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246802	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20power	Audio power	Audio power is the electrical power transferred from an audio amplifier to a loudspeaker, measured in watts. The electrical power delivered to the loudspeaker, together with its efficiency, determines the sound power generated (with the rest of the electrical power being converted to heat). Amplifiers are limited in the electrical energy they can output, while loudspeakers are limited in the electrical energy they can convert to sound energy without being damaged or distorting the audio signal. These limits, or power ratings, are important to consumers finding compatible products and comparing competitors. Power handling In audio electronics, there are several methods of measuring power output (for such things as amplifiers) and power handling capacity (for such things as loudspeakers). Amplifiers Amplifier output power is limited by voltage, current, and temperature: Voltage: The amp's power supply voltage limits the maximum amplitude of the waveform it can output. This determines the peak momentary output power for a given load resistance. Current: The amp's output devices (transistors or tubes) have a current limit, above which they are damaged. This determines the minimum load resistance that the amp can drive at its maximum voltage. Temperature: The amp's output devices waste some of the electrical energy as heat, and if it is not removed quickly enough, they will rise in temperature to the point of damage. This determines the continuous output power. As an amplifier's power output strongly influences its price, there is an incentive for manufacturers to exaggerate output power specs to increase sales. Without regulations, imaginative approaches to advertising power ratings became so common that in 1975 the US Federal Trade Commission intervened in the market and required all amplifier manufacturers to use an engineering measurement (continuous average power) in addition to any other value they might cite. Loudspeakers For loudspeakers, there is also a thermal and a mechanical aspect to maximum power handling. Thermal: Not all energy delivered to a loudspeaker is emitted as sound. In fact, most is converted to heat, and the temperature must not rise too high. High level signals over a prolonged period can cause thermal damage, which may be immediately obvious, or reduce longevity or performance margin. Mechanical: Loudspeaker components have mechanical limits which can be exceeded by even a very brief power peak; an example is the most common sort of loudspeaker driver, which cannot move in or out more than some excursion limit without mechanical damage. There are no similar loudspeaker power handling regulations in the US; the problem is much harder as many loudspeaker systems have very different power handling capacities at different frequencies (e.g., tweeters which handle high frequency signals are physically small and easily damaged, while woofers which handle low frequency signals are larger and more robust). Power calculations Since the instantaneous power of an AC waveform varies over time, AC power, which includes audio power, is measured as an average over time. It is based on this formula: For a purely resistive load, a simpler equation can be used, based on the root mean square (RMS) values of the voltage and current waveforms: In the case of a steady sinusoidal tone (not music) into a purely resistive load, this can be calculated from the peak amplitude of the voltage waveform (which is easier to measure with an oscilloscope) and the load's resistance: Though a speaker is not purely resistive, these equations are often used to approximate power measurements for such a system. Approximations may be used as reference on a specification sheet of a product. Example An amplifier under test can drive a sinusoidal signal with a peak amplitude of 6 V (driven by a 12 V battery). When connected to an 8 ohm loudspeaker this would deliver: In most actual car systems, the amplifiers are connected in a bridge-tied load configuration, and speaker impedances are no higher than 4 Ω. High-power car amplifiers use a DC-to-DC converter to generate a higher supply voltage. Measurements Continuous power and "RMS power" Continuous average sine wave power ratings are a staple of performance specifications for audio amplifiers and, sometimes, loudspeakers. As described above, the term average power refers to the average value of the instantaneous power waveform over time. As this is typically derived from the root mean square (RMS) of the sine wave voltage, it is often referred to as "RMS power" or "watts RMS", but this is incorrect: it is not the RMS value of the power waveform (which would be a larger, but meaningless, number). The erroneous term "watts RMS" is actually used in CE regulations. This is also referred to as the nominal value, there being a regulatory requirement to use it. Continuous (as opposed to "momentary") implies that the device can function at this power level for long periods of time; that heat can be removed at the same rate it is generated, without temperature building up to the point of damage. On May 3, 1974, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) instated its Amplifier Rule to combat the unrealistic power claims made by many hi-fi amplifier manufacturers. This rule prescribes continuous power measurements performed with sine wave signals for advertising and specifications of amplifiers sold in the US. (See more in the section Standards at the end of this article). This rule was amended in 1998 to cover self-powered speakers such as are commonly used with personal computers (see examples below). Typically, an amplifier's power specifications are calculated by measuring its RMS output voltage, with a continuous sine wave signal, at the onset of clipping—defined arbitrarily as a stated percentage of total harmonic distortion (THD), usually 1%, into specified load resistances. Typical loads used are 8 and 4 ohms per channel; many amplifiers used in professional audio are also specified at 2 ohms. Considerably more power can be delivered if distortion is allowed to increase; some manufacturers quote maximum power at a higher distortion, like 10%, making their equipment appear more powerful than if measured at an acceptable distortion level. Continuous power measurements do not actually describe the highly varied signals found in audio equipment (which could vary from high crest factor instrument recordings down to 0 dB crest factor square waves) but are widely regarded as a reasonable way of describing an amplifier's maximum output capability. For audio equipment, this is nearly always the nominal frequency range of human hearing, 20 Hz to 20 kHz. In loudspeakers, thermal capacities of the voice coils and magnet structures largely determine continuous power handling ratings. However, at the lower end of a loudspeaker's usable frequency range, its power handling might necessarily be derated because of mechanical excursion limits. For example, a subwoofer rated at 100 watts may be able to handle 100 watts of power at 80 hertz, but at 25 hertz it might not be able to handle nearly as much power since such frequencies would, for some drivers in some enclosures, force the driver beyond its mechanical limits much before reaching 100 watts from the amplifier. Peak power Peak power refers to the maximum of the instantaneous power waveform, which, for a sine wave, is always twice the average power. For other waveforms, the relationship between peak power and average power is the peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR). The peak power of an amplifier is determined by the voltage rails and the maximum amount of current its electronic components can handle for an instant without damage. This characterizes the ability of equipment to handle quickly changing power levels, as many audio signals have a highly dynamic nature. It always produces a higher value than the average power figure, however, and so has been tempting to use in advertising without context, making it look as though the amp has twice the power of competitors. Total system power Total system power is a term often used in audio electronics to rate the power of an audio system. Total system power refers to the total power consumption of the unit, rather than the power handling of the speakers or the power output of the amplifier. This can be viewed as a somewhat deceptive marketing ploy, as the total power consumption of the unit will of course be greater than any of its other power ratings, except for, perhaps, the peak power of the amplifier, which is essentially an exaggerated value anyway. Shelf stereos and surround sound receivers are often rated using total system power. One way to use total system power to get a more accurate estimate of power is to consider the amplifier class which would give an educated guess of the power output by considering the efficiency of the class. For example, class AB amplifiers can vary widely from 25% to 75% efficiency while Class D amps are much higher at 80% to 95%. An exceptionally efficient Class D amp, the ROHM BD5421efs, operates at 90% efficiency. In some cases, an audio device may be measured by the total system power of all its loudspeakers by adding all their peak power ratings. Many home theater in a box systems are rated this way. Often low-end home theater systems' power ratings are taken at a high level of harmonic distortion as well; as high as 10%, which would be noticeable. PMPO PMPO, which stands for Peak Music Power Output or Peak momentary performance output, is a much more dubious figure of merit, of interest more to advertising copy-writers than to consumers. The term PMPO has never been defined in any standard, but it is often taken to be the sum of some sort of peak power for each amplifier in a system. Different manufacturers use different definitions, so that the ratio of PMPO to continuous power output varies widely; it is not possible to convert from one to the other. Most amplifiers can sustain their PMPO for only a very short time, if at all; loudspeakers are not designed to withstand their stated PMPO for anything but a momentary peak without serious damage. Power and loudness in the real world Perceived "loudness" varies approximately logarithmically with acoustical output power. The change in perceived loudness as a function of change in acoustical power is dependent on the reference power level. It is both useful and technically accurate to express perceived loudness in the logarithmic decibel (dB) scale that is independent of the reference power, with a somewhat straight-line relationship between 10 dB changes and doublings of perceived loudness. The approximately logarithmic relationship between power and perceived loudness is an important factor in audio system design. Both amplifier power and speaker sensitivity affect the maximum realizable loudness. Standard measurement practice of speaker sensitivity is driving 1 watt electrical power to the source, with the receiver 1 meter away from the source, and measuring the resulting acoustical power in dB relative to the threshold of hearing (defined as 0 dB). Sensitivity is typically measured either suspended in an anechoic chamber in 'free space' (for full range speakers), or with the source and receiver outside on the ground in 'half space' (for a subwoofer). While a doubling/halving of perceived loudness corresponds to approximately 10 dB increase/decrease in speaker sensitivity, it also corresponds to approximately 10X multiplication/division of acoustical power. Even a relatively modest 3 dB increase/decrease in sensitivity corresponds to a doubling/halving of acoustical power. When measuring in 'half space', the boundary of the ground plane cuts the available space that the sound radiates into in half and doubles the acoustical power at the receiver, for a corresponding 3 dB increase in measured sensitivity, so it is important to know the test conditions. ±3 dB change in measured sensitivity also corresponds to a similar doubling/halving of electrical power required to generate a given perceived loudness, so even deceptively 'minor' differences in sensitivity can result in large changes in amplifier power requirement. This is important because power amplifiers become increasingly impractical with increasing amplifier power output. Many high quality domestic speakers have a sensitivity between ~84 dB and ~94 dB, but professional speakers can have a sensitivity between ~90 dB and ~100 dB. An '84 dB' source would require a 400-watt amplifier to produce the same acoustical power (perceived loudness) as a '90 dB' source being driven by a 100-watt amplifier, or a '100 dB' source being driven by a 10 watt amplifier. A good measure of the 'power' of a system is therefore a plot of maximum loudness before clipping of the amplifier and loudspeaker combined, in dB SPL, at the listening position intended, over the audible frequency spectrum. The human ear is less sensitive to low frequencies, as indicated by Equal-loudness contours, so a well-designed system should be capable of generating relatively higher sound levels below 100 Hz before clipping. Like perceived loudness, speaker sensitivity also varies with frequency and power. The sensitivity is measured at 1 watt to minimize nonlinear effects such as power compression and harmonic distortion, and averaged over the usable bandwidth. The bandwidth is often specified between the measured '+/-3 dB' cutoff frequencies where the relative loudness becomes attenuated from the peak loudness by at least 6 dB. Some speaker manufacturers use '+3 dB/-6 dB' instead, to take into account the real-world in-room response of a speaker at frequency extremes where the floor/wall/ceiling boundaries may increase the perceived loudness. Speaker sensitivity is measured and rated on the assumption of a fixed amplifier output voltage because audio amplifiers tend to behave like voltage sources. Sensitivity can be a misleading metric due to differences in speaker impedance between differently designed speakers. A speaker with a higher impedance may have lower measured sensitivity and thus appear to be less efficient than a speaker with a lower impedance even though their efficiencies are actually similar. Speaker efficiency is a metric that only measures the actual percentage of electrical power that the speaker converts to acoustic power and is sometimes a more appropriate metric to use when investigating ways to achieve a given acoustic power from a speaker. Adding an identical and mutually coupled speaker driver (much less than a wavelength away from each other) and splitting the electrical power equally between the two drivers increases their combined efficiency by a maximum of 3 dB, similar to increasing the size of a single driver until the diaphragm area doubles. Multiple drivers can be more practical to increase efficiency than larger drivers since frequency response is generally proportional to driver size. System designers take advantage of this efficiency boost by using mutually coupled drivers in a speaker cabinet, and by using mutually coupled speaker cabinets in a venue. Each doubling of total driver area in the array of drivers brings ~3 dB increase in efficiency until the limit where the total distance between any two drivers of the array exceeds ~1/4 wavelength. Power handling capability is also doubled when the number of drivers doubles, for a maximum realizable increase of ~6 dB in total acoustic output per doubling of mutually coupled drivers when the total amplifier power is also doubled. Mutual coupling efficiency gains become difficult to realize with multiple drivers at higher frequencies because the total size of a single driver including its diaphragm, basket, waveguide or horn may already exceed one wavelength. Sources that are much smaller than a wavelength behave like point sources that radiate omnidirectionally in free space, whereas sources larger than a wavelength act as their own 'ground plane' and beam the sound forward. This beaming tends to make high frequency dispersion problematic in larger venues, so a designer may have to cover the listening area with multiple sources aimed in various directions or placed in various locations. Likewise, speaker proximity much less than 1/4 wavelength to one or more boundaries such as floor/walls/ceiling can increase the effective sensitivity by changing free space into half space, quarter space, or eighth space. When the distance to boundaries is > 1/4 wavelength, delayed reflections can increase the perceived loudness but can also induce ambient effects such as comb filtering and reverberation that can make the frequency response uneven across a venue or make the sound diffuse and harsh, especially with smaller venues and hard reflective surfaces. Sound absorbing structures, sound diffusing structures, and digital signal processing may be employed to compensate for boundary effects within the designated listening area. 'Music power' — the real issues The term "Music Power" has been used in relation to both amplifiers and loudspeakers with some validity. When live music is recorded without amplitude compression or limiting, the resulting signal contains brief peaks of much higher amplitude (20 dB or more) than the mean, and since power is proportional to the square of signal voltage their reproduction would require an amplifier capable of providing brief peaks of power around a hundred times greater than the average level. Thus, the ideal 100-watt audio system would need to be capable of handling brief peaks of 10,000 watts in order to avoid clipping (see Programme levels). Most loudspeakers are in fact capable of withstanding peaks of several times their continuous rating (though not a hundred times) since thermal inertia prevents the voice coils from burning out on short bursts. It is therefore, acceptable, and desirable, to drive a loudspeaker from a power amplifier with a higher continuous rating several times the steady power that the speaker can withstand, but only if care is taken not to overheat it; this is difficult, especially on modern recordings which tend to be heavily compressed and so can be played at high levels without the obvious distortion that would result from an uncompressed recording when the amplifier started clipping. An amplifier can be designed with an audio output circuitry capable of generating a certain power level, but with a power supply unable to supply sufficient power for more than a very short time, and with heat sinking that will overheat dangerously if full output power is maintained for long. This makes good technical and commercial sense, as the amplifier can handle music with a relatively low mean power, but with brief peaks; a high 'music power' output can be advertised (and delivered), and money saved on the power supply and heat sink. Program sources that are significantly compressed are more likely to cause trouble, as the mean power can be much higher for the same peak power. Circuitry which protects the amplifier and power supply can prevent equipment damage in the case of sustained high power operation. More sophisticated equipment usually used in a professional context has advanced circuitry which can handle high peak power levels without delivering more average power to the speakers than they and the amplifier can handle safely. Matching amplifier to loudspeaker Charles "Chuck" McGregor, while serving as senior technologist for Eastern Acoustic Works, wrote a guideline for professional audio purchasers wishing to select properly sized amplifiers for their loudspeakers. Chuck McGregor recommended a rule of thumb in which the amplifier's maximum power output rating was twice the loudspeaker's continuous (so-called "RMS") rating, give or take 20%. In his example, a loudspeaker with a continuous power rating of 250 watts would be well-matched by an amplifier with a maximum power output within the range of 400 to 625 watts. JBL, which tests and labels their loudspeakers according to the IEC 268-5 standard (called IEC 60268-5 more recently) has a more nuanced set of recommendations, depending on the usage profile of the system, which more fundamentally involves the (worst case) crest factor of the signal used to drive the loudspeakers: For "carefully monitored applications where peak transient capability must be maintained, a system should be powered with an amplifier capable of delivering twice its IEC rating." As an example, a studio monitor rated at 300 watts IEC, can be safely driven by a 600 watts (RMS) amplifiers, provided that "peak signals are normally of such short duration that they hardly stress the system's components". For "routine application where high continuous, but non-distorted, output is likely to be encountered, a system should be powered with an amplifier capable of delivering the IEC rating of the system". This includes most consumer systems. "Such systems can often be inadvertently overdriven, or can go into feedback. When powered with an amplifier equal to their IEC rating, the user is guaranteed of safe operation." "For musical instrument application, where distorted (overdriven) output may be a musical requirement, the system should be powered with an amplifier capable of delivering only one-half of the IEC rating for the system." This necessary because, for example, an amplifier normally outputting "300 watts of undistorted sinewave" can reach closer to 600 watts of power when clipping (i.e. when its output is closer to a square wave). If such a scenario is plausible, then for safe operation of the loudspeaker, the amplifier's (RMS) rating must no more than half the IEC power of the loudspeaker. Power handling in 'active' speakers Active speakers comprise two or three speakers per channel, each fitted with its own amplifier, and preceded by an electronic crossover filter to separate the low-level audio signal into the frequency bands to be handled by each speaker. This approach enables complex active filters to be used on the low level signal, without the need to use passive crossovers of high power handling capability but limited rolloff and with large and expensive inductors and capacitors. An additional advantage is that peak power handling is greater if the signal has simultaneous peaks in two different frequency bands. A single amplifier has to handle the peak power when both signal voltages are at their crest; as power is proportional to the square of voltage, the peak power when both signals are at the same peak voltage is proportional to the square of the sum of the voltages. If separate amplifiers are used, each must handle the square of the peak voltage in its own band. For example, if bass and midrange each has a signal corresponding to 10 W of output, a single amplifier capable of handling a 40 W peak would be needed, but a bass and a treble amplifier each capable of handling 10 W would be sufficient. This is relevant when peaks of comparable amplitude occur in different frequency bands, as with wideband percussion and high-amplitude bass notes. For most audio applications more power is needed at low frequencies. This requires a high-power amplifier for low frequencies (e.g., 200 watts for 20–200 Hz band), lower power amplifier for the midrange (e.g., 50 watts for 200 to 1000 Hz), and even less the high end (e.g. 5 watts for 1000–20000 Hz). Proper design of a bi/tri amplifier system requires a study of driver (speaker) frequency response and sensitivities to determine optimal crossover frequencies and power amplifier powers. Regional Variations United States Peak momentary power output and peak music power output are two different measurements with different specifications and should not be used interchangeably. Manufacturers who use different words such as pulse or performance may be reflecting their own non-standard system of measurement, with an unknown meaning. The Federal Trade Commission is putting an end to this with Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Rule 46 CFR 432 (1974), affecting Power Output Claims for Amplifiers Utilized in Home Entertainment Products. In response to a Federal Trade Commission order, the Consumer Electronics Association has established a clear and concise measure of audio power for consumer electronics. They have posted an FTC approved product marking template on their web site and the full standard is available for a fee. Many believe this will resolve much of the ambiguity and confusion in amplifier ratings. There will be ratings for speaker and powered speaker system too. This specification only applies to audio amplifiers. An EU counterpart is expected and all equipment sold in the US and Europe will be identically tested and rated. This regulation did not cover automobile entertainment systems, which consequently still suffer from power ratings confusion. However, a new Approved American National Standard ANSI/CEA-2006-B which includes testing & measurement methods for mobile audio amplifiers is being slowly phased into the market by many manufacturers. Europe DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung, German Institute for Standardization) describes in DIN 45xxx several standards for measuring audio power. The DIN-standards (DIN-norms) are in common use in Europe. International IEC 60268-2 defines power amplifier specifications including power output. See also Programme levels Audio quality measurement Sound level meter Audio noise measurement References External links Amplifier Power Ratings (and How to calculate satisfactory PMPO values) by Rod Elliott Understanding amplifier power ratings Audio power and the corresponding factors: Subjectivly sensed loudness (volume), objectively measured sound pressure (voltage), and theoretically calculated sound intensity (acoustic power) The 5 Best JBL Speakers of 2021 Power (physics) Audio electronics Audio amplifier specifications	[ 0.22888946533203125, -0.017675083130598068, 0.3588641881942749, 0.23556576669216156, -0.327092707157135, -0.03893947973847389, -0.2261618971824646, -0.41271671652793884, 0.1250530630350113, -0.5868481993675232, 0.011495358310639858, 1.1964210271835327, -0.05410871282219887, 0.26274681091308594, -0.25345489382743835, 0.33690738677978516, 0.7239385843276978, 0.3444000482559204, -0.27789828181266785, -0.303331196308136, 0.18650487065315247, 0.3082083463668823, 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246804	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20British%20divisions%20in%20World%20War%20II	List of British divisions in World War II	During the Second World War, the basic tactical formation used by the majority of combatants was the division. It was a self-contained formation that possessed all the required forces for combat, which was supplemented by its own artillery, engineers, communications and supply units. On 3 September 1939, at the start of the war, the UK had 2 armoured, 24 infantry and 7 anti-aircraft divisions. The anti-aircraft divisions were not comparable in role to formations that were intended for combat such as infantry divisions. In September, the British Army stated that 55 divisions (a mix of armoured, infantry and cavalry) would be raised to combat Germany. The UK would provide 32 of these formations and the remainder would be raised by the Dominions and India. In 1941, this goal was adjusted to 57 divisions, with the UK to provide 36. By the end of 1941, the UK had met its quota. During the war, 85 divisional formations were raised but did not all exist simultaneously and not all of them were combat formations. For example, the 12th Division (SDF) was raised to protect the lines of communication behind fighting formations. Several divisions were created when a division of one type was converted into another, for example the 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division was converted into the 42nd Armoured Division. Others, such as the 79th Armoured Division, were not intended to act as a fighting formation. Instead, it acted in an administrative capacity for dispersed units that were engaged in combat. The 85 divisional formations included 2 airborne, 12 anti-aircraft, 11 armoured, 1 cavalry, 10 coastal defence (known as County Divisions) and 49 infantry divisions. At the end of the war, in 1945, the British Army had 24 divisions. Background During the interwar period, the British Army was split into two branches: the regular army, which numbered 224,000 men with a reserve of 173,700 at the start of the war, and the part-time Territorial Army that numbered 438,100 with a reserve of around 20,750 men. The main goal of the regular army, largely built around battalion-sized formations, was to police and garrison the British Empire. The basic tactical formation among the major militaries was the division. These were self-contained formations that possessed all the required forces needed for combat. This included its own artillery, engineers, communications, and supply units. The provision of a multi-division expeditionary force, for a war on the continent against a European adversary, was not considered for much of the interwar period by the British government which deemed it unlikely for such a war to occur. In 1939, the regular army consisted of seven infantry and two armoured divisions. Two of the infantry divisions had been formed for the repression of the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. The Territorial Army was intended to be the primary method of expanding the number of divisions available to the army. During the interwar period, the British government reduced the funding and size of the Territorial Army. By 1936, they had concluded that it could not be modernised or equipped for a European war over the following three-year period and therefore delayed further funding. At the beginning of 1939, the Territorial Army had twelve infantry divisions. Following the German occupation of the remnants of the Czechoslovak state in March 1939, the Territorial Army was ordered to double in size to 24 divisions. By the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, some of these divisions had formed while others were being created. On 8 September 1939, the British Army announced that it would raise 55 divisions to be deployed to France, as part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), for service against Germany. Thirty-two of these formations were to come from the British Army, and rest from the armies of the British Dominions (for example, the Canadian Army) and the British Indian Army. The goal was to fully equip and deploy 20 divisions within the first year of the war and all 55 divisions within two years. The British contingent was to come from the expanded Territorial Army and the regular army divisions based in the UK. By May 1940, the BEF contained only 13 divisions. During the latter stages of the campaign, the Beauman Division was raised from rear-area personnel. As a result of defeat in the Battle of France and the return of the BEF following the Dunkirk evacuation, the original deployment of divisions was not realised. The 51st (Highland) Infantry Division was lost during the Battle of France and it was later reformed by renaming the 9th (Highland) Infantry Division. After the BEF returned to the UK, four infantry divisions were disbanded to reinforce other formations. The British Army also increased the recruitment for their regiments in Africa (the Nigeria Regiment, the Gold Coast Regiment, and the King's African Rifles), which resulted in two divisions being formed in Africa in mid-1940. The goal of 55 divisions was increased to 58 in January 1941, then cut to 57 on 6 March; the UK was to provide 36 of these. During 1941, the 2nd Armoured Division in North Africa was overrun, and its headquarters captured. By the end of the year, the British Army had 37 active divisions (one airborne, nine armoured and 27 infantry). On 15 February 1942, the 18th Infantry Division was captured by Japanese forces following the Battle of Singapore. Lack of equipment hindered growth and an increasing number of divisions based in the UK were reduced in size to provide men for formations fighting abroad. By 1943, it became necessary for front line divisions to be cannibalised to provide reinforcements for other formations. During 1943, three new divisions were formed after the further expansion of the African regiments. By 1944, the UK still had 35 divisions, of which 18 were for training or to be used as a pool for reinforcements. By mid-1944, the army did not have enough men to replace the losses suffered by front line infantry units. Transfers of men from the Royal Artillery and the Royal Air Force to be retrained as infantry took place, and more formations were disbanded to provide the required reinforcements. By the end of 1944, the army had shrunk to 26 divisions: 5 armoured and 21 infantry (including airborne). In the final year of the war, the number decreased to 24 divisions. Airborne Impressed by the German airborne force during the 1940 Battle of France, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, ordered the creation of a paratrooper force of 5,000 men. The qualified success of Operation Colossus, a small scale commando raid, prompted further expansion of this force, and resulted in an additional requirement for a glider force of 10,000 men to be created. The recruitment for the size of this force took until 1943, by which time two divisions had been formed. The airborne division was to comprise three brigades: two parachute brigades, each with three battalions from the Parachute Regiment, and an "airlanding" brigade of three infantry battalions carried into battle by gliders.The first parachute battalions were formed from volunteers from across the British military. As the airborne force grew, infantry battalions were selected to be converted into parachute battalions. The men were invited to volunteer for parachute service, or assigned to a new unit. The new battalions were then brought up to strength from volunteers from other units. The airlanding battalions came from existing infantry units that were converted to glider infantry, and the soldiers did not have the ability to opt-out. The war establishment, the on-paper strength, was set at 12,148 men, with a large number of automatic weapons assigned to the division. The establishment called for 7,171 bolt-action Lee Enfield rifles, 6,504 Sten submachine guns, 966 Bren light machine guns, and 46 Vickers medium machine guns. Each division was also expected to have 392 PIAT anti-tank weapons, 525 mortars, 100 anti-tank guns, and twenty-seven M116 pack howitzers. Just over 6,000 vehicles—primarily jeeps, motorcycles, and bicycles, but also including 22 Tetrarch light tanks—were authorised for each division. Gliders delivered the heavier equipment. Anti-aircraft Between 1935 and the start of the war, the British Army formed anti-aircraft divisions. These formations were part of the Territorial Army, and were not intended to be comparable to other formations such as infantry divisions. The anti-aircraft divisions were assigned to a particular area, which could cover hundreds or thousands of square miles. They varied dramatically in manpower, the number of brigades controlled, and the number of weapons assigned. For example, the 1st Anti-Aircraft Division was assigned to defend London, while the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division was assigned to defend both Scotland and Northern Ireland. In September 1939, Anti-Aircraft Command's seven divisions had a combined total of 695 heavy anti-aircraft guns compared to an intended 2,232, and 253 light anti-aircraft guns out of an establishment of 1,200. The divisions also had access to 2,700 searchlights, out of a recommended total of 4,700. By 1941, the divisions had 1,691 heavy guns, 940 light guns, and 4,532 searchlights. At the start of the war, the divisions and their command structure had a total of 106,690 men; manpower increased to 157,319 by July 1940, and was over 300,000 by mid-1941. All of the divisions were disbanded in October 1942 as part of a reorganisation of the anti-aircraft command structure. The divisions were replaced by seven groups, which were intended to reduce the overall number of formations, save manpower, and be more flexible. Armoured Between May 1939 and the end of the Second World War, the armoured division went through nine organisational changes. In 1939, it was intended that an armoured division would have 110 light tanks, 217 cruiser tanks, and 24 cruiser tanks equipped with howitzers for close support, as well as 2,500 other vehicles, 9,442 men, and 16 field guns. In 1940, the establishment was changed to two light tanks, 304 cruisers, and 36 close support tanks, with 2,600 vehicles, and 10,750 men. The early armoured formations did not reach these proposed tank strengths. For example, the 1st Armoured Division landed in France, in 1940, with 114 light tanks and 143 cruisers. The 2nd Armoured Division, prior to being deployed to the Middle East in late 1940, peaked at a strength of 256 light tanks and 54 cruisers. By 1942, a division was to consist of 13,235 men with 230 tanks, of which 183 would be cruisers and the rest would be for support, along with around 3,000 other vehicles and 48 field guns. For the final two years of the war, the establishment was set at 14,964 men, 246 medium tanks, 63 light tanks, 27 tanks Crusader self-propelled anti-aircraft guns, 27 tanks that were outfitted as artillery observation posts, 24 field guns, 24 self-propelled field guns, 54 anti-tank guns, and 24 self-propelled anti-tank guns. In July 1944, for example, the Guards, the 7th, and the 11th Armoured Divisions all averaged 250 medium tanks. The Guards had 15,600 men, the 7th had 15,100, and the 11th had 14,400. The early organisation of the armoured divisions included two armoured brigades (with six armoured regiments) and one support group of two infantry battalions, combat engineers and artillery. The intent of the division was to exploit gaps in the opposing frontline created by the infantry divisions. The armoured divisions were considered 'tank-heavy', due to the lack of infantry support to guard the tanks. It took repeated setbacks during the Western Desert campaign before a major reorganisation took place. By 1942, the division had evolved to be based around one armoured brigade containing three armoured regiments and one motorised infantry battalion, the support group was replaced by a three-battalion infantry brigade, and additional support weapons were allocated as divisional assets. However, doctrine still dictated for the artillery, infantry, and tanks to fight separate battles. The artillery would engage opposing anti-tank guns; the infantry would secure captured ground or provide flank protection in confined terrain; and the tanks would move ahead to destroy enemy tanks and disrupt the opposing lines of communication. The division, rather than exploiting gaps, would find itself increasingly being used a battering ram to break through the enemy frontline. The armoured divisions diverged in how they were organised between those that were deployed to Northwest Europe in June 1944, and those operating in Italy. In Italy, the division's reconnaissance regiments were equipped with armoured cars, whereas the reconnaissance regiments of those assigned to fight in Northwest Europe were primarily equipped with Cromwell tanks. In Italy, starting in June 1944, the infantry component was increased with a second infantry brigade that was either integrated or attached on an as needed basis. The divisions assigned to Northwest Europe did not have this increased infantry, and it took further setbacks before military planners decided that the tanks and infantry needed to work more closely together. Starting in July 1944, an armoured regiment (including the reconnaissance regiment) was paired with one of the division's infantry battalions (three from the infantry brigade, and one motorised infantry battalion assigned to the armoured brigade) to implement this change, although on paper they maintained the existing separate brigade structure. Cavalry Prior to the outbreak of the war, the British military promised their French counterparts that the BEF would contain at least one cavalry division that would be dispatched within six months of the outbreak of the war. The division would be formed following the start of hostilities, by Territorial Army regiments that would coalesce. The war establishment was set at 11,097 men, 6,081 horses, and 1,815 vehicles distributed between three brigades, each containing three cavalry regiments. The division was primarily equipped with rifles, and supported by 203 light machine guns, 36 medium machine guns, and 48 field guns. For anti-tank protection, the establishment called for 247 anti-tank rifles. As the only division type to include horses, it was required to have three mobile sections from the Royal Army Veterinary Corps. Doctrine called for the division to be mounted infantry: moving from place to place on horseback, and then dismounting to engage opposing forces. County In 1940, following the Battle of France, the UK prepared for a potential Axis invasion. As the year progressed, the size of the Army increased quickly. Newly formed infantry battalions were grouped together to create the county divisions. These formations were around 10,000 men strong, and were assigned to defend the coastlines of threatened sectors of the country and man coastal artillery. These divisions were largely immobile and lacked divisional assets such as artillery, engineers, and reconnaissance forces. This allowed infantry divisions to be freed up from such duties and to form a reserve further inland for counterattacking enemy forces. These formations maintained their coastal defence role, even after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941; British military planners acknowledged that if the Soviet Union collapsed, Germany could easily transfer substantial forces west. This perceived threat subsided in late 1941, with the arrival of autumn and winter weather and coupled with the production of new equipment for the British Army. The latter allowed the War Office to take steps to better balance the army, with the creation of additional armour and special forces units. Consequently, the county divisions were disbanded or redesignated. Infantry The infantry were the backbone of the British Army, and were intended to be mobile and with sufficient integrated artillery to be able to overcome opposing forces. At the start of the war, the infantry were separated into two classes: infantry divisions and motor divisions. Each infantry division had three infantry brigades and three artillery regiments. In 1939, these divisions had an establishment of 13,863 men, 72 field guns, and 2,993 vehicles. The motor division had two motorised infantry brigades and two artillery regiments, with an establishment of 10,136 men, 48 field guns, and 2,326 vehicles. The intended offensive use of the infantry division was to penetrate the enemy's defensive line, with the support of infantry tanks from independent tank brigades. Any gap created would then be exploited by armoured divisions, and the subsequent captured territory would be secured by the faster and more mobile motor divisions. The motor division, while being able to transport all of its infantry, was weaker than the infantry division as a result of the decreased amount of manpower and firepower. After the Battle of France, the British Army implemented lessons learnt from the campaign in France, which included the decision to base the standard division around three brigades, and the abandonment of the motor division concept. This change saw four infantry divisions disbanded to reassign troops to the former motor divisions. The Army was split into two branches: the full-time professional force of regulars, and the part-time Territorial Army. Both branches maintained divisions. By 1939, the Territorial Army's intended role was to be the sole method of expanding the size of the army (in contrast to the creation of Kitchener's Army during the First World War). All members of the Territorial Army were required to take the general service obligation: if the British Government decided, territorial soldiers could be deployed overseas for combat. This avoided the complications of the First World War-era Territorial Force, whose members were initially not required to leave Britain unless they volunteered for overseas service. The pre-war Territorial Army divisions were referred to as 'the first-line'. Prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, the first-line formations were ordered to create new formations in a process called 'duplicating'; the new formations were called 'the second-line'. Planners intended the first-line formations to recruit over their establishments (aided by an increase in pay, the removal of restrictions on promotion which had hindered prior recruiting, construction of better-quality barracks, and an increase in supper rations) and then form second-line formations from cadres around which the divisions could be expanded. In 1941, the divisions were divided between being listed as higher establishment formations, and lower establishment ones. The former were intended for deployment overseas and combat, whereas the latter were restricted to home defence in a static role, and were reduced in size. In 1941, a division was intended to have 17,298 men, who were equipped primarily with rifles. They were to be supplemented by 451 sub-machine guns, 768 light machine guns, 48 medium machine guns, 218 mortars, 72 field guns, 48 anti-tank guns, 48 anti-aircraft guns, and 4,166 vehicles. In 1944, the establishment was increased 18,347 men, 6,525 sub-machine guns, 1,162 light machine guns, 359 mortars, 436 PIAT anti-tank weapons, 72 field guns, 110 anti-tank guns, and 4,330 vehicles. Out of the overall total of men within the division, around 7,000 were frontline infantry and the rest allocated to the various divisional supporting arms and services. The overall strength of a division could vary considerably. For example, during the Siege of Tobruk in 1941, the 70th Infantry Division was 28,000 men strong; in June 1944, the total combined strength of the remaining five lower establishment divisions was 17,845 men; and in July 1944, the higher establishment 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division was 16,970 men strong. In 1942, the British Army experimented with the format of their infantry formations. Several were converted into "mixed divisions" via the removal of one infantry brigades, and a brigade of tanks being assigned in their place. The concept was deemed not successful, and abandoned the following year. During 1943, the War Office intended to provide eight tank brigades (equipped with infantry tanks) to the army. These would be a corps-level asset that could then be attached to infantry divisions as needed. Due to the lack of infantry tank production, only three such brigades were available. However, several independent armoured brigades (equipped with the M4 Sherman medium tank) were formed. The independent armoured brigades were utilised in the same manner as the tank brigades. In Northwest Europe, infantry divisions had access to specialised tanks from the 79th Armoured Division. These tank formations would be attached to the infantry division as needed. See also British deception formations in World War II Divisional insignia of the British Army List of British divisions in World War I List of British brigades of the Second World War Military history of Britain during World War II Notes Footnotes Citations References Further reading External links Various contemporary training materials regarding British tank forces, including divisions British divisions World War II British, World War II Divisions Divisions	[ -0.4648188352584839, 0.15518799424171448, -0.5458493828773499, -0.38164544105529785, -0.8886823058128357, 0.3659936189651489, 0.731630265712738, -0.0084681436419487, -0.2996688783168793, -0.4083409011363983, -0.3739095628261566, -0.14550890028476715, 0.39541491866111755, 0.3075793385505676, 0.24775344133377075, 0.6822004914283752, -0.26430273056030273, -0.13415753841400146, 0.12857331335544586, -0.18224658071994781, 0.046552304178476334, 0.024985296651721, 0.2701728343963623, 0.03229775279760361, 0.3817453384399414, 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246805	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upsilon%20Andromedae	Upsilon Andromedae	Upsilon Andromedae (υ Andromedae, abbreviated Upsilon And, υ And) is a binary star located approximately 44 light-years from Earth in the constellation of Andromeda. The system consists of an F-type main-sequence star (designated υ Andromedae A, officially named Titawin in the Amazigh language ) and a smaller red dwarf. , four extrasolar planets (designated Upsilon Andromedae b, c, d and e; the first three named Saffar, Samh and Majriti, respectively) are believed to orbit υ Andromedae A. All four are likely to be jovian planets that are comparable in size to Jupiter. This was both the first multiple-planet system to be discovered around a main-sequence star, and the first multiple-planet system known in a multiple-star system. Nomenclature υ Andromedae (Latinised to Upsilon Andromedae) is the system's Bayer designation. Under the rules for naming objects in binary star systems, the two components are designated A and B. Under the same rules, the first planet discovered orbiting υ Andromedae A should be designated υ Andromedae Ab. Though this more formal form is occasionally used to avoid confusion with a secondary star υ Andromedae B, it is more commonly referred to as υ Andromedae b. The other planets discovered were designated υ Andromedae c, d, and e, in order of their discovery. In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) launched NameExoWorlds, a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning names were Titawin for υ Andromedae A and Saffar, Samh and Majriti for three of its planets (b, c and d, respectively). The winning names were those submitted by the Vega Astronomy Club of Morocco. The star is named after the Berber name Tiṭṭawin, ⵜⵉⵟⵟⴰⵡⵉⵏ, of Morocco's Tétouan city and Tunisia's Tataouine city, both cities' old town quarters are considered UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The planets honour the 10th- and 11th-century astronomers Ibn al-Saffar, Ibn al-Samh and Maslama al-Majriti of Muslim Spain. In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. In its first bulletin of July 2016, the WGSN explicitly recognized the names of exoplanets and their host stars approved by the Executive Committee Working Group Public Naming of Planets and Planetary Satellites, including the names of stars adopted during the 2015 NameExoWorlds campaign. This star is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. In Chinese, (), meaning Heaven's Great General, refers to an asterism consisting of Upsilon Andromedae, Gamma Andromedae, Phi Persei, 51 Andromedae, 49 Andromedae, Chi Andromedae, Tau Andromedae, 56 Andromedae, Beta Trianguli, Gamma Trianguli and Delta Trianguli. Consequently, the Chinese name for Upsilon Andromedae itself is (, ). Stellar system Upsilon Andromedae is located fairly close to the Solar System: the parallax of Upsilon Andromedae A was measured by the Gaia astrometry satellite as 74.19 milliarcseconds, corresponding to a distance of . Upsilon Andromedae A has an apparent magnitude of +4.09, making it visible to the naked eye even under moderately light-polluted skies, about 10 degrees east of the Andromeda Galaxy. The Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars and Washington Double Star Catalog (WDS) both list two companion stars: magnitude 12.6 UCAC3 263-13722 110" away, listed as component B; and magnitude 10.3 F2 star TYC 2822-2067-1 280" away, listed as component C. A fainter and closer star, discovered in 2002, is confusingly referred to in the discovery paper as υ Andromedae B even though that designation is also used for a different companion. This 13th-magnitude red dwarf is 55" from υ Andromedae A and is believed to be the only one of the companions physically associated, at the same distance and a projected separation of . It has been added to the WDS as component D. Upsilon Andromedae A Upsilon Andromedae A is a yellow-white dwarf of spectral type F8V, similar to the Sun, but younger, more massive, and more luminous. According to its entry in the Geneva–Copenhagen survey, the star is around 3.1 billion years old and has a similar proportion of iron relative to hydrogen to the Sun. At around 1.3 solar masses, it will have a shorter lifetime than the Sun. The amount of ultraviolet radiation received by any planets in the star's habitable zone would be similar to the ultraviolet flux the Earth receives from the Sun. The X-ray emission of Upsilon Andromedae A is low for a star of its spectral class. This means that the star may be moving, or move soon, out of the main sequence and expand its radius to become a red giant star. This is consistent with the upper limits on the age of this star. Upsilon Andromedae A was ranked 21st in the list of top 100 target stars for NASA's cancelled Terrestrial Planet Finder mission. Red dwarf The red dwarf companion has a spectral type M4.5V and is located at a projected separation of 750 AU from the primary star. The true separation between the two stars is unknown because the displacement along the line of sight between Earth and the Upsilon Andromedae stars is unknown, so this value is a minimum separation. Based upon its motion through space, this is a common proper motion companion to the primary. It was discovered in 2002 in data collected as part of the Two-Micron All Sky Survey. The star is less massive and far less luminous than the Sun, and its age seems to be consistent with that of the system. Planetary system The star rotates at an inclination of degrees relative to Earth. The innermost planet of the Upsilon Andromedae system was discovered in 1996 and announced in January 1997, together with the planet of Tau Boötis and the innermost planet of 55 Cancri. The discovery was made by Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler, both astronomers at San Francisco State University. The planet, designated Upsilon Andromedae b, was discovered by measuring changes in the star's radial velocity induced by the planet's gravity. Because of its closeness to the parent star, it induced a large wobble which was detected relatively easily. The planet appears to be responsible for enhanced activity in the chromosphere of its star. Even when the first planet was taken into account, there still remained significant residuals in the radial velocity measurements, and it was suggested there might be a second planet in orbit. In 1999, astronomers at both San Francisco State University and the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics independently concluded that a three-planet model best fit the data. The two outer planets were designated Upsilon Andromedae c and Upsilon Andromedae d in order of increasing distance from the star. Both of these planets are in more eccentric orbits than any of the planets in the Solar System (including Pluto). Upsilon Andromedae d resides in the system's habitable zone. The orbital parameters of this three-planet system have been fully determined. The system is not coplanar, with each other or with the stellar rotation, as in our Solar System. Simulations shows that the measured configuration of the planets produces indeed stable orbits for at least 100 million years, where planets b and d remain roughly coplanar. General relativity is expected to have strong effects on planet b, because it orbits at a distance of just ~0.05 AU from the parent star. The apsides of planet c and d, instead, oscillates with time; the orbit of Upsilon Andromedae c thus returns to a nearly circular state every 9,000 years. The eccentricity of those planets may have arisen from a close encounter between the outer planet and a fourth planet, with the result that the third planet was ejected from the system or destroyed. Such a mechanism could have been triggered by perturbations on the orbit of the companion star, which arise from close encounters with other stars and from the tidal field of the Milky Way. The orbits of the two inner planets seems to be shaped by tidal interactions, while the evolution of c and d orbits is secular. The existence of further planets too small or distant to detect has not been ruled out, though the presence of Jupiter-mass planets as close as 5 AU from Upsilon Andromedae A would make the system unstable. However, a fourth planet (Upsilon Andromedae e) was discovered in 2010. This planet seems to be in a 3:1 resonance with Upsilon Andromedae d; other authors, while confirming evidence for a fourth planet, challenge the values found, since they use a data set inconsistent with the others. Upsilon Andromedae does not appear to have a circumstellar dust disk similar to the Kuiper belt in the Solar System. This may be the result of perturbations from the companion star removing material from the outer regions of the Upsilon Andromedae A system. See also 51 Pegasi Kepler-56 Lists of exoplanets PSR 1257+12 Notes References External links HR 0458 CCDM 01367+4125 F-type main-sequence stars 2 Andromedae, 50 Andromedae, Upsilon 007513 0458 009826 M-type main-sequence stars Durchmusterung objects Binary stars 0061 J01364784+4124200 Planetary systems with four confirmed planets	[ -0.30874326825141907, 0.03573062643408775, 0.00008522781718056649, 0.026896236464381218, -0.07949794828891754, 0.35505080223083496, -0.34050336480140686, 0.38250187039375305, 0.11993338912725449, -0.373882919549942, -0.31432199478149414, -0.22072944045066833, -0.2642148733139038, 0.3016996681690216, 0.20516976714134216, 0.14395380020141602, 1.0229783058166504, 0.8364053964614868, -0.6041460633277893, -0.4160171151161194, -0.06848427653312683, 0.16910791397094727, 0.19848476350307465, -0.21464167535305023, 0.39789921045303345, -0.20073261857032776, -0.436320036649704, -0.10493313521146774, 0.09405005723237991, 0.18437372148036957, 0.2001335322856903, 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246806	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruminant	Ruminant	Ruminants (suborder Ruminantia) are large hoofed herbivorous grazing or browsing mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions. The process, which takes place in the front part of the digestive system and therefore is called foregut fermentation, typically requires the fermented ingesta (known as cud) to be regurgitated and chewed again. The process of rechewing the cud to further break down plant matter and stimulate digestion is called rumination. The word "ruminant" comes from the Latin ruminare, which means "to chew over again". The roughly 200 species of ruminants include both domestic and wild species. Ruminating mammals include cattle, all domesticated and wild bovines, goats, sheep, giraffes, deer, gazelles, and antelopes. It has also been suggested that notoungulates also relied on rumination, as opposed to other atlantogenates that rely on the more typical hindgut fermentation, though this is not entirely certain. Taxonomically, the suborder Ruminantia is a lineage of herbivorous artiodactyls that includes the most advanced and widespread of the world's ungulates. The suborder Ruminantia includes six different families: Tragulidae, Giraffidae, Antilocapridae, Moschidae, Cervidae, and Bovidae. Taxonomy and evolution Hofmann and Stewart divided ruminants into three major categories based on their feed type and feeding habits: concentrate selectors, intermediate types, and grass/roughage eaters, with the assumption that feeding habits in ruminants cause morphological differences in their digestive systems, including salivary glands, rumen size, and rumen papillae. However, Woodall found that there is little correlation between the fiber content of a ruminant's diet and morphological characteristics, meaning that the categorical divisions of ruminants by Hofmann and Stewart warrant further research. Also, some mammals are pseudoruminants, which have a three-compartment stomach instead of four like ruminants. The Hippopotamidae (comprising hippopotami) are well-known examples. Pseudoruminants, like traditional ruminants, are foregut fermentors and most ruminate or chew cud. However, their anatomy and method of digestion differs significantly from that of a four-chambered ruminant. Monogastric herbivores, such as rhinoceroses, horses, and rabbits, are not ruminants, as they have a simple single-chambered stomach. These hindgut fermenters digest cellulose in an enlarged cecum. In smaller hindgut fermenters of the order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas), cecotropes formed in the cecum are passed through the large intestine and subsequently reingested to allow another opportunity to absorb nutrients. Phylogeny Ruminantia is a crown group of ruminants within the order Artiodactyla, cladistically defined by Spaulding et al. as "the least inclusive clade that includes Bos taurus (cow) and Tragulus napu (mouse deer)". Ruminantiamorpha is a higher-level clade of artiodactyls, cladistically defined by Spaulding et al. as "Ruminantia plus all extinct taxa more closely related to extant members of Ruminantia than to any other living species." This is a stem-based definition for Ruminantiamorpha, and is more inclusive than the crown group Ruminantia. As a crown group, Ruminantia only includes the last common ancestor of all extant (living) ruminants and their descendants (living or extinct), whereas Ruminantiamorpha, as a stem group, also includes more basal extinct ruminant ancestors that are more closely related to living ruminants than to other members of Artiodactyla. When considering only living taxons (neontology), this makes Ruminantiamorpha and Ruminantia synonymous, and only Ruminantia is used. Thus, Ruminantiamorpha is only used in the context of paleontology. Accordingly, Spaulding grouped some genera of the extinct family Anthracotheriidae within Ruminantiamorpha (but not in Ruminantia), but placed others within Ruminantiamorpha's sister clade, Cetancodontamorpha. Ruminantia's placement within Artiodactyla can be represented in the following cladogram: Within Ruminantia, the Tragulidae (mouse deer) are considered the most basal family, with the remaining ruminants classified as belonging to the infraorder Pecora. Until the beginning of the 21st century it was understood that the family Moschidae (musk deer) was sister to Cervidae. However, a 2003 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of National Museum of Natural History, France) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, revealed that Moschidae and Bovidae form a clade sister to Cervidae. According to the study, Cervidae diverged from the Bovidae-Moschidae clade 27 to 28 million years ago. The following cladogram is based on a very recent large-scale genome ruminant genome sequence study in 2019: Classification ORDER ARTIODACTYLA Suborder Tylopoda: camels and llamas, 7 living species in 3 genera Suborder Suina: pigs and peccaries Suborder Cetruminantia: ruminants, whales and hippos unranked Ruminantia Infraorder Tragulina (paraphyletic) Family †Prodremotheriidae Family †Hypertragulidae Family †Praetragulidae Family †Protoceratidae Family Tragulidae: chevrotains, 6 living species in 4 genera Family †Archaeomerycidae Family †Lophiomerycidae Infraorder Pecora Family Cervidae: deer and moose, 49 living species in 16 genera Family †Gelocidae Family †Palaeomerycidae Family †Hoplitomerycidae Family †Climacoceratidae Family Giraffidae: giraffe and okapi, 2 living species in 2 genera Family Antilocapridae: pronghorn, one living species in one genus Family †Leptomerycidae Family Moschidae: musk deer, 4 living species in one genus Family Bovidae: cattle, goats, sheep, and antelope, 143 living species in 53 genera Digestive system of ruminants The primary difference between ruminants and nonruminants is that ruminants' stomachs have four compartments: rumen—primary site of microbial fermentation reticulum omasum—receives chewed cud, and absorbs volatile fatty acids abomasum—true stomach The first two chambers are the rumen and the reticulum. These two compartments make up the fermentation vat and are the major site of microbial activity. Fermentation is crucial to digestion because it breaks down complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose, and enables the animal to utilize them. Microbes function best in a warm, moist, anaerobic environment with a temperature range of 37.7 to 42.2 °C (100 to 108 °F) and a pH between 6.0 and 6.4. Without the help of microbes, ruminants would not be able to utilize nutrients from forages. The food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud or bolus. The cud is then regurgitated and chewed to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size. Smaller particle size allows for increased nutrient absorption. Fiber, especially cellulose and hemicellulose, is primarily broken down in these chambers by microbes (mostly bacteria, as well as some protozoa, fungi, and yeast) into the three volatile fatty acids (VFAs): acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid. Protein and nonstructural carbohydrate (pectin, sugars, and starches) are also fermented. Saliva is very important because it provides liquid for the microbial population, recirculates nitrogen and minerals, and acts as a buffer for the rumen pH. The type of feed the animal consumes affects the amount of saliva that is produced. Though the rumen and reticulum have different names, they have very similar tissue layers and textures, making it difficult to visually separate them. They also perform similar tasks. Together, these chambers are called the reticulorumen. The degraded digesta, which is now in the lower liquid part of the reticulorumen, then passes into the next chamber, the omasum. This chamber controls what is able to pass into the abomasum. It keeps the particle size as small as possible in order to pass into the abomasum. The omasum also absorbs volatile fatty acids and ammonia. After this, the digesta is moved to the true stomach, the abomasum. This is the gastric compartment of the ruminant stomach. The abomasum is the direct equivalent of the monogastric stomach, and digesta is digested here in much the same way. This compartment releases acids and enzymes that further digest the material passing through. This is also where the ruminant digests the microbes produced in the rumen. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. The small intestine is the main site of nutrient absorption. The surface area of the digesta is greatly increased here because of the villi that are in the small intestine. This increased surface area allows for greater nutrient absorption. Microbes produced in the reticulorumen are also digested in the small intestine. After the small intestine is the large intestine. The major roles here are breaking down mainly fiber by fermentation with microbes, absorption of water (ions and minerals) and other fermented products, and also expelling waste. Fermentation continues in the large intestine in the same way as in the reticulorumen. Only small amounts of glucose are absorbed from dietary carbohydrates. Most dietary carbohydrates are fermented into VFAs in the rumen. The glucose needed as energy for the brain and for lactose and milk fat in milk production, as well as other uses, comes from nonsugar sources, such as the VFA propionate, glycerol, lactate, and protein. The VFA propionate is used for around 70% of the glucose and glycogen produced and protein for another 20% (50% under starvation conditions). Abundance, distribution, and domestication Wild ruminants number at least 75 million and are native to all continents except Antarctica and Australia. Nearly 90% of all species are found in Eurasia and Africa. Species inhabit a wide range of climates (from tropic to arctic) and habitats (from open plains to forests). The population of domestic ruminants is greater than 3.5 billion, with cattle, sheep, and goats accounting for about 95% of the total population. Goats were domesticated in the Near East circa 8000 BC. Most other species were domesticated by 2500 BC., either in the Near East or southern Asia. Ruminant physiology Ruminating animals have various physiological features that enable them to survive in nature. One feature of ruminants is their continuously growing teeth. During grazing, the silica content in forage causes abrasion of the teeth. This is compensated for by continuous tooth growth throughout the ruminant's life, as opposed to humans or other nonruminants, whose teeth stop growing after a particular age. Most ruminants do not have upper incisors; instead, they have a thick dental pad to thoroughly chew plant-based food. Another feature of ruminants is the large ruminal storage capacity that gives them the ability to consume feed rapidly and complete the chewing process later. This is known as rumination, which consists of the regurgitation of feed, rechewing, resalivation, and reswallowing. Rumination reduces particle size, which enhances microbial function and allows the digesta to pass more easily through the digestive tract. Rumen microbiology Vertebrates lack the ability to hydrolyse the beta [1–4] glycosidic bond of plant cellulose due to the lack of the enzyme cellulase. Thus, ruminants completely depend on the microbial flora, present in the rumen or hindgut, to digest cellulose. Digestion of food in the rumen is primarily carried out by the rumen microflora, which contains dense populations of several species of bacteria, protozoa, sometimes yeasts and other fungi – 1 ml of rumen is estimated to contain 10–50 billion bacteria and 1 million protozoa, as well as several yeasts and fungi. Since the environment inside a rumen is anaerobic, most of these microbial species are obligate or facultative anaerobes that can decompose complex plant material, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, starch, and proteins. The hydrolysis of cellulose results in sugars, which are further fermented to acetate, lactate, propionate, butyrate, carbon dioxide, and methane. As bacteria conduct fermentation in the rumen, they consume about 10% of the carbon, 60% of the phosphorus, and 80% of the nitrogen that the ruminant ingests. To reclaim these nutrients, the ruminant then digests the bacteria in the abomasum. The enzyme lysozyme has adapted to facilitate digestion of bacteria in the ruminant abomasum. Pancreatic ribonuclease also degrades bacterial RNA in the ruminant small intestine as a source of nitrogen. During grazing, ruminants produce large amounts of saliva – estimates range from 100 to 150 litres of saliva per day for a cow. The role of saliva is to provide ample fluid for rumen fermentation and to act as a buffering agent. Rumen fermentation produces large amounts of organic acids, thus maintaining the appropriate pH of rumen fluids is a critical factor in rumen fermentation. After digesta passes through the rumen, the omasum absorbs excess fluid so that digestive enzymes and acid in the abomasum are not diluted. Tannin toxicity in ruminant animals Tannins are phenolic compounds that are commonly found in plants. Found in the leaf, bud, seed, root, and stem tissues, tannins are widely distributed in many different species of plants. Tannins are separated into two classes: hydrolysable tannins and condensed tannins. Depending on their concentration and nature, either class can have adverse or beneficial effects. Tannins can be beneficial, having been shown to increase milk production, wool growth, ovulation rate, and lambing percentage, as well as reducing bloat risk and reducing internal parasite burdens. Tannins can be toxic to ruminants, in that they precipitate proteins, making them unavailable for digestion, and they inhibit the absorption of nutrients by reducing the populations of proteolytic rumen bacteria. Very high levels of tannin intake can produce toxicity that can even cause death. Animals that normally consume tannin-rich plants can develop defensive mechanisms against tannins, such as the strategic deployment of lipids and extracellular polysaccharides that have a high affinity to binding to tannins. Some ruminants (goats, deer, elk, moose) are able to consume food high in tannins (leaves, twigs, bark) due to the presence in their saliva of tannin-binding proteins. Religious importance The Law of Moses in the Bible allowed the eating of some mammals that had cloven hooves (i.e. members of the order Artiodactyla) and "that chew the cud", a stipulation preserved to this day in Jewish dietary laws. Other uses The verb 'to ruminate' has been extended metaphorically to mean to ponder thoughtfully or to meditate on some topic. Similarly, ideas may be 'chewed on' or 'digested'. 'Chew the (one's) cud' is to reflect or meditate. In psychology, "rumination" refers to a pattern of thinking, and is unrelated to digestive physiology. Ruminants and climate change Methane is produced by a type of archaea, called methanogens, as described above within the rumen, and this methane is released to the atmosphere. The rumen is the major site of methane production in ruminants. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 86 compared to CO2 over a 20-year period. In 2010, enteric fermentation accounted for 43% of the total greenhouse gas emissions from all agricultural activity in the world, 26% of the total greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural activity in the U.S., and 22% of the total U.S. methane emissions. The meat from domestically-raised ruminants has a higher carbon equivalent footprint than other meats or vegetarian sources of protein based on a global meta-analysis of lifecycle assessment studies. Methane production by meat animals, principally ruminants, is estimated 15–20% global production of methane, unless the animals were hunted in the wild. The current U.S. domestic beef and dairy cattle population is around 90 million head, approximately 50% higher than the peak wild population of American Bison of 60 million head in the 1700s, which primarily roamed the part of North America that now makes up the United States. See also Monogastric Pseudoruminant References External links Digestive Physiology of Herbivores – Colorado State University (Last updated on 13 July 2006) Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Ruminant". Encyclopedia Britannica, Invalid Date, https://www.britannica.com/animal/ruminant. Accessed 22 February 2021. 