows the combine to harvest along the contour of a hill without tipping, a danger on the steeper slopes of the region; it is not uncommon for combines to roll over on extremely steep hills. Newer leveling systems do not have as much tilt as the older ones. A John Deere 9600 combine equipped with a Rahco hillside conversion kit will level to 44%, while the newer STS combines will only go to 35%. These modern combines use the rotary grain separator which makes leveling less critical. Most combines on the Palouse have dual drive wheels on each side to stabilize them. A leveling system was developed in Europe by the Italian combine manufacturer Laverda, which still produces it today. Sidehill leveling Sidehill combines are very similar to hillside combines in that they level the combine to the ground so that the threshing can be efficiently conducted; however, they have some very distinct differences. Modern hillside combines level around 35% on average, while older machines were closer to 50%. Sidehill combines only level to 18%. They are sparsely used in the Palouse region. Rather, they are used on the gentle rolling slopes of the midwest. Sidehill combines are much more mass-produced than their hillside counterparts. The height of a sidehill machine is the same height as a level-land combine. Hillside combines have added steel that sets them up approximately 2–5 feet higher than a level-land combine and provide a smooth ride. Maintaining threshing speed Another technology that is sometimes used on combines is a continuously variable transmission. This allows the ground speed of the machine to be varied while maintaining a constant engine and threshing speed. It is desirable to keep the threshing speed constant since the machine will typically have been adjusted to operate best at a certain speed. Self-propelled combines started with standard manual transmissions that provided one speed based on input rpm. Deficiencies were noted and in the early 1950s combines were equipped with what John Deere called the "Variable Speed Drive". This was simply a variable width sheave controlled by spring and hydraulic pressures. This sheave was attached to the input shaft of the transmission. A standard 4 speed manual transmission was still used in this drive system. The operator would select a gear, typically 3rd. An extra control was provided to the operator to allow him to speed up and slow down the machine within the limits provided by the variable speed drive system. By decreasing the width of the sheave on the input shaft of the transmission, the belt would ride higher in the groove. This slowed the rotating speed on the input shaft of the transmission, thus slowing the ground speed for that gear. A clutch was still provided to allow the operator to stop the machine and change transmission gears. Later, as hydraulic technology improved, hydrostatic transmissions were introduced by Versatile Mfg for use on swathers but later this technology was applied to combines as well. This drive retained the 4 speed manual transmission as before, but this time used a system of hydraulic pumps and motors to drive the input shaft of the transmission. This system is called a Hydrostatic drive system. The engine turns the hydraulic pump capable of pressures up to . This pressure is then directed to the hydraulic motor that is connected to the input shaft of the transmission. The operator is provided with a lever in the cab that allows for the control of the hydraulic motor's ability to use the energy provided by the pump. By adjusting the swash plate in the motor, the stroke of its pistons are changed. If the swash plate is set to neutral, the pistons do not move in their bores and no rotation is allowed, thus the machine does not move. By moving the lever, the swash plate moves its attached pistons forward, thus allowing them to move within the bore and causing the motor to turn. This provides an infinitely variable speed control from 0 ground speed to what ever the maximum speed is allowed by the gear selection of the transmission. The standard clutch was removed from this drive system as it was no longer needed. Most if not all modern combines are equipped with hydrostatic drives. These are larger versions of the same system used in consumer and commercial lawn mowers that most are familiar with today. In fact, it was the downsizing of the combine drive system that placed these drive systems into mowers and other machines. The threshing process Despite great advances in mechanics and computer control, the basic operation of the combine harvester has remained unchanged almost since it was invented. Power requirements over the years have increased due to larger capacities and some processes such as rotary threshing and straw chopping take considerable power. This is sometimes supplied by a large tractor in a pull-type combine, or a large gasoline or diesel engine in a self-propelled type. A frequent problem is the presence of airborne chaff and straw, which can accumulate causing a fire hazard and to radiators which can become plugged. Most machines have addressed these problems with enclosed engine compartments and rotary centrifugal inlet screens which prevent chaff buildup. First, the header, described above, cuts the crop and feeds it into the threshing cylinder. This consists of a series of horizontal rasp bars fixed across the path of the crop and in the shape of a quarter cylinder. Moving rasp bars or rub bars pull the crop through concaved grates that separate the grain and chaff from the straw. The grain heads fall through the fixed concaves. What happens next is dependent on the type of combine in question. In most modern combines, the grain is transported to the shoe by a set of 2, 3, or 4 (possibly more on the largest machines) augers, set parallel or semi-parallel to the rotor on axial mounted rotors and perpendicular on "Axial Flow" combines. In older Gleaner machines, these augers were not present. Those combines are unique in that the cylinder and concave is set inside feederhouse instead of in the machine directly behind the feederhouse. Consequently, the material was moved by a "raddle chain" from underneath the concave to the walkers. The clean grain fell between the raddle and the walkers onto the shoe, while the straw, being longer and lighter, floated across onto the walkers to be expelled. On most other older machines, the cylinder was placed higher and farther back in the machine, and the grain moved to the shoe by falling down a "clean grain pan", and the straw "floated" across the concaves to the back of the walkers. Since the Sperry-New Holland TR70 Twin-Rotor Combine came out in 1975, most manufacturers have combines with rotors in place of conventional cylinders. However, makers have now returned to the market with conventional models alongside their rotary line-up. A rotor is a long, longitudinally mounted rotating cylinder with plates similar to rub bars (except for in the above-mentioned Gleaner rotaries). There are usually two sieves, one above the other. The sieves are basically metal frames that have many rows of "fingers" set reasonably close together. The angle of the fingers is adjustable, to change the clearance and thereby control the size of material passing through. The top is set with more clearance than the bottom to allow a gradual cleaning action. Setting the concave clearance, fan speed, and sieve size is critical to ensure that the crop is threshed properly, the grain is clean of debris, and all of the grain entering the machine reaches the grain tank or 'hopper'. (Observe, for example, that when travelling uphill the fan speed must be reduced to account for the shallower gradient of the sieves.) Heavy material, e.g., unthreshed heads, fall off the front of the sieves and are returned to the concave for re-threshing. The straw walkers are located above the sieves, and also have holes in them. Any grain remaining attached to the straw is shaken off and falls onto the top sieve. When the straw reaches the end of the walkers it falls out the rear of the combine. It can then be baled for cattle bedding or spread by two rotating straw spreaders with rubber arms. Most modern combines are equipped with a straw spreader. Rather than immediately falling out the rear of the combine at the end of the walkers, there are models of combine harvesters from Eastern Europe and Russia (e.g. Agromash Yenisei 1200 1 HM, etc.) that have "straw catchers" at the end of the walkers, which temporarily hold the straw and then, once full, deposit it in a stack for easy gathering. Conventional and rotary designs For some time, combine harvesters used the conventional design, which used a rotating cylinder at the front-end which knocked the seeds out of the heads, and then used the rest of the machine to separate the straw from the chaff, and the chaff from the grain. The TR70 from Sperry-New Holland was brought out in 1975 as the first rotary combine. Other manufacturers soon followed, International Harvester with their 'Axial Flow' in 1977 and Gleaner with their N6 in 1979. In the decades before the widespread adoption of the rotary combine in the late seventies, several inventors had pioneered designs which relied more on centrifugal force for grain separation and less on gravity alone. By the early eighties, most major manufacturers had settled on a "walkerless" design with much larger threshing cylinders to do most of the work. Advantages were faster grain harvesting and gentler treatment of fragile seeds, which were often cracked by the faster rotational speeds of conventional combine threshing cylinders. It was the disadvantages of the rotary combine (increased power requirements and over-pulverization of the straw by-product) which prompted a resurgence of conventional combines in the late nineties. Perhaps overlooked but nonetheless true, when the large engines that powered the rotary machines were employed in conventional machines, the two types of machines delivered similar production capacities. Also, research was beginning to show that incorporating above-ground crop residue (straw) into the soil is less useful for rebuilding soil fertility than previously believed. This meant that working pulverized straw into the soil became more of a hindrance than a benefit. An increase in feedlot beef production also created a higher demand for straw as fodder. Conventional combines, which use straw walkers, preserve the quality of straw and allow it to be baled and removed from the field. Instrumentation While the principles of basic threshing have changed little over the years, modern advancements in electronics and monitoring technology has continued to develop. Whereas older machines required the operator to rely on machine knowledge, frequent inspection and monitoring, and a keen ear to listen for subtle sound changes, newer machines have replaced many of those duties with instrumentation. Shaft monitors Early on, simple magnetic pickups were used to monitor shaft rotation, and issue a warning when they deviated beyond preset limits. Temperature sensors can also give warning when bearings overheat due to lack of lubrication, sometimes leading to combine fires. Loss monitors The job of monitoring how much grain is wasted by the thresher by being discharged with the chaff and straw used to require going behind the machine to check. Yield monitors work like a microphone, registering an electrical impulse caused by grains impacting a plate. A meter in the operator's cab displays the relative amount of grain loss proportional to speed. Yield monitoring Measuring the amount of yield (bushels per acre or tonnes per hectare) has become increasingly important, particularly when real-time measurement can help determine which areas of a field are more or less productive. These variations can often be remediated with variable crop inputs. Yield is determined by measuring the amount of grain harvested in relation to the area covered. Cameras Cameras placed at strategic points on the machine can eliminate some of the guesswork for the operator. Field mapping The advent of GPS and GIS technologies has made it possible to create field maps, which can assist in navigation, and in the preparation of yield maps, which show which parts of the field are more productive. Combine fires Grain combine fires are responsible for millions of dollars of loss each year. Fires usually start near the engine where dust and dry crop debris accumulate. Fires can also start when heat is introduced by bearings or gearboxes that have failed. From 1984 to 2000, 695 major grain combine fires were reported to U.S. local fire departments. Dragging chains to reduce static electricity was one method employed for preventing harvester fires, but it is not yet clear what if any role static electricity plays in causing harvester fires. The application of the appropriate synthetic greases will reduce the friction experienced at crucial points, i.e. chains, sprockets and gear boxes, compared to petroleum based lubricants. Engines with synthetic lubricants will also remain significantly cooler during operation. See also Agricultural machinery Combine Demolition Derby Custom harvesting Museum of Scottish Country Life Largest collection of Combine Harvesters in Europe. References Notes Bibliography External links Worldwide Agricultural Machinery and Farm Equipment Directory "Gold Harvest Feeds The World" page 90 Popular Mechanics, July 1949, cutaway illustration of the John Deere open cab one-man self-propelled combine of the type common for decades after World War Two Pictures of combines with corn and wheat heads History of Sunshine Harvesters – Museum Victoria, Australia The Birth of the Australian Stripping Combine Harvester Pictures of Gleaner levelling combines The Combine Talk Forums – A Website with more information and pictures Washington State University film of horse-drawn combine in 1938 Agricultural machinery Harvesters Vehicles introduced in 1834 Grain production	[ 0.6657149195671082, 0.08739704638719559, -0.4020368456840515, -0.1346907615661621, 0.15154552459716797, 0.27153289318084717, -0.3688165247440338, -0.11907217651605606, -0.29992958903312683, -0.5702568292617798, -0.1352752447128296, 0.28812626004219055, -0.195024773478508, 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247390	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car%20Button%20Cloth	Car Button Cloth	Car Button Cloth is the seventh studio album by the Lemonheads, and the last under their contract with Atlantic Records. The band, as it were, consisted mostly of Dando himself playing many instruments, including his usual guitars and lead vocals, and Patrick Murphy on drums, along with a series of session musicians and producer Bryce Goggin filling in on other instruments. Following the recording of the album, Bill Gibson, who had played bass on several tracks, joined the band for the supporting tour along with Dando and Murphy. Despite receiving lukewarm reviews and not being as commercially successful as the Lemonheads' previous two albums, It's a Shame About Ray and Come On Feel the Lemonheads, Car Button Cloth has gained a minor cult following in recent years. The tracks "It's All True," "If I Could Talk I'd Tell You" (cowritten by Eugene Kelly of the Vaselines), and "The Outdoor Type" were released as singles in the UK. "Purple Parallelogram," a song written by Dando and Oasis's Noel Gallagher, was originally included on promotional copies of Car Button Cloth between "Something's Missing" and "Knoxville Girl," but was reportedly removed at Gallagher's request. The album would be the last studio release from The Lemonheads for a decade, when they released a long-awaited self-titled follow-up, while in the meantime the group's frontman and sole remaining original member, Evan Dando, issued his first official solo album, 2003's Baby I'm Bored (a live album and EP were released in Australia two years earlier). Track listing All songs by Evan Dando except where noted. "It's All True" – 2:15 "If I Could Talk I'd Tell You" (Dando, Eugene Kelly) – 2:50 "Break Me" – 3:34 "Hospital" – 2:54 "The Outdoor Type" (Tom Morgan) – 2:35 "Losing Your Mind" – 5:36 "Something's Missing" – 2:47 "Knoxville Girl" (Traditional; arranged by Dando) – 3:53 "6ix" – 2:39 "C'mon Daddy" (Dando, Epic Soundtracks) – 3:32 "One More Time" – 2:39 "Tenderfoot" (Morgan, Adam Young) – 2:01 "Secular Rockulidge" – 5:33 Personnel Evan Dando – bass, guitar, percussion, piano, drums on track 12, vocals, moog synthesizer, design, illustrations Darrin Ehardt – design Bill Gibson – bass, guitar, background vocals Rich Gilbert – pedal steel Bryce Goggin – organ, vocals, moog synthesizer, producer, engineer, mixing Scott Hull – mastering Sue Kapa – assistant engineer, photography Royston Langdon – bass, piano Erich Drew Luening – whistle Kenny Lyon – guitar, clapping Paul Marconi – mixing assistant Patrick Murphy – drums except track 12 Dina Waxman – bass Charts References External links "If I 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247391	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Ocean%20%281898%29	HMS Ocean (1898)	The fourth HMS Ocean was a pre-dreadnought battleship of the British Royal Navy and a member of the . Intended for service in Asia, Ocean and her sister ships were smaller and faster than the preceding s, but retained the same battery of four guns. She also carried thinner armour, but incorporated new Krupp steel, which was more effective than the Harvey armour used in the Majestics. Ocean was laid down in December 1897, launched in July 1898, and commissioned into the fleet in February 1900. She entered service with the Mediterranean Fleet until January 1901, when she was transferred to the China Station. Ocean was recalled from China in 1905 for service with the Channel Fleet after a period spent in reserve. From 1908 to early 1910, she was again assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet. She was assigned to the Home Fleet in 1910 and saw little activity until the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. At the start of the conflict, she was assigned to the 8th Battle Squadron and was stationed in Ireland to support a cruiser squadron, but in October she was transferred to the East Indies Station to protect troopship convoys from India. In late 1914, Ocean participated in an attack on Basra before being transferred to Egypt to defend the Suez Canal. In February 1915, she was reassigned to the Dardanelles Campaign, and she took part in several attacks on the Ottoman fortifications defending the Dardanelles. On 18 March, she attempted to retrieve the battleship after the latter had been badly damaged by a mine in Erenköy Bay, but had to abandon her salvage efforts due to heavy Turkish gunfire. She instead evacuated the surviving crew of Irresistible but struck a mine while making for the open sea. Badly damaged, her crew and the survivors of Irresistible were taken off by destroyers and Ocean left to sink in Morto Bay. Design Ocean and her five sister ships were designed for service in East Asia, where the new rising power Japan was beginning to build a powerful navy, though this role was quickly made redundant by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902. The ships were designed to be smaller, lighter and faster than their predecessors, the s. Ocean was long overall, with a beam of and a draft of . She displaced normally and up to fully loaded. Her crew numbered 682 officers and ratings. The Canopus-class ships were powered by a pair of 3-cylinder triple-expansion engines, with steam provided by twenty Belleville boilers. They were the first British battleships with water-tube boilers, which generated more power at less expense in weight compared with the fire-tube boilers used in previous ships. The new boilers led to the adoption of fore-and-aft funnels, rather than the side-by-side funnel arrangement used in many previous British battleships. The Canopus-class ships proved to be good steamers, with a high speed for battleships of their time— from —a full two knots faster than the Majestics. Ocean had a main battery of four 35-calibre guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft; these guns were mounted in circular barbettes that allowed all-around loading, although at a fixed elevation. The ships also mounted a secondary battery of twelve 40-calibre guns mounted in casemates, in addition to ten 12-pounder guns and six 3-pounder guns for defence against torpedo boats. As was customary for battleships of the period, she was also equipped with four torpedo tubes submerged in the hull, two on each broadside near the forward and aft barbette. To save weight, Ocean carried less armour than the Majestics—6 inches in the belt compared to —although the change from Harvey armour in the Majestics to Krupp armour in Ocean meant that the loss in protection was not as great as it might have been, Krupp armour having greater protective value at a given weight than its Harvey equivalent. Similarly, the other armour used to protect the ship could also be thinner; the bulkheads on either end of the belt were thick. The main battery turrets were 10 in thick, atop 12-inch barbettes, and the casemate battery was protected with 6 in of Krupp steel. Her conning tower had 12 in thick sides as well. She was fitted with two armoured decks, thick, respectively. Service history Pre-World War I HMS Ocean was laid down at Devonport Dockyard on 15 December 1897, and was the first large armoured ship built at Devonport. She was launched on 5 July 1898, when she was christened by Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne in the presence of the Lords of the Admiralty. Completed in early 1900, Ocean was commissioned at Devonport on 20 February 1900 by Captain Assheton Curzon-Howe for service with the Mediterranean Fleet. After a commissioning trial, she left Devonport on 13 March, and arrived at Gibraltar four days later, where she relieved . She served in the Mediterranean Fleet until January 1901, when she was transferred to the China Station in response to the Boxer Rebellion. Captain Richard William White was appointed in command in late August 1901. The following year she was reported to visit Port Lazaref (on the Korean peninsula) in October 1902, but she suffered damage in a typhoon, and then underwent a refit that lasted into 1903. When the United Kingdom and Japan ratified a treaty of alliance in 1905, the Royal Navy reduced its China Station presence and recalled all battleships from the station. As a result, Ocean and battleship left Hong Kong in company on 7 June 1905 and called at Singapore, where they rendezvoused with Oceans sister ships and . The four battleships departed Singapore on 20 June 1905 and steamed home together, arriving at Plymouth on 2 August 1905. Ocean went into reserve at Chatham Dockyard.Ocean returned to full commission on 2 January 1906 to serve in the Channel Fleet, undergoing refits at Chatham from January–March 1907 and from April–June 1908. On 2 June 1908, Ocean recommissioned for duty in the Mediterranean Fleet, undergoing a refit at Malta in 1908–1909, during which she received fire control equipment. Ocean transferred to the 4th Division of the new Home Fleet on 16 February 1910. She underwent refits at Chatham in 1910 and 1911–1912. In 1913–1914, she was stationed at Pembroke Dock, Wales, as part of the 3rd Fleet. World War I When the First World War broke out, Ocean was assigned to the 8th Battle Squadron, Channel Fleet, which she joined on 14 August 1914. She was detached to Queenstown, Ireland on 21 August to serve as guard ship there and to support a cruiser squadron operating in that area. In September 1914, she was ordered to relieve her sister ship Albion on the Cape Verde-Canary Islands Station, but while en route was diverted, first to Madiera and then to the Azores. The threat of the German East Asia Squadron and the independent cruiser , both of which were still at large, forced the Admiralty to redirect Ocean again, to the East Indies Station, to support cruisers on convoy duty in the Middle East. She was joined by the protected cruiser . From October–December 1914, she served as flagship of the squadron in the Persian Gulf supporting operations against Basra. During this period, she escorted an Indian troop convoy to Bahrain in mid-October; the convoy had departed India on 16 October, and Ocean met the convoy at sea three days later to take over escort duties. After the convoy arrived on 3 November, Ocean began making preparations for the attack on Basra. Numerous small craft were armed to enter the Shatt al-Arab, the river leading to Basra. The first objective was to silence the old fortress at Al-Faw. On 5 November, Britain declared war on the Ottoman Empire, and the next morning, Ocean began the bombardment of Al-Faw. A landing party of 600 men, some of whom came from Oceans detachment of Royal Marines, stormed the fortress and captured it, having encountered no resistance. By December 1914, the ground forces Ocean supported had advanced to Al-Qurnah, at the juncture of the Euphrates and Tigris, allowing the Admiralty to recall Ocean for other purposes. She was accordingly stationed at Suez, Egypt, to assist in the defence of the Suez Canal, arriving there on 29 December. She anchored in the mouth of the southern end of the canal on 29 December and remained in that area until mid-January 1915, when she proceeded northward up the canal. On 3–4 February, she and the armed merchant cruiser Himalaya supported ground troops against an Ottoman attack on the canal in the vicinity of El Kubri. Later on the 3rd, after the Ottoman attack at El Kubri had been defeated, Ocean was sent to Deversoir to provide artillery support to the garrison there, but Ottoman attacks were insignificant. By the following day, the Ottoman assault had broken down completely. Dardanelles campaign Ocean transferred to the Dardanelles in late February 1915 to participate in the Dardanelles campaign. On 28 February, she took part in an attempt to suppress the Ottoman defences in the Dardanelles led by Admiral John de Robeck; the battleships Albion and led the operation, and were tasked with neutralizing the repaired fortress at Dardanus, while Ocean and supported them by engaging batteries of mobile field guns that had proved to be troublesome in previous attempts to neutralise the Ottoman defences. Ocean initially attempted to locate guns that had been active in the vicinity of Sedd el Bahr, before moving on with Majestic and coming under fire from several Ottoman batteries, including howitzers around Erenköy. The British battleships eventually silenced the guns, but only temporarily; as soon as the ships moved on to other targets, the guns opened fire again. In the meantime, Albion and Triumph had approached Dardanus but they came under heavy fire from Ottoman guns on the European side of the straits, including the fortress at Erenköy, and were forced to circle to avoid taking hits. Unable to engage Dardanus under these conditions, the ships instead opened fire on the guns at Erenköy, which initially seemed to be effective, as the Ottoman fire slackened. Ocean and Majestic approached in an attempt to attack Dardanus, but they too came under renewed, furious fire from Erenköy, and de Robeck again ordered a withdrawal. The only success came after the four battleships withdrew from the straits and a landing party from Triumph went ashore and disabled several light guns. The inability of the British and French fleets to neutralize the mobile field guns convinced the Allied command that the only way forward would be to make a major amphibious assault to clear the guns by land. She supported the landings at Sedd el Bahr on 4 March. These consisted of two companies of Marines, each landing at their beach. Ocean was tasked with supporting the northern company that landed at Sedd el Bahr. The southern group, tasked with capturing the coastal town of Kumkale, came under heavy fire as soon as they went ashore. The northern group encountered similar resistance, but Oceans gunners, more experienced from their operations of Basra the previous year, proved to be more effective than the other ships. Nevertheless, both companies were forced to withdraw, in large part because they were too small to break through the Ottoman defences. Another bombardment followed on 6 March; Ocean and the battleship were tasked with covering the powerful superdreadnought battleship while she engaged the Ottoman artillery batteries. After a day's bombardment, the British sent in minesweepers to try to clear the minefields blocking the strait, and Ocean, Majestic, and several destroyers were tasked with protecting them. Despite the heavy bombardment, the Ottoman defenses were largely intact, and even concerted firing from Ocean and other ships could not suppress the guns or their search lights. Early on 7 March, the British were forced to withdraw. On 18 March, the Anglo-French fleet mounted a major attack on the Ottoman defences; Ocean joined ten British battleships and one battlecruiser and four French battleships for the operation. The plan called for the battleships to enter the narrows and suppress the fortresses while minesweepers cleared paths in the Ottoman minefields. At the same time, transport ships outside the straits would conduct a demonstration to convince the Ottomans they were going to land troops; the Entente commanders hoped this would tie down the Ottoman mobile guns. The British ships initially succeeded in inflicting heavy damage on the fortresses, but the battleship and then the battlecruiser began taking serious damage from the coastal batteries. The French battleships also began to take damage, and the battleship Bouvet struck a mine and exploded. Later in the day, was disabled by a mine in Erenköy Bay. Once it became apparent that the ship could not be saved, all of her surviving crew was taken off by destroyers except for her commanding officer and some volunteers trying to keep her afloat. Ocean was sent in to tow her out, but she ran aground during the attempt, and, after freeing herself, found it impossible to take Irresistible under tow because of the shallow water, Irresistibles increasing list, and heavy enemy fire. Ocean then took off the remaining members of Irresistibles crew and left the abandoned battleship to her fate; Irresistible sank unobserved by Allied forces, at around 19:30. While retiring with Irresistibles survivors aboard, Ocean herself was hit by an artillery shell fired by Seyit Çabuk, an Ottoman Army gunner and struck a drifting mine at around 19:00. Her starboard coal bunkers and passageways flooded, her steering jammed hard to port, and she took on a list of 15° to starboard. She came under fire from shore and began taking hits, which flooded her starboard engine room and prevented steering repairs. The destroyers , , and came alongside and took off her crew (and the survivors from Irresistible) at around 19:30. She then drifted into Morto Bay, still under fire, and sank there unobserved by Allied forces at about 22:30. When destroyer Jed entered the bay later that evening to sink Ocean and Irresistible with torpedoes so that they could not be captured by the Turks, the two battleships were nowhere to be found. Notes References Further reading Dittmar, F. J. & Colledge, J. J., "British Warships 1914–1919", (Ian Allan, London, 1972), Gibbons, Tony. The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships and Battlecruisers: A Technical Directory of All the World's Capital Ships From 1860 to the Present Day. London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1983. External links MaritimeQuest HMS Ocean pages Canopus-class battleships Ships built in Plymouth, Devon 1898 ships Victorian-era battleships of the United Kingdom World War I battleships of the United Kingdom Maritime incidents in 1915 Ships sunk by mines World War I shipwrecks in the Dardanelles	[ -0.2309143990278244, -0.5323140025138855, 0.31165239214897156, 0.04444006457924843, -0.3426910936832428, 0.2566767632961273, 0.3535071015357971, -0.4109736680984497, -0.2386438399553299, 0.19621096551418304, 0.2987516224384308, -0.024520479142665863, 0.061027780175209045, 0.45205527544021606, 0.41739100217819214, -0.09312872588634491, 0.1186833307147026, 0.6286534070968628, -0.21668490767478943, -0.665527880191803, -0.32433992624282837, 0.03196650370955467, 0.3928282558917999, 0.44147324562072754, 0.28462570905685425, 0.17962384223937988, 0.5907795429229736, 0.1078353002667427, 0.49300146102905273, -0.05306737869977951, 0.6369892954826355, 0.7484626770019531, -0.2261248379945755, 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247392	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform%20boundedness%20principle	Uniform boundedness principle	In mathematics, the uniform boundedness principle or Banach–Steinhaus theorem is one of the fundamental results in functional analysis. Together with the Hahn–Banach theorem and the open mapping theorem, it is considered one of the cornerstones of the field. In its basic form, it asserts that for a family of continuous linear operators (and thus bounded operators) whose domain is a Banach space, pointwise boundedness is equivalent to uniform boundedness in operator norm. The theorem was first published in 1927 by Stefan Banach and Hugo Steinhaus, but it was also proven independently by Hans Hahn. Theorem The completeness of enables the following short proof, using the Baire category theorem. Let be a Banach space. Suppose that for every For every integer let Each set is a closed set and by the assumption, By the Baire category theorem for the non-empty complete metric space there exists some such that has non-empty interior; that is, there exist and such that Let with and Then: Taking the supremum over in the unit ball of and over it follows that There are also simple proofs not using the Baire theorem . Corollaries The above corollary does claim that converges to in operator norm, that is, uniformly on bounded sets. However, since is bounded in operator norm, and the limit operator is continuous, a standard "" estimate shows that converges to uniformly on sets. Indeed, the elements of define a pointwise bounded family of continuous linear forms on the Banach space which is the continuous dual space of By the uniform boundedness principle, the norms of elements of as functionals on that is, norms in the second dual are bounded. But for every the norm in the second dual coincides with the norm in by a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem. Let denote the continuous operators from to endowed with the operator norm. If the collection is unbounded in then the uniform boundedness principle implies: In fact, is dense in The complement of in is the countable union of closed sets By the argument used in proving the theorem, each is nowhere dense, i.e. the subset is . Therefore is the complement of a subset of first category in a Baire space. By definition of a Baire space, such sets (called or ) are dense. Such reasoning leads to the , which can be formulated as follows: The complement of is the countable union of sets of first category. Therefore, its residual set is dense. Example: pointwise convergence of Fourier series Let be the circle, and let be the Banach space of continuous functions on with the uniform norm. Using the uniform boundedness principle, one can show that there exists an element in for which the Fourier series does not converge pointwise. For its Fourier series is defined by and the N-th symmetric partial sum is where is the -th Dirichlet kernel. Fix and consider the convergence of The functional defined by is bounded. The norm of in the dual of is the norm of the signed measure namely It can be verified that So the collection is unbounded in the dual of Therefore, by the uniform boundedness principle, for any the set of continuous functions whose Fourier series diverges at is dense in More can be concluded by applying the principle of condensation of singularities. Let be a dense sequence in Define in the similar way as above. The principle of condensation of singularities then says that the set of continuous functions whose Fourier series diverges at each is dense in (however, the Fourier series of a continuous function converges to for almost every by Carleson's theorem). Generalizations In a topological vector space (TVS) "bounded subset" refers specifically to the notion of a von Neumann bounded subset. If happens to also be a normed or seminormed space, say with (semi)norm then a subset is (von Neumann) bounded if and only if it is , which by definition means Barrelled spaces Attempts to find classes of locally convex topological vector spaces on which the uniform boundedness principle holds eventually led to barrelled spaces. That is, the least restrictive setting for the uniform boundedness principle is a barrelled space, where the following generalized version of the theorem holds : Uniform boundedness in topological vector spaces A family of subsets of a topological vector space is said to be in if there exists some bounded subset of such that which happens if and only if is a bounded subset of ; if is a normed space then this happens if and only if there exists some real such that The below proposition's conclusion that the set is necessarily equal to all to can be deduced, with the help of the first part of the following theorem, from the equicontinuity of and the fact that every singleton subset of is also a bounded subset. The family is uniformly bounded in if and only if there exists some bounded subset of such that which happens if and only if is a bounded subset of Generalizations involving nonmeager subsets Although the notion of a nonmeager set is used in the following version of the uniform bounded principle, the domain is assumed to be a Baire space. Let be balanced neighborhoods of the origin in satisfying It must be shown that there exists a neighborhood of the origin in such that for every Let which is a closed subset of (because it is an intersection of closed subsets) that for every also satisfies and (as will be shown, the set is in fact a neighborhood of the origin in because the topological interior of in is not empty). If then being bounded in implies that there exists some integer such that so if then Since was arbitrary, This proves that Because is of the second category in the same must be true of at least one of the sets for some The map defined by is a (surjective) homeomorphism, so the set is necessarily of the second category in Because is closed and of the second category in its topological interior in is not empty. Pick Because the map defined by is a homeomorphism, the set is a neighborhood of in which implies that the same is true of its superset And so for every This proves that is equicontinuous. Because is equicontinuous, if is bounded in then is uniformly bounded in In particular, for any because is a bounded subset of is a uniformly bounded subset of Thus Complete metrizable domain proves a weaker form of this theorem with Fréchet spaces rather than the usual Banach spaces. See also Notes Citations Bibliography . . . . . 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247393	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milano%20Centrale%20railway%20station	Milano Centrale railway station	Milano Centrale () is the main railway station of the city of Milan, Italy, and is the largest railway station in Europe by volume. The station is a terminus and located at the northern end of central Milan. It was officially inaugurated in 1931 to replace the old central station (built 1864), which was a transit station but with a limited number of tracks and space, so could not handle the increased traffic caused by the opening of the Simplon tunnel in 1906. Milano Centrale has high-speed connections to Turin in the west, Venice via Verona in the east and on the north-south mainline to Bologna, Rome, Naples and Salerno. The Simplon and Gotthard railway lines connect Milano Centrale to Bern and Geneva via Domodossola and Zürich via Chiasso in Switzerland. Destinations of inter-city and regional railways radiate from Milano Centrale to Ventimiglia (border of France), Genova, Turin, Domodossola (border of Swiss Canton of Valais/Wallis), Tirano (border of Swiss Canton of Graubünden/Grisons), Bergamo, Verona, Mantova, Bologna and La Spezia. The Milan suburban railway service, however, does not use Milano Centrale but the other mainline stations: Porta Garibaldi (northwest), Cadorna (west) and Rogoredo (east). Aldo Rossi declared in an interview of February 1995 to Cecilia Bolognesi: "They told me that when Frank Lloyd Wright came to Milan, and he came only once, he was really impressed by it and said it was the most beautiful station in the world. For me it is also more beautiful than Grand Central Station in New York. I know few stations like this one". History The first Milano Centrale station opened in 1864 in the area now occupied by the Piazza della Repubblica, south of the modern station. It was designed by French architect Louis-Jules Bouchot (1817–1907) and its architectural style was reminiscent of Parisian buildings of that period. The station was designed to replace Porta Tosa station (opened in 1846 as the terminus of the line to Treviglio and eventually Venice) and Porta Nuova station (opened in 1850 as the second terminus on the line to Monza, which was eventually extended to Chiasso) and was interconnected with all lines, either existing or under construction, surrounding Milan. It remained in operation until 30 June 1931, when the current station was opened. There is now no trace of the old station left. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy laid the cornerstone of the new station on April 28, 1906, before a blueprint for the station had even been chosen. The last, real, contest for its construction was won in 1912 by architect Ulisse Stacchini, whose design was modeled after Washington Union Station in Washington, DC, and the construction of the new station began. The purported style was an eclectic mix called "Assyrian-Lombard." Due to the Italian economic crisis during World War I, construction proceeded very slowly, and the project, rather simple at the beginning, kept changing and became more and more complex and majestic. This happened especially when Benito Mussolini became Prime Minister, and wanted the station to represent the power of the Fascist regime. The major changes were the new platform types and the introduction of the great steel canopies by Alberto Fava; long and covering an area of . Construction resumed in 1925 and on July 1, 1931, the station was officially opened in the presence of Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano. The station played a vital role during the Holocaust in Italy, when Jewish inmates from the San Vittore Prison, previously captured in northern Italy, would be taken to a secret track, Binario 21, underneath the station to be deported to extermination camps. Altogether, 15 deportation trains with 1,200 prisoners left the station from Binario 21. A Memoriale della Shoah was opened at the former platform in January 2013 to commemorate these events. Its façade is wide and its vault is high, a record when it was built. It has 24 platforms. Each day about 330,000 passengers use the station, totaling about 120 million per year. The station has no definite architectural style, but is a blend of many different styles, especially Liberty and Art Deco, but not limited to those. It is adorned with numerous sculptures. "The 'incongruous envelope of stone' (Attilio Pracchi) of this gigantic and monumental building dominates Piazza Duca d'Aosta." On September 25, 2006, officials announced a €100 million project, already in progress, to refurbish the station. Of the total cost, €20 million has been allocated to restore "certain areas of high artistic value" while the remaining €80 million will be used for more general improvements to the station to make it more functional with the current railway services. The project includes moving the ticket office and installing new elevators and escalators for increased accessibility. There remain unrestored and inaccessible areas to the public within the station, including a waiting room with swastikas on the floor designed to receive Hitler. Gallery Train services The station has 24 tracks. Every day about 320,000 passengers pass through the station using about 500 trains, for an annual total of 120 million passengers. The station is served by national and international routes, with both long-distance and regional lines. Daily international destinations include Bern, Lugano, Geneva, Zürich, Paris, Vienna, Marseille and Munich. The station is also connected to Milan-Malpensa Airport through the Malpensa Express airport train. The following services call at the station (incomplete): Domestic (High-speed) High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciarossa) Turin-Salerno: Turin Porta Nuova - Turin Porta Susa - Milano Centrale - Milan Rogoredo - Bologna Centrale - Florence S.M.Novella - Rome Tiburtina - Rome Termini - Naples Centrale - Salerno High speed train (Trenitalia Frecciarossa) Milan-Bari: Milan - Bologna - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia – Bari High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciarossa) Milan-Venice: Milan - Brescia - Peschiera del Garda - Verona - Vicenza - Padua - Venice High-speed train (Italo NTV) Turin-Salerno: Turin - Milan - Bologna - Florence - Rome - Naples - Salerno High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciabianca) Turin-Venice: Turin - Novara - Milan - Brescia - Verona - Vicenza - Padua - Venice - (Trieste) High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciabianca) Milan-Lecce: Milan - Piacenza - Parma - Reggio d'Emilia - Modena - Bologna - Rimini - Pesaro - Ancona - San Benedetto del Tronto - Pescara - Termoli - Foggia - Bari - Brindisi - Lecce High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciabianca) Milan-Bari/Taranto: Milan - Modena - Bologna - Rimini - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia - Bari - Taranto Domestic For regional (Regio) trains to Monza and Como from Milano Centrale, refer to the 'cross-border' services. There is no train service of Milan Suburbano at the Centrale station. Airport train (Trenord Malpensa Express) Milan-Malpensa Airport: Milan - (Busto Arsizio) - Malpensa Airport Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Lecce: Milan - Piacenza - Parma - Modena - Bologna - Rimini - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia - Trani - Bari - Fasano - Brindisi - Lecce Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Taranto: Milan - Lodi - Piacenza - Parma - Reggio Emilia - Modena - Bologna - Faenza - Cesena - Rimini - Riccione - Pesaro - Senigalla - Ancona - Giulianova - Pescara - Termoli - Foggia - Trani - Bisceglie - Bari - Taranto Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Livorno: Milan - Pavia - Tortona - Genova Piazza Principe - Genova Brignole - Santa Margherita Ligure-Portofino - Rapallo - Chiavari - Sestri Levante - Levanto - Monterosso - La Spezia Centrale - Massa Centro - Viareggio - Pisa Centrale - Livorno Centrale Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Ventimiglia: Milan - Pavia - Genova - San Remo - Ventimiglia Night train (Trenitalia Intercity Notte) Milan-Lecce: Milan - Piacenza - Parma - Reggio d'Emilia - Modena - Bologna - Cesana - Rimini - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia - Bari - Trani - Brindisi - Lecce Regional train (Trenitalia Regionale Veloce) Turin-Milan: Turin - Vercelli - Novara - Milan Regional train (Trenitalia Regional) Milan-Alessandria: Milan - Pavia - Voghera - Tortona - Alessandria Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Verona: Milan - Brescia - Peschiera del Garda - Verona Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Tirano: Milan - Lecco - Sondrio - Tirano Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Mantua: Milan - Lodi - Codgono - Cremona - Piadana - Mantova Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Bergamo: Milan - Treviglio - Bergamo Historic train (Fondazione FS/Trenitalia Storico) Milan-Varallo: Milan - Novara - Varallo Sesia Cross-border (Night train) (CH for Switzerland, D for Germany, A for Austria, MN for Monaco) The following train has been moved to stop at Milano Lambrate railway station and Milano Porta Garibaldi railway station in 2020: Night train (ÖBB Nightjet) Milan-Munich/Vienna: Milan - Brescia - Peschiera del Garda - Verona^ - (Rovereto/Rofreit) - (Trento/Trient) - Bolzano/Bozen - (Brennero/Brenner) - Innsbruck (A) - Jenbach (A) - Kufstein (A) - Munich (D) This train connects at Verona with ÖBB Nightjet/EuroNight Rome-Vienna: the train splits into two parts (first half couples with ÖBB Rome-Vienna and leaves for Vienna or Rome; second half continues to Munich or Milan). Vienna-Rome splits into two trains (first half continues to Rome or Vienna; second half couples with the train for Milan or Munich). Cross-border After the opening of Gotthard Base Tunnel in December 2016, train services between Milan and Switzerland increased in frequency. All SBB-CFF-FSS Eurocity now save 35 minutes of total journey time between Bellinzona and Arth-Goldau. From December 2017, a new cross-border service Milan-Frankfurt (Trenitalia-DB-SBB Eurocity) via Zürich will be operational. From December 18th 2021, a new service Paris-Milan with Frecciarossa is opened. Regional train (TiLo Regio) Milan-Bellinzona: Milan - Monza - Como (San Giovanni) - Chiasso (CH) - Lugano (CH) - Bellinzona (CH) Intercity train (Trenitalia-SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Geneva-Milan/Venice: Geneva/Genf (CH) - Lausanne (CH) - Brig (CH) - Domodossola - Milan - (Brescia) - (Verona) - (Padua) - (Venice) Intercity train (Trenitalia-SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Basel-Milan: Basel SBB (CH) - Bern/Berne (CH) - Thun (CH) - Brig (CH) - Domodossola - Stresa - Busto Arsizio - Milan Intercity train (Trenitalia-SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Zürich-Milan: Zürich (CH) - Zug (CH) - Arth-Goldau (CH) - Bellinzona (CH) - Lugano (CH) - Chiasso (CH) - Como (San Giovanni) - Monza - Milan Intercity train (Trenitalia-SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Luzern-Milan: Luzern (CH) - Arth-Goldau (CH) - Bellinzona (CH) - Lugano (CH) - Chiasso (CH) - Como (San Giovanni) - Monza - Milan Platforms The station, along with Roma Termini and Firenze Santa Maria Novella, has security gates which prevent access to the platforms without a ticket. Each platform is usually dedicated to some particular route. The current organization is as follows, although temporary changes may occur. Platforms 1-3: Chiasso/Domodossola/Milan-Turin (ES* AV) Platforms 4-6: Turin/Cisalpino Milan–Como–Arth Goldau–Basel / Zürich Platforms 7-13: Venice / Udine Platforms 14-17: Bologna–Florence–Rome–Naples Platforms 18-23: Genoa-Livorno / Ventimiglia / Parma /Cremona-Mantua /Milan-Treviglio-Bergamo Platform 24: Operations Unusual track layout On the northern side of the railway yard there used to be a loop curve so that trains could turn around and reverse back into the station. The trains could so be displaced from the left side of the station to the right side and vice versa without crossing all the tracks. The tracks on the loop curve are partially broken up. Images See also History of rail transport in Italy List of railway stations in Lombardy Rail transport in Italy Railway stations in Milan Railway stations in Italy References External links Official website at Grandistazioni website Illustrated contemporary description of the station Art Nouveau architecture in Milan Art Nouveau railway stations Centrale Railway stations opened in 1931 1931 establishments in Italy	[ -0.0722387284040451, -0.8574643135070801, 0.5995097756385803, 0.03229569271206856, 0.7288807034492493, 0.05120160058140755, 0.36029621958732605, 0.7895078659057617, -0.42979076504707336, -0.9432770013809204, -0.5204858183860779, 0.22580327093601227, 0.24027155339717865, 0.7946532368659973, 0.0731651782989502, -0.4280227720737457, 0.6022166609764099, -0.12236745655536652, 0.25222936272621155, -0.4813077449798584, 0.39035168290138245, -0.049341171979904175, 0.798045814037323, 0.47036507725715637, -0.344739705324173, -0.9807030558586121, -0.21973170340061188, 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247394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short%20Ride%20in%20a%20Fast%20Machine	Short Ride in a Fast Machine	Short Ride in a Fast Machine is a 1986 orchestral work by John Adams. Adams applies the description "fanfare for orchestra" to this work and to the earlier Tromba Lontana (1986). The former is also known as Fanfare for Great Woods because it was commissioned for the Great Woods Festival of the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra. As a commentary on the title, Adams inquires, "You know how it is when someone asks you to ride in a terrific sports car, and then you wish you hadn't?" The work is an example of Adams's postminimal style, which is utilized in other works like Phrygian Gates, Shaker Loops, and Nixon in China. This style derives from minimalism as defined by the works of Steve Reich, Terry Riley, and Philip Glass, although it proceeds to "make use of minimalist techniques in more dramatic settings." A typical performance of Short Ride lasts about four and a half minutes. Popularity, performance and cancellations The Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra premiered Short Ride in a Fast Machine in 1986. The fanfare was the 10th most-performed orchestral work composed in the last twenty-five years, in 2008. The work was performed at the BBC Proms in 2004, 2014 and 2019. Scheduled performances at the Last Night of the Proms were cancelled twice: in 1997 after the death of Princess Diana, and in 2001 after the September 11 attacks. Lawrence Odom transcribed the piece for concert band. Orchestra The piece is scored for the following large orchestra: Woodwinds 2 piccolos 2 flutes 2 oboes 1 English horn 2 (optional 4) clarinets in A and B 3 bassoons 1 contrabassoon Brass 4 horns in F 4 trumpets in C 3 trombones 1 tuba Percussion timpani Keyboards 2 synthesizers with "analog brass" preset (optional) Strings violins I, II violas cellos double basses Style and analysis Harmonic devices Short Ride in a Fast Machine, true to its minimalist heritage, utilizes a tonal language that, according to Catherine Pellegrino, "is not as neatly defined and predictable as that of common-practice tonality". Adams is known (especially in Phrygian Gates) for the concept of "gating", which is the process of suddenly changing certain pitches in a harmony, often based on different modes. As seen in Example 1, the initial pitch collection of D, E, and A, as scored in the clarinets and optional synthesizers, slowly transforms over time by adding pitches. This process is a concept of changing harmony, which Adams describes as "bring[ing] in a new key area almost on the sly, stretching the ambiguity out over such a length of time that the listener would hardly notice that a change had taken place". By measure 52, the aggregate of pitches suddenly shifts as the E major chord is replaced by a B-flat major chord. Meanwhile, the original pitch collection continues to exist as an unchanging force. This process is the main harmonic device that Adams employs, as the next section shifts pitch collections more rapidly for contrast, while other sections return to the pace of the first section. Rhythmic devices In its rhythm, this work adheres to the main precepts of minimalism, one of which is the use of repeated material, generally in the form of ostinati. Minimalism also favours a strong sense of pulse, which Adams emphasizes strongly in Short Ride in a Fast Machine in his scoring of the wood block. Adams claims that "I need to experience that fundamental tick" in his work. Throughout the course of the work, Adams experiments with the idea of rhythmic dissonance as material begins to appear, initially in the trumpets, and generates a new sense of pulse. As shown below, the manifestation of rhythmic dissonance is akin to Adams's method of creating harmonic dissonance as he adds conflicting rhythms to disrupt the metronomic stability of the wood block. Adams himself admits that he seeks to "enrich the experience of perceiving the way that time is divided" within his works. Later in the work, (see Example 5) Adams introduces a simple polyrhythm as a means of initiating a new section that contrasts the rhythmic dissonance of the first section. Formal devices The idea of formal closure and rhetorical devices in a sense of common practice is skewed in the works of John Adams, especially in Short Ride in a Fast Machine. While works of common practice organize material by phrases which are separated by cadential material, this work is in a state of perpetual motion as the additive element of harmonic and rhythmic material drives the work forward. The "gating" concept gives the overall work a sense of sectional design, but the indication of termination through cadence is something that is absent from the work until the very end, which emulates a ii–V–I cadence. In terms of defining the sections of the work, the wood block is scored in a way that creates a four-part form. The first and third parts of the work have a high wood block present in the scoring, which is contrasted by a low wood block in the second part, while the final part features the absence of wood block. References Sources External links , Short Ride in a Fast Machine – BBC Proms 2014, BBC Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Marin Alsop Compositions by John Adams (composer) 1986 compositions Compositions for symphony orchestra Music commissioned by the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra	[ -0.42197731137275696, -0.11594302207231522, -0.5066909193992615, 0.637177050113678, 0.5161197781562805, 0.06884555518627167, -0.22729671001434326, 0.31763124465942383, -0.14488562941551208, -0.340564489364624, 0.07984158396720886, 0.16786837577819824, -0.521452009677887, -0.1548389196395874, 0.34457460045814514, -0.4082328975200653, 0.2536506950855255, -0.5940560102462769, -0.14608092606067657, -0.3545111119747162, 0.19809314608573914, -0.041678834706544876, 0.593867838382721, 0.19905565679073334, -0.045842401683330536, 0.23828274011611938, -0.2447614222764969, 0.28869304060935974, 0.1320086568593979, 0.09289971739053726, -0.07884756475687027, 0.8122138977050781, 0.519957423210144, -0.6801455020904541, 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247395	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosefinch	Rosefinch	The rosefinches should not be confused with the rosy finches in the genus Leucosticte. The rosefinches are a genus, Carpodacus, of passerine birds in the finch family Fringillidae. Most are called "rosefinches" and as the word implies, have various shades of red in their plumage. The common rosefinch is frequently called the "rosefinch". The genus name is from Ancient Greek karpos, "fruit" and dakno, "to bite". The Carpodacus rosefinches occur throughout Eurasia, but the greatest diversity is found in the Sino-Himalayas suggesting that the species originated in this region. Systematics In 2012, Zuccon and colleagues published a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic analysis of the finch family. Based both on their own results and those published earlier by other groups, they proposed a series of changes to the taxonomy. They found that the three North American rosefinches, namely Cassin's finch, purple finch, and house finch, formed a separate clade that was not closely related to the Palearctic rosefinches. They proposed moving the three species to a separate genus Haemorhous. This proposal was accepted by the International Ornithological Committee and the American Ornithologists' Union. Zuccon and colleagues also found that the common rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus) fell outside the core rosefinch clade and was a sister to the scarlet finch (at the time Haematospiza sipahi). They recommended that the common rosefinch should be moved to a new monotypic genus with the resurrected name of Erythrina. The British Ornithologists' Union accepted this proposal, but the International Ornithological Union chose instead to adopt a more inclusive Carpodacus which incorporated Haematospiza as well as the monotypic genus Chaunoproctus containing the extinct Bonin grosbeak. The long-tailed rosefinch that had previously been included in the monotypic genus Uragus was also moved into Carpodacus. Two species that were formerly included in the genus, Blanford's rosefinch and the dark-breasted rosefinch, were shown to not be closely related to the other species in the group. They were moved to separate monotypic genera, Blanford's rosefinch to Agraphospiza and the dark-breasted rosefinch to Procarduelis. Sillem's mountain finch was originally assigned to the genus Leucosticte but a phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA sequences published in 2016 found that the species belonged to the genus Carpodacus. There have been a number of rosefinch radiations. First to split off were the ancestors of the North American species, the common rosefinch, and the scarlet finch, generally placed in its own genus. These groups, which may be related, diverged in the Middle Miocene (about 14–12 mya) from the proto-rosefinches. Each of these groups probably should constitute a distinct genus; in the case of the North American species, this is Haemorhous. The types of the genera Erythrina Brehm 1829 and Carpodacus Kaup 1829 are frequently considered to be the common rosefinch, but both refer to Pallas's rosefinch. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that Hawaiian honeycreepers are closely related to the rosefinches in the genus Carpodacus. The most recent common ancestor has been variously estimate at 7.24 million years ago (mya) and 15.71 mya. Przewalski's "rosefinch" (Urocynchramus pylzowi) has been determined to be not a rosefinch, and indeed not a true finch at all, but to constitute a monotypic family Urocynchramidae. Species The genus Carpodacus contains 28 species. They all include 'rosefinch' in their English names apart from the purple finch, scarlet finch, the crimson-browed finch, Sillem's mountain finch and the extinct Bonin grosbeak. References External links Rosefinche videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection	[ -0.39757245779037476, -0.3270813226699829, -0.5942025780677795, -0.3335748016834259, -0.09930077940225601, 0.3533661961555481, 0.5404353141784668, 0.5152669548988342, -0.6922759413719177, -0.6109157800674438, -0.3023005425930023, -0.036337390542030334, -0.21409882605075836, 0.32791388034820557, -0.30792236328125, 0.8150480389595032, 0.4818260669708252, 0.9927799701690674, 0.2922663688659668, -0.24835948646068573, -0.5535489916801453, -0.3774445354938507, 0.5724203586578369, -0.7317332625389099, 0.5544382333755493, -0.07475077360868454, 0.4499492645263672, 0.18642109632492065, 0.4602517783641815, 0.5509787797927856, 0.1574251800775528, 0.6471027731895447, 0.2187589854001999, -0.0026223512832075357, -0.3541755974292755, -0.05007306486368179, -0.1121227964758873, -0.27189698815345764, -0.20378752052783966, -0.8836633563041687, -0.18283376097679138, -0.24762758612632751, 0.6550648808479309, 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247396	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Ocean%20%28R68%29	HMS Ocean (R68)	HMS Ocean was a Royal Navy Colossus-class light fleet aircraft carrier of 13,190 tons built in Glasgow by Alexander Stephen & Sons. Her keel was laid in November 1942, and she was commissioned on 30 June 1945. Construction and design The Colossus-class was a class of relatively small aircraft carriers which were designed to be built quickly to meet the Royal Navy's requirements for more carriers to allow it to fight a global war. In order to allow speedy build, they were designed to mercantile rather than navy hull standards, while armour protection and long-range anti aircraft guns were not fitted. Sixteen ships were ordered by the end of 1942, but the last six were completed to a modified design as the Majestic-class. The ships were between and long overall, at the waterline and between perpendiculars. Beam was and draught was at deep load. Displacement was standard and deep load. Four Admiralty 3-drum boilers supplied steam to two sets of Parsons geared steam turbines which in turn drove two propeller shafts. The machinery was rated at , giving a speed of . The ships had a range of at a speed of . The flight deck was long and wide, while the hangar was long and wide with a clear overhead height of . While designed to carry 24 aircraft in 1942, by the time that they became operational, the ships were accommodating 37 aircraft. Ocean was fitted with a close-in anti-aircraft armament of six quadruple and seven single 2-pounder (40 mm) pom-pom autocannon and twelve single Bofors 40 mm guns. The ship had a crew of 1300 officers and ratings. Ocean was laid down at Alexander Stephen & Sons Glasgow shipyard on 8 November 1942 and was launched on 8 July 1944. In March 1944, a proposal was made by the Australian government to purchase a light fleet carrier, specifically Ocean. The application was rejected in early June 1945, and the carrier entered Royal Navy service. The ship was commissioned on 8 August 1945. In total, the ship required 20772 man-months to build. Service Following commissioning, Ocean was sent to Cammell Laird at Birkenhead for modification to operate night fighters - changes included revised radar (with American SM-1 radar replacing the British Type 277 height-finding radar) and improved direction-finding equipment. On completion of these changes in November 1945, Ocean was based at Rosyth for flying trials, with the first trials of the de Havilland Sea Hornet twin-engine fighter and the last carrier operations of the Fairey Swordfish biplane torpedo bomber. On 3 December 1945, a Sea Vampire flown by Eric "Winkle" Brown made the first ever carrier landing of a purely jet-powered aircraft onto Ocean (although earlier that year a composite jet and piston engined Ryan FR-1 Fireball had made a carrier landing under jet power after its radial engine failed.) In December 1945, Ocean transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet, with an air group consisting of the Supermarine Seafire-equipped 805 Naval Air Squadron and 816 Naval Air Squadron, equipped with Fairey Firefly night fighters. She disembarked her air group at Malta in June 1946 to allow her to be used as a troopship to carry troops to Singapore. In October 1946 she provided fire-fighting and medical support to the two destroyers and when they struck mines in the Corfu Channel incident. In May 1948, she formed part of the task force supporting the withdrawal of British forces withdrew from Palestine, providing air cover after RAF bases in Palestine had been evacuated. Ocean twice deployed to Korea, firstly from May to October 1952 and then from May to November 1953. In August 1952 a formation of Hawker Sea Fury aircraft from the carrier engaged North Korean MiG-15 jets in air combat, shooting one down. In August 1954 she joined the Home Fleet's training squadron but saw an active role in the Suez crisis. In the first ever large-scale helicopter borne assault, Westland Whirlwind and Bristol Sycamore helicopters from Ocean and HMS Theseus landed 425 men of 45 Commando and 23 tons of stores into Port Said in 90 minutes. After Suez, the ship did not see much more active service. In September 1957, the Soviet Union protested when accompanied Ocean on a visit to Helsinki. She went into extended reserve in 1958 and was scrapped in 1962 at Faslane. In his book on the Hungarian Revolution, Peter Fryer briefly refers to the "arrest of twelve British seamen in the aircraft carrier Ocean, following unlawful meetings" in October 1956. 