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246816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-collar%20worker	Blue-collar worker	A blue-collar worker is a working class person who performs manual labor. Blue-collar work may involve skilled or unskilled labor. The type of work may involve manufacturing, warehousing, mining, excavation, electricity generation and power plant operations, electrical construction and maintenance, custodial work, farming, commercial fishing, logging, landscaping, pest control, food processing, oil field work, waste collection and disposal, recycling, construction, maintenance, driving, trucking and many other types of physical work. Blue-collar work often involves something being physically built or maintained. In contrast, the white-collar worker typically performs work in an office environment and may involve sitting at a computer or desk. A third type of work is a service worker (pink collar) whose labor is related to customer interaction, entertainment, sales or other service-oriented work. Many occupations blend blue, white, or pink-collar work and are often paid hourly wage-labor, although some professionals may be paid by the project or salaried. There are a wide range of payscales for such work depending upon field of specialty and experience. Origin of term The term blue collar was first used in reference to trades jobs in 1924, in an Alden, Iowa newspaper. The phrase stems from the image of manual workers wearing blue denim or chambray shirts as part of their uniforms. Industrial and manual workers often wear durable canvas or cotton clothing that may be soiled during the course of their work. Navy and light blue colors conceal potential dirt or grease on the worker's clothing, helping them to appear cleaner. For the same reason, blue is a popular color for boilersuits which protect workers' clothing. Some blue collar workers have uniforms with the name of the business and/or the individual's name embroidered or printed on it. Historically, the popularity of the colour blue among manual labourers contrasts with the popularity of white dress shirts worn by people in office environments. The blue collar/white collar colour scheme has socio-economic class connotations. However, this distinction has become blurred with the increasing importance of skilled labor, and the relative increase in low-paying white-collar jobs. Educational requirements Since many blue-collar jobs consist of mainly manual labor, educational requirements for workers are typically lower than those of white-collar workers. Often, not even a high school diploma is required, and many of the skills required for blue-collar jobs are learned by the employee while working. In higher level blue collar jobs, such as becoming an electrician or plumber, vocational training or apprenticeships are required and state-certification is also necessary. For this reason, it is common to apply the label "blue collar" or "working class" to people without a college education, whether or not they work in a blue-collar job. Blue collar shift to developing nations With the information revolution, Western nations have moved towards a service and white-collar economy. Many manufacturing jobs have been offshored to developing nations which pay their workers lower wages. This offshoring has pushed formerly agrarian nations to industrialized economies and concurrently decreased the number of blue-collar jobs in developed countries. In the United States, blue collar and service occupations generally refer to jobs in precision production, craft, and repair occupations; machine operators and inspectors; transportation and moving occupations; handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers. In the United States, an area known as the Rust Belt comprising the Northeast and Midwest, including Western New York and Western Pennsylvania, has seen its once large manufacturing base shrink significantly. With the de-industrialization of these areas starting in the mid-1960s, cities like Cleveland, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Buffalo, New York; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Erie, Pennsylvania; Youngstown, Ohio; Toledo, Ohio; Rochester, New York; and St. Louis, Missouri have experienced a steady decline of the blue-collar workforce and subsequent population decreases. Due to this economic osmosis, the rust belt has experienced high unemployment, poverty, and urban blight. Automation and future Due to many blue-collar jobs involving manual labor, automation poses a threat of unemployment for blue-collar workers. One study from the MIT Technology Review estimates that 83% of jobs that make less than $20 per hour are threatened by automation. Some examples of technology that threaten workers are self-driving cars and automated cleaning devices, which could place blue-collar workers such as truck drivers or janitors out of work. Others have suggested that technological advancement will not lead to blue-collar job unemployment, but rather shifts in the types of work performed. Proponents of this idea view coding as a replacement for blue-collar jobs, and suggest that more coders will be needed in a technologically advancing world, and posit that, ostensibly, new white-collar IT jobs could be filled by displaced blue-collar workers. Others see future of blue-collar work as humans and computers working together to improve efficiency. Such jobs would consist of data-tagging and labeling. Adjective "Blue-collar" can be used as an adjective to describe the environment of the blue-collar worker or a setting reflective of that environment, such as a "blue-collar" neighborhood, restaurant, or bar. See also Blue-collar bullying Blue-collar crime Blue-collar scholar Contingent work Designation of workers by collar color Japanese blue collar workers Moonlight clan McJob Working-class culture Gold-collar worker Green-collar worker Grey-collar worker Pink-collar worker White-collar worker References 1920s neologisms Employment classifications Working class Globalism Globalization	[ 0.6371933221817017, 0.3037167191505432, -0.8790231347084045, 0.009324987418949604, 0.030240608379244804, 0.007051134016364813, 0.10902971774339676, 0.6342758536338806, -0.5040654540061951, -0.40001705288887024, -0.838327169418335, 0.3587562143802643, -0.4961223900318146, 0.07354481518268585, -0.6226047277450562, 0.5506536960601807, 0.2417544424533844, 0.5574600100517273, -0.13579359650611877, -0.47887560725212097, -0.31455183029174805, 0.08731182664632797, -0.017528265714645386, 0.21021078526973724, 0.19516627490520477, -0.014050181955099106, -0.3069681227207184, -0.19403590261936188, -0.24300269782543182, 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246818	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-collar%20worker	White-collar worker	A white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, desk, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work may be performed in an office or other administrative setting. White-collar workers include job paths related to government, consulting, academia, accountancy, business and executive management, customer support, design, engineering, market research, finance, human resources, operations research, marketing, information technology, networking, law, healthcare, architecture, and research and development. Other types of work are those of a grey-collar worker, who has more specialized knowledge than those of a blue-collar worker, whose job requires manual labor and a pink-collar worker, whose labor is related to customer interaction, entertainment, sales, or other service-oriented jobs. Many occupations blend blue, white and pink (service) industry categorizations. Etymology The term refers to the white dress shirts of male office workers common through most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Western countries, as opposed to the blue overalls worn by many manual laborers. The term "white collar" is credited to Upton Sinclair, an American writer, in relation to contemporary clerical, administrative, and management workers during the 1930s, though references to white-collar work appear as early as 1935. White collar employees are considered highly educated as compared to blue collar. Health effects Less physical activity among white-collar workers has been thought to be a key factor in increased life-style related health conditions such as fatigue, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and heart disease. Also, working at a computer could potentially lead to diseases associated with monotonous data entry such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Workplace interventions such as alternative activity workstations, sit-stand desks, promotion of stair use are among measures being implemented to counter the harms of sedentary workplace environments. The quality of evidence used to determine the effectiveness and potential health benefits of many of these interventions is weak. More research is needed to determine which interventions may be effective in the long-term. Low quality evidence indicates that sit-stand desks may reduce sitting in the workplace during the first year of their use, however, it is not clear if sit-stand desks may be effective at reducing sitting in the longer-term. Demographics Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-collar workers have become a majority in industrialized countries due to modernization and outsourcing of manufacturing jobs. The blue-collar and white-collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt and tie. Employees in office environments may wear a variety of colors, may dress in business casuals or wear casual clothes altogether. In addition, the work tasks have blurred. "White-collar" employees may perform "blue-collar" tasks (or vice versa). An example would be a restaurant manager who may wear more formal clothing yet still assist with cooking food or taking customers' orders or a construction worker who also performs desk work. See also Designation of workers by collar color Knowledge worker White-collar crime Salaryman Notes Further reading Mills, Charles Wright. White Collar: the American Middle Classes, in series, Galaxy Book[s]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. N.B.: "First published [in] 1951." 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246819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20collar%20%28disambiguation%29	Blue collar (disambiguation)	A blue-collar worker is a working-class person who performs manual labor. Blue collar can also refer to: Blue-collar crime, a crime typically associated with the working class Blue Collar Comedy Tour, a comedy ensemble consisting of Jeff Foxworthy, Larry the Cable Guy, Bill Engvall and Ron White Blue Collar TV, a comedy show based on the tour. Blue Collar (film), a 1978 film written and directed by Paul Schrader Blue Collar (album), a 2006 album by rapper Rhymefest "Blue Collar" a popular song from the self-titled debut album, Bachman–Turner Overdrive (from BTO) "Blue Collar", a popular rock song from the Prism album, Beat Street	[ 0.5496663451194763, 0.17913445830345154, -0.6789690256118774, 0.02221193164587021, 0.06661330163478851, -0.2916344404220581, 0.38133570551872253, 0.324265718460083, -0.28619787096977234, -0.13315322995185852, -0.6487748026847839, 0.0873761996626854, -0.5967687368392944, 0.20297810435295105, -0.4355849325656891, 0.6154271364212036, 0.34984731674194336, 0.49057868123054504, -0.3092150092124939, -0.3505636155605316, -0.47382038831710815, 0.08061064779758453, -0.15846514701843262, -0.12801162898540497, 0.23193170130252838, -0.02963574044406414, -0.06569650769233704, -0.2438945472240448, -0.4115922152996063, 0.24494920670986176, 0.15510840713977814, 0.13027867674827576, 0.10540252923965454, 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246820	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deftones%20%28album%29	Deftones (album)	Deftones is the eponymous fourth studio album by American alternative metal band Deftones, released on May 20, 2003, by Maverick Records. The album features a broader spectrum of musical styles than the band's previous albums, ranging from some of their heaviest compositions to moody trip hop and shoegaze influences. It was the band's last album to be produced by Terry Date until Ohms in 2020, although he did produce their unreleased album Eros. Background Originally titled Lovers, the album was instead given an eponymous title because singer Chino Moreno considered Lovers too obvious in relation to the context of its material (the former title song "Lovers" did appear as an A-side and B-side on the UK "Hexagram" single). Date was frustrated by the very slow pace of the band working in the studio. Musical style Deftones is an eclectic album, with songs spanning many different ideas in diverse genres. It has a much different feel than prior efforts, due in part to Frank Delgado leaving his turntables behind and instead focusing on playing keyboards and synthesizers. Most of the album's songs make extensive use of the band's low G# tuning and Moreno's high screams, resulting in some of the heaviest songs in the band's catalog. On the other hand, the track "Lucky You" is a dark, soft, trip hop-influenced piece featuring DJ Crook from Moreno's side project Team Sleep and vocalist Rey Osburn of Tinfed. A grand piano and toy piano were featured in the mournful "Anniversary of an Uninteresting Event." In addition to trip hop influences, significant shoegaze elements have been noted on the album, especially in regards to the song "Minerva". Promotion Deftones produced two singles, "Minerva" and "Hexagram." Music videos were shot for both singles as well as the track "Bloody Cape". The latter's video was only available on the band's official website for one day, but was later released on the DVD portion of the band's B-Sides & Rarities. As the lead single, "Minerva" featured a melodic, commercially viable sound and gained strong rotation on mainstream rock video programming. In contrast, the extreme heaviness of "Hexagram" landed it on shows such as Uranium and Headbangers Ball. "Battle-Axe" was featured in the video game Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2, while "Minerva" was featured in True Crime: Streets of LA, NHL 2004, House of Wax, and also as downloadable content for the Rock Band series. Critical reception Deftones was well received by critics, earning an aggregate rating of 74 on Metacritic. Q praised the album, giving it 4.5 out of 5 stars, stating, "In a genre considered creatively bankrupt, this is genuinely new metal". Rolling Stone stated, "This is metal that crushes, then soothes; collapses, then soars... Deftones just blow open the possibilities". Reviewers from sites such The A.V. Club and AllMusic gave the album positive scores but criticized the band for returning to their heavy style, instead of the more soft and artistic style of its predecessor, White Pony. Spin magazine also give it a positive score, but complained about the album's notable darkness, saying, "On their fourth album, Deftones are sad as hell, and they're not gonna take it anymore; this is less an 11-song album than a single long-form mope". Playlouder's mixed review praised the band's musicianship, but criticized Moreno's high, screamed vocals. In 2016, Jonathan Dick of NPR Music retrospectively noted the album's "trip-hop nuances" and included the album as an example of Deftones' varied catalogue, stating that "Deftones' catalogue reads like a case study in how a band can translate influences into a sound that's definitively their own." The track "Minerva" was placed at spot number 12 in Consequence of Sound's article "The Top 20 Deftones Song," with Jon Hadusek claiming that "[in] a way, Deftones brought shoegaze to the alternative metal mainstream with 'Minerva', a crushingly heavy, textured jam indebted to Siamese Dream-era Smashing Pumpkins and Hum [...]" Hadusek further stated that the track was "far-and-away the best track" of the self-titled album and that the track "hints at the dreamier directions" that Deftones would continue to explore. Commercial performance This album sold 167,000 copies in its first week of release in America, debuting at No. 2 on the Billboard 200, behind Staind's 14 Shades of Grey. It was the highest-charting album to date by the band, and went on to sell over 492,000 copies in the U.S by 2005. It was certified gold by the RIAA two months after its release. The album also debuted at No. 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 10,700 copies in its first week of release in Canada. Track listing Personnel Deftones Chino Moreno – lead vocals, rhythm guitar Stephen Carpenter – lead guitar, drums on "Anniversary of an Uninteresting Event", bass on “Needles and Pins” Chi Cheng – bass, backing vocals Frank Delgado – keyboards Abe Cunningham – drums Production Terry Date – production, engineering and mixing Greg Wells – co-production and arrangement Kinski Gallo – additional photography Sam Hofstedt – assistant engineering Frank Maddocks – art direction and design James R. Minchin III – band photography Rey Osburn – additional vocals (on "Lucky You") Pete Roberts – Pro Tools engineering and additional engineering Nick Spanos – additional photography Sean Tallman – assistant engineering Tom Baker – mastering Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Singles Certifications References Deftones albums 2003 albums Maverick Records albums Albums produced by Terry Date Experimental rock albums by American artists Alternative metal albums by American artists	[ -0.04777095466852188, 0.4227770268917084, 0.22822929918766022, 0.18385180830955505, -0.7738673090934753, 0.38881292939186096, 0.7332878112792969, -0.31300392746925354, 0.08588149398565292, 0.10184258967638016, 0.2631276845932007, 1.13002347946167, -0.4242438077926636, 0.1731787621974945, 0.353132426738739, 0.39349594712257385, 0.28302696347236633, 0.5051234364509583, -0.3910529315471649, -0.6461734175682068, 0.05481860041618347, -0.0029499989468604326, 0.8060290813446045, -0.42514553666114807, 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246823	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20collar	White collar	White collar may refer to: White-collar worker, a salaried professional or an educated worker who performs semi-professional office, administrative, and sales-coordination tasks, as opposed to a blue-collar worker, whose job requires manual labor White-collar crime, a non-violent crime, generally for personal gain and often involving money White Collar: The American Middle Classes, a study of the American middle class by sociologist C. Wright Mills White Collar (TV series), a police-procedural, dramatic television series starring Matt Bomer that premiered on the USA Network in 2009 "White Collar", an episode of the sitcom The King of Queens The White Collar (novel), a novel by Mikheil Javakhishvili	[ 0.7384282946586609, -0.03953211382031441, -0.8031898736953735, 0.07563038915395737, 0.06323478370904922, -0.12880510091781616, 0.295723021030426, 0.6345184445381165, -0.21633222699165344, -0.5140566825866699, -0.8931252360343933, 0.3953637182712555, -0.5951300859451294, 0.020251573994755745, -0.43145430088043213, 0.5247121453285217, 0.5032649040222168, 0.49911293387413025, -0.37620866298675537, -0.05406571924686432, -0.6716426610946655, 0.10090206563472748, 0.049460142850875854, -0.012336881831288338, 0.4212399125099182, -0.20628871023654938, -0.015093719586730003, -0.2680642604827881, -0.44212067127227783, 0.4717428982257843, 0.19290569424629211, 0.07343439757823944, -0.15274691581726074, 0.20736496150493622, 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246826	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20British%20Commands%20and%20Army%20groups	List of British Commands and Army groups	This is a list of British Army commands and army groups. It is intended as a central point of access information about British formations of that size. Aldershot Command (until 1941) Anti-Aircraft Command Army Headquarters (from 1 November 2011) (see Commander Land Forces) Army Strategic Command (1968–1972) British Army of the Rhine (1945–1994) British Element Trieste Force (BETFOR) British Expeditionary Force (World War I) British Expeditionary Force (World War II) British Forces in Austria (ex Eighth Army) Cyrenaica Command (1940–1941) East Africa Command (1941–1964) Eastern Command Far East Land Forces Field Army (c.2015-present) Home Command British India Command Land Command (1995–2008) Land Forces (2008–2011) Malaya Command HQ Malta and Libya (until at least 1967) Middle East Command (1939–1945) Middle East Land Forces, (1945-1976) Near East Land Forces Netherlands East Indies Command (c.1946-1947) Northern Command HQ Northern Ireland Persia and Iraq Command Scottish Command South Eastern Command (1941–1944) Southern Command (until 1972) UK Land Forces (1972–1995) UK Support Command (Germany) (see British Forces Germany) West Africa Command (1941–1956) Western Command Army Groups 11th Army Group Activated in November 1943. On 12 November 1944 redesignated Allied Land Forces South East Asia 15th Army Group 18th Army Group 21st Army Group Allied Armies in Italy References Lists of military units and formations of World War II Commands And Army Groups Commands Commands And Army Groups Commands and Army groupes	[ -0.17465834319591522, 0.7924797534942627, -0.402760773897171, -0.7528443336486816, -0.6745823621749878, 0.4470807611942291, 0.6869681477546692, 0.26193392276763916, -0.6475690007209778, 0.09498840570449829, -0.6175777912139893, -0.3207020163536072, 0.15666471421718597, 0.2283899337053299, -0.1898311823606491, 0.5029953122138977, -0.0745505839586258, 0.4398888647556305, -0.319344162940979, -0.2275388240814209, 0.462776780128479, 0.25342628359794617, 0.02028750255703926, -0.4585094749927521, 0.4599030315876007, 0.28601524233818054, 0.778275728225708, -0.22700999677181244, 0.09748890995979309, -0.20964869856834412, -0.2521394193172455, 0.44958585500717163, 0.4097144603729248, -0.25144556164741516, 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246827	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20British%20armies%20in%20World%20War%20II	List of British armies in World War II	During the Second World War, the British Army created several field armies. These were formations that controlled multiple army corps, which in turn controlled numerous divisions. An army would also control additional artillery, engineers, and logistical units that would be used to support the subordinate corps and divisions as needed. An army itself was generally under the control of a higher formation, such as an army group or a command. Over the course of the war, the British military formed eight armies. An attempt was made to form a ninth, the second overall - the Second British Expeditionary Force, and one regional command was redesignated as an army for a short period of time. Inter-allied co-operation resulted in the creation of the First Allied Airborne Army, and between deception efforts and faulty German intelligence, a further six armies existed within the British military structure. In total, real or fictitious, 17 armies were created, although they did not all exist at the same time. The first high-level command, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was formed in September 1939, following the outbreak of the war, and dispatched to France. It provides a complicated example of an army chain of command. Its commander, General John Vereker, the Viscount Gort, was in control of not just the BEF, but all British forces in France. While being responsible to report to a high-level French command, he was also made a subordinate of a French army group, and was also under the command of the main British headquarters in London. An example of a more simplified chain of command, is provided by the Fourteenth Army that only reported to the 11th Army Group. The final army formed during the war, was the Twelfth Army that was created in May 1945. Within the British military, armies were commanded by lieutenant-generals. For a variety of reasons, once the appointment was made, commanders could be promoted to a full general. There were a handful of exceptions to this norm. John Vereker was a full general when he was placed in command of the BEF. So was Henry Maitland Wilson, when he was chosen to lead the Ninth Army. General Claude Auchinleck was commander-in-chief of all forces based in the Middle East, when he decided to take over personal command of the Eighth Army. The size, composition, and strength of an army could vary dramatically. The BEF, the primary British force in 1940, was 13 divisions strong and had a strength of around 394,000 men by May 1940. It was composed entirely of British formations. Others, such as the Eighth Army were composed of forces from multiple nations. At the Second Battle of El Alamein, it was around 195,000 men strong spread over eleven divisions and several additional brigades. It consisted of Australian, British, French, Greek, Indian, New Zealand, and South African troops. In 1945, that same army was 632,980 men strong spread over eight divisions, various brigades, and other smaller units. It was then composed of British, Indian, Italian, New Zealand, and Polish troops, as well as the men of the Jewish Infantry Brigade. The Fourteenth Army, which fought in British India and Burma, was the largest British army-level formation assembled during the war. It commanded around one-million men and consisted of large number of soldiers drawn from British India and the British African colonies. Armies Footnotes Citations References British armies Wor Armies	[ -0.1813526749610901, 0.29904767870903015, -0.5193048119544983, -0.5169705748558044, -0.7752445936203003, 0.4890455901622772, 0.7634773850440979, 0.04469076544046402, -0.3125167489051819, -0.21192696690559387, -0.284348726272583, -0.2976764142513275, 0.017852647230029106, 0.4349108636379242, 0.22732412815093994, 0.5790842175483704, -0.3290100693702698, 0.28658172488212585, -0.02350866235792637, -0.3642560541629791, 0.24282106757164001, 0.202992245554924, 0.46410098671913147, 0.01779613085091114, 0.03600450977683067, -0.05276704207062721, 0.9212042689323425, -0.20776262879371643, 0.11088202148675919, -0.7122204303741455, -0.26203057169914246, -0.02183545008301735, -0.07396089285612106, -0.544806718826294, -0.11678041517734528, -0.629031777381897, -0.20656627416610718, -0.27869507670402527, 0.4874120354652405, -0.6395182609558105, -0.14908187091350555, 0.02219790406525135, 0.5180862545967102, 0.6729905605316162, 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246828	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forage	Forage	Forage is a plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems) eaten by grazing livestock. Historically, the term forage has meant only plants eaten by the animals directly as pasture, crop residue, or immature cereal crops, but it is also used more loosely to include similar plants cut for fodder and carried to the animals, especially as hay or silage. While the term forage has a broad definition, the term forage crop is used to define crops, annual or biennial, which are grown to be utilized by grazing or harvesting as a whole crop. Common forages Grasses Grass forages include: Agrostis spp. – bentgrasses Agrostis capillaris – common bentgrass Agrostis stolonifera – creeping bentgrass Andropogon hallii – sand bluestem Arrhenatherum elatius – false oat-grass Bothriochloa bladhii – Australian bluestem Bothriochloa pertusa – hurricane grass Brachiaria decumbens – Surinam grass Brachiaria humidicola – koronivia grass Bromus spp. – bromegrasses Cenchrus ciliaris – buffelgrass Chloris gayana – Rhodes grass Cynodon dactylon – bermudagrass Dactylis glomerata – orchard grass Echinochloa pyramidalis – antelope grass Entolasia imbricata – bungoma grass Festuca spp. – fescues Festuca arundinacea – tall fescue Festuca pratensis – meadow fescue Festuca rubra – red fescue Heteropogon contortus – black spear grass Hymenachne amplexicaulis – West Indian marsh grass Hyparrhenia rufa – jaragua Leersia hexandra – southern cutgrass Lolium spp. – ryegrasses Lolium multiflorum – Italian ryegrass Lolium perenne – perennial ryegrass Megathyrsus maximus – Guinea grass Melinis minutiflora – molasses grass Paspalum conjugatum – carabao grass Paspalum dilatatum – dallisgrass Phalaris arundinacea – reed canarygrass Phleum pratense – timothy Poa spp. – bluegrasses, meadow-grasses Poa arachnifera – Texas bluegrass Poa pratensis – Kentucky bluegrass Poa trivialis – rough bluegrass Setaria sphacelata – African bristlegrass Themeda triandra – kangaroo grass Thinopyrum intermedium – intermediate wheatgrass Herbaceous legumes Herbaceous legume forages include: Arachis pintoi – pinto peanut Astragalus cicer – cicer milkvetch Chamaecrista rotundifolia – roundleaf sensitive pea Clitoria ternatea – butterfly-pea Kummerowia – annual lespedezas Kummerowia stipulacea – Korean clover, Korean lespedeza Kummerowia striata – Japanese clover, common lespedeza Lotus corniculatus – bird's-foot trefoil Macroptilium atropurpureum – purple bush-bean Macroptilium bracteatum – burgundy bean Medicago spp. – medics Medicago sativa – alfalfa, lucerne Medicago truncatula – barrel medic Melilotus spp. – sweetclovers Neonotonia wightii – perennial soybean Onobrychis viciifolia – common sainfoin Stylosanthes spp. – stylo Stylosanthes humilis – Townsville stylo Stylosanthes scabra – shrubby stylo Trifolium spp. – clovers Trifolium hybridum – alsike clover Trifolium incarnatum – crimson clover Trifolium pratense – red clover Trifolium repens – white clover Vicia spp. – vetches Vicia articulata – oneflower vetch Vicia ervilia – bitter vetch Vicia narbonensis – narbon vetch Vicia sativa – common vetch, tare Vicia villosa – hairy vetch Vigna parkeri – creeping vigna Tree legumes Tree legume forages include: Acacia aneura – mulga Albizia spp. – silk trees Albizia canescens – Belmont siris Albizia lebbeck – lebbeck Enterolobium cyclocarpum – earpodtree Leucaena leucocephala – leadtree Silage Silage may be composed by the following: Alfalfa Maize (corn) Grass-legume mix Sorghums Oats Crop residue Crop residues used as forage include: Sorghum Corn or soybean stover Less common Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus – Daikon radish/"forage radish" See also Grass-fed beef References External links Livestock Non-timber forest products	[ 0.5949444770812988, -0.04365930333733559, -0.7312902212142944, -0.11558356881141663, 0.014959522522985935, 0.5296465754508972, 0.2698324918746948, 0.2876664102077484, -0.34336814284324646, -0.5640801191329956, -0.15544916689395905, 0.4314344823360443, -0.2652324140071869, -0.33416077494621277, -0.26298436522483826, 0.6017312407493591, 0.10610590130090714, 0.20962750911712646, 0.747899055480957, -0.472530722618103, -0.5700798630714417, -0.7481079697608948, -0.017376119270920753, -0.22208403050899506, 1.091930627822876, -0.5225396156311035, 0.18413272500038147, 0.6918299198150635, -0.03154822066426277, 0.0518675372004509, -0.11157146841287613, 0.5106504559516907, 0.11800657212734222, 0.21027684211730957, -0.10052135586738586, 0.006214631721377373, 0.011399694718420506, -0.7305529713630676, 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246830	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott%20Carter	Elliott Carter	Elliott Cook Carter Jr. (December 11, 1908 – November 5, 2012) was an American modernist composer. One of the most respected composers of the second half of the 20th century, he combined elements of European modernism and American "ultra-modernism" into a distinctive style with a personal harmonic and rhythmic language, after an early neoclassical phase. His compositions are performed throughout the world, and include orchestral, chamber music, solo instrumental, and vocal works. The recipient of many awards, Carter was twice awarded the Pulitzer Prize. Born in New York City, he had developed an interest in modern music in the 1920s. He was later introduced to Charles Ives, and soon came to appreciate the American ‘ultra-modernists’. After studying at Harvard University with Edward Burlingame Hill, Gustav Holst and Walter Piston, he studied with Nadia Boulanger in Paris in the 1930s, then returned to the United States. Carter was productive in his later years, publishing more than 40 works between the ages of 90 and 100, and over 20 more after he turned 100 in 2008. He completed his last work, Epigrams for piano trio, on August 13, 2012. Biography Elliott Cook Carter Jr. was born in Manhattan on December 11, 1908, the son of a wealthy lace importer, Elliott Carter Sr., and the former Florence Chambers. Much of his childhood was spent in Europe; he spoke French before learning English. As a teenager, he developed an interest in music, although his parents did not give much encouragement to his interests other than providing for early piano lessons, but he was encouraged by Charles Ives, who sold insurance to Carter's family. While a student at the Horace Mann School in 1922, he wrote an admiring letter to Ives, who responded and urged him to pursue his interest in music. Besides that, he began to be interested in modern music as part of his broader exploration of modernism in various other art forms. In 1924, a 15-year-old Carter was in the audience and "galvanized" when Pierre Monteux conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra (BSO) in the New York première of The Rite of Spring. Carter later came to appreciate the American ‘ultra-modernists – namely Henry Cowell, Edgard Varèse, Ruth Crawford and, later, Conlon Nancarrow. Ives often accompanied Carter to BSO concerts conducted by Serge Koussevitzky, who programmed contemporary works frequently, and then returned to Ives' home to critique and parody the so-called ‘tricks’ of Debussy, Stravinsky or Prokofiev – who were composing European 'new music' Ives considered only 'superficially modern'. Starting in 1926, Carter attended Harvard University, where he majored in English but also studied music, both at Harvard (whose music course did not satisfy him) and at the nearby Longy School of Music, and also sang with the Harvard Glee Club. His Harvard professors included Walter Piston and Gustav Holst. Carter earned a master's degree in music from Harvard in 1932, but the course did not help make much progress in his compositional skills. Hence, Carter then moved to Paris to study with Nadia Boulanger both privately and at the École Normale de Musique de Paris. He worked with Boulanger from 1932 to 1935 (though he did not compose much music with her that he believed was worth preserving) and in the latter year received a doctorate in music (Mus.D.). Later in 1935, he returned to the US to write music for the Ballet Caravan. The founder of the Ballet Caravan Lincoln Kirstein commissioned Carter to compose two ballets, Pocahontas and The Minotaur, which would be among his longest works he composed during his Neo-classicist phase, though neither of them was greatly successful. On July 6, 1939, Carter married Helen Frost-Jones. They had one child, a son, David Chambers Carter. He lived with his wife in the same apartment in Greenwich Village from the time they bought it in 1945 to her death in 2003. From 1940 to 1944, he taught at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland. He worked for the Office of War Information during World War II. After the war, he held teaching posts at the Peabody Conservatory (1946–1948), Columbia University, Queens College, New York (1955–56), Yale University (1960–62), Cornell University (from 1967) and the Juilliard School (from 1972). Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Carter, having edited Ives' music, turned back to his interest in the experimentalists. In response to his experience in the war, he decided to achieve an emancipated musical discourse through re-examination of all parameters of music. Notable works during this time were the Cello Sonata, the rhythmically-complex first string quartet and Variations for Orchestra. The latter two marked Carter's turning point in his career. Carter wrote music every morning until his death, of natural causes, on November 5, 2012 at his home in New York City, at age 103. Premieres and notable performances Carter composed his only opera, What Next?, in 1997–98 for the Berlin State Opera at the behest of conductor Daniel Barenboim. The work premiered in Berlin in 1999 and had its first staging in the United States at the Tanglewood Music Festival in 2006, conducted by James Levine. He later considered writing operas on the themes of communal suicide and a story by Henry James, but abandoned both ideas and resolved to write no more operas. Interventions for Piano and Orchestra received its premiere on December 5, 2008, by the BSO, conducted by James Levine and featuring the pianist Daniel Barenboim at Symphony Hall, Boston. On December 11, 2008, Barenboim reprised the work with the BSO at Carnegie Hall in New York in the presence of the composer on his 100th birthday. Carter was also present at the 2009 Aldeburgh Festival to hear the world premiere of his song cycle On Conversing with Paradise, based on Ezra Pound's Canto 81 and one of Pound's 'Notes' intended for later Cantos, and usually published at the end of the Cantos. The premiere was given on June 20, 2009, by the baritone Leigh Melrose and the Birmingham Contemporary Music Group conducted by Oliver Knussen. Figment V for marimba was premiered in New York on May 2, 2009, by Simon Boyar, and Poems of Louis Zukofsky for soprano and clarinet had its first performance by Lucy Shelton and Thomas Martin at the Tanglewood Festival on August 9, 2009. The US premiere of the Flute Concerto took place on February 4, 2010, with the flutist Elizabeth Rowe and the Boston Symphony Orchestra conducted by Levine. The last premiere of Carter's lifetime was Dialogues II, written for Barenboim's 70th birthday and conducted in Milan in October 2012 by Gustavo Dudamel. The last Carter premiere ever, which happened after Carter's death, was "The American Sublime", a work for baritone and large ensemble, dedicated to and conducted by Levine. Musical style and language Carter's earlier works were influenced by Igor Stravinsky, Aaron Copland, and Paul Hindemith, and are mainly neoclassical. He had strict training in counterpoint, from medieval polyphony to Stravinsky, and this shows in his earliest music, such as the ballet Pocahontas (1938–39). Some of his music during the Second World War is fairly diatonic, and includes a melodic lyricism reminiscent of Samuel Barber. Starting in the late 1940s his music shows an increasing development of a personal harmonic and rhythmic language characterized by elaborate rhythmic layering and metric modulation. While Carter's chromaticism and tonal vocabulary parallels serial composers of the period, Carter did not use serial techniques. Carter said, "I certainly have never used a twelve-tone row as the basis of a composition, in the way described in Schoenberg’s Style and Idea, nor are my compositions a constant rotation of various permutations of twelve-tone rows". Rather, he independently developed and catalogued all possible collections of pitches (i.e., all possible three-note chords, five-note chords, etc.), compiling what he called his Harmony Book. (An edited version of the book was published in 2002 by Carl Fischer Music.) Musical theorists like Allen Forte later systematized these data into musical set theory. A series of Carter's works in the 1960s and 1970s generates its tonal material by using all possible chords of a particular number of pitches. Among his better known works are the Variations for Orchestra (1954–55); the Double Concerto for Harpsichord and Piano with Two Chamber Orchestras (1959–61); the Piano Concerto (1964–65), written as an 85th-birthday present for Stravinsky; the Concerto for Orchestra (1969), loosely based on a poem by Saint-John Perse; and the Symphony of Three Orchestras (1976). He also composed five string quartets, of which the second and third won the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1960 and 1973 respectively. Spaced at regular intervals throughout his mature career, they are considered by some to be the most important body of work in that medium since Bartók. Symphonia: sum fluxae pretium spei (1993–96) is his largest orchestral work, complex in structure and featuring contrasting layers of instrumental textures, from delicate wind solos to crashing brass and percussion outbursts. The Piano Concerto (1964–65) uses the collection of three-note chords for its pitch material; the Third String Quartet (1971) uses all four-note chords; the Concerto for Orchestra (1969) all five-note chords; and A Symphony of Three Orchestras uses the collection of six-note chords. Carter also made frequent use of "tonic" 12-note chords. Of particular interest are "all-interval" 12-tone chords, where every interval is represented within adjacent notes of the chord. His 1980 solo piano work Night Fantasies uses the entire collection of the 88 symmetrical-inverted all-interval 12-note chords. Typically, the pitch material is segmented between instruments, with a unique set of chords or sets assigned to each instrument or orchestral section. This stratification of material, with individual voices assigned not only their own unique pitch material but texture and rhythm as well, is a key component of Carter's style. His music after Night Fantasies has been termed his late period and his tonal language became less systematized and more intuitive, but retains the basic characteristics of his earlier works. Carter's use of rhythm can best be understood with the concept of stratification. Each instrumental voice is typically assigned its own set of tempos. A structural polyrhythm, where a very slow polyrhythm is used as a formal device, is present in many of Carter's works. Night Fantasies, for example, uses a 216:175 tempo relation that coincides at only two points over its 20+ minutes. This use of rhythm was part of his expansion of the notion of counterpoint to encompass simultaneous different characters, even entire movements, rather than just individual lines. He said that such steady pulses reminded him of soldiers marching or horses trotting, sounds no longer heard in the late 20th century, and he wanted his music to capture the sort of continuous acceleration or deceleration experienced in an automobile or an airplane. While Carter's music shows little trace of American popular music or jazz, his vocal music has demonstrated strong ties to contemporary American poetry. He set poems by Elizabeth Bishop (A Mirror on Which to Dwell), John Ashbery (Syringa and Mad Regales), Robert Lowell (In Sleep, in Thunder), William Carlos Williams (Of Rewaking), Wallace Stevens (In the Distances of Sleep and The American Sublime), Ezra Pound (On Conversing with Paradise), and Marianne Moore (What Are Years). Twentieth-century poets also inspired several of his large instrumental works, such as the Concerto for Orchestra (St. John Perse) and A Symphony of Three Orchestras (Hart Crane). Awards and honors 1960: Pulitzer Prize for Music, for String Quartet No. 2 1963: Elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1969: Elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters 1973: Pulitzer Prize for Music, for String Quartet No. 3 1981: Ernst von Siemens Music Prize, awarded by the Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Künste and the Ernst von Siemens Music Foundation 1983: Edward MacDowell Medal, awarded by the MacDowell Colony 1985: National Medal of Arts, awarded by the by President of the United States and the National Endowment for the Arts 1987: Named a Commandeur of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government 1998: Inducted into the American Classical Music Hall of Fame and Museum 2005: The Thomas Jefferson Medal, awarded by the American Philosophical Society 2009: Received a Trustees Award (a lifetime achievement award given to non-performers) from the Grammy Awards. 2012: Named a Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur by the French government Significant works Orchestral Variations for Orchestra (1955) Concerto for Orchestra (1969) A Symphony of Three Orchestras (1976) Penthode (1985) Symphonia: sum fluxae pretium spei (1993–1996) Concertos Double Concerto for Harpsichord and Piano with Two Chamber Orchestras (1959–1961) Piano Concerto (1964–1965) Oboe Concerto (1986–1987) Violin Concerto (1990) Cello Concerto (2000) Interventions for Piano and Orchestra (2007) Voice and ensemble A Mirror on Which to Dwell (1975) Syringa (1978) In Sleep, in Thunder (1981) Piano Piano Sonata (1945–46) Night Fantasies (1980) String quartets String Quartet No. 1 (1951) String Quartet No. 2 (1959) String Quartet No. 3 (1971) String Quartet No. 4 (1986) String Quartet No. 5 (1995) Chamber Cello Sonata (1948) Sonata for Flute, Oboe, Cello and Harpsichord (1952) Duo for Violin and Piano (1974) Triple Duo (1983) ASKO Concerto (2000) Partial discography Sonata for Flute, Oboe, Cello and Harpsichord; Sonata for Cello and Piano; Double Concerto for Harpsichord and Piano With Two Chamber Orchestras. Paul Jacobs, harpsichord; Joel Krosnick, cello; Gilbert Kalish, piano; The Contemporary Chamber Ensemble, Arthur Weisberg, cond. Elektra/Nonesuch 9 79183–2. String Quartets Nos. 1 and 2. The Composers Quartet. Elektra/Nonesuch 9 71249-2 Piano Concerto; Variations for Orchestra. Ursula Oppens, piano; Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, Michael Gielen, cond. New World Records, NW 347–2. Triple Duo; Clarinet Concerto; Short Pieces. Nouvel Ensemble Moderne, Lorraine Vaillancourt, cond. ATMA Classique, ACD2 2280. Complete Music for Piano. Charles Rosen, piano. Bridge 9090. Vocal Works (1975–81): A Mirror on Which to Dwell; In Sleep, In Thunder; Syringa; Three Poems of Robert Frost. Speculum Musicae with Katherine Ciesinki, mezzo; Jon Garrison, tenor; Jan Opalach, bass; Christine Schadeberg, soprano. Bridge, BCD 9014. Dialogues; Boston Concerto; Cello Concerto; ASKO Concerto. Nicolas Hodges, piano; Fred Sherry, cello; London Sinfonietta, BBC Symphony Orchestra, ASKO Ensemble, Oliver Knussen, cond. Bridge 9184. Notable students References Sources Further reading Capuzzo, Guy. Elliott Carter's 'What Next?': Communication, Cooperation, Separation. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2012. . Coulembier, Klaas. 2016. "Static Structure, Dynamic Form: An Analysis of Elliott Carter's Concerto for Orchestra". Perspectives of New Music 54, no. 1 (Winter): 97–136. Doering, William T. Elliott Carter: A Bio-Bibliography. Bio-bibliographies in music, no. 51. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1993. . Interviews Elliott Carter interview by Bruce Duffie, June 10, 1986 American Gothic: An Interview with Elliott Carter, by Andy Carvin, 1994 A January 1994 interview with Elliott Carter by Phil Lesh MusicMavericks.PublicRadio.org: An interview with Elliot Carter by Alan Baker, Minnesota Public Radio, July 2002 Radical Connections on Counterstream Radio: Elliott Carter and Phil Lesh in Conversation, December 2007 Elliott Carter Centenary Podcast, an interview with Frank J. Oteri, November 27, 2007 TV Interview (with Daniel Barenboim and James Levine) by Charlie Rose, December 10, 2008 Listening Elliott Carter: A Life In Music, a documentary (1983) Art of the States: Elliott Carter four works by the composer Elliott Carter interview from American Mavericks site Excerpts from sound archives of Carter's works External links Free scores by Elliott Carter at the Open Music Library Yale University Library: Research Guide to Elliott Carter's Life and Music Elliott Carter by photographer Philippe Gontier Elliott Carter: A Centennial Portrait in Letters and Documents by Felix Meyer & Anne C. Shreffler published by the Boydell Press in association with the Paul Sacher Foundation. Elliott Carter Studies edited by Marguerite Boland & John Link published by Cambridge University Press. Elliott Carter at G. Schirmer/AMP Elliott Carter at Boosey and Hawkes Elliott Carter (1908–2012): Legacy of a Centenarian by Michael Schell for Second Inversion (2018) The String Quartets of Elliott Carter Booklet note for recording by the Arditti Quartet of Quartets 1–4 and Elegy (1988 ETCETERA KTC 1065/1066), by David Harvey CompositionToday – Elliot Carter article and review of works John Link's Analysis of Night Fantasies Joshua B. Mailman's "Imagined Drama of Competitive Opposition in Carter's Scrivo in Vento (with Notes on Narrative, Symmetry, Quantitative Flux and Heraclitus)" Lifetime Honors – National Medal of Arts Elliott Carter papers, 1945–1995 Music Division, The New York Public Library. Head, Raymond. 'What Gustav Holst taught Elliott Carter', The Guardian, 9 November 2012 1908 births 2012 deaths Composers from New York City 20th-century classical composers 21st-century classical composers American centenarians American male classical composers American classical composers Cornell University faculty Grammy Award winners Harvard College alumni Horace Mann School alumni Juilliard School faculty Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Modernist composers American opera composers Male opera composers Pulitzer Prize for Music winners International Rostrum of Composers prize-winners Pupils of Walter Piston Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists École Normale de Musique de Paris alumni Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society United States National Medal of Arts recipients Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery 21st-century American composers Ernst von Siemens Music Prize winners 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246833	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Sebastian	Saint Sebastian	Saint Sebastian (in Latin: Sebastianus; ) was an early Christian saint and martyr. According to traditional belief, he was killed during the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians. He was initially tied to a post or tree and shot with arrows, though this did not kill him. He was, according to tradition, rescued and healed by Saint Irene of Rome, which became a popular subject in 17th-century painting. In all versions of the story, shortly after his recovery he went to Diocletian to warn him about his sins, and as a result was clubbed to death. He is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. The oldest record of the details of Sebastian's martyrdom is a sermon on Psalm 118 by 4th-century bishop Ambrose of Milan (Saint Ambrose). In his sermon, Ambrose stated that Sebastian came from Milan and that he was already venerated there at that time. Saint Sebastian is a popular male saint, especially today among athletes. In medieval times, he was regarded as a saint with a special ability to intercede to protect from plague, and devotion to him greatly increased when plague was active. Early life The ancient source mentioning Sebastian is found in the Chronograph of 354, a compilation of chronological and calendrical texts produced in 354 AD by the calligrapher and illustrator Furius Dionysius Filocalus, which mentions him as a martyr who was venerated on January 20. His cult is also mentioned by Ambrose of Milan in his Expositio in Psalmum CXVIII, a theological and exegetical commentary of Psalm 118 dated to 386-390 AD. The first surviving account of Sebastian's life and death is the Passio Sancti Sebastiani, long thought to have been written by Ambrose in the 4th century, but now regarded as a 5th-century account by an unknown author (possibly Arnobius the Younger). This includes the "two martyrdoms", and the care by Irene in between, and other details that remained part of the story. According to Sebastian's 18th-century entry in Acta Sanctorum, still attributed to Ambrose by the 17th-century hagiographer Jean Bolland, and the briefer account in the 14th-century Legenda Aurea, he was a man of Gallia Narbonensis who was taught in Mediolanum (Milan). In 283, Sebastian entered the army in Rome under Emperor Carinus to assist the martyrs. Because of his courage he became one of the captains of the Praetorian Guards under Diocletian and Maximian, who were unaware that he was a Christian. According to tradition, Marcus and Marcellianus were twin brothers from a distinguished family and were deacons. Both brothers married, and they resided in Rome with their wives and children. The brothers refused to sacrifice to the Roman gods and were arrested. They were visited by their parents Tranquillinus and Martia in prison, who attempted to persuade them to renounce Christianity. Sebastian succeeded in converting Tranquillinus and Martia, as well as Saint Tiburtius, the son of Chromatius, the local prefect. Another official, Nicostratus, and his wife Zoe were also converted. It has been said that Zoe had been a mute for six years; however, she made known to Sebastian her desire to be converted to Christianity. As soon as she had, her speech returned to her. Nicostratus then brought the rest of the prisoners; these 16 persons were converted by Sebastian. Chromatius and Tiburtius converted; Chromatius set all of his prisoners free from jail, resigned his position, and retired to the country in Campania. Marcus and Marcellianus, after being concealed by a Christian named Castulus, were later martyred, as were Nicostratus, Zoe, and Tiburtius. Martyrdom Sebastian had prudently concealed his faith, but in 286 it was detected. Diocletian reproached him for his supposed betrayal, and he commanded him to be led to a field and there to be bound to a stake so that the chosen archers from Mauretania would shoot arrows at him. "And the archers shot at him till he was as full of arrows as an urchin is full of pricks, and thus left him there for dead." Miraculously, the arrows did not kill him. The widow of Castulus, Irene of Rome, went to retrieve his body to bury it, and discovered he was still alive. She brought him back to her house and nursed him back to health. Sebastian later stood by a staircase where the emperor was to pass and harangued Diocletian for his cruelties against Christians. This freedom of speech, and from a person whom he supposed to have been dead, greatly astonished the emperor; but recovering from his surprise, he gave orders for Sebastian to be seized and beaten to death with cudgels, and his body thrown into the common sewer. A pious lady, named Lucina, admonished by the martyr in a vision, privately removed the body and buried it in the catacombs at the entrance of the cemetery of Calixtus, where now stands the Basilica of St. Sebastian. Location of remains Remains reputed to be those of Sebastian are housed in Rome in the Basilica Apostolorum, built by Pope Damasus I in 367 on the site of the provisional tomb of Saints Peter and Paul. The church, today called San Sebastiano fuori le mura, was rebuilt in the 1610s under the patronage of Scipione Borghese. St. Ado, Eginard, Sigebert, and other contemporary authors relate that, in the reign of Louis Debonnair, Pope Eugenius II gave the body of St. Sebastian to Hilduin, Abbot of St. Denys, who brought it into France, and it was deposited at Saint Medard Abbey, at Soissons, on 8 December, in 826. Sebastian's cranium was brought to the town of Ebersberg (Germany) in 934. A Benedictine abbey was founded there and became one of the most important pilgrimage sites in southern Germany. It is said the silver-encased cranium was used as a cup in which to present the consecrated wine of the Blessed Sacrament to the faithful during the feast of Saint Sebastian. As protector against plague The belief that Saint Sebastian was a defense against the plague was a medieval addition to his reputation, which largely accounts for the enormous increase in his importance in the Late Middle Ages. The connection of the martyr shot with arrows with the plague is not an intuitive one, however. In Greco-Roman myth, Apollo, the archer god, at times destroys his enemies by shooting plague-arrows from the heavens, but is also the deliverer from pestilence; the figure of Sebastian Christianizes this folkloric association. The hopeful example of Sebastian being able to recover from his "first martyrdom" (or "sagittation", as it is sometimes called) was also relevant, and the arrow-wounds can resemble the buboes that were symptoms of bubonic plague. Visually, "the arrow wounds call to God for mercy to us, as the symptoms of the unfirm call for pity from the passerby", as Molanus put it. The chronicler Paul the Deacon relates that, in 680, Rome was freed from a raging pestilence by him. The Golden Legend transmits the episode of a great plague that afflicted the Lombards in the time of King Gumburt, which was stopped by the erection of an altar in honor of Sebastian in the Church of Saint Peter in the Province of Pavia. In art and literature Art The earliest known representation of Sebastian is a mosaic in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (Ravenna, Italy) dated between 527 and 565. The right lateral wall of the basilica contains large mosaics representing a procession of 26 martyrs, led by Saint Martin and including Sebastian. The martyrs are represented in Byzantine style, lacking any individuality, and all have identical expressions. Another early representation is in a mosaic in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome, probably made in the year 682. It shows a grown, bearded man in court dress but contains no trace of an arrow. The archers and arrows begin to appear by 1000, and ever since have been far more commonly shown than the actual moment of his death by clubbing, so that there is a popular misperception that this is how he died. As protector of potential plague victims (a connection popularized by the Golden Legend) and soldiers, Sebastian occupied an important place in the popular medieval mind. He was among the most frequently depicted of all saints by Late Gothic and Renaissance artists, in the period after the Black Death. The opportunity to show a semi-nude young male, often in a contorted pose, also made Sebastian a favorite subject. His shooting with arrows was the subject of the largest engraving by the Master of the Playing Cards in the 1430s, when there were few other current subjects with male nudes other than Christ. Sebastian appears in many other prints and paintings, although this was due to his popularity with the faithful. Among many others, Botticelli, Perugino, Titian, Pollaiuolo, Giovanni Bellini, Guido Reni (who painted the subject seven times), Mantegna (three times), Hans Memling, Gerrit van Honthorst, Luca Signorelli, El Greco, Honoré Daumier, John Singer Sargent and Louise Bourgeois all painted Saint Sebastians. An early work by the sculptor Gianlorenzo Bernini is of Saint Sebastian. The saint is ordinarily depicted as a handsome youth pierced by arrows. Predella scenes when required often depicted his arrest, confrontation with the Emperor, and final beheading. The illustration in the infobox is the Saint Sebastian of Il Sodoma, at the Pitti Palace, Florence. Hans Holbein the Elder created a statuette of Saint Sebastian "in silver and parcel-gilt," now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. A mainly 17th-century subject, though found in predella scenes as early as the 15th century, was Saint Sebastian Tended by Saint Irene, painted by Georges de La Tour, Trophime Bigot (four times), Jusepe de Ribera, Hendrick ter Brugghen (in perhaps his masterpiece) and others. This may have been a deliberate attempt by the Church to get away from the single nude subject, which is already recorded in Vasari as sometimes arousing inappropriate thoughts among female and male churchgoers. The Baroque artists usually treated it as a nocturnal chiaroscuro scene, illuminated by a single candle, torch or lantern, in the style fashionable in the first half of the 17th century. There exist several cycles depicting the life of Saint Sebastian. Among them are the frescos in the basilica church of San Sebastiano, Acireale in Sicily painted by Pietro Paolo Vasta. Egon Schiele, an Austrian Expressionist artist, painted a self-portrait as Saint Sebastian in 1915. Literature, fiction, and music In 1911, the Italian playwright Gabriele d'Annunzio in conjunction with Claude Debussy produced Le Martyre de saint Sébastien. The American composer Gian Carlo Menotti composed a ballet score for a Ballets Russes production which was first given in 1944. In his novella Death in Venice, Thomas Mann hails the "Sebastian-Figure" as the supreme emblem of Apollonian beauty, that is, the artistry of differentiated forms; beauty as measured by discipline, proportion, and luminous distinctions. This allusion to Saint Sebastian's suffering, associated with the writerly professionalism of the novella's protagonist, Gustav Aschenbach, provides a model for the "heroism born of weakness", which characterizes poise amidst agonizing torment and plain acceptance of one's fate as, beyond mere patience and passivity, a stylized achievement and artistic triumph. In George Orwell's futuristic novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, the protagonist Winston Smith, at the time he is not aware she actually loves him and hates the Party, is said to have dreams of ravishing the girl Julia, and having her pierced through with arrows like Saint Sebastian. Sebastian's death was depicted in the 1949 film Fabiola, in which he was played by Massimo Girotti. In 1976, the British director Derek Jarman made a film, Sebastiane, which caused controversy in its treatment of the martyr as a "homosexual icon", according to a number of critics reflecting a subtext perceptible in the imagery since the Renaissance. Also in 1976, in the American horror film Carrie, a figure of Saint Sebastian (commonly misconstrued as a figure of the crucified Christ) appears in Carrie's prayer closet. The April 1968 issue of Esquire Magazine depicted photographer George Lois and art director Carl Fischer's photo of boxer Mohammad Ali simulating the iconography of a bound Saint Sebastian pierced by arrows. A depiction of Saint Sebastian in a fresco restoration in an isolated Italian village is the central motif and cryptic mystery of the 1976 giallo horror film The House with Laughing Windows. In her 1965 story "Everything That Rises Must Converge", Flannery O’Connor's character Julian feels as if he were the martyr while taking his mother to "reducing" classes at the Y. In The Godfather Part III (1990), Michael Corleone is awarded the "Order of Saint Sebastian". In 1997, the eighth episode of the second season of the television series Millennium, the protagonists search for the hand of Saint Sebastian. In 2007, artist Damien Hirst presented Saint Sebastian, Exquisite Pain from his Natural History series. The piece depicts a cow in formaldehyde, bound in metal cable and shot with arrows. British pop band Alt-J's video for "Hunger of the Pine" contains references to the story of Saint Sebastian's death, adapted to fit the lyrics of the song. Tarsem Singh's video for the R.E.M. song "Losing My Religion" makes use of imagery of St. Sebastian, drawing particular inspiration from paintings by Guido Reni and Caravaggio. The indie folk band the Mountain Goats have a song called "Hail, St. Sebastian" that makes reference to his life. Scottish musician Momus has a song "Lucky like St Sebastian", featuring on his 1986 debut album Circus Maximus. Madonna's song "I'm a Sinner" from her 2012 album MDNA has a segment resembling a litany, with one line saying, "St. Sebastian, don't you cry; let those poisoned arrows fly." The 2013–2018 Canadian drama series Forgive Me centres on a priest haunted by recurring visions of Saint Sebastian. The look of the character Gemino in the popular action-platform videogame Blasphemous is clearly inspired by Saint Sebastian. The family del Valle in Isabel Allende's novel "House of the Spirits" attends Sunday mass in the Church of Saint Sebastian. Patronage In the Roman Catholic Church, Sebastian is commemorated by an optional memorial on 20 January. In the Church of Greece, Sebastian's feast day is on 18 December. As a protector from the bubonic plague, Sebastian was formerly one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. In Catholicism, Sebastian is the patron saint of archers, pin-makers, athletes (a modern association) and of a holy death. Sebastian is one of the patron saints of the city of Qormi in Malta Sebastian is the patron saint of Acireale, Caserta and Petilia Policastro in Italy, Melilli in Sicily, and San Sebastián as well as Palma de Mallorca, Lubrín and Huelva in Spain. He is the patron saint of Negombo, Sri Lanka and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Informally, in the tradition of the Afro-Brazilian syncretic religion Umbanda, Sebastian is often associated with Oxossi, especially in the state of Rio de Janeiro itself. In Lubrín, every year on the 20th of January, there is a festival in honor of Saint Sebastian. A statue of Saint Sebastian leads a procession around the village, and people hurl bread rolls from their balconies to the crowds following the saint in the streets below. The rolls have a hole in the middle and some people string them on a rope around their body. The festival is thought to have originated in the 14th century, after a plague of cholera hit the area. At this time, the wealthy were said to have thrown bread and money to the poor on the streets below, so as to avoid catching the disease. The San Sebastian 'bread festival' is so unusual that it has been declared a Fiesta of National Tourist Interest in Andalusia. King Sebastian I of Portugal, the only King to ever have this name, was so named for having been born on this saint's feast day. The Feast of St. Sebastian is celebrated among Catholic communities of Kerala in India. Churches are illuminated and decorated, with fireworks being a main event in Catholic homes to commemorate the saint. Every parish has its own date of celebration, especially in the districts of Thrissur, Ernakulam, St. Andrew's Basilica, Arthunkal and Kottayam. In Kanjoor Syro Malabar Church the feast is celebrated with the largest procession of Golden Crosses and Decorated umbrellas in Asia. Besides this, many pilgrim centres, churches, shrines and many educational institutions too, throughout Kerala, bear the name of the saint. He is the patron of San Sebastian College- Recoletos in Manila, Philippines which is adjacent to the Minor Basilica of San Sebastian the all steel church in the Philippines and in Asia administered by the Order of Augustinian Recollect (OAR). At the Catholic Newman Community at the University of Rochester, the St. Sebastian Society is an organization of campus-wide Christian athletes that works to serve the greater Rochester, New York area through methods of restorative justice, special needs fundraising and community service. Sebastian is the patron saint of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Bacolod, in Negros Occidental, Philippines and Lipa City in Batangas, Philippines. Also, Saint Sebastian is the patron saint of Leon City Mexico. A representation of the Saint in his martyrdom is present in the upper left corner of the city coat of arms. Saint Sebastian is the patron of Knights of Columbus Council #4926 in the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Jose in California, serving the cities of Mountain View and Los Altos. Saint Sebastian is the patron saint of the Catholic War Veterans of the United States of America. The highest award given by the CWV is the Honor Legion of the Order of St. Sebastian. In his 1906 Reminiscences, Carl Schurz recalls the annual "bird shoot" pageant of the Rhenish town of Liblar (de), sponsored by the Saint Sebastian Society, a club of sharpshooters and their sponsors to which nearly every adult member of the town belonged. The St. Sebastian River in the American state of Florida is named after him. The river is a tributary of the Indian River Lagoon and comprises part of the boundary between Indian River County and Brevard County. The adjacent city of Sebastian, Florida and St. Sebastian River Preserve State Park are also named for Saint Sebastian. Within the Diocese of Central Florida, the nearby Episcopal Church on Melbourne Beaches is named St Sebastian-by-the-Sea. LGBT association American author Richard A. Kaye wrote in 1996 that Some religious images depicting Saint Sebastian have been adopted by the LGBT community. A combination of his strong, shirtless physique, the symbolism of the arrows penetrating his body, and the countenance of rapturous pain have intrigued artists (gay or otherwise) for centuries. Sebastian's resilience in the face of persecution juxtaposed with the erotic elements of his suffering resonates particularly with the spiritual queer community. See also Le martyre de Saint Sébastien, Claude Debussy Saint Sebastian at the Column Santa Muerte, from Mexican folk Catholicism, who is sometimes referred to as Santa Sebastiana The three paintings by Mantegna Saint Sebastian and the Angel Notes References Sources Barker, Sheila, The Making of a Plague Saint, ch. 4 in Piety and Plague: from Byzantium to the Baroque, Ed. Franco Mormando, Thomas Worcester Truman State University, 2007, , Google books Hedquist, Valerie, "Ter Brugghen’s Saint Sebastian Tended by Irene," Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art 9:2 (Summer 2017) , fully online Mitchell, Peter, "The Politics of Morbidity: Plague Symbolism in Martyrdom and Medical Anatomy", in The Arts of 17th-Century Science: Representations of the Natural World in European and North American Culture, eds. Claire Jowitt, Diane Watt, 2002, Routledge, , google books External links The Life and Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, Saint and Martyr of the Catholic Church Legenda Aurea: Life of Saint Sebastian Saint Sebastian Butler, The Lives or the Fathers, Martyrs and Other Principal Saints, St Sebastian 256 births 288 deaths 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century Christian martyrs Gallo-Roman saints People from Gallia Narbonensis Members and leaders of the Praetorian Guard Executed ancient Roman people People executed by the Roman Empire Deaths by beating in Europe 3rd-century Gallo-Roman people LGBT and Catholicism Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian	[ -0.19288887083530426, -0.27824410796165466, -0.5013347864151001, 0.04174371808767319, -0.046672672033309937, 0.5498644113540649, 0.7921611070632935, 0.30876749753952026, -0.4047543406486511, -0.24117068946361542, -0.08984687924385071, 0.02312217466533184, -0.37532341480255127, -0.3889569044113159, -0.1795816421508789, -0.02968687191605568, 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246841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink%20%28disambiguation%29	Starlink (disambiguation)	Starlink is a very large satellite constellation under development by SpaceX. Starlink may also refer to: StarLink corn, a strain of genetically modified maize Starlink Aviation, a Canadian airline service Starlink Project, an astronomical computing project Starlink: Battle for Atlas, a 2018 video game St Andrews Rail Link (StARLink), a proposed railway project in St Andrews, Scotland See also Star topology Starnet (disambiguation)	[ -0.12240176647901535, -0.06630551069974899, 0.7068758010864258, 0.01654408685863018, 0.18875862658023834, -0.06398464739322662, -0.21216760575771332, 0.11667071282863617, 0.060060054063797, -0.25442203879356384, -0.6242865920066833, -0.013988017104566097, -0.643130362033844, 0.10666020959615707, 0.03374052420258522, 0.18554149568080902, 0.6129220128059387, 0.757804811000824, -0.40875044465065, -0.5207545757293701, -0.22488345205783844, 0.4382552206516266, 0.20612819492816925, -0.6113399863243103, 0.030924947932362556, 0.03185100108385086, -0.31958821415901184, 0.3893153965473175, 0.4985544979572296, 0.2628507912158966, 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246843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro%20%C3%81lvares%20Cabral	Pedro Álvares Cabral	Pedro Álvares Cabral ( or ; born Pedro Álvares de Gouveia; c. 1467 or 1468 – c. 1520) was a Portuguese nobleman, military commander, navigator and explorer regarded as the European discoverer of Brazil. In 1500 Cabral conducted the first substantial exploration of the northeast coast of South America and claimed it for Portugal. While details of Cabral's early life remain unclear, it is known that he came from a minor noble family and received a good education. He was appointed to head an expedition to India in 1500, following Vasco da Gama's newly-opened route around Africa. The undertaking had the aim of returning with valuable spices and of establishing trade relations in India—bypassing the monopoly on the spice trade then in the hands of Arab, Turkish and Italian merchants. Although the previous expedition of Vasco da Gama to India, on its sea route, had recorded signs of land west of the southern Atlantic Ocean (in 1497), Cabral led the first known expedition to have touched four continents: Europe, Africa, America, and Asia. His fleet of 13 ships sailed far into the western Atlantic Ocean, perhaps intentionally, and made landfall (April 1500) on what he initially assumed to be a large island. As the new land was within the Portuguese sphere according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, Cabral claimed it for the Portuguese Crown. He explored the coast, realizing that the large land mass was probably a continent, and dispatched a ship to notify King Manuel I of the new territory. The continent was South America, and the land he had claimed for Portugal later came to be known as Brazil. The fleet reprovisioned and then turned eastward to resume the journey to India. A storm in the southern Atlantic caused the loss of several ships, and the six remaining ships eventually rendezvoused in the Mozambique Channel before proceeding to Calicut in India. Cabral was originally successful in negotiating trading rights, but Arab merchants saw Portugal's venture as a threat to their monopoly and stirred up an attack by both Muslims and Hindus on the Portuguese entrepôt. The Portuguese sustained many casualties and their facilities were destroyed. Cabral took vengeance by looting and burning the Arab fleet and then bombarded the city in retaliation for its ruler having failed to explain the unexpected attack. From Calicut the expedition sailed to the Kingdom of Cochin, another Indian city-state, where Cabral befriended its ruler and loaded his ships with coveted spices before returning to Europe. Despite the loss of human lives and ships, Cabral's voyage was deemed a success upon his return to Portugal. The extraordinary profits resulting from the sale of the spices bolstered the Portuguese Crown's finances and helped lay the foundation of a Portuguese Empire that would stretch from the Americas to the Far East. Cabral was later passed over, possibly as a result of a quarrel with Manuel I, when a new fleet was assembled to establish a more robust presence in India. Having lost favor with the King, he retired to a private life of which few records survive. His accomplishments slipped mostly into obscurity for more than 300 years. Decades after Brazil's independence from Portugal in the 19th century, Cabral's reputation began to be rehabilitated by Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. Historians have long argued whether Cabral was Brazil's discoverer, and whether the discovery was accidental or intentional. The first question has been settled by the observation that the few, cursory encounters by explorers before him were barely noticed at the time and contributed nothing to the future development and history of the land which would become Brazil, the sole Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas. On the second question, no definite consensus has been formed, and the intentional discovery hypothesis lacks solid proof. Nevertheless, although he was overshadowed by contemporary