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247400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Ocean%20%28L12%29	HMS Ocean (L12)	HMS Ocean was a Landing Platform Helicopter, formerly the UK's helicopter carrier and the fleet flagship of the Royal Navy. She was designed to support amphibious landing operations and to support the staff of Commander UK Amphibious Force and Commander UK Landing Force. She was constructed in the mid-1990s by Kvaerner Govan on the River Clyde and fitted out by VSEL at Barrow-in-Furness prior to trials and subsequent acceptance in service. Ocean was commissioned in September 1998 at her home port HMNB Devonport, Plymouth. In December 2017, the Brazilian Navy confirmed the purchase of the ship for £84.6 million. Following her decommissioning from Royal Navy service on 27 March 2018, she arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 25 August 2018, with the intention of being commissioned as Atlântico and fully operational by 2020. Background An invitation to tender for a new helicopter carrier was issued in February 1992. In February 1993 The Times reported that the carrier faced cancellation due to budgetary constraints. However, at approximately the same time, British forces were engaged in operations in the Balkans, which saw the Royal Fleet Auxiliary's aviation training ship RFA Argus pressed into service as an amphibious transport ship. Arguss accommodation and facilities proved inadequate for the needs of a large Embarked Military Force (EMF), which emphasised the need for a purpose-built platform. On 29 March 1993, the defence procurement minister announced that development of the new Landing Platform Helicopter (LPH) was proceeding. Two shipbuilders tendered for the contract – Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Ltd (VSEL) and Swan Hunter. On 11 May 1993, the government announced that VSEL had won the contract. The build was to commercial standards, reducing costs significantly and leading to a construction spend of £154 million (£ in ),, comparable to that of a Type 23 frigate. VSEL, a warship manufacturer, sub-contracted the build phase to the commercial Kværner yard in Govan, Glasgow. That VSEL's bid was £71 million lower than Swan Hunter's was the source of political controversy and led to a National Audit Office investigation to determine whether the competition was fair. The report, published on 29 July 1993, stated that, although VSEL did subsidise its bid, the Ministry of Defence (MOD) was right to award the contract to VSEL because the subsidy was much smaller than the difference between the two bids; VSEL's bid was £139.5 million compared to Swan Hunter's £210.6 million. The Times also suggested that the subsidy was as little as £10 million. In anticipation of the report, the Financial Times described the different philosophies adopted by the two bidders; while Swan Hunter viewed the ship as entirely military, "VSEL thought the design was basically a merchant ship with military hardware bolted on." VSEL's decision to sub-contract the build phase took advantage of lower overheads at a civilian yard as well as efficiency drives by its parent, Kværner. Launched on 11 October 1995, she was subsequently named at Barrow by Her Majesty the Queen on 20 February 1998, prior to delivery to Devonport. In her sea trial, she reached a top speed of ; however, her usual top speed is . Role Ocean was designed to provide the amphibious assault capabilities last offered by and . She can deploy an Embarked Military Force (EMF) of a Royal Marines Commando Group from 3 Commando Brigade supported by aircraft and landing craft. The ship's company included 9 Assault Squadron (9 ASRM) from 1 Assault Group Royal Marines whose primary role is as an Amphibious Assault Squadron. Secondary tasks include boarding parties, beach reconnaissance and providing amphibious knowledge to the ships Command. Besides these roles they have responsibilities within the ship which include firefighting, watchkeeping and security. 9 ASRM is divided into a HQ unit, Landing Craft Troop, Signals detachment, Vehicle Deck Party and Assault Supply Team. HMS Ocean was also capable of limited anti-submarine warfare activities, supporting afloat training and acting as a base facility for other embarked forces including counter-terrorism units. The ship was capable of carrying four to six Apache AH1 helicopters operated by the Army Air Corps, as well as helicopters of the Royal Air Force, including the larger twin-rotor Chinook. Prior to their retirement, Ocean could transport up to fifteen fixed-wing Harrier aircraft of Joint Force Harrier in the ferry role, but was unable to operate as a fixed-wing aircraft carrier because she lacked the ski jump that is needed to launch a fully loaded Harrier. For the 2012 London Olympics, she carried four Army Air Corps and four Fleet Air Arm Super Lynx helicopters, to deploy special forces and conduct other missions in a security role. Four Landing Craft Vehicle and Personnel (LCVPs) were permanently embarked and manned by 9 Assault Squadron Royal Marines. Operational history 1998–2000 Weeks after being commissioned, Ocean was undertaking the warm water element of her first-of-class trials, when she was deployed on short notice to the coasts of Honduras and Nicaragua to provide humanitarian assistance in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch. In early 1999, Ocean was scheduled to take part in an exercise in the Atlantic, but was diverted to the Mediterranean in readiness for possible deployment to Kosovo. During 2000, Ocean supported Operation Palliser in Sierra Leone, joining in aiding the suppression of rebel activity with her own embarked force, and providing support facilities for the Spearhead battalion ashore. 2001–2010 On 17 February 2002, whilst under command of Captain Adrian Johns, a unit of Royal Marines from Ocean accidentally landed on the San Felipe beach in the Spanish town of La Linea instead of Gibraltar, causing a minor diplomatic incident as various media outlets labelled the mistake as an "invasion". Ocean was part of a large Royal Navy task force deployed for Operation Telic, the UK contribution to the 2003 Iraq War, for which she was awarded a new battle honour "Al Faw 2003". In the helicopter assault role she was accompanied by . She was awarded the Freedom of the City of Sunderland on 26 July 2004. In the summer of 2006, under the command of Captain Christopher Clayton, the ship was deployed as part of the task force involved in the Aurora exercises on the eastern seaboard of the United States. Clayton was later succeeded by Captain Tony Johnstone-Burt. In 2007, Ocean began her first long refit period. This was carried out by Devonport Management Limited at their Devonport Royal Dockyard facility and lasted around 12 months. Following this major period of maintenance and upgrading work, Ocean sailed from Plymouth on Wednesday 24 September 2008 to start sea trials. As part of that upgrade, a PyTEC pyrolysising waste recycling unit was fitted. On 18 February 2009, Ocean sailed from Devonport as part of the Taurus 09 deployment. She was joined on this deployment by the landing platform dock , as the flagship of the group, which included Type 23 Frigates and and four ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary. This exercise was filmed for the second series of the Channel 5 documentary Warship. In June 2009, Ocean took part in exercise Bersama Shield with and off the Malay Peninsula. During the air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, Prime Minister Gordon Brown assigned Ocean and other units to rescue stranded travellers and army personnel across the English Channel in Operation Cunningham. In 2010, the ship was sent on a multi-purpose deployment. This started with exercise Auriga on the eastern coast of the US. She then moved to Brazil to conduct an exercise with the Brazilian marines; whilst there a defence co-operation agreement was signed on board. She then crossed the Atlantic to Nigeria to participate in the "Nigeria at 50" presidential fleet review and provide training to the Nigerian navy as part of the African partnership programme. She returned to Devonport in November. 2011–2018 In April 2011, while under command of Captain Keith Blount, the ship took part in the COUGAR 11 deployment under the ultimate command of Commander Amphibious Task Group (CATG). During this deployment, she took part in Exercise Cypriot Lion. In May 2011, she was detached from CATG's COUGAR 11 deployment and sent with embarked Apaches to aid operations in Libya along with the attack helicopters aboard the French amphibious assault ship Tonnerre (L9014). This was the first time that Apache helicopters were sent directly into action from a Royal Navy ship. Her initial complement of three Apaches was bolstered by a fourth soon after, and later a fifth. The deployment included a large medical team, a sign of the ship's flexibility. On 4 May 2012, she moored at Greenwich to prepare for her role of providing logistics support, accommodation and a helicopter landing site during the London 2012 Olympic Games. From 24 to 28 May 2012, she visited Sunderland, her affiliated port, and made other port calls before returning to London on 13 July. After Olympic duty, Ocean returned to her home port of HMNB Devonport for a scheduled period of maintenance. The LPH role was provided by until 2014. On 22 July 2014, Ocean took over the helicopter carrier role again, after her 15-month, £65 million refit, replacing , which then returned to her home port Portsmouth for the last time, being decommissioned on 28 August 2014. As part of the Response Force Task Group COUGAR 14 deployment, Ocean participated in exercises off Albania and France. In April 2015 Ocean took part in Exercise Joint Warrior 15-1 around the coast of Scotland, with Wildcat helicopters landing on her for the first time. She then stopped again in Sunderland where the ship's company exercised their right to the freedom of the city, with more than 300 officers and ratings parading through the city centre. Ocean became the Royal Navy Fleet Flagship in June 2015. In December 2015, she returned to port after Exercise COUGAR 15, an amphibious warfare exercise in the Mediterranean with the French Navy. In September 2016, Ocean left Devonport for the inaugural Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime) (JEF(M)) Task Group deployment which is the successor to the annual Cougar deployments. The bulk of this deployment took place East of Suez and demonstrated the UK's ongoing ability to deploy highly effective and combat capable maritime forces anywhere in the world. The core task group included the LSD RFA Mounts Bay (L3008), MOD strategic Ro-Ro vessel and . Elements of the Royal Marines 42 Commando, were spread across the force. Frigates and Destroyers from the Royal Navy and French Navy joined throughout the deployment. On the 60th anniversary of Operation Musketeer, Ocean became the flagship of COMATG. This marked the end of the JEF(M) deployment. On 25 November, the ship rendezvoused with . COMATG assumed command of the U.S. Task Force 50, becoming Commander, Task Force 50 (CTF 50). Due to the U.S. Navy gap in carrier coverage in the Middle East, this was the first time a Royal Navy vessel had commanded the U.S. formation responsible for maritime war fighting in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Gulfs of Aden and Oman and the Indian Ocean. On 24 March Ocean returned to Devonport. During the deployment she steamed 23,000 miles, visited 11 countries, provided a platform for six British ambassadors and High Commissioners and was home to up to 1150 service personnel. At the end of August 2017, Ocean left Devonport for her final deployment, scheduled to take over as Standing NATO Maritime Group 2 flagship in the Mediterranean. Before she could relieve with SNMG2, Ocean was redeployed to assist in disaster relief efforts following Hurricane Irma in the Caribbean, and then the subsequent Hurricane Maria. Ocean was decommissioned on 27 March 2018 at HMNB Devonport, with Queen Elizabeth II attending the ceremony. Sale to Brazil Brazil, seeking a replacement for their navy's outgoing flagship, NAe São Paulo, began discussions with the United Kingdom in 2017 to negotiate the purchase of Ocean, following her decommission from service in 2018. An agreement was struck and after being transferred to Brazil, ex-Ocean was commissioned as Atlântico in June 2018. Affiliations Coldstream Guards No. 27 Squadron RAF No. 30 Squadron RAF 656 Squadron, Army Air Corps 657 Squadron, Army Air Corps Worshipful Company of Farriers City of Sunderland Bedford Modern School CCF Whitgift School The Britannia Association HMS Ocean Association Duke of York Military School Kings College Wimbledon CCF Training Ship King Alfred Merton Sea Cadet Corps- T.S. Trafalgar 11th Torbay Sea Scouts 6th Torbay Sea Scouts See also Amphibious warfare ship List of amphibious warfare ships of the Royal Navy Notes and references External links Royal Navy HMS Ocean (royalnavy.mod.uk) HMS Ocean (naval-technology.com) Helicopter carrier classes Ships built in Govan 1995 ships Aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy Amphibious warfare vessels of the Royal Navy 2012 Summer Olympics	[ 0.2855224311351776, -0.5715835690498352, 0.500968873500824, -0.19652248919010162, -0.03176441043615341, 0.354236364364624, 0.0748094767332077, -0.5910906195640564, -0.4768104553222656, 0.393157422542572, 0.0790695995092392, -0.15310746431350708, 0.1357601433992386, -0.016290033236145973, 0.4389689862728119, 0.07888057082891464, 0.4081190526485443, 0.3163624107837677, -0.14261044561862946, -0.6084614992141724, 0.04160306230187416, -0.18081428110599518, 0.23375891149044037, 0.08708786219358444, 0.5306034684181213, 0.30955931544303894, 0.44000980257987976, 0.34641221165657043, 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247401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Games	Little Games	Little Games is the fourth American album by English rock band the Yardbirds. Recorded and released in 1967, it was their first album recorded after becoming a quartet with Jimmy Page as the sole guitarist and Chris Dreja switching to bass. It was also the only Yardbirds album produced by Mickie Most. Although the new lineup was becoming more experimental with longer, improvised concert performances, the Yardbirds' record company brought in successful singles producer Most to coax out more commercial product. However, neither material that properly presented their new approach nor hit singles were forthcoming. The release of the title track "Little Games" that preceded the album did not reach the singles chart in the UK and consequently the album was not released there. However, the album saw limited release in the US, Germany, and New Zealand, but only reached number 80 in the US. Little Games became the Yardbirds' final studio album, although Most continued to produce singles for the group. These were later collected and released with the original album along with outtakes and alternate mixes on an expanded edition titled Little Games Sessions & More in 1992. Background After the commercially and critically successful Yardbirds' albums Having a Rave Up with The Yardbirds (1965) and Yardbirds/Over Under Sideways Down aka Roger the Engineer (1966), founder member and bassist/musical director Paul Samwell-Smith left the group to pursue a career as a record producer. He was replaced on bass by studio guitarist Jimmy Page, whom the Yardbirds had originally approached to replace Eric Clapton. Page's position as bassist was temporary and within a short while he switched to second lead guitarist alongside Jeff Beck, with rhythm guitarist Chris Dreja taking over on bass. In 1966, the Beck/Page dual lead guitar line-up produced the psychedelic "Happenings Ten Years Time Ago", "Psycho Daisies" and "Stroll On", the updated remake of "The Train Kept A-Rollin'" for their appearance in Michelangelo Antonioni's film Blow-Up. However, by the end of 1966, Beck was fired from the band due to an illness that was preventing him from playing gigs while on tour in the US, and they continued as a quartet with Page as the sole guitarist. During 1966 and 1967, much of the rock audience began to shift interest from Top 40 singles to albums and concert presentations. During this period, the Yardbirds toured the US extensively, with frequent shows at popular counterculture venues such as the Fillmore. They became more experimental, with longer, improvised sets including light shows, film clips, and audio samples. Their material became more varied and introduced songs such as "Dazed and Confused", the Jimmy Page solo-guitar piece "White Summer", the Velvet Underground's "I'm Waiting for the Man", and extended medleys with re-worked versions of "I'm a Man" and "Smokestack Lightning". Despite this change in direction, Mickie Most, best known for producing hits for Herman's Hermits and Donovan, was brought in by EMI as the Yardbirds' new record producer. Most was not current with new music trends and although Page had worked earlier for Most as a session guitarist, he was reportedly displeased with Most taking on the production duties. According to biographer Gregg Russo, "the upshot of Most's involvement was that the Yardbirds' stage personality ended up becoming vastly different than their recording persona". Recording and production The first Mickie Most-involved recordings took place at Olympic Studios in London on 5 March 1967. This session produced the single "Little Games" backed with "Puzzles". Although Dreja and drummer Jim McCarty were present to record "Little Games", Most used studio musicians John Paul Jones (bass and cello arrangement) and Dougie Wright (drums) for their parts to cut down on studio time. The remainder of the songs for Little Games were recorded during a three-day session at London's De Lane Lea Studios from 29 April to 1 May 1967 and session musicians were used, including Jones (bass on "No Excess Baggage") and Ian Stewart (piano on "Drinking Muddy Water"). One song, an acoustic guitar instrumental titled "White Summer" is a Jimmy Page solo piece. It uses a "DADGAD" guitar tuning, giving it an Eastern music sound, which is enhanced with Indian-percussion tabla played by Chris Karan and an oboe melody line. Another instrumental, "Glimpses", features guitar parts with Page using a wah-wah pedal and sampled train station and children's playground sounds after a voice-manipulated reading of a poem. Page's guitar is also prominent on "Tinker Tailor Soldier Sailor", where he introduced his guitar-bowing technique; "Drinking Muddy Water", which uses a slide-guitar part to follow the vocal line (later used to greater effect on Led Zeppelin's "You Shook Me"); and the instrumental breaks on "Smile on Me", including a wah-wah guitar coda. The recording schedule was so hurried that the group often did not even hear the playbacks. Page recalled, "It was just so bloody rushed. Everything was done in one take because Mickie Most was basically interested in singles and didn't believe it was worth the time to do the tracks right on the album". Yardbirds' chronicler Gregg Russo notes the result was that "many [of the songs] have a demo quality that time shortages would not allow them to change". In fact one song, the pop-ish "Little Soldier Boy" was issued with McCarty's rough vocal guide providing the part intended for a trumpet. The three subsequent singles recorded by the Yardbirds and later released on the expanded Little Games Sessions & More were given a similar treatment. Only singer Keith Relf appears on the cover version of "Ha! Ha! Said the Clown" (with Al Gorgoni on guitar, Rick Nielsen on organ, Joe Macho on bass and Bobby Gregg on drums, recorded at Columbia Studios New York on 13 June 1967 and Abbey Road Studios on 19 June 1967). Two more cover songs, "Ten Little Indians" (Jones on bass and orchestral arrangement and Clem Cattini on drums, Olympic Studios on 25 September 1967) and "Goodnight Sweet Josephine" (Nicky Hopkins on piano, Jones on bass and Cattini on drums, De Lane Lea in March 1968) also use session musicians. Only the B-side to their last single, the proto-heavy metal "Think About It", was recorded by the entire group. The song includes a guitar solo that Page had been using in the group's concert performances of "Dazed and Confused" (which he carried over, with some different lyrics, to Led Zeppelin). Writing and composition Unlike the Yardbirds' three previous charting singles ("Shapes of Things", "Over Under Sideways Down" and "Happenings Ten Years Time Ago"), "Little Games" was not written by group members. Composed by Harold Spiro and Phil Wainman, its lyrics are echoed in Led Zeppelin's "Good Times Bad Times". Another pop song recorded was "No Excess Baggage", by the Brill Building songwriters Roger Atkins and Carl D'Errico, who composed the Animals Top 40 hit "It's My Life". Page adapted "White Summer" from Davy Graham's