explorers, historians consider Cabral to be a major figure of the Age of Discovery. Early life Little is certain regarding Pedro Álvares Cabral's life before, or following, his voyage which led to the discovery of Brazil. He was born in 1467 or 1468—the former year being the most likely—at Belmonte, about from present-day Covilhã in central Portugal. He was a son of Fernão Álvares Cabral and Isabel Gouveia—one of five boys and six girls in the family. Cabral was christened Pedro Álvares de Gouveia and only later, supposedly upon his elder brother's death in 1503, did he begin using his father's surname. The coat of arms of his family was drawn with two purple goats on a field of silver. Purple represented fidelity, and the goats were derived from the family name (cabral pertains to goats in English). However, only his elder brother was entitled to make use of the family arms. Family lore said that the Cabrais were descendants of Caranus, the legendary first king of Macedonia. Caranus was, in turn, a supposed 7th-generation scion of the demigod Hercules. Myths aside, the historian James McClymont believes that another family tale might hold clues to the true origin of Cabral's family. According to that tradition, the Cabrais derive from a Castilian clan named the Cabreiras (cabra is Spanish [and Portuguese] for goat) who bore a similar coat of arms. The Cabral family rose to prominence during the 14th century. Álvaro Gil Cabral (Cabral's great-great-grandfather and a frontier military commander) was one of the few Portuguese nobles to remain loyal to Dom João I, King of Portugal during the war against the King of Castile. As a reward, João I presented Álvaro Gil with the hereditary fiefdom of Belmonte. Raised as a member of the lower nobility, Cabral was sent to the court of King Dom Afonso V in 1479 at around age 12. He received an education in the humanities and learned to bear arms and fight. He would have been roughly age 17 on 30 June 1484 when he was named moço fidalgo (young nobleman; a minor title then commonly granted to young nobles) by King Dom João II. Records of his deeds prior to 1500 are extremely fragmentary, but Cabral may have campaigned in North Africa, as had his ancestors and as was commonly done by other young nobles of his day. King Dom Manuel I, who had acceded to the throne two years previously, awarded him an annual allowance worth 30,000 reais on 12 April 1497. He was concurrently given the title fidalgo (nobleman) in the King's Council and was named a Knight of the Order of Christ. There is no contemporary image or detailed physical description of Cabral. It is known that he had a strong build and matched his father's height of . Cabral's character has been described as well-learned, courteous, prudent, generous, tolerant with enemies, humble, but also vain and too concerned with the respect he felt his honor and position demanded. Discovery of Brazil Fleet commander-in-chief On 15 February 1500, Cabral was appointed Capitão-mor (literally Major-Captain, or commander-in-chief) of a fleet sailing for India. It was then the custom for the Portuguese Crown to appoint nobles to naval and military commands, regardless of experience or professional competence. This was the case for the captains of the ships under Cabral's command—most were nobles like himself. The practice had obvious pitfalls, since authority could as easily be given to highly incompetent and unfit people as it could fall to talented leaders such as Afonso de Albuquerque or Dom João de Castro. Scant details have survived regarding the criteria used by the Portuguese government in its selection of Cabral as head of the India expedition. In the royal decree naming him commander-in-chief, the only reasons given are "merits and services". Nothing more is known about these qualifications. Historian William Greenlee argued that King Manuel I "had undoubtedly known him well at court". That, along with the "standing of the Cabral family, their unquestioned loyalty to the Crown, the personal appearance of Cabral, and the ability which he had shown at court and in the council were important factors". Also in his favor may have been the influence of two of his brothers who sat on the King's Council. Given the political intrigue present at court, Cabral may have been part of a faction that furthered his appointment. The historian Malyn Newitt subscribes to some sort of ulterior maneuvering and has said that the choice of Cabral "was a deliberate attempt to balance the interests of rival factions of noble families, for he appears to have no other quality to recommend him and no known experience in commanding major expeditions." Cabral became the military chief, while far more experienced navigators were seconded to the expedition to aid him in naval matters. The most important of these were Bartolomeu Dias, Diogo Dias and Nicolau Coelho. They would, along with the other captains, command 13 ships and 1,500 men. Of this contingent, 700 were soldiers, although most were simple commoners who had no training or previous experience in combat. The fleet had two divisions. The first division was composed of nine naus (carracks) and two round caravels, and was headed to Calicut in India with the goal of establishing trade relations and a factory. The second division, consisting of one nau and one round caravel, set sail for the port of Sofala in what is today Mozambique. In exchange for leading the fleet, Cabral was entitled to 10,000 cruzados (an old Portuguese currency equivalent to approximately 35 kg of gold) and the right to purchase of pepper at his own expense for transport back to Europe. The pepper could then be resold, tax-free, to the Portuguese Crown. He was also allowed to import 10 boxes of any other kind of spice, duty-free. Although the voyage was extremely hazardous, Cabral had the prospect of becoming a very rich man if he returned safely to Portugal with the cargo. Spices were then rare in Europe and keenly sought-after. An earlier fleet had been the first to reach India by circumnavigating Africa. That expedition had been led by Vasco da Gama and returned to Portugal in 1499. For decades Portugal had been searching for an alternate route to the East, in order to bypass the Mediterranean Sea which was under the control of the Italian Maritime Republics and the Ottoman Empire. Portugal's expansionism would lead first to a route to India, and later to worldwide colonization. A desire to spread Catholic Christianity to pagan lands was another factor motivating exploration. There also was a long tradition of pushing back Muslims, which stemmed from Portugal's fight for nationhood against the Moors. The fight expanded first to North Africa and eventually to the Indian subcontinent. An additional ambition which galvanized the explorers was the search for the mythical Prester John—a powerful Christian king with whom an alliance against Islam could be forged. Finally, the Portuguese Crown sought a share in the lucrative West African trade in slaves and gold, and India's spice trade. Departure and arrival in a new land The fleet under the command of the 32–33-year-old Cabral departed from Lisbon on 9 March 1500 at noon. The previous day it had been given a public send-off which included a Mass and celebrations attended by the King, his court and a huge crowd. On the morning of 14 March, the flotilla passed Gran Canaria, in the Canary Islands. It sailed onward to Cape Verde, a Portuguese colony situated on the West African coast, which was reached on 22 March. The next day, a nau commanded by Vasco de Ataíde with 150 men disappeared without a trace. The fleet crossed the Equator on 9 April, and sailed westward as far as possible from the African continent in what was known as the volta do mar (literally "turn of the sea") navigational technique. Seaweed was sighted on 21 April, which led the sailors to believe that they were nearing the coast. They were proven correct the next afternoon, Wednesday 22 April 1500, when the fleet anchored near what Cabral christened the Monte Pascoal ("Easter Mount", it being the week of Easter). The spot is on the northeast coast of present-day Brazil. The Portuguese detected inhabitants on the shore, and all ships' captains gathered aboard Cabral's lead ship on 23 April. Cabral ordered Nicolau Coelho, a captain who had experience from Vasco da Gama's voyage to India, to go ashore and make contact. He set foot on land and exchanged gifts with the indigenous people. After Coelho returned, Cabral took the fleet north, where after traveling along the coast, it anchored on 24 April in what the commander-in-chief named Porto Seguro (Safe Port). The place was a natural harbor, and Afonso Lopes (pilot of the lead ship) brought two natives aboard to confer with Cabral. As in the first contact, the meeting was friendly and Cabral presented the locals with gifts. The inhabitants were Stone Age hunter-gatherers, to whom the Europeans had assigned the collective label "Indians". The men collected food by stalking game, fishing and foraging, while the women engaged in small-scale farming. They were divided into countless rival tribes. The tribe which Cabral met was the Tupiniquim. Some of these groups were nomadic and others sedentary—having a knowledge of fire but not metalworking. A few tribes engaged in cannibalism. On 26 April, as more and more curious and friendly natives appeared, Cabral ordered his men to build an altar inland where a Christian Mass was held—the first celebrated on the soil of what would later become Brazil. He, along with the ships' crews, participated. The following days were spent stockpiling water, food, wood, and other provisions. The Portuguese also built a massive—perhaps long—wooden cross. Cabral ascertained that the new land lay east of the demarcation line between Portugal and Spain that had been specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. The territory was thus within the sphere allotted to Portugal. To solemnize Portugal's claim to the land, the wooden cross was erected and a second religious service held on 1 May. In honor of the cross, Cabral named the newly discovered land Ilha de Vera Cruz (Island of the True Cross). The next day a supply ship under the command of either Gaspar de Lemos or André Gonçalves (the sources conflict on who was sent) returned to Portugal to apprise the King of the discovery. Voyage to India Tragedy off southern Africa The fleet resumed its voyage on either 2 or 3 May 1500 and sailed along the east coast of South America. Cabral became convinced that he had found an entire continent, rather than an island. Around 5 May, the fleet veered eastwards towards Africa. On 23 or 24 May they encountered a storm in the South Atlantic's high-pressure zone, resulting in the loss of four ships. The exact location of the disaster is unknown—speculations range from near the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of the African continent to "within sight of the South American coast". Three naus and a caravel commanded by Bartolomeu Dias—the first European to reach the Cape of Good Hope in 1488—foundered, and 380 men were lost. The remaining vessels, hindered by rough weather and damaged rigging, were separated. One ship that had been separated, commanded by Diogo Dias, wandered onward alone, and the other six ships were able to regroup. They gathered into two formations consisting of three ships each, and Cabral's group sailed east, past the Cape of Good Hope. Fixing their position and sighting land, they turned north and landed somewhere in the Primeiras and Segundas Archipelago, off East Africa and north of Sofala. The main fleet remained near Sofala ten days undergoing repairs. The expedition then went north, and on 26 May reached Kilwa Kisiwani, where Cabral made an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate a treaty with its king. From Kilwa Kisiwani, the fleet departed to Malindi, which was reached on 2 August. Cabral met with its king, with whom he established friendly relations and exchanged gifts. Pilots were recruited at Malindi for the last leg to India and the fleet set sail. Land was reached at Anjadip, an island frequented by ships to obtain supplies on their way to Calicut. Here the ships were beached, recaulked and painted. Final arrangements were put into place for the encounter with the ruler of Calicut. Massacre in Calicut The fleet departed Anjadip and arrived in Calicut on 13 September. Cabral successfully negotiated with the Zamorin (the title of the ruler of Calicut) and obtained permission to establish a factory and a warehouse. In hopes of further improving relations, Cabral dispatched his men on several military missions at the Zamorin's request. However, on 16 or 17 December, the factory suffered a surprise attack by some 300 (according to other accounts, perhaps as many as several thousand) Muslim Arabs and Hindu Indians. Despite a desperate defense by crossbowmen, more than 50 Portuguese were killed. The remaining defenders retreated to the ships, some by swimming. Thinking that the attack was the result of unauthorized incitement by jealous Arab merchants, Cabral waited 24 hours for an explanation from the ruler of Calicut, but no apology was forthcoming. The Portuguese were outraged by the attack on the factory and the death of their comrades and seized ten Arab merchant ships at anchor in the harbor. Around 600 of their crews were killed and the cargoes confiscated before the merchantmen were set afire. Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in reprisal for the violation of the agreement. The massacre was blamed in part on Portuguese animosity towards Muslims, which had developed over centuries of conflict with the Moors on the Iberian peninsula and in North Africa. Moreover, the Portuguese were determined to dominate the spice trade and had no intention of allowing competition to flourish. The Arabs also had no desire to allow the Portuguese to break their monopoly on access to spices. The Portuguese had started out by insisting on being given preferential treatment in every aspect of the trade. The letter from King Manuel I brought by Cabral to the ruler of Calicut, which was translated by the ruler's Arab interpreters, sought the exclusion of Arab traders. The Muslim merchants believed that they were about to lose both their trading opportunities and livelihoods, and attempted to sway the Hindu ruler against the Portuguese. The Portuguese and Arabs were extremely suspicious of each other's every action. Historian William Greenlee has argued that the Portuguese realized that "they were few in numbers and that those who would come to India in the future fleets would always be at numerical disadvantage; so that this treachery must be punished in a manner so decisive that the Portuguese would be feared and respected in the future. It was their superior artillery which would enable them to accomplish this end." Thus, they created a precedent for the gunboat diplomacy used by European powers in Asia during the following centuries. Return to Europe Warnings in reports from Vasco da Gama's voyage to India had prompted King Manuel I to brief Cabral regarding another port to the south of Calicut where he could also trade. This city was Cochin and the fleet set sail, reaching it on 24 December. Cochin was nominally a vassal of Calicut, as well as being dominated by other Indian cities. Cochin was eager to achieve independence, and the Portuguese were willing to exploit Indian disunity to further their own goals. This tactic eventually ensured Portuguese hegemony over the region. Cabral forged an alliance with Cochin’s ruler, as well with rulers of other Indian cities, and was able to establish a factory. At last, loaded with precious spices, the fleet went to Kannur for further trade before setting out on its return voyage to Portugal on 16 January 1501. The expedition headed for the east coast of Africa. One of the ships became stranded on a sandbar and the vessel began to founder. As there was no space in the other ships, its cargo was lost and Cabral ordered the carrack to be set on fire. The fleet then proceeded to the Island of Mozambique (northeast of Sofala), in order to take on provisions and make the ships ready for the rough passage around the Cape of Good Hope. One caravel was sent to Sofala—another of the expedition's goals. A second caravel, considered the fastest ship in the fleet and captained by Nicolau Coelho, was sent ahead to give the King advance notice of the voyage's success. A third vessel, commanded by Pedro de Ataíde, became separated from the fleet after leaving Mozambique. On 22 May, the fleet—now reduced to only two ships—rounded the Cape of Good Hope. They arrived in Beseguiche (now Dakar, located near Cape Verde) on 2 June. There they found not only Nicolau Coelho's caravel but also the nau captained by Diogo Dias—which had been lost for over a year following the disaster in the South Atlantic. The nau had experienced several adventures of its own and was now in poor condition with only seven sick and malnourished men aboard—one of whom was so weak that he died of happiness upon again seeing his comrades. Another Portuguese fleet was also found riding at anchor in Beseguiche. After Manuel I had been told of the discovery of what is now Brazil, he sent another and smaller fleet to explore it. One of its navigators was Amerigo Vespucci (for whom the Americas would be named), who told Cabral of his exploration, confirming that he had indeed made landfall on an entire continent and not merely an island. Nicolau Coelho's caravel departed first from Beseguiche and arrived in Portugal on 23 June 1501. Cabral stayed behind, waiting for Pedro de Ataíde's missing ship and for the caravel that had been sent to Sofala. Both eventually appeared and Cabral arrived in Portugal on 21 July 1501, with the other vessels coming home during the following days. In all, two ships returned empty, five were fully loaded and six were lost. Nonetheless, the cargoes carried by the fleet returned up to 800% profit to the Portuguese Crown. Once sold, the proceeds covered the outlay in equipping the fleet, covered the cost of the vessels which had been lost, and cleared a profit which itself exceeded the total sum of those costs. "Undeterred by the unprecedented losses which he had sustained", asserts historian James McClymont, when Cabral "reached the East African coast, pressed forward to the accomplishment of the task which had been assigned to him and was able to inspire the surviving officers and men with like courage." "Few voyages to Brazil and India were so well executed as Cabral's", affirmed historian Bailey Diffie, which laid down a path leading to the immediate commencement "of a Portuguese seagoing empire from Africa to the far East", and eventually to "a land empire in Brazil". Later years and death Upon Cabral's return, King Manuel I began planning another fleet to make the journey to India and to avenge the Portuguese losses in Calicut. Cabral was selected to command this "Revenge Fleet", as it was called. For eight months Cabral made all preparations, but for reasons which remain uncertain, he was relieved of command. It had apparently been proposed to give another navigator, Vicente Sodré, independent command over a section of the fleet, and Cabral strongly opposed this. Whether he was dismissed or requested himself that he be relieved of command, the result was that when the fleet departed in March 1502, its commander was Vasco da Gama—a maternal nephew of Vicente Sodré—and not Cabral. It is known that hostility had developed between a faction supporting da Gama and another supporting Cabral. At some point, Cabral left the court permanently. The King was greatly irritated by the feud, to such an extent that mentioning the matter in his presence could result in banishment, as it did for one of da Gama's supporters. Despite the loss of favor with Manuel I, Cabral was able to contract an advantageous marriage in 1503 to Dona (Lady) Isabel de Castro, a wealthy noblewoman and descendant of King Dom Fernando I of Portugal. Her mother was a sister of Afonso de Albuquerque, one of the greatest Portuguese military leaders during the Age of Discovery. The couple had at least four children: two boys (Fernão Álvares Cabral and António Cabral) and two girls (Catarina de Castro and Guiomar de Castro). There were two additional daughters named Isabel and Leonor according to other sources, which also say that Guiomar, Isabel and Leonor joined religious orders. Afonso de Albuquerque attempted to intercede on Cabral's behalf and on 2 December 1514 asked Manuel I to forgive him and allow his return to court, but to no avail. Suffering from recurrent fever and a tremor (possibly malaria) since his voyage, Cabral withdrew to Santarém in 1509. He spent his remaining years there. Only sketchy information is available as to his activities during that time. According to a royal letter dated 17 December 1509, Cabral was party to a dispute over a transaction involving property which belonged to him. Another letter of that same year reported that he was to receive certain privileges for an undisclosed military service. In 1518, or perhaps previously, he was raised from fidalgo to knight in the King's Council and was entitled to a monthly allowance of 2,437 reais. This was in addition to the annual allowance granted to him in 1497, and still being paid. Cabral died of unspecified causes, most probably in 1520. He was buried in the São João Evangelista chapel of the Convento da Graça in Santarém. Legacy Posthumous rehabilitation The first permanent Portuguese settlement in the land which would become Brazil was São Vicente, which was established in 1532 by Martim Afonso de Sousa. As the years passed, the Portuguese would slowly expand their frontiers westward, conquering more lands from both indigenous Americans and the Spanish. Brazil had secured most of its present-day borders by 1750 and was regarded by Portugal as the most important part of its far-flung maritime Empire. On 7 September 1822, the heir of Portuguese King Dom João VI secured the independence of Brazil from Portugal and, as Dom Pedro I, became its first Emperor. Cabral's discovery, and even his resting place in the land of his birth, had been almost completely forgotten during the span of nearly 300 years since his expedition. This began to change beginning in the 1840s when Emperor Dom Pedro II, successor and son of Pedro I, sponsored research and publications dealing with Cabral's life and expedition through the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute. This was part of the Emperor's ambitious larger plan to foster and strengthen a sense of nationalism among Brazil's diverse citizenry—giving them a common identity and history as residents of a unique Portuguese-speaking empire, surrounded by Hispanic-American Republics. The initial resurgence of interest in Cabral had resulted from the rediscovery, in 1839, of his resting place by the Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen (later Viscount of Porto Seguro). The completely neglected state in which Cabral's tomb was found nearly led to a diplomatic crisis between Brazil and Portugal—the latter then ruled by Pedro II's eldest sister, Maria II. In 1871, the Brazilian Emperor—then on a trip to Europe—visited Cabral's gravesite and proposed an exhumation for scientific study, which was carried out in 1882. In a second exhumation during 1896, an urn containing earth and bone fragments was allowed to be removed. Although his remains still lay in Portugal, the urn was eventually brought to the old Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil on 30 December 1903. Cabral has since become a national hero in Brazil. In Portugal, however, he has been much overshadowed by his rival Vasco da Gama. Historian William Greenlee argued that Cabral's exploration is important "not only because of its position in the history of geography but because of its influence on the history and economics of the period." Though he acknowledges that few voyages have "been of greater importance to posterity", he also says that "few have been less appreciated in their time." Nevertheless, historian James McClymont affirmed that "Cabral's position in the history of Portuguese conquest and discovery is inexpungable despite the supremacy of greater or more fortunate men." He concluded that Cabral "will always be remembered in history as the chief, if not the first discoverer of Brazil." Intentional discovery hypothesis A controversy that has occupied scholars for more than a century concerns whether Cabral's discovery was by chance or intentional. If the latter, that would mean that the Portuguese had at least some hint that a land existed to the west. The matter was first raised by Emperor Pedro II in 1854 during a session of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute, when he asked if the discovery might have been intentional. Until the 1854 conference, the widespread presumption was that the discovery had been an accident. Early works on the subject supported this view, including História do Descobrimento e Conquista da Índia (History of the Discovery and Conquest of India, published in 1541) by Fernão Lopes de Castanheda, Décadas da Ásia (Decades of Asia, 1552) by João de Barros, Crônicas do Felicíssimo Rei D. Manuel (Chronicles of the most fortunate D. Manuel, 1558) by Damião de Góis, Lendas da Índia (Legends of India, 1561) by Gaspar Correia, História do Brasil (History of Brazil, 1627) by friar Vicente do Salvador and História da América Portuguesa (History of Portuguese America, 1730) by Sebastião da Rocha Pita. The first work to advocate the idea of intentionality was published in 1854 by Joaquim Noberto de Sousa e Silva, after Pedro II had opened the debate. Since then, several scholars have subscribed to that view, including Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, Capistrano de Abreu, Pedro Calmon, Fábio Ramos and Mário Barata. Historian Hélio Vianna affirmed that "although there are signs of the intentionality" in Cabral's discovery, "based mainly in the knowledge or previous suspicion of the existence of lands at the edge of the South Atlantic", there are no irrefutable proofs to support it. This opinion is also shared by historian Thomas Skidmore. The debate on whether it was a deliberate voyage of discovery or not is considered "irrelevant" by historian Charles R. Boxer. Historian Anthony Smith concludes that the conflicting contentions will "probably never be resolved". Forerunners Cabral was not the first European to stumble upon areas of present-day Brazil, not to mention other parts of South America. Norsemen reached North America and even established settlements, though these ended in failure sometime before the end of the 15th century. Christopher Columbus, on his third voyage to the New World in 1498, traveled along part of what would later become Venezuela. In the case of Brazil, it was once considered probable that the Portuguese navigator Duarte Pacheco Pereira had made a voyage to the Brazilian coast in 1498. This belief has since been dismissed, however, and it is now thought that he voyaged to North America instead. There is more certain evidence that two Spaniards, Vicente Yáñez Pinzón and Diego de Lepe, traveled along the northern coast of Brazil between January and March 1500. Pinzón went from what is today Cabo de Santo Agostinho (Brazilian state of Pernambuco) to the mouth of the Amazon River. There he encountered another Spanish expedition led by Lepe, which would reach as far as the Oyapock River in March. The reason Cabral is credited with having discovered Brazil, rather than the Spanish explorers, is because the visits by Pinzón and Lepe were cursory and had no lasting impact. Historians Capistrano de Abreu, Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, Mário Barata and Hélio Vianna concur that the Spanish expeditions did not influence the development of what would become the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas—with a unique history, culture and society which sets it apart from the Hispanic-American societies which dominate the rest of the continent. Titles and honors Nobility Moço fidalgo on 30 June 1484. Fidalgo in the King's Council in 1497. Knight in the King's Council around 1518. Honors Knight of the Portuguese Order of Christ awarded in 1497. See also Chronology of European exploration of Asia History of Brazil History of Portugal Portuguese India Timeline of European exploration Endnotes Footnotes References Further reading 1460s births 1520 deaths People from Belmonte, Portugal Portuguese explorers of South America 15th century in Brazil Maritime history of Portugal Portuguese in Kerala Portuguese colonization of the Americas 15th-century Portuguese people 16th-century Portuguese people 16th-century explorers People from Santarém, Portugal	[ -0.46802231669425964, 0.6528344750404358, 0.027582751587033272, 0.028073551133275032, -0.7211231589317322, 0.5394551157951355, 0.7086899876594543, -0.09684105217456818, -0.8547332882881165, -0.44131600856781006, 0.4739842116832733, 0.07767872512340546, -0.30008238554000854, 0.16933415830135345, -0.05271970480680466, 0.14705400168895721, 0.44414353370666504, 0.11285045742988586, -0.10501395165920258, -0.434459388256073, -0.7207144498825073, -0.131042018532753, -0.14952796697616577, 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246844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinbek	Reinbek	Reinbek (; probably from "Rainbek" = brook at the field margin; Northern Low Saxon: Reinbeek) is a town located in Stormarn district in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein within the metropolitan region of Hamburg. It is accessed by the A1 and the A24 autobahn and federal highway 5. Reinbek was first mentioned in 1226, the city rights were given in 1952. The town is located at the river Bille which was dammed up here to form a mill pond. Religion Religious affiliation: 44% Protestant 9% Catholic 22% other religious groups 26% without religious affiliation Important church communities Church of Mary Magdalene (Lutheran) Nathan-Söderblom church (Lutheran) Ansgar community, St. Ansgar's Chapel and St. Michael's Chapel (Lutheran) Sacred Heart of Jesus (Roman Catholic) Evangelical Free Church (Baptist) Sights 16th-century castle in Dutch Renaissance style. Transport Reinbek station is serviced by the rapid transit system of the Hamburg S-Bahn. Public transport is also provided by buses. Twin towns – sister cities Reinbek is twinned with: Koło, Poland (1999) Since 1974, Reinbek also cooperates with Padasjoki in Finland, and has friendly relations with its former twin town of Täby in Sweden. Notable people Minna Specht (1879–1961), teacher and socialist Angela Sommer-Bodenburg (born 1948), children's book author and painter Sabine Sütterlin-Waack (born 1958), politician Jan van Aken (born 1961), politician (The Left) Max Kruse (born 1988), soccer player References External links Official website Towns in Schleswig-Holstein Stormarn (district)	[ -0.07230032235383987, 0.10986108332872391, 0.7361473441123962, -0.5827992558479309, 0.20301520824432373, 0.7754603624343872, 0.5596796870231628, -0.11896224319934845, -0.03706459701061249, 0.05367286875844002, 0.1611994057893753, 0.1803201287984848, 0.25050294399261475, 0.2786047160625458, -0.3591955900192261, 0.6076745986938477, 0.3140241205692291, 0.08403696119785309, -0.023227229714393616, -0.6759052276611328, -0.03089871071279049, -0.696220338344574, 0.44510355591773987, 0.6345651149749756, -0.05837958678603172, 0.04407279193401337, 0.17034699022769928, -0.04711566120386124, 0.06585832685232162, -0.06508168578147888, 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246845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Denis%20of%20Paris	Saint Denis of Paris	Denis of Paris was a 3rd-century Christian martyr and saint. According to his hagiographies, he was bishop of Paris (then Lutetia) in the third century and, together with his companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, was martyred for his faith by decapitation. Some accounts placed this during Domitian's persecution and identified StDenis of Paris with the Areopagite who was converted by Paul the Apostle and who served as the first bishop of Athens. Assuming Denis's historicity, it is now considered more likely that he suffered under the persecution of the emperor Decius shortly after AD250. Denis is the most famous cephalophore in Christian legend, with a popular story claiming that the decapitated bishop picked up his head and walked several miles while preaching a sermon on repentance. He is venerated in the Catholic Church as the patron saint of France and Paris and is accounted one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. A chapel was raised at the site of his burial by a local Christian woman; it was later expanded into an abbey and basilica, around which grew up the French city of Saint-Denis, now a suburb of Paris. Name The medieval and modern French masculine given name Denis derives from the Latin name Dionysius from Greek Dionysios. Life Gregory of Tours states that Denis was bishop of the Parisii and was martyred by being beheaded by a sword. The earliest document giving an account of his life and martyrdom, the "Passio SS. Dionysii Rustici et Eleutherii", dates from c. 600, is mistakenly attributed to the poet Venantius Fortunatus, and is legendary. Nevertheless, it appears from the Passio that Denis was sent from Italia to convert Gaul in the third century, forging a link with the "apostles to the Gauls" reputed to have been sent out with six other missionary bishops under the direction of Pope Fabian. There Denis was appointed first Bishop of Paris. The persecutions under Emperor Decius had all but dissolved the small Christian community at Lutetia (Paris). Denis, with his inseparable companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, who were martyred with him, settled on the Île de la Cité in the River Seine. Roman Paris lay on the higher ground of the Left Bank, away from the river. Martyrdom Denis and his companions were so effective in converting people that the pagan priests became alarmed over their loss of followers. At their instigation, the Roman Governor arrested the missionaries. After a long imprisonment, Denis and two of his clergy were executed by beheading on the highest hill in Paris (now Montmartre), which was likely to have been a druidic holy place. The martyrdom of Denis and his companions is popularly believed to have given the site its current name, derived from the Latin Mons Martyrum "The Martyrs' Mountain", although the name is possibly derived from Mons Mercurii et Mons Martis, Hill of Mercury and Mars. After his head was cut off, Denis is said to have picked it up and walked several miles from the summit of the hill, preaching a sermon the entire way, making him one of many cephalophores in hagiology. Of the many accounts of this martyrdom, this is noted in detail in the Golden Legend and in Butler's Lives Of The Saints. The site where he stopped preaching and actually died was marked by a small shrine that developed into the Basilica of Saint-Denis, which became the burial place for the kings of France. Another account has his corpse being thrown into the Seine, but recovered and buried later that night by his converts. Veneration Veneration of Denis began soon after his death. The bodies of Denis, Eleutherius, and Rusticus were buried on the spot of their martyrdom, where the construction of the eponymous basilica was begun by Genevieve, assisted by the people of Paris. Her Vita Sanctae Genovefae attests the presence of a shrine near the present basilica by the close of the fifth century. Dagobert I, great-grandson of Chlothar I, had the first Royal Basilica built. The Merovingian tradition was originally to bury kings such as Clovis and Chlothildis in Paris at Abbey St-Genevieve/Genovefa, as Clovis had ordered its construction in 502 AD. Yet Chilperic I had his own mother Dowager Queen Aregunda buried at Saint-Denis. His grandson was clearly following a family tradition. Aregunda's (death about 580 AD) tomb was discovered in 1959 and her burial items can be seen at Saint-Germain-en-Laye museum. A successor church was erected by Fulrad, who became abbot in 749/50 and was closely linked with the accession of the Carolingians to the Merovingian throne. In time, StDenis came to be regarded as the patron saint of the French people, with StLouis the patron of the monarchy and royal dynasties. Saint Denis or Montjoie! Saint Denis! became the typical war-cry of the French armies. The oriflamme, which became the standard of France, was the banner consecrated upon his tomb. His veneration spread beyond France when, in 754, Pope Stephen II brought veneration of Saint Denis to Rome. Soon his cultus was prevalent throughout Europe. Abbot Suger removed the relics of Denis, and those associated with Rustique and Eleuthére, from the crypt to reside under the high altar of the Saint-Denis he rebuilt, 1140-44. In traditional Catholic practice, Saint Denis is honoured as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. Specifically, Denis is invoked against diabolical possession and headaches and with Geneviève is one of the patron saints of Paris. Feast October 9 is celebrated as the feast of Saint Denis and companions, a priest named Rusticus and a deacon, Eleutherius, who were martyred alongside him and buried with him. The names Rusticus and Eleutherius are non-historical. The feast of Saint Denis was added to the Roman Calendar in the year 1568 by Pope Pius V, although it had been celebrated since at least the year 800. Saint Denis is also remembered with a commemoration in many Anglican Provinces, including the Church of England and the Anglican Church of Canada, on October 9. Confusion with Dionysius the Areopagite Since at least the ninth century, the legends of Dionysius the Areopagite and Denis of Paris have often been confused. Around 814, Louis the Pious brought certain writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite to France, and since then it became common among the French legendary writers to argue that Denis of Paris was the same Dionysius who was a famous convert and disciple of Paul of Tarsus. The confusion of the personalities of Denis of Paris, Dionysius the Areopagite, and pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, the author of the writings ascribed to Dionysius brought to France by Louis, was initiated through an Areopagitica written in 836 by Hilduin, Abbot of Saint-Denis, at the request of Louis the Pious. "Hilduin was anxious to promote the dignity of his church, and it is to him that the quite unfounded identification of the patron saint with Dionysius the Areopagite and his consequent connexion with the apostolic age are due." Hilduin's attribution had been supported for centuries by the monastic community at Abbey of Saint-Denis and it was one of the origins of their pride. In Historia calamitatum, Pierre Abelard gives a short account of the strength of this belief and the monastery's harsh opposition to challenges to their claim. Abelard jokingly pointed out a possibility that the founder of the Abbey could have been another Dionysius, who is mentioned as Dionysius of Corinth by Eusebius. This irritated the community so much that eventually Abelard left in bitterness. As late as the sixteenth century, scholars might still argue for an Eastern origin of the Basilica of Saint-Denis: one was Godefroi Tillman, in a long preface to a paraphrase of the Letters of the Areopagite, printed in Paris in 1538 by Charlotte Guillard. Most historiographers agree that this conflated legend is completely erroneous. Depiction in art Denis' headless walk has led to his being depicted in art decapitated and dressed as a bishop, holding his own (often mitred) head in his hands. Handling the halo in this circumstance poses a unique challenge for the artist. Some put the halo where the head used to be; others have Saint Denis carrying the halo along with the head. Even more problematic than the halo was the issue of how much of his head Denis should be shown carrying. Throughout much of the Middle Ages, the Abbey of St Denis and the canons of Notre-Dame Cathedral were in dispute over ownership of the saint's head. The Abbey claimed that they had the entire body, whilst the Cathedral claimed to possess the top of his head which, they claimed, had been severed by the executioner's first blow. Thus while most depictions of St Denis show him holding his entire head, in others, the patrons have shown their support for the Cathedral's claim by depicting him carrying just the crown of his skull, as for example in the mid 13th century window showing the story at Le Mans Cathedral (Bay 111). A 1317 illustrated manuscript depicting The Life of Saint Denis, once owned by King Philip V of France, is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. It was given to the king by his chaplain Gilles, the abbot of Saint-Denis, having been commissioned by Jean de Pontoise, the previous Abbot of Saint-Denis. The manuscript contains seventy-seven miniatures illustrating the life and martyrdom of Saint Denis. See also Peter, Andrew, Paul, and Denise Saint Denis, patron saint archive References Citations Bibliography Further reading External links Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Denis St. Denis and Companions provides information about their feast on 9 October Saint Denis at the Christian Iconography website Here Followeth the Life of St. Denis in Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend Italian saints French Roman Catholic saints 250 deaths 3rd-century births 3rd-century bishops in Gaul 3rd-century Christian martyrs Bishops of Paris Fourteen Holy Helpers Cephalophores Gallo-Roman saints Patron saints of France Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis Anglican saints	[ -0.10135826468467712, -0.12768366932868958, -0.7056479454040527, -0.09731180220842361, -0.49701517820358276, 0.7526909112930298, 1.0203368663787842, 0.3244313597679138, -0.705791711807251, -0.9877385497093201, -0.08615261316299438, 0.3252260386943817, -0.25991174578666687, -0.0504581481218338, 0.15490198135375977, 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246846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Denis	Saint Denis	Saint Denis may refer to: People Saint Denis of Paris, 3rd-century Christian martyr and saint, patron saint of Paris Denis the Carthusian (1402–1471) Brent St. Denis (born 1950), Canadian politician Frédéric St-Denis (born 1986), Canadian hockey player Janou Saint-Denis (1930–2000), Canadian poet and actress Jon St. Denis (born c. 1978), a Canadian curler Joseph St. Denis (1870–1966), Canadian politician Lise St-Denis (born 1940), Canadian politician Louis Juchereau de St. Denis (1676–1744), French-Canadian soldier and explorer Richard St. Denis, American wheelchair charity founder Ruth St. Denis, American dancer Yves St-Denis, Canadian politician Places Canada Saint-Denis (electoral district), in Quebec 1917–1997 Saint Denis Street, in Montreal, Quebec Saint-Denis-De La Bouteillerie, Quebec, formerly called Saint-Denis Saint-Denis-sur-Richelieu, Quebec Saint-Denis-de-Brompton, Quebec St. Denis, Saskatchewan France Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis Arrondissement of Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis Rue Saint-Denis (Paris) Morey-Saint-Denis, in the Côte-d'Or department Clos Saint-Denis, an Appellation d'origine contrôlée and Grand Cru vineyard Saint-Denis, Aude, in the Aude department Saint-Denis, Gard, in the Gard department Saint-Denis, Réunion, capital of the French overseas department of Réunion Saint-Denis-Catus, in the Lot department Saint-Denis-Combarnazat, in the Puy-de-Dôme department Saint-Denis-d'Aclon, in the Seine-Maritime department Saint-Denis-d'Anjou, in the Mayenne department Saint-Denis-d'Augerons, in the Eure department Saint-Denis-d'Authou, in the Eure-et-Loir department Saint-Denis-de-Cabanne, in the Loire department Saint-Denis-de-Gastines, in the Mayenne department Saint-Denis-de-Jouhet, in the Indre department Saint-Denis-de-l'Hôtel, in the Loiret department Saint-Denis-de-Mailloc, in the Calvados department Saint-Denis-de-Méré, in the Calvados department Saint-Denis-de-Palin, in the Cher department Saint-Denis-de-Pile, in the Gironde department Saint-Denis-des-Coudrais, in the Sarthe department Saint-Denis-des-Monts, in the Eure department Saint-Denis-des-Murs, in the Haute-Vienne department Saint-Denis-des-Puits, in the Eure-et-Loir department Saint-Denis-de-Vaux, in the Saône-et-Loire department Saint-Denis-de-Villenette, in the Orne department Saint-Denis-d'Oléron, in the Charente-Maritime department Saint-Denis-d'Orques, in the Sarthe department Saint-Denis-du-Béhélan, in the Eure department Saint-Denis-du-Maine, in the Mayenne department Saint-Denis-du-Payré, in the Vendée department Saint-Denis-du-Pin, in the Charente-Maritime department Saint-Denis-en-Bugey, in the Ain department Saint-Denis-en-Margeride, in the Lozère department Saint-Denis-en-Val, in the Loiret department Saint-Denis-la-Chevasse, in the Vendée department Saint-Denis-le-Ferment, in the Eure department Saint-Denis-le-Gast, in the Manche department Saint-Denis-lès-Bourg, in the Ain department Saint-Denis-lès-Martel, in the Lot department Saint-Denis-les-Ponts, in the Eure-et-Loir department Saint-Denis-lès-Rebais, in the Seine-et-Marne department Saint-Denis-lès-Sens, in the Yonne department Saint-Denis-le-Thiboult, in the Seine-Maritime department Saint-Denis-le-Vêtu, in the Manche department Saint-Denis-Maisoncelles, in the Calvados department Saint-Denis-sur-Coise, in the Loire department Saint-Denis-sur-Huisne, in the Orne department Saint-Denis-sur-Loire, in the Loir-et-Cher department Saint-Denis-sur-Ouanne, in the Yonne department Saint-Denis-sur-Sarthon, in the Orne department Saint-Denis-sur-Scie, in the Seine-Maritime department Elsewhere Saint-Denis, Mons, Belgium Saint-Denis, Aosta Valley, Italy St. Denis, Maryland, United States St. Denis station Other uses , a ship, formerly SS Munich See also Saint Dionysius (disambiguation) Denis (disambiguation) Saint Dennis (disambiguation) St. Denis' Church (disambiguation) St Denys Church (disambiguation) 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246847	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasdaq%20Helsinki	Nasdaq Helsinki	The Nasdaq Helsinki, formerly known as the Helsinki Stock Exchange (, ), is a stock exchange located in Helsinki, Finland. Since 3 September 2003, it has been part of Nasdaq Nordic (previously called OMX). After the OMX merger, it was referred to as OMX Helsinki (OMXH), then after NASDAQ's acquisition of OMX in February 2008, NASDAQ OMX Helsinki, and currently Nasdaq Helsinki. History The Helsinki Stock Exchange saw its first transaction on October 7, 1912. From then it remained a "free form" financial association until in 1984 it was converted into a cooperative owned mostly by banks, traders, other companies and associations. On April 1, 1990, trading was moved to a new digital system: HETI (Helsinki Stock Exchange Automated Trading and Information System, and in Finnish a rough backronym for "immediately"), which replaced the electro-mechanical trading board originally introduced back in 1935. HETI enabled remote traders to conduct transactions on equal terms with those in the trading room. The cooperative changed to a limited liability company (Helsingin Arvopaperipörssi) in the fall of 1995 and merged with several clearing and stock deposit companies and associations at the beginning of 1997. During 1997 and 1998 the Stock Exchange bought both of the Finnish derivative exchanges and merged them with itself to become HEX. In November 1998 HEX merged with Arvopaperikeskus to form Helsinki Exchanges Group Plc, which then changed its name to HEX Plc in the spring of 2001. In 2001 and 2002 HEX acquired a majority share of the Tallinn Stock Exchange and the Riga Stock Exchange. On 3 September 2003, HEX Plc merged with OM AB, owner of the Stockholm Stock Exchange, to become OM HEX. A year later, the company was renamed to OMX. OMX Helsinki 25 (OMXH25) is a stock market index for the Helsinki Stock Exchange. It is a market value weighted index that consists of the 25 most-traded stock classes. OMXH25 is also known by its old name, HEX25. As of March 2006, there are two exchange-traded funds listed, both are index funds for the OMXH25 index. In April 2006, the Stock Exchange announced the trading will be done in round lot sizes of one share starting from September 25, 2006. Previously trading was done in round lot sizes that varied from listed company to company. Hours Normal trading sessions are from 10:00am to 6:30pm on all days of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the Exchange in advance. Trading rules A special feature of Helsinki Exchange is that limit orders are not allowed to cross over. For an effective market order, the unfilled portion of the order becomes a limit order when it stays at the execution price. Currently listed stocks (followed by quote symbol) See also Stock market lists Nasdaq Copenhagen Nasdaq Stockholm Nasdaq Nordic Nasdaq Vilnius Nasdaq Riga Nasdaq Tallinn Nasdaq Iceland Nasdaq First North Other lists List of Finnish companies List of Ålandic companies References External links Nasdaq OMX Nordic homepage Companies listed on Nasdaq Helsinki Financial services companies established in 1912 1912 establishments in Finland Economy of Finland Buildings and structures in Helsinki Economy of Helsinki Stock exchanges in Europe Helsinki Nasdaq Nordic Financial services companies of Finland Kluuvi	[ 0.361655592918396, -0.2166195958852768, 0.0553370863199234, 0.03639642521739006, 0.04067850485444069, 0.19932478666305542, 0.015145715326070786, 0.4155062735080719, -0.4683929681777954, 0.06664174795150757, -0.12011435627937317, 0.1590348780155182, -0.29755714535713196, 0.3567705452442169, 0.056968942284584045, -0.686245322227478, 0.41314560174942017, 0.37386927008628845, 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246851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swept%20wing	Swept wing	A swept wing is a wing that angles either backward or occasionally forward from its root rather than in a straight sideways direction. Swept wings have been flown since the pioneer days of aviation. Wing sweep at high speeds was first investigated in Germany as early as 1935 by Albert Betz and Adolph Busemann, finding application just before the end of the Second World War. It has the effect of delaying the shock waves and accompanying aerodynamic drag rise caused by fluid compressibility near the speed of sound, improving performance. Swept wings are therefore almost always used on jet aircraft designed to fly at these speeds. The term "swept wing" is normally used to mean "swept back", but variants include forward sweep, variable sweep wings and oblique wings in which one side sweeps forward and the other back. The delta wing is also aerodynamically a form of swept wing. Reasons for sweep There are three main reasons for sweeping a wing: 1. to arrange the center of gravity of the aircraft and the aerodynamic center of the wing to coincide more closely for longitudinal balance, eg Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet and Messerschmitt Me 262. Although not a swept wing the wing panels on the Douglas DC-1 outboard of the nacelles also had slight sweepback for similar reasons. 2. to provide longitudinal stability for tailless aircraft, eg Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet. 3. most commonly to increase Mach-number capability by delaying to a higher speed the effects of compressibility (abrupt changes in the density of the airflow), eg combat aircraft, airliners and business jets. Other reasons include: 1. enabling a wing carry-through box position to achieve a desired cabin size, eg HFB 320 Hansa Jet. 2. providing static aeroelastic relief which reduces bending moments under high g-loadings and may allow a lighter wing structure. Structural design For a wing of given span, sweeping it increases the length of the spars running along it from root to tip. This tends to increase weight and reduce stiffness. If the fore-aft chord of the wing also remains the same, the distance between leading and trailing edges reduces, reducing its ability to resist twisting (torsion) forces. A swept wing of given span and chord must therefore be strengthened and will be heavier than the equivalent unswept wing. A swept wing typically angles backward from its root rather than forwards. Because wings are made as light as possible, they tend to flex under load. This aeroelasticity under aerodynamic load causes the tips to bend upwards in normal flight. Backwards sweep causes the tips to reduce their angle of attack as they bend, reducing their lift and limiting the effect. Forward sweep causes the tips to increase their angle of attack as they bend. This increases their lift causing further bending and hence yet more lift in a cycle which can cause a runaway structural failure. For this reason forward sweep is rare and the wing must be unusually rigid. There are two sweep angles of importance, one at the leading edge for supersonic aircraft and the other 25% of the way back from the leading edge for subsonic and transonic aircraft. Leading edge sweep is important because the leading edge has to be behind the mach cone to reduce wave drag. The quarter chord (25%) line is used because subsonic lift due to angle of attack acts there and, up until the introduction of supercritical sections, the crest was usually close to the quarter chord. Typical sweep angles vary from 0 for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for fighters and other high-speed designs. Aerodynamic design Subsonic and transonic flight Shock waves can form on some parts of an aircraft moving at less than the speed of sound. Low-pressure regions around an aircraft cause the flow to accelerate, and at transonic speeds this local acceleration can exceed Mach 1. Localized supersonic flow must return to the freestream conditions around the rest of the aircraft, and as the flow enters an adverse pressure gradient in the aft section of the wing, a discontinuity emerges in the form of a shock wave as the air is forced to rapidly slow and return to ambient pressure. At the point where the density drops, the local speed of sound correspondingly drops and a shock wave can form. This is why in conventional wings, shock waves form first after the maximum Thickness/Chord and why all airliners designed for cruising in the transonic range (above M0.8) have supercritical wings that are flatter on top resulting in minimized angular change of flow to upper surface air. The angular change to the air that is normally part of lift generation is decreased and this lift reduction is compensated for by deeper curved lower surfaces accompanied by a reflex curve at the trailing edge. This results in a much weaker shock wave towards the rear of the upper wing surface and a corresponding increase in critical mach number. Shock waves require energy to form. This energy is taken out of the aircraft, which has to supply extra thrust to make up for this energy loss. Thus the shocks are seen as a form of drag. Since the shocks form when the local air velocity reaches supersonic speeds, there is a certain "critical mach" speed where sonic flow first appears on the wing. There is a following point called the drag divergence mach number where the effect of the drag from the shocks becomes noticeable. This is normally when the shocks start generating over the wing, which on most aircraft is the largest continually curved surface, and therefore the largest contributor to this effect. Sweeping the wing has the effect of reducing the curvature of the body as seen from the airflow, by the cosine of the angle of sweep. For instance, a wing with a 45 degree sweep will see a reduction in effective curvature to about 70% of its straight-wing value. This has the effect of increasing the critical Mach by 30%. When applied to large areas of the aircraft, like the wings and empennage, this allows the aircraft to reach speeds closer to Mach 1. One limiting factor in swept wing design is the so-called "middle effect". If a swept wing is continuous – an oblique swept wing, the pressure iso-bars will be swept at a continuous angle from tip to tip. However, if the left and right halves are swept back equally, as is common practice, the pressure iso-bars on the left wing in theory will meet the pressure iso-bars of the right wing on the centerline at a large angle. As the iso-bars cannot meet in such a fashion, they will tend to curve on each side as they near the centerline, so that the iso-bars cross the centerline at right angles to the centerline. This causes an "unsweeping" of the iso-bars in the wing root region. To combat this unsweeping, German aerodynamicist Dietrich Küchemann proposed and had tested a local indentation of the fuselage above and below the wing root. This proved to not be very effective. During the development of the Douglas DC-8 airliner, uncambered airfoils were used in the wing root area to combat the unsweeping. Supersonic flight Swept wings on supersonic aircraft usually lie within the cone-shaped shock wave produced at the nose of the aircraft so will "see" subsonic airflow and work as a subsonic wing. The angle needed to lie behind the cone increases with increasing speed, at Mach 1.3 the angle is about 45 degrees, at Mach 2.0 it is 60 degrees. For instance, at Mach 1.3 the angle of the Mach cone formed off the body of the aircraft will be at about sinμ = 1/M (μ is the sweep angle of the Mach cone) Disadvantages When a swept wing travels at high speed, the airflow has little time to react and simply flows over the wing almost straight from front to back. At lower speeds the air does have time to react, and is pushed spanwise by the angled leading edge, towards the wing tip. At the wing root, by the fuselage, this has little noticeable effect, but as one moves towards the wingtip the airflow is pushed spanwise not only by the leading edge, but the spanwise moving air beside it. At the tip the airflow is moving along the wing instead of over it, a problem known as spanwise flow. The lift from a wing is generated by the airflow over it from front to rear. With increasing span-wise flow the boundary layers on the surface of the wing have longer to travel, and so are thicker and more susceptible to transition to turbulence or flow separation, also the effective aspect ratio of the wing is less and so air "leaks" around the wing tips reducing their effectiveness. The spanwise flow on swept wings produces airflow that moves the stagnation point on the leading edge of any individual wing segment further beneath the leading edge, increasing effective angle of attack of wing segments relative to its neighbouring forward segment. The result is that wing segments farther towards the rear operate at increasingly higher angles of attack promoting early stall of those segments. This promotes tip stall on back-swept wings, as the tips are most rearward, while delaying tip stall for forward-swept wings, where the tips are forward. With both forward and back-swept wings, the rear of the wing will stall first creating a nose-up moment on the aircraft. If not corrected by the pilot the plane will pitch up, leading to more of the wing stalling and more pitch up in a divergent manner. This uncontrollable instability came to be known as the Sabre dance in reference to the number of North American F-100 Super Sabres that crashed on landing as a result. Reducing pitch-up to an acceptable level has been done in different ways such as the addition of a fin known as a wing fence on the upper surface of the wing to redirect the flow to a streamwise direction. The MiG-15 was one example of an aircraft fitted with wing fences. Another closely related design was the addition of a dogtooth notch to the leading edge, used on the Avro Arrow interceptor. Other designs took a more radical approach, including the Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor's wing that grew wider towards the tip to provide more lift at the tip. The Handley Page Victor was equipped with a crescent wing, with three values of sweep, about 48 degrees near the wing root where the wing was thickest, a 38 degree transition length and 27 degrees for the remainder to the tip. Modern solutions to the problem no longer require "custom" designs such as these. The addition of leading-edge slats and large compound flaps to the wings has largely resolved the issue. On fighter designs, the addition of leading-edge extensions, which are typically included to achieve a high level of maneuverability, also serve to add lift during landing and reduce the problem. In addition to pitch-up there are other complications inherent in a swept-wing configuration. For any given length of wing, the actual span from tip-to-tip is shorter than the same wing that is not swept. There is a strong correlation between low-speed drag and aspect ratio, the span compared to chord, so a swept wing always has more drag at lower speeds. In addition, there is extra torque applied by the wing to the fuselage which has to be allowed for when establishing the transfer of wing-box loads to the fuselage. This results from the significant part of the wing lift which lies behind the attachment length where the wing meets the fuselage. Sweep theory Sweep theory is an aeronautical engineering description of the behavior of airflow over a wing when the wing's leading edge encounters the airflow at an oblique angle. The development of sweep theory resulted in the swept wing design used by most modern jet aircraft, as this design performs more effectively at transonic and supersonic speeds. In its advanced form, sweep theory led to the experimental oblique wing concept. Adolf Busemann introduced the concept of the swept wing and presented this in 1935 at the 5. Volta-Congress in Rome. Sweep theory in general was a subject of development and investigation throughout the 1930s and 1940s, but the breakthrough mathematical definition of sweep theory is generally credited to NACA's Robert T. Jones in 1945. Sweep theory builds on other wing lift theories. Lifting line theory describes lift generated by a straight wing (a wing in which the leading edge is perpendicular to the airflow). Weissinger theory describes the distribution of lift for a swept wing, but does not have the capability to include chordwise pressure distribution. There are other methods that do describe chordwise distributions, but they have other limitations. Jones' sweep theory provides a simple, comprehensive analysis of swept wing performance. An explanation of how the swept wing works was offered by Robert T. Jones: "Assume a wing is a cylinder of uniform airfoil cross-section, chord and thickness and is placed in an airstream at an angle of yaw – i.e., it is swept back. Now, even if the local speed of the air on the upper surface of the wing becomes supersonic, a shock wave cannot form there because it would have to be a sweptback shock – swept at the same angle as the wing – i.e., it would be an oblique shock. Such an oblique shock cannot form until the velocity component normal to it becomes supersonic." To visualize the basic concept of simple sweep theory, consider a straight, non-swept wing of infinite length, which meets the airflow at a perpendicular angle. The resulting air pressure distribution is equivalent to the length of the wing's chord (the distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge). If we were to begin to slide the wing sideways (spanwise), the sideways motion of the wing relative to the air would be added to the previously perpendicular airflow, resulting in an airflow over the wing at an angle to the leading edge. This angle results in airflow traveling a greater distance from leading edge to trailing edge, and thus the air pressure is distributed over a greater distance (and consequently lessened at any particular point on the surface). This scenario is identical to the airflow experienced by a swept wing as it travels through the air. The airflow over a swept wing encounters the wing at an angle. That angle can be broken down into two vectors, one perpendicular to the wing, and one parallel to the wing. The flow parallel to the wing has no effect on it, and since the perpendicular vector is shorter (meaning slower) than the actual airflow, it consequently exerts less pressure on the wing. In other words, the wing experiences airflow that is slower - and at lower pressures - than the actual speed of the aircraft. One of the factors that must be taken into account when designing a high-speed wing is compressibility, which is the effect that acts upon a wing as it approaches and passes through the speed of sound. The significant negative effects of compressibility made it a prime issue with aeronautical engineers. Sweep theory helps mitigate the effects of compressibility in transonic and supersonic aircraft because of the reduced pressures. This allows the mach number of an aircraft to be higher than that actually experienced by the wing. There is also a negative aspect to sweep theory. The lift produced by a wing is directly related to the speed of the air over the wing. Since the airflow speed experienced by a swept wing is lower than what the actual aircraft speed is, this becomes a problem during slow-flight phases, such as takeoff and landing. There have been various ways of addressing the problem, including the variable-incidence wing design on the Vought F-8 Crusader, and swing wings on aircraft such as the F-14, F-111, and the Panavia Tornado. Variant designs The term "swept wing" is normally used to mean "swept back", but other swept variants include forward sweep, variable sweep wings and oblique wings in which one side sweeps forward and the other back. The delta wing also incorporates the same advantages as part of its layout. Forward sweep Sweeping a wing forward has approximately the same effect as rearward in terms of drag reduction, but has other advantages in terms of low-speed handling where tip stall problems simply go away. In this case the low-speed air flows towards the fuselage, which acts as a very large wing fence. Additionally, wings are generally larger at the root anyway, which allows them to have better low-speed lift. However, this arrangement also has serious stability problems. The rearmost section of the wing will stall first causing a pitch-up moment pushing the aircraft further into stall similar to a swept back wing design. Thus swept-forward wings are unstable in a fashion similar to the low-speed problems of a conventional swept wing. However unlike swept back wings, the tips on a forward swept design will stall last, maintaining roll control. Forward-swept wings can also experience dangerous flexing effects compared to aft-swept wings that can negate the tip stall advantage if the wing is not sufficiently stiff. In aft-swept designs, when the airplane maneuvers at high load factor the wing loading and geometry twists the wing in such a way as to create washout (tip twists leading edge down). This reduces the angle of attack at the tip, thus reducing the bending moment on the wing, as well as somewhat reducing the chance of tip stall. However, the same effect on forward-swept wings produces a wash-in effect that increases the angle of attack promoting tip stall. Small amounts of sweep do not cause serious problems, and had been used on a variety of aircraft to move the spar into a convenient location, as on the Junkers Ju 287 or HFB 320 Hansa Jet. However, larger sweep suitable for high-speed aircraft, like fighters, was generally impossible until the introduction of fly by wire systems that could react quickly enough to damp out these instabilities. The Grumman X-29 was an experimental technology demonstration project designed to test the forward swept wing for enhanced maneuverability during the 1980s. The Sukhoi Su-47 Berkut is another notable demonstrator aircraft implementing this technology to achieve high levels of agility. To date, no highly swept-forward design has entered production. History Early history The first successful aeroplanes adhered to the basic design of rectangular wings at right angles to the body of the machine, but there were experimentalists who explored other geometries to achieve better aerodynamic results. The swept wing geometry appeared before World War I, and was conceived as a means of permitting the design of safe and stable aeroplanes. The best of these designs imposed "self-damping" inherent stability upon a tailless swept wing. These inspired several flying wing gliders and some powered aircraft during the interwar years. The first to achieve stability was British designer J. W. Dunne who was obsessed with achieving inherent stability in flight. He successfully employed swept wings in his tailless aircraft (which, crucially, used washout) as a means of creating positive longitudinal static stability. For a low-speed aircraft, swept wings may be used to resolve problems with the center of gravity, to move the wing spar into a more convenient location, or to improve the sideways view from the pilot's position. By 1905, Dunne had already built a model glider with swept wings and by 1913 he had constructed successful powered variants that were able to cross the English Channel. The Dunne D.5 was exceptionally aerodynamically stable for the time, and the D.8 was sold to the Royal Flying Corps; it was also manufactured under licence by Starling Burgess to the United States Navy amongst other customers. Dunne's work ceased with the onset of war in 1914, but afterwards the idea was taken up by G. T. R. Hill in England who designed a series of gliders and aircraft to Dunne's guidelines, notably the Westland-Hill Pterodactyl series. However, Dunne's theories met with little acceptance amongst the leading aircraft designers and aviation companies at the time. German developments The idea of using swept wings to reduce high-speed drag was developed in Germany in the 1930s. At a Volta Conference meeting in 1935 in Italy, Dr. Adolf Busemann suggested the use of swept wings for supersonic flight. He noted that the airspeed over the wing was dominated by the normal component of the airflow, not the freestream velocity, so by setting the wing at an angle the forward velocity at which the shock waves would form would be higher (the same had been noted by Max Munk in 1924, although not in the context of high-speed flight). Albert Betz immediately suggested the same effect would be equally useful in the transonic. After the presentation the host of the meeting, Arturo Crocco, jokingly sketched "Busemann's airplane of the future" on the back of a menu while they all dined. Crocco's sketch showed a classic 1950's fighter design, with swept wings and tail surfaces, although he also sketched a swept propeller powering it. At the time, however, there was no way to power an aircraft to these sorts of speeds, and even the fastest aircraft of the era were only approaching .The presentation was largely of academic interest, and soon forgotten. Even notable attendees including Theodore von Kármán and Eastman Jacobs did not recall the presentation 10 years later when it was re-introduced to them. Hubert Ludwieg of the High-Speed Aerodynamics Branch at the AVA Göttingen in 1939 conducted the first wind tunnel tests to investigate Busemann's theory. Two wings, one with no sweep, and one with 45 degrees of sweep were tested at Mach numbers of 0.7 and 0.9 in the 11 x 13 cm wind tunnel. The results of these tests confirmed the drag reduction offered by swept wings at transonic speeds. The results of the tests were communicated to Albert Betz who then passed them on to Willy Messerschmitt in December 1939. The tests were expanded in 1940 to include wings with 15, 30 and -45 degrees of sweep and Mach numbers as high as 1.21. With the introduction of jets in the later half of the Second World War, the swept wing became increasingly applicable to optimally satisfying aerodynamic needs. The German jet-powered Messerschmitt Me 262 and rocket-powered Messerschmitt Me 163 suffered from compressibility effects that made both aircraft very difficult to control at high speeds. In addition, the speeds put them into the wave drag regime, and anything that could reduce this drag would increase the performance of their aircraft, notably the notoriously short flight times measured in minutes. This resulted in a crash program to introduce new swept wing designs, both for fighters as well as bombers. The Blohm & Voss P 215 was designed to take full advantage of the swept wing's aerodynamic properties; however, an order for three prototypes was received only weeks before the war ended and no examples were ever built. The Focke-Wulf Ta 183 was another swept wing fighter design, but was also not produced before the war's end. In the post-war era, Kurt Tank developed the Ta 183 into the IAe Pulqui II, but this proved unsuccessful. A prototype test aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me P.1101, was built to research the tradeoffs of the design and develop general rules about what angle of sweep to use. When it was 80% complete, the P.1101 was captured by US forces and returned to the United States, where two additional copies with US-built engines carried on the research as the Bell X-5. Germany's wartime experience with the swept wings and its high value for supersonic flight stood in strong contrast to the prevailing views of Allied experts of the era, who commonly espoused their belief in the impossibility of manned vehicles travelling at such speeds. Postwar advancements During the immediate post-war era, several nations were conducting research into high speed aircraft. In the United Kingdom, work commenced during 1943 on the Miles M.52, a high-speed experimental aircraft equipped with a straight wing that was developed in conjunction with Frank Whittle's Power Jets company, the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) in Farnborough, and the National Physical Laboratory. The M.52 was envisioned to be capable of achieving in level flight, thus enabling the aircraft to potentially be the first to exceed the speed of sound in the world. In February 1946, the programme was abruptly discontinued for unclear reasons. It has since been widely recognised that the cancellation of the M.52 was a major setback in British progress in the field of supersonic design. Another, more successful, programme was the US's Bell X-1, which also was equipped with a straight wing. According to Miles Chief Aerodynamicist Dennis Bancroft, the Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M.52. On 14 October 1947, the Bell X-1 performed the first manned supersonic flight, piloted by Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager, having been drop launched from the bomb bay of a Boeing B-29 Superfortress and attained a record-breaking speed of Mach 1.06 (). The news of a successful straight-wing supersonic aircraft surprised many aeronautical experts on both sides of the Atlantic, as it was increasingly believed that a swept-wing design not only highly beneficial but also necessary to break the sound barrier. During the final years of the Second World War, aircraft designer Sir Geoffrey de Havilland commenced development on the de Havilland Comet, which would become the world's first jet airliner. An early design consideration was whether to apply the new swept-wing configuration. Thus, an experimental aircraft to explore the technology, the de Havilland DH 108, was developed by the firm in 1944, headed by project engineer John Carver Meadows Frost with a team of 8–10 draughtsmen and engineers. The DH 108 primarily consisted of the pairing of the front fuselage of the de Havilland Vampire to a swept wing and small vertical tail; it was the first British swept wing jet, unofficially known as the "Swallow". It first flew on 15 May 1946, a mere eight months after the project's go-ahead. Company test pilot and son of the builder, Geoffrey de Havilland Jr., flew the first of three aircraft and found it extremely fast – fast enough to try for a world speed record. On 12 April 1948, a D.H.108 did set a world's speed record at 973.65 km/h (605 mph), it subsequently became the first jet aircraft to exceed the speed of sound. Around this same timeframe, the Air Ministry introduced a program of experimental aircraft to examine the effects of swept wings, as well as the delta wing configuration. Furthermore, the Royal Air Force (RAF) identified a pair of proposed fighter aircraft equipped with swept wings from Hawker Aircraft and Supermarine, the Hawker Hunter and Supermarine Swift respectively, and successfully pressed for orders to be placed 'off the drawing board' in 1950. On 7 September 1953, the sole Hunter Mk 3 (the modified first prototype, WB 188) flown by Neville Duke broke the world air speed record for jet-powered aircraft, attaining a speed of 727.63 mph (1,171.01 km/h) over Littlehampton, West Sussex. This world record stood for less than three weeks before being broken on 25 September 1953 by the Hunter's early rival, the Supermarine Swift, being flown by Michael Lithgow. In February 1945, NACA engineer Robert T. Jones started looking at highly swept delta wings and V shapes, and discovered the same effects as Busemann. He finished a detailed report on the concept in April, but found his work was heavily criticised by other members of NACA Langley, notably Theodore Theodorsen, who referred to it as "hocus-pocus" and demanded some "real mathematics". However, Jones had already secured some time for free-flight models under the direction of Robert Gilruth, whose reports were presented at the end of May and showed a fourfold decrease in drag at high speeds. All of this was compiled into a report published on June 21, 1945, which was sent out to the industry three weeks later. Ironically, by this point Busemann's work had already been passed around. On May 1945, the American Operation Paperclip reached Braunschweig, where US personnel discovered a number of swept wing models and a mass of technical data from the wind tunnels. One member of the US team was George S. Schairer, who was at that time working at the Boeing company. He immediately forwarded a letter to Ben Cohn at Boeing, communicating the value of the swept wing concept. He also told Cohn to distribute the letter to other companies as well, although only Boeing and North American made immediate use of it. Boeing was in the midst of designing the B-47 Stratojet, and the initial Model 424 was a straight-wing design similar to the B-45, B-46 and B-48 it competed with. Analysis by Boeing engineer Vic Ganzer suggested an optimum sweepback angle of about 35 degrees. By September 1945, the Braunschweig data had been worked into the design, which re-emerged as the Model 448, a larger six-engine design with more robust wings swept at 35 degrees. Another re-work moved the engines into strut-mounted pods under the wings due to concerns of the uncontained failure of an internal engine could potentially destroy the aircraft via either fire or vibration. The resulting B-47 was hailed as the fastest of its class in the world during the late 1940s, and trounced the straight-winged competition. Boeing's jet-transport formula of swept wings and pylon-mounted engines has since been universally adopted. In fighters, North American Aviation was in the midst of working on a straight-wing jet-powered naval fighter, then known as the FJ-1; it was later submitted to the United States Air Force as the XP-86. Larry Green, who could read German, studied the Busemann reports and convinced management to allow a redesign starting in August 1945. The performance of the F-86A allowed it set the first of several official world speed records, attaining on 15 September 1948, flown by Major Richard L. Johnson. With the appearance of the MiG-15, the F-86 was rushed into combat, while straight-wing jets like the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star and Republic F-84 Thunderjet were quickly relegated to ground attack missions. Some, such as the F-84 and Grumman F-9 Cougar, were later redesigned with swept wings from straight-winged aircraft. Later planes, such as the North American F-100 Super Sabre, would be designed with swept wings from the start, though additional innovations such as the afterburner, area-rule and new control surfaces would be necessary to master supersonic flight. The Soviet Union was also quick to investigate the advantages of swept wings on high speed aircraft, when their "captured aviation technology" counterparts to the western Allies spread out across the defeated Third Reich. Artem Mikoyan was asked by the Soviet government's TsAGI aviation research department to develop a test-bed aircraft to research the swept wing idea — the result was the late 1945-flown, unusual MiG-8 Utka pusher canard layout aircraft, with its rearwards-located wings being swept back for this type of research. The swept wing was applied to the MiG-15, an early jet-powered fighter, its maximum speed of outclassed the straight-winged American jets and piston-engined fighters initially deployed during the Korean War. The MiG-15 is believed to have been one of the most produced jet aircraft; in excess of 13,000 would ultimately be manufactured. The MiG-15, which could not safely exceed Mach 0.92, served as the basis for the MiG-17, which was designed to be controllable at higher Mach numbers. Its wing sweep, 45° near the fuselage ( the same as the F-100 Super Sabre), changed to 42° for the outboard part of the wing. A further derivative of the design, designated MiG-19, featured a relatively thin wing suited to supersonic flight that was designed at TsAGI, the Soviet Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute; swept back at an angle of 55 degrees, this wing featured a single wing fence on each side. A specialist high-altitude variant, the Mig-19SV, featured, amongst other changes, an adjustable flap to generate greater lift at higher altitudes, helping to increase the aircraft's ceiling from to . Germany's swept wing research was also obtained by the Swedish aircraft manufacturer SAAB, with the help of ex-Messerschmitt engineers that had fled to Switzerland during late 1945. At the time, SAAB saw the need to make aeronautical advances, particularly in the new field of jet propulsion. The company incorporated both the jet engine and the swept wing to produce the Saab 29 Tunnan fighter; on 1 September 1948, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight, flown by the English test pilot S/L Robert A. 'Bob' Moore, DFC and bar, Although not well known outside Sweden, the Tunnan was the first Western European fighter to be introduced with such a wing configuration. In parallel, SAAB also developed another swept wing aircraft, the Saab 32 Lansen, primarily to serve as Sweden's standard attack aircraft. Its wing, which had a 10 per cent laminar profile and a 35° sweep, featured triangular fences near the wing roots in order to improve airflow when the aircraft was being flown at a high angle of attack. On 25 October 1953, a SAAB 32 Lansen attained a Mach number of at least 1.12 while in a shallow dive, exceeding the sound barrier. The successes of aircraft such as the Hawker Hunter, the B-47, and F-86 showed the value of the swept wing research acquired from Germany. Eventually, almost all advanced design efforts for high speed aircraft would incorporate a wing with a swept leading edge, with either a swept wing or delta wing planform. The Boeing B-52, designed in the 1950s, continues in service as a subsonic long-range heavy bomber. While the Soviets never matched the performance of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress with a jet aircraft, the intercontinental range Tupolev Tu-95 turboprop bomber with its near-jet class top speed of 920 km/h, combining swept wings with propeller propulsion, also remains in service today, being the fastest propeller-powered production aircraft. In Britain, two swept-wing bombers entered service, the Vickers Valiant (1955) and the Handley Page Victor (1958). By the early 1950s, nearly every new fighter had a swept wing. By the 1960s, most civilian jets also adopted swept wings. Most early transonic and supersonic designs such as the MiG-19 and F-100 used long, highly swept wings. Swept wings would reach Mach 2 on the BAC Lightning, and Republic F-105 Thunderchief, built to operate at low level and very high speed primarily for nuclear strike, but with a secondary air-to-air capability. By the late 1960s, the McDonnell F-4 Phantom II, was used in large numbers by air forces influenced by the United States. Variable geometry wings were employed on the American F-111, Grumman F-14 Tomcat and Soviet Mikoyan MiG-27, although the idea would be abandoned for the American SST design. After the 1970s, most newer generation fighters optimized for maneuvering air combat since the USAF F-15 and Soviet Mikoyan MiG-29 have employed relatively short-span fixed wings with relatively large wing area. See also Delta wing Theodore von Kármán, first to recognize the importance of the swept wing Trapezoidal wing Wing configuration References Citations Bibliography Anderson, John D. Jr. A History of Aerodynamics. New York: McGraw Hill, 1997. Andrews, C.F. and Eric B. Morgan. Vickers Aircraft since 1908. London: Putnam, 1988. . Barnes, C.H. Handley Page Aircraft since 1907. London: Putnam, 1976. . Belyakov, R. A. and Marmain, J. MiG: Fifty Years of Secret Aircraft Design. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1994. . Blackman, Tony. Vulcan Test Pilot: My Experiences in the Cockpit of a Cold War Icon. London: Grub Street, 2007. . Boyne, Walter J. Air Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO, 2002. . Brookes, Andrew. Victor Units of the Cold War. Osprey Publishing, 2011. . Buttler, Tony. "Avro Type 698 Vulcan (Database)." Aeroplane, Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue No. 408, April 2007. Cook, William H. The Road to the 707: The Inside Story of Designing the 707. Bellevue, Washington: TYC Publishing, 1991. . Crosby, Francis. Fighter Aircraft. London: Lorenz Books, 2002. . Davies, R.E.G. and Philip J. Birtles. Comet: The World's First Jet Airliner. McLean, Virginia: Paladwr Press, 1999. . Dorr, Robert F. Fighting Hitler's Jets: The Extraordinary Story of the American Airmen Who Beat the Luftwaffe and Defeated Nazi Germany. MBI Publishing Co, 2013. . Erichs, Rolph et al. The Saab-Scania Story. Stockholm: Streiffert & Co., 1988. . Fraser, Jim. "I Fly The World's Fastest Bomber." Popular Science, November 1949. Vol. 155, No. 5. pp. 139–142. . Gordon, Yefim. "Mikoyan MiG-19 Variants". Wings of Fame, Volume 9, 1997. pp. 116–149. . . Gunston, Bill. The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft: 1875–1995. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1996. . Gunston, Bill and Peter Gilchrist. Jet Bombers: From the Messerschmitt Me 262 to the Stealth B-2. Osprey, 1993. . Seidov, Igor and Stuart Britton. Red Devils over the Yalu: A Chronicle of Soviet Aerial Operations in the Korean War 1950–53. Helion and Company, 2014. . Kinzey, Bert. F9F Cougar in Detail & Scale. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1983. . Knaack, Marcelle Size. Encyclopedia of US Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume 1 Post-World War II Fighters 1945–1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978. . Mendenhall, Charles A. Delta Wings: Convair's High-Speed Planes of the Fifties and Sixties. Motorbooks. 1983. Myhra, David. Focke-Wulf Ta 183 (X Planes of the Third Reich). Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 1999. . Radinger, Willy and Walter Schick. Me 262: Entwicklung und Erprobung des ertsen einsatzfähigen Düsenjäger der Welt, Messerschmitt Stiftung (in German). Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH, 1996. . "Saab-29: Sweden's new jet fighter." Flight International, 4 May 1950. pp. 556–58. "Saab: Sweden's Advanced Combat Aircraft." Flight International, 30 December 1960. pp. 1017–20. Spick, Mike and William Green, Gordon Swanborough. Illustrated Anatomy of the World's Fighters. Zenith Imprint, 2001. . Sweetman, Bill. Modern Fighting Aircraft: Volume 9: MiGs. New York: Arco Publishing, 1984. . Wagner, Ray. The North American Sabre. London: Macdonald, 1963. Whitcomb, Randall. Avro Aircraft and Cold War Aviation. St. Catharine's, Ontario: Vanwell, 2002. . Winchester, Jim. "Bell X-5." Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft. Kent, UK: Grange Books plc., 2005. . Wood, Derek. Project Cancelled. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company Inc., 1975. . Further reading External links Swept Wings and Effective Dihedral The development of swept wings Simple sweep theory math Advanced math of swept and oblique wings The L-39 and swept wing research Sweep theory in a 3D environment CFD results showing the three-dimensional supersonic bubble over the wing of an A 320. 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246854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantegna	Mantegna	Mantegna is a surname. Notable people with the name include: Andrea Mantegna ( – 1506), Italian painter Gia Mantegna (born 1990), American actress Joe Mantegna (born 1947), American actor See also Mantegna Tarocchi, two sets of 15th-century Italian cards with engravings	[ -0.26920828223228455, 0.26885053515434265, -0.11509783565998077, -0.40546444058418274, -0.2653293311595917, 0.43955376744270325, 0.3257989287376404, 0.5187355875968933, -0.9693050384521484, -1.0844464302062988, -0.14964492619037628, -0.04366367682814598, 0.06087479740381241, 0.9012402296066284, -0.433557391166687, -0.33031168580055237, 0.17792607843875885, 0.4296942949295044, 0.22172842919826508, -0.7845919728279114, 0.2280159294605255, -0.2625744640827179, 0.039887815713882446, -0.2836424708366394, -0.3260386884212494, -0.21943365037441254, 0.3600146770477295, 0.045418232679367065, 0.6590768694877625, 0.04917275905609131, -0.09883294999599457, 0.5119060277938843, -0.03645612299442291, 0.0053811874240636826, -0.3772895932197571, 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246856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADD%20%28disambiguation%29	ADD (disambiguation)	ADD is attention deficit disorder, an alternative name of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Add or ADD may also refer to: Entertainment A.D.D. (Audio Day Dream), a 2007 album by Blake Lewis "A.D.D", a song on the 1998 album Hard to Swallow by Vanilla Ice "A.D.D. (American Dream Denial)", a song on the 2002 album Steal This Album! by System of a Down “ADD”, a song on the 2017 album Mix & Match by Loona sub-unit Odd Eye Circle Science and technology Addition, a mathematical operation ADD model, a hypothesis in physics Agency for Defense Development, a South Korean national research and development agency Android Developer Day Accumulated degree days, a measure of heating or cooling Architectural design document (or sometimes Architectural decision document), part of a software design document ADD, a SPARS code appearing on some compact disc recordings Transportation Adderley Park railway station (Station code), Birmingham, England Addis Ababa Bole International Airport (IATA code), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Other uses River Add, Scotland Anti-dumping duties; see Dumping (pricing policy) Atatürkist Thought Association (Turkish: ), a Turkish secularism organization Dzodinka language (ISO 639-3 code), a Niger-Congo language of Cameroon Agency for Defense Development, a South Korean government agency See also Accidental death and dismemberment insurance (AD&D) Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, an edition of the game Dungeons & Dragons	[ 0.15440934896469116, 0.16370271146297455, -0.4094938635826111, -0.21356764435768127, -0.6006336808204651, -0.08659083396196365, 0.5708613395690918, -0.0012277474161237478, -0.23940806090831757, -0.4555882215499878, -0.07026419043540955, 0.3871158957481384, -0.7119408845901489, 0.20284445583820343, -0.22916880249977112, 0.3928236663341522, 0.5381485223770142, 0.44182637333869934, -0.8196333050727844, 0.04480832442641258, -0.05666248872876167, 0.04147951677441597, -0.1524640917778015, -0.6419295072555542, 0.3347693383693695, 0.12409692257642746, 0.2403605878353119, -0.07612159103155136, -0.14479809999465942, -0.17491167783737183, -0.3180655539035797, 0.28767120838165283, 0.3326738774776459, -0.3182264566421509, -0.5248610973358154, 0.24147838354110718, -0.17252667248249054, -0.539669394493103, 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246857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHS	ADHS	ADHS can refer to: Schools Acton District High School Alfred Deakin High School Almonte and District High School Athens District High School Arnprior District High School Athens Drive High School Other uses The British Adult Dental Health Survey (ADHS) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, sometimes referred to as attention-deficit hyperactivity syndrome Appalachian Development Highway System Arizona Department of Health Services 2-amino-3,7-dideoxy-D-threo-hept-6-ulosonate synthase, an enzyme	[ -0.13134926557540894, 0.622869074344635, 0.0967566967010498, -0.03369426354765892, -0.06694085150957108, 0.4282430410385132, 0.44514185190200806, 0.020403429865837097, 0.263467937707901, -0.40110549330711365, -0.08235713094472885, 0.5543980598449707, -0.13837669789791107, 0.0894482433795929, 0.24463754892349243, 0.6526381373405457, 0.47553005814552307, 0.5575532913208008, -0.3597984313964844, -0.45495134592056274, -0.1396399289369583, 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246858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADS	ADS	ADS or Ads may refer to: Advertising In arts and entertainment ADS (TV station), Adelaide, South Australia "Aiming Down Sights", video game term In science and technology In computing Advanced Design System, electronic design automation software Alternate data stream in Microsoft NTFS Automated decision support, rule-based systems for management In military use ADS amphibious rifle Active Denial System, US non-lethal weapon Air Defence Ship, Indian aircraft carrier designation Other uses in science and technology Accelerator-driven system, a type of subcritical reactor Adaptive Damping System, Mercedes vehicle suspension Aitken Double Star Catalogue Anti-de Sitter space, in mathematics and physics Archaeology Data Service Astrophysics Data System Atmospheric diving suit Automatic dependent surveillance for tracking aircraft Autonomous Detection System for biohazards Other uses ADS (motorcycle), a Belgian manufacturer ADS Group, a British trade organisation Adamorobe Sign Language, Ghana Addison Airport, Texas, US, IATA and FAA codes Advanced Drainage Systems Agrarian Democratic Party, Czech Republic Alliance Data Systems, NYSE code American Dialect Society Ardrossan Harbour railway station, North Ayrshire, Scotland, station code American depositary share ADS Index, a business cycle indicator See also AD (disambiguation)	[ 0.7260787487030029, 0.4656139314174652, 0.2075001746416092, 0.1073244959115982, -0.1833912879228592, 0.08566397428512573, 0.14747969806194305, -0.24003681540489197, -0.34398242831230164, -0.1402277946472168, -0.32826918363571167, 0.3476884067058563, -0.28621920943260193, 0.07136470079421997, 0.29319295287132263, 0.5601183176040649, 0.17944557964801788, 0.6814274191856384, -0.22653751075267792, 0.006168984808027744, -0.4240568280220032, 0.07654739916324615, 0.20503757894039154, -0.715506911277771, 0.12616775929927826, 0.246969074010849, 0.4213183522224426, -0.016659598797559738, -0.6221449971199036, 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246871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDE%20%28disambiguation%29	NDE (disambiguation)	A near-death experience or NDE is the perception reported by a person who nearly died or who was clinically dead and revived. NDE or Ndé may also refer to: Ndé, a department in Cameroon Narrative Design Explorer, a e-publication dedicated to interactive narrative design Netter Digital Entertainment, a company created by Douglas Netter Neustadt-Dürkheimer Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft, an early German railway company Nevada Desert Experience, a movement and an organization dedicated to deep ecology, appreciating the desert, and stopping the spread of nuclearism Nondestructive Examination or non-destructive testing, testing that does not destroy the test object Mandera Airport's IATA code	[ -0.004823010880500078, 0.023745160549879074, -0.10683764517307281, -0.24256086349487305, -0.21394360065460205, 0.029411556199193, 0.5243211388587952, 0.03890114277601242, -0.2329619824886322, -0.237014502286911, -0.005755174905061722, 0.05039209872484207, -0.22326257824897766, 0.7150273323059082, 0.0028148528654128313, 0.6224084496498108, 0.3344361186027527, 0.2699374556541443, -0.1240849569439888, -0.5431047081947327, 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246875	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artabasdos	Artabasdos	Artavasdos or Artabasdos ( or , from Armenian: Արտավազդ, Artavazd, Ardavazt), Latinized as Artabasdus, was a Byzantine general of Armenian descent who seized the throne from June 741 or 742 until November 743, in usurpation of the reign of Constantine V. Rise to power In about 713, Emperor Anastasius II appointed Artabasdos as governor (stratēgos) of the Armeniac theme (Θέμα Άρμενιάκων, Thema Armeniakōn), the successor of the Army of Armenia, which occupied the old areas of the Pontus, Armenia Minor, and northern Cappadocia, with its capital at Amasea. After Anastasius' fall, Artabasdos made an agreement with his colleague Leo, the governor of the Anatolic theme, to overthrow the new Emperor Theodosius III. This agreement was sealed with the engagement of Leo's daughter Anna to Artabasdos, and the marriage took place after Leo III ascended the throne in March 717. Artabasdos was awarded the rank of kouropalates ("master of the palace") and became commander (count, komēs) of the Opsikion theme, while retaining control of his original command. In June 741 or 742, after the accession of Leo's son Constantine V to the throne, Artabasdos resolved to seize the throne and attacked his brother-in-law while the latter was traversing Asia Minor to fight the Arabs on the eastern frontier. While Constantine fled to Amorion, Artabasdus seized Constantinople amid popular support and was crowned emperor. Reign and downfall While it seems Artabasdos abandoned his predecessor's religious policy of Iconoclasm and restored Orthodoxy with some support, there is actually little support from contemporary sources. Soon after his accession, Artabasdus crowned his wife Anna as Augusta and his son Nikephoros as co-emperor, while putting his other son Niketas in charge of the Armeniac theme. But while Artabasdus could rely also on the support of the themes of Thrace and Opsikion, Constantine secured for himself the support of the Anatolic and Thracesian themes. The inevitable clash came in May 743, when Artabasdus led the offensive against Constantine but was defeated. Later the same year Constantine defeated Niketas, and on November 2, 743 Artabasdus' reign came to an end as Constantine V entered Constantinople. Artabasdus, accompanied by his close associate Baktangios fled to the castle of Pouzanes in Opsikion (Asia Minor), where they were apprehended and brought to Constantinople. Artabasdos and his sons were publicly blinded and relegated to the monastery of Chora on the outskirts of Constantinople. The date of his death is unknown. Family By his wife Anna, the daughter of Emperor Leo III, Artabasdos had nine children, including: Nikephoros, who was co-emperor from 742 to 743. Niketas, who was strategos of the Armeniac theme from 742 to 743. See also List of Byzantine emperors Bibliography Notes References - Total pages: 226 Further reading Evangelos Venetis Isaurian dynasty 743 deaths 8th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine Iconoclasm Byzantine people of Armenian descent Armenian Byzantine emperors Eastern Orthodox monks Year of birth unknown 8th-century Armenian people Governors of the Armeniac Theme Leo III the Isaurian Kouropalatai	[ -0.3465574085712433, 0.31441953778266907, -0.5315814018249512, 0.27613353729248047, -0.757640540599823, 0.8045926094055176, 0.6138656139373779, -0.3757714331150055, -0.44007810950279236, -0.1958472579717636, -0.06492460519075394, 0.2699284851551056, -0.7771950364112854, -0.332676500082016, -0.5074430704116821, 0.2836081385612488, 0.7077672481536865, -0.06031971797347069, -0.19945740699768066, -0.3813989758491516, -0.028182459995150566, 0.4223373532295227, 0.06627759337425232, 0.07888507843017578, 0.017306171357631683, 0.46533283591270447, 0.2831709682941437, 0.16881968080997467, 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246884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Care	Care	Care may refer to: Organizations and projects CARE (New Zealand), Citizens Association for Racial Equality, a former New Zealand organisation CARE (relief agency), "Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere", an international aid and development organization Care.com, a company operating an online portal Carpet America Recovery Effort, an American carpet recycling project Charged Aerosol Release Experiment, a NASA project concerning dust in space Christian Action Research and Education, a Christian lobby group in the United Kingdom Control and Rehabilitation Effort, a behavior modification program implemented in 1968 at United States Penitentiary, Marion Credit Abuse Resistance Education, an American national program Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment, a 2014 ISRO experimental vehicle People with the surname Danny Care (soccer) (born 1974), American soccer player Danny Care (born 1987), English rugby union player Henry Care (1646–1688), English political writer and journalist Peter Care (born 1953), British film and video producer Terry John Care (born 1947), American politician Philosophy and science Care or Sorge, a term in Heideggerian terminology Cura (mythology) or Care, figure in ancient Roman Fabulae of Hyginus Duty of care, a legal obligation in tort law Ethics of care, a normative ethical theory Theology of relational care, a theology of understanding how contemporary followers of Jesus can relate to others Vulnerability and Care Theory of Love, the view that care is an integral part of romantic love Social concepts Child care, the act of caring for and supervising minor children Day care, the care of a child during the day by a person other than the child's parents or legal guardians Elderly care, the fulfillment of the special needs and requirements that are unique to senior citizens Familial care, the act of caring for another person, or people, considered to be family Foster care, a system by which a certified, stand-in "parent(s)" cares for minor children or young people Health care, the treatment and management of illness, and the preservation of health through services offered Care of residents, care given to adults or children outside of the patient's home Home care, health care or supportive care provided in the patient's home by healthcare professionals Primary care, routine health care, usually the first provided a patient sees Primary healthcare, a series of principles geared towards making health care available Intensive care medicine, provision of life support or organ support systems in patients who are critically ill Managed care, a variety of techniques intended to reduce the cost of providing health benefits and improve the quality of care Palliative care Music Care (band), a 1980s alternative rock band from Liverpool Care (How to Dress Well album), 2016 Care (Shriekback album), 1983 Care, a song by Beabadoobee Film and television Care (film), a 2000 British television crime drama film "Care", a 2001 episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit "Care" (Law & Order: UK), the 2009 premiere episode of the British television series, Law & Order: UK A 2018 BBC drama co-written by Jimmy McGovern Other uses Career Average Revalued Earnings, or CARE, part of the recommendations in the UK's Independent Public Services Pensions Commission report Continuous time Algebraic Riccati equation, or CARE, a matrix equation See also Cair (disambiguation) Cares (disambiguation) Cari (disambiguation) Carre (disambiguation) Kare (disambiguation)	[ 0.767867386341095, 0.052501995116472244, -0.5030745267868042, -0.07718592882156372, -0.03117016889154911, 0.6325465440750122, 0.21363022923469543, -0.17637388408184052, -0.14037473499774933, -0.18529854714870453, -0.339348167181015, 0.1304049789905548, 0.11754466593265533, 0.09872385859489441, -0.34688204526901245, 0.05775497108697891, 0.1937173753976822, 0.5894520282745361, -0.57761150598526, 0.014729384332895279, 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246889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhr%20University%20Bochum	Ruhr University Bochum	The Ruhr University Bochum (, ) is a public research university located in the southern hills of the central Ruhr area, Bochum, Germany. It was founded in 1962 as the first new public university in Germany after World War II. Instruction began in 1965. The Ruhr-University Bochum is one of the largest universities in Germany and part of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the most important German research funding organization. The RUB was very successful in the Excellence Initiative of the German Federal and State Governments (2007), a competition between Germany's most prestigious universities. It was one of the few institutions left competing for the title of an "elite university", but did not succeed in the last round of the competition. There are currently nine universities in Germany that hold this title. The University of Bochum was one of the first universities in Germany to introduce international bachelor's and master's degrees, which replaced the traditional German Diplom and Magister. Except for a few special cases, such as law, these degrees are offered by all faculties of the Ruhr-University. Currently, the university offers a total of 184 different study programs from all academic fields represented at the university. Facilities Unlike many older German universities, the buildings of Ruhr-University are all centralized on one campus, located south of Bochum city. The Faculty of Medicine includes several university clinics that are located at different centres in Bochum and the Ruhr area. A major facility for patient care is the University Hospital/Knappschaftskrankenhaus in the district Langendreer of Bochum. Internationally renowned experts in their respective fields include professors Wolff Schmiegel in oncology and Burkhard Dick in ophthalmology. The centralized university campus architecture is comprised almost exclusively of the 1960s architecture style referred to as Brutalism, consisting of 14 almost identical high-rise buildings. One striking feature of these buildings is that although their roofs are all at the same apparent height (sky level), the absolute heights of the buildings vary in accordance with their placement on the undulating landscape in which the university is located: the campus is at the edge of a green belt on high ground adjacent to the Ruhr valley. The arrangement of the buildings and the (concrete) paths and bridges between them was originally meant to resemble a "harbour of knowledge", with the buildings symbolising vessels, by architect Helmut Hentrich. The campus has undergone heavy modernisation and extension efforts, including the construction and refurbishment of several buildings. Some of the original 1960s buildings are to be rebuilt, instead of refurbished, due to PCB contamination. The overall campus concept envisions a modern facility and the placement of Bochum as a "knowledge city". Organization Ruhr-University is financed and administered by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Currently, 42,718 students are enrolled, and the university employs around 5,600 staff (411 of which are professors), making it one of the ten largest universities in Germany as of 2014. Kurt Biedenkopf, who later became prime minister of the state of Saxony, was rector of the university from 1967 to 1969. The university is organized into twenty-one different faculties. These are: Faculty of Protestant Theology Faculty of Catholic Theology Faculty of Philosophy, Education and Journalism Faculty of History (including the departments of History, Art History and Archaeological Sciences) Faculty of Philology Faculty of Law Faculty of Economics Faculty of Social Science Faculty of East Asian Studies Faculty of Sports Science Faculty of Psychology Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology Faculty of Mathematics Faculty of Physics and Astronomy Faculty of Geosciences Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology Faculty of Medicine Faculty of Computer Science ECUE - European Culture and Economy Interdisciplinary institutions Interdisciplinary Centre for Advanced Materials Simulation (ICAMS) International Graduate School of Neuroscience Points of interest Botanischer Garten der Ruhr-Universität Bochum, a botanical garden with Chinese garden Hegel-Archiv, the archives of the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Medical historical collection of the Ruhr-University Art collection, including Antiquity Museum of the Ruhr-University Audimax and Klais-Organ of the Ruhr-University Musisches Zentrum (Artistic center) Notable alumni Afu Thomas (Thomas Derksen), German internet celebrity in China Hans-Paul Bürkner, Chairman of Boston Consulting Group, former global CEO Stefan Sommer, former CEO of ZF Friedrichshafen See also List of colleges and universities ConRuhr References External links Bochum Educational institutions established in 1962 Bochum 1962 establishments in West Germany	[ 0.4286532700061798, 0.7854318618774414, 0.41218042373657227, -0.6796875, -0.04507974535226822, 0.25982388854026794, 0.8568877577781677, 0.2838173508644104, -0.2534604072570801, -0.20497149229049683, -0.4444163739681244, -0.3233383297920227, 0.2112753540277481, 0.27118223905563354, 0.19255301356315613, 0.003153175814077258, 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246891	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%20chromosome	Y chromosome	The Y chromosome is one of two sex chromosomes (allosomes) in therian mammals, including humans, and many other animals. The other is the X chromosome. Y is normally the sex-determining chromosome in many species, since it is the presence or absence of Y that determines the male or female sex of offspring produced in sexual reproduction. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the gene SRY, which triggers male development. The DNA in the human Y chromosome is composed of about 59 million base pairs. The Y chromosome is passed only from father to son. With a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of the human genome. The human Y chromosome carries an estimated 100-200 genes, with between 45 and 73 of these being protein-coding. All single-copy Y-linked genes are hemizygous (present on only one chromosome) except in cases of aneuploidy such as XYY syndrome or XXYY syndrome. Overview Discovery The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by Nettie Stevens at Bryn Mawr College in 1905 during a study of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor. Edmund Beecher Wilson independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year, working with hemiptera. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the smaller chromosome (now labelled "Y") was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by Hermann Henking. She realized that the previous idea of Clarence Erwin McClung, that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that sex determination is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. In the early 1920s Theophilus Painter determined that X and Y chromosomes determined sex in humans (and other mammals). The chromosome was given the name "Y" simply to follow on from Henking's "X" alphabetically. The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter "Y" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a well-defined shape during mitosis. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during mitosis, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape. Variations Most therian mammals have only one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and one X chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene, SRY, which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production. There are exceptions, however. Among humans, some men have two Xs and a Y ("XXY", see Klinefelter syndrome), or one X and two Ys (see XYY syndrome), and some women have three Xs or a single X instead of a double X ("X0", see Turner syndrome). There are other exceptions in which SRY is damaged (leading to an XY female), or copied to the X (leading to an XX male). Origins and evolution Before Y chromosome Many ectothermic vertebrates have no sex chromosomes. If they have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically. For some of them, especially reptiles, sex depends on the incubation temperature. Some vertebrates are hermaphrodites, although other than a very few ray-finned fish, they are sequential (the same organism produces male or female gametes, but never both, at different points in its life), rather than simultaneous (the same organism producing both male and female gametes at the same time). Origin The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes, termed autosomes, when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation, a so-called "sex locus" – simply possessing this allele caused the organism to be male. The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired through the process of translocation. Until recently, the X and Y chromosomes were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago. However, research published in 2010, and particularly research published in 2008 documenting the sequencing of the platypus genome, has suggested that the XY sex-determination system would not have been present more than 166 million years ago, at the split of the monotremes from other mammals. This re-estimation of the age of the therian XY system is based on the finding that sequences that are on the X chromosomes of marsupials and eutherian mammals are present on the autosomes of platypus and birds. The older estimate was based on erroneous reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences. Recombination inhibition Recombination between the X and Y chromosomes proved harmful—it resulted in males without necessary genes formerly found on the Y chromosome, and females with unnecessary or even harmful genes previously only found on the Y chromosome. As a result, genes beneficial to males accumulated near the sex-determining genes, and recombination in this region was suppressed in order to preserve this male specific region. Over time, the Y chromosome changed in such a way as to inhibit the areas around the sex determining genes from recombining at all with the X chromosome. As a result of this process, 95% of the human Y chromosome is unable to recombine. Only the tips of the Y and X chromosomes recombine. The tips of the Y chromosome that could recombine with the X chromosome are referred to as the pseudoautosomal region. The rest of the Y chromosome is passed on to the next generation intact, allowing for its use in tracking human evolution. Degeneration By one estimate, the human Y chromosome has lost 1,393 of its 1,438 original genes over the course of its existence, and linear extrapolation of this 1,393-gene loss over 300 million years gives a rate of genetic loss of 4.6 genes per million years. Continued loss of genes at the rate of 4.6 genes per million years would result in a Y chromosome with no functional genes – that is the Y chromosome would lose complete function – within the next 10 million years, or half that time with the current age estimate of 160 million years. Comparative genomic analysis reveals that many mammalian species are experiencing a similar loss of function in their heterozygous sex chromosome. Degeneration may simply be the fate of all non-recombining sex chromosomes, due to three common evolutionary forces: high mutation rate, inefficient selection, and genetic drift. However, comparisons of the human and chimpanzee Y chromosomes (first published in 2005) show that the human Y chromosome has not lost any genes since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees between 6–7 million years ago, and a scientific report in 2012 stated that only one gene had been lost since humans diverged from the rhesus macaque 25 million years ago. These facts provide direct evidence that the linear extrapolation model is flawed and suggest that the current human Y chromosome is either no longer shrinking or is shrinking at a much slower rate than the 4.6 genes per million years estimated by the linear extrapolation model. High mutation rate The human Y chromosome is particularly exposed to high mutation rates due to the environment in which it is housed. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively through sperm, which undergo multiple cell divisions during gametogenesis. Each cellular division provides further opportunity to accumulate base pair mutations. Additionally, sperm are stored in the highly oxidative environment of the testis, which encourages further mutation. These two conditions combined put the Y chromosome at a greater opportunity of mutation than the rest of the genome. The increased mutation opportunity for the Y chromosome is reported by Graves as a factor 4.8. However, her original reference obtains this number for the relative mutation rates in male and female germ lines for the lineage leading to humans. The observation that the Y chromosome experiences little meiotic recombination and has an accelerated rate of mutation and degradative change compared to the rest of the genome suggests an evolutionary explanation for the adaptive function of meiosis with respect to the main body of genetic information. Brandeis proposed that the basic function of meiosis (particularly meiotic recombination) is the conservation of the integrity of the genome, a proposal consistent with the idea that meiosis is an adaptation for repairing DNA damage. Inefficient selection Without the ability to recombine during meiosis, the Y chromosome is unable to expose individual alleles to natural selection. Deleterious alleles are allowed to "hitchhike" with beneficial neighbors, thus propagating maladapted alleles into the next generation. Conversely, advantageous alleles may be selected against if they are surrounded by harmful alleles (background selection). Due to this inability to sort through its gene content, the Y chromosome is particularly prone to the accumulation of "junk" DNA. Massive accumulations of retrotransposable elements are scattered throughout the Y. The random insertion of DNA segments often disrupts encoded gene sequences and renders them nonfunctional. However, the Y chromosome has no way of weeding out these "jumping genes". Without the ability to isolate alleles, selection cannot effectively act upon them. A clear, quantitative indication of this inefficiency is the entropy rate of the Y chromosome. Whereas all other chromosomes in the human genome have entropy rates of 1.5–1.9 bits per nucleotide (compared to the theoretical maximum of exactly 2 for no redundancy), the Y chromosome's entropy rate is only 0.84. This means the Y chromosome has a much lower information content relative to its overall length; it is more redundant. Genetic drift Even if a well adapted Y chromosome manages to maintain genetic activity by avoiding mutation accumulation, there is no guarantee it will be passed down to the next generation. The population size of the Y chromosome is inherently limited to 1/4 that of autosomes: diploid organisms contain two copies of autosomal chromosomes while only half the population contains 1 Y chromosome. Thus, genetic drift is an exceptionally strong force acting upon the Y chromosome. Through sheer random assortment, an adult male may never pass on his Y chromosome if he only has female offspring. Thus, although a male may have a well adapted Y chromosome free of excessive mutation, it may never make it into the next gene pool. The repeat random loss of well-adapted Y chromosomes, coupled with the tendency of the Y chromosome to evolve to have more deleterious mutations rather than less for reasons described above, contributes to the species-wide degeneration of Y chromosomes through Muller's ratchet. Gene conversion As it has been already mentioned, the Y chromosome is unable to recombine during meiosis like the other human chromosomes; however, in 2003, researchers from MIT discovered a process which may slow down the process of degradation. They found that human Y chromosome is able to "recombine" with itself, using palindrome base pair sequences. Such a "recombination" is called gene conversion. In the case of the Y chromosomes, the palindromes are not noncoding DNA; these strings of bases contain functioning genes important for male fertility. Most of the sequence pairs are greater than 99.97% identical. The extensive use of gene conversion may play a role in the ability of the Y chromosome to edit out genetic mistakes and maintain the integrity of the relatively few genes it carries. In other words, since the Y chromosome is single, it has duplicates of its genes on itself instead of having a second, homologous, chromosome. When errors occur, it can use other parts of itself as a template to correct them. Findings were confirmed by comparing similar regions of the Y chromosome in humans to the Y chromosomes of chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas. The comparison demonstrated that the same phenomenon of gene conversion appeared to be at work more than 5 million years ago, when humans and the non-human primates diverged from each other. Future evolution According to some theories, in the terminal stages of the degeneration of the Y chromosome, other chromosomes increasingly take over genes and functions formerly associated with it and finally, within the framework of this theory, finally, the Y chromosome disappears entirely, and a new sex-determining system arises. Several species of rodent in the sister families Muridae and Cricetidae have reached these stages, in the following ways: The Transcaucasian mole vole, Ellobius lutescens, the Zaisan mole vole, Ellobius tancrei, and the Japanese spinous country rats Tokudaia osimensis and Tokudaia tokunoshimensis, have lost the Y chromosome and SRY entirely. Tokudaia spp. have relocated some other genes ancestrally present on the Y chromosome to the X chromosome. Both sexes of Tokudaia spp. and Ellobius lutescens have an XO genotype (Turner syndrome), whereas all Ellobius tancrei possess an XX genotype. The new sex-determining system(s) for these rodents remains unclear. The wood lemming Myopus schisticolor, the Arctic lemming, Dicrostonyx torquatus, and multiple species in the grass mouse genus Akodon have evolved fertile females who possess the genotype generally coding for males, XY, in addition to the ancestral XX female, through a variety of modifications to the X and Y chromosomes. In the creeping vole, Microtus oregoni, the females, with just one X chromosome each, produce X gametes only, and the males, XY, produce Y gametes, or gametes devoid of any sex chromosome, through nondisjunction. Outside of the rodents, the black muntjac, Muntiacus crinifrons, evolved new X and Y chromosomes through fusions of the ancestral sex chromosomes and autosomes. Modern data cast doubt on this hypothesis. This conclusion was reached by scientists who studied the Y chromosomes of rhesus monkeys. When genomically comparing the Y chromosome of rhesus monkeys and humans, scientists found very few differences, given that humans and rhesus monkeys diverged 30 million years ago. Some organisms have lost the Y chromosome. For example, most species of Nematodes. However, in order for the complete elimination of Y to occur, it was necessary to develop an alternative way of determining sex (for example, by determining sex by the ratio of the X chromosome to autosomes), and any genes necessary for male function had to be moved to other chromosomes. In the meantime, modern data demonstrate the complex mechanisms of Y chromosome evolution.And the fact that the disappearance of the Y chromosome is not guaranteed. 1:1 sex ratio Fisher's principle outlines why almost all species using sexual reproduction have a sex ratio of 1:1. W. D. Hamilton gave the following basic explanation in his 1967 paper on "Extraordinary sex ratios", given the condition that males and females cost equal amounts to produce: Suppose male births are less common than female. A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring. Therefore, parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them. Therefore, the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common. As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away. The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore, 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio. Non-therian Y chromosome Many groups of organisms in addition to therian mammals have Y chromosomes, but these Y chromosomes do not share common ancestry with therian Y chromosomes. Such groups include monotremes, Drosophila, some other insects, some fish, some reptiles, and some plants. In Drosophila melanogaster, the Y chromosome does not trigger male development. Instead, sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes. The D. melanogaster Y chromosome does contain genes necessary for male fertility. So XXY D. melanogaster are female, and D. melanogaster with a single X (X0), are male but sterile. There are some species of Drosophila in which X0 males are both viable and fertile. ZW chromosomes Other organisms have mirror image sex chromosomes: where the homogeneous sex is the male, said to have two Z chromosomes, and the female is the heterogeneous sex, and said to have a Z chromosome and a W chromosome. For example, female birds, snakes, and butterflies have ZW sex chromosomes, and males have ZZ sex chromosomes. Non-inverted Y chromosome There are some species, such as the Japanese rice fish, in which the XY system is still developing and cross over between the X and Y is still possible. Because the male specific region is very small and contains no essential genes, it is even possible to artificially induce XX males and YY females to no ill effect. Multiple XY pairs Monotremes possess four or five (platypus) pairs of XY sex chromosomes, each pair consisting of sex chromosomes with homologous regions. The chromosomes of neighboring pairs are partially homologous, such that a chain is formed during mitosis. The first X chromosome in the chain is also partially homologous with the last Y chromosome, indicating that profound rearrangements, some adding new pieces from autosomes, have occurred in history. Platypus sex chromosomes have strong sequence similarity with the avian Z chromosome, (indicating close homology), and the SRY gene so central to sex-determination in most other mammals is apparently not involved in platypus sex-determination. Human Y chromosome In humans, the Y chromosome spans about 58 million base pairs (the building blocks of DNA) and represents almost 2% of the total DNA in a male cell. The human Y chromosome contains over 200 genes, at least 72 of which code for proteins. Traits that are inherited via the Y chromosome are called Y-linked traits, or holandric traits (from Ancient Greek ὅλος hólos, "whole" + ἀνδρός andrós, "male"). Men can lose the Y chromosome in a subset of cells, which is called the mosaic loss of chromosome Y (LOY). This post-zygotic mutation is strongly associated with age, affecting about 15% of men 70 years of age. Smoking is another important risk factor for LOY. It has been found that men with a higher percentage of hematopoietic stem cells in blood lacking the Y chromosome (and perhaps a higher percentage of other cells lacking it) have a higher risk of certain cancers and have a shorter life expectancy. Men with LOY (which was defined as no Y in at least 18% of their hematopoietic cells) have been found to die 5.5 years earlier on average than others. This has been interpreted as a sign that the Y chromosome plays a role going beyond sex determination and reproduction (although the loss of Y may be an effect rather than a cause). Male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers. Structure Cytogenetic band Non-combining region of Y (NRY) The human Y chromosome is normally unable to recombine with the X chromosome, except for small pieces of pseudoautosomal regions (PARs) at the telomeres (which comprise about 5% of the chromosome's length). These regions are relics of ancient homology between the X and Y chromosomes. The bulk of the Y chromosome, which does not recombine, is called the "NRY", or non-recombining region of the Y chromosome. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in this region are used to trace direct paternal ancestral lines. More specifically, PAR1 is at 0.1–2.7 Mb. PAR2 is at 56.9–57.2 Mb. The non-recombing region (NRY) or male-specific region (MSY) sits between. Sequence classes Genes Number of genes The following are some of the gene count estimates of human Y chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to genome annotation their predictions of the number of genes on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see gene prediction). Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project (CCDS) takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes. Gene list In general, the human Y chromosome is extremely gene poor—it is one of the largest gene deserts in the human genome. Disregarding pseudoautosomal genes, genes encoded on the human Y chromosome include: Y-chromosome-linked diseases Diseases linked to the Y chromosome typically involve an aneuploidy, an atypical number of chromosomes. Y chromosome microdeletion Y chromosome microdeletion (YCM) is a family of genetic disorders caused by missing genes in the Y chromosome. Many affected men exhibit no symptoms and lead normal lives. However, YCM is also known to be present in a significant number of men with reduced fertility or reduced sperm count. Defective Y chromosome This results in the person presenting a female phenotype (i.e., is born with female-like genitalia) even though that person possesses an XY karyotype. The lack of the second X results in infertility. In other words, viewed from the opposite direction, the person goes through defeminization but fails to complete masculinization. The cause can be seen as an incomplete Y chromosome: the usual karyotype in these cases is 45X, plus a fragment of Y. This usually results in defective testicular development, such that the infant may or may not have fully formed male genitalia internally or externally. The full range of ambiguity of structure may occur, especially if mosaicism is present. When the Y fragment is minimal and nonfunctional, the child is usually a girl with the features of Turner syndrome or mixed gonadal dysgenesis. XXY Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) is not an aneuploidy of the Y chromosome, but a condition of having an extra X chromosome, which usually results in defective postnatal testicular function. The mechanism is not fully understood; it does not seem to be due to direct interference by the extra X with expression of Y genes. XYY 47, XYY syndrome (simply known as XYY syndrome) is caused by the presence of a single extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of a male's cells. 47, XYY males have one X chromosome and two Y chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. Researchers have found that an extra copy of the Y chromosome is associated with increased stature and an increased incidence of learning problems in some boys and men, but the effects are variable, often minimal, and the vast majority do not know their karyotype. In 1965 and 1966 Patricia Jacobs and colleagues published a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at Scotland's only special security hospital for the developmentally disabled, finding a higher than expected number of patients to have an extra Y chromosome. The authors of this study wondered "whether an extra Y chromosome predisposes its carriers to unusually aggressive behaviour", and this conjecture "framed the next fifteen years of research on the human Y chromosome". Through studies over the next decade, this conjecture was shown to be incorrect: the elevated crime rate of XYY males is due to lower median intelligence and not increased aggression, and increased height was the only characteristic that could be reliably associated with XYY males. The "criminal karyotype" concept is therefore inaccurate. Rare The following Y-chromosome-linked diseases are rare, but notable because of their elucidating of the nature of the Y chromosome. More than two Y chromosomes Greater degrees of Y chromosome polysomy (having more than one extra copy of the Y chromosome in every cell, e.g., XYYY) are considerably more rare. The extra genetic material in these cases can lead to skeletal abnormalities, dental abnormalities, decreased IQ, delayed development, and respiratory issues, but the severity features of these conditions are variable. XX male syndrome XX male syndrome occurs when there has been a recombination in the formation of the male gametes, causing the SRY portion of the Y chromosome to move to the X chromosome. When such an X chromosome contributes to the child, the development will lead to a male, because of the SRY gene. Genetic genealogy In human genetic genealogy (the application of genetics to traditional genealogy), use of the information contained in the Y chromosome is of particular interest because, unlike other chromosomes, the Y chromosome is passed exclusively from father to son, on the patrilineal line. Mitochondrial DNA, maternally inherited to both sons and daughters, is used in an analogous way to trace the matrilineal line. Brain function Research is currently investigating whether male-pattern neural development is a direct consequence of Y-chromosome-related gene expression or an indirect result of Y-chromosome-related androgenic hormone production. Microchimerism The presence of male chromosomes in fetal cells in the blood circulation of women was discovered in 1974. In 1996, it was found that male fetal progenitor cells could persist postpartum in the maternal blood stream for as long as 27 years. A 2004 study at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, investigated the origin of male chromosomes found in the peripheral blood of women who had not had male progeny. A total of 120 subjects (women who had never had sons) were investigated, and it was found that 21% of them had male DNA. The subjects were categorised into four groups based on their case histories: Group A (8%) had had only female progeny. Patients in Group B (22%) had a history of one or more miscarriages. Patients Group C (57%) had their pregnancies medically terminated. Group D (10%) had never been pregnant before. The study noted that 10% of the women had never been pregnant before, raising the question of where the Y chromosomes in their blood could have come from. The study suggests that possible reasons for occurrence of male chromosome microchimerism could be one of the following: miscarriages, pregnancies, vanished male twin, possibly from sexual intercourse. A 2012 study at the same institute has detected cells with the Y chromosome in multiple areas of the brains of deceased women. See also Genealogical DNA test Genetic genealogy Haplodiploid sex-determination system Human Y chromosome DNA haplogroups List of Y-STR markers Muller's ratchet Single nucleotide polymorphism Y chromosome Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Y linkage Y-chromosomal Aaron Y-chromosomal Adam Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world References External links Genetic Genealogy: About the use of mtDNA and Y chromosome analysis in ancestry testing Ensembl genome browser http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/maps.cgi?taxid=9606&chr=Y Human Genome Project Information—Human Chromosome Y Launchpad On Topic: Y Chromosome—From the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research Nature—focus on the Y chromosome National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)—Use of Novel Mechanism Preserves Y chromosome Genes Ysearch.org – Public Y-DNA database Y chromosome Consortium (YCC) NPR's Human Male: Still A Work In Progress Andrology Chromosomes Chromosome Y Male Sex-determination systems Sexual dimorphism	[ 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246892	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Care%20International	Care International	CARE (Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, formerly Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe) is a major international humanitarian agency delivering emergency relief and long-term international development projects. Founded in 1945, CARE is nonsectarian, impartial, and non-governmental. It is one of the largest and oldest humanitarian aid organizations focused on fighting global poverty. In 2019, CARE reported working in 104 countries, supporting 1,349 poverty-fighting projects and humanitarian aid projects, and reaching over 92.3 million people directly and 433.3 million people indirectly. CARE's programmes in the developing world address a broad range of topics including emergency response, food security, water and sanitation, economic development, climate change, agriculture, education, and health. CARE also advocates at the local, national, and international levels for policy change and the rights of poor people. Within each of these areas, CARE focuses on empowering and meeting the needs of women and girls and promoting gender equality. CARE International is a confederation of fourteen CARE National Members, each of which is registered as an autonomous non-profit non-governmental organization in the country and four affiliate members. History 1945–1949: Origins and the CARE Package CARE, then the Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe, was formally founded on November 27, 1945, and was originally intended to be a temporary organization. World War II had ended in August of the same year. After pressure from the public and Congress, President Harry S. Truman agreed to let private organizations provide relief for those starving due to the war. CARE was initially a consortium of twenty-two U.S. charities (a mixture of civic, religious, cooperative, farm, and labour organizations) with the purpose of delivering food aid to Europe in the aftermath of World War II. The organization delivered its first food packages in 1946. CARE's food aid took the form of CARE Packages, which were at first delivered to specific individuals: the US people paid $10 to send a CARE Package of food to a loved one in Europe, often a family member. President Truman bought the first CARE package. CARE guaranteed delivery within four months to anyone in Europe, even if they had left their last known address, and returned a signed delivery receipt to the sender. Because European postal services were unreliable at the time these signed receipts were sometimes the first confirmation that the recipient had survived the war. The first CARE Packages were in fact surplus “Ten-in-One” US army rations packs (designed to contain a day's meals for ten people). In early 1946 CARE purchased 2.8 million of these warehoused rations packs, originally intended for the invasion of Japan, and began advertising in America. On May 11, 1946, six months after the agency's incorporation, the first CARE Packages were delivered in Le Havre, France. These packages contained staples such as canned meats, powdered milk, dried fruits, and fats along with a few comfort items such as chocolate, coffee, and cigarettes. (Several on the CARE Board of Directors wished to remove the cigarettes, but it was deemed impractical to open and reseal 2.8 million boxes.) 1946 also marked CARE's first expansion out of the US with the establishment of an office in Canada. By early 1947 the supply of "Ten-in-One" ration packs had been exhausted and CARE began assembling its own packages. These new packages were designed with the help of a nutritionist. They did not include cigarettes and were tailored somewhat by destination: Kosher packages were developed, and for example packages for the United Kingdom included tea rather than coffee, and packages for Italy included pasta. By 1949 CARE offered and shipped more than twelve different packages. Although the organization had originally intended to deliver packages only to specified individuals, within a year CARE began delivering packages addressed for example "to a teacher" or simply "to a hungry person in Europe." These unspecified donations continued and in early 1948 CARE's Board voted narrowly to officially move towards unspecified donations and to expand into more general relief. Some founding member agencies disagreed with this shift, arguing that more general relief would be a duplication of the work of other agencies, but donors reacted favourably, contributions increased, and this decision would mark the beginning of CARE's shift towards a broader mandate. Between the first deliveries of 1946 and the last European deliveries of 1956, millions of CARE Packages were distributed throughout Europe, over 50% of them to Germany including many delivered as part of the Berlin airlift in response to the 1948 Soviet blockade of Berlin. The US Agricultural Act of 1949 made surplus US agricultural products available to be shipped abroad as aid either directly by the US government or by NGOs including CARE. In 1954 Public Law 480, also known as the Food for Peace Act, further expanded the availability of surplus US food as aid. This act allowed CARE to expand its feeding programs and disaster relief operations considerably, and between 1949 and 2009 CARE used hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of surplus commodities in disaster relief and programs such as school lunch provision. 1949–1956: Transition out of Europe Although the organization's mission had originally been focused on Europe, in July 1948 CARE opened its first non-European mission, in Japan. Deliveries to China and Korea followed, which CARE described as aid to areas "implicated by WWII". In 1949 CARE entered the developing world for the first time, launching programs in the Philippines. Projects in India, Pakistan, and Mexico began soon after. 1949 also marked CARE's first expansion into non-food aid with the development of "self-help" packages containing tools for farming, carpentry, and other trades. In 1953, because of its expansion to projects outside Europe, CARE changed the meaning of its acronym to "Cooperative for American Remittances to Everywhere". As Europe recovered economically, CARE faced the need to re-evaluate its mission: in 1955 several Board members argued that with the European recovery CARE's mandate was finished and the organization should dissolve. Other Board members however felt that CARE's mission should continue albeit with a new focus on the developing world. In July 1955 the Board of Directors voted to continue and expand CARE projects outside of Europe. Paul French, CARE's executive director at the time, resigned over the debate. New executive director Richard W. Reuter took over in 1955 and helped lead the organization in a new direction. Twenty-two of CARE's forty-two missions were closed, mostly in European countries, and efforts were concentrated on food distribution and emergency response in the developing world. In 1956 CARE distributed food to refugees of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, and this would be among the last of CARE's operations in Europe for many years. 1957–1975: Transition into broader development work With a broadened geographic focus came a broadened approach as CARE began to expand beyond its original food distribution program. In order to reflect these new broader aims, in 1959 CARE changed the meaning of its acronym a second time, becoming the "Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere". Reflecting this broadened scope, CARE became involved in 1961 with President John F. Kennedy's establishment of the Peace Corps. CARE was charged with selecting and training the first group of volunteers, who would later be deployed to development projects in Colombia. The Peace Corps assumed greater control over the training of Peace Corps Volunteers in subsequent missions, but CARE continued to provide country directors to the Peace Corps until CARE-Peace Corps joint projects ended in 1967. In 1962 CARE merged with and absorbed the medical aid organization MEDICO, which it had been working closely with for several years previously. The merger considerably increased CARE's capacity to deliver health programming including trained medical personnel and medical supplies. During this transition the original CARE Package was phased out. The last food package was delivered in 1967 and the last tools package in 1968. Over 100 million CARE Packages had been delivered worldwide since the first shipment to France. Although 1968 marked the official "retirement" of the CARE Package the format would occasionally be used again, for example in CARE's relief to the republics of the former Soviet Union and to survivors of the Bosnian War. The concept was also revived in 2011 as an online campaign encouraging donors to fill a "virtual CARE Package" with food aid and services such as education and healthcare. 1967 also marked CARE's first partnership agreement with a government: for the construction of schools in Honduras. Partnership agreements with governments led programmes to become country-wide rather than targeted only to a few communities. CARE's programmes during this era focused largely on the construction of schools and nutrition centres, and the continued distribution of food. Nutrition centres in particular would become one of CARE's major areas of concentration, linking with school feeding programs and nutrition education aimed at new mothers. In 1975 CARE implemented a multi-year planning system, again allowing programmes to become both broader and deeper in scope. Projects became increasingly multi-faceted, providing for example not only health education but also access to clean water and an agricultural program to improve nutrition. The multi-year planning system also increased the scope for country-wide projects and partnerships with local governments. A 1977 project for example provided for the construction of over 200 pre-schools and kindergartens throughout Chile over several years, jointly funded by CARE and the Chilean Ministry of Education. 1975–1990: From CARE to CARE International Although CARE had opened an office in Canada in 1946, it was not until the mid-1970s that the organization truly started to become an international body. CARE Canada (initially Care of Canada) became an autonomous body in 1973. In 1976 CARE Europe was established in Bonn following the successful fund-raising campaign "Dank an CARE" (Thanks to CARE). In 1981 CARE Germany was created and CARE Europe moved its headquarters to Paris. CARE Norway had been created in 1980, and CAREs in Italy and the UK were established. The popularity of CARE offices in Europe was attributed to the fact that many Europeans remembered receiving CARE assistance themselves between 1945 and 1955. In 1979 planning began for the establishment of an umbrella organization to coordinate and prevent duplication among the various national CARE organizations. This new body was named CARE International and met for the first time on January 29, 1982, with CARE Canada, CARE Germany, CARE Norway, and CARE USA (formerly simply CARE) in attendance. CARE International would expand significantly during the 1980s, with the addition of CARE France in 1983; CARE International UK in 1985; CARE Austria in 1986; and CARE Australia, CARE Denmark, and CARE Japan in 1987. 