version of the Irish folk song "She Moved Through the Fair". The remaining album songs are credited to the band members and include "Drinking Muddy Water", an interpretation of the blues classic "Rollin' and Tumblin'" and nominally a tribute to bluesman Muddy Waters, and "Smile on Me", a re-working of Howlin' Wolf's "Shake for Me" (which Wolf later re-worked for his "Killing Floor" which Led Zeppelin adapted for "The Lemon Song"). The Yardbirds also recorded "Stealing Stealing", a jug-band-style song that has been traced back to Gus Cannon's Jug Stompers and the Memphis Jug Band. Russo describes the four and a half minute instrumental collage "Glimpses" as a "brilliant piece of psychedelic imagery [that] revealed the Yardbirds at their most experimental and inspired". It features multiple-guitar tracks, with effects and bowing, and an electric sitar-backing propelled along by a 6/8 beat and bass riff by McCarty and Dreja. Relf adds several tracks of chanting vocals, reminiscent of the Yardbirds' 1965 song "Still I'm Sad". A barely-understandable truncated mechanical-sounding voice recites: The psychedelic folk-style song "Only the Black Rose" is credited to Relf and features his vocal with acoustic guitar accompaniment by Page and some subdued percussion effects. Described as "reflective" and "emotive" by Russo, it foreshadows the future Relf/McCarty acoustic folk collaborations Together and Renaissance. As with "Little Games" and unlike their previous hits, the Yardbirds' subsequent singles were written by others: Tony Hazzard composed "Ha Ha Said the Clown" (a pop hit for Manfred Mann) and the similarly pop-ish "Good Night Sweet Josephine" and Harry Nilsson supplied "Ten Little Indians", written in the style of a nursery rhyme. Release and critical reception "Little Games" was released as a single on 24 March 1967 in the US and 21 April in the UK. While it reached number 51 in the US, it failed to chart in the UK. As a result, EMI chose not to issue the Little Games in the UK and the album was only released in the Canada, Germany, New Zealand, and the US. Issued by Epic in the US on 10 or 24 July 1967, Little Games made a relatively weak showing in the Billboard 200 album chart, peaking at number 80 during a two-month run in the chart. A "Pop Spotlight" review in the 29 July 1967 Billboard magazine was generic, predicting that the album "should reach the charts in short order", but noted "Drinking Muddy Water" and "Smile On Max ", the album's two guitar-heavy blues-rock songs, as "standouts". To put it into context, the magazine's album chart for the week included the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, the Rolling Stones' Flowers, Jefferson Airplane's Surrealistic Pillow and the self-titled debut albums The Doors and The Grateful Dead. The Yardbirds Greatest Hits, released in March 1967, was also in the chart where it remained into 1968 and placed at number 73 in the 100 best selling albums of 1967. More recent reviews have generally found fault with Little Games. AllMusic's Bruce Eder gave it three out of five stars and wrote "If almost any group other than the Yardbirds had released Little Games, it would be considered a flawed but prime late-'60s psychedelic/hard rock artifact instead of a serious step backward, and even a disappointment". An AllMusic review by Dave Thompson of the expanded edition Little Games Sessions & More began "the day producer Mickie Most moved in on the Yardbirds was the day the Yardbirds' own values moved out. The union was a lousy idea from the start". The New Rolling Stone Album Guide writer also gave the album three out of five stars, calling it "a disastrous attempt at conventional pop". The Yardbirds themselves were just as critical – Page reportedly regarded Little Games as "horrible" and Jim McCarty described Mickie Most as "a protagonist in our downfall". The subsequent Most-produced singles were further unsuccessful attempts to reach the pop market. Little Games soon went out of print, but after Led Zeppelin rose to stardom and Page became a focus of attention, fans and collectors sought out copies of the album and drove up prices, resulting in counterfeit copies being introduced (see Printing errors below). The scarcity of the last singles also led to the 1975 bootleg collection Golden Eggs, which was widely circulated and successful for its time. However, Little Games, along with singles, outtakes, alternate mixes was released by EMI as the two-CD expanded edition Little Games Sessions & More in 1992. Of the last singles and tracks from Little Games, the only songs incorporated into the Yardbirds concert repertoire were "Drinking Muddy Water", the Jimmy Page showcase "White Summer" (later featured in Led Zeppelin concerts in a medley with "Black Mountain Side"), and the psychedelic "Glimpses", which was soon replaced by "Dazed and Confused" as a concert highlight. Track listing Original 1967 album Epic album printing errors Epic Records, having made several printing errors with Yardbirds material in the past, made yet several more with Little Games. Chris Dreja's surname for the songwriting credits (previously misspelled as "Drega" on the previous album Over Under Sideways Down) was misprinted yet again on the album record labels as "Ereja". This error also appears on the Epic "Drinking Muddy Water" single and the tracks "Smile on Me" and "Drinking Muddy Water" included on the 1970 American compilation The Yardbirds Featuring Performances By Jeff Beck, Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page. The US "Little Games" single (written by Harold Spiro and Phil Wainman), only lists the latter writer, misspelled as "Wienman". Epic also mistakenly released a number of stereo versions of Little Games in mono version sleeves and pressed with mono LP labels. The three-letter prefix of the master numbers on the record labels and in the LP trail-out grooves properly identify the versions. "XEM" indicates genuine mono copies; if it shows "XSB" (even on the labels, despite the mono catalog number and no indication of STEREO under the Epic logo), it's a stereo pressing. 1992 expanded edition The expanded edition of Little Games, titled Little Games Sessions & More, was released by EMI America as a two-disc set featuring the original album, plus the singles "Ha Ha Said the Clown", "Ten Little Indians" and "Goodnight Sweet Josephine". Also included are several outtakes and alternate takes/mixes. A solo acoustic guitar mix of "White Summer" without the percussion and horn is included along with a version of "Glimpses" with different overdubs. The Yardbirds' final group single recording and one of the strongest with the Page lineup, "Think About It", also makes its first official album release here. Additionally, three songs recorded by the Keith Relf/Jim McCarty folk-duo Together and a fourth, credited to Relf and McCarty, are also included. Chart positions Album Singles Personnel The Yardbirds Keith Relf – vocals, harmonica, percussion Jimmy Page – guitars Chris Dreja – bass guitar on all songs except where indicated, backing vocals Jim McCarty – drums, percussion, backing vocals Additional personnel Clem Cattini – drums on "Ten Little Indians" and "Goodnight Sweet Josephine" Bobby Gregg – drums on "Little Games" (original album) Nicky Hopkins – keyboards on "Goodnight Sweet Josephine" John Paul Jones – bass guitar on "Goodnight Sweet Josephine" and "No Excess Baggage" (original album), bass and cello arrangement on "Little Games" (original album), bass and orchestral arrangement on "Ten Little Indians" Chris Karan – tabla on "White Summer" Joe Macho – bass on "Ha Ha Said the Clown" Rick Nielsen – organ on "Ha Ha Said the Clown" Ian Stewart – piano on "Drinking Muddy Water" (original album) Dougie Wright – drums on "Little Games" (original album) Unidentified – oboe on "White Summer" Mickie Most – producer Notes 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247403	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Terentilius%20Harsa	Gaius Terentilius Harsa	Gaius Terentilius Harsa or Arsa was a Tribune of the Plebs of the Roman Republic in about 462 BC. Life Terentilius agitated for a formal code of laws in the early days of the Roman Republic. He took advantage of the fact that the consuls were away on a campaign against the Volsci to pressure the Roman Senate, controlled by patricians, for the code. The patricians made a show of making peace with Terentilius, but in fact had no intention of codifying the laws at his request. The later Florentine writer Niccolò Machiavelli commented that this was similar to the Florentine 'Ten of War' that was eventually reinstated once the people realized it was the excessive abuse of authority that was despised, not the title or function of the office itself. The story of Terentilius comes to us from one source, Book III of Livy's History. See also Conflict of the Orders Twelve Tables Terentilia gens Notes References Citations Bibliography Machiavelli, Niccolo (1531). The Discourses. Translated by Leslie J. Walker, S.J, revisions by Brian Richardson (2003). London: Penguin Books. External links Ab Urbe Condita, book III, chapter 9 (Latin and English) Ancient Roman jurists Tribunes of the plebs 5th-century BC Romans	[ -0.6198609471321106, -0.4998222887516022, -0.7386397123336792, -0.16640497744083405, -0.179849773645401, 1.2424522638320923, 0.2552163004875183, 0.014025192707777023, -0.24048346281051636, -0.3906691372394562, 0.41070055961608887, -0.20071035623550415, -0.9029141068458557, 0.02090461179614067, 0.31995829939842224, 0.1818545013666153, -0.3767918646335602, 0.33856818079948425, -0.04765594005584717, -0.14616644382476807, 0.37614932656288147, -0.17506341636180878, 0.5230756402015686, -0.39158082008361816, -0.40157604217529297, -0.02686823345720768, -0.03920448571443558, 0.3781430125236511, -0.3214060068130493, -0.7684099674224854, -0.005075467750430107, 0.526604175567627, 0.33500880002975464, -0.5350674986839294, -0.8215218186378479, 0.18820004165172577, 0.537527859210968, -0.11704086512327194, 0.618743360042572, -0.14819860458374023, 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247405	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbill	Crossbill	The crossbill is a genus, Loxia, of birds in the finch family (Fringillidae), with six species. These birds are characterised by the mandibles with crossed tips, which gives the group its English name. Adult males tend to be red or orange in colour, and females green or yellow, but there is much variation. Crossbills are specialist feeders on conifer cones, and the unusual bill shape is an adaptation which enables them to extract seeds from cones. These birds are typically found in higher northern hemisphere latitudes, where their food sources grow. They erupt out of the breeding range when the cone crop fails. Crossbills breed very early in the year, often in winter months, to take advantage of maximum cone supplies. Systematics and evolution The genus Loxia was introduced by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. The name is from the Ancient Greek , "crosswise". The Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner had used the word Loxia for a crossbill in 1555 in his Historiae Animalium. The type species was designated as Loxia curvirostra (red crossbill) by George Robert Gray in 1840. Analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequence data indicates that the crossbills and redpolls share a common ancestor and only diverged during the Tortonian (, Late Miocene). The research suggests that the genera Loxia and Carduelis might be merged into a single genus, for which the name Loxia would then have priority. But this would imply changing the name of a large number of species, and given that the adaptations of the crossbills represent a unique evolutionary path (see Evolutionary grade), it seems more appropriate to split up the genus Carduelis as it had already been done during most of the 20th century. Unfortunately, the fossil record is restricted to a Late Pliocene () species, Loxia patevi, found at Varshets, Bulgaria. The species of crossbills are difficult to separate, and care is needed even with the two-barred and Hispaniolan crossbills, the easiest. The other species are identified by subtle differences in head shape and bill size, and the identification problems formerly led to much taxonomic speculation, with some scientists considering that the parrot and Scottish crossbills and possibly the Hispaniolan and two-barred crossbills are conspecific. The identification problem is least severe in North America, where only the red and white-winged species occur, and (possibly) worst in the Scottish Highlands, where three species breed and the two-barred is also a possible vagrant. Work on vocalization in North America suggests that there are eight or nine discrete populations of red crossbill in that continent alone, which do not interbreed and are (like the named species) adapted to specialise in different conifer species. While several ornithologists seem inclined to give these forms species status, no division of the American red crossbills has yet occurred. Preliminary investigations in Europe and Asia suggest an equal, if not greater, complexity, with several different call types identified; these call types being as different from each other as from the named species of the parrot and Scottish crossbills - suggesting either that they are valid species, or else that the parrot and Scottish crossbills may not be. Genetic research on their DNA failed to reveal any difference between any of the crossbills (including the morphologically distinct two-barred), with variation between individuals greater than any difference between the taxa. This led to the suggestion that limited interbreeding between the different types prevented significant genetic differentiation, and enabled each type to maintain a degree of morphological plasticity, which may be necessary to enable them to feed on different conifers when their preferred food species has a crop failure. Research in Scotland, however, has shown that the parrot and Scottish crossbills are reproductively isolated from each other and also from the red crossbill, despite irruption of that species into their ranges, and the diagnostic calls and bill dimensions have not been lost. They are, therefore, good species. Currently accepted species and their preferred food sources are: Originally, the chestnut-backed sparrow-lark (Eremopterix leucotis) was also classified as belonging within the genus Loxia. Feeding behavior The different species specialise in feeding on different conifer species, with the bill shape optimised for opening that species of conifer. This is achieved by inserting the bill between the conifer cone scales and twisting the lower mandible towards the side to which it crosses, enabling the bird to extract the seed at the bottom of the scale with its tongue. The mechanism by which the bill-crossing (which usually, but not always, occurs in a 1:1 frequency of left-crossing or right-crossing morphs) is developed, and what determines the direction has hitherto withstood all attempts to resolve it. It is very probable that there is a genetic basis underlying the phenomenon (young birds whose bills are still straight will give a cone-opening behavior if their bills are gently pressed, and the crossing develops before the birds are fledged and feeding independently), but at least in the red crossbill (the only species which has been somewhat thoroughly researched regarding this question) there is no straightforward mechanism of heritability. While the direction of crossing seems to be the result of at least three genetic factors working together in a case of epistasis and most probably autosomal, it is not clear whether the 1:1 frequency of both morphs in most cases is the result of genetics or environmental selection. Populations that feed on cones without removing or twisting them will likely show a 1:1 morph distribution, no matter what the genetic basis may be: the fitness of each morph is inversely proportional to its frequency in the population. Such birds can only access the cone with the lower mandible tip pointing towards it to successfully extract seeds, and thus a too high number of birds of one morph will result in the food availability for each bird of this morph decreasing. They can utilise other conifers to their preferred, and often need to do so when their preferred species has a crop failure, but are less efficient in their feeding (not enough to prevent survival, but probably enough to reduce breeding success). Fossil record Loxia patevi was described from the late Pliocene of Varshets, Bulgaria. References External links Crossbill videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection Extant Tortonian first appearances	[ 0.0726008489727974, 0.10535743087530136, -0.22969713807106018, -0.17986083030700684, 0.19315628707408905, 1.193303108215332, 0.47283121943473816, 0.36889517307281494, -0.6070747375488281, -0.5191040635108948, 0.10310953855514526, 0.29412806034088135, -0.6902251839637756, -0.11336059123277664, -0.3562564551830292, 0.8839430212974548, 0.2633056342601776, 0.10440171509981155, -0.049296267330646515, -0.9592493176460266, -0.1802317500114441, -0.8026720881462097, 0.4895651936531067, -0.7119303941726685, 0.30757778882980347, 0.27931562066078186, 0.2055390328168869, 0.7336809635162354, 0.6253356337547302, 0.6992756724357605, 0.42811957001686096, 1.1067596673965454, 0.6678876280784607, 0.130242720246315, 0.05118904635310173, 0.12873491644859314, -0.10660437494516373, -0.4793040454387665, 0.21286635100841522, -0.9612305164337158, 0.7819992899894714, 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247406	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubians	Nubians	Nubians () (Nobiin: Nobī) are an ethno-linguistic group of people who are indigenous to the region which is now northern Sudan and southern Egypt. They originate from the early inhabitants of the central Nile valley, believed to be one of the earliest cradles of civilization. They speak Nubian languages, part of the Northern Eastern Sudanic languages. Early Neolithic settlements have been found in the central Nubian region dating back to 7000 BC, with Wadi Halfa believed to be the oldest settlement in the central Nile valley. Parts of Nubia, particularly Lower Nubia, were at times a part of ancient Pharaonic Egypt and at other times a rival state representing parts of Meroë or the Kingdom of Kush. By the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (744 BC–656 BC), all of Egypt was united with Nubia, extending down to what is now Khartoum. However, In 656 BC the native Twenty-sixth Dynasty regained control of Egypt. As warriors, the ancient Nubians were famous for their skill and precision with the bow and arrow. In the Middle Ages, the Nubians converted to Christianity and established three kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, Makuria in the center, and Alodia in the south. They then converted to Islam during the Islamization of the Sudan region. Today, Nubians in Egypt primarily live in southern Egypt, especially in Kom Ombo and Nasr al-nuba north of Aswan, and large cities such as Cairo, while Sudanese Nubians live in northern Sudan, particularly in the region between the city of Wadi Halfa on the Egypt–Sudan border and al Dabbah. Some Nubians migrated to Khashm el Girba and New Halfa. Additionally, several groups known as the Hill Nubians live in the northern Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan state, Sudan. The main Nubian groups from north to south are the Kenzi (Nobiin: Matōki), Faadicha (Halfawi) (Nobiin: Fadīja), Sukkot, Mahas (Nobiin: Mahássi), and Danagla. There also exist two large tribes of fully arabized Nubians who inhabit Northern Sudan - these groups are known as the Shaigiya (Nobiin: Šaigē) and Ja'alin. Etymology Throughout history various parts of Nubia were known by different names, including "Land of the Bow", tꜣ nḥsj, jꜣm "Kerma", jrṯt, sṯjw, wꜣwꜣt, Meroitic: akin(e) «Lower "Nubia"» and qes(a), qos(a) "Kush", and Greek Aethiopia. The origin of the names Nubia and Nubian are contested. What is more certain is that they ultimately denote geographical provenance rather than ethnic origin. Based on cultural traits, many scholars believe Nubia is derived from the "gold". The Roman Empire used the term "Nubia" to describe the area of Upper Egypt and northern Sudan. Another etymology traces the toponym to a distinct group of people, the Noubai, who in more recent times inhabited the area that would become known as Nubia. The derivation of the term "Nubian" has also been associated with the Greek historian Strabo, who referred to the Nubas people. History The prehistory of Nubia dates to the Paleolithic around 300,000 years ago. By about 6000 BC, peoples in the region had developed an agricultural economy. They began using a system of writing relatively late in their history, when they adopted the Egyptian hieroglyphic system. Ancient history in Nubia is categorized according to the following periods: A-Group culture (3700–2800 BC), C-Group culture (2300–1600), Kerma culture (2500–1500), Nubian contemporaries of the New Kingdom (1550–1069), the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (1000–653), Napata (1000–275), Meroë (275 BC–300/350 AD), Makuria (340–1317), Nobatia (350–650), and Alodia (600s–1504). The linguistic affinities of early Nubian cultures are uncertain. Some research has suggested that the early inhabitants of the Nubia region, during the C-Group and Kerma cultures were speakers of languages belonging to the Berber and Cushitic branches respectively, of the Afroasiatic family. More recent research instead suggests that the people of the Kerma culture spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch, and that the peoples of the C-Group culture to their north spoke Cushitic languages. They were succeeded by the first Nubian language speakers, whose tongues belonged to another branch of Eastern Sudanic languages within the Nilo-Saharan phylum. A 4th-century victory stela commemorative of Axumite king Ezana contains inscriptions describing two distinct population groups dwelling in ancient Nubia: a "red" population and a "black" population. Although Egypt and Nubia have a shared pre-dynastic and pharaonic history, the two histories diverge with the fall of Ancient Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. At this point, the area of land between the 1st and the 6th cataract of the Nile became known as Nubia. Egypt was conquered first by the Persians and named the Satrapy (Province) of Mudriya, and two centuries later by the Greeks and then the Romans. During the latter period, however, the Kushites formed the kingdom of Meroë, which was ruled by a series of legendary Candaces or Queens. Mythically, the Candace of Meroë was able to intimidate Alexander the Great into retreat with a great army of elephants, while historical documents suggest that the Nubians defeated the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar, resulting in a favorable peace treaty for Meroë. The kingdom of Meroë also defeated the Persians, and later Christian Nubia defeated the invading Arab armies on three different occasions resulting in the 600 year peace treaty of Baqt, the longest lasting treaty in history. The fall of the kingdom of Christian Nubia occurred in the early 1500s resulting in full Islamization and reunification with Egypt under the Ottoman Empire, the Muhammad Ali dynasty, and British colonial rule. After the 1956 independence of Sudan from Egypt, Nubia and the Nubian people became divided between Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan. Modern Nubians speak Nubian languages, Eastern Sudanic languages that is part of the Nilo-Saharan family. The Old Nubian language is attested from the 8th century, and is the oldest recorded language of Africa outside of the Afroasiatic family. It was the language of the Noba nomads who occupied the Nile between the First and Third Cataracts and also of the Makorae nomads who occupied the land between the Third and Fourth Cataracts, following the collapse of the Kingdom of Kush sometime in the fourth century. The Makorae were a separate tribe who eventually conquered or inherited the lands of the Noba: they established a Byzantine-influenced state called the Makuria, which administered the Noba lands separately as the eparchy of Nobatia. Nobadia was converted to Miaphysitism by the Orthodox priest Julian and Longinus of Constantinople, and thereafter received its bishops from the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Nubia consisted of four regions with varied agriculture and landscapes. The Nile river and its valley were found in the north and central parts of Nubia, allowing farming using irrigation. The western Sudan had a mixture of peasant agriculture and nomadism. Eastern Sudan had primarily nomadism, with a few areas of irrigation and agriculture. Finally, there was the fertile pastoral region of the south, where Nubia's larger agricultural communities were located. Nubia was dominated by kings from clans that controlled the gold mines. Trade in exotic goods from other parts of Africa (ivory, animal skins) passed to Egypt through Nubia. Language Modern Nubians speak Nubian languages. They belong to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan phylum. But there is some uncertainty regarding the classification of the languages spoken in Nubia in antiquity. There is some evidence that Cushitic languages were spoken in parts of Lower (northern) Nubia, an ancient region which straddles present-day Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan, and that Eastern Sudanic languages were spoken in Upper and Central Nubia, before the spread of Eastern Sudanic languages even further north into Lower Nubia. Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst (2000) suggest that the ancient peoples of the C-Group and Kerma civilizations spoke Afroasiatic languages of the Berber and Cushitic branches, respectively. They propose that the Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of Berber or proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including the terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk. This in turn, is interpreted to suggest that the C-Group and Kerma populations, who inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers, spoke Afroasiatic languages. Claude Rilly (2010, 2016) and Julien Cooper (2017) on the other hand, suggest that the Kerma peoples (of Upper Nubia) spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch, possibly ancestral to the later Meroitic language, which Rilly also suggests was Nilo-Saharan. Rilly also considers evidence of significant early Afro-Asiatic influence, especially Berber, on Nobiin to be weak (and where present, more likely due to borrowed loanwords than substrata), and considers evidence of substratal influence on Nobiin from an earlier now extinct Eastern Sudanic language to be stronger. Julien Cooper (2017) suggests that Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudan branch were spoken by the people of Kerma, those further south along the Nile, to the west, and those of Saï (an island to the north of Kerma), but that Afro-Asiatic (most likely Cushitic) languages were spoken by other peoples in Lower Nubia (such as the Medjay and the C-Group culture) living in Nubian regions north of Saï toward Egypt and those southeast of the Nile in Punt in the Eastern dessert. Based partly on an analysis of the phonology of place names and personal names from the relevant regions preserved in ancient texts, he argues that the terms from "Kush" and "Irem" (ancient names for Kerma and the region south of it respectively) in Egyptian texts display traits typical of Eastern Sudanic languages, while those from further north (in Lower Nubia) and east are more typical of the Afro-Asiatic family, noting: "The Irem-list also provides a similar inventory to Kush, placing this firmly in an Eastern Sudanic zone. These Irem/Kush-lists are distinctive from the Wawat-, Medjay-, Punt-, and Wetenet-lists, which provide sounds typical to Afroasiatic languages." It is also uncertain to which language family the ancient Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the Egyptian language, belongs to the Afroasiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics, which, she argues, are similar to those of the Afroasiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Claude Rilly proposes, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, that Meroitic, like the Nobiin language, belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family. Modern Nubians The descendants of the ancient Nubians still inhabit the general area of what was ancient Nubia. They currently live in what is called Old Nubia, mainly located in modern Egypt and Sudan. Nubians have been resettled in large numbers (an estimated 50,000 people) away from Wadi Halfa North Sudan in to Khashm el Girba - Sudan and some moved to Southern Egypt since the 1960s, when the Aswan High Dam was built on the Nile, flooding ancestral lands. Most Nubians nowadays work in Egyptian and Sudanese cities. Whereas Arabic was once only learned by Nubian men who travelled for work, it is increasingly being learned by Nubian women who have access to school, radio and television. Nubian women are working outside the home in increasing numbers. During the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt employed Nubian people as codetalkers. Culture Nubians have developed a common identity, which has been celebrated in poetry, novels, music and storytelling. Nubians in modern Sudan include the Danagla around Dongola Reach, the Mahas from the Third Cataract to Wadi Halfa, and the Sikurta around Aswan. These Nubians write using their own script. They also practice scarification: Mahas men and women have three scars on each cheek, while the Danaqla wear these scars on their temples. Younger generations appear to be abandoning this custom. Nubia's ancient cultural development was influenced by its geography. It is sometimes divided into Upper Nubia and Lower Nubia. Upper Nubia was where the ancient Kingdom of Napata (the Kush) was located. Lower Nubia has been called "the corridor to Africa", where there was contact and cultural exchange between Nubians, Egyptians, Greeks, Assyrians, Romans, and Arabs. Lower Nubia was also where the Kingdom of Meroe flourished. The languages spoken by modern Nubians are based on ancient Sudanic dialects. From north to south, they are: Kenuz, Fadicha (Matoki), Sukkot, Mahas, Danagla. Kerma, Nepata and Meroe were Nubia's largest population centres. The rich agricultural lands of Nubia supported these cities. Ancient Egyptian rulers sought control of Nubia's wealth, including gold, and the important trade routes within its territories. Nubia's trade links with Egypt led to Egypt's domination over Nubia during the New Kingdom period. The emergence of the Kingdom of Meroe in the 8th century BC led to Egypt being under the control of Nubian rulers for a century, although they preserved many Egyptian cultural traditions. Nubian kings were considered pious scholars and patrons of the arts, copying ancient Egyptian texts and even restoring some Egyptian cultural practices. After this, Egypt's influence declined greatly. Meroe became the centre of power for Nubia and cultural links with other parts of Africa gained greater influence. Religion Today, Nubians practice Islam. To a certain degree, Nubian religious practices involve a syncretism of Islam and traditional folk beliefs. In ancient times, Nubians practiced a mixture of traditional religion and Egyptian religion. Prior to the spread of Islam, many Nubians practiced Christianity. Beginning in the eighth century, Islam arrived in Nubia, though Christians and Muslims (primarily Arab merchants at this period) lived peacefully together. Over time, the Nubians gradually converted to Islam, beginning with the Nubian elite. Islam was mainly spread via Sufi preachers that settled in Nubia in the late 14th century onwards. By the sixteenth century, most of the Nubians were Muslim. Ancient Nepata was an important religious centre in Nubia. It was the location of Gebel Barkal, a massive sandstone hill resembling a rearing cobra in the eyes of the ancient inhabitants. Egyptian priests declared it to be the home of the ancient deity Amun, further enhancing Nepata as an ancient religious site. This was the case for both Egyptians and Nubians. Egyptian and Nubian deities alike were worshipped in Nubia for 2,500 years, even while Nubia was under the control of the New Kingdom of Egypt. Nubian kings and queens were buried near Gebel Barkal, in pyramids as the Egyptian pharaohs were. Nubian pyramids were built at Gebel Barkal, at Nuri (across the Nile from Gebel Barkal), at El Kerru, and at Meroe, south of Gebel Barkal. Architecture Modern Nubian architecture in Sudan is distinctive, and typically features a large courtyard surrounded by a high wall. A large, ornately decorated gate, preferably facing the Nile, dominates the property. Brightly colored stucco is often decorated with symbols connected with the family inside, or popular motifs such as geometric patterns, palm trees, or the evil eye that wards away bad luck. Nubians invented the Nubian vault, a type of curved surface forming a vaulted structure. Genetics Y-DNA Y-DNA analysis by Hassan et al. (2008) on a sample of 39 Nubians found that: Around 17 (44%) of his Nubian samples from Sudan carried haplogroup J 9 (23%) belonged to the haplogroup E1b1b clade Both of these paternal lineages are also common among local Afroasiatic-speaking populations. The next most frequent haplogroups borne by Nubians were: 4 (10%) haplogroup R1b 4 (10%) haplogroup F 3 (8%) haplogroup B 2 (5%) haplogroup I M-DNA Regarding the M-DNA lineages, Hassan (2009) found that approximately 83% of their Nubian samples carried various subclades of the Africa-centered macrohaplogroup L. Of these, the most frequent were: 30.8% L3 20.6% L0a 10.3% L2 6.9% L1 6.9% L4 6.9% L5 The remaining 17% of Nubians belonged to sublineages of Eurasian macrohaplogroups: 6.8% haplogroup M (3.4% M/D, 3.4% M1) 3.4% haplogroup N1a 3.4% haplogroup R0 3.4% haplogroup R/haplogroup U6a1) In 2010, Amy Non, analysing a different group of Nubian individuals in Sudan, found identical, but higher frequencies of the Eurasian macrohaplogroups M and N: 16% belonged to the M clade (around 9% to M1), with the rest bearing N subhaplogroups: approximately 8% haplogroup R0 3% haplogroup T1a 1% haplogroup H The remaining 63% of Nubians carried various Africa-centered macrohaplogroup, majority being L(xM,N) derivatives, with about 11% of individuals specifically belonging to the L2a1 subclade. Autosomal DNA Dobon et al. (2015) identified an ancestral autosomal component of West Eurasian origin that is common to many Sudanese Arabs, Nubians and Afroasiatic-speaking populations in the region. Nubians were found to be genetically modelled similar to their Cushitic and Semitic (Afro-Asiatic) neighbors (such as the Beja, Sudanese Arabs, and Ethiopians) rather than to other Nilo-Saharan speakers who lack this Middle Eastern/North African influence. The study showed that these populations formed a "North-East cluster", which included Northern Sudanese. This may be explained by the aforementioned groups being a mixture of a population similar to Modern Coptic Egyptians, and an ancestral Southern African one. Hollfelder et al. (2017) analysed various populations in Sudan and observed close autosomal affinities between their Nubian and Sudanese Arab samples. The authors concluded that the "Nubians can be seen as a group with substantial genetic material relating to Nilotes that later received much gene-flow from Eurasians and East Africans. The strongest admixture came from Eurasian populations and was likely quite extensive: 39.41%-47.73%." Sirak et al. (2015) analysed the ancient DNA of a Christian-period inhabitant of Kulubnarti in northern Nubia near the Egyptian border. They found that this individual was most closely related to Middle Eastern populations. Further excavations of two Early Christian period (AD 550-800) cemeteries at Kulubnarti, one located on the mainland and the other on an island, revealed the existence of two ancestrally and socioeconomically distinct local populations. Preliminary results, including mitochondrial haplogroup analysis, suggests there may be substantial differences in the genetic composition between the two communities, with 70% of individuals from the island cemetery demonstrating African-based haplogroups (L2, L1, and L5), compared to only 36.4% of mainlanders, who instead show an increased prevalence of European and Near Eastern haplogroups (including K1, H, I5, and U1). Ancient DNA Sirak et al. 2021 obtained and analyzed the whole genomes of 66 individuals from the site of Kulubnarti situated between the 2nd and 3rd cataract and dated to the Christian Period between 650 and 1000 CE. The samples were obtained from two cemeteries R and S. Grave materials between the two cemeteries did not differ, but physical analyses of the remains found differences in morbidity and mortality indicating that the R cemetery individuals were of a higher social class than the Cemetery S individuals. The study analyzed the data they obtained along with other published ancient and modern samples from Africa and West Eurasia. The ancient Nubians' genetic profile was found to be a mixture between West Eurasian and Sub Saharan Dinka-related ancestries. The samples were estimated to have ~60% West Eurasian related ancestry that likely came from ancient Egyptians but ultimately resembles that found in Bronze or Iron age Levantines. And they carried ~40% Dinka-related ancestry. The study commented that the results reflect deep biological connections among the populations of the Nile Valley and further confirm the presence of West Eurasian ancestry in the Nile valley prior to Arab migrations. The two cemeteries showed minimal differences in their West Eurasian/Dinka ancestry proportions, formed a genetic clade with each other in relation to other populations, and had a small FST value of 0.0013 reflecting a small genetic distance. These findings in addition to multiple cross cemetery relatives that the analyses have revealed indicate that people of both the R and S cemeteries were part of the same population despite the archaeological and anthropological differences between the two burials showing social stratification. The study found some difference in Y haplogroups profiles between the two cemeteries with the S cemetery having more west asian clades. the difference was found to be insignificant, and the study viewed it as likely to be a statistical fluctuation and not evidence of heterogeneity among males from the two cemeteries. Regarding modern Nubians, despite their superficial resemblance to the Kulubnarti Nubians on the PCA, they were not found to be descended from Kulubnarti Nubians without additional later admixtures. modern Nubians were found to have an increase in Sub-Saharan ancestry along with a change in their west Eurasian ancestry from that found in the ancient samples. Notable Nubians Alara of Kush, founder of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Taharqa, Pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Amanitore, Kandake (queen) of the Kingdom of Kush centered on Meroë Silko, 6th century King of the Noubades and all of the Ethiopians, associated with the Christianization of Nubia Qalidurut, 7th century King of Makuria, signed the Baqt Merkourios, 8th century King of Dotawo, unifier of Nobatia and Makuria, referred to as the New Constantine by John the Deacon Moses Georgios of Makuria, titled "king of Alodia, Makuria, Nobadia, Dalmatia[g] and Axioma.", mostly known for his conflict with Ayyubids Jaafar an-Nimeiry, former Sudanese president Mohamed Mounir, Egyptian Nubian Singer, known as The King Mohammed Wardi, Sudanese Nubian singer. Mo Ibrahim, Sudanese-British mobile communications entrepreneur and billionaire Hamza El Din, Singer and musicologist Khalil Kalfat, Literary critic, political and economic thinker and writer Abdallah Khalil, Ex-Sudanese Prime Minister, co-founder of the White Flag League, co-Founder and ex-general secretary of the Umma Party Mohamed Hussein Tantawi Soliman, Egyptian Field Marshal and statesman, commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces, de facto head of state of Egypt Muhammad Ahmad, 19th century Sufi sheikh and Revolutionary leader of the Ansar Osama Abdul Latif, a Sudanese businessman, chairman of DAL Group Idris Ali, Egyptian novelist and short story writer Fathi Hassan, Painter Ali Ghazal, Egyptian footballer Ali Hassan Kuban, Singer Mowaia Bashir Yagoub Mustafa Ather El Tahir Taha Abdelmagid See also Barabra is an old ethnographical term for the Nubian peoples of Sudan and southern Egypt. Nubian wig worn by the affluent society of ancient Egypt References Inline citations General references Black Pharaohs - National Geographic Feb 2008 External links Nubian people history Johanna Granville "Nubians of Egypt and Sudan Past and Present" Nubians by Abubakr Sidahmed Nubians Use Hip-hop to Preserve Culture - Sudan Tribune "The Forgotten Minorities: Egypt's Nubians and Amazigh in the Amended Constitution" Nubia Indigenous peoples of East Africa Indigenous peoples of North Africa Ethnic groups in Sudan Ethnic groups in Egypt Ethnic groups in the Arab world Sudanese people of Nubian descent Ancient peoples	[ 0.6153128147125244, 0.2004295438528061, -1.4570252895355225, -0.48989617824554443, -0.19530047476291656, 0.7000205516815186, 0.3789413571357727, 0.6378547549247742, -0.22466467320919037, -0.14063453674316406, -0.36854586005210876, 0.02011815644800663, -0.4055885076522827, 0.4593512713909149, 0.2965664267539978, 0.4789482355117798, 0.015727391466498375, 0.2536504566669464, 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247409	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lien	Lien	A lien ( or ) is a form of security interest granted over an item of property to secure the payment of a debt or performance of some other obligation. The owner of the property, who grants the lien, is referred to as the lienee and the person who has the benefit of the lien is referred to as the lienor or lien holder. The etymological root is Anglo-French lien, loyen "bond", "restraint", from Latin ligamen, from ligare "to bind". In the United States, the term lien generally refers to a wide range of encumbrances and would include other forms of mortgage or charge. In the US, a lien characteristically refers to nonpossessory security interests (see generally: ). In other common-law countries, the term lien refers to a very specific type of security interest, being a passive right to retain (but not sell) property until the debt or other obligation is discharged. In contrast to the usage of the term in the US, in other countries it refers to a purely possessory form of security interest; indeed, when possession of the property is lost, the lien is released. Equitable lien In common-law countries, equitable liens give rise to unique and difficult issues. An equitable lien is a nonpossessory security right conferred by operation of law, which is similar in effect to an equitable charge. It differs from a charge in that it is non-consensual. It is conferred only in very limited circumstances, the most common (and least ambiguous) of which is in relation to the sale of land; an unpaid vendor has an equitable lien over the land for the purchase price, notwithstanding that the purchaser has gone into occupation of the property. It is seen as a counterweight to the equitable rule which confers a beneficial interest in the land on the purchaser once contracts are exchanged for purchase. It is a matter of conjecture how far equitable liens extend outside of the unpaid vendor's lien. Equitable liens have been held to exist in a number of cases involving choses in action, but not yet in relation to chattels. The Australian courts have been the most receptive towards equitable liens in relation to personal property (see Hewett v Court (1983) 57 ALJR 211), but a review of the cases still leaves a lack of clarity in relation to the principles upon which an equitable lien will be imposed. In Re Stucley [1906] 1 Ch 67, a vendor of a reversionary interest in a trust fund, who sold the interest to the trustee, was held to have an equitable lien in the subject matter, although it was clearly personalty and not realty. In Barker v Cox (1876) 4 Ch D 464, the purchaser of property which was included in a matrimonial settlement paid the price in advance to one of the trustees, and the purchaser was held to have an equitable lien in investments which the trustees subsequently acquired with the purchase price. In Langen and Wing v Bell [1972] Ch 685, a director's service agreement required him to assign his shares in the company if he was terminated, and he was to receive a price calculated at a later date when the annual accounts were available; he was held to have an equitable lien over the transferred shares to secure the payment of the eventual purchase price. In Lord Napier and Ettrick v Hunter [1993] 2 WLR 42, it was held that an indemnity insurer's subrogation rights in relation to funds improperly paid directly to the insured were subject to an equitable lien. But overall, there is still perceived to be a lack of central nexus. Statutory liens and contractual liens Although arguably not liens as such, two other forms of encumbrance are sometimes referred to as liens. Statutory liens Certain statutes provide for a passive right to retain property against its owner as security for obligations. For example, section 88 of the Civil Aviation Act 1982 of the United Kingdom permits an airport to detain aircraft for unpaid airport charges and aviation fuel. Although this right has been treated as a lien under UK insolvency law, it has been argued that such statutory rights are not in fact liens, but rights analogous to liens, although an argument may be made that this is a distinction without a difference. Contractual liens It has also been argued that an agreement by contract that one party may retain the goods of another party until paid is not a lien, as under the common law, liens could only be non-consensual. However, it appears that under insolvency law, such rights will be treated as liens even if they are not expressed to be liens. Maritime liens A maritime lien is a lien on a vessel, given to secure the claim of a creditor who provided maritime services to the vessel or who suffered an injury from the vessel's use. Maritime liens are sometimes referred to as tacit hypothecation. Maritime liens have little in common with other liens under the laws of most jurisdictions. The maritime lien has been described as "one of the most striking peculiarities of Admiralty law". A maritime lien constitutes a security interest upon ships of a nature otherwise unknown to the common law or equity. It arises purely by operation of law and exists as a claim upon the property concerned, both secret and invisible, often given priority by statute over other forms of registered security interest. Although characteristics vary under the laws of different countries, it can be described as: a privileged claim, upon maritime property, for service to it or damage done by it, accruing from the moment that the claim attaches, travelling with the property unconditionally, enforced by an action in rem. Nomenclature Throughout the world, there are a large number of different types and sub-divisions of liens. Not all of the following liens exist in all legal systems that recognise the concept of a lien. The following are descriptions that are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Types of lien include accountant's lien—the right of an accountant to retain a client's papers until the accountant's fees have been paid. agent's lien agister's lien—the lien of an agister over animals in the agister's care as security for fees. agricultural lien (United States)—a statutory lien that protects the seller of farming equipment by giving the seller a lien on crops grown with the equipment. architect's lien—the right of an architect to retain a client's papers until the architect's fees have been paid. attachment lien—a lien on property seized by pre-judgment attachment. attorney's lien—the right of an attorney to retain a client's papers until the attorney's fees have been paid (also referred to as a charging lien, solicitor's lien or a retaining lien in some jurisdictions). banker's lien—the right of a bank to satisfy a customer's matured debt by seizing the customer's money or property within the bank's possession. blanket lien—a lien that gives the lienor the entitlement to take possession of any or all of the lienee's real property to cover a delinquent loan. carrier's lien—a carrier's right to retain possession of cargo until the owner of the cargo pays shipping costs. choate lien (United States)—a lien in which the lienee, the property, and the monetary amount are established so that the lien is perfected and nothing else needs to be done to make the lien enforceable. common-law lien—a lien arising under the common law, rather than by statute, equity or agreement between the parties. concurrent lien—means one of two or more liens over the same property. consummate lien (United States)—a judgment lien arising after the denial of motion for a new trial. conventional lien (United States)—a lien that is created by agreement between the parties, in circumstances where the law would not otherwise create a lien. deferred lien (United States)—a lien that only takes effect from a future date. demurrage lien—a carrier's lien on goods for any unpaid demurrage charges. dragnet lien (United States)—a lien that is enlarged to cover any additional credit extended to the debtor to the same creditor. environmental lien—a charge, security, or encumbrance on a property's title to secure payment of cost or debt arising from response actions, cleanup, or other remediation of hazardous substances or petroleum products. equitable lien—a lien that is enlarged to cover any additional credit extended to the debtor to the same creditor. execution lien—a lien on property seized by levy of execution. factor's lien—a lien, usually statutory, on property held on consignment by a factor. first lien—a lien that takes priority over all other encumbrances over the same property. floating lien (United States)—a lien that is expanded to cover any additional property that is acquired by the lienee while the debt is outstanding (in common-law countries, see Floating charge). garnishment lien—a lien on the debtor's property held by a garnishee. general lien—a possessory lien by which the lien holder may retain any of the debtor's goods in the lien holder's possession until any debt due from the debtor, whether in connection with the retained goods or otherwise, has been paid. Factors, insurance brokers, packers, stockbrokers and banker's liens are all usually general liens. healthcare lien (United States)—a statutory lien asserted by an HMO, insurer, medical group or independent practice association against those liable to the, also its patient in damages, to recover money paid or claim money payable for healthcare services provided (sometimes called a healthcare lien). hospital lien (United States)—a statutory lien asserted by a hospital to recover the costs of emergency and other ongoing medical and other services. hotelkeeper's lien—a possessory or statutory lien allowing an innkeeper to hold, as security for payment, personal property that a guest has brought into the hotel (also referred to as an innkeeper's lien). inchoate lien—a lien that may be defeated if the relevant judgment is vacated or a motion for a new trial is granted. involuntary lien—a lien arising without the lienee's consent. judgment lien—a lien imposed on a judgment debtor's non-exempt property. judicial lien—a lien obtained by judgment, levy, sequestration or other legal or equitable process or proceeding. junior lien—a lien that is junior or subordinate to another lien on the same property. landlord's lien—a lien which empowered a landlord to seize a tenant's property and sell it to satisfy overdue rent. manufacturer's lien—a statutory lien that secures payment for labour or materials expended in producing goods for another. maritime lien—see above. mechanic's lien—also sometimes referred to as an artisan's lien, chattel lien, construction lien, labourer's lien, in various jurisdictions. mineral lien—a lien on working interest that secures payment for labor or materials expended by oilfield service companies. mortgage lien—a lien on the mortgagor's property securing the mortgage. municipal lien (United States)—a lien by a municipal corporation against a property owner for the owner's proportional share of a public improvement that specifically and individually benefits the owner. possessory lien—a lien allowing the creditor to keep possession of the encumbered property until the debt is satisfied. second lien—a lien that is next in rank after a first lien on the same property. secret lien—a lien not appearing of record and unknown to the purchasers; a lien reserved by the vendor and kept hidden from third parties to secure the payment of goods after delivery. solicitor's lien—the right of a solicitor to recover his costs from a client. It is broader than a conventional lien. special lien—a possessory lien by which the possessor of goods has the right to retain specific goods until a debt incurrent in connection with the goods has been paid (also referred to as a particular lien). The opposite of a general lien. statutory lien—a lien arising solely by force of statute. tax lien—a lien on property and all rights to property imposed by the taxing authority for unpaid taxes. vendee's lien—a buyer's lien on the purchased land as security for repayment of purchase money paid in, enforceable if the seller cannot or does not convey good title. vendor's lien—a seller's lien on land as security for the purchase price (sometimes called an unpaid vendor's lien). voluntary lien—a lien created with the lienee's consent. warehouser's lien—a lien for storage charges for goods stored with a bailee (sometimes called a warehouseman's lien). workers' compensation lien—a statutory lien, asserted by a healthcare provider, to recover the cost of emergency and ongoing medical work, usually asserted against any workers'-compensation benefits paid to a patient. See also Bottomry Detinue False lien Mechanic's lien Mortgage Replevin Repossession Security interest—lien Tax lien Notes References Property law Common law legal terminology Business law Property law legal terminology	[ 0.3314087688922882, -0.13793092966079712, 0.2871076464653015, -0.07173704355955124, 0.6294281482696533, -0.18320013582706451, -0.06464836001396179, -0.09056162089109421, -0.22798573970794678, 0.12518776953220367, -0.7743222713470459, 0.7663296461105347, 0.10240671038627625, 0.16998572647571564, -0.4232088625431061, -0.10806044191122055, 0.8831565380096436, 0.6106244325637817, 0.17107103765010834, -0.7237362265586853, -0.6572046875953674, -0.11881673336029053, 0.16315309703350067, -0.6658777594566345, 0.2898627519607544, 0.04213566333055496, 0.17682480812072754, -0.10044144839048386, -0.6332405805587769, -0.03231360763311386, 0.5060006976127625, 0.3396654427051544, -0.046756546944379807, 0.2213882952928543, 0.23540066182613373, 0.3266621232032776, -0.049948111176490784, 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247410	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynodont	Cynodont	The cynodonts () (clade Cynodontia) are a clade of eutheriodont therapsids that first appeared in the Late Permian (approximately 260 Ma), and extensively diversified after the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Cynodonts had a wide variety of lifestyles, including carnivory and herbivory. Mammals (including humans) are cynodonts, as are their extinct ancestors and close relatives, having evolved from advanced probainognathian cynodonts during the Late Triassic. All other cynodont lines went extinct, with the last known non-mammalian cynodont group, the Tritylodontidae having its youngest records in the Early Cretaceous. Description Early cynodonts have many of the skeletal characteristics of mammals. The teeth were fully differentiated and the braincase bulged at the back of the head. Outside of some crown-group mammals (notably the therians), all cynodonts probably laid eggs. The temporal fenestrae were much larger than those of their ancestors, and the widening of the zygomatic arch in a more mammal-like skull would have allowed for more robust jaw musculature. They also have the secondary palate that other primitive therapsids lacked, except the therocephalians, who were the closest relatives of cynodonts. (However, the secondary palate of cynodonts primarily comprises the maxillae and palatines as in mammals, whereas the secondary palate of the therocephalians primarily comprises the maxillae and the vomer.) The dentary was the largest bone in their lower jaw. The cynodonts probably had some form of warm-blooded metabolism. This has led to many reconstructions of cynodonts as having fur. Being endothermic they may have needed it for thermoregulation, but fossil evidence of their fur (or lack thereof) has been elusive. Modern mammals have Harderian glands secreting lipids to coat their fur, but the telltale imprint of this structure is only found from the primitive mammal Morganucodon and onwards. Nonetheless, recent studies on Permian synapsid coprolites show that more basal therapsids may have had fur, and at any rate fur was already present in Mammaliaformes such as Castorocauda and Megaconus. Early cynodonts had numerous small foramina on their snout bones, similar to reptiles. This suggests that they had immobile, non-muscular lips like those of lizards, and lacked muscular cheeks. As a muscular, mobile face is necessary to perform whisking movements and to avoid damage to whiskers, it is unlikely that early cynodonts had whiskers. In prozostrodontian cynodonts, the group that includes mammals, the foramina are replaced by a single large infraorbital foramen, which indicates that the face had become muscular and that whiskers would have been present. Derived cynodonts developed epipubic bones. These served to strengthen the torso and support abdominal and hindlimb musculature, aiding them in the development of an erect gait, but at the expense of prolonged pregnancy, forcing these animals to give birth to highly altricial young as in modern marsupials and monotremes. Only placentals, and perhaps Megazostrodon and Erythrotherium, would lose these. A specimen of Kayentatherium does indeed demonstrate that at least tritylodontids already had a fundamentally marsupial-like reproductive style, but produced much higher litters at around 38 perinates or possibly eggs. Cynodonts are the only known synapsid lineage to have produced aerial locomotors, with gliding and flying being known in haramiyidans and various mammal groups. The largest known non-mammalian cynodont is Scalenodontoides, a traversodontid, which has been estimated to have a maximum skull length of approximately based on a fragmentary specimen. Evolutionary history The closest relatives of cynodonts are therocephalians, with which they form the clade Eutheriodontia. The earliest cynodonts are known early Lopingian (early Wuchiapingian) aged sediments of the Tropidostoma Assemblage Zone, in the Karoo Supergroup of South Africa, belonging to the basal family Charassognathidae. Fossils of Permian cynodonts are relatively rare outside of South Africa, with the most widely distributed genus being Procynosuchus, which is known from South Africa, Germany, Tanzania, Zambia, and possibly Russia. Cynodonts expanded rapidly in diversity after the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Post-Early Triassic cynodonts were dominated by members of the advanced clade Eucynodontia, which has two main subdivisions, the predominantly herbivorous Cynognathia and the predominantly carnivorous Probainognathia. During the Early and Middle Triassic, cynodont diversity was dominated by members of Cynognathia, and members of Probainognathia would not become prominent until the Late Triassic (early Norian). Almost all Middle Triassic cynodonts are known from Gondwana, with only one genus (Nanogomphodon) having been found in the Northern Hemisphere. Among the most dominant groups of Middle and Late Triassic cynodonts is the herbivorous Traversodontidae, predominantly in Gondwana, which reached a peak diversity in the Late Triassic. Mammaliaformes originated from probainognathian cynodonts during the Late Triassic. Early Mammaliaformes were small bodied insectivores. Only two groups of non-mammaliaform cynodonts existed beyond the end of the Triassic, both belonging to Probainognathia. The first is the insectivorous Tritheledontidae, which briefly lasted into the Early Jurassic. The second is the herbivorous Tritylodontidae, which first appeared in the latest Triassic, which were abundant and diverse during the Jurassic, predominantly in the Northern Hemisphere, persisted into the Early Cretaceous in Asia. The geologically youngest known tritylodontid is Fossiomanus from the 120 million years old Jiufotang Formation of China. During their evolution, the number of cynodont jaw bones reduced. This move towards a single bone for the mandible paved the way for other bones in the jaw, the articular and angular, to migrate to the cranium, where they function as parts of the mammalian hearing system. Cynodonts also developed a secondary palate in the roof of the mouth. This caused air flow from the nostrils to travel to a position in the back of the mouth instead of directly through it, allowing cynodonts to chew and breathe at the same time. This characteristic is present in all mammals. Taxonomy Richard Owen named Cynodontia in 1861, which he assigned to Anomodontia as a family. Robert Broom (1913) reranked Cynodontia as an infraorder, since retained by others, including Colbert and Kitching (1977), Carroll (1988), Gauthier et al. (1989), and Rubidge and Cristian Sidor (2001). Olson (1966) assigned Cynodontia to Theriodontia, Colbert and Kitching (1977) to Theriodontia, and Rubridge and Sidor (2001) to Eutheriodontia. William King Gregory (1910), Broom (1913), Carroll (1988), Gauthier et al. (1989), Hopson and Kitching (2001) and Botha et al. (2007) all considered Cynodontia as belonging to Therapsida. Botha et al. (2007) seems to have followed Owen (1861), but without specifying taxonomic rank. Phylogeny Below is a cladogram from Ruta, Botha-Brink, Mitchell and Benton (2013) showing one hypothesis of cynodont relationships: Distribution Cynodonts have been found in South America, India, Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe and North America. See also Permian–Triassic extinction event Prehistoric mammal Tetrapod Triassic-Jurassic extinction event References Further reading Davis, Dwight (1961). "Origin of the Mammalian Feeding Mechanism". Am. Zoologist, 1:229–234. External links Palaeos cynodonts Phylogeny of Theriodonts and Cynodonts Bennett and Ruben 1986. 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247412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucynodontia	Eucynodontia	Eucynodontia ("true dog teeth") is a clade of cynodont therapsids including mammals and most non-mammalian cynodonts. The oldest eucynodonts are known from the Early Triassic and possibly Late Permian. Eucynodontia includes two major subgroups, Cynognathia and Probainognathia. The clade was named in 1982 by Thomas Kemp, who defined it as all cynodonts more derived than Thrinaxodon. In 2001, Hopson and Kitching redefined the clade Eucynodontia as the least inclusive group containing Mammalia and Exaeretodon. References Cynodonts Extant Early Triassic first appearances	[ 0.19398872554302216, 0.6672192215919495, -0.6282818913459778, -0.026763763278722763, -0.15988461673259735, 1.1154931783676147, 0.41749799251556396, 0.13213279843330383, 0.040263622999191284, -0.38440996408462524, -0.02182503044605255, 0.5619251728057861, -0.08740103244781494, 0.4469592273235321, -0.23283469676971436, 0.33090493083000183, 0.117457315325737, 0.4722115695476532, 0.48125597834587097, -0.2868736684322357, -0.277017205953598, -0.8372547030448914, 0.4160591661930084, -0.33807557821273804, 0.10054092109203339, 0.2034115493297577, 0.5813315510749817, 0.6186457872390747, 0.5998528003692627, -0.47251948714256287, -0.15352405607700348, 0.4801997244358063, 0.12772370874881744, -0.42322272062301636, -0.09568490087985992, -0.21495231986045837, -0.7391970753669739, -0.5333217978477478, -0.624756932258606, -0.6465486884117126, 0.015365827828645706, 0.35775649547576904, -0.17488417029380798, 1.0167893171310425, 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247413	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C4%8D%C3%ADn	Jičín	Jičín (; or Gitschin) is a town in the Hradec Králové Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 17,000 inhabitants. The town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation. The town's history is connected with Albrecht von Wallenstein who had rebuilt the town, and many sights bear his name. Administrative parts Jičín is made up of town parts of Holínské Předměstí, Nové Město, Pražské Předměstí, Sedličky, Soudná, Staré Město and Valdické Předměstí, and villages of Dvorce, Hubálov, Moravčice, Popovice and Robousy. Geography Jičín lies approximately northeast of Prague. It is sometimes called "Gate to the Bohemian Paradise", however the territory of the Bohemian Paradise region begins beyond the borders of Jičín municipal territory. Jičín is located on the Cidlina river. Several other small watercources also flows through the territory, including streams Valdický, Popovický, Úlibický, and Trnávka. There are five ponds in the territory, the largest of them is Šibeňák. Ponds Kníže and Šibeňák are located right in the urban area. The highest point of the territory is the hill Zebín with an altitude of . In the northern part there are two natural monuments, Zebín (comprising the hill's peak) and Libosad-obora (comprising the whole Libosad park). Etymology The origin of the name Jičín is unknown, but according to the most probable hypotheses, it was derived from the German name of Queen Judith of Habsburg Guta, or from Dičín, derived from the Old Czech word dík (meaning "wild boar", of which many lived here). History The area of Jičín is inhabited almost 8,000 years thanks to the convenient geographical and climatic conditions. The settlement in the area of today's town is first mentioned in 1143 in deed of foundation of the Strahov Monastery. The town of Jičín was founded in the 13th century on the place of the village Staré Místo near the Veliš Castle. It was moved northward to its present location shortly afterward, which was better protected by the Cidlina River. The first written mention of Jičín comes from a document by Queen Judith of Habsburg, the wife of King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia, dated 1 August 1293. The town was built with a regular street layout around a rectangular square and was surrounded by wooden fortifications with reinforced bastions and a trench. Jičín was first the royal town, but in 1337 King John of Bohemia sold it to the Wartenberg family, who owned it until the middle of the 15th century. The Hussite Wars did not affect the town much. During the 15th century, Jičín changed its lords several times until 1487, when it became a property of the House of Trčka of Lípa. With the succession of Vilém Trčka in 1540, the town began to be rebuilt in stone. The fortifications were rebuilt as well, with three gates connecting the centre with peripheries: the western Pražská Gate, the northern Holínská Gate, and the eastern Valdická Gate (1568–1578), which is the only one preserved today. After a large fire in 1572, most of the wooden houses were replaced by stone Renaissance buildings, often decorated with sgrafitti; the parish church was rebuilt as well. In 1587, Burjan Trčka had built a small castle. In 1607, Jičín was acquired by Zikmund Smiřický. The Smiřický family had built here a new larger castle, which replaced the castle of the Trčka family. The biggest expansion of the town started in 1621 during the Thirty Years' War, when the town became a property of the generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein, who made it the centre of his Duchy of Friedland and minted his own coins there. Several architects worked for him, notably Giovanni de Galliano Pieroni, Giovanni Battista Marini, Andrea Spezza, and Nicolo Sebregondi. He had the castle and the Church of St. James rebuilt completely in the North-Italian style and connected them via a roofed footbridge. The town was to be rebuilt completely into a modern town with separated representative and craftsman parts. The parish Church of St. Ignatius together with the college was given to the Jesuits in 1627. Wallenstein also had a summer house with a court of honor, farm buildings, and a game park built in the northern part of the town near Valdice, and a linden alley along the path leading to the summer house. After the early death of Wallenstein in 1634, the town lost much of its importance. In 1710 the town became a property of the House of Trauttmansdorff, which meant the arrival of the period of High Baroque, during which many constructions were completed. Many statues and sculptures in the town today come from this period. In 1784 Jičín became the seat of a new region. During the first half of the 19th century the town spread quickly, especially eastward. The Battle of Gitschin was fought nearby during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Until 1918, the town was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the Jicin – Jičín District, one of the 94 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Bohemia. Demography Culture Jičín is connected with the popular fairy tale character, Robin Hood-like robber Rumcajs. The town hosts the annual festival called "Jičín – The Town of Fairy Tale" established in 1990. Sights The historic centre is built around a rectangular square with a regular Gothic street layout, remnants of fortifications and arcade Renaissance and Baroque houses. The historic core is formed by Valdštejnské Square, where is the Valdštejnský Castle. The castle houses the Regional Museum and Gallery, a library and an elementary art school, among others. There is also a castle park. Next to the castle is the Church of Saint James the Great. The church, intended as a seat of a never-established bishopric, has never been completed, so it lacks a spire and a cupola. North of the town the is the Baroque summer house of Albrecht von Wallenstein called Valdštejnská Loggia. The original game park around it is nowadays a park called Libosad. The loggia is connected with the town by a -long alley of linden trees. The loggia, the park and the alley together with the town centre are parts of so-called Wallenstein's Baroque composed landscape (designed landscape axes connecting sacral buildings, landscape landmarks and the town) which was unfinished due to early death of von Wallenstein. There are several Jewish sights in the town. The most notable is the former synagogue, which was first documented in 1773. Notable people Jacob Bassevi (1580–1634), Jewish court financier Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634), generalissimo and town lord Josef Gočár (1880–1945), architect František Kaván (1866–1941), painter and poet Karl Kraus (1874–1936), writer Vlastislav Hofman (1884–1964), artist and architect Josef Váchal (1884–1969), writer and painter Jaroslav Řezáč (1886–1974), ice hockey player Michal Suchánek (born 1965), actor and comedian Miluše Bittnerová (born 1977), actress Jana Plodková (born 1981), actress Jaroslav Soukup (born 1982), biathlete Twin towns – sister cities Jičín is twinned with: Erbach im Odenwald, Germany Martin, Slovakia Świdnica County, Poland Gallery References External links Official tourist portal Cities and towns in the Czech Republic Populated places in Jičín District Cultural heritage in the Jičín District History of the Czech Republic by location	[ -0.004208991304039955, 0.2667313516139984, 0.07862477004528046, -0.4760129153728485, -0.20332449674606323, 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247414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chromosomal%20Adam	Y-chromosomal Adam	In human genetics, the Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (Y-MRCA, informally known as Y-chromosomal Adam) is the patrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all currently living humans are descended. He is the most recent male from whom all living humans are descended through an unbroken line of their male ancestors. The term Y-MRCA reflects the fact that the Y chromosomes of all currently living human males are directly derived from the Y chromosome of this remote ancestor. The analogous concept of the matrilineal most recent common ancestor is known as "Mitochondrial Eve" (mt-MRCA, named for the matrilineal transmission of mtDNA), the most recent woman from whom all living humans are descended matrilineally. As with "Mitochondrial Eve", the title of "Y-chromosomal Adam" is not permanently fixed to a single individual, but can advance over the course of human history as paternal lineages become extinct. Estimates of the time when Y-MRCA lived have also shifted as modern knowledge of human ancestry changes. In 2013, the discovery of a previously unknown Y-chromosomal haplogroup was announced, which resulted in a slight adjustment of the estimated age of the human Y-MRCA. By definition, it is not necessary that the Y-MRCA and the mt-MRCA should have lived at the same time. While estimates as of 2014 suggested the possibility that the two individuals may well have been roughly contemporaneous, the discovery of archaic Y-haplogroup has pushed back the estimated age of the Y-MRCA beyond the most likely age of the mt-MRCA. As of 2015, estimates of the age of the Y-MRCA range around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, roughly consistent with the emergence of anatomically modern humans. Y-chromosomal data taken from a Neanderthal from El Sidrón, Spain, produced a Y-T-MRCA of 588,000 years ago for Neanderthal and Homo sapiens patrilineages, dubbed ante Adam, and 275,000 years ago for Y-MRCA. Definition The Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor is the most recent common ancestor of the Y-chromosomes found in currently living human males. Due to the definition via the "currently living" population, the identity of a MRCA, and by extension of the human Y-MRCA, is time-dependent (it depends on the moment in time intended by the term "currently"). The MRCA of a population may move forward in time as archaic lineages within the population go extinct: once a lineage has died out, it is irretrievably lost. This mechanism can thus only shift the title of Y-MRCA forward in time. Such an event could be due to the total extinction of several basal haplogroups. The same holds for the concepts of matrilineal and patrilineal MRCAs: it follows from the definition of Y-MRCA that he had at least two sons who both have unbroken lineages that have survived to the present day. If the lineages of all but one of those sons die out, then the title of Y-MRCA shifts forward from the remaining son through his patrilineal descendants, until the first descendant is reached who had at least two sons who both have living, patrilineal descendants. The title of Y-MRCA is not permanently fixed to a single individual, and the Y-MRCA for any given population would himself have been part of a population which had its own, more remote, Y-MRCA. Although the informal name "Y-chromosomal Adam" is a reference to the biblical Adam, this should not be misconstrued as implying that the bearer of the chromosome was the only human male alive during his time. His other male contemporaries may also have descendants alive today, but not, by definition, through solely patrilineal descent; in other words, none of them have an unbroken male line of descendants (son's son's son's … son) connecting them to currently living people. By the nature of the concept of most recent common ancestors, these estimates can only represent a terminus ante quem ("limit before which"), until the genome of the entire population has been examined (in this case, the genome of all living humans). Age estimate Estimates on the age of the Y-MRCA crucially depend on the most archaic known haplogroup extant in contemporary populations. , this is haplogroup A00 (discovered in 2013). Age estimates based on this published during 2014–2015 range between 160,000 and 300,000 years, compatible with the time of emergence and early dispersal of Homo sapiens. Method In addition to the tendency of the title of Y-MRCA to shift forward in time, the estimate of the Y-MRCA's DNA sequence, his position in the family tree, the time when he lived, and his place of origin, are all subject to future revisions. The following events would change the estimate of who the individual designated as Y-MRCA was: Further sampling of Y chromosomes could uncover previously unknown divergent lineages. If this happens, Y-chromosome lineages would converge on an individual who lived further back in time. The discovery of additional deep rooting mutations in known lineages could lead to a rearrangement of the family tree. Revision of the Y-chromosome mutation rate (see below) can change the estimate of the time when he lived. The time when Y-MRCA lived is determined by applying a molecular clock to human Y-chromosomes. In contrast to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which has a short sequence of 16,000 base pairs, and mutates frequently, the Y chromosome is significantly longer at 60 million base pairs, and has a lower mutation rate. These features of the Y chromosome have slowed down the identification of its polymorphisms; as a consequence, they have reduced the accuracy of Y-chromosome mutation rate estimates. Methods of estimating the age of the Y-MRCA for a population of human males whose Y-chromosomes have been sequenced are based on applying the theories of molecular evolution to the Y chromosome. Unlike the autosomes, the human Y-chromosome does not recombine often with the X chromosome during meiosis, but is usually transferred intact from father to son; however, it can recombine with the X chromosome in the pseudoautosomal regions at the ends of the Y chromosome. Mutations occur periodically within the Y chromosome, and these mutations are passed on to males in subsequent generations. These mutations can be used as markers to identify shared patrilineal relationships. Y chromosomes that share a specific mutation are referred to as haplogroups. Y chromosomes within a specific haplogroup are assumed to share a common patrilineal ancestor who was the first to carry the defining mutation. (This assumption could be mistaken, as it is possible for the same mutation to occur more than once.) A family tree of Y chromosomes can be constructed, with the mutations serving as branching points along lineages. The Y-MRCA is positioned at the root of the family tree, as the Y chromosomes of all living males are descended from his Y chromosome. Researchers can reconstruct ancestral Y chromosome DNA sequences by reversing mutated DNA segments to their original condition. The most likely original or ancestral state of a DNA sequence is determined by comparing human DNA sequences with those of a closely related species, usually non-human primates such as chimpanzees and gorillas. By reversing known mutations in a Y-chromosome lineage, a hypothetical ancestral sequence for the MRCA, Y-chromosomal Adam, can be inferred. Determining the Y-MRCA's DNA sequence, and the time when he lived, involves identifying the human Y-chromosome lineages that are most divergent from each other—the lineages that share the fewest mutations with each other when compared to a non-human primate sequence in a phylogenetic tree. The common ancestor of the most divergent lineages is therefore the common ancestor of all lineages. History of estimates Early estimates of the age for the Y-MRCA published during the 1990s ranged between roughly 200 and 300 thousand years ago (kya), Such estimates were later substantially revised downward, as in Thomson et al. 2000, which proposed an age of about 59,000. This date suggested that the Y-MRCA lived about 84,000 years after his female counterpart mt-MRCA (the matrilineal most recent common ancestor), who lived 150,000–200,000 years ago. This date also meant that Y-chromosomal Adam lived at a time very close to, and possibly after, the migration from Africa which is believed to have taken place 50,000–80,000 years ago. One explanation given for this discrepancy in the time depths of patrilineal vs. matrilineal lineages was that females have a better chance of reproducing than males due to the practice of polygyny. When a male individual has several wives, he has effectively prevented other males in the community from reproducing and passing on their Y chromosomes to subsequent generations. On the other hand, polygyny does not prevent most females in a community from passing on their mitochondrial DNA to subsequent generations. This differential reproductive success of males and females can lead to fewer male lineages relative to female lineages persisting into the future. These fewer male lineages are more sensitive to drift and would most likely coalesce on a more recent common ancestor. This would potentially explain the more recent dates associated with the Y-MRCA. The "hyper-recent" estimate of significantly below 100 kya was again corrected upward in studies of the early 2010s, which ranged at about 120 kya to 160 kya. This revision was due to the rearrangement of the backbone of the Y-chromosome phylogeny following the resequencing of Haplogroup A lineages. In 2013, Francalacci et al. reported the sequencing of male-specific single-nucleotide Y-chromosome polymorphisms (MSY-SNPs) from 1204 Sardinian men, which indicated an estimate of 180,000 to 200,000 years for the common origin of all humans through paternal lineage. or again as high as 180 to 200 kya. Also in 2013, Poznik et al. reported the Y-MRCA to have lived between 120,000 and 156,000 years ago, based on genome sequencing of 69 men from 9 different populations. In addition, the same study estimated the age of Mitochondrial Eve to about 99,000 and 148,000 years. As these ranges overlap for a time-range of 28,000 years (148 to 120 kya), the results of this study have been cast in terms of the possibility that "Genetic Adam and Eve may have walked on Earth at the same time" in the popular press. The announcement by Mendez et al. of the discovery of a previously unknown lineage, haplogroup A00, in 2013, resulted in another shift in the estimate for the age of Y-chromosomal Adam. The authors estimated the split from the other haplogroups at 338,000 years ago (kya) (95% confidence interval 237–581 kya), but later Elhaik et al. (2014) dated it to between 163,900 and 260,200 years ago (95% CI), and Karmin et al. (2015) dated it to between 192,000 and 307,000 years ago (95% CI). The same study reports that non-African populations converge to a cluster of Y-MRCAs in a window close to 50kya (out-of-Africa migration), and an additional bottleneck for non-African populations at about 10kya, interpreted as reflecting cultural changes increasing the variance in male reproductive success (i.e. increased social stratification) in the Neolithic. Family tree Initial sequencing (Karafet et al., 2008) of the human Y chromosome suggested that two most basal Y-chromosome lineages were Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT. Haplogroup A is found at low frequencies in parts of Africa, but is common among certain hunter-gatherer groups. Haplogroup BT lineages represent the majority of African Y-chromosome lineages and virtually all non-African lineages. Y-chromosomal Adam was represented as the root of these two lineages. Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT represented the lineages of Y-chromosomal Adam himself and of one of his sons, who had a new SNP. Cruciani et al. 2011, determined that the deepest split in the Y-chromosome tree was found between two previously reported subclades of Haplogroup A, rather than between Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT. Later, group A00 was found, outside of the previously known tree. The rearrangement of the Y-chromosome family tree implies that lineages classified as Haplogroup A do not necessarily form a monophyletic clade. Haplogroup A therefore refers to a collection of lineages that do not possess the markers that define Haplogroup BT, though Haplogroup A includes the most distantly related Y chromosomes. The M91 and P97 mutations distinguish Haplogroup A from Haplogroup BT. Within Haplogroup A chromosomes, the M91 marker consists of a stretch of 8 T nucleobase units. In Haplogroup BT and chimpanzee chromosomes, this marker consists of 9 T nucleobase units. This pattern suggested that the 9T stretch of Haplogroup BT was the ancestral version and that Haplogroup A was formed by the deletion of one nucleobase. Haplogroups A1b and A1a were considered subclades of Haplogroup A as they both possessed the M91 with 8Ts. But according to Cruciani et al. 2011, the region surrounding the M91 marker is a mutational hotspot prone to recurrent mutations. It is therefore possible that the 8T stretch of Haplogroup A may be the ancestral state of M91 and the 9T of Haplogroup BT may be the derived state that arose by an insertion of 1T. This would explain why subclades A1b and A1a-T, the deepest branches of Haplogroup A, both possess the same version of M91 with 8Ts. Furthermore, Cruciani et al. 2011 determined that the P97 marker, which is also used to identify Haplogroup A, possessed the ancestral state in Haplogroup A but the derived state in Haplogroup BT. Likely geographic origin As current estimates on TMRCA converge with estimates for the age of anatomically modern humans and well predate the Out of Africa migration, geographical origin hypotheses continue to be limited to the African continent. According to Cruciani et al. 2011, the most basal lineages have been detected in West, Northwest and Central Africa, suggesting plausibility for the Y-MRCA living in the general region of "Central-Northwest Africa". Scozzari et al. (2012) agreed with a plausible placement in "the north-western quadrant of the African continent" for the emergence of the A1b haplogroup. The 2013 report of haplogroup A00 found among the Mbo people of western present-day Cameroon is also compatible with this picture. The revision of Y-chromosomal phylogeny since 2011 has affected estimates for the likely geographical origin of Y-MRCA as well as estimates on time depth. By the same reasoning, future discovery of presently-unknown archaic haplogroups in living people would again lead to such revisions. In particular, the possible presence of between 1% and 4% Neanderthal-derived DNA in Eurasian genomes implies that the (unlikely) event of a discovery of a single living Eurasian male exhibiting a Neanderthal patrilineal line would immediately push back T-MRCA ("time to MRCA") to at least twice its current estimate. However, the discovery of a Neanderthal Y-chromosome by Mendez et al. suggests the extinction of Neanderthal patrilineages, as the lineage inferred from the Neanderthal sequence is outside of the range of contemporary human genetic variation. Questions of geographical origin would become part of the debate on Neanderthal evolution from Homo erectus. See also Adam's Curse (book by Bryan Sykes) Archaeogenetics San people Eurasian Adam Genealogical DNA test Genetic genealogy Genographic project Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup – Detailed article on the subject Identical ancestors point Paternal mtDNA transmission Y-chromosomal Aaron References Further reading External links Documentary Redraws Humans' Family Tree (from National Geographic) DNA Mysteries – The Search for Adam (from National Geographic Channel) Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam Diagrams Y-Chromosome Biallelic Haplogroups Most European males 'descended from farmers' Why study the Y: Chromosome reveals path of ancestral humans Genetic genealogy Recent African origin of modern humans Male Hebrew Bible in popular culture	[ 0.09219872206449509, 0.3339846432209015, -0.30407923460006714, -0.03691847622394562, 0.15290428698062897, 0.3460899591445923, 0.013699917122721672, 0.9113578796386719, -0.01273878663778305, -0.4227164387702942, -0.28123125433921814, 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