1990–present: Recent history Along with broader development work CARE's projects in the 1980s and early 1990s focused particularly on agroforestry initiatives such as reforestation and soil conservation in eastern Africa and South America. CARE also responded to a number of major emergencies during this period, notably the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia and the 1991–1992 famine in Somalia. The 1990s also saw an evolution in CARE's approach to poverty. Originally CARE had viewed poverty primarily as a lack of basic goods and services such as food, clean water, and health care. As CARE's scope expanded both geographically and topically this approach was expanded to include the view that poverty was in many cases caused by social exclusion, marginalization, and discrimination. In the early 1990s CARE adopted a household livelihood security framework which included a multidimensional view of poverty as encompassing not only physical resources but also social position and human capacities. As a result of this, by 2000, CARE had adopted a rights-based approach to development. One of their buildings was attacked, and people were killed and wounded, during the September 2016 Kabul attacks. In the 2021 Fall of Kabul after American troops withdrawal, and the fear to women and girls, caused by the Taliban takeover of government, CARE's deputy country director, Marianne O'Grady was reported as saying that women would continue educating their families and neighbours, even 'behind the walls', compared to the regime 25 years ago, despite Taliban rules. Microfinance In the early 1990s CARE also developed what would become an important model for cooperative microfinance. This model is called the Village Savings and Loans Associations and it began in 1991 as a pilot project run by CARE's Country Office in Niger. The pilot project was called Mata Masu Dubara and CARE Niger developed the model by adapting the model of Accumulating Savings and Credit Associations. The model involve groups of about 15–30 people who regularly save and borrow using a group fund. Member savings create capital that can be used for short-term loans and capital and interest is shared among the group at the end of a given period (usually about a year), at which point the groups normally re-form to begin a new cycle. Because the bookkeeping required to manage a Village Savings and Loans Association is quite simple and most groups successfully become independent within a year and enjoy a high rate of long-term group survival. CARE has created over 40,000 Village Savings and Loans Associations (over 1 million members total) across Africa, Asia, and Latin America and in 2008 launched Access Africa which aims to extend Village Savings and Loans Association training to 39 African countries by 2018. The model has also been widely replicated in Africa and Asia and by other large NGOs including Oxfam, Plan International, and Catholic Relief Services. CARE UK later launched lendwithcare.org, which allows members of the public to make microloans, including green loans, to entrepreneurs in Africa and Asia. It avoids many of the criticisms levelled at Kiva.org. Acronym redefinition and 50th anniversary In 1993 CARE, to reflect its international organizational structure, changed the meaning of its acronym for a third time, adopting its current name the "Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere". CARE also marked its 50th anniversary in 1994. CARE expanded the confederation to twelve members in the early 2000s, with CARE Netherlands (formerly the Disaster Relief Agency) joining in 2001 and CARE Thailand (called the Raks Thai Foundation) joining in 2003, becoming the first CARE National Member in a developing country. CARE's well-known "I am Powerful" campaign launched in the US in September 2006 and was intended to bring public attention to the organization's long-standing focus on women's empowerment. CARE states that its programs focus on women and girls both because the world's poor are disproportionately female and because women's empowerment is thought to be an important driver of development. CARE also emphasizes that it considers working with boys and men an important part of women's empowerment, and that women's empowerment benefits both genders. In 2007 CARE announced that by 2009 it would no longer accept certain types of US food aid worth some $45 million a year, arguing that these types of food aid are inefficient and harmful to local markets. Specifically, CARE announced that it would forego all monetized food aid (surplus US food shipped to charities in the developing world who then sell the food on the local market to finance development projects) and all food aid intended to establish a commercial advantage for the donor, and would increase its commitment to buying food aid locally. CARE also announced that it would no longer accept USDA food through Title 1 (concessional sales) or Section 416 (surplus disposal) because these programs are intended mainly to establish a commercial advantage for US agriculture. In 2011 CARE added its first affiliate member, CARE India, and in 2012 the CI board accepted CARE Peru as CARE's second affiliate member. CARE India became a full member in November 2013. The CI board accepted CARE Peru as a full member of the confederation in June 2015. CARE is currently one of the only major NGOs to make their database of project evaluations publicly available, and to regularly conduct a meta-analysis of evaluation methodologies and overall organizational impact. CARE’s structure CARE International is a confederation of fourteen CARE National Members, coordinated by the CARE International Secretariat. The Secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland, with offices in New York and in Brussels in order to liaise with the United Nations and the European institutions respectively. Each CARE National Member is an autonomous non-governmental organization registered in the country, and each Member runs programs, fundraising, and communications activities both in its own country and in developing countries where CARE operates. There are fourteen National Members. The fourteen CARE National Members and four affiliate members are: Affiliate members are marked with an asterisk (*) Programming scope In 2016 CARE was active in the following countries (as well as in member and affiliate countries): A total of 962 development and humanitarian aid projects were carried out in these countries, with 80,120,323 million people directly reached. The breakdown by region was as follows: For the fiscal year 2016, CARE reported a budget of more than 574 million Euros and a staff of 9,175 (94% of them local citizens of the country where they work). Emergency response CARE supports emergency relief as well as prevention, preparedness, and recovery programs. In 2016, CARE reportedly reached more than 7.2 million people through its humanitarian response. CARE's core sectors for emergency response are Food Security, Shelter, WASH and Sexual & Reproductive Health. CARE is a signatory of major international humanitarian standards and codes of conduct including the Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief, the Sphere standards, and the Humanitarian Accountability Partnership (HAP) principles and standards. Networks and partnerships CARE is a signatory to the following standards of humanitarian intervention: the Code of Conduct for The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief, the Sphere standards, and the Core Humanitarian Standard As well, CARE is a member of a number of networks aiming to improve the quality and coordination of humanitarian aid: The Emergency Capacity Building Project, The Consortium of British Humanitarian Agencies, the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action, the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response, the International Council for Voluntary Agencies, and the INGO Accountability Charter. CARE also regularly engages in joint advocacy campaigns with other major NGOs. The Global Campaign for Climate Change Action is one example. 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246893	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Crown%20of%20Cycling	Triple Crown of Cycling	The Triple Crown of Cycling is a term used in road bicycle racing to denote the achievement of winning three major titles in the same season, usually but not always the Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France and the UCI World Road Race Championship. It is considered by many fans of the sport to be the greatest 'single' achievement in cycling. Although mostly it means winning the Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France and the Road World Cycling Championship in one calendar year, occasionally a broader definition is also seen where the victory in the Giro d'Italia can be exchanged for the Vuelta a España; this alternative has gained traction as the Vuelta, historically the least prestigious Grand Tour, has gained in reputation and importance. A hat-trick which did not include the Tour de France and the World title would not generally be considered as the Triple Crown. So far, the triple crown of cycling (in both the narrower and the broader definition) has been achieved by only two cyclists, Eddy Merckx and Stephen Roche. Requiring a cyclist who is excellent as both a general classification rider, and a classics racer, it is considered the hardest achievement professional road bicycle racing in the same year. Despite the prestige of the achievement, the Triple Crown of cycling is not an official title, and there is no physical award given for its accomplishment. Triple crowns won The Triple Crown has only been achieved twice (both times by winning Giro/Tour/Worlds): Near wins Some cyclists have been close to winning the triple crown of cycling, winning two of the three requirements. Among those who came close are Italian Fausto Coppi, Frenchman Bernard Hinault, and later Spaniard Miguel Indurain, who finished second in the World Championships in 1993. Winning two grand tours in one year Coppi was the first rider in the history of the sport to win the Giro d'Italia and the Tour de France in the same year which he did twice in 1949 and 1952. At the World road race championships in 1949 Coppi came third behind Rik Van Steenbergen of Belgium and Ferdi Kübler of Switzerland. Merckx was the first rider to win the triple crown but he had already come close to winning it in 1972 when he won both the Tour and the Giro, coming fourth in the World road race. After his disappointment, Merckx broke the world hour record several weeks later. Ireland's Stephen Roche won the Giro and Tour in 1987. Later that year, with victory at the World road race championship in Villach in Austria, Roche became only the second to win the Triple Crown of Cycling. Indurain won the Giro-Tour double in both 1992 and 1993 and in both years he was very active in the World Road Race. In 1992 he finished sixth but in 1993 Indurain was very close to winning the Triple crown when he finished second behind Lance Armstrong. Winning one grand tour and world championship in one year Hinault was aiming for winning the triple crown during the 1980 season. That year he won the 1980 Giro d'Italia before going on to the 1980 Tour de France. However, during the Tour, Hinault suffered from knee injury and despite winning three stages, he left the race while leading the general classification. Several weeks later he became world champion in Salanches. In the table below are the results in other grand tours of cyclists who won the world championship and a grand tour in one year. DNF (did not finish) indicates that the cyclist started the race, but did not finish; DNE (did not enter) indicates that the cyclist did not enter the race. Other definitions Winning all three grand tours in a career No rider has ever won all three grand tours in a single calendar year although Chris Froome and Jacques Anquetil won all three grand tours in just over nine months spanning two calendar years. Winning all three grand tours (Tour de France, Giro d'Italia and Vuelta a España ) in a career is sometimes called a grand tour career triple crown, although more usually it would be described as a career grand slam. Only seven riders have achieved this feat, and only one, Eddy Merckx has achieved both a classic Triple Crown and a career clean sweep of Grand Tour titles (He also achieved a career clean sweep of Monument classics, the 5 most prestigious one-day classic races). Only Bernard Hinault and Alberto Contador have achieved multiple career grand tour triple crowns, both having won each race at least twice. In bold the win that achieved a grand tour career triple crown. designates a World Championship winner. Winning all three grand tours in one year The definition of Triple Crown of Cycling can also mean winning all three Grand Tours in the same year. As of 2020, this has not been achieved. Only 39 times has a cyclist finished all three grand tours in one year, and of these 39 only Raphaël Géminiani (in 1955) and Gastone Nencini (in 1957) managed to finish in the top ten in each tour. In 2016, Alejandro Valverde was close to accomplishing the same feat – he finished 3rd in the Giro d'Italia, 6th in the Tour de France, and was in the top three after the first half of the Vuelta of Spain, but lost 11 minutes in the 14th stage before recovering to finish in 12th place in overall standings, less than 2 minutes behind 10th place. In 2010, Alberto Contador's new team manager Bjarne Riis claimed that Contador could win all three grand tours in the same year, but his main rival Andy Schleck said it would be impossible. ''All the jerseys'' While no rider has ever won all three grand tours in a single calendar year, three riders have won the three Grand tours consecutively across two seasons, thus holding ''all the jerseys'' at one time. Eddy Merckx won four consecutive grand tours in 1972–1973: Giro 1972, Tour 1972, Vuelta 1973, and Giro 1973. Bernard Hinault won three consecutive grand tours in 1982–1983: Giro 1982, Tour 1982, and Vuelta 1983. Chris Froome won three consecutive grand tours in 2017–2018: Tour 2017, Vuelta 2017 and Giro 2018 before finishing 3rd in Tour 2018. Completing all three grand tours in one year Cyclists who have completed all three grand tours in the same year As of 2016, 39 riders completed all three grand tours in the same year: 6 times – Adam Hansen (AUS) – 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 4 times – Marino Lejarreta (ESP) – 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991 3 times – Bernardo Ruiz (ESP) – 1955, 1956, 1957 2 times – Eduardo Chozas (ESP) – 1990, 1991 2 times – Carlos Sastre (ESP) – 2006, 2010 List of riders and results Winning world titles in three disciplines After Marianne Vos had won world titles in road race (2006), cyclo-cross (2006) and track points race (2008), she was said to have won the triple crown of cycling. In 2014, Pauline Ferrand-Prévot won the World Championship road race and followed this in 2015 with the world championships in cross-country mountain biking and cyclocross, which meant she held world titles in three cycling disciplines simultaneously. 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246894	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10-in-1%20food%20parcel	10-in-1 food parcel	The 10-in-1 food parcel, commonly known as the 10-in-1 ration, was a field ration prepared for soldiers of the United States Army, intended to provide one meal for 10 men. Development Although the possibility of packing the B ration in units of ten was suggested early in the Second World War, progress on such an arrangement did not begin until 1943 when the Mountain ration, Jungle ration, and 5-in-1 rations were discontinued. The success of the British "Composite 14-in-1 ration" during the North African campaign in 1942 and the movement to classify field rations into four categories added incentive for development of the 10-in-1 ration. A guide to its rapid development was furnished in the following 1943 definition: "A small-group field ration [shall be] composed of components of the standard field ration type B (modified to reduce bulk and weight) packed in basic packages of five complete rations each. . . . The inner and outer packages are to be proof against water, vapor, moisture, and chemical agents. They are to be of such shape and dimensions as to be suitable for either animal-pack or man-carry, and sufficiently sturdy as to material and construction to withstand normal handling and transportation in motor vehicles, on pack animals or by individual portage." Specification requirements were quickly published, and the ration was standardized as the replacement for other group rations such as the 5-in-1 ration. Although superseding the 5-in-1, the 10-in-1 was essentially two 5-in-1s packed in one unit. Within such a combination, a greater variety of contents was possible; the number of "menus" was increased to five, compared to the three-menu arrangement of the 5-in-1. In ensuing war years, several revisions were made to the original specification, but their intended purpose of providing one day's food for ten men, remained unaltered. Within the daily plan, complete group meals were specified for breakfast and supper while a partial dinner unit was provided for the luncheon meal. A typical menu included such canned items as butter-substitute spread, soluble coffee, pudding, meat units, jam, evaporated milk, and vegetables as well as biscuits, cereal, beverages, candy, salt, and sugar. Accessory items were can opener, toilet paper, soap, towels, and water-purification (Halazone) tablets. The partial dinner unit was enclosed in a cellophane bag-in-carton for easy distribution to the individual soldier for his noontime meal. Within the unit were biscuits, a confection, beverage powder, sugar, gum, and a can opener. These items were provided on the theory that an individual "snack" was sufficient for midday meals, when there would be neither time nor opportunity to prepare the ration for group feeding. Revision The similarity of the partial unit to the K ration was a chief reason for the proposed revision of the 10-in-1 in 1945. The revised 10-in-1 was intended for use during and after the 1945 planned attack on Japan during World War II. It was planned to eliminate the unit ration concept, and to assemble the entire ration on the basis of three group meals rather than two group meals and one individual luncheon package. Although it was recognized that the overall weight of the ration would be increased thereby, it was felt that the added weight would be offset by the increased acceptability and nutritional value which a greater variety of components would provide. The end of the war prevented realization of such a plan in the 10-in-1, leaving a surplus of food. Through the form of CARE Packages, the humanitarian group CARE provided a means to transfer the ration surplus to those starving in Europe. Over 300 million rations, costing about 85 cents each, were procured under the 10-in-1 title from mid-1943 to the end of World War II. No other group ration was procured during that period. Hence, in actuality as well as nomenclature, "Ration, 10-in-1" was the final small-group ration of World War II. Notes Military food of the United States	[ -0.14089642465114594, 0.07502808421850204, -0.6616071462631226, 0.4416351914405823, -0.5763105750083923, 0.6258849501609802, 0.03399457037448883, 0.2290123999118805, -0.1839638203382492, -0.45242998003959656, -0.35787299275398254, -0.1560872495174408, -0.27027300000190735, -0.1578271985054016, -0.5980397462844849, 0.29161572456359863, 0.3846319317817688, 0.4811161756515503, -0.17910908162593842, -0.12207585573196411, -0.2979297637939453, -0.34671878814697266, 0.0833563283085823, -0.3934694826602936, 0.10512058436870575, -0.17642442882061005, 0.18725307285785675, -0.2503017783164978, 0.06593070924282074, 0.28982287645339966, 0.21991916000843048, 0.5440269708633423, 0.6610788702964783, -0.5213550925254822, 0.031637005507946014, -0.08466920256614685, 0.12943510711193085, -0.030077163130044937, 0.22366616129875183, -0.6137674450874329, 0.1086919754743576, -0.014527769759297371, -0.09835235029459, 0.0621347576379776, -0.05485083535313606, 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246903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apologetics	Apologetics	Apologetics (from Greek , "speaking in defense") is the religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against critics and recommended their faith to outsiders were called Christian apologists. In 21st-century usage, apologetics is often identified with debates over religion and theology. Etymology The term apologetics derives from the Ancient Greek word apologia (ἀπολογία). In the Classical Greek legal system, the prosecution delivered the kategoria (κατηγορία), the accusation or charge, and the defendant replied with an apologia, the defence. The apologia was a formal speech or explanation to reply to and rebut the charges. A famous example is Socrates' Apologia defense, as chronicled in Plato's Apology. In the Koine Greek of the New Testament, the Apostle Paul employs the term apologia in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defense" in Acts 26:2. A cognate form appears in Paul's Letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" in Philippians 1:7, and in "giving an answer" in 1 Peter 3:15. Although the term apologetics has Western, primarily Christian origins and is most frequently associated with the defense of Christianity, the term is sometimes used referring to the defense of any religion in formal debate involving religion. Apologetic positions Baháʼí Faith Many apologetic books have been written in defence of the history or teachings of the Baháʼí Faith. The religion's founders wrote several books presenting proofs of their religion; among them are the Báb's Seven Proofs and Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán. Later Baháʼí authors wrote prominent apologetic texts, such as Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl's The Brilliant Proof and Udo Schaefer et al.'s Making the Crooked Straight;. Buddhism One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda, which deals with the Buddhist metaphysics such as the "no-self" nature of the individual and characteristics such as of wisdom, perception, volition, feeling, consciousness and the soul. In the mid-19th century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a Buddhist Propagation Society . In recent times, A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a book, Beyond Belief, providing Buddhist apologetic responses and a critique of Christian Fundamentalist doctrine. Gunapala Dharmasiri wrote an apologetic critique of the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective. Christianity Christian apologetics combines Christian theology, natural theology, and philosophy to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, to defend the faith against objections and misrepresentation. Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries. In the Roman Empire, Christians were severely persecuted, and many charges were brought against them. J. David Cassel gives several examples: Tacitus wrote that Nero fabricated charges that Christians started the burning of Rome. Other charges included cannibalism (due to a literal interpretation of the Eucharist) and incest (due to early Christians' practice of addressing each other as "brother" and "sister"). Paul the Apostle, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and others often defended Christianity against charges that were brought to justify persecution. Later apologists have focused on providing reasons to accept various aspects of Christian belief. Christian apologists of many traditions, in common with Jews, Muslims, and some others, argue for the existence of a unique and personal God. Theodicy is one important aspect of such arguments, and Alvin Plantinga's arguments have been highly influential in this area. Many prominent Christian apologists are scholarly philosophers or theologians, frequently with additional doctoral work in physics, cosmology, comparative religions, or other fields. Others take a more popular or pastoral approach. Some prominent modern apologists are Douglas Groothuis, Frederick Copleston, John Lennox, Walter R. Martin, Dinesh D'Souza, Douglas Wilson, Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, Francis Schaeffer, Greg Bahnsen, Edward John Carnell, James White, R.C. Sproul, Hank Hanegraaff, Alister McGrath, Lee Strobel, Josh McDowell, Peter Kreeft, G. K. Chesterton, William Lane Craig, J. P. Moreland, Hugh Ross, David Bentley Hart, Gary Habermas, Norman Geisler, Scott Hahn and RC Kunst. Notable apologists within the Catholic Church include Bishop Robert Barron, G. K. Chesterton, Dr. Scott Hahn, Trent Horn, Jimmy Akin, Patrick Madrid, Kenneth Hensley, Karl Keating, Ronald Knox and Peter Kreeft. John Henry Newman (February 21, 1801 – August 11, 1890) was an English convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and beatified in 2010. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua in 1864, he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret. Christian apologists employ a variety of philosophical and formal approaches, including ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments. The Christian presuppositionalist approach to apologetics utilizes the transcendental argument for the existence of God. Tertullian was a notable early Christian apologist. He was born, lived and died in Carthage. He is sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church". He introduced the term Trinity (Latin trinitas) to the Christian vocabulary and also probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres Personae, una Substantia" (itself from the Koine Greek "treis Hypostaseis, Homoousios"), and also the terms Vetus Testamentum (Old Testament) and Novum Testamentum (New Testament). Latter-day Saints There are notable Latter-day Saint apologists who focus on the defense of Mormonism, including early church leaders such as Parley P. Pratt, John Taylor, B. H. Roberts, James E. Talmage and more modern figures such as Hugh Nibley, Daniel C. Peterson, John L. Sorenson, John Gee, Orson Scott Card, and Jeff Lindsay. Several well-known Mormon apologetic organizations, such as the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (a group of scholars at Brigham Young University) and FairMormon (an independent, Mormon-run, not-for-profit group), have been formed to defend the doctrines and history of the Latter Day Saint movement in general and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in particular. Deism Deism is a form of theism in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but no longer intervenes in human affairs. Deism is a natural religion where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature.[12] The World Order of Deists maintains a web site presenting deist apologetics that demonstrate the existence of God based on evidence and reason, absent divine revelation. Hinduism Hindu apologetics began developing during the British colonial period. A number of Indian intellectuals had become critical of the British tendency to devalue the Hindu religious tradition. As a result, these Indian intellectuals, as well as a handful of British Indologists, were galvanized to examine the roots of the religion as well as to study its vast arcana and corpus in an analytical fashion. This endeavor drove the deciphering and preservation of Sanskrit. Many translations of Hindu texts were produced which made them accessible to a broader reading audience. A range of Indian philosophers, including Swami Vivekananda and Aurobindo Ghose, have written rational explanations regarding the values of the Hindu religious tradition. More modern proponents such as the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi have also tried to correlate recent developments from quantum physics and consciousness research with Hindu concepts. The late Reverend Pandurang Shastri Athavale has given a plethora of discourses regarding the symbolism and rational basis for many principles in the Vedic tradition. In his book The Cradle of Civilization, David Frawley, an American who has embraced the Vedic tradition, has characterized the ancient texts of the Hindu heritage as being like "pyramids of the spirit". Islam 'Ilm al-Kalām, literally "science of discourse", usually foreshortened to kalam and sometimes called Islamic scholastic theology, is an Islamic undertaking born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against skeptics and detractors. A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimūn) as distinguished from philosophers, jurists, and scientists. Judaism Jewish apologetic literature can be traced back as far as Aristobulus of Paneas, though some discern it in the works of Demetrius the chronographer (3rd century BCE) traces of the style of "questions" and "solutions" typical of the genre. Aristobulus was a Jewish philosopher of Alexandria and the author of an apologetic work addressed to Ptolemy VI Philometor. Josephus's Contra Apion is a wide-ranging defense of Judaism against many charges laid against Judaism at that time, as too are some of the works of Philo of Alexandria. In response to modern Christian missionaries, and congregations that "are designed to appear Jewish, but are actually fundamentalist Christian churches, which use traditional Jewish symbols to lure the most vulnerable of our Jewish people into their ranks", Jews for Judaism is the largest counter-missionary organization in existence, today. Kiruv Organization (Mizrachi), founded by Rabbi Yosef Mizrachi, and Outreach Judaism, founded by Rabbi Tovia Singer, are other prominent international organizations that respond "directly to the issues raised by missionaries and cults, by exploring Judaism in contradistinction to fundamentalist Christianity." Pantheism Some pantheists have formed organizations such as the World Pantheist Movement and the Universal Pantheist Society to promote and defend the belief in pantheism. Native Americans In a famous speech called "Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red" in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket gave an apologetic for Native American religion. In literature Plato's Apology may be read as both a religious and literary apology; however, more specifically literary examples may be found in the prefaces and dedications, which proceed many Early Modern plays, novels, and poems. Eighteenth century authors such as Colley Cibber, Frances Burney, and William Congreve, to name but a few, prefaced the majority of their poetic work with such apologies. In addition to the desire to defend their work, the apologetic preface often suggests the author's attempt to humble his- or herself before the audience. See also Christian apologetics Dawah Existence of God Kalam List of apologetic works References External links Rhetoric Persuasion	[ 0.2123912274837494, 0.7427226305007935, -0.7576906085014343, -0.06389953196048737, -0.6324917078018188, 0.3858097195625305, 0.8423073291778564, 0.2710665464401245, 0.036976415663957596, -0.26447537541389465, -0.4566199779510498, 0.8337136507034302, 0.022879788652062416, -0.0010769856162369251, -0.1482723504304886, 0.1401442289352417, 0.29585686326026917, 0.004090836737304926, 0.05903198570013046, -0.08632291108369827, -0.28044894337654114, 0.16074803471565247, 0.0022909657564014196, -0.26671943068504333, 0.282756507396698, -0.04488999396562576, 0.4495033323764801, -0.2335127592086792, -0.5749115943908691, -0.13690930604934692, 0.5174416899681091, 0.288672536611557, -0.10453683137893677, -0.17559877038002014, -0.2852391004562378, 0.15752068161964417, 0.273532897233963, 0.26506996154785156, -0.18911869823932648, -0.23894792795181274, 0.4281972050666809, 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246904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranunculales	Ranunculales	Ranunculales is an order of flowering plants. Of necessity it contains the family Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, because the name of the order is based on the name of a genus in that family. Ranunculales belongs to a paraphyletic group known as the basal eudicots. It is the most basal clade in this group; in other words, it is sister to the remaining eudicots. Widely known members include poppies, barberries, hellebores, and buttercups. Taxonomy The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group recognized seven families in Ranunculales in their APG III system, published in 2009. In the preceding APG II system, they offered the option of three segregate families as shown below. order Ranunculales family Berberidaceae family Circaeasteraceae [+ family Kingdoniaceae ] family Eupteleaceae family Lardizabalaceae family Menispermaceae family Papaveraceae [+ family Fumariaceae ] [+ family Pteridophyllaceae ] family Ranunculaceae Note: "+ ..." = optionally separate family (that may be split off from the preceding family). Under this definition, well-known members of Ranunculales include buttercups, clematis, columbines, delphiniums, and poppies. A phylogeny of Ranunculales was published in 2009, based on molecular phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences. The authors of this paper revised the subfamilies and tribes of the order. This is reflected in the subsequent revision of the APG, APG IV (2016). The analysis revealed that the order consisted of three clades, Eupteleaceae, Papaveraceae and a third clade, considered to be the "core" Ranuculales, consisting of the remaining five families. The phylogeny of the families is shown in the cladogram. Evolution The fossil form Leefructus, described in 2011, has been recognized as a member of this order. Leefructus mirus shows fully developed leaves; stem and flower that are very similar in structure to those of the modern buttercups. The fossil is dated to 125 million years old and it not only proves that Ranunculales is an ancient group of eudicots but demonstrates that the whole angiosperm clade may be older than expected. The structure of the plant and its age may lead to a new approach regarding the field that studies the evolution of flowering plants. The fact that Leefructus shows a well-developed structure similar to modern ranunculids suggests that this group of eudicots may have developed earlier than the age of the fossil. History Historically the term Ranales was used to include the Ranunculaceae and related families, as described by Bentham and Hooker. This became replaced with Ranunculales by Melchior in 1964. The Cronquist system (1981) also recognised the order, but placed it in the subclass Magnoliidae, in class Magnoliopsida [= dicotyledons]. It used this circumscription: order Ranunculales family Ranunculaceae family Circaeasteraceae family Berberidaceae family Sargentodoxaceae family Lardizabalaceae family Menispermaceae family Coriariaceae family Sabiaceae In the Cronquist system, the Papaveraceae and Fumariaceae (including the plants in the optional family Pteridophyllaceae) were treated as a separate order Papaverales, placed in this same subclass Magnoliidae. The Cronquist circumscription of Ranunculales is now known to be polyphyletic. Sabiaceae is in a clade of basal eudicots separate from Ranunculales. Coriariaceae is now placed in the order Cucurbitales. References Bibliography External links NCBI Taxonomy Browser Angiosperm orders Extant Aptian first appearances	[ -0.0823846086859703, -0.2797204256057739, -0.50072181224823, -0.2546325922012329, -0.3900599181652069, 0.22820919752120972, 0.651940643787384, 0.547678530216217, 0.06662721931934357, -0.022834451869130135, 0.11569443345069885, 0.5088106393814087, -0.8820659518241882, 0.4078809916973114, -0.20689095556735992, 0.29544562101364136, 0.17082087695598602, 0.46916213631629944, 0.3385066092014313, -0.18986818194389343, -0.45198193192481995, -0.5901765823364258, 0.7192614674568176, -0.6391895413398743, 0.7279677987098694, -0.21696053445339203, 0.17639081180095673, 0.672059178352356, 0.21441255509853363, -0.30112722516059875, -0.24348418414592743, 0.8708457350730896, 0.229628324508667, -0.14858368039131165, -0.134183868765831, 0.40394049882888794, 0.054592911154031754, -0.9338792562484741, -0.21445930004119873, -0.6011118292808533, -0.22238610684871674, -0.05602473020553589, 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246908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexden	Lexden	Lexden is a suburb of Colchester and former civil parish, now in the unparished area of Colchester, in the Colchester district, in the county of Essex, England. It was formerly a village, and has previously been called Lessendon, Lassendene and Læxadyne. In 1891 the parish had a population of 3562. On 26 March 1897 the parish was abolished to form Colchester. Lexden is mentioned in the Domesday Book. Lexden is approximately one mile west of central Colchester. It is home to a public house, the Crown; and St Leonard's Church (Church of England). The Leonard in question is Saint Leonard of Noblac, the patron saint of prisoners. Lexden's original name, Læxadyne, is Old English for "Leaxa's valley". It is referred to as the "Hundred of LASSENDENE" in the Domesday Book. It is now cut into two-halves by a modern bypass, Spring Lane. Within the space of a few hundred yards there are two 400-year-old watermills, (both now private residences), a 100-year-old iron bridge over the River Colne, two local nature reserves and several walks. The area is covered by the Lexden ward and elects 2 councillors to sit on Colchester Borough Council. History The site on which Lexden now stands was crossed by the fortifications of Iron Age Colchester, the remains of the earthen ramparts can be seen at Bluebottle Grove, Lexden Park and alongside Straight Road. A number of burial mounds or tumuli remain, notably Lexden Tumulus in Fitzwalter Road which is reputed to be the burial place of Cunobelinus or Cymbeline, the king of the Catuvellauni. The Lexden Medallion was found when the tumulus was excavated in 1924 and is now in the Colchester Castle Museum. Another tumulus is The Mount in Marlowe Way, in which some fragments of Roman pottery and tiles have been found. The parish church was founded early in the 12th century and a number of houses of medieval origins survive in Lexden Road (the A1124). Parts of The Sun Inn date from 1542 but it has recently become a private house. In 1648, Lexden was the headquarters of Lord-General Thomas Fairfax during the Siege of Colchester, and his army camped on Lexden Heath. A Parliamentarian fort was built on Great Broom Heath (now called Hilly Fields) which overlooks the town. During the 18th century a number of large houses were built including Lexden Park on the corner of Church Road, and the Manor House was rebuilt. The main road became a turnpike in 1707 and a cottage used as a toll house survives. Lexden Heath was a large area of common land used for grazing, horse races and military camps; it was inclosed by Act of Parliament in 1821. This enlarged the estate of the lord of the manor, the Reverend John Rawstorn Papillon, who was an acquaintance of Jane Austen and whose niece married Jane's brother Henry. Straight Road was created at this time to make a way across the new inclosures to the hamlet of Shrub End, which became a separate parish in 1845. The small and decrepit medieval church of St Leonard was demolished in 1820 and a new church was built slightly to the south, designed in the Early English style by M. G. Thompson. A larger chancel was added in 1892. A Methodist chapel was built in Straight Road in 1859 and a mission hall (now Lexden Evangelical Church) in 1885. A National Day and Sunday School was built in Spring Lane in 1817 and enlarged several times until replaced by Lexden Council School (now Lexden Primary) in 1925. Lexden Park House became the Endsleigh private school in 1955 and then the Endsleigh Annex of the Colchester Institute until 1990. The house itself was converted to apartments and the gardens became a local nature reserve. The Avenue of Remembrance was built in 1929 to relieve traffic on the London Road and as a memorial to the fallen of Colchester in World War I. Charles Henry Harrod, a businessman involved in retail trade who founded the highly successful Harrods store in London, was born in Lexden. Education In Lexden, there is one private school, Holmwood House School, which was founded in 1922 and has around three hundred pupils from reception to year eight. St Teresa's Catholic Primary School is an academy school with around two hundred and twenty pupils from reception to year six. Lexden Primary School and Home Farm Primary School are state schools for all children from nursery to year six, Lexden also having a special unit for the hearing impaired. There is also a school for children with special needs, Lexden Springs School. Providing secondary education, the Colchester Royal Grammar School, Colchester County High School for Girls, Philip Morant School and College and St Mary's School, Colchester are nearby. Sports and recreation Lexden has a King George's Field in memorial to King George V. Electoral ward The suburb was covered by the Lexden ward and elected 2 councillors to sit on Colchester Borough Council. The ward was previously represented by 3 councillors from 1976 to 2002. The ward was abolished at the 2016 election and parts were amalgamated with the enlarged Prettygate ward and the new Lexden & Braiswick ward. References External links Populated places in Essex Former civil parishes in Essex Colchester (town)	[ -0.19988489151000977, 0.3876579701900482, 0.3728247284889221, -0.6056807637214661, 0.459339439868927, 0.07717537134885788, -0.017563555389642715, -0.09630097448825836, 0.3758062720298767, -0.014844927936792374, -0.08667159825563431, 0.11150957643985748, 0.0015124820638448, -0.039155419915914536, -1.22957181930542, -0.12046405673027039, 0.031895749270915985, 0.26497799158096313, 0.5641690492630005, -0.5312913656234741, 0.15516793727874756, -0.7919697165489197, -0.5554443597793579, 0.2728961706161499, -0.20045015215873718, 0.24952244758605957, 0.15749892592430115, 0.10626652836799622, -0.32031676173210144, -0.1514386534690857, -0.3137209117412567, 0.047026701271533966, -0.12575921416282654, -0.6812741160392761, 0.40297603607177734, 0.13860966265201569, 0.2521897554397583, -0.45025256276130676, -0.4975774586200714, 0.1988358348608017, -0.15474803745746613, -0.3227846324443817, 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246918	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular%20term	Singular term	A singular term is a paradigmatic referring device in a language. Singular terms are of philosophical importance for philosophers of language, because they refer to things in the world, and the ability of words to refer calls for scrutiny. Overview Singular terms are defined as expressions that purport to denote or designate particular individual people, places, or other objects. They contrast with general terms (such as "car" or "chair") which can apply to more than one thing. There are various kinds of singular terms: proper names (e.g. "Matthew"), definite descriptions (e.g. "the second fisherman in the boat"), singular personal pronouns (e.g. "she"), demonstrative pronouns (e.g. "this"), etc. Historically, various definitions for "singular term" have been offered: A term that tells us which individual is being talked about. (John Stuart Mill, Arthur Prior, P. F. Strawson) A term that is grammatically singular, i.e. a proper name (proprium nomen), a demonstrative pronoun (pronomen demonstrativum) or a demonstrative pronoun with a common name (cum termino communi). (William of Ockham) A term that is inherently about the object to which it applies or refers. (Gottlob Frege) A term that is true "in the same sense" of only one object. (Peter of Spain) References Works cited Frege, G. (1892) "On Sense and Reference", originally published as " Über Sinn und Bedeutung" in Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik, vol. 100, pp. 25–50. Transl. Geach & Black 56–78. Mill, J. S., A System of Logic, London 1908 (8th edition). Peter of Spain Summulae Logicales, ed. I. M. Bochenski (Turin, 1947) – also quoted in Prior 1976. Prior, A. N. The Doctrine of Propositions & Terms London 1976. Strawson, P. F. "On Referring", Mind 1950 pp. 320–44. William of Ockham, Summa logicae, Paris 1448, Bologna 1498, Venice 1508, Oxford 1675. 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246920	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visa%20Inc.	Visa Inc.	Visa Inc. (; stylized as VISA) is an American multinational financial services corporation headquartered in Foster City, California, United States. It facilitates electronic funds transfers throughout the world, most commonly through Visa-branded credit cards, debit cards and prepaid cards. Visa is one of the world's most valuable companies. Visa does not issue cards, extend credit or set rates and fees for consumers; rather, Visa provides financial institutions with Visa-branded payment products that they then use to offer credit, debit, prepaid and cash access programs to their customers. In 2015, the Nilson Report, a publication that tracks the credit card industry, found that Visa's global network (known as VisaNet) processed 100 billion transactions during 2014 with a total volume of US$6.8 trillion. It was launched in September 1958 by Bank of America (BofA) as the BankAmericard credit card program. In response to competitor Master Charge (now Mastercard), BofA began to license the BankAmericard program to other financial institutions in 1966. By 1970, BofA gave up direct control of the BankAmericard program, forming a consortium with the other various BankAmericard issuer banks to take over its management. It was then renamed Visa in 1976. Nearly all Visa transactions worldwide are processed through the company's directly operated VisaNet at one of four secure data centers, located in Ashburn, Virginia; Highlands Ranch, Colorado; London, England; and Singapore. These facilities are heavily secured against natural disasters, crime, and terrorism; can operate independently of each other and from external utilities if necessary; and can handle up to 30,000 simultaneous transactions and up to 100 billion computations every second. Visa is the world's second-largest card payment organization (debit and credit cards combined), after being surpassed by China UnionPay in 2015, based on annual value of card payments transacted and number of issued cards. However, because UnionPay's size is based primarily on the size of its domestic market in China, Visa is still considered the dominant bankcard company in the rest of the world, where it commands a 50% market share of total card payments. History On September 18, 1958, Bank of America (BofA) officially launched its BankAmericard credit card program in Fresno, California. In the weeks leading up to the launch of BankAmericard, BofA had saturated Fresno mailboxes with an initial mass mailing (or "drop", as they came to be called) of 65,000 unsolicited credit cards. BankAmericard was the brainchild of BofA's in-house product development think tank, the Customer Services Research Group, and its leader, Joseph P. Williams. Williams convinced senior BofA executives in 1956 to let him pursue what became the world's first successful mass mailing of unsolicited credit cards (actual working cards, not mere applications) to a large population. Williams' pioneering accomplishment was that he brought about the successful implementation of the all-purpose credit card (in the sense that his project was not canceled outright), not in coming up with the idea. By the mid-1950s, the typical middle-class American already maintained revolving credit accounts with several different merchants, which was clearly inefficient and inconvenient due to the need to carry so many cards and pay so many separate bills each month. The need for a unified financial instrument was already evident to the American financial services industry, but no one could figure out how to do it. There were already charge cards like Diners Club (which had to be paid in full at the end of each billing cycle), and "by the mid-1950s, there had been at least a dozen attempts to create an all-purpose credit card." However, these prior attempts had been carried out by small banks which lacked the resources to make them work. Williams and his team studied these failures carefully and believed they could avoid replicating those banks' mistakes; they also studied existing revolving credit operations at Sears and Mobil Oil to learn why they were successful. Fresno was selected for its population of 250,000 (big enough to make a credit card work, small enough to control initial startup cost), BofA's market share of that population (45%), and relative isolation, to control public relations damage in case the project failed. According to Williams, Florsheim Shoes was the first major retail chain which agreed to accept BankAmericard at its stores. The 1958 test at first went smoothly, but then BofA panicked when it confirmed rumors that another bank was about to initiate its own drop in San Francisco, BofA's home market. By March 1959, drops began in San Francisco and Sacramento; by June, BofA was dropping cards in Los Angeles; by October, the entire state of California had been saturated with over 2 million credit cards and BankAmericard was being accepted by 20,000 merchants. However, the program was riddled with problems, as Williams (who had never worked in a bank's loan department) had been too earnest and trusting in his belief in the basic goodness of the bank's customers, and he resigned in December 1959. Twenty-two percent of accounts were delinquent, not the 4% expected, and police departments around the state were confronted by numerous incidents of the brand new crime of credit card fraud. Both politicians and journalists joined the general uproar against Bank of America and its newfangled credit card, especially when it was pointed out that the cardholder agreement held customers liable for all charges, even those resulting from fraud. BofA officially lost over $8.8 million on the launch of BankAmericard, but when the full cost of advertising and overhead was included, the bank's actual loss was probably around $20 million. However, after Williams and some of his closest associates left, BofA management realized that BankAmericard was salvageable. They conducted a "massive effort" to clean up after Williams, imposed proper financial controls, published an open letter to 3 million households across the state apologizing for the credit card fraud and other issues their card raised and eventually were able to make the new financial instrument work. By May 1961, the BankAmericard program became profitable for the first time. At the time, BofA deliberately kept this information secret and allowed then-widespread negative impressions to linger in order to ward off competition. This strategy worked until 1966, when BankAmericard's profitability had become far too big to hide. The original goal of BofA was to offer the BankAmericard product across California, but in 1966, BofA began to sign licensing agreements with a group of banks outside of California, in response to a new competitor, Master Charge (now MasterCard), which had been created by an alliance of several regional bankcard associations to compete against BankAmericard. BofA itself (like all other U.S. banks at the time) could not expand directly into other states due to federal restrictions not repealed until 1994. Over the following 11 years, various banks licensed the card system from Bank of America, thus forming a network of banks backing the BankAmericard system across the United States. The "drops" of unsolicited credit cards continued unabated, thanks to BofA and its licensees and competitors until they were outlawed in 1970, but not before over 100 million credit cards had been distributed into the American population. During the late 1960s, BofA also licensed the BankAmericard program to banks in several other countries, which began issuing cards with localized brand names. For example: In Canada, an alliance of banks (including Toronto-Dominion Bank, Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce, Royal Bank of Canada, Banque Canadienne Nationale and Bank of Nova Scotia) issued credit cards under the Chargex name from 1968 to 1977. In France, it was known as Carte Bleue (Blue Card). The logo still appears on many French-issued Visa cards today. In Japan, The Sumitomo Bank issued BankAmericards through the Sumitomo Credit Service. In the UK, the only BankAmericard issuer for some years was Barclaycard. The branding still exists today, but is used not only on Visa cards issued by Barclays, but on its MasterCard and American Express cards as well. In Spain until 1979 the only issuer was Banco de Bilbao. In 1968, a manager at the National Bank of Commerce (later Rainier Bancorp), Dee Hock, was asked to supervise that bank's launch of its own licensed version of BankAmericard in the Pacific Northwest market. Although Bank of America had cultivated the public image that BankAmericard's troubled startup issues were now safely in the past, Hock realized that the BankAmericard licensee program itself was in terrible disarray because it had developed and grown very rapidly in an ad hoc fashion. For example, "interchange" transaction issues between banks were becoming a very serious problem, which had not been seen before when Bank of America was the sole issuer of BankAmericards. Hock suggested to other licensees that they form a committee to investigate and analyze the various problems with the licensee program; they promptly made him the chair of that committee. After lengthy negotiations, the committee led by Hock was able to persuade Bank of America that a bright future lay ahead for BankAmericard — outside Bank of America. In June 1970, Bank of America gave up control of the BankAmericard program. The various BankAmericard issuer banks took control of the program, creating National BankAmericard Inc. (NBI), an independent Delaware corporation which would be in charge of managing, promoting and developing the BankAmericard system within the United States. In other words, BankAmericard was transformed from a franchising system into a jointly controlled consortium or alliance, like its competitor Master Charge. Hock became NBI's first president and CEO. However, Bank of America retained the right to directly license BankAmericard to banks outside the United States and continued to issue and support such licenses. By 1972, licenses had been granted in 15 countries. The international licensees soon encountered a variety of problems with their licensing programs, and they hired Hock as a consultant to help them restructure their relationship with BofA as he had done for the domestic licensees. As a result, in 1974, the International Bankcard Company (IBANCO), a multinational member corporation, was founded in order to manage the international BankAmericard program. In 1976, the directors of IBANCO determined that bringing the various international networks together into a single network with a single name internationally would be in the best interests of the corporation; however, in many countries, there was still great reluctance to issue a card associated with Bank of America, even though the association was entirely nominal in nature. For this reason, in 1976, BankAmericard, Barclaycard, Carte Bleue, Chargex, Sumitomo Card, and all other licensees united under the new name, "Visa", which retained the distinctive blue, white and gold flag. NBI became Visa USA and IBANCO became Visa International. The term Visa was conceived by the company's founder, Dee Hock. He believed that the word was instantly recognizable in many languages in many countries and that it also denoted universal acceptance. In October 2007, Bank of America announced it was resurrecting the BankAmericard brand name as the "BankAmericard Rewards Visa". Corporate structure Prior to October 3, 2007, Visa comprised four non-stock, separately incorporated companies that employed 6,000 people worldwide: the worldwide parent entity Visa International Service Association (Visa), Visa USA Inc., Visa Canada Association, and Visa Europe Ltd. The latter three separately incorporated regions had the status of group members of Visa International Service Association. The unincorporated regions Visa Latin America (LAC), Visa Asia Pacific and Visa Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East and Africa (CEMEA) were divisions within Visa. Billing and finance charge methods Initially, signed copies of sales drafts were included in each customer's monthly billing statement for verification purposes—an industry practice known as "country club billing". By the late 1970s, however, billing statements no longer contained these enclosures, but rather a summary statement showing posting date, purchase date, reference number, merchant name, and the dollar amount of each purchase. At the same time, many issuers, particularly Bank of America, were in the process of changing their methods of finance charge calculation. Initially, a "previous balance" method was used—calculation of finance charge on the unpaid balance shown on the prior month's statement. Later, it was decided to use "average daily balance" which resulted in increased revenue for the issuers by calculating the number of days each purchase was included on the prior month's statement. Several years later, "new average daily balance"—in which transactions from previous and current billing cycles were used in the calculation—was introduced. By the early 1980s, many issuers introduced the concept of the annual fee as yet another revenue enhancer. IPO and restructuring On October 11, 2006, Visa announced that some of its businesses would be merged and become a publicly traded company, Visa Inc. Under the IPO restructuring, Visa Canada, Visa International, and Visa USA were merged into the new public company. Visa's Western Europe operation became a separate company, owned by its member banks who will also have a minority stake in Visa Inc. In total, more than 35 investment banks participated in the deal in several capacities, most notably as underwriters. On October 3, 2007, Visa completed its corporate restructuring with the formation of Visa Inc. The new company was the first step towards Visa's IPO. The second step came on November 9, 2007, when the new Visa Inc. submitted its $10 billion IPO filing with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). On February 25, 2008, Visa announced it would go ahead with an IPO of half its shares. The IPO took place on March 18, 2008. Visa sold 406 million shares at US$44 per share ($2 above the high end of the expected $37–42 pricing range), raising US$17.9 billion in what was then the largest initial public offering in U.S. history. On March 20, 2008, the IPO underwriters (including JP Morgan, Goldman Sachs & Co., Banc of America Securities LLC, Citi, HSBC, Merrill Lynch & Co., UBS Investment Bank and Wachovia Securities) exercised their overallotment option, purchasing an additional 40.6 million shares, bringing Visa's total IPO share count to 446.6 million, and bringing the total proceeds to US$19.1 billion. Visa now trades under the ticker symbol "V" on the New York Stock Exchange. Visa Europe Visa Europe Ltd. was a membership association and cooperative of over 3,700 European banks and other payment service providers that operated Visa branded products and services within Europe. Visa Europe was a company entirely separate from Visa Inc. having gained independence of Visa International Service Association in October 2007 when Visa Inc. became a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange. Visa Inc. announced the plan to acquire Visa Europe on November 5, 2015, creating a single global company. On April 21, 2016, the agreement was amended in response to the feedback of European Commission. The acquisition of Visa Europe was completed on June 21, 2016. Acquisition of Plaid On January 13, 2020, Plaid announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to be acquired by Visa for $5.3 billion. The deal was double the company's most recent Series C round valuation of $2.65 billion, and was expected to close in the next 3–6 months, subject to regulatory review and closing conditions. According to the deal, Visa would pay $4.9 billion in cash and approximately $400 million of retention equity and deferred equity, according to a presentation deck prepared by Visa. On November 5, 2020, the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit seeking to block the acquisition, arguing that Visa is a monopolist trying to eliminate a competitive threat by purchasing Plaid. Visa said it disagrees with the lawsuit and "intends to defend the transaction vigorously." Digital Currencies On February 3, 2021, Visa announced a partnership with First Boulevard, a neobank focused on building generational wealth for the Black community. First Boulevard will be first to pilot Visa's new suite of cryptocurrency APIs, which will enable their customers to buy, sell, hold, and trade digital assets held by Anchorage, a federally chartered digital asset bank. The pilot will serve as a key first step in supporting API capabilities that help additional Visa clients access and integrate cryptocurrencies. On March 29, 2021, Visa announced the acceptance of stable coin USDC to settle transactions on its network. Visa Foundation Registered in the United States as a 501(c)(3) entity, the Visa Foundation was created with the mission of supporting inclusive economies. In particular, economies in which individuals, businesses and communities can thrive with the support of grants and investments. Supporting resiliency, as well as the growth, of micro and small businesses that benefit women is a priority of the Visa Foundation. Furthermore, the Foundation prioritizes providing support to the community from a broad standpoint, as well as responding to disasters during crisis. Other Initiatives In December 2020, Visa Announced the launch of a new accelerator program across Asia Pacific to further develop the region's financial technology ecosystem. The accelerator program aims to find and partner with startup companies providing financial and payments technologies that could potentially leverage on Visa's network of bank and merchant partners in the region. Finance For the fiscal year 2018, Visa reported earnings of US$10.3 billion, with an annual revenue of US$20.61 billion, an increase of 12.3% over the previous fiscal cycle. Visa's shares traded at over $143 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$280.2 billion in September 2018. As of 2018, the company ranked 161st on the Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Criticism and controversy WikiLeaks Visa Europe began suspending payments to WikiLeaks on December 7, 2010. The company said it was awaiting an investigation into 'the nature of its business and whether it contravenes Visa operating rules' – though it did not go into details. In return DataCell, the IT company that enables WikiLeaks to accept credit and debit card donations, announced that it would take legal action against Visa Europe. On December 8, the group Anonymous performed a DDoS attack on visa.com, bringing the site down. Although the Norway-based financial services company Teller AS, which Visa ordered to look into WikiLeaks and its fundraising body, the Sunshine Press, found no proof of any wrongdoing, Salon reported in January 2011 that Visa Europe "would continue blocking donations to the secret-spilling site until it completes its own investigation". The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay stated that Visa may be "violating WikiLeaks' right to freedom of expression" by withdrawing their services. In July 2012, the Reykjavík District Court decided that Valitor (the Icelandic partner of Visa and MasterCard) was violating the law when it prevented donations to the site by credit card. It was ruled that the donations be allowed to return to the site within 14 days or they would be fined in the amount of US$6,000 per day. Litigation and regulatory actions Anti-competitive conduct in Australia In 2015, the Australian Federal Court ordered Visa to pay a pecuniary penalty of $20 million (including legal fees) for engaging in anti-competitive conduct against dynamic currency conversion operators, in proceedings brought by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission. Antitrust lawsuit by ATM operators In 2011, MasterCard and Visa were sued in a class action by ATM operators claiming the credit card networks' rules effectively fix ATM access fees. The suit claimed that this is a restraint on trade in violation of US federal law. The lawsuit was filed by the National ATM Council and independent operators of automated teller machines. More specifically, it is alleged that MasterCard's and Visa's network rules prohibit ATM operators from offering lower prices for transactions over PIN-debit networks that are not affiliated with Visa or MasterCard. The suit says that this price-fixing artificially raises the price that consumers pay using ATMs, limits the revenue that ATM-operators earn, and violates the Sherman Act's prohibition against unreasonable restraints of trade. Johnathan Rubin, an attorney for the plaintiffs said, "Visa and MasterCard are the ringleaders, organizers, and enforcers of a conspiracy among U.S. banks to fix the price of ATM access fees in order to keep the competition at bay." In 2017, a US district court denied the ATM operators' request to stop Visa from enforcing the ATM fees. Debit card swipe fees Visa settled a 1996 antitrust lawsuit brought by a class of U.S. merchants, including Walmart, for billions of dollars in 2003. Over 4 million class members were represented by the plaintiffs. According to a website associated with the suit, Visa and MasterCard settled the plaintiffs' claims for a total of $3.05 billion. Visa's share of this settlement is reported to have been the larger. U.S. Justice Department actions In 1998, the Department of Justice sued Visa over rules prohibiting its issuing banks from doing business with American Express and Discover. The Department of Justice won its case at trial in 2001 and the verdict was upheld on appeal. American Express and Discover filed suit as well. In October 2010, Visa and MasterCard reached a settlement with the U.S. Justice Department in another antitrust case. The companies agreed to allow merchants displaying their logos to decline certain types of cards (because interchange fees differ), or to offer consumers discounts for using cheaper cards. Antitrust issues in Europe In 2002, the European Commission exempted Visa's multilateral interchange fees from Article 81 of the EC Treaty that prohibits anti-competitive arrangements. However, this exemption expired on December 31, 2007. In the United Kingdom, Mastercard has reduced its interchange fees while it is under investigation by the Office of Fair Trading. In January 2007, the European Commission issued the results of a two-year inquiry into the retail banking sector. The report focuses on payment cards and interchange fees. Upon publishing the report, Commissioner Neelie Kroes said the "present level of interchange fees in many of the schemes we have examined does not seem justified." The report called for further study of the issue. On March 26, 2008, the European Commission opened an investigation into Visa's multilateral interchange fees for cross-border transactions within the EEA as well as into the "Honor All Cards" rule (under which merchants are required to accept all valid Visa-branded cards). The antitrust authorities of EU member states (other than the United Kingdom) also investigated Mastercard's and Visa's interchange fees. For example, on January 4, 2007, the Polish Office of Competition and Consumer Protection fined twenty banks a total of PLN 164 million (about $56 million) for jointly setting Mastercard's and Visa's interchange fees. In December 2010, Visa reached a settlement with the European Union in yet another antitrust case, promising to reduce debit card payments to 0.2 percent of a purchase. A senior official from the European Central Bank called for a break-up of the Visa/Mastercard duopoly by creation of a new European debit card for use in the Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA). After Visa's blocking of payments to WikiLeaks, members of the European Parliament expressed concern that payments from European citizens to a European corporation could apparently be blocked by the US, and called for a further reduction in the dominance of Visa and Mastercard in the European payment system. Payment Card Interchange Fee and Merchant Discount Antitrust Litigation On November 27, 2012, a federal judge entered an order granting preliminary approval to a proposed settlement to a class-action lawsuit filed in 2005 by merchants and trade associations against Mastercard and Visa. The suit was filed due to alleged price-fixing practices employed by Mastercard and Visa. About one-quarter of the named class plaintiffs have decided to opt "out of the settlement". Opponents object to provisions that would bar future lawsuits and even prevent merchants from opting out of significant portions of the proposed settlement. Plaintiffs allege that Visa and Mastercard fixed interchange fees, also known as swipe fees, that are charged to merchants for the privilege of accepting payment cards. In their complaint, the plaintiffs also alleged that the defendants unfairly interfere with merchants from encouraging customers to use less expensive forms of payment such as lower-cost cards, cash, and checks. A settlement of US$6.24 billion has been reached and a court is scheduled to approve or deny the agreement on November 7, 2019. High swipe fees in Poland Very high interchange fee for Visa (1.5–1.6% from every transaction's final price, which also includes VAT) in Poland started discussion about legality and need for government regulations of interchange fees to avoid high costs for business (which also block electronic payment market and acceptability of cards). This situation also led to the birth of new methods of payment in the year 2013, which avoid the need for go-between (middleman) companies like Visa or Mastercard, for example mobile application issued by major banks, and system by big chain of discount shops, or older public transport tickets buying systems. Confrontation with Walmart over high fees In June 2016, the Wall Street Journal reported that Walmart threatened to stop accepting Visa cards in Canada. Visa objected saying that consumers should not be dragged into a dispute between the companies. In January 2017, Walmart Canada and Visa reached a deal to allow the continued acceptance of Visa. Dispute with Kroger over high credit card fees In March 2019, U.S. retailer Kroger announced that its 250-strong Smith's chain would stop accepting Visa credit cards as of April 3, 2019, due to the cards’ high ‘swipe’ fees. Kroger's California-based Foods Co stores stopped accepting Visa cards in August 2018. Mike Schlotman, Kroger's executive vice president/chief financial officer, said Visa had been “misusing its position and charging retailers excessive fees for a long time.” In response, Visa issued a statement saying it was “unfair and disappointing that Kroger is putting shoppers in the middle of a business dispute.” As of October 31, 2019, Kroger has settled their dispute with Visa and is now accepting the payment method. Antitrust investigation over debit card practices In March 2021, the United States Justice Department announced its investigation with Visa to discover if the company is engaging in anticompetitive practices in the debit card market. The main question at hand is whether or not Visa is limiting merchants' ability to route debit card transactions over card networks that are often less expensive, focusing more so on online debit card transactions. The probe highlights the role of network fees, which are invisible to consumers and place pressure on merchants, who mitigate the fees by raising prices of goods for customers. The probe was confirmed through a regulatory filing on March 19, 2021, stating they will be cooperating with the Justice Department. Visa's shares fell more than 6% following the announcement. Corporate affairs Headquarters In 2009, Visa moved its corporate headquarters back to San Francisco when it leased the top three floors of the 595 Market Street office building, although most of its employees remained at its Foster City campus. In 2012, Visa decided to consolidate its headquarters in Foster City where 3,100 of its 7,700 global workers are employed. Visa owns four buildings at the intersection of Metro Center Boulevard and Vintage Park Drive. As of October 1, 2012, Visa's headquarters are located in Foster City, California. Visa had been headquartered in San Francisco until 1985, when it moved to San Mateo. Around 1993, Visa began consolidating various scattered offices in San Mateo to a location in Foster City. Visa became Foster City's largest employer. In December 2012, Visa Inc. confirmed that it will build a global information technology center off of the US 183 Expressway in northwest Austin, Texas. By 2019, Visa leased space in four buildings near Austin and employed nearly 2,000 people. On November 6, 2019, Visa announced plans to move its headquarters back to San Francisco by 2024 upon completion of a new "13-story, 300,000-square-foot building". Operations Visa offers through its issuing members the following types of cards: Debit cards (pay from a checking/savings account) Credit cards (pay monthly payments with or without interest depending on a customer paying on time) Prepaid cards (pay from a cash account that has no check writing privileges) Visa operates the Plus automated teller machine network and the Interlink EFTPOS point-of-sale network, which facilitate the "debit" protocol used with debit cards and prepaid cards. They also provide commercial payment solutions for small businesses, midsize and large corporations, and governments. Visa teamed with Apple in September 2014, to incorporate a new mobile wallet feature into Apple's new iPhone models, enabling users to more readily use their Visa, and other credit/debit cards. Operating regulations Visa has a set of rules that govern the participation of financial institutions in its payment system. Acquiring banks are responsible for ensuring that their merchants comply with the rules. Rules address how a cardholder must be identified for security, how transactions may be denied by the bank, and how banks may cooperate for fraud prevention, and how to keep that identification and fraud protection standard and non-discriminatory. Other rules govern what creates an enforceable proof of authorization by the cardholder. The rules prohibit merchants from imposing a minimum or maximum purchase amount in order to accept a Visa card and from charging cardholders a fee for using a Visa card. In ten U.S. states, surcharges for the use of a credit card are forbidden by law (California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Oklahoma and Texas) but a discount for cash is permitted under specific rules. Some countries have banned the no-surcharge rule, most notably in Australia retailers may apply surcharges to any credit-card transaction, Visa or otherwise. In the UK the law was changed in January 2018 to prevent retailers from adding a surcharge to a transaction as per 'The Consumer Rights (Payment Surcharges) Regulations 2012'. Visa permits merchants to ask for photo ID, although the merchant rule book states that this practice is discouraged. As long as the Visa card is signed, a merchant may not deny a transaction because a cardholder refuses to show a photo ID. The Dodd–Frank Act allows U.S. merchants to set a minimum purchase amount on credit card transactions, not to exceed $10. Recent complications include the addition of exceptions for non-signed purchases by telephone or on the Internet and an additional security system called "Verified by Visa" for purchases on the Internet. In September 2014, Visa Inc, launched a new service to replace account information on plastic cards with "token" – a digital account number. Products Visa Debit This is the standard Visa-branded debit card. Visa Electron A Visa-branded debit card issued worldwide since the 1990s. Its distinguishing feature is that it does not allow "card not present" transactions while its floor limit is set to zero, which triggers automatic authorisation of each transaction with the issuing bank and effectively makes it impossible for the user to overdraw the account. The card has often been issued to younger customers or those who may pose a risk of overdrawing the account. Since mid-2000s, the card has mostly been replaced by Visa Debit. Visa Cash A Visa-branded stored-value card. Visa Contactless (formerly payWave) In September 2007, Visa introduced Visa payWave, a contactless payment technology feature that allows cardholders to wave their card in front of contactless payment terminals without the need to physically swipe or insert the card into a point-of-sale device. This is similar to the Mastercard Contactless service and the American Express ExpressPay, with both using RFID technology. All three use the same symbol as shown on the right. In Europe, Visa has introduced the V Pay card, which is a chip-only and PIN-only debit card. In Australia, take up has been the highest in the world, with more than 50% of in store Visa transactions now made via Visa payWave. mVisa mVisa is a mobile payment app allowing payment via smartphones using QR code. This QR code payment method was first introduced in India in 2015. It was later expanded to a number of other countries, including in Africa and South East Asia. Visa Checkout In 2013, Visa launched Visa Checkout, an online payment system that removes the need to share card details with retailers. The Visa Checkout service allows users to enter all their personal details and card information, then use a single username and password to make purchases from online retailers. The service works with Visa credit, debit, and prepaid cards. On November 27, 2013, V.me went live in the UK, France, Spain and Poland, with Nationwide Building Society being the first financial institution in Britain to support it, although Nationwide subsequently withdrew this service in 2016. Trademark and design Logo design The blue and gold in Visa's logo were chosen to represent the blue sky and gold-colored hills of California, where the Bank of America was founded. In 2005, Visa changed its logo, removing the horizontal stripes in favor of a simple white background with the name Visa in blue with an orange flick on the 'V'. The orange flick was removed in favor of the logo being a solid blue gradient in 2014. In 2015, the gold and blue stripes were restored as card branding on Visa Debit and Visa Electron, although not as the company's logotype. Card design In 1984, most Visa cards around the world began to feature a hologram of a dove on its face, generally under the last four digits of the Visa number. This was implemented as a security feature – true holograms would appear three-dimensional and the image would change as the card was turned. At the same time, the Visa logo, which had previously covered the whole card face, was reduced in size to a strip on the card's right incorporating the hologram. This allowed issuing banks to customize the appearance of the card. Similar changes were implemented with MasterCard cards. Today, cards may be co-branded with various merchants, airlines, etc., and marketed as "reward cards". On older Visa cards, holding the face of the card under an ultraviolet light will reveal the dove picture, dubbed the Ultra-Sensitive Dove, as an additional security test. (On newer Visa cards, the UV dove is replaced by a small V over the Visa logo.) Beginning in 2005, the Visa standard was changed to allow for the hologram to be placed on the back of the card, or to be replaced with a holographic magnetic stripe ("HoloMag"). The HoloMag card was shown to occasionally cause interference with card readers, so Visa eventually withdrew designs of HoloMag cards and reverted to traditional magnetic strips. Signatures Visa made a statement on January 12, 2018, that the signature requirement would become optional for all EMV contact or contactless chip-enabled merchants in North America starting in April 2018. It was noted that the signatures are no longer necessary to fight fraud and the fraud capabilities have advanced allowing this elimination leading to a faster in-store purchase experience. Visa was the last of the major credit card issuers to relax the signature requirements. The first to eliminate the signature was MasterCard Inc. followed by Discover Financial Services and American Express Co. Sponsorships Olympics and Paralympics Visa has been a worldwide sponsor of the Olympic Games since 1986 and the International Paralympic Committee since 2002. Visa is the only card accepted at all Olympic and Paralympic venues. Its current contract with the International Olympic Committee and International Paralympic Committee as the exclusive services sponsor will continue through 2032 and 2020 respectively. This includes the Singapore 2010 Youth Olympic Games, London 2012 Olympic Games, the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games, the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic Games, the 2018 PyeongChang Olympic Winter Games, and the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. In 2002, Visa became the first global sponsor of the IPC. Visa extended its partnership with the International Paralympic Committee through 2020, which includes the 2010 Vancouver Paralympic Winter Games, the 2012 London Paralympic Games, 2014 Sochi Paralympic Games, 2018 Pyeongchang Paralympic Games and 2020 Tokyo Paralympic Games. Others Visa was the jersey sponsor of Argentina's national basketball team at the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship in Mexico City. Visa is the shirt sponsor for the Argentina national rugby union team, nicknamed the Pumas. Also, Visa sponsors the Copa Libertadores and the Copa Sudamericana, the most important football club tournaments in South America. Since 1995, Visa has sponsored the U.S. National Football League (NFL) and a number of NFL teams, including the San Francisco 49ers whose practice jerseys display the Visa logo. Visa's sponsorship of the NFL extended through the 2014 season. Until 2005, Visa was the exclusive sponsor of the Triple Crown thoroughbred tournament. Visa sponsored the Rugby World Cup first from the 1995 Rugby World Cup was held in South Africa until 12 years later, when the 2007 Rugby World Cup, was held in France. In 2007, Visa became the sponsor of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. The FIFA partnership provides Visa with global rights to a broad range of FIFA activities – including both the 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cup and the FIFA Women's World Cup. Starting from the 2012 season, Visa became a partner of the Caterham F1 Team. Visa is also known for motorsport sponsorship in the past: it sponsored PacWest Racing's IndyCar team in 1995 and 1996, with drivers Danny Sullivan and Mark Blundell respectively. Visa is currently a jersey sponsor of professional gaming (eSports) team SK Gaming for 2017 Visa is the main sponsor of the Argentine Hockey Confederation. The Visa logo is present on both the men's and women's playing kits. See also RuPay UnionPay CIBIL Damage waiver Entrust Bankcard Visa Buxx Visa Debit Visa Electron References External links (in most cases, will automatically redirect to a localized version of Visa.com based on the user's location) Credit cards Debit cards American brands Credit card issuer associations Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange 1958 establishments in California Companies based in San Francisco Companies based in Foster City, California Financial services companies established in 1958 Financial services companies based in California Contactless smart cards Financial services companies of the United States Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average Financial District, San Francisco 2008 initial public offerings Companies' terms of service	[ 0.1271025687456131, 0.05345030501484871, 0.08840404450893402, 0.08896374702453613, -0.1367545872926712, 0.3306296467781067, 0.10198228061199188, 0.4935845136642456, 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246921	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi	Levi	Levi (; ) was, according to the Book of Genesis, the third of the six sons of Jacob and Leah (Jacob’s third son), and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Levi (the Levites, including the Kohanim) and the great-grandfather of Aaron, Moses and Miriam. Certain religious and political functions were reserved for the Levites. Origins The Torah suggests that the name Levi refers to Leah's hope for Jacob to join with her, implying a derivation from yillaweh, meaning he will join, but scholars suspect that it may simply mean priest, either as a loan word from the Minaean lawi'u, meaning priest, or by referring to those people who were joined to the Ark of the Covenant. Another possibility is that the Levites originated as migrants and that the name Levites indicates their joining with either the Israelites in general or the earlier Israelite priesthood in particular. In the Book of it says that Levi was born "in the new moon of the first month", which means that he was born on 1 Nisan. Levi and the "Blessing of Jacob" In the Book of Genesis, Levi and his brother, Simeon, exterminate the city of Shechem in revenge for the rape of Dinah, seizing the wealth of the city and killing the men. The brothers had earlier misled the inhabitants by consenting to Dinah's rapist marrying her in exchange for the men of the city to be circumcised, and when Jacob hears about their destruction of Shechem, he castigates them for it. In the Blessing of Jacob, Jacob is described as imposing a curse on the Levites, by which they would be scattered, in punishment for Levi's actions in Shechem. Some textual scholars date the Blessing of Jacob to a period between just one and two centuries prior to the Babylonian captivity, and some Biblical scholars regard this curse, and Dinah herself as an aetiological postdiction to explain the fates of the tribe of Simeon and the Levites, with one possible explanation of the Levites' scattered nature being that the priesthood was originally open to any tribe, but gradually became seen as a distinct tribe itself. Nevertheless, Isaac, Levi's grandfather, gives a special blessing about the lineage of priests of God. The family of Levi In the Book of Genesis, Levi is described as having fathered three sons—Gershon, Kohath, and Merari. A similar genealogy is given in the Book of Exodus, where it is added that among Kohath's sons was one—Amram—who married a woman named Jochebed, who was closely related to his father, and they were the biological parents of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam; though some Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Torah state that Jochebed was Amram's father's cousin, the Masoretic Text states that she was his father's sister, and the Septuagint mentions that she was one of his father's sisters. The Masoretic Text's version of Levi's genealogy thus implies (and in Numbers 26:59, explicitly states) that Levi also had a daughter (Jochebed), and the Septuagint implies further daughters. The names of Levi's sons, and possible daughter, are interpreted in classical rabbinical literature as being reflections on their future destiny. In some apocryphal texts such as the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the Book of Jubilees, Levi's wife, his children's mother, is named as Milkah, a daughter of Aram. Family tree In post-Torah tradition In accordance with his role as founder of the Levites, Levi is referred to as being particularly pious. The Blessing of Moses, which some textual scholars attribute to a period just before the deuteronomist, speaks about Levi via an allegorical comparison to Moses himself, which haggadah take to support the characterization of Levi (and his progeny) as being by far the greatest of his brothers in respect to piety. The apocryphal Prayer of Asenath, which textual scholars believe dates from some time after the first century AD (scholarship in regards to the dating is currently quite contentious, with dates ranging from near the first century, to the fourth or fifth centuries), describes Levi as a prophet and saint, able to forecast the future, understand heavenly writings (astrology? weather trends?), and someone who admonishes the people to be forgiving, as well as in awe of God. The Book of Malachi argues that the Levites were chosen by Yahweh to be the priests because of Levi as minister of God, was specified only the true religious regulations, was reverent, revered Yahweh, was in awe of the God's name, upheld peace, was a model of good morality, and turned many people from sin. Testament of Levi The Testament of Levi is believed to have been written between 153 BC and 107 BC, and closer to the latter date. On his deathbed, Levi gathered all his children to narrate the story of his life to them, and prophesied unto them what they would do, and what would happen to them until judgment day. He also told them that God had chosen him and his seed as priest of Lord unto eternity. In this testament, Levi is described as having had two visions. The first vision covered eschatological issues, portraying the seven heavens, the Jewish Messiah, and Judgement Day. The second vision portrays seven angels bringing Levi seven insignia signifying priesthood, prophecy, and judgement; in the vision, after the angels anoint Levi, and initiate him as a priest, they tell him of the future of his descendants, mentioning Moses, the Aaronid priesthood, and a time when there would be priest-kings; this latter point was of particular interest to the Maccabean period of John Hyrcanus, who was both a high priest, and warrior-king. The Book of Jubilees similarly has Isaac telling Levi of the future of his descendants, again predicting priesthood, prophets, and political power, and additionally describes Jacob as entrusting Levi with the secrets of the ancients, so that they would be known only to the Levites; however, like the Testament of Levi, the Book of Jubilees is regarded as a Maccabean-era document. See also Levite Miscegenation Tribe of Levi Lévai (surname originating from the Tribe of Levi) References External links “The Tribe: The Cohen-Levi Family Heritage” (cohen-levi.org) Founders of biblical tribes Children of Jacob Book of Genesis people Tribe of Levi Book of Jubilees	[ 0.2547685205936432, 0.2441348433494568, -0.7366423606872559, -0.32882145047187805, -0.4077240824699402, 0.960881233215332, 0.5649225115776062, -0.4060579538345337, -0.1327144205570221, -0.6788854598999023, -0.1236744374036789, -0.12064732611179352, -0.20046065747737885, 0.44776225090026855, -0.5396230816841125, 0.29715657234191895, 0.18644294142723083, 0.2518114149570465, -0.8087745308876038, -0.2644244134426117, 0.18840475380420685, 0.11544791609048843, 0.37533289194107056, 0.7382813692092896, 0.12319972366094589, 0.1458010971546173, 0.6426351070404053, 0.0859980657696724, 0.300148606300354, -0.11871181428432465, 0.02284112572669983, 0.1426122784614563, 0.3625335693359375, -0.3835964798927307, 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246932	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deggendorf%20%28district%29	Deggendorf (district)	Deggendorf is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bordered by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Regen, Freyung-Grafenau, Passau, Rottal-Inn, Dingolfing-Landau and Straubing-Bogen. History The district was established in 1936. Minor changes of the borders occurred in 1972 and led to the present form of the district. Geography The Danube river runs through the district from west to east, dividing it into two unequal regions. North of the Danube the Bavarian Forest rises steeply. In the south there is relatively plain countryside. The Isar river enters the district in the south and meets the Danube close to the town of Deggendorf. The Einödriegel (1,220 m) is the highest point within the county. Coat of arms The double eagle was the symbol of the monastery of Metten, which was the first Christian outpost in the region. The blue line stands for the river Danube, the green hills symbolise the Bavarian Forest. Towns and municipalities References External links Official website (German) Districts of Bavaria 1936 establishments in Germany	[ -0.33297818899154663, 1.240321159362793, 0.4913043975830078, -0.7299245595932007, -0.38855603337287903, 0.604892909526825, 1.0726138353347778, 0.24771928787231445, 0.12401847541332245, -0.5598035454750061, -0.24714447557926178, -0.3045162856578827, -0.05984152480959892, 0.4058396518230438, -0.3516753017902374, 0.5945713520050049, 0.6079645156860352, 0.5870069265365601, 0.20236749947071075, -0.7784406542778015, 0.047510866075754166, -0.5245276093482971, 0.15694130957126617, 0.5848798155784607, -0.2397659868001938, -0.5565443634986877, 0.4157469868659973, -0.02832513302564621, -0.1237979382276535, -0.1346244066953659, -0.23966084420681, 0.6328908205032349, -0.019782917574048042, 0.016476869583129883, 0.6140872240066528, 0.2325212061405182, 0.01756029948592186, -0.6729913949966431, 0.42261993885040283, -0.4530072808265686, -0.43778032064437866, 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246936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%2BDecker	Black+Decker	Black+Decker Inc. is an American manufacturer of power tools, accessories, hardware, home improvement products, home appliances and fastening systems headquartered in Towson, Maryland, north of Baltimore, Maryland, USA, where the company was originally established in 1910. On March 12, 2010, Black & Decker merged with Stanley Works to become Stanley Black & Decker. It remains as a wholly owned subsidiary of that company. Although the company is known for what it makes, it was highlighted in CFO magazine for a decade of "a fair-sized monetary return from" employee training. History 1910-1974 1910 – "The Black & Decker Manufacturing Company" was founded by S. Duncan Black (1883–1951) and Alonzo G. Decker (1884–1956), as a small machine shop in Baltimore in September. Decker, who had only a seventh grade education, had met Black in 1906, when they were both 23-year-old workers at the Rowland Telegraph Company. With only $1,200 between them, one of their first jobs was designing machinery for making milk bottle caps and candy dipping. 1912 – The Black and Decker "Hexagon" logo symbol was introduced, symbolizing the head of a hexagonal bolt found in machine shops. It was used in one form or another from 1912 to 2014. 1917 – Black & Decker invented and patented the hand-held electric drill with a pistol grip and trigger switch. –– For many decades the director of design was Glenn Calvin Wilhide, a friend of Walter Gropius and other industrial designers of the day. Wilhide filed many US patents for Black & Decker. 1917 – The first factory was opened in Towson, Maryland. 1919 – Company reaches $1,000,000 in sales. 1928 – Acquired Van Dorn Electric Tool Company of Cleveland, Ohio. 1936 – Common stock begins trading on the New York Stock Exchange. 1941 August – Wilhide's patent for a portable power driven tool unit granted. 1943 – Received the Army-Navy "E" Award for production, one of four World War II (1939/1941-1945) citations awarded to the company. 1949 – First Black & Decker U.S. trademark awarded. 1951 – Alonzo G. Decker, Sr. becomes president 1960 – Acquired DeWalt from American Machine and Foundry. 1975-2008 1975 – Francis P. Lucier succeeded son of one of the founders Alonzo G. Decker, Jr.(1908-2002), as chairman of the board, the first time a family member did not hold the post. 1984 – Acquired small-appliance business from General Electric Company. 1986 – Nolan D. Archibald is named chief executive officer. 1989 – Acquired Emhart Corporation which includes the brand names Kwikset, Price Pfister faucets, Molly wall anchors, POP rivets, True Temper (both hardware and sports equipment) and other consumer and commercial products. Inducted into the Space Foundation's Space Technology Hall of Fame for its cordless power tool achievements and contributions to NASA's Gemini and Apollo programs. 1990 – True Temper hardware is sold to Huffy, and then sold to US Industries (owner of Ames) which later became Ames True Temper, which is now owned by Griffon Corporation. 1996 – Sold small-appliance business to Windmere Durable Holdings. 2000 – Alonzo G. Decker, Jr. resigns from the board, at age 92, two years before his death. 2009-present 2010 – Black & Decker merges with Stanley Works to become Stanley Black & Decker. 2014 – Rebranded from Black & Decker to Black+Decker 2017 – Stanley Black & Decker purchases Craftsman from Sears (Sears, Roebuck & Company). 2017 – Stovekraft entered a licensing agreement with Black+Decker to sell the latter's products in the Indian market. Portfolio Recent As of 2017 Q4, Stanley Black & Decker's brand portfolio included: STANLEY (formerly known as The Stanley Works, started as Stanley's Bolt Manufactory, founded by Frederick Trent Stanley in 1843, and merging with the Stanley Rule and Level Company founded by Henry Stanley) Retired Baldwin (sold to Spectrum Brands) Delta Machinery (sold to Chang Type Industrial) DeVilbiss Air Power (sold to MAT Holdings) Kwikset (sold to Spectrum Brands) Price Pfister (sold to Spectrum Brands) Weiser Lock (sold to Spectrum Brands) References Further reading Black & Decker, 1989 Competition Commission report External links Companies based in Baltimore County, Maryland Home improvement companies Manufacturing companies based in Maryland Manufacturing companies established in 1910 Power tool manufacturers Towson, Maryland American companies established in 1910 1910 establishments in Maryland 2010 mergers and acquisitions	[ 0.3630772829055786, 0.18545176088809967, -0.498992383480072, 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246939	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-Smashed-In%20Buffalo%20Jump	Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump	Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump is a buffalo jump located where the foothills of the Rocky Mountains begin to rise from the prairie 18 km (11.2 mi) west of Fort Macleod, Alberta, Canada on highway 785. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and home of a museum of Blackfoot culture. Joe Crowshoe Sr. (1903–1999) – Aapohsoy’yiis (Weasel Tail) – a ceremonial Elder of the Piikani Nation in southern Alberta, was instrumental in the development of the site. The Joe Crow Shoe Sr. Lodge is dedicated to his memory. He dedicated his life to preserving Aboriginal culture and promoting the relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people and in 1998 was awarded the National Aboriginal Achievement Award for "saving the knowledge and practices of the Blackfoot people." History The buffalo jump was used for 5,500 years by the indigenous peoples of the plains to kill bison by driving them off the 11 metre (36 foot) high cliff. Before the late introduction of horses, the Blackfoot drove the bison from a grazing area in the Porcupine Hills about west of the site to the "drive lanes", lined by hundreds of cairns, by dressing up as coyotes and wolves. These specialized "buffalo runners" were young men trained in animal behavior to guide the bison into the drive lanes. Then, at full gallop, the bison would fall from the weight of the herd pressing behind them, breaking their legs and rendering them immobile. The cliff itself is about 300 metres (1000 feet) long, and at its highest point drops 10 metres (33 ft) into the valley below. The site was in use at least 6,000 years ago, and the bone deposits are 12 metres (39 feet) deep. After falling off the cliff, the injured bison were finished off by other Blackfoot warriors at the cliff base armed with spears and clubs. The carcasses were then processed at a nearby camp. The camp at the foot of the cliffs provided the people with everything they needed to process a bison carcass, including fresh water. The bison carcass was used for a variety of purposes, from tools made from the bone, to the hide used to make dwellings and clothing. The importance of the site goes beyond just providing food and supplies. After a successful hunt, the wealth of food allowed the people to enjoy leisure time and pursue artistic and spiritual interests. This increased the cultural complexity of the society. In Blackfoot, the name for the site is Estipah-skikikini-kots. According to legend, a young Blackfoot wanted to watch the bison plunge off the cliff from below, but was buried underneath the falling animals. He was later found dead under the pile of carcasses, where he had his head smashed in. World Heritage Site Head-Smashed-In was abandoned in the 19th century after European contact. The site was first recorded by Europeans in the 1880s, and first excavated by the American Museum of Natural History in 1938. It was designated a National Historic Site in 1968, a Provincial Historic Site in 1979, and finally a World Heritage Site in 1981 for its testimony of prehistoric life and the customs of aboriginal people. Interpretive centre and museum Opened in 1987, the interpretive centre at Head-Smashed-In is built into the ancient sandstone cliff in naturalistic fashion. It contains five distinct levels depicting the ecology, mythology, lifestyle and technology of Blackfoot peoples within the context of available archaeological evidence, presented from the viewpoints of both aboriginal peoples and European archaeological science. The centre also offers educational public and school programs which can be booked throughout the year. Each year Head-Smashed-In hosts a number of special events and native festivals known throughout the world for their color, energy and authenticity, including Buffalo Harvest Days, which brings together First Nations artists and craftspeople who display a wide variety of jewelry, clothing, art and crafts. Visitors can witness traditional drumming and dancing demonstrations every Wednesday in July and August at 11 a.m and 1:30 p.m. at the centre. An exhibition of photography titled Lost Identities: A Journey of Rediscovery, a collection of photographs taken in aboriginal communities, made its first appearance at the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump interpretive centre in 1999. After some time as a traveling exhibit, it was returned permanently to display in the centre. The permanent exhibition is a collaboration of many historical societies and museums to provide interpretations of the collection. The subjects of the photographs had gone unidentified for some time. While it was a traveling exhibit, the aboriginal communities where the photographs were taken provided further background and "voice" to the photographs. The facility was designed by Le Blond Partnership, an architectural firm in Calgary. The design was awarded the Governor General's Gold Medal for Architecture in 1990. See also List of Canadian provincial parks List of World Heritage Sites in North America References Archaeology of Native North America, 2010, Dean R. Snow, Prentice-Hall, New York. External links Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump Interpretive Centre History of Alberta Archaeological sites in Alberta Museums in Alberta First Nations museums in Canada World Heritage Sites in Canada Buffalo jumps Provincial historic sites of Alberta National Historic Sites in Alberta Blackfoot tribe Municipal District of Willow Creek No. 26 IUCN Category III Aboriginal National Historic Sites of Canada First Nations culture in Alberta	[ 0.11116206645965576, 0.21846969425678253, -0.6982817649841309, 0.20104698836803436, -0.4293404817581177, -0.1394501030445099, 0.9089555144309998, 0.5202289819717407, -0.41345345973968506, 0.0050219944678246975, 0.17452795803546906, 0.29674428701400757, -0.030886031687259674, 0.12650848925113678, -0.1147218644618988, 0.16587360203266144, 0.027797454968094826, -0.21006831526756287, 0.2936969995498657, -0.49915891885757446, 0.3233814835548401, -1.0672991275787354, 0.6359397768974304, 0.0022938221227377653, -0.02870173379778862, 0.2643410861492157, 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246940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvaceae	Malvaceae	Malvaceae, or the mallows, is a family of flowering plants estimated to contain 244 genera with 4225 known species. Well-known members of economic importance include okra, cotton, cacao and durian. There are also some genera containing familiar ornamentals, such as Alcea (hollyhock), Malva (mallow) and Lavatera (tree mallow), as well as Tilia (lime or linden tree). The largest genera in terms of number of species include Hibiscus (300 species), Sterculia (250 species), Dombeya (250 species), Pavonia (200 species) and Sida (200 species). Taxonomy and nomenclature The circumscription of the Malvaceae is controversial. The traditional Malvaceae sensu stricto comprise a very homogeneous and cladistically monophyletic group. Another major circumscription, Malvaceae sensu lato, has been more recently defined on the basis that genetics studies have shown the commonly recognised families Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, which have always been considered closely allied to Malvaceae s.s., are not monophyletic groups. Thus, the Malvaceae can be expanded to include all of these families so as to compose a monophyletic group. Adopting this circumscription, the Malvaceae incorporate a much larger number of genera. Subfamilies This article is based on the second circumscription, as presented by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. The Malvaceae s.l. (hereafter simply "Malvaceae") comprise nine subfamilies. A tentative cladogram of the family is shown below. The diamond denotes a poorly supported branching (<80%). Until recently, relationships between these subfamilies were either poorly supported or almost completely obscure. Continuing disagreements focused primarily on the correct circumscription of these subfamilies, including the preservation of the family Bombacaceae. A study published in 2021 presented a fully resolved phylogenetic framework for Malvaceae s.l. using genomic data for all nine subfamilies. If looking for information about the traditional Malvaceae s.s., we recommend referring to Malvoideae, the subfamily that approximately corresponds to that group. Synapomorphies The relationships between the "core Malvales" families used to be defined on the basis of shared "malvean affinities". These included the presence of malvoid teeth, stems with mucilage canals, and stratified wedge-shaped phloem. These affinities were problematic because they were not always shared within the core families. Later studies revealed more unambiguous synapomorphies within Malvaceae s.l.. Synapomorphies identified within Malvaceae s.l. include the presence of tile cells, trichomatous nectaries, and an inflorescence structure called a bicolor unit. Tile cells consist of vertically positioned cells interspersed between and dimensionally similar to procumbent ray cells. Evidence of Malvean wood fossils has confirmed their evolutionary link in Malvaceae s.l., as well as explained their diverse structures. Flowers of Malvaceae s.l. exhibit nectaries consisting of densely arranged multicellular hairs resembling trichomes. In most of Malvaceae s.l., these trichomatous nectaries are located on the inner surface of the sepals, but flowers of the subfamily Tiliodeae also have present nectaries on the petals. Malvean flowers also share a unifying structure known as a bicolor unit, named for its initial discovery in the flowers of Theobroma bicolor. The bicolor unit consists of an ordered inflorescence with determinate cymose structures. The inflorescence can branch off the main axis, creating separate orders of the flowers, with the main axis developing first. Bracts on the peduncle subtend axillary buds that become these lateral stalks. One bract within this whorl is a sterile bract. The bicolor unit is a variable structure in complexity, but the presence of fertile and sterile bracts is a salient characteristic. Names The English common name 'mallow' (also applied to other members of Malvaceae) comes from Latin malva (also the source for the English word "mauve"). Malva itself was ultimately derived from the word for the plant in ancient Mediterranean languages. Cognates of the word include Ancient Greek () or (), Modern Greek (), modern () and modern (). Description Most species are herbaceous plants or shrubs, but some are trees or lianas. Leaves and stems Leaves are generally alternate, often palmately lobed or compound and palmately veined. The margin may be entire, but when dentate, a vein ends at the tip of each tooth (malvoid teeth). Stipules are present. The stems contain mucous canals and often also mucous cavities. Hairs are common, and are most typically stellate. Stems of Bombacoideae are often covered in thick prickles. Flowers The flowers are commonly borne in definite or indefinite axillary inflorescences, which are often reduced to a single flower, but may also be cauliflorous, oppositifolious, or terminal. They often bear supernumerary bracts in the structure of a bicolor unit. They can be unisexual or bisexual, and are generally actinomorphic, often associated with conspicuous bracts, forming an epicalyx. They generally have five valvate sepals, most frequently basally connate, with five imbricate petals. The stamens are five to numerous, and connate at least at their bases, but often forming a tube around the pistils. The pistils are composed of two to many connate carpels. The ovary is superior, with axial placentation, with capitate or lobed stigma. The flowers have nectaries made of many tightly packed glandular hairs, usually positioned on the sepals. Fruits The fruits are most often loculicidal capsules, schizocarps or nuts. Pollination Self-pollination is often avoided by means of protandry. Most species are entomophilous (pollinated by insects). Bees from the tribe Emphorini of the Apidae (including Ptilothrix, Diadasia, and Melitoma) are known to specialize on the plants. Importance A number of species are pests in agriculture, including Abutilon theophrasti and Modiola caroliniana, and others that are garden escapees. Cotton (four species of Gossypium), kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), cacao (Theobroma cacao), kola nut (Cola spp.), and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) are important agricultural crops. The fruit and leaves of baobabs are edible, as is the fruit of the durian. A number of species, including Hibiscus syriacus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Alcea rosea are garden plants. See also Florissantia, an extinct Cenozoic genus in the subfamily Sterculioidea References Bayer, C. and K. Kubitzki 2003. Malvaceae, pp. 225–311. In K. Kubitzki (ed.), The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, vol. 5, Malvales, Capparales and non-betalain Caryophyllales. Maas, P. J. M. and L. Y. Th. Westra. 2005. Neotropical Plant Families (3rd edition). (abstract online here). External links Malvaceae.info: Malvaceae Gallery Topwalks.net: Malvaceae Tree of Life.org: Core Malvales HEAR.org — Malvaceae: plants of Hawaii — image gallery. 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246944	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festa%20de%20l%27Unit%C3%A0	Festa de l'Unità	Festa de l'Unità is an annual social-democratic festival in Italy, originally organised by the Italian Communist Party to finance and spread its official newspaper l'Unità ("Unity"), and now organised by the Democratic Party. It is often misspelled Festa dell'unità ("Unity party"), since people forget where the name comes from. The event is generally organized as many separated happenings, usually one for each city, but where the Communist party was more present, every local branch organized its own happening and often all of them collaborated to the organization of a large one as well. Typical aspects are political conferences, low-price or free typical foods, live music, prize games and street markets. Small events start already in July, but the main happenings take place in September. While the political aspect was preponderant in its first times, and is at times still important, it has developed with time into a social event for the youth (music events and discos) and elderly people (talking about the political adventures of their past and dancing swing). In some parts of Italy, especially in Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany, each and every small village seems to have its own "festa de l'Unità", which is often the biggest social event of the year. In Bologna and in Florence, they have developed into a two-week-long, tens-of-thousands-people-packed event that has little resemblance to the original political gathering, and are instead two of the biggest attractions for young people in the vicinity. Following the birth in 2007 of the Democratic Party the name of the Festa dell'Unità was changed, at a national level, to the Festa Democratica. At the provincial level, however, and for important local party organisations, the traditional name "Festa de l'Unità" was retained, while elsewhere new hybrid appellations have been adopted such "Festa del Partito Democratico" or "Festa di [place name]". The traditional name was restored in 2014, after the election of Matteo Renzi as new national Secretary of the party. 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246947	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeccability	Impeccability	Impeccability is the absence of sin. Christianity teaches this to be an attribute of God (logically God cannot sin, it would mean that he would act against his own will and nature) and therefore it is also attributed to Christ. Roman Catholic teaching Impeccability and Heaven Early Christians questioned whether the victorious saints in heaven could sin. The widely influential Eastern Church Father and theologian Origen of Alexandria maintained that they could. Official Roman Catholic doctrine holds that they cannot. Although Catholics believe in the gift of free will, saints in heaven already see God face to face and are incapable of sinning (see Pope Benedict XII and beatific vision), i.e., they will necessarily remain in God. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states (emphasis added): Impeccability and Purgatory The 13th-century, Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas taught that souls in Purgatory cannot sin (Summa Theologica, Second Part of the Second Part, Question 83, Article 11, Reply to Objection 3), let alone the saints in heaven. This is the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, although there are different opinions on the reasons for the impossibility to sin. Impeccability and the Virgin Mary The Roman Catholic Church teaches that Mary, mother of Jesus was, by a special grace of God, without sin her entire life. This included the moment of her conception, so Mary was even miraculously preserved from original sin and its effects. The Immaculate Conception is a Roman Catholic dogma that asserts that Mary was preserved by God from the stain of original sin at the time of her own conception. Some theologians have asserted this special grace extended to impeccability (understood in this context as the inability to sin); others argue this could not be so: as a natural human being, she would have had free will, and therefore the ability to sin, but through her cooperation avoided it. Protestant Christian theology holds that Jesus died for the sins of even his mother, who had at least two other sons, Jesus' brothers Jude and James. Impeccability and the Pope Impeccability is sometimes confused with infallibility, especially in discussions of papal infallibility. Impeccability is an attribute not claimed by the pope, and few would deny that there have been bad popes – Saint Peter himself denied Jesus three times. On the other hand, Pope Gregory VII, intellectual progenitor of the Ultramontanes and nemesis of the lay faction in the investiture controversy, voiced an assertion of Papal prerogative beyond even the strongest of modern apologists': The pope can be judged by no one; the Roman church has never erred and never will err till the end of time; the Roman church was founded by Christ alone; the pope alone can depose and restore bishops; he alone can make new laws, set up new bishoprics and divide old ones. ... He alone can call general councils and authorize canon laws; his legates .. have precedence over all bishops. ... A duly ordained pope is undoubtedly made a saint by the merits of St. Peter. Nevertheless, in Catholic thought, the exemption of the See of Rome from all error extends only to its definitive teachings on faith and morals, not to its historical judgments. Similarly, papal sainthood does not suggest that popes are free from sin. Quite the contrary, popes frequent the sacrament of Reconciliation (confession and penance) for the forgiveness of their sins, as all other Catholics are required to do. While occupying the papal office, Pope Benedict XVI confessed his sins once a week. Protestant teaching Evangelical writer Donald Macleod suggests that the sinless nature of Jesus Christ involves two elements. "First, Christ was free of actual sin." Studying the gospels there is no reference to Jesus praying for the forgiveness of sin, nor confessing sin. The assertion is that Jesus did not commit sin, nor could he be proven guilty of sin; he had no vices. In fact, he is quoted as asking, "Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?" in John 8:46. "Secondly, he was free from inherent sin ("original sin" or "ancestral sin")." Pelagianism According to Pelagianism, sin arises from free choice rather than being an inevitable consequence of man's fallen nature. Therefore, it is theoretically possible, although unusual, for anyone to live a sinless life. See also Christian perfection Gnomic will Infallibility of the Church Monothelitism References Catechism of the Catholic Church Summa Theologica External links Catechism of the Catholic Church from the official website of the Vatican Summa Theologica from NewAdvent website Christian hamartiology Christian terminology Marian dogmas Attributes of God in Christian theology	[ -0.38917747139930725, 0.5045268535614014, -0.3423529267311096, 0.0599154569208622, -0.2156728208065033, -0.08233819901943207, 0.4906488358974457, 0.0036088251508772373, 0.25736120343208313, -0.5701390504837036, -0.6878160238265991, 0.7153530120849609, 0.033913496881723404, 0.20370635390281677, -0.016200408339500427, 0.14871062338352203, 0.6645687222480774, 0.8567970395088196, -0.22677963972091675, -0.296503484249115, 0.6426504850387573, 0.43976113200187683, -0.28471052646636963, -0.5950676798820496, 0.42128482460975647, -0.2813892960548401, -0.18646860122680664, -0.00018371219630353153, 0.1718682050704956, 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246949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skysurfing	Skysurfing	Sky surfing is a type of skydiving and extreme sport in which the skydiver wears a custom skysurf board attached to the feet and performs surfing-style aerobatics during freefall. The boards used are generally smaller than actual surfboards, and look more like snowboards or large skateboards. Custom bindings attach the board to the feet, which is removable with the use of a 2-ring release system based on the common 3-ring release system used to cut away main parachutes. A neutral position maintaining stability is to stand upright on the board during freefall, this is also the position required for deployment of the main parachute whilst surfing medium and expert boards. The combination of rigid board and relative wind requires control to maintain stability during freefall. The jumper must control the board and their body position so as to open the parachute in a stable configuration. More advanced aerobatics such as loops, rolls and helicopter spins are possible. Since some moves involve high G-force spins some skysurfers tightly wrapping ace bandages all the way up the arms to keep the blood from pooling at the end of the limbs. Even with the bandage technique, however, many techniques in skysurfing can be extremely painful and result in temporary paralysis of fingers along with subconjunctival bleeding (broken blood vessel in eye). When a skysurfer is filmed by another skydiver falling alongside them, the resulting film gives the appearance that the skysurfer is riding on the air in the same way a surfer rides on a wave. The downward motion is not very apparent and this creates the illusion that a skysurfer is floating on the relative wind. A skysurfer falls at speeds comparable to any other freefall or freeflying skydiver, with speed varying depending on orientation. The competitive discipline of skysurfing is a team sport consisting of a skysurfer and a camera flyer with a video camera. History Skysurfing was invented by two French skydivers, Dominique Jacquet and Jean-Pascal Oron, in 1986, and became popular during the 1990s thanks to the efforts of the first few exponents to master the more complex aerobatics, such as the late Patrick de Gayardon, Eric Fradet and Phillipe Vallaud. The rise of skysurfing coincided with other new-age disciplines in skydiving, such as freestyle and freeflying. In 1991, after performing standing on a surfboard for a skysurfing advertisement of Coca-Cola Ray Palmer became the first Australian skysurfer. Skysurfing reached its peak in popularity during the mid to late 1990s. Skysurfers were featured in prime time television commercials for major brands like Pepsi, AT&T & Sony PlayStation and continue to this day with Red Bull. The combination of brand association, television coverage and competition promoted the sport of skydiving in a positive manner while producing exciting content for brands to be associated with. A number of movie studios included skysurfing in action sequences such as Silver Surfer & XXX (2002) film. Ralph Lauren created a fragrance brand Extreme Polo Sport based on imagery of skysurfing. Competitive team skysurfing was prominent during the late 1990's with most notable being ESPN X Games (1995 to 2000) & FAI World Air Games 1997. The hazards associated with skysurfing are mainly due to loss of control inducing flat spins where the head is outside of the center of the spinning body. Proper guidance & practice will avoid unnecessary risks involved. Safely releasing the board is something that needs to be discussed with an experienced skysurfer. The amount of time required to master the expert board is approximately 1000 jumps. Skysurf boards are typically custom made by the sky surfer with cooperation from qualified parachute riggers to manufacture the bindings and cut-away systems. Commercial board manufacturers during the 1990's included Tom Stanton and Jerry Loftis; both offering boards in different sizes for beginner, intermediate and expert abilities. SurfFlite has changed ownership a number of times and continues to manufacture boards. The skill, experience and time required to master skysurfing led to a decline in the popularity in the skydiving community however this is experiencing a resurgence attributed to coaching, the introduction of Vertical Wind Tunnel and as skydivers seek new challenges. A presentation of the History and Future of Skysurfing was made at the British Parachute Association. Competitions Skysurfing Competitions have ranged from FAI World Air Games, SSI pro tour, ESPN X games, national sky surf championships in USA, UK & Switzerland, also Boards Over Europe and Sky surfing World Cup and Skysurfing World Championships. A sky surfing team include two people; sky surfer and a camera flier. Judges give scores to a sky surfing team not only for the variety of moves and the total performance but also for the skills of camera flier to catch the best moments of performance. 50% of the total score is calculated on sky surfer's performance, and 50% on the cameraman's score. The first Skysurf World Championship was held in Efes, Turkey on 13–21 September 1997 by the International Parachuting Committee. Competitive team skysurfing was featured as part of the ESPN X Games from 1995 to 2000. In 1996 and 1997, the SSI Pro Tour staged eight X-Trials qualifying events in both North America and Europe. During this six-year period, pro skysurf teams received a total of $392,000 in cash winnings and the discipline garnered over 100 hours of global TV exposure without incident. In 2000 ABC's Wide World of Sports chose Skysurfing from the X-Games to cover due to its attractive television format. Training Training programmes were established to ensure the safe progression of the sport. With the growth in participants and interest to progress safely the British Parachute Association rules were adopted as part of the Operations Manual and guidelines for achieving SS1 & SS2 recognition of their skills. Loftis developed an instructional programme with skysurf schools run by a number of competitive sky surfers. A number of coaching programmes remain, with expert advice and coaching considered mandatory by drop zone owners and chief instructors to mitigate risk. Records and firsts As with a new any new sport a number of firsts and records were established, featured in the media and a number recognised by Record Breakers and Guinness World Records. These included the highest altitude exit, surfing in a thunder storm, extreme ironing, most number of spins, surfing above active volcanos and longest distance travelled on a 'sky-glider'. Notable skysurfers Patrick de Gayardon Troy Hartman Valery Rozov Rob Harris Notable camera flyers Olav Zipser References Boardsports Acrobatic sports Parachuting	[ 0.7181268334388733, -0.2809906601905823, -0.07382199168205261, 0.38570088148117065, -0.25056368112564087, -0.2757968008518219, 0.055637720972299576, -0.05319380760192871, -0.361027330160141, 0.009304790757596493, 0.041168004274368286, 0.3680412471294403, -0.2905271351337433, -0.5674189925193787, -0.3565472364425659, 0.32493463158607483, 0.3135642111301422, 0.33312779664993286, 0.48116716742515564, -0.2586979269981384, -0.5410739183425903, -0.23434360325336456, 0.1563592404127121, -0.3930467665195465, -0.06057508662343025, -0.02509942464530468, 0.09169410169124603, 0.6430986523628235, 0.01807624101638794, 0.06489989906549454, 0.3538765609264374, 0.7786831259727478, 0.037393078207969666, -0.2168123871088028, 0.08226963132619858, -0.010286637581884861, 0.1317320168018341, -0.45580846071243286, -0.12238701432943344, 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246953	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Clancy%27s%20Splinter%20Cell%20%28video%20game%29	Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell (video game)	Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell is a 2002 stealth video game developed by Ubi Soft Montreal and published by Ubi Soft. It is the first game in the Splinter Cell series. Endorsed by author Tom Clancy, it follows the activities of NSA black ops agent Sam Fisher (voiced by Michael Ironside). The game was inspired by the Metal Gear series and games created by Looking Glass Studios and built using Unreal Engine 2. Originally released as an Xbox exclusive in 2002, the game was ported to Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, GameCube and Mac OS X in 2003. A side-scrolling adaptation developed by Gameloft was also released in 2003 for Game Boy Advance, mobile phones and N-Gage (the latter with the subtitle Team Stealth Action). A remastered high definition version was released on PlayStation 3 in September 2011, and an Xbox version was made available for Xbox One via backward compatibility in June 2019. Splinter Cell received critical acclaim on release and is considered as one of the best video games ever made. The success of the game lead to multiple sequels, starting with Pandora Tomorrow in 2004, and a series of novels written under the pseudonym David Michaels. A remake of Splinter Cell is currently in development by Ubisoft Toronto. Gameplay The primary focus and hallmark of Splinter Cells gameplay is stealth, with strong emphasis on light and darkness. The player is encouraged to move through the shadows for concealment whenever possible. The game displays a "light meter" that reflects how visible the player character is to enemies, and night vision and thermal vision goggles to help the player navigate in darkness or smoke/fog, respectively. The light meter functions even when night vision goggles is activated, and it is possible to destroy lights, thus reducing the chances of exposure significantly. Splinter Cell strongly encourages the use of stealth over brute force. Although Sam Fisher is usually equipped with firearms, he carries limited ammunition and is not frequently provided with access to additional ammo. The player begins most missions with a limited supply of less-than-lethal weapons in addition to Fisher's firearms, a suppressed FN Five-Seven sidearm that is provided for every mission, as well as a suppressed FN F2000 assault rifle during some missions, which includes a telescopic sight and a launcher for some of the less-lethal devices such as ring airfoil projectiles, "sticky shockers" and CS gas grenades. The weapon can even fire a camera that sticks onto surfaces, allowing Fisher to covertly perform surveillance from a safe area. Flexibility of movement is a focuspoint of Splinter Cell. Fisher can sneak up on enemies from behind to grab them; allowing interrogation, quiet incapacitation, or use as a human shield. Fisher is acrobatic and physically adept, and has a variety of maneuvers including the ability to mantle onto and climb along ledges, hang from pipes and perform a "split jump" in narrow spaces to mantle up a steep wall. Plot In August 2004, former U.S. Navy SEAL officer Sam Fisher joins the National Security Agency, as part of its newly formed division "Third Echelon" headed by his old friend Irving Lambert. Two months later, Fisher, aided by technical expert Anna "Grim" Grimsdóttír and field runner Vernon Wilkes Jr., is sent to Georgia to investigate the disappearance of two CIA officers Alice Madison who had been installed in the new government of Georgian president Kombayn Nikoladze, who seized power in a bloodless coup d'état following the assassination of his predecessor earlier in the year; and Robert Blaustein who was sent in to find her. Fisher discovers both were murdered on Nikoladze's orders by former Spetsnaz member Vyacheslav Grinko. Further investigation soon reveals that the CIA agents had discovered that Nikoladze is waging an ethnic cleansing campaign across Azerbaijan with Georgian commandos. In retaliation, NATO forces enter Azerbaijan, prompting Nikoladze to go underground. Third Echelon soon discovers a data exchange is taking place between a Caspian oil rig and the Georgian presidential palace, and assign Fisher to recover the data. Narrowly avoiding an airstrike by NATO, Fisher recovers a technician's laptop with files on an item called "The Ark", as well as evidence that there is a mole in the CIA. Shortly after this, North America is hit by a massive cyber warfare attack directed at military targets, to which Nikoladze claims responsibility before declaring war on the United States and its allies. Investigating the leak, Fisher discovers a back-up of data by a staff member to an unsecured laptop that was exploited by a Virginian-based network owned by Kalinatek, Inc. After Grim's efforts spook the Georgians, Fisher is sent to the company's Virginia offices to recover an encryption key from Ivan, a technician in the building, as Georgian-hired mafiosos attempt to liquidate all the incriminating evidence. In his escape, Wilkes is mortally wounded extracting him and dies soon afterwards. With the encryption key, the NSA discover that Nikoladze has been using a network of unconventional relays to communicate with Georgian military cells. Tracing the full relay network back to the Chinese embassy in Yangon, Myanmar, Fisher is sent in discreetly to investigate. Fisher discovers from captured U.S. soldiers and high-ranking Chinese diplomats that Nikoladze is working alongside a rogue collective of Chinese soldiers led by General Kong Feirong, after rescuing them from being executed on a live web broadcast. After killing Grinko in a firefight when he attempts to kill the Americans and Chinese, Fisher moves to capture Feirong for information on Nikoladze's location. After preventing him from committing suicide in a drunken stupor, Feirong reveals that Nikoladze had fled back to Georgia in order to activate a device codenamed "The Ark". Infiltrating the Georgian presidential palace where Nikoladze and new Georgian president Varlam Cristavi are, Fisher attempts to recover the key to the Ark, which he learns is in fact a nuclear suitcase bomb that has been placed somewhere in the United States. Fisher corners Nikoladze, who bargains to give the Ark key in exchange for safe passage out of Georgia. After Cristavi's forces arrive and escort Nikoladze to safety, Lambert rescues Fisher from execution by creating a diversion via power blackout. Discovering that Nikoladze is offering the Ark's location for protection, Fisher assassinates him. The National Guard eventually locates the bomb and evacuates an apartment complex in Hope's Gate, Maryland under the pretense of a gas leak before secretly recovering the weapon. Despite a war being averted, Nikoladze's corpse sparks international backlash due to the suspicious circumstances around his death. Watching the U.S. president give a speech on the end of the crisis, Fisher then receives a secure phone call from Lambert for another assignment. Development The game originally started development as a sci-fi, James Bond type game called The Drift, which Ubisoft intended to be "a Metal Gear Solid 2 killer". The game's producer Mathieu Ferland said "Metal Gear Solid was a huge inspiration for Splinter Cell." The game's designer and writer Clint Hocking also said Splinter Cell "owes its existence to" the Metal Gear series, while noting he was also influenced by System Shock, Thief and Deus Ex. Because the development team was aiming for a Teen ESRB rating, the team tried to minimize the level of violence. The soundtrack for the game was composed by English composer Michael Richard Plowman. Version differences The PC version of Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell is fairly closely based on the original Xbox version. Both were made by Ubisoft Montreal. The GameCube and PlayStation 2 versions, released later, were developed by Ubisoft Shanghai and are similar to each other, but have many small changes over the originals with the result that they are generally easier. Some doors are moved around, guards are less likely to notice gunshots, etc. Each version of the game has some exclusive features. The Xbox and Windows versions have three new downloadable missions which involve a Russian nuclear sub. The PlayStation 2 version includes an exclusive level between Kalinatek and the Chinese Embassy which takes place in a nuclear power plant in the Kola Peninsula, new cinematics, a new intro cinematic with original music by the Prague Orchestra and many behind-the-scenes interviews and documentaries both about the new intro and the game itself. The GameCube version includes the same cinematics, uses the Game Boy Advance link cable to give players a real-time overhead map, a new sticky-bomb weapon and progressive scan (480p) support. Additionally, both the GameCube and PlayStation 2 versions include new binoculars items. A PlayStation 3 version was announced to be part of the Splinter Cell Trilogy which was released in September 2011 as part of Sony's Classics HD series. It was revealed on the PlayStation Blog that it would be ported from the PC version, because it had more details and more content than the PlayStation 2 version. It was released on the European PlayStation Network on August 10, 2011. The PlayStation 3 version does not include the downloadable bonus missions that the Xbox and PC versions had. Reception Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell received positive reviews upon the game's release. GameSpot's Greg Kasavin said that Splinter Cell has "hands down the best lighting effects seen in any game to date." GameSpot later named Splinter Cell the second-best Xbox game of November 2002, behind MechAssault. IGN likewise praised the game for its graphics and lighting, while also praising how it evolved Metal Gear Solids third-person stealth-action gameplay. Both praised the game's audio, noting that Michael Ironside as Sam Fisher's voice suited the role perfectly. Scott Alan Marriott of AllGame gave the Xbox version four-and-a-half stars out of five and called it "one of the few games to elicit a feeling of suspense without resorting to shock techniques found in survival horror titles like Resident Evil." Criticism of the game was also present. Greg Kasavin said that Splinter Cell is "sometimes reduced to frustrating bouts of trial and error." In addition, Kasavin criticized the game's cutscenes, saying that they are not up to par with the rest of the game's graphics. Non video-game publications also gave the game favorable reviews. Entertainment Weekly gave the Xbox version an A and called it "wickedly ingenious". The Village Voice gave the PlayStation 2 version eight out of ten and said, "If this game were any more realistic, you'd have to hold in your farts." The Cincinnati Enquirer gave the Game Boy Advance version all four stars and said that "While it lacks 3-D graphics and an impressive use of lighting and shadows found in its predecessors, the stealthy action game still captures the thrill of modern espionage." Sales Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell was a commercial success. Pre-orders reached 1.1 million units and the game sold 480,000 copies worldwide by the end of 2002, after three weeks on sale. France accounted for 60,000 units in the initial three weeks. By early January 2003, sales in North America had surpassed 1 million units, while Europe accounted for 600,000 units. By March 31, 2003, its sales had risen to 3.6 million copies. Splinter Cell sold 4.5 million copies by June and 5 million by the end of September, and its sales reached 6 million units by the end of March 2004. By July 2006, the Xbox version of Splinter Cell had sold 2.4 million copies and earned $62 million in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the 10th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. It remained the best-selling Splinter Cell game in the United States by July 2006. The game's PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions each received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), given to titles that sell at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Splinter Cells computer version received a "Silver" sales award from ELSPA, indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Awards E3 2002 Game Critics Awards: Best Action/Adventure Game 3rd Annual Game Developers Choice Awards: Excellence in Writing 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards: Console Game of the Year, Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering IGN Best of 2002: Xbox Game of the Year, Xbox Best Graphics 2003 Spike Video Game Awards: Best Handheld Game, Splinter Cell was a runner-up for Computer Games Magazines list of the 10 best games of 2003. It won GameSpots 2002 "Best Graphics (Technical)" and "Best Action Adventure Game" awards among Xbox games, and was nominated in the "Best Sound", "Best Graphics (Artistic)" and overall "Game of the Year on Xbox" categories. Nominations 3rd Annual Game Developers Choice Awards: Game of the Year, Original Game Character of the Year, Excellence in Game Design, Excellence in Level Design, and Excellence in Programming 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards: Innovation in Console Gaming, Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design, Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering, and Console Action/Adventure Game of the Year IGN Best of 2002: Overall Game of the Year Remake On December 15, 2021, Ubisoft announced that a remake of the game is under development at Ubisoft Toronto using Snowdrop, the game engine behind Tom Clancy's The Division and Avatar: Frontiers of Pandora. Most of the staff involved in the original game are involved in doing the remake. Notes References External links Official website via Internet Archive 2002 video games Action-adventure games Game Boy Advance games Interactive Achievement Award winners MacOS games Mobile games N-Gage games GameCube games PlayStation 2 games PlayStation 3 games 01 Stealth video games Tom Clancy games Ubisoft games Video games developed in Canada Video games developed in France Video games developed in China Video games set in 2004 Video games set in 2005 Video games set in Azerbaijan Video games set in Georgia (country) Video games set in Russia Video games set in Myanmar Video games set in Virginia Windows games Xbox games Video games with alternative versions de:Tom Clancy’s Splinter Cell#Splinter Cell hr:Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell#Splinter Cell	[ -0.6755489706993103, 0.3278065025806427, -0.560819685459137, 0.0359376035630703, 0.06925790011882782, -0.10818322747945786, 0.17594613134860992, -0.032043036073446274, -0.3329983055591583, 0.22598609328269958, -0.2244674116373062, 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246960	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Clancy%27s%20Splinter%20Cell	Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell	Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell is a series of stealth shooter games, the first of which was released in 2002, and their tie-in novels that were endorsed by Tom Clancy. The protagonist, Sam Fisher, is a highly trained agent of a fictional black-ops sub-division within the NSA, dubbed "Third Echelon". The player controls Fisher to overcome his adversaries in levels (created using Unreal Engine and emphasising light and darkness as gameplay elements). All the console and PC games in the series were positively received, and the series is commercially successful. The series was once considered to be one of Ubisoft's flagship franchises, selling more than 31 million copies by 2011. However, as of 2021 there has not been a new installment since 2013, though a VR version and a remake have been announced. Games Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell (2002) Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell was developed over a period of two years and developed by Ubi Soft Montreal with original publishing by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox as an exclusive title. Later in 2003, Ubisoft ported the game to Microsoft Windows, Mac, PlayStation 2, GameCube, and Game Boy Advance. Inspired by the Metal Gear series, it uses an Unreal Engine 2 that was modified to allow light-and-dark based gameplay. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow (2004) Pandora Tomorrow was developed by Ubisoft Shanghai and Ubisoft Milan and introduced multiplayer gameplay to the Splinter Cell series. In single-player mode, the game AI adapts to adjust to the player's skill level. Unlike other games in the series, which generally lean towards information-based threats, the plot of Pandora Tomorrow focuses on biological warfare, in which an Indonesian terrorist group threatens to infect people with smallpox virus. Sam Fisher is also given new abilities like SWAT turns and whistling to attract enemies' attention. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory (2005) Ubisoft Montreal and Ubisoft Milan were again responsible for the third game in the series, Chaos Theory. It adds a cooperative multiplayer mode. Originally announced to be released in Fall 2004, its initial releases were made at the end of March 2005. Again the Unreal Engine was heavily modified, this time from version 2.5. The game includes a number of new features, including adding a combat knife to the player's inventory. Maps are also much more open with multiple ways of achieving the end goal. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Essentials (2006) Essentials extends the Splinter Cell series to the PSP platform. Through a series of flashback missions, the player learns more about Sam Fisher's back story. The game's critical reception was much worse than the other games in the series. While the graphics were considered high-quality for the PSP, the multiplayer was considered almost unplayable. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Double Agent (2006) For the series' fourth installment, two separate versions were created, one for generation six consoles and the Wii, and the other for Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, and PlayStation 3. Double Agent features a "trust system" that presents the player with moral dilemmas. It is the first game in the series with a hub-like area, where Sam can explore and do objectives between missions. This is also the only game in the series to have different endings, based on player decisions. Only one ending is used to continue the storyline. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Conviction (2010) Conviction was officially announced on May 23, 2007, when Ubisoft released a trailer for the game. The game was due for release on November 16, 2007. However, the game missed its initial launch date, and on May 19, 2008, it was reported that Splinter Cell: Conviction was "officially on hold" and that the game had been taken "back to the drawing board". Ubisoft announced that the game had been pushed back to the 2009–10 fiscal year. At E3 2009, the developers confirmed that the "new" Conviction had been in development since early 2008, commenting that "the gameplay has evolved a lot" and "the visual direction is simply much better". The game's release date was pushed back several times. On March 18, 2010, the demo was released for Xbox 360. Ubisoft wanted to make the fifth game more accessible. so Conviction was designed around the new core elements "Mark and Execute" and "Last Known Position", while stealth elements present in the previous games were omitted, such as the ability to whistle, lock picking, hiding bodies, etc. Conviction uses a cover system and adds simple interrogation sequences to the series. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Blacklist (2013) Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Blacklist is the sixth installment in the Splinter Cell series developed by Ubisoft Toronto and published by Ubisoft and was released on August 20, 2013. Splinter Cell: Blacklist boasts new features combining gameplay from Chaos Theory and Conviction. Series veteran Michael Ironside was replaced in his role as Sam Fisher by actor Eric Johnson. In the game, Sam Fisher has been appointed as the commander of the new "Fourth Echelon", a clandestine unit that answers solely to the President of the United States. She has denied any existence of the agency and Fourth Echelon is working to stop a new terror plot known as the 'Blacklist'. Fourth Echelon also has the secondary objective of stopping all operations in which Third Echelon is still running. Features returning include a moving "Mark and Execute", Sam's signature goggles and a new knife, the Karambit, and the ability to perform "abduction" stealth melee takedowns. Future At E3 2017 regarding Splinter Cell, Ubisoft CEO Yves Guillemot stated: "I can't say much about that. But, for sure, all the Clancy games are taken care of. It's just we have quite a lot on our plate at the moment...[A]ll the Clancy games are really coming along, so we are not forgetting Splinter Cell." Later in an Ask Me Anything Reddit post, he stated: "We don't have anything specific to share at the moment but teams are working on different things, so stay tuned for more." In May 2019, Julian Gerighty, Ubisoft Creative Director, announced on their social media page that a game is currently in development. In his statement, he said he had been working on the game with Ubisoft Montreal creative director, Roman Campos-Oriola, and executive producer Dan Hay. However, Ubisoft later disputed this. In December 2021, Ubisoft revealed that they are working on a remake of the first game. VR Game On September 16, 2020, it was announced at Facebook Connect that a virtual reality version of the video game series is coming exclusively to the Oculus VR platform, along with an Assassin's Creed game. They are set to be developed by Red Storm Entertainment. Novels Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell (2004) Splinter Cell is the first installment of a series of novels based on the successful video game series. It was written by Raymond Benson under the pseudonym David Michaels. The plot follows Sam Fisher as he investigates a terrorist group called "The Shadows" and a related arms-dealing organization named "The Shop". Members of "The Shop" use inside information to attempt to kill "Third Echelon" members, including Fisher. Shortly after its publication in December 2004, it spent 3 weeks on the New York Times list of bestsellers. It also made it to the list of Wall Street Journal mass-market paperback bestsellers. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Operation Barracuda (2005) In Operation Barracuda, which was released on November 1, 2005, and which also made the New York Times bestseller list, Raymond Benson (again as David Michaels) continues the story of the first Splinter Cell novel. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Checkmate (2006) For Checkmate, Grant Blackwood took over as author behind the David Michaels pseudonym, Benson having declared that he was "finished with Splinter Cell". Unlike the first two books, Checkmate is not written from the first person perspective of Fisher, nor does Checkmate continue the running subplots that were established in the previous. This novel was released on November 7, 2006. The book starts off with a ship by the name of Trego sailing towards the American east coast. Sam Fisher is called in from a training mission to disable the ship. After Fisher stops the ship from irradiating the American west coast with nuclear waste he is informed that a town by the name of Slipstone has just been radioactively attacked and 5,000+ people are dead. All these events lead to more questions which eventually leads Fisher to Ukraine, Iran, Dubai, and Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Fallout (2007) On November 6, 2007, Fallout, was published, Blackwood's second Splinter Cell novel and the fourth in the series. Like the previous novel, it was written by Grant Blackwood, under the pseudonym David Michaels. The story follows Sam Fisher as he combats Islamic fundamentalists who have taken over the government of Kyrgyzstan. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Conviction (2009) Conviction, is the tie-in novel to the game with the same name. It was published on November 3, 2009, and was written by Peter Telep under the name David Michaels. It was published by Berkley Books, under Penguin Group. In this book you follow Sam Fisher after the killing of Lambert. Fisher is on the run and has 'gone rogue.' He is being chased by a team of rookie Splinter Cells led by Ben Hansen. Tales of treason and betrayal are being heard about Sam throughout the underworld. He will not let Lambert die in vain as he travels around the world untangling intricate plots of murder, espionage, and international arms dealers. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Endgame (2009) Endgame is the second "half" of the Conviction novel. The plot runs parallel to the Conviction novel, but from the point of view of Fisher's antagonists; which begins as he tries to track down a Doppelgänger factory conspiracy. It was published on December 1, 2009. The story is told from the perspective of Ben Hansen and the rest of the team pursuing Fisher. The events reveal a plot of international intrigue. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Blacklist: Aftermath (2013) Published in October 2013, this tie-in novel takes place after the events of the video game Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Blacklist. "Eccentric billionaire Igor Kasperov owns one of the most influential and successful anti-virus software companies in the world. But when the Kremlin orders him to unleash a catastrophic computer virus against the United States, he is forced to flee for his life. Sam Fisher and Fourth Echelon are charged with finding Kasperov and presenting the American president’s offer for political asylum. Because there are others looking for Kasperov. And the only thing they will offer him is a swift death." Aftermath is written by Peter Telep and the first in the series to be authored without the use of the David Michaels pseudonym. Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Firewall (2022) Firewall is expected to release in March 2022. It was written by James Swallow and will feature Sam Fisher's daughter, Sarah, working alongside her father. The plot finds Fisher facing off against an assassin from his past and a sinister threat to global security - a powerful cyberwarfare technology known as Gordian Sword, capable of cutting through any firewall in existence, to be auctioned off to the highest bidder in a rogue’s gallery of terrorists, criminals and renegade states. Common elements Plot and themes The first game explains that "Splinter Cell" refers to an elite recon-type unit of single covert operatives (such as Sam Fisher) who are supported in the field by a high-tech remote team. In the first three games (Splinter Cell, Pandora Tomorrow, Chaos Theory), terrorists are planning attacks, usually by use of information warfare, which Sam Fisher, an operative for Third Echelon, a secret branch of the NSA, must prevent. The missions range from gathering intelligence to capturing and/or eliminating terrorists. In the fourth game, Double Agent, Fisher assumes the identity of a wanted criminal in order to infiltrate a terrorist ring. The fifth game, Conviction, starts after events in the conclusion of Double Agent: Sam has abandoned Third Echelon. When he discovers that the death of his daughter Sarah had not been an accident (as had been purported at the beginning of Double Agent), he strikes out on his own in search of those responsible until Sam's investigation uncovers a conspiracy within his old agency. In the sixth and most recent game, Blacklist, Third Echelon has been disbanded by the President of the United States. A new outfit, Fourth Echelon, is formed by the President and placed under the command of Sam Fisher with the mission of stopping the Blacklist attacks and the Engineers - the organization behind them. Blacklist deals with the morality of war and how far Sam and his team go in order to prevent these plots against America. Trifocal goggles A device used for seeing in the dark features strongly in the series. Originally, Tom Clancy had rejected the idea of Sam Fisher having these "trifocal goggles", having stated that such goggles (with both thermal vision and night vision) were impossible to make. The creators argued that having two separate sets of goggles would have made for awkward gameplay and convinced Clancy to allow it. This also gave the Splinter Cell series a recognizable signature, a desirable feature. Chaos Theory added a third one, electromagnetic view, which shows the path of electricity in the area, mainly electrical cables and any device that has electrical power, like TVs, computers, etc. Conviction allows a fourth module to be accessed, a sonar module that can scan through walls for interactable objects, such as weapons, people, and consoles. The trifocal goggles however, didn't remain completely fictional. In 2004, Northrop Grumman produced and delivered one such device. The device, called Fused Multispectral Weapon Sight (FMWS) was capable of combining thermal and intensified imaging. Later in 2007, ITT Industries developed another such device, designated AN/PSQ-20. Characters The characters of the games, as well as the organization "Third Echelon", were created by J. T. Petty. The main recurring ones are: Sam Fisher is the main protagonist of the series. The character ranks 24th on the "Guinness Top 50 Video Game Characters of All Time" list. Irving Lambert, leader of "Third Echelon", serves as the player's guide by leading Fisher through the games' missions, until he is killed by Sam in Double Agent. Anna "Grim" Grimsdóttír is portrayed as an official Third Echelon hacker and analyst, who helps Fisher when technical obstacles need to be overcome. In Conviction she takes over the role of guide from the deceased Lambert; her character also becomes the source of dramatic tension in the story. In Blacklist, she is the technical operations officer and butts heads with Sam over morality, ethics, and Fourth Echelon's operating parameters. Sarah Fisher, Sam's daughter and sole family member. She was presumed to be killed in Double Agent, but Conviction revealed her murder to be a deception. Gameplay The encouraged way to progress through the games is to remain hidden, select non-obvious routes, and utilize diversions to pass guards. The first game in the series only features a single-player mode, Pandora Tomorrow introduces a two-on-two multiplayer mode. Chaos Theory further develops that mode and introduces a cooperative mode. Cooperative mode plays similarly to the single player mode, but adds situations that can only be overcome as a team. The cooperative storylines in Chaos Theory and the sixth generation version of Double Agent parallel those of Sam's actions in the single-player modes, letting players act on information he obtained or provide support in the field. Double Agent introduces a morality factor: Fisher may now encounter conflicting objectives between his superiors and the terrorists. For example, the terrorists may assign a mission to assassinate someone, while the NSA simultaneously instructs the player to prevent the assassination. This creates a delicate balancing act between gaining the trust of the terrorists and fulfilling the mission assignments. In addition, Fisher must not do anything to reveal to the terrorists that he is a double agent (such as let himself be seen with an NSA gadget), otherwise he will lose instantly. Conviction utilises a much faster and more violent form of stealth action gameplay than previous games in the series. It retains the cooperative multiplayer mode of the two preceding games. The weapons that Sam Fisher uses are based more accurately on current real-world weapons which behave accordingly and all weapons can be upgraded by a points system. This points system is secondary to the main storyline and is achievement based. These points may be used to add silencers, sights, upgraded ammo, laser targeting and other upgrades, with up to three upgrades per weapon. This game provides an interactive mission update sequence that is built into the levels themselves. Instead of getting an objective-bar popup, the objective may appear in bold white text on the side of a building or in front of a barricade. This adds to the immersion and keeps the HUD uncluttered. The stealth element of the game allows Fisher to hide in the shadows and become almost invisible. Guards may be assassinated by unsuppressed or silenced weapons, gadgets, or hand-to-hand combat. After successfully completing a hand-to-hand kill, the player is provided with an 'execution' bonus, which allows the player to mark two to four targets (depending on the weapon selected) such as enemies or objects, and trigger the execution animation. Fisher will then dispatch all targets within a few seconds in an extraordinary fashion. Interactive interrogation cutscenes where Fisher beats up a target for information do not require the player to do anything other than press [Interrogate]. Though if the player happens to be near an interactive object like a television or table, Fisher may use that to alter the standard animation. Development and history Origin Although the game features his name, Tom Clancy had little to no involvement in the development of any of the Splinter Cell games. According to Splinter Cell series producer Mathieu Ferland, the original game was developed so that Ubisoft's Montreal studio could demonstrate its full potential. After Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six and Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon, "special ops was the natural next step" for Tom Clancy-endorsed games. Graphics and technology The first game in the series modified the Unreal Engine to allow the light-and-dark-based gameplay style. The other games continued this, using updated versions of the engine. By the release of the latest game – Blacklist – the engine had been upgraded to the LEAD engine, a heavily modified version of the Unreal Engine 2.5. The game had active shadows on all consoles not simply as a graphical function – as in most games – but as a gameplay enhancer for the sake of the game's stealth features. This meant that more coding for the game was required and overall, required a powerful desktop computer in order to get the best clarity and performance. Reception By the end of 2004, sales of the Splinter Cell series totaled 9.6 million units. By October 2005, the series' global sales had surpassed 12.5 million units. Other media Film adaptation Originally announced as a special feature on Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory, a film adaptation for the series was confirmed to be in development, as early as 2005. In 2011, Ubisoft announced that Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell, Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon, and Assassin's Creed were all planned to receive film adaptations. The company officially stated, "We want to keep ownership, retain control over the film content, and we're open to work with studios on the development of our projects, and eventually collaborate on the pre-casting, pre-budget and script." The following year, it was reported that Warner Bros. and Paramount Pictures are the front-runners bidding to make a Splinter Cell film. By November, it was announced that British actor Tom Hardy was cast as Sam Fisher, while Eric Warren Singer was hired as screenwriter. By 2013, Ubisoft announced that the film will be made by New Regency, with Basil Iwanyk signed on as producer through his production company, Thunder Road. In March 2014, Doug Liman joined the production as director, with Jean-Julien Baronnet and David Bartis attached as producers. Later that month, Sheldon Turner was brought into the production team, to write a new draft of the script. Hardy told Collider in an interview that the studio was hoping to start filming that August. By June, Liman stated that both he and Hardy were working on the film's script, which will focus on a young Sam Fisher, in his prime as opposed to the portrayal of a seasoned spy in the video games. October of the same year, Iwanyk has stated that filming will start early 2015. April 2015, Liman had left as director, with reports that studio were talking with Joseph Kahn as his replacement. By July, Ubisoft hired Frank John Hughes to rewrite the film's script. In January 2017, Iwanyk confirmed that the script had been completed and sent to Hardy to read over. The producer explained that the film is intended to have its own style within the action movie genre, and that the production team is aiming to make an edgy PG-13 rated film. Anime series adaptation In late July 2020, streaming service company Netflix announced that an anime series adaptation is in the works. John Wick writer Derek Kolstad will be serving as executive producer on the series, while the animation will be created by Sun Creature and Fost. 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246961	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southdale	Southdale	Southdale may refer to: Southdale Center, the first fully enclosed and completely climate-controlled shopping mall in the US, located in Edina, Minnesota Southdale (electoral district), a provincial electoral district in Manitoba, Canada, in southeast Winnipeg Southdale, South Africa, a suburb of Johannesburg	[ -0.1086089015007019, -0.6847100257873535, -0.04922701045870781, 0.28873226046562195, 0.32796958088874817, 0.3064146339893341, 0.11361818015575409, 0.36165040731430054, -0.06113987788558006, -0.7004563808441162, -0.4938243329524994, -0.7609824538230896, -0.3458683490753174, 0.5319899916648865, -0.17397275567054749, 0.8447406888008118, 0.012751727364957333, 0.606231689453125, 0.03843269124627113, -0.07389683276414871, -0.3560560643672943, -0.5644501447677612, 0.06284525990486145, 0.456007719039917, 0.24130384624004364, -0.1496896594762802, 0.850674033164978, 0.14300711452960968, 0.1496923267841339, 0.8027684688568115, 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246963	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild%20at%20Heart%20%28film%29	Wild at Heart (film)	Wild at Heart is a 1990 American black comedy romantic crime film written and directed by David Lynch and starring Nicolas Cage, Laura Dern, Diane Ladd, Willem Dafoe, Harry Dean Stanton, and Isabella Rossellini. Based on the 1989 novel of the same name by Barry Gifford, it tells the story of Sailor Ripley (Cage) and Lula Pace Fortune (Dern), a young couple from Cape Fear, North Carolina, who go on the run from Lula's domineering mother and the gangsters she hires to kill Sailor. Lynch was going to produce, but after reading Gifford's book, he decided to write and direct as well. He did not like the ending of the novel and thus decided to change it to fit his vision of the main characters. Wild at Heart is a road movie which includes allusions to The Wizard of Oz and Elvis Presley and his movies. Early test screenings for Wild at Heart had a poor reception; Lynch estimated that 300 people walked out of an early screening. On release, the film had mixed critical reviews and was a moderate success at the box office, grossing $14 million, above its $10 million budget. The film won the Palme d'Or at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival, which at the time was considered a controversial decision. Diane Ladd was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. It has since received some positive re-evaluation from critics. Plot Lovers Lula and Sailor are separated after he is jailed for killing a man who attacked him with a knife; the assailant, Bobby Ray Lemon, was hired by Lula's mother, Marietta Fortune. Upon Sailor's release, Lula picks him up outside prison, where she hands him his snakeskin jacket. They go to a hotel where she reserved a room, make love and go to see the speed metal band Powermad. At the club, Sailor gets into a fight with a man who flirts with Lula, and then leads the band in a rendition of the Elvis Presley song "Love Me". Later, back in their hotel room, after making love again, Sailor and Lula finally decide to run away to California, breaking Sailor's parole. Marietta arranges for private detective Johnnie Farragut — her on-off boyfriend — to find them and bring them back. But unbeknownst to Farragut, Marietta also hires gangster Marcello Santos to track them and kill Sailor. Santos's minions capture and kill Farragut, sending Marietta into a guilt-fueled psychosis. Unaware of all of the events happening back in North Carolina, Lula and Sailor continue on their way until they witness — according to Lula — a bad omen: the aftermath of a two-car accident, and the only survivor, a young woman, dying in front of them. With little money left, Sailor heads for Big Tuna, Texas, where he contacts 'old friend' Perdita Durango, who might be able to help them, although she secretly knows Lula's mother has a contract out for his murder. While Sailor agrees to join up with gangster Bobby Peru in a feed store robbery, Lula waits for him in the hotel room, trying to conceal that she is pregnant with Sailor's child. While Sailor is out, Peru enters the room and threatens to sexually assault Lula, forcing her to ask him to have sex with her, before leaving, stating he has no time. This traumatizes Lula, who was raped as a child. The robbery goes spectacularly wrong when Peru unnecessarily shoots the two clerks. Peru then admits to Sailor that he has been hired to kill him, and Sailor realizes he has been given a pistol with dummy ammunition. Chasing Sailor out of the store, Peru is about to kill him when the sheriff's deputy opens fire on him and Peru blows his own head off with his own shotgun. Sailor is arrested and sentenced to six years in prison. While Sailor is in jail, Lula has their child. Upon his release, Lula decides to reunite with him. Rejecting her mother's objections over the phone, she throws water over her mother's photograph and goes to pick up Sailor with their son. When they meet Sailor, he reveals he will be leaving them both, having decided whilst in prison that he is not good enough for them. While he is walking a short distance away, Sailor encounters a gang who surround him. He insults them, and they quickly knock him out. While unconscious, he sees a vision in the form of Glinda the Good Witch, who tells him, 'Don't turn away from love, Sailor.' When he awakens, Sailor apologizes to the men, tells them he realizes the error of his ways, and then runs after Lula. The photograph of Marietta, in Lula's house, sizzles and vanishes. As there is a traffic jam on the road, Sailor begins to run over the roofs and hoods of the cars to get back to Lula and their child in the car. Sailor sings "Love Me Tender" to Lula, having earlier said that he would only sing that song to his wife. Cast Nicolas Cage as "Sailor" Ripley: the actor described his character as 'a kind of romantic Southern outlaw'. Cage said in an interview that he was 'always attracted to those passionate, almost unbridled romantic characters, and Sailor had that more than any other role I'd played.' Prior to being cast in the film, Cage had met Lynch several times at Musso & Frank Grill which they both frequented. When Lynch read Gifford's novel, he immediately wanted Cage to play Sailor. Laura Dern as Lula Pace Fortune: previously, Dern had played a supporting role in Lynch's film, Blue Velvet. For Dern, Wild at Heart''' was the first opportunity she had 'to play not only a very sexual person, but also someone who was, in her own way, incredibly comfortable with herself'. When Lynch read Gifford's novel, he immediately thought of Dern to play Lula. Diane Ladd as Marietta Fortune, Lula's overbearing mother, who forbids Lula and Sailor's relationship; she forms a grudge against Sailor after he rejects her advances. Ladd and Dern are mother and daughter in real life. Willem Dafoe as Bobby Peru Harry Dean Stanton as Johnnie Farragut Isabella Rossellini as Perdita Durango Calvin Lockhart as Reggie J. E. Freeman as Marcellus Santos W. Morgan Sheppard as Mr. Reindeer Crispin Glover as Dell Grace Zabriskie as Juana Durango Marvin Kaplan as Uncle Pooch David Patrick Kelly as "Dropshadow" Freddie Jones as George Kovich John Lurie as "Sparky" Jack Nance as "00 Spool" Pruitt Taylor Vince as Buddy Sherilyn Fenn as Girl In Accident Frances Bay as Madam Frank Collison as Timmy Thompson Sheryl Lee as The Good Witch Charlie Spradling as Irma Peter Bromilow as Hotel Manager Sally Boyle as Aunt Rootie Gregg Dandridge as Bobby Ray Lemon Koko Taylor as Zanzibar Singer Production In the summer of 1989, Lynch had finished the pilot episode for the successful television series Twin Peaks, and tried to rescue two of his projects – Ronnie Rocket and One Saliva Bubble – both involved in contractual complications as a result of the bankruptcy of Dino De Laurentiis, which had been bought by Carolco Pictures. Lynch stated, 'I've had a bad time with obstacles...it wasn't Dino's fault, but when his company went down the tubes, I got swallowed up in that.' Independent production company Propaganda Films commissioned Lynch to develop an updated noir screenplay based on a 1940s crime novel, while Monty Montgomery, a friend of Lynch's and an associate producer on Twin Peaks, asked novelist Barry Gifford what he was working on. Gifford happened to be writing the manuscript for Wild at Heart: The Story of Sailor and Lula but still had two more chapters to write. He let Montgomery read it in pre-published galley form while the producer was working on the pilot episode for Twin Peaks. Montgomery read it, and two days later he called Gifford and told him that he wanted to make a film of it. Two days after that, Montgomery gave Gifford's book to Lynch while he was editing the pilot, asking him if he would executive produce a film adaptation that he would direct. Lynch remembers telling him, 'That's great Monty, but what if I read it and fall in love with it and want to do it myself?' Montgomery did not think that Lynch would like the book because he did not think it was his 'kind of thing'. Lynch loved the book and called Gifford soon afterwards, asking him if he could make a film of it. Lynch remembers, 'It was just exactly the right thing at the right time. The book and the violence in America merged in my mind and many different things happened.' Lynch was drawn to what he saw as 'a really modern romance in a violent world – a picture about finding love in Hell', and was also attracted to 'a certain amount of fear in the picture, as well as things to dream about. So it seems truthful in some way'. Lynch got approval from Propaganda to switch projects; however, production was scheduled to begin only two months after the rights had been purchased, forcing him to work fast. Lynch had Cage and Dern read Gifford's book and wrote a draft in a week. By Lynch's own admission, his first draft was 'depressing and pretty much devoid of happiness, and no one wanted to make it'. Lynch did not like the ending in Gifford's book, where Sailor and Lula split up for good. For Lynch, 'it honestly didn't seem real, considering the way they felt about each other. It didn't seem one bit real! It had a certain coolness, but I couldn't see it.' It was at this point that the director's love of The Wizard of Oz (1939) began to influence the script he was writing, and he included a reference to the 'yellow brick road'. Lynch remembers, 'It was an awful tough world, and there was something about Sailor being a rebel. But a rebel with a dream of the Wizard of Oz is kinda like a beautiful thing.' Samuel Goldwyn Jr. read an early draft of the screenplay and did not like Gifford's ending either, so Lynch changed it. However, the director was worried that this change made the film too commercial, 'much more commercial to make a happy ending yet, if I had not changed it, so that people wouldn't say I was trying to be commercial, I would have been untrue to what the material was saying.' Lynch added new characters, such as Mr. Reindeer and Sherilyn Fenn as the victim of a car accident. During rehearsals, Lynch began talking about Elvis Presley and Marilyn Monroe with Cage and Dern. He also acquired a copy of Elvis' Golden Records and after listening to it, called Cage and told him that he had to sing two songs, "Love Me" and "Love Me Tender". Cage agreed, and recorded them so that he could lip-synch to them on the set. At one point, Cage called Lynch and asked if he could wear a snakeskin jacket in the film, and Lynch incorporated it into his script. Before filming started, Dern suggested that she and Cage go on a weekend road trip to Las Vegas in order to bond and get a handle on their characters. Dern remembers, 'We agreed that Sailor and Lula needed to be one person, one character, and we would each share it. I got the sexual, wild, Marilyn, gum-chewing fantasy, female side; Nick's got the snakeskin, Elvis, raw, combustible, masculine side.' Within four months, Lynch began filming on August 9, 1989 in both Los Angeles (including the San Fernando Valley) and New Orleans with a relatively modest budget of $10 million. Originally, Wild at Heart featured more explicit erotic scenes between Sailor and Lula. In one, she has an orgasm while relating to Sailor a dream she had of being ripped open by a wild animal. Another deleted scene had Lula lowering herself onto Sailor's face saying, 'Take a bite of Lula.' SoundtrackWild at Heart features the Chris Isaak song "Wicked Game", for which a music video was made — directed by Lynch, and featuring scenes of and Sailor and Lula interspersed with black-and-white footage of Isaak performing the song. Themes According to Lynch, one of the film's themes is, 'finding love in Hell'. He has stated: 'For me, it's just a compilation of ideas that come along. The darker ones and the lighter ones, the humorous ones, all working together. You try to be as true as you can to those ideas and try to get them on film.' Some critics have postulated that, similar to Lynch's previous Blue Velvet, the sudden idealistic ending of perfect happiness is ironic, suggesting that people who have the potential for violence struggle to find true happiness. However, Lynch himself refers to the ending of Wild at Heart as being 'happy', having consciously made the decision to change the original darker ending from the novel. Release Distribution Early test screenings for Wild at Heart did not go well, with the strong violence in some scenes being too much. At the first test screening, 80 people walked out during a graphic torture scene involving Johnnie Farragut. Lynch decided not to cut anything from the film, and at the second screening, 100 walked out during this scene. Lynch remembers: 'By then, I knew the scene was killing the film. So I cut it to the degree that it was powerful but didn't send people running from the theatre.' In retrospect, he said: 'But that was part of what Wild at Heart was about: really insane and sick and twisted stuff going on.'Wild at Heart was completed one day before it debuted at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival in the 2,400-seat Grand Auditorium. After the screening, it received 'wild cheering' from the audience. When Jury President Bernardo Bertolucci announced the film as the winner of the Palme d'Or at the awards ceremony, the jeers almost drowned out the cheers, with film critic Roger Ebert leading the vocal detractors. Gifford remembers that there was a prevailing mood that the media was hoping Lynch would fail. "All kinds of journalists were trying to cause controversy and have me say something like 'This is nothing like the book' or 'He ruined my book'. I think everybody from Time magazine to What's On in London was disappointed when I said 'This is fantastic. This is wonderful. It's like a big, dark, musical comedy'". Rating The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) told Lynch that the version of Wild at Heart screened at Cannes would receive an X rating in North America unless cuts were made, as the NC-17 was not in effect in 1990, at the time of the film's release; he was contractually obligated to deliver an R-rated film. Lynch made one change in the scene where a character shoots his own head off with a shotgun: gun smoke was added, to tone down the blood and hide the removal of the character's head from his body. Foreign prints were not affected. The Region 1 DVD and all Blu-rays contain the toned-down version of the shotgun scene. Box officeWild at Heart opened in the United States on August 17, 1990, in a limited release of only 532 theaters, grossing 2,913,764 in its opening weekend. It went into wide release on August 31 with 618 theaters and grossing an additional $1,858,379. The film ultimately grossed $14,560,247 in North America. Critical responseWild at Heart received mixed reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 68% based on 53 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.50/10. The site's consensus reads: 'One of director David Lynch's more uneven efforts, Wild at Heart is held together by his distinctive sensibilities and compelling work from Nicolas Cage and Laura Dern.' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating 'mixed or average reviews'. In his review for the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert wrote that Lynch 'is a good director, yes. If he ever goes ahead and makes a film about what's really on his mind, instead of hiding behind sophomoric humor and the cop-out of 'parody', he may realize the early promise of his Eraserhead. But he likes the box office prizes that go along with his pop satires, so he makes dishonest movies like this one.' USA Today gave the film one and a half stars out of four and said: 'This attempt at a one-up also trumpets its weirdness, but this time the agenda seems forced.' In his review for Sight & Sound magazine, Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote, 'Perhaps the major problem is that despite Cage and Dern's best efforts, Lynch is ultimately interested only in iconography, not characters at all. When it comes to images of evil, corruption, derangement, raw passion and mutilation (roughly in that order), Wild at Heart is a veritable cornucopia.' Richard Combs in his review for Time wrote, "The result is a pile-up, of innocence, of evil, even of actual road accidents, without a context to give significance to the casualties or survivors". Christopher Sharrett, in Cineaste magazine, wrote: 'Lynch's characters are now so cartoony, one is prone to address him more as a theorist than director, except he is not that challenging...one is never sure what Lynch likes or dislikes, and his often striking images are too often lacking in compassion for us to accept him as a chronicler of a moribund landscape a la Fellini.' However, in Rolling Stone, Peter Travers wrote: 'Starting with the outrageous and building from there, he ignites a slight love-on-the-run novel, creating a bonfire of a movie that confirms his reputation as the most exciting and innovative filmmaker of his generation.' Despite these initial reviews, Wild at Heart came to be viewed favorably in subsequent years. It was ranked the 47th best film of the 1990s in an IndieWire critics' poll, the 26th greatest film of the same period in a Complex poll, and the 53rd best in Rolling Stone''s poll. Awards and honors American Film Institute recognition: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs – Nominated AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions - Nominated References External links 1990 crime films 1990 films 1990 romance films 1990s English-language films 1990s road movies American black comedy films American crime films American films American neo-noir films American road movies American romance films Films based on American novels Films directed by David Lynch Films produced by Steve Golin Films scored by Angelo Badalamenti Films shot in El Paso, Texas Films shot in New Orleans Films with screenplays by David Lynch Palme d'Or winners PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films Romantic crime films The Samuel Goldwyn Company films	[ -0.0667663961648941, -0.23151855170726776, -0.7281022667884827, 0.12909606099128723, 0.49424928426742554, -0.06350888311862946, 0.42770078778266907, -0.27170655131340027, -0.044608891010284424, 0.8007274270057678, 0.08265893161296844, 0.7179548144340515, -0.1828576922416687, 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246972	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury%20scene	Canterbury scene	The Canterbury scene (or Canterbury sound) was a musical scene centred around the city of Canterbury, Kent, England during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Associated with progressive rock, the term describes a loosely-defined, improvisational style that blended elements of jazz, rock, and psychedelia. These musicians played together in numerous bands, with ever-changing and overlapping personnel, creating some similarities in their musical output. Many prominent British avant-garde or fusion musicians began their career in Canterbury bands, including Hugh Hopper, Steve Hillage, Dave Stewart (the keyboardist), Robert Wyatt, Kevin Ayers, Daevid Allen, and Mike Ratledge. Definition and history The Canterbury scene is largely defined by a set of musicians and bands with intertwined members. These are not tied by very strong musical similarities, but a certain whimsicality, touches of psychedelia, rather abstruse lyrics, and a use of improvisation derived from jazz are common elements in their work. "The real essence of 'Canterbury Sound' is the tension between complicated harmonies, extended improvisations, and the sincere desire to write catchy pop songs." "In the very best Canterbury music...the musically silly and the musically serious are juxtaposed in an amusing and endearing way." There is variation within the scene, for example from pop/rock like early Soft Machine and much Caravan to avant-garde composed pieces as with early National Health to improvised jazz as with later Soft Machine or In Cahoots. Didier Malherbe (of Gong) has defined the scene as having "certain chord changes, in particular the use of minor second chords, certain harmonic combinations, and a great clarity in the aesthetics, and a way of improvising that is very different from what is done in jazz." There is debate about the existence and definition of the scene. Dave Stewart has complained at the nomenclature as he and many other musicians identified with the Canterbury scene never had anything to do with Canterbury, the place. The former Soft Machine bassist Hugh Hopper, who lived in Whitstable, near Canterbury, said: "I think it's a rather artificial label, a journalistic thing... I don't mind it, but people like Robert [Wyatt], he in fact hates that idea, because he was born somewhere else and just happened to go to school here. In the time when the Wilde Flowers started we hardly ever worked in Canterbury. It wasn't until Robert and Daevid [Allen] went to London to start Soft Machine that anything happened at all. They weren't really a Canterbury band [...] if it helps people understand or listen to more music then it is fine." In the 21st century, the Canterbury group Syd Arthur have been seen as latter-day practitioners. Others Poet, painter, singer Lady June was regarded an "honorary member" of the Canterbury scene for having performed and recorded with some of the members, and being a "landlady" to many in her flat in Maida Vale, London. References External links Calyx, "the authority on all things Canterbury" The Polite Force – Community Website for Canterbury Scene Enthusiasts Progressive Rock Forum – Melo's Prog Bazaar The Canterbury Scene at The Progressive Rock Bibliography Facelift Magazine – the Canterbury scene and beyond – The Interesting Alternative Show – Steve Davis's radio show BBC Kent – The Canterbury Scene Canterbury Sound on the Brazilian book "Rock Progressivo" from journalist and teacher Valdir Montanari – in Portuguese language only Progressive rock Jazz fusion Music scenes British jazz English styles of music British rock music genres	[ -0.19996634125709534, -0.3588840365409851, -0.39728379249572754, -0.5433840155601501, -0.31196126341819763, 0.30450505018234253, 0.19593018293380737, 0.1846194565296173, -0.7558891177177429, -0.09364626556634903, -0.655114471912384, 0.21724091470241547, 0.1739991307258606, 0.2751663327217102, -0.2743062376976013, 0.07794308662414551, 0.6928979158401489, 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246976	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square%20of%20opposition	Square of opposition	In term logic (a branch of philosophical logic), the square of opposition is a diagram representing the relations between the four basic categorical propositions. The origin of the square can be traced back to Aristotle making the distinction between two oppositions: contradiction and contrariety. However, Aristotle did not draw any diagram. This was done several centuries later by Apuleius and Boethius. Summary In traditional logic, a proposition (Latin: propositio) is a spoken assertion (oratio enunciativa), not the meaning of an assertion, as in modern philosophy of language and logic. A categorical proposition is a simple proposition containing two terms, subject (S) and predicate (P), in which the predicate is either asserted or denied of the subject. Every categorical proposition can be reduced to one of four logical forms, named A, E, I, and O based on the Latin (I affirm), for the affirmative propositions A and I, and (I deny), for the negative propositions E and O. These are: The 'A' proposition, the universal affirmative (universalis affirmativa), whose form in Latin is 'omne S est P', usually translated as 'every S is a P'. The 'E' proposition, the universal negative (universalis negativa), Latin form 'nullum S est P', usually translated as 'no S are P'. The 'I' proposition, the particular affirmative (particularis affirmativa), Latin 'quoddam S est P', usually translated as 'some S are P'. The 'O' proposition, the particular negative (particularis negativa), Latin 'quoddam S nōn est P', usually translated as 'some S are not P'. In tabular form: Proposition 'A' may be stated as "All S is P." However, Proposition 'E' when stated correspondingly as "All S is not P." is ambiguous because it can be either an E or O proposition, thus requiring a context to determine the form; the standard form "No S is P" is unambiguous, so it is preferred. Proposition 'O' also takes the forms "Sometimes S is not P." and "A certain S is not P." (literally the Latin 'Quoddam S nōn est P.') * in the modern forms means that a statement applies on an object . It may be simply interpreted as " is " in many cases. can be also written as . Aristotle states (in chapters six and seven of the Peri hermēneias (Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας, Latin De Interpretatione, English 'On Interpretation')), that there are certain logical relationships between these four kinds of proposition. He says that to every affirmation there corresponds exactly one negation, and that every affirmation and its negation are 'opposed' such that always one of them must be true, and the other false. A pair of an affirmative statement and its negation is, he calls, a 'contradiction' (in medieval Latin, contradictio). Examples of contradictories are 'every man is white' and 'not every man is white' (also read as 'some men are not white'), 'no man is white' and 'some man is white'. The below relations, contrary, subcontrary, subalternation, and superalternation, do hold based on the traditional logic assumption that things stated as S (or things satisfying a statement S in modern logic) exist. If this assumption is taken out, then these relations do not hold. 'Contrary' (medieval: contrariae) statements, are such that both statements cannot be true at the same time. Examples of these are the universal affirmative 'every man is white', and the universal negative 'no man is white'. These cannot be true at the same time. However, these are not contradictories because both of them may be false. For example, it is false that every man is white, since some men are not white. Yet it is also false that no man is white, since there are some white men. Since every statement has the contradictory opposite (its negation), and since a contradictory is true when its opposite is false, it follows that the opposites of contraries (which the medievals called subcontraries, subcontrariae) can both be true, but they cannot both be false. Since subcontraries are negations of universal statements, they were called 'particular' statements by the medieval logicians. Another logical relation implied by this, though not mentioned explicitly by Aristotle, is 'alternation' (alternatio), consisting of 'subalternation' and 'superalternation'. Subalternation is a relation between the particular statement and the universal statement of the same quality (affirmative or negative) such that the particular is implied by the universal, while superalternation is a relation between them such that the falsity of the universal (equivalently the negation of the universal) is implied by the falsity of the particular (equivalently the negation of the particular). (The superalternation is the contrapositive of the subalternation.) In these relations, the particular is the subaltern of the universal, which is the particular's superaltern. For example, if 'every man is white' is true, its contrary 'no man is white' is false. Therefore, the contradictory 'some man is white' is true. Similarly the universal 'no man is white' implies the particular 'not every man is white'. In summary: Universal statements are contraries: 'every man is just' and 'no man is just' cannot be true together, although one may be true and the other false, and also both may be false (if at least one man is just, and at least one man is not just). Particular statements are subcontraries. 'Some man is just' and 'some man is not just' cannot be false together. The particular statement of one quality is the subaltern of the universal statement of that same quality, which is the superaltern of the particular statement because in Aristotelian semantics 'every A is B' implies 'some A is B' and 'no A is B' implies 'some A is not B'. Note that modern formal interpretations of English sentences interpret 'every A is B' as 'for any x, a statement that x is A implies a statement that x is B', which does not imply 'some x is A'. This is a matter of semantic interpretation, however, and does not mean, as is sometimes claimed, that Aristotelian logic is 'wrong'. The universal affirmative (A) and the particular negative (O) are contradictories. If some A is not B, then not every A is B. Conversely, though this is not the case in modern semantics, it was thought that if every A is not B, some A is not B. This interpretation has caused difficulties (see below). While Aristotle's Greek does not represent the particular negative as 'some A is not B', but as 'not every A is B', someone in his commentary on the Peri hermaneias, renders the particular negative as 'quoddam A nōn est B', literally 'a certain A is not a B', and in all medieval writing on logic it is customary to represent the particular proposition in this way. These relationships became the basis of a diagram originating with Boethius and used by medieval logicians to classify the logical relationships. The propositions are placed in the four corners of a square, and the relations represented as lines drawn between them, whence the name 'The Square of Opposition'. Therefore, the following cases can be made: If A is true, then E is false, I is true, O is false; If E is true, then A is false, I is false, O is true; If I is true, then E is false, A and O are indeterminate; If O is true, then A is false, E and I are indeterminate; If A is false, then O is true, E and I are indeterminate; If E is false, then I is true, A and O are indeterminate; If I is false, then A is false, E is true, O is true; If O is false, then A is true, E is false, I is true. To memorize them, the medievals invented the following Latin rhyme: A adfirmat, negat E, sed universaliter ambae; I firmat, negat O, sed particulariter ambae. It affirms that A and E are not neither both true nor both false in each of the above cases. The same applies to I and O. While the first two are universal statements, the couple I / O refers to particular ones. The Square of Oppositions was used for the categorical inferences described by the Greek philosopher Aristotle: conversion, obversion and contraposition. Each of those three types of categorical inference was applied to the four Boethian logical forms: A, E, I and O. The problem of existential import Subcontraries (I and O), which medieval logicians represented in the form 'quoddam A est B' (some particular A is B) and 'quoddam A non est B' (some particular A is not B) cannot both be false, since their universal contradictory statements (no A is B / every A is B) cannot both be true. This leads to a difficulty firstly identified by Peter Abelard (1079 – 21 April 1142). 'Some A is B' seems to imply 'something is A', in other words, there exists something that is A. For example, 'Some man is white' seems to imply that at least one thing that exists is a man, namely the man who has to be white, if 'some man is white' is true. But, 'some man is not white' also implies that something as a man exists, namely the man who is not white, if the statement 'some man is not white' is true. But Aristotelian logic requires that one of these statements (more generally 'some particular A is B' and 'some particular A is not B') is necessarily true, i.e., they cannot both be false. Therefore, since both statements imply the presence of at least one thing that is a man, the presence of a man or men is followed. But, as Abelard points out in the Dialectica, surely men might not exist? For with absolutely no man existing, neither the proposition 'every man is a man' is true nor 'some man is not a man'. Abelard also points out that subcontraries containing subject terms denoting nothing, such as 'a man who is a stone', are both false. If 'every stone-man is a stone' is true, also its conversion per accidens is true ('some stones are stone-men'). But no stone is a stone-man, because neither this man nor that man etc. is a stone. But also this 'a certain stone-man is not a stone' is false by necessity, since it is impossible to suppose it is true. Terence Parsons (born 1939) argues that ancient philosophers did not experience the problem of existential import as only the A (universal affirmative) and I (particular affirmative) forms had existential import. (If a statement includes a term such that the statement is false if the term has no instances, i.e., no thing associated with the term exists, then the statement is said to have existential import with respect to that term.) Affirmatives have existential import, and negatives do not. The ancients thus did not see the incoherence of the square as formulated by Aristotle because there was no incoherence to see. He goes on to cite a medieval philosopher William of Moerbeke (1215–35 – c. 1286), In affirmative propositions a term is always asserted to supposit for something. Thus, if it supposits for nothing the proposition is false. However, in negative propositions the assertion is either that the term does not supposit for something or that it supposits for something of which the predicate is truly denied. Thus a negative proposition has two causes of truth. And points to Boethius' translation of Aristotle's work as giving rise to the mistaken notion that the O form has existential import. But when Boethius (477 – 524 AD) comments on this text he illustrates Aristotle's doctrine with the now-famous diagram, and he uses the wording 'Some man is not just'. So this must have seemed to him to be a natural equivalent in Latin. It looks odd to us in English, but he wasn't bothered by it. Modern squares of opposition In the 19th century, George Boole (November 1815 – 8 December 1864) argued for requiring existential import on both terms in particular claims (I and O), but allowing all terms of universal claims (A and E) to lack existential import. This decision made Venn diagrams particularly easy to use for term logic. The square of opposition, under this Boolean set of assumptions, is often called the modern Square of opposition. In the modern square of opposition, A and O claims are contradictories, as are E and I, but all other forms of opposition cease to hold; there are no contraries, subcontraries, subalternations, and superalternations. Thus, from a modern point of view, it often makes sense to talk about 'the' opposition of a claim, rather than insisting, as older logicians did, that a claim has several different opposites, which are in different kinds of opposition with the claim. Gottlob Frege (8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925)'s Begriffsschrift also presents a square of oppositions, organised in an almost identical manner to the classical square, showing the contradictories, subalternates and contraries between four formulae constructed from universal quantification, negation and implication. Algirdas Julien Greimas (9 March 1917 – 27 February 1992)' semiotic square was derived from Aristotle's work. The traditional square of opposition is now often compared with squares based on inner- and outer-negation. Logical hexagons and other bi-simplexes The square of opposition has been extended to a logical hexagon which includes the relationships of six statements. It was discovered independently by both Augustin Sesmat (April 7, 1885 – December 12, 1957) and Robert Blanché (1898–1975). It has been proven that both the square and the hexagon, followed by a "logical cube", belong to a regular series of n-dimensional objects called "logical bi-simplexes of dimension n." The pattern also goes even beyond this. Square of opposition (or logical square) and modal logic The logical square, also called square of opposition or square of Apuleius has its origin in the four marked sentences to be employed in syllogistic reasoning: “Every man is bad,” the universal affirmative - The negation of the universal affirmative “Not every man is bad” (or “Some men are not bad”) - “Some men are bad,” the particular affirmative - and finally, the negation of the particular affirmative “No man is bad”. Robert Blanché published with Vrin his Structures intellectuelles in 1966 and since then many scholars think that the logical square or square of opposition representing four values should be replaced by the logical hexagon which by representing six values is a more potent figure because it has the power to explain more things about logic and natural language. Set-theoretical interpretation of categorical statements In modern mathematical logic, statements containing words "all", "some" and "no", can be stated in terms of set theory. If the set of all A's is labeled as and the set of all B's as , then: "All A is B" (AaB) is equivalent to " is a subset of ", or . "No A is B" (AeB) is equivalent to "The intersection of and is empty", or . "Some A is B" (AiB) is equivalent to "The intersection of and is not empty", or . "Some A is not B" (AoB) is equivalent to " is not a subset of ", or . By definition, the empty set is a subset of all sets. From this fact it follows that, according to this mathematical convention, if there are no A's, then the statements "All A is B" and "No A is B" are always true whereas the statements "Some A is B" and "Some A is not B" are always false. This also implies that AaB does not entail AiB, and some of the syllogisms mentioned above are not valid when there are no A's (). See also Boole's syllogistic Free logic References External links International Congress on the Square of Opposition Special Issue of Logica Universalis Vol. 2 N. 1 (2008) on the Square of Opposition Catlogic: An open source computer script written in Ruby to construct, investigate, and compute categorical propositions and syllogisms Conceptual models Term logic Inference Syllogism	[ -0.5141086578369141, 0.05639007315039635, -0.26505008339881897, 0.34825214743614197, -0.5793031454086304, 0.5405570268630981, 0.14507649838924408, -0.4346260726451874, -0.39708825945854187, -0.48146042227745056, -0.44045916199684143, 0.09498050063848495, -0.509409487247467, 0.22477728128433228, 0.503028929233551, 0.23920904099941254, 0.5426481366157532, 0.15290412306785583, 0.0016760526923462749, 0.048920564353466034, 0.029123451560735703, 0.5417780876159668, -0.23576992750167847, -0.5653674006462097, 0.7499411106109619, -0.41330015659332275, 0.2925914227962494, 0.021890489384531975, 0.042085301131010056, 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246978	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan%20River	Saskatchewan River	The Saskatchewan River (Cree: kisiskāciwani-sīpiy, "swift flowing river") is a major river in Canada, about long, flowing roughly eastward across Saskatchewan and Manitoba to empty into Lake Winnipeg. Through its tributaries the North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan, its watershed encompasses much of the prairie regions of central Canada, stretching westward to the Rocky Mountains in Alberta and north-western Montana in the United States. It reaches to its farthest headwaters on the Bow River, a tributary of the South Saskatchewan in Alberta. Description It is formed in central Saskatchewan, approximately east of Prince Albert, by the confluence of its two major branches, the North Saskatchewan and the South Saskatchewan, at the Saskatchewan River Forks. Both source rivers originate from glaciers in the Alberta Rockies. The St. Mary River, draining the Hudson Bay Divide region of Glacier National Park (U.S.), also empties into the Saskatchewan River via the south fork. The combined stream flows east-northeast, into Codette Lake formed by the Francois Finlay Dam at Nipawin then into Tobin Lake, formed by the E.B. Campbell Dam. It then flows northeast, passing through a region of marshes, where it is joined from the northwest by the Torch River and the Mossy River. At the northern edge of the marshes it flows east, twisting between a series of small lakes into west-central Manitoba to The Pas, where it is joined from the southwest by the Carrot River. Southeast of The Pas, it forms several streams in a delta on the northwest side of Cedar Lake, then exiting the lake on its southeast end and flowing approximately to Lake Winnipeg, entering on the northwest shore north of Long Point. The waters of Lake Winnipeg eventually drain into Hudson Bay, via the Nelson River. The river, like the province of Saskatchewan, takes its name from the Cree word , meaning "swift flowing river". The river and its tributaries provided an important route of transportation for First Nations and early European trappers. Hydroelectric developments Operating hydroelectric facilities In Saskatchewan, SaskPower owns and operates E.B. Campbell (289 MW, formerly Squaw Rapids) and Nipawin (255 MW) Hydroelectric Stations. In Manitoba, Manitoba Hydro owns and operates Grand Rapids Generating Station (479 MW). Proposed hydroelectric facilities The Choiceland Generating Station would be located upstream of the Nipawin site. It would consist of four 150 MW generating units, providing 300 MW of baseload power, and an additional 300 MW of peaking power. The Forks Generating Station would be located downstream of the North and South Saskatchewan River Forks, and would be approximately the same size as the Nipawin Station (255 MW of baseload power, and 420 MW of peak power). In 2019, James Smith Cree Nation began developing the project with AECOM and Tesla Energy. Fish species Fish species include: walleye, sauger, yellow perch, northern pike, lake whitefish, mooneye, goldeye, white sucker, longnose sucker, shorthead redhorse, burbot, rainbow trout, brown trout and lake sturgeon. In 2008 the presence of reproducing Prussian carp were found in the Red Deer River drainage basin which flows into the Saskatchewan River. Illegal introductions of non native species can have serious wide-ranging negative impacts on the ecosystem. While the exact species is not yet determined the genus is Carassius. The Blue Ribbon Bow River Trout fishery may be at risk as a result of this introduction. Illegal introductions of Carassius can be very harmful. History The river, labeled as the "Kish-stock-ewen" is identified on a Hudson's Bay Company map of 1760, produced from oral information from a First Nations man named Attickasish who had been Anthony Henday's guide. Another map from 1774 shows a fairly accurate course of the river. The Saskatchewan River and its two major tributaries formed an important transportation route during the precontact, fur trade, and early settlement periods in the Canadian West. In early fur trading days the South Saskatchewan tributary was known as "La Fourche des Gros Ventres" ("Fork of the Great Gorges") and the North Saskatchewan was known as "Rivière du Pas". First Nations inhabiting the area of the rivers included at one time or another the Atsina, Cree, Saulteaux, Blackfoot Confederacy, Assiniboine, and Sioux. Henry Kelsey penetrated the area in the 1690s for the Hudson's Bay Company, and Louis de la Corne, Chevalier de la Corne, established the farthest western post of the French Empire in America (See New France) just east of the Saskatchewan River Forks at Fort de la Corne. In addition to this the Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company both ran numerous fur posts up the river and its two branches throughout the late 18th to late 19th centuries. York boats and canoes formed the primary means of travel during the fur trade period. In the mid-19th century Metis settlements became important along stretches of the rivers (notably at the Southbranch Settlement, Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, and St. Albert, Alberta). Riverboats were introduced from the Red River of the North in the 19th century and remained an important means of transportation until the 1890s and the coming of railways to the area. The earliest settlements in Saskatchewan and Alberta generally were established around the rivers. Examples include Fort Edmonton (Edmonton, Alberta), Fort Battleford (Battleford, Saskatchewan), Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, and Cumberland House, Saskatchewan. Fur trade on the lower river: The first European to ascend the river as far as the forks was Louis-Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye in spring 1739. The main posts on the river were (landmarks in parentheses): (Saskatchewan River Forks) Fort Le Jonquière (?), Fort de la Corne, Cumberland House, Saskatchewan, (The Pas):second Fort Paskoya, (inflow to Cedar Lake:) first Fort Paskoya and second Fort Bourbon, (Cedar Lake), (inflow to Lake Winnipeg:) Grand Rapids, Manitoba, and first Fort Bourbon. There were also a number of temporary posts that have left few records. By far the most important post was Cumberland House which was the depot for the route northwest to the rich Athabasca country. To the west, the North Saskatchewan had the greatest number of posts. North Saskatchewan is the northern-most major river of the western prairies that flows into the Hudson Bay. In popular culture The Saskatchewan River is featured in The Arrogant Worms' song "The Last Saskatchewan Pirate". The song implies incorrectly that the river flows past Regina, Saskatchewan. See also List of longest rivers of Canada List of rivers of Manitoba List of rivers of Saskatchewan List of rivers of Alberta Manitoba Hydro Watershed management Saskatchewan River Delta Saskatchewan River fur trade Further reading Myrna Kostash, "Reading the River: A Traveller's Companion to the North Saskatchewan River",2005 Notes External links Saskatchewan and its people Volume 1 (Steamboating in the old days) Canadian Council for Geographic Education page with a series of articles on the history of the Saskatchewan River. 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246981	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Kitchener	Lord Kitchener	Lord Kitchener may refer to: Earl Kitchener, for the title Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener (1850–1916), British soldier in the Sudan, the Second Boer War, and First World War Lord Kitchener Wants You, a British Army recruitment poster in World War I Henry Kitchener, 2nd Earl Kitchener (1846–1937), brother of the 1st Earl Kitchener Henry Kitchener, 3rd Earl Kitchener (1919–2011), grandson of the 2nd Earl Kitchener Lord Kitchener (calypsonian) (1922–2000), Calypso music singer born Aldwyn Roberts	[ -0.25230562686920166, 0.4017798602581024, -0.18545296788215637, -0.1221822202205658, -0.4859004020690918, 0.6639917492866516, 0.3457593321800232, 0.042634472250938416, -0.6351947784423828, -0.8204838037490845, -0.4707275331020355, -0.20401805639266968, -0.018093034625053406, 0.6092410683631897, 0.39620697498321533, 0.5312725305557251, -0.2475651651620865, 0.4803425371646881, -0.20322750508785248, -0.6494597792625427, 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246984	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%201720	IBM 1720	The IBM 1720 was a pilot project to create a real-time process control computer based on the IBM 1620 Model I. Only three 1720 systems were ever built: one for the Amoco oil refinery in Whiting, Indiana; one for the Socal oil refinery in El Segundo, California; and one for E. I. du Pont in Wilmington, Delaware. All were installed in 1961. The Amoco and Socal systems ran for many years. The 1720 led to the IBM 1710 Process Control systems that IBM introduced in March 1961; these were cheaper and less elaborate than the 1720. See also IBM 1710 IBM 1800 External links "Evolution of Small Real-Time IBM Computer Systems" (1.25 MB PDF file), from the IBM Journal of Research and Development. 1720 Computer-related introductions in 1961 Amoco	[ -0.5564585328102112, -0.17084376513957977, -0.06756892055273056, 0.18569663166999817, 0.07300107926130295, 0.24699383974075317, -0.17193087935447693, -0.24766212701797485, -0.09740898758172989, -0.33891555666923523, 0.11329610645771027, -0.05539692938327789, 0.011107217520475388, 0.3437333106994629, 0.035686396062374115, -0.16170629858970642, 0.1218777447938919, -0.40137049555778503, 0.6122356653213501, -0.13354533910751343, -0.3724423944950104, -0.06180929020047188, -0.08810500800609589, 0.23311331868171692, -0.7252597212791443, -0.23578965663909912, 0.5897061228752136, -0.7127296924591064, 0.3938761353492737, 0.544990062713623, -0.08665061742067337, 0.7120574116706848, -0.2565232813358307, -0.28798726201057434, -0.5149056315422058, -0.12123559415340424, 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246987	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faithless	Faithless	Faithless is a British electronic band formed in London, England in 1994 by Maxi Jazz, Sister Bliss and Rollo. The current, official lineup of the band (as of 2020) consists of Bliss and Rollo. The group is best known for the songs "Salva Mea", "Insomnia", "God Is a DJ" and "We Come 1". Faithless has released seven studio albums, with total sales of the first six exceeding 15 million records worldwide. The band announced they would separate after their Passing the Baton dates at Brixton Academy on 7 and 8 April 2011. However, in February 2015, Jazz, Bliss and Rollo reunited to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the band, but Jazz left to form Maxi Jazz & The E-Type Boys later that year. Musical career The band was formed in early 1995, and their debut single "Salva Mea (Save Me)" was released in July that year. Jazz became the ensemble's vocalist, whilst Bliss composed most of the band's music (and also played the piano, violin, saxophone and bass guitar). Rollo heads and produces the band. Lead female vocals for many of their songs are performed by Pauline Taylor (who also performed lead vocals for singles by Rollo released under his monikers Rollo Goes Mystic and Rollo Goes Spiritual) and Dido. The albums are Reverence (which reached number 26), Sunday 8PM (reaching number 10), Outrospective (at number 4) and No Roots (which debuted at number 1); they were released between 1996 and 2004, with a greatest hits compilation album out in 2005. In light of their dance roots, each of the four studio albums has been followed with a subsequent bonus disc of remixes. Their fifth album, To All New Arrivals, was released in 2006. Their sixth and final album, The Dance, was released on 16 May 2010, after a four-year recording break for the band. The band also collectively indulge in mixtapes of other musicians' work, either mixed by the group or merely selected by them. This includes the long running Back to Mine sessions as well as NME in Association with War Child Presents 1 Love, The Bedroom Sessions and more recently the Renaissance 3D music project, in conjunction with the Renaissance nightclub. On 29 September 2006, the first single "Bombs" from their album To All New Arrivals made its debut on BBC Radio 1's Pete Tong show. The album was released on 27 November 2006. "Bombs" generated moderate controversy with its music video, as demonstrated by MTV's refusal to air it. The video featured interchanged clips of war scenes and daily life. In October 2007 they played alongside Talib Kweli and Ozomatli and one of China's earliest music festivals, Yue, organised by Split Works. Sixth studio album and retirement announcement On 7 August 2009, a dub mix of the track "Sun to Me" from their latest studio album, The Dance, made its debut on BBC Radio 1's Pete Tong show. "Sun to Me" has been given as a free download to all users that have registered on the new Faithless site, or subscribed to their newsletter. The track has been released on the band's Myspace page as well. On 12 February 2010, the first official single from the next Faithless album was played on Pete Tong's show. The single, "Not Going Home", was released on 4 May 2010, whilst the latest album The Dance, was issued on 16 May 2010. The album was available only in Tesco (three-month exclusive contract) and via iTunes in the UK. Since 2009, their track "Drifting Away" has been the theme tune for the BBC Television's Chelsea Flower Show coverage. In 2010, they returned to the Glastonbury Festival after eight years, playing on the Pyramid Stage. They performed many of their most popular songs including "Insomnia", "God is a DJ", and "We Come 1". On 16 March 2011, Maxi Jazz announced on his website that Faithless would cease to be, commenting "But, like when writing a song, you always just know when it's finished… this is and was the Thank YOU And Goodbye tour." They played two nights at Brixton Academy on 7 and 8 April 2011. The latter date would allegedly be the final full Faithless touring band show and was transmitted live via satellite to cinemas across Europe. Upon the completion of the two shows, live versions of Faithless's songs were compiled into an album titled Passing the Baton – Live from Brixton. Early and mid-2010s The Faithless 'Sound System' (consisting of Maxi Jazz, Sister Bliss and percussionist Sudha Kheterpal) performed shows on 22 July 2011 at the Tomorrowland festival in Belgium, at the Waterford Music Fest in Ireland on 30 July and in Split (Croatia) at the Riva Discothèque on 12 August. A series of DJ sets of house tracks played by Bliss, with Jazz performing vocals to a selection of Faithless tracks, were performed in the mid-2010s. Full band performances including festivals and headline arena shows took place in 2015 under the 'Faithless 2.0' banner, in support of their compilation album of the same name released that year. The album also featured a new studio track entitled "I Was There". In an interview given by the trio in August 2015, it was communicated that Sister Bliss and Rollo already had new tracks and collaborations waiting for Maxi Jazz’s decision on the return. As of 2017, DJ sets have featured Bliss only, with her performing under both the Faithless and Faithless DJ Set banners. Duo return with 7th album All Blessed On 5 June 2020, Faithless released two edits of a new song, "Let the Music Decide." which featured the vocals of George the Poet and was only available for a limited time on music streaming platforms. 16 July 2020 saw the group follow up with another single, "This Feeling". Similar to "Let The Music Decide", this track also features a spoken poet Suli Breaks with additional vocals by singer/songwriter Nathan Ball. Another single with Nathan Ball on vocals, "Synthesizer", was released on 28 August 2020 alongside its music video, with an announcement for the release date of 23 October for Faithless's next album, All Blessed. Maxi Jazz does not perform on the album, and is thanked in the sleeve notes for "passing the baton". The absence of Jazz has been described as giving the music "a very different feel vocally". Other work As well as their own studio albums, all three members actively engage in other people's work as solo figures. Sister Bliss is a prominent dance DJ and has for a long time toured the circuit on her own, remixed others' albums and even appeared in music videos, such as Paul Oakenfold's "Weekend". Maxi Jazz brought out an album before the formation of Faithless and also worked on pirate radio. He also collaborated with Faithless founding member Jamie Catto on his new project 1 Giant Leap guesting on a song with Robbie Williams. Finally, Rollo founded the label Cheeky Records and has produced the music of other artists, most notably his sister Dido's albums, as well as using various monikers to create popular dance music under the names Rollo Goes ... (Camping, Mystic and Spiritual), Felix, Our Tribe (with Rob Dougan), and Dusted. In 2019, Maxi Jazz made live appearances as part of Pete Tong's Ibiza Classics Concert with The Heritage Orchestra. Also in 2019, under the name "R Plus", the trio Rollo, Sister Bliss and Dido released an album The Last Summer. Band members Current members Sister Bliss – keyboards, synthesizers, piano, production, arrangement, mixer, composer, programmer (1995–2011; 2015–present) Rollo – keyboards, drum machine, guitar, bass, production, arrangement, mixer, composer, programmer (1995–2011; 2015–present) Former members Jamie Catto – vocals, guitar (1995–1999) Aubrey Nunn – bass (1995–2006) Maxi Jazz – lead vocals, guitar, programmer, production (1995–2011; 2015) Discography Reverence (1996) Sunday 8PM (1998) Outrospective (2001) No Roots (2004) To All New Arrivals (2006) The Dance (2010) All Blessed (2020) See also List of Billboard number-one dance hits List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart References External links Official web site (UK) The story of Faithless in the french PDF magazine Soundamental Musical groups established in 1995 Musical groups disestablished in 2011 Musical groups reestablished in 2015 1995 establishments in England 2011 disestablishments in England English 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246989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callirhoe%20%28plant%29	Callirhoe (plant)	Callirhoe is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae. Its nine species are commonly known as poppy mallows and all are native to the prairies and grasslands of North America. Of the nine species, some are annuals while others are perennial plants. The genus is named for the Oceanid Callirrhoe in Greek mythology. Poppy mallow leaves are alternate and palmately lobed. The flowers are cup-shaped and brightly colored. The purple poppy mallow (Callirhoe involucrata) is grown as a garden plant. It is a low-growing perennial with a large taproot and hairy stems. The flowers range from cerise to reddish violet with white centers. It is especially used in dry climates. Species include: Callirhoe bushii Fernald – Bush's poppy mallow Callirhoe digitata Nutt. – fringed poppy mallow, winecup Callirhoe involucrata (Torr. & A.Gray) A.Gray – purple poppy mallow, winecup Callirhoe leiocarpa R.F.Martin – tall poppy mallow Callirhoe papaver (Cav.) A.Gray – woodland poppy mallow Callirhoe pedata (Nutt. ex Hook.) A.Gray – palmleaf poppy mallow Callirhoe scabriuscula B.L.Rob. – Texas poppy mallow Callirhoe triangulata (Leavenw.) A.Gray – clustered poppy mallow Formerly placed here Sidalcea oregana spicata (Regel) C.L.Hitchc. (as C. spicata Regel) References External links HortiPlex info for Callirhoe Malvaceae genera	[ -0.5720056295394897, 0.2681822180747986, -0.2828744649887085, -0.7838229537010193, -0.7185155153274536, 0.43209919333457947, 0.7304577231407166, -0.06922409683465958, -0.10354457050561905, 0.2911926805973053, 0.048175983130931854, 0.0657239705324173, -0.8880340456962585, 0.3408953547477722, -0.029478546231985092, 0.15963244438171387, 0.2439759224653244, 0.7545427083969116, 0.36688292026519775, -0.49025213718414307, -0.1446932703256607, -0.6226639151573181, 0.28244268894195557, -0.6406473517417908, 0.77272629737854, 0.11721137166023254, 0.4122821092605591, 0.4852787256240845, 0.802378237247467, -0.37706223130226135, -0.296167254447937, 0.6782751679420471, 0.13516651093959808, -0.3459129333496094, 0.5677347183227539, 0.4434065818786621, -0.04438665881752968, -0.5255548357963562, 0.20340774953365326, -0.39634817838668823, 0.08517740666866302, -0.011946327984333038, 0.0810791403055191, 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246991	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookbook	Cookbook	A cookbook or cookery book is a kitchen reference containing recipes. Cookbooks may be general, or may specialize in a particular cuisine or category of food. Recipes in cookbooks are organized in various ways: by course (appetizer, first course, main course, dessert), by main ingredient, by cooking technique, alphabetically, by region or country, and so on. They may include illustrations of finished dishes and preparation steps; discussions of cooking techniques, advice on kitchen equipment, ingredients, and substitutions; historical and cultural notes; and so on. Cookbooks may be written by individual authors, who may be chefs, cooking teachers, or other food writers; they may be written by collectives; or they may be anonymous. They may be addressed to home cooks, to professional restaurant cooks, to institutional cooks, or to more specialized audiences. Some cookbooks are didactic, with detailed recipes addressed to beginners or people learning to cook particular dishes or cuisines; others are simple aide-memoires, which may document the composition of a dish or even precise measurements, but not detailed techniques. History Early works Ancient Mesopotamian recipes have been found on three Akkadian tablets, dating to about 1700 BC. The earliest collection of recipes that has survived in Europe is De re coquinaria, written in Latin. An early version was first compiled sometime in the 1st century and has often been attributed to the Roman gourmet Marcus Gavius Apicius, though this has been cast in doubt by modern research. An Apicius came to designate a book of recipes. The current text appears to have been compiled in the late 4th or early 5th century; the first print edition is from 1483. It records a mix of ancient Greek and Roman cuisine, but with few details on preparation and cooking. An abbreviated epitome entitled Apici Excerpta a Vinidario, a "pocket Apicius" by Vinidarius, "an illustrious man", was made in the Carolingian era. In spite of its late date it represents the last manifestation of the cuisine of Antiquity. The earliest cookbooks known in Arabic are those of al-Warraq (an early 10th-century compendium of recipes from the 9th and 10th centuries) and al-Baghdadi (13th century). Manasollasa from India contains recipes of vegetarian and non-vegetarian cuisines, which preceded the cookbook writing history in Europe by a century. While the text is not the first among Indian books to describe fermented foods, it contains a range of cuisines based on fermentation of cereals and flours. Chinese recipe books are known from the Tang dynasty, but most were lost. One of the earliest surviving Chinese-language cookbooks is Hu Sihui's "Yinshan Zhengyao" (Important Principles of Food and Drink), believed to be from 1330. Hu Sihui, Buyantu Khan's dietitian and therapist, recorded a Chinese-inflected Central Asian cuisine as eaten by the Yuan court; his recipes were adapted from foods eaten all over the Mongol Empire. Eumsik dimibang, written around 1670, is the oldest Korean cookbook and the first cookbook written by a woman in East Asia. After a long interval, the first recipe books to be compiled in Europe since Late Antiquity started to appear in the late thirteenth century. About a hundred are known to have survived, some fragmentary, from the age before printing. The earliest genuinely medieval recipes have been found in a Danish manuscript dating from around 1300, which in turn are copies of older texts that date back to the early 13th century or perhaps earlier. Low and High German manuscripts are among the most numerous. Among them is Daz buch von guter spise ("The Book of Good Food") written c. 1350 in Würzberg and Kuchenmeysterey ("Kitchen Mastery"), the first printed German cookbook from 1485. Two French collections are probably the most famous: Le Viandier ("The Provisioner") was compiled in the late 14th century by Guillaume Tirel, master chef for two French kings; and Le Menagier de Paris ("The Householder of Paris"), a household book written by an anonymous middle class Parisian in the 1390s. Du fait de cuisine is another Medieval French cookbook, written in 1420. From Southern Europe there is the 14th century Valencian manuscript Llibre de Sent Soví (1324), the Catalan ("The book of all recipes of dishes") and several Italian collections, notably the Venetian mid-14th century Libro per Cuoco, with its 135 recipes alphabetically arranged. The printed De honesta voluptate et valetudine ("On honourable pleasure"), first published in 1475, is one of the first cookbooks based on Renaissance ideals, and, though it is as much a series of moral essays as a cookbook, has been described as "the anthology that closed the book on medieval Italian cooking". Medieval English cookbooks include The Forme of Cury and Utilis Coquinario, both written in the fourteenth century. The Forme of Cury is a cookbook authored by the chefs of Richard II. Utilis Coquinario is a similar cookbook though written by an unknown author. Another English manuscript (1390s) includes the earliest recorded recipe for ravioli, even though ravioli did not originate in England. Modern cookbooks With the advent of the printing press in the 16th and 17th centuries, numerous books were written on how to manage households and prepare food. In Holland and England competition grew between the noble families as to who could prepare the most lavish banquet. By the 1660s, cookery had progressed to an art form and good cooks were in demand. Many of them published their own books detailing their recipes in competition with their rivals. Many of these books have now been translated and are available online. By the 19th century, the Victorian preoccupation for domestic respectability brought about the emergence of cookery writing in its modern form. In 1796, the first known American cookbook titled, American Cookery, written by Amelia Simmons, was published in Hartford, Connecticut. Until then, the cookbooks printed and used in the Thirteen Colonies were British. The first modern cookery writer and compiler of recipes for the home was Eliza Acton. Her pioneering cookbook, Modern Cookery for Private Families (1845), was aimed at the domestic reader rather than the professional cook or chef. This was an immensely influential book, and it established the format for modern writing about cookery. The publication introduced the now-universal practice of listing the ingredients and suggested cooking times with each recipe. It included the first recipe for Brussels sprouts. Contemporary chef Delia Smith is quoted as having called Acton "the best writer of recipes in the English language". Modern Cookery long survived her, remaining in print until 1914 and available more recently in facsimile reprint. Acton's work was an important influence on Isabella Beeton, who published Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management in 24 monthly parts between 1857 and 1861. The book was a guide to running a Victorian household, with advice on fashion, child care, animal husbandry, poisons, the management of servants, science, religion, and industrialism. Despite its title, most of the text consisted of recipes, such that another popular name for the volume is Mrs Beeton's Cookbook. Most of the recipes were illustrated with coloured engravings, and it was the first book to show recipes in a format that is still used today. Many of the recipes were plagiarised from earlier writers, including Acton. In 1885 the Virginia Cookery Book was published by Mary Stuart Smith. In 1896 the American cook Fannie Farmer (1857–1915) published The Boston Cooking School Cookbook which contained some 1,849 recipes. Types of cookbooks Cookbooks that serve as basic kitchen references (sometimes known as "kitchen bibles") began to appear in the early modern period. They provided not just recipes but overall instruction for both kitchen technique and household management. Such books were written primarily for housewives and occasionally domestic servants as opposed to professional cooks, and at times books such as The Joy of Cooking (USA), La bonne cuisine de Madame E. Saint-Ange (France), The Art of Cookery (UK, USA), Il cucchiaio d'argento (Italy), and A Gift to Young Housewives (Russia) have served as references of record for national cuisines. Cookbook also tell stories of the writers themselves and reflect upon the era in which they are written. They often reveal notions of social, political, environmental or economic contexts. For example, during the era of industrialization, convenience foods were brought into many households and were integrated and present in cookbooks written in this time. Related to this class are instructional cookbooks, which combine recipes with in-depth, step-by-step recipes to teach beginning cooks basic concepts and techniques. In vernacular literature, people may collect traditional recipes in family cookbooks. While western cookbooks usually group recipes for main courses by the main ingredient of the dishes, Japanese cookbooks usually group them by cooking techniques (e.g., fried foods, steamed foods, and grilled foods). Both styles of cookbook have additional recipe groupings such as soups or sweets. International and ethnic International and ethnic cookbooks fall into two categories: the kitchen references of other cultures, translated into other languages; and books translating the recipes of another culture into the languages, techniques, and ingredients of a new audience. The latter style often doubles as a sort of culinary travelogue, giving background and context to a recipe that the first type of book would assume its audience is already familiar with. Popular Puerto Rican cookbook, Cocina Criolla, written by Carmen Aboy Valldejuli, includes recipes that are typically of traditional Puerto Rican cuisine such as mofongo and pasteles. Valldejuli's cookbook was not only important to Puerto Ricans, but also very popular in the United States where her original cookbook has since been published in several editions, including English versions. These include The Art of Caribbean Cookery - Doubleday, 1957; Puerto Rican Cookery - Pelican Publishing, 1983; and, Juntos en la Cocina (co-authored with her husband, Luis F. Valldejuli) - Pelican Publishing, 1986. Professional cookbooks Professional cookbooks are designed for the use of working chefs and culinary students and sometimes double as textbooks for culinary schools. Such books deal not only in recipes and techniques, but often service and kitchen workflow matters. Many such books deal in substantially larger quantities than home cookbooks, such as making sauces by the liter or preparing dishes for large numbers of people in a catering setting. While the most famous of such books today are books like Le guide culinaire by Escoffier or The Professional Chef by the Culinary Institute of America, such books go at least back to medieval times, represented then by works such as Taillevent's Viandier and Chiquart d'Amiço's Du fait de cuisine. Single-subject Single-subject books, usually dealing with a specific ingredient, technique, class of dishes or target group (e.g. for kids), are quite common as well. Jack Monroe for example features low budget recipes. Some imprints such as Chronicle Books have specialized in this sort of book, with books on dishes like curries, pizza, and simplified ethnic food. Popular subjects for narrow-subject books on technique include grilling/barbecue, baking, outdoor cooking, and even recipe cloning (Recipe cloning is copying commercial recipes where the original is a trade secret). Community Community cookbooks (also known as compiled, regional, charitable, and fund-raising cookbooks) are a unique genre of culinary literature. Community cookbooks focus on home cooking, often documenting regional, ethnic, family, and societal traditions, as well as local history. Sondra Gotlieb, for example, wrote her cookbooks on Canadian food culture by visiting people and homes by region. She gathered recipes, observed the foodways, observed the people and their traditions of each region by being in their own homes. Gotlieb did this so that she could put together a comprehensive cookbook based on the communities and individuals that make up Canada. Gooseberry Patch has been publishing community-style cookbooks since 1992 and built their brand on this community. Community cookbooks have sometimes been created to offer a counter-narrative of historical events or sustain a community through difficult times. The Historical Cookbook of the American Negro, published in 1958 by the National Council of Negro Women, includes recipes that illuminate histories of Black resistance, including "Nat Turner Crackling Bread." The 1976 People's Philadelphia Cookbook, published by grassroots organization The People's Fund, includes recipes from members of the Black Panther Party, The United Farm Workers, and the Gay Activist Alliance of Philadelphia. For In Memory's Kitchen, written in the 1940s by Jewish women interned at the Theresienstadt concentration camp in Czechoslovakia, women drew on their memories to contribute recipes. Chefs Cookbooks can also document the food of a specific chef (particularly in conjunction with a cooking show) or restaurant. Many of these books, particularly those written by or for a well-established cook with a long-running TV show or popular restaurant, become part of extended series of books that can be released over the course of many years. Popular chef-authors throughout history include people such as Delia Smith, Julia Child, James Beard, Nigella Lawson, Edouard de Pomiane, Jeff Smith, Emeril Lagasse, Claudia Roden, Madhur Jaffrey, Katsuyo Kobayashi, and possibly even Apicius, the semi-pseudonymous author of the Roman cookbook De re coquinaria, who shared a name with at least one other famous food figure of the ancient world. Famous cookbooks Famous cookbooks from the past, in chronological order, include: De re coquinaria (The Art of Cooking) (late 4th / early 5th century) by Apicius Kitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Dishes) (10th century) by Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq Kitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Dishes) (1226) by Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi Liber de Coquina (The Book of Cookery) (late 13th / early 14th century) by two unknown authors from France and Italy Forme of Cury (14th century) by the Master Cooks of King Richard II of England Viandier (14th century) by Guillaume Tirel alias Taillevent De honesta voluptate et valetudine (1475) by Bartolomeo Platina - the first cookbook printed in a native language (Italian) in 1487 Cookbook of Infanta Maria of Portugal (c. 1565) - the oldest extant Portuguese cookbook The Good Huswifes Jewell (1585) by Thomas Dawson The English Huswife (1615) by Gervase Markham Arte de Cocina, Pastelaria, Vizcocheria e Conservaria by Francisco Martinez Montiño - palace cook of King Philip II of Spain (1680). The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Knight Opened by Kenelm Digby (1669) Eumsik dimibang (1670) by Jang Gye-hyang of Andong Jang clan Arte de Cozinha by Domingos Rodrigues - the first cookbook printed in Portuguese (1680) Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw by Stanisław Czerniecki – first cookbook in Polish (1682) The Compleat Housewife (first American edition 1742) by Eliza Smith The Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy (1747) by Hannah Glasse Hjelpreda I Hushållningen För Unga Fruentimber (1755) by Cajsa Warg The Experienced English Housekeeper (1769) by Elizabeth Raffald American Cookery (1796) by Amelia Simmons A New System of Domestic Cookery (1806) by Maria Eliza Rundell Le Cuisinier Royal (1817) by André Viard Modern Cookery for Private Families (1845) by Eliza Acton El Cocinero Puerto - Riqueño 1859 (author unknown)Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861) by Mrs BeetonПодарок молодым хозяйкам, A Gift to Young Housewives (first Russian edition 1861) by Elena MolokhovetsDomestic Cook Book: Containing a Careful Selection of Useful Receipts for the Kitchen (1866) by Malinda Russell – first known cookbook by an African American womanLa scienza in cucina e l'arte di mangiar bene (1891) by Pellegrino ArtusiThe Epicurean (1894) by Charles RanhoferThe Boston Cooking-School Cook Book (1896) by Fannie Merritt FarmerThe Settlement Cook Book (1901) and 34 subsequent editions by Lizzie Black KanderThe Cook's Decameron: A Study In Taste, Containing Over Two Hundred Recipes For Italian Dishes (1901) by Mrs. W.G. Waters Various cookbooks (between 1903 and 1934) by Auguste EscoffierEdmonds Cookery Book (1908) by T.J. Edmonds LtdThe Joy of Cooking (1931) by Irma RombauerLarousse Gastronomique (1938)Книга о вкусной и здоровой пище, The Book of Tasty and Healthy Food (first Soviet edition 1939) by the Institute of Nutrition, USSRO Livro de Pantagruel (first edition 1946) by Bertha Rosa-LimpoA Book of Mediterranean Food (1950) by Elizabeth DavidIl cucchiaio d'argento (1950)The Alice B. Toklas Cookbook (1954) by Alice B. ToklasCooking with the Chinese Flavor (1956) and subsequent books by Lin Tsuifeng ("Mrs. Lin Yutang")Mrs Balbir Singh's Indian Cookery (1961) by Mrs Balbir SinghMastering the Art of French Cooking (1961) by Julia ChildTen Talents (1968) by Rosalie HurdHelen Gurley Brown's Single Girl's Cookbook (1969) by Helen Gurley Brown The Fanny and Johnnie Cradock Cookery Programme (1970) by Fanny and Johnnie CradockDiet for a Small Planet (1971) by Frances Moore LappéThe Farm Vegetarian Cookbook (1975) by Louise HaglerThe Complete International Jewish Cookbook (1976) by Evelyn RoseMoosewood Cookbook (1978) by Mollie KatzenAustralian Women's Weekly Children's Birthday Cake Book (1980) by Maryanne Blacker and Pamela Clark Collections and collectors Several libraries have extensive collections of cookbooks. Harvard's Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America has a collection of 20,000 cookbooks and other books on food, including the earliest American cookbook, and the personal collections and papers of Julia Child, M.F.K. Fisher, and the authors of The Joy of Cooking.Heather Atwood, "Harvard's Cookbooks Speak of Our History", Gloucester Times, August 8, 2012 full text New York University's Fales Library includes a Food and Cookery Collection of over 15,000 books, including the personal libraries of James Beard, Cecily Brownstone, and Dalia Carmel. The Brotherton Library at University of Leeds holds a Designated Cookery Collection of over 8,000 books and 75 manuscripts, including the personal collections of Blanche Leigh, John Preston and Michael Bateman. Some individuals are notable for their collections of cookbooks, or their scholarly interest therein. Elizabeth Robins Pennell, an American critic in London from the 1880s, was an early writer on the subject, and has recently been called "one of the most well-known cookbook collectors in the world". Much of her collection eventually went to the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress. Held alongside hers are the thousands of gastronomic volumes donated by food chemist Katherine Bitting; their collections were evaluated in tandem in Two Loaf-Givers, by one of the LOC's curators; a digital version is available. Usage outside the world of food The term cookbook is sometimes used metaphorically to refer to any book containing a straightforward set of already tried and tested "recipes" or instructions for a specific field or activity, presented in detail so that the users who are not necessarily expert in the field can produce workable results. Examples include a set of circuit designs in electronics, a book of magic spells, or The Anarchist Cookbook, a set of instructions on destruction and living outside the law. O'Reilly Media publishes a series of books about computer programming named the Cookbook series, and each of these books contain hundreds of ready to use, cut and paste examples to solve a specific problem in a single programming language. See also Cuisine Culinary art Diet food Dish (food) Food group Food photography Food preparation Food presentation Food writing Foodpairing Gourmet Museum and Library Haute cuisine Indian Cook Books Kitchen List of nutrition guides Meal Outline of food preparation Portion size Recipe Restaurant Stove Whole food Wikibooks Cookbook Notes References Adamson, Melitta Weiss Food in Medieval Times. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. 2004. Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays. Melitta Weiss Adamson (editor). Garland, New York. 1995. Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays. edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson (editor). Routledge, New York. 2002. What's the Recipe? - Our hunger for cookbooks., Adam Gopnik, The New Yorker'', 2009. External links The Wikibooks' open-content cookbook anyone can edit Janice Bluestein Longone Culinary Archive Healthy Recipes by Chef Sarah Knecht's Cookbook The Food and Cookery Collection of the Fales Library at NYU Books for Cooks - a learning resource on the history of cookery books from the British Library Baby food cookbooks Feeding America at Michigan State University Digital Library—a collection of influential early American cookbooks, including a large number of books specializing in immigrant cuisine Home Economics (including cookbooks) at Project Gutenberg Menus and Cookbooks at The New York Public Library Llibre de Sent Soví (1324) Book Food-related literary genres	[ 0.5931338667869568, 0.617881715297699, -0.38793468475341797, 0.1470807045698166, 0.2909553349018097, -0.02905202843248844, 0.06996551156044006, 0.06985384225845337, -0.31589147448539734, -0.6900381445884705, -0.5262150764465332, 0.22233812510967255, 0.3054754137992859, -0.1677883416414261, -0.7155174016952515, 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246992	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel%20food%20cake	Angel food cake	Angel food cake, or angel cake, is a type of sponge cake made with egg whites, flour, and sugar. A whipping agent, such as cream of tartar, is commonly added. It differs from other cakes because it uses no butter. Its aerated texture comes from whipped egg white. Angel food cake originated in the United States and first became popular in the late 19th century. It gained its unique reputation along with its name due to its light and fluffy texture. Description Angel food cake requires egg whites whipped until they are stiff. Cream of tartar is added to the mixture to stabilize the egg whites. Remaining ingredients are gently folded into the egg white mixture. For this method of leavening to work well, it is useful to have flour that has been made of softer wheat. Cake flour is generally used because of its light texture. The softer wheat and the lack of fat cause angel food cake to have a very light texture and taste. Angel food cake should be cut with a serrated blade, as a straight-edged blade tends to compress the cake rather than slice it. Forks, electric serrated knives, special tined cutters, or a strong thread should be used instead. Angel food cake is usually baked in a tube pan, a tall, round pan with a tube up the centre that leaves a hole in the middle of the cake. A bundt pan may also be used, but the fluted sides can make releasing the cake more difficult. The center tube allows the cake batter to rise higher by 'clinging' to all sides of the pan. The angel food cake pan should not be greased, unlike pans used to prepare other cakes. This allows the cake to have a surface upon which to crawl up, helping it to rise. After baking, the cake pan is inverted while cooling to prevent the cake from falling in on itself. Angel food cake is sometimes frosted but more often has some sort of sauce, such as a sweet fruit sauce, drizzled over it. A simple glaze is also popular. Recently, many chefs (Alton Brown in particular) have popularized the idea of adding aromatic spices such as mace and cloves to the cake. History Angel food cake is a white sponge cake made with only stiffly beaten egg whites (yolks would make it yellow and inhibit the stiffening of the whites) and no butter. The first recipe in a cookbook for a white sponge cake is in Lettice Bryan's The Kentucky Housewife of 1839. Since there is no butter in the cake, the angel food cake is not related to the butter cakes: snow-drift cake, silver cake or lady cake. The Home Messenger Book of Tested Recipes, 2d ed., 1878, by Isabella Stewart contained the first recipe for Angel's Food Cake. Stewart's detailed recipe called for eleven egg whites, sugar, flour, vanilla extract and cream of tartar. Uses The cake is often served with berries and eaten for dessert. The name, which comes from the texture, which is "so light that angels could eat it and still fly without being weighted down", has given it a special association in some communities. Among African Americans, the cake is often served at funeral receptions, with the idea that the deceased person is now living in Heaven among the angels. Among the Pennsylvania Dutch, it is considered a wedding cake, and the couple is said to be blessed by angels. Production The most traditional method, also known as the angel food cake method, is as follows. First the egg whites, and possibly salt, vanilla extract, and cream of tartar, are mixed at a medium speed until a soft peak forms. Whipping continues while the sugar is slowly added. Once a hard peak is formed, the flour is folded into the mixture of egg whites and sugar. This technique is done in order to disturb the foam as little as possible. Different equipment is used when preparing an angel food cake at home or in a small bakery as opposed to a large scale production. Many recipes found in cookbooks advise bakers to whip the egg whites in a copper bowl. The theory behind this is that the whisk incorporates copper particles or ovotransferrin, which is attached to copper particles, into the egg whites, improving the flexibility and stability of the foam. Some research has found that the copper significantly increases the dilatational elasticity, which is the elasticity of the protein cell wall at the interface of air/water. A planetary mixer, such as a stand mixer or handheld mixer, is appropriate for a homemade or bakery cake. If the cake is being mass-produced, a continuous mixer is preferred. There are three methods in which the cake can be made at home or in a commercial setting. The first two methods are most commonly used at home or in a small bakery using planetary mixers in various sizes. Large planetary mixers may have a vacuum in order to pressurize the ingredients. This allows for control of the emulsion and temperature. The first method is the foam process or angel food cake method. The egg whites are whipped until a foam is formed before any other ingredients are added. This method ensures that the foam is not disturbed when it is being formed and that the maximum number of bubbles stay intact. Another method is called the meringue process. This entails whipping all or most of the ingredients together at the same time. This may result in a lower quality foam and a final cake with a reduced volume. The last method is called the continuous process and is usually used in commercial bakeries because it creates a consistent product in large volumes. Ingredients are fed into the continuous mixer in either one or two stages. A one-stage process mixes all of the ingredients together and feeds them into an emulsion head. Upon entry into the emulsion head, air is incorporated, fully mixing the batter. In a two-stage process, the ingredients are blended separately in different tanks according to the recipe. The speed of the mixer is controlled, as well as air flow to help mix the batter. The final batter may then go through a static mixer (a pipe with a spiral blade inside) to be deposited in a tube pan, depositor, or hopper. Normally angel food cakes are baked in a straight-sided tube pan, but similar pans such as a bundt pan are acceptable. It is very important that the pan does not have a non-stick surface and that no grease is applied to the sides or around the tube. As the cake bakes, it expands and rises. The sides and hollow center tube act as supports for the foam as it expands. The hollow pan also allows for an even heat distribution. For the optimal angel food cake outcome, experts believe that the cake should be baked for at the shortest amount of time at the highest temperature. The temperature and duration depends on the size and weight of the cake. Temperatures range from to , while baking time ranges from 30 minutes to one hour (Suas, M. 2009). If the angel food cake does not bake long enough, the foam and gel structures will not reach their full potential. In a bakery, angel food cakes could be baked in a rack oven, revolving oven, convention oven, or small deck oven. A commercial bakery may use a tunnel or traveling oven. When the cake has finished baking, it should have a golden brown color on the exposed area. The final volume will generally be two to three times larger than the batter volume. Angel food cakes are cooled upside down. Some tube pans have “feet” or “fingers” that extend off of the top rim of the pan. The “feet” are placed on a cooling rack. If the pan does not have “feet” it is customary for home bakers to place a glass soda bottle or something similar through the tube to ensure that the pan is elevated. The elevation provides sufficient air flow to the cake, so that it cools properly. If a non-stick pan or greased pan were used, the cake would fall out when inverted, leading to a collapsed cake. Angel food cakes have a shelf-life of a few days at room temperature or up to a week in a refrigerator because of the tendency for moisture to migrate and evaporate. After a few days the cake will be dry and lack flexibility. Molecular and structural composition Egg whites Egg whites play an integral role in the structure of the baked cake. Egg whites are composed of many proteins; however, only ovalbumin, conalbumin, lysozyme, and globulins have properties which aid in creating a voluminous angel food cake. Ovalbumin and globulins will produce a foam that is equal to or greater than the size of the egg whites. Egg white proteins have many uses in baking, one of which is the ability to create and maintain a foam. Whipping incorporates air throughout the egg whites, as well as denaturing or unfolding the proteins to create thinner protein molecules. Overrun, similar to lightness, describes the amount of air pushed into the foam. In terms of an angel food cake, overrun is the increase in volume from the original volume caused by the inclusion of air. The overrun of an egg white foam ranges from 500 to 800%. This means that whipping 100 mL of egg whites would result in 500 mL - 800 mL of air incorporated into the foam. During whipping, protein adsorption allows for rapid foam formation. Adsorption is the ability to spontaneously form a very thin layer on a surface. The denatured proteins move to the air/water interface to create the cell walls of the air bubbles. Cell wall formation occurs when the denatured proteins aggregate, forming an extremely thin network or film. Many interactions between the proteins and the interface are possible, including hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, disulfate bonds, and Van der Waals interactions. A cake made with egg yolks would not be as light and airy because they have a lower foaming ability than egg whites. This move, to the air/water interface, by the proteins is also aided by their hydrophobic and hydrophilic part. The hydrophobic moieties orient themselves toward the air while the hydrophilic moieties orient themselves toward the water portion of the interface. The air molecules at the air/water interface interact less with the other molecules that are fully inside the bubble. This lack of interaction causes the air molecules to have excess energy, resulting in surface tension. The presence of egg white proteins at the interface acts as a surfactant which lowers the surface tension and promotes foam development. A foam is a type of emulsion: air in an aqueous solution. If the surface tension was not lowered, the air bubbles would coalescence and the emulsion would separate. The interfacial dilational modulus (E) describes how the egg white proteins or surfactants covering the air/water interface are able to resist deformation from stretching or compression. An elastic and viscosity component are incorporated into the value, which account for the energy that is lost and recovered as a result of deformation. E = dγ/d ln A E: interfacial dilational modulus γ: change in interfacial tension A: change in interfacial area at a constant shape The most stable and voluminous foams are created when the egg white proteins are near their isoelectric points. Protein adsorption is most rapid at the isoelectric point because electrostatic repulsion is reduced for proteins with a neutral net charge. The viscoelasticity of protein foam films is usually at its highest near its isoelectric point. This is why acid is usually added to the cake batter, in order to adjust the pH. The preparation of the batter should be done as quickly as possible. When the foam sits, disproportionation will occur. This is the result of water draining from the foam and collecting at the bottom. The bubbles at the top of the foam will grow larger as the water leaves and the cell walls or film become too weak and break, forming larger bubbles. Whipping aids Whipping aids improve the foaming properties of albumen, a protein found in egg whites, which means a firmer foam will be established in a shorter amount of time. Cream of tartar is an acidic salt which adjusts the pH of egg whites so the proteins will be more soluble, as well as reducing protein denaturation during whipping. If cream of tartar is not used the cake may not reach its maximum achievable volume. Cream of tartar also decolorizes the flavone pigments in flour, giving a final cake that is a bright white color. The whiteness of the cake is also caused by the way cream of tartar creates very small and uniform air bubbles, which gives the cake the appearance of being whiter after baking. Flour The baking process causes the batter to expand and go from a liquid to a solid foam. The proteins will not start to denature until the temperature reaches around . During this rise in temperature the air bubbles will either expand, coalesce, or break. An egg white foam will continue to expand uniformly until the internal temperature reaches – . Based on the ideal gas law, as the temperature increases, the volume of the air bubbles will expand. The temperature will continue to rise, causing the cake to expand at different rates and egg white proteins will gradually denature. Some of the egg white proteins will start to denature and coagulate at around . This establishes the setting of the foam structure. By the time the temperature reaches , all of the egg white proteins will have set in place. The foam structure will decrease slightly or collapse in order to form a solid foam of less volume. This occurs while the cake is still baking, not when it is cooling. The combination of protein denaturation and starch gelatinization determines whether the cake will set or collapse. When proteins denature, they are not in a stable state. In order to stabilize, the denatured proteins will aggregate around air bubbles and within the continuous phase of the batter. The aggregation and overlapping of the proteins forms a very stable network. The flour plays an important role in the texture, structure, and elasticity of an angel food cake. Minimal folding of the flour allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with the egg protein foam and sugar mixture. If the batter is over-mixed, the egg white proteins may coagulate causing the bubbles to break during baking, or the cell walls may become too rigid, lacking elasticity. This would reduce the volume and result in a coarse texture. However, if the batter is under-mixed, a weak foam will form. A gluten matrix is formed when the proteins glutenin and gliadin, found in wheat flour, are mixed in the presence of water. When the batter is agitated, these two proteins form cross-links, disulfide bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds. The matrix that forms is strong and very flexible. Although no water is added to the batter, the gluten reacts with the water found in egg whites. Since air has already been entrapped in the foam, the flour proteins can only coat the already entrapped air. This helps to strengthen the cell walls and batter during baking or any other handling. This is beneficial because the meringue on its own is weak, cannot expand in heat, and does not have any elasticity normally expected in cakes. Starch gelatinization occurs around the same time as when expansion stops and the cake sets or collapses. When starch granules are exposed to heat and water, they swell, leaching out some starch and forming hydrogen bonds with other starch granules. About 96% of the starch granules are gelatinized. Starch granules create very strong and rigid gel networks. The starch gel network is interspersed throughout the structure along with the aggregated protein network. The formation of the starch gel may interfere with expanding bubbles, causing them to burst and air to leave the cake. This would result in a collapsed cake. Sugar Sugar functions as a sweetener, stabilizer, and tenderizer. The amount of sugar has a large impact on the overrun and stability of the foam. When sugar and egg whites are whipped together, a meringue is formed. If the amount of sugar is less than or equal to the amount of egg whites, a soft meringue is formed. A stiffer meringue is formed when there is more sugar than egg white. Angel food cakes usually have equal parts sugar and egg white. Sugar will disturb protein foam formation in a positive or negative manner. It is also important that the sugar is added slowly, so that the crystals have a chance to dissolve. It is typically added after a weak foam has been formed. This way it can help stabilize the foam instead of impeding on it, causing coagulation and collapse. When the sugar dissolves, it interacts with the proteins at the air/water interface, creating a thicker and more stable cell wall. The sugar can also assist in the denaturing and aggregation of egg white proteins, which increases overrun, giving a lighter texture. Sugar binds water through hydrogen bonds, which allows for a moist final cake and why all of the moisture does not leave during baking. Since there is no shortening, butter, fat, or oil, sugar is the only tenderizer. The more sugar added, the more tender the cake will be. However, if too much is added, the cake may collapse because the foam structure is not strong enough to support itself. When the cake has finished baking, it should have a golden brown color on the exposed area. This is due to Maillard browning reactions. If the cake bakes for too long, more moisture will be removed and the texture will turn out dry, rough, and potentially burnt. Additional ingredients in commercially produced cakes Commercial bakeries have a need to reduce cost and increase the shelf life for mass-produced products. For these reasons they use many ingredients that deviate from the traditional angel food cake recipe. Dehydrated and frozen egg whites are cheaper and more efficient than fresh egg whites. However, each lot of dehydrated egg whites varies from the next. This results in each batch of cakes varying in texture, moisture, volume, and height. Surfactants that have been used to improve the whipping properties of dehydrated eggs are sodium desoxycholate, triethyl citrate, triacetin, sodium oleate and oleic acid. Frozen egg whites do not form as firm or stable foams as fresh egg whites. It may be necessary to adjust the pH if the eggs have been refrigerated for a long time because they become more alkaline than fresh eggs. Acids can be added in manufacturing such as acetic, malic, tartaric, and citric. These improve the color and cake structure by lowering the pH, however they do not work as well as cream of tartar. Instead of using pure cake flour, wheat flour or a mixture of wheat flour and raw wheat starch is used. The wheat flour is bleached to remove any brown pigments and produce a bright white color. The pH of the bleached flour is between 3 and 4.5, although the optimal pH of starch gelatinization is between 3.7 and 3.9. Acidifiers are used in order to reach this pH range. The optimal flour protein content is between 3% and 4%, and must be below 4.5%. If a mixture is used, at least 20% by weight should be wheat flour. A small amount of raw wheat starch may be added to the sugar as a grinding aid. Pregelatinized starch may be added to increase the rate of starch gelatinization. One method of pregelatinization starts by heating a mixture of starch and water until a gel forms. The gel may be placed on a heated roll in a thin layer in order to dry it. Once all the water has been removed, a starch cake is left on the roll. The cake is then scraped off and pulverized to form a powder. When the pregelatinized starch powder is subjected to water, a gel forms. The pregelatinized starch increases water adsorption. This in turn increases the batter viscosity and helps retain the entrapped air while the batter is prepared and as it starts to bake. The gel is not as strong has it would be if a normal starch was mixed with water and heated. However, the combination of pregelatinized starch and starch in the wheat flour create an acceptable gel together. Typically corn starch is used, however a variety of other starches also work. A balanced chemical leavening such sodium bicarbonate, along with an acidifier is another common ingredient. When reacted together, the acidifier has the ability to release all of the carbon dioxide from the sodium bicarbonate. A variety of acidifiers can be used, including potassium bitartrate, tartaric acid, and disodium phosphate. The type of acidifier used depends on when the preferred release of CO2 is. If the release would be most beneficial when the batter is forming, citric acid would be ideal because it is fast acting. The amount of acidifier depends on which agent, such as sodium bicarbonate, is used because they have varying neutralization points. An excess acidifier is also added, however it isn’t used in combination with the sodium bicarbonate. Instead it lowers the batter pH to facilitate the starch gelatinization and maintain the egg white protein foam volume in the baking cake. At a lower pH, the egg white proteins are able to entrap more air during both preparation and baking. The optimal pH for the batter is between 5.5 and 6.8. It also helps to create a whiter cake, which is more desirable to consumers. It is typical that the excess acidifier is the same as that used to react with the balanced chemical leavener. Adding a small amount of calcium chloride may be used to alter the pH to the optimum value when dehydrated egg whites with a higher pH are used. It may also alter the flour gelatinization temperature. This ensures that when large quantities of cakes are produced, the cakes will be the best possible quality and volume, without a gummy layer forming. A whipping aid such as modified soy protein can help to account for the decreased foaming ability of dehydrated or frozen egg whites. Modified soy protein is a soy protein in a solution which is then acidified using hydrochloric acid. Pepsin or another enzyme is then added to enhance the protein foaming abilities. Once the enzyme activity has ceased, the solution is heated to deactivate the enzyme and more hydrochloric acid is added if a pH adjustment is required. Oxidized wheat starch is a tenderizing agent that may be added to give the angel food cake a lighter texture. Raw wheat starch is treated with sodium hypochlorite, neutralized, purified, and dried. The final starch has molecules with shorter chain lengths, which prevents the gel network from being too tough. Unlike a homemade angel food cake, water may be used when mixing the dry ingredients, as well as to reconstitute dehydrated egg whites. See also A variety of chocolate cake known as Devil's food cake, considered Angel food's "counterpart", is another popular American cake that was developed later. However, unlike angel food cake, devil's food cake is a type of butter cake. Chiffon cake References External links History of the cake American cakes Sponge cakes	[ -0.09246198832988739, 0.27454471588134766, 0.06073911860585213, 0.09442444145679474, -0.20989926159381866, 0.4948350191116333, 0.40663665533065796, 0.686306893825531, -0.46937209367752075, -0.3446231186389923, -0.37755146622657776, -0.1600973755121231, 0.12226540595293045, 0.010550443083047867, -0.7707163095474243, -0.05269856005907059, 0.6314746141433716, 0.8201361894607544, 0.1323559582233429, -0.648244321346283, -0.12768235802650452, -0.40428829193115234, 0.17695093154907227, -0.017879541963338852, 0.17690779268741608, 0.10421605408191681, -0.03953292965888977, 0.2442409247159958, 0.7498320937156677, -0.017805038020014763, -0.3906128406524658, 0.5402723550796509, 0.2932640612125397, -0.3281744122505188, 0.2629415988922119, 0.006711896974593401, -0.015328478068113327, -0.4521616995334625, -0.5262442827224731, -0.05406104773283005, 0.10973380506038666, -0.0838533490896225, 0.18591874837875366, 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246995	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%20Records	Caroline Records	Caroline Records is a record label originally founded in 1973. Initially founded in the United Kingdom to showcase British progressive rock groups, the label ceased releasing titles in 1976, and then re-emerged in the United States in 1986 to release the work of American punk, post-punk, and alternative rock bands. Caroline has or had a number of subsidiary labels, including Astralwerks, Gyroscope, Caroline Blue Plate, Beat the World, Scamp, and Passenger. UK label The original Caroline record label started as a subsidiary of Richard Branson's Virgin Records from 1973 to 1976. It specialized in inexpensive LPs by progressive rock and jazz artists that lacked commercial appeal. Caroline Records rarely mentioned a connection with Virgin, and some UK and European Virgin albums that were distributed internationally (instead of being manufactured in each country) named Caroline as their American distributor. The first release was Outside the Dream Syndicate by Tony Conrad and Faust in 1973. The logo was a photographic-style variation of Virgin's "Twins" logo designed by Roger Dean. US label In 1983, the Caroline name was reused by Virgin in the US as the importer Caroline Distribution. Caroline Distribution founded the current Caroline Records in 1986. Some Caroline Records CDs issued in the US, bore the label name Caroline Blue Plate, especially Virgin UK originally-issued progressive rock records. Caroline Records was merged into Virgin Records after Virgin was acquired by Thorn EMI. Caroline Distribution was separated and became part of EMI Music Distribution. Primo Scree Primo Scree was an imprint of Caroline Records created by Ned Hayden of the Action Swingers, who had previously been a sales rep at Caroline. Its releases included the Action Swingers' single "Fear of a Fucked Up Planet", as well as Gumball's debut album Special Kiss and Monster Magnet's debut album Spine of God. Notable releases 50 Cent – Animal Ambition Audio Active & Laraaji – The Way Out Is the Way In Kevin Ayers, June Campbell Cramer & Brian Eno – Lady June's Linguistic Leprosy Bad Brains – Quickness Ben Folds Five – Ben Folds Five (under Passenger Records) Harold Budd Reuben Garcia Daniel Lentz – Music for 3 Pianos Cabaret Voltaire – The Drain Train Cabaret Voltaire – Drinking Gasoline Cherry Poppin' Daddies – Kids on the Street Cluster – Grosses Wasser (CD reissue) Cluster – One Hour Lol Coxhill – Fleas in Custard Dumblonde – Dumblonde Drop Nineteens - Delaware Egg – The Civil Surface Brian Eno – Before and After Science Eno Moebius Roedelius – After the Heat (CD reissue) Brian Eno & Jah Wobble – Spinner Excel – Split Image Excel – The Joke's on You Excel – Seeking Refuge Fred Frith – Guitar Solos Various artists – Guitar Solos 2 Gilgamesh – Gilgamesh Gong – Camembert Electrique Gong – Angel's Egg Gong – You Goo Goo Dolls – Goo Goo Dolls Heatmiser – Mic City Sons Henry Cow – Concerts Hole – Pretty on the Inside Bat For Lashes–Two Suns Bat For Lashes – Fur and gold Idaho – Year After Year Idaho– This Way Out Idaho – Three Sheets to the Wind Jabula – Thunder into our hearts Killing Joke – Killing Joke Korn – The Paradigm Shift KT Tunstall - Kin (under Sony/ATV Music Publishing) Jayce Lewis/Protafield - Nemesis Mercyful Fate – Melissa The Misfits – Static Age Monster Magnet – Tab NF - "The Search" Oh Wonder – Oh Wonder Andy Partridge/Harold Budd – Through the Hill Primus – Frizzle Fry Smashing Pumpkins – Gish Southern Culture on the Skids – For Lovers Only Steven Wilson – To the Bone Suicidal Tendencies – Join the Army Suicideboys – I Want to Die in New Orleans Swans – Children of God Tangerine Dream – Livemiles Tangerine Dream – Pergamon Tony Conrad with Faust – Outside the Dream Syndicate Uncle Slam – Say Uncle Underdog – The Vanishing Point Various artists – Greasy Truckers Live at Dingwalls Dance Hall Van Morrison - Keep Me Singing (2016) Walt Mink – Bareback Ride Walt Mink – Miss Happiness Warzone – Don't Forget the Struggle, Don't Forget the Streets White Zombie – Gods on Voodoo Moon (cassette version only) White Zombie – Soul-Crusher White Zombie – Make Them Die Slowly White Zombie – God of Thunder Youth of Today – We're Not in This Alone References External links Artist Shop Caroline Records Caroline Distribution Official website Discogs Caroline Records Discogs Gyroscope EMI Group Website links Alternative rock record labels American record labels British record labels Electronic music record labels EMI Jazz record labels 1973 establishments in the United Kingdom Record labels established in 1973 Universal Music Group Virgin Records	[ 0.08027883619070053, 0.363288938999176, 0.019655220210552216, 0.2291373461484909, 0.05942722037434578, 0.25020360946655273, 0.5551687479019165, -0.12523193657398224, -0.1882571578025818, 0.023974180221557617, 0.10914318263530731, 0.43274545669555664, -0.2190641611814499, 0.8512203097343445, 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246996	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20the%20Philippines	Flag of the Philippines	The national flag of the Philippines () is a horizontal bicolor flag with equal bands of royal blue and crimson red, with a white, equilateral triangle at the hoist. In the center of the triangle is a golden-yellow sun with eight primary rays, each representing a province. At each vertex of the triangle is a five-pointed, golden-yellow star, each of which representing one of the country's three main island groups—Luzon, the Visayas (though originally referring to the island of Panay) and Mindanao. The white triangle at the flag represents liberty, equality, and fraternity. A unique feature of this flag is its usage to indicate a state of war if it is displayed with the red side on top, which is effectively achieved by flipping the flag upside-down. Design Construction The flag's length is twice its width, giving it an aspect ratio of 1:2. The length of all the sides of the white triangle are equal to the width of the flag. Each star is oriented in such manner that one of its tips points towards the vertex at which it is located. Moreover, the gap-angle between two neighbors of the 8 ray-bundles is as large as the angle of one ray-bundle (so 22.5°), with each major ray having double the thickness of its two minor rays. The golden sun is not exactly in the center of the triangle but shifted slightly to the right. Color The shade of blue used in the flag has varied over time, beginning with the original color described as Azul Oscuro (Spanish, "dark blue"). The exact nature of this shade is debated, but a likely candidate is the blue on the Cuban flag, which a theory says influenced the Philippine flag's design. The colors of the flag were first standardized by President Ramón Magsaysay, upon the recommendation of the Philippine Heraldry Committee (PHC) dated January 24, 1955. Specifically, the colors adopted were Old Glory Red (Cable No. 70180), National Flag Blue (Cable No. 70077), Spanish Yellow (Cable No. 70068), and White (70001) by the Reference Guide of the Textile Color Card Association of the United States. In 1985, President Ferdinand E. Marcos through Executive Order No. 1010, s. 1985 instructed the National Historical Institute "to take the necessary steps to restore the original color of the First Philippine Flag". In late May, the NHI adopted Oriental Blue (Cable No. 80176) for the new national flag, but this was later rescinded by President Corazon C. Aquino after the 1986 People Power Revolution that removed him from power in favor of pre-1985 National Flag Blue. For the 1998 centennial celebration of Philippine independence, the Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines (Republic Act. 8491, s. 1998) was passed, designating Royal Blue (Cable No. 80173) as the official variant to be used from 1998 to present. The flag's colors are specified and codified under Republic Act 8491, s. 1998 signed on February 12, 1998, in terms of their cable number in the system developed by the Color Association of the United States. The official colors and their approximations in other color spaces are listed below: Symbolism In the 1850s, both Manila and Iloilo, the islands' largest ports, had maritime flags used for navigation in Philippine seas. Both maritime flags were swallowtail flags with blue and red stripes, which are now both part of the Philippine flag. The Philippine national flag has a rectangular design that consists of a white equilateral triangle, symbolizing liberty, equality and fraternity; a horizontal blue stripe for peace, truth, and justice; and a horizontal red stripe for patriotism and valor. In the center of the white triangle is an eight-rayed golden sun symbolizing unity, freedom, people's democracy, and sovereignty. Each ray represents a province with significant involvement in the 1896 Philippine Revolution against Spain; these provinces are Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga, Morong (modern-day province of Rizal), Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva Ecija (some sources specify other provinces as alternatives to some of these). However, according to the Declaration of Independence and a research by Ateneo de Manila University Professor Ambeth Ocampo, the rays of the sun symbolized the first eight provinces of the Philippines which was declared under martial law during the Philippine Revolution (Batangas, Bulacan, Cavite, Manila, Laguna, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Tarlac). Three five-pointed stars, one at each of the triangle's points, stand for the three major island groups: Luzon, Visayas (originally referring to Panay Island) and Mindanao. The flag's original symbolism is enumerated in the text of the independence proclamation, which makes reference to an attached drawing, though no record of the drawing has surfaced. The proclamation explains the flag as follows: The symbolism given in the 1898 Proclamation of Philippine Independence differs from the current official explanation. According to the document, the white triangle signifies the emblem of the Katipunan, the secret society that opposed Spanish rule. It says the flag's colors commemorate the flag of the United States as a manifestation of gratitude for American aid against the Spanish during the Philippine Revolution. It also says that one of the three stars represents the island of Panay, rather than the entire Visayan islands. Panay, which recent interpretations call as "representative of the entire Visayas region". History Historical flags of the Philippine Revolution It has been common since the 1960s to trace the development of the Philippine flag to the various war standards of the individual leaders of the Katipunan, a pseudo-masonic revolutionary movement that opposed Spanish rule in the Philippines and led the Philippine Revolution. However, while some symbols common to the Katipunan flags would be adopted into the iconography of the Revolution, it is inconclusive whether these war standards can be considered precursors to the present Philippine flag. The first flag of the Katipunan was a red rectangular flag with a horizontal alignment of three white Ks (an acronym for the Katipunan's full name, Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan – Supreme and Venerable Society of the Sons of the Nation). The flag's red field symbolized blood, as members of the Katipunan signed their membership papers in their own blood. The various leaders of the Katipunan, such as Andrés Bonifacio, Mariano Llanera, and Pío del Pilar, also had individual war standards. Current flag The earlier design of the current Philippine flag was attributed by Julio Nakpil and Artemio Ricarte to Feliciano Jocson. It was later adopted by Emilio Aguinaldo during his exile in British Hong Kong in 1897. The first flag was sewn by Marcela Mariño Agoncillo, with the help of her daughter Lorenza and Delfina Herbosa Natividad (a niece of Propagandista José Rizal). It was first displayed in the Battle of Alapan on May 28, 1898. The flag was formally unfurled during the proclamation of independence on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite. However, a Manila Times article by Augusto de Viana, Chief History Researcher, National Historical Institute, mentions assertions in history textbooks and commemorative rites that the flag was first raised in Alapan, Imus, Cavite, on May 28, 1898, citing Presidential Proclamation No. 374, issued by then-President Diosdado Macapagal on March 6, 1965. The article goes on to claim that historical records indicate that the first display of the Philippine flag took place in Cavite City, when General Aguinaldo displayed it during the first fight of the Philippine Revolution. The original design of the flag adopted a mythical sun with a face influenced by The Republics of the Rio de la Plata, Argentina and Uruguay; a triangle, representing the Katipunan which inspired by the Eye of Providence in the Great Seal of the United States and the Masonic Triangle and which enshrined Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité; the stripes and colors derived from the American flag. The particular shade of blue of the original flag has been a source of controversy. Based on anecdotal evidence and the few surviving flags from the era, historians argue that the colors of the original flag was influenced by the flags of Cuba and Puerto Rico. During the session of the Malolos Congress, Aguinaldo presented the symbolism of the official flag to the members, delegates and representatives of the assembly as follows: The original flag that was first hoisted on May 28, 1898, and unfurled during the Declaration of independence on June 12, 1898, is being preserved at the Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo Museum in Baguio. There were plans to restore the flag by replacing the worn-out portion but the idea was abandoned because matching threads could not be found. The flag is more elaborate than the flag which is currently in use. It bears the embroidered words, Libertad, Justicia and Igualdad (Liberty, Justice, and Equality) on one side of the flag and Fuerzas Expedicionarias del Norte de Luzon (Expeditionary forces of Northern Luzon) on the other Hostilities broke out between the Philippines and the United States in 1899. The flag was first flown with the red field up on February 4, 1899, to show that a state of war existed. Aguinaldo was captured by the Americans two years later, and swore allegiance to the United States. With the defeat of the Philippine Republic, the Philippines was placed under American colonial rule and the display of the Philippine flag and other flags and banners associated with the Katipunan were declared illegal by the Flag Act of 1907. This law was repealed on October 24, 1919. With the legalization of display of the Philippine flag, the cloth available in most stores was the red and blue of the flag of the United States, so the flag from 1919 onwards adopted the "National Flag blue" color. On March 26, 1920, the Philippine Legislature passed Act. No 2928 on March 26, 1920, which legally adopted the Philippine flag as the official flag of the Philippine Islands. Up until the eve of World War II, Flag Day was celebrated on annually on October 30, commemorating the date the ban on the flag was lifted. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated in 1935. On March 25, 1936, President Manuel L. Quezon issued Executive Order No. 23 which provided for the technical description and specifications of the flag. Among the provisions of the order was the definition of the triangle at the hoist as an equilateral triangle, the definition of the aspect ratio at 1:2, the precise angles of the stars, the geometric and aesthetic design of the sun, and the formal elimination of the mythical face on the sun. The exact shades of colors, however, were not precisely defined. These specifications have remained unchanged and in effect to the present. In 1941, Flag Day was officially moved to June 12, commemorating the date that Philippine independence was proclaimed in 1898. The flag was once again banned with the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Philippines beginning in December 1941, to be hoisted again with the establishment of the Second Republic of the Philippines, a client state of Japan. In ceremonies held in October 1943, Emilio Aguinaldo hoisted the flag with the original Cuban blue and red colors restored. The flag was initially flown with the blue stripe up, until President José P. Laurel proclaimed the existence of a state of war with the Allied Powers in 1944. The Commonwealth government-in-exile in Washington, D.C. continued to use the flag with the American colors, and had flown it with the red stripe up since the initial invasion of the Japanese. With the combined forces of the Filipino & American soldiers and the liberation of the Philippines in 1944 to 1945, the flag with the American colors was restored, and it was this flag that was hoisted upon the granting of Philippine independence from the United States on July 4, 1946. Chronology Proposals Ninth ray for the flag's sun As representative of a ninth province Prior to the 1998 independence centennial celebrations, the provincial government of Zambales lobbied that the sunburst design accommodate a ninth ray, reasoning that their province was also in a state of rebellion in 1896. The Centennial Commission however refuted this change, based on research by the National Historical Institute. In August 2003, then Foreign Affairs Secretary Blas Ople also lobbied for a ninth ray, saying that Quezon should be added. He reasons that the first uprising against the Spaniards happened at the foot of Mount Banahaw which was led by Hermano Pule in 1841. As representative of an ethnic group In December 1987, congressman Alawadin Bandon Jr. of Tawi-Tawi proposed the addition of a ninth ray to the Philippine flag's sun to represent "Muslim participation" in the Philippine Revolution, arguing that "As a Muslim I am assaulted by a feeling of alienation in being excluded from the symbolic narration of the great history of the country." , there is a proposal to add a ninth ray to represent the Moro people (Filipino Muslims), as well as other indigenous groups. Senator Richard Gordon filed Senate Bill No. 2590 which aimed to amend Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines in 2008. This measure was later substituted by Senate Bill No. 3307 which was sponsored by Senator Francis Escudero which was approved in September 2009. The bill was sent to the House of Representatives for concurrence which came up with House Bill 6424. Both S.B. No. 3307 and H.B. 6424 was reconciled by the Bicameral Conference Committee in September 2009. In June 2018, Gordon renewed his campaign to get his proposal passed into law. , the Ninth Ray movement is among the prominent groups pushing for the addition of a ninth ray to the flag's sun. Proponents of the movement believe that a ninth ray should be added to represent the Muslim and indigenous people of the country who kept colonizers away from their lands. Fourth star Emmanuel L. Osorio, one of the founders of the Ninth Ray movement, came up with a proposal adding not only a ninth ray to the flag's sun but also adding a fourth star to the flag representing North Borneo (present-day Sabah), a territory claimed by the Philippines but currently under Malaysian sovereignty. The flag's triangle is changed into a rectangle to accommodate a fourth star. According to Osorio, the star representing Sabah in his proposed flag was added "in principle" and said the flag proposal seeks to express the Ninth Ray movement's view that "if we get Sabah, then it could be represented by the star". The current stars (Three) represent Mindanao, Visayas and Luzon. Crescent moon There have been numerous proposals as to how the crescent moon should be incorporated into the flag, including one such proposal from former President Fidel V. Ramos. Usage Display The flag should be displayed in all government buildings, official residences, public plazas, and schools every day throughout the year. All other places as may be designated by the National Historical Commission as such. The days of May 28 (National Flag Day) and June 12 (Independence Day) are designated as flag days, during which all offices, agencies and instrumentalities of government, business establishments, institutions of learning and private homes are enjoined to display the flag. But in recent years, the flag days are now from May 28 to June 30 yearly to promote patriotism and to celebrate the nation's independence. By law, the Philippine flag must be permanently hoisted and illuminated at night at the following locations: The display of the Philippine flag in cockpit arenas, casinos, disco venues, night and day clubs, gambling joints and "places of vice or where frivolity prevails" is illegal. When displaying the Philippine flag with another flag in a crossed position, the former should hang on the left side of the observer and its staff should be displayed over the staff of the second flag. The display of two crossed Philippine flags is not permissible. In the case of the Philippine flag's display on a stage or platform such as in a speech, the flag's staff should be positioned on the right side and in front of the speaker and all other secondary flags displayed on the speaker's left. Half-mast The flag may be flown at half-mast as a sign of mourning. Upon the official announcement of the death of the president or a former president, the flag should be flown at half-mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half-mast for seven days following the death of the vice president, the chief justice, the president of the Senate or the speaker of the House of Representatives. The flag may also be required to fly at half-mast upon the death of other persons to be determined by the National Historical Institute, for a period less than seven days. The flag shall be flown at half-mast on all the buildings and places where the decedent was holding office, on the day of death until the day of interment of an incumbent member of the Supreme Court, the Cabinet, the Senate or the House of Representatives, and such other persons as may be determined by the National Historical Commission. When flown at half-mast, the flag should be first hoisted to the peak for a moment then lowered to the half-mast position. It should be raised to the peak again before it is lowered for the day. A bill was filed in 2014, to mandate the flying of the flag at half-mast as a tribute to public school teachers. Under the proposal the flag shall be flown at half-mast for at least five days at the school or district office the deceased teacher was assigned. In wakes and burials The flag may also be used to cover the caskets of the dead of the tanod, military and police, civil uniformed services, fire fighter, traffic enforcer, Filipino governance servants, veterans of previous wars, national artists, uniformed rescuers, PNP SWAT and outstanding civilians as determined by the local government. In such cases, the flag must be placed such that the white triangle is at the head and the blue portion covers the right side of the casket. The flag should not be lowered to the grave or allowed to touch the ground, but should be solemnly folded and handed to the heirs of the deceased. As a war ensign The Philippines does not utilize a separate war flag; instead, the national flag itself is used for this purpose. To indicate a state of war, the red field is flown upwards and is placed on the right (i.e., the observer's left) when hung vertically. In times of peace, however, the blue area is the superior field. On this case, Philippine flag is the only official country flag in the world that can be flipped when the country is at war. The red side-up orientation of the flag was used by the First Philippine Republic during the Philippine–American War from 1899 to 1901, by the Philippine Commonwealth during the Second World War from 1941 to 1945, by the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic when it declared war against the United Kingdom and the United States in 1944, by soldiers and civilians during the attempted coups d'états against President Corazon Aquino's administration, and by militants and rallyists during EDSA III. The only instance in which the flag was not oriented with red as superior in a state of war was at its debut during the Battle of Alapan in 1898, 15 days before the Philippine Declaration of Independence in Kawit, Cavite. In intellectual property The Philippine Flag itself is not eligible to be trademarked according to the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHIL) since the flag is "owned by the public" in line with prohibitions on the flag's usage stated in Republic Act 8491. The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, which the Philippines is a member of, also prohibits the registration of the state flags of its members as trademark. However both small and large businesses in the Philippines have used elements of the Philippine flag for their intellectual property. When it comes to this concern, the IPOPHIL has allowed businesses to use elements of the flag to invoke the national symbol as long as the intellectual property is neither a "true representation" of the Philippine flag nor a "modification that would amount to defacement of the flag". Prohibited acts According to Republic Act 8491 itself, it shall be prohibited: a) To mutilate, deface, defile, trample on or cast contempt or commit any act or omission casting dishonor or ridicule upon the flag or over its surface; b) To dip the flag to any person or object by way of compliment or salute; c) To use the flag: 1) As a drapery, festoon, tablecloth; 2) As covering for ceilings, walls, statues or other objects; 3) As a pennant in the hood, side, back and top of motor vehicles; 4) As a staff or whip; 5) For unveiling monuments or statues; and 6) As trademarks, or for industrial, commercial or agricultural labels or designs. d) To display the flag: 1) Under any painting or picture; 2) Horizontally face-up. It shall always be hoisted aloft and be allowed to fall freely; 3) Below any platform; or 4) In discothèques, cockpits, night and day clubs, casinos, gambling joints and places of vice or where frivolity prevails. e) To wear the flag in whole or in part as a costume or uniform; f) To add any word, figure, mark, picture, design, drawings, advertisement, or imprint of any nature on the flag; g) To print, paint or attach representation of the flag on handkerchiefs, napkins, cushions, and other articles of merchandise; h) To display in public any foreign flag, except in embassies and other diplomatic establishments, and in offices of international organizations; i) To use, display or be part of any advertisement or infomercial; and j) To display the flag in front of buildings or offices occupied by aliens. The Act mandates that violators shall, upon conviction, be punished by fine or imprisonment. Relevant customs Pledge The Pledge of Allegiance to the Philippine flag (distinct from the Patriotic Oath of Allegiance) should be recited while standing with the right hand with palm open raised shoulder high. Individuals whose faith or religious beliefs prohibit them from making such pledge are permitted to excuse themselves, but are required by law to show full respect when the pledge is being rendered by standing at attention. The law makes no statement regarding the language in which the pledge must be recited, but the pledge is written (and therefore recited) in the Filipino language. Flag anthem Spanish, Tagalog and English versions of the national anthem have been given official status throughout Philippine history. However, only the most recent and current "Filipino" version is officially recognized by law. The Flag and Heraldic Code, approved on February 12, 1998, specifies, Lupang Hinirang, "The National Anthem shall always be sung in the national language within or without the country"; violation of the law is punishable by a fine and imprisonment. National Flag Day The National Flag Day in the Philippines is celebrated every May 28, the very day of the 1898 Battle of Alapan. The official National Flag flying period starts from May 28 and ends on Independence Day, June 12, every year, although the flying period for the flag in homes, businesses and public establishments may start on a specified day of May (to be given by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines) and may last until June 30. See also Coat of arms of the Philippines List of flags of the Philippines Philippine coastwise emblem Notes References External links The Official Website of the Republic of the Philippines How to properly display the Philippine flag. History of the Philippine Flag: Philippines – historical flags of 20th Century, flagspot.net Filipino Flag – Learn Now FilipinoFlag.net (archived from the original on 2012-06-23) Watawat – Flags and Symbols of the Pearl of the Orient Seas History of the Philippine Flag, Philippines Presidential Museum and Library Origin of the Symbols of our National Flag, Philippines Presidential Museum and Library Flags and Banners of the Colonial Era in the Philippines, Philippines Presidential Museum and Library. 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247000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20service%20entrance%20examination	Civil service entrance examination	Civil service examinations are examinations implemented in various countries for recruitment and admission to the civil service. They are intended as a method to achieve an effective, rational public administration on a merit system for recruiting prospective politicians and public sector employees. The most ancient example of such exams were the imperial examinations of ancient China. See also Civil service commission EU Concours Government procurement Public utilities commission Invitation to Tender Spoils system References Eno, Robert. 'Song Dynasty Culture: Political Crisis And The Great Turn'. N.p., 2008. Web. 31 Oct. 2015. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History Of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Print. Afe.easia.columbia.edu,. 'The Song Dynasty In China \| Asia Topics In World History'. N.p., 2015. Web. 31 Oct. 2015. 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247002	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteales	Proteales	Proteales is an order of flowering plants consisting of three (or four) families. The Proteales have been recognized by almost all taxonomists. The representatives of the Proteales are very different from each other. The order contains plants that do not look alike at all. What they have in common is seeds with little or no endosperm. The ovules are often atropic. Families In the classification system of Dahlgren the Proteales were in the superorder Proteiflorae (also called Proteanae). The APG II system of 2003 also recognizes this order, and places it in the clade eudicots with this circumscription: order Proteales family Nelumbonaceae family Proteaceae [+ family Platanaceae] with "+ ..." = optionally separate family (that may be split off from the preceding family). The APG III system of 2009 followed this same approach, but favored the narrower circumscription of the three families, firmly recognizing three families in Proteales: Nelumbonaceae, Platanaceae, and Proteaceae. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, however, suggests the addition of Sabiaceae, which the APG III system did not place in any order in the eudicots, would be sensible. The APG IV system of 2016 added family Sabiaceae to the order. Well-known members of the Proteales include the proteas of South Africa, the banksias and macadamias of Australia, the London plane, and the sacred lotus. The origins of the order are clearly ancient, with evidence of diversification in the mid-Cretaceous, over 100 million years ago. Of interest are the current family distributions, with the Proteaceae a mostly Southern Hemisphere family, while the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae are Northern Hemisphere plants. Classification The current APG IV classification represents a slight change from the APG I system of 1998, which firmly did accept family Platanaceae as being separate from the order. Under APG IV, this is the current circumscription of the order: order Proteales family Nelumbonaceae family Platanaceae family Proteaceae family Sabiaceae Cronquist The Cronquist system of 1981 recognized such an order and placed it in subclass Rosidae in class Magnoliopsida [=dicotyledons]. It used this circumscription: order Proteales family Elaeagnaceae family Proteaceae Dahlgren; Thorne; Engler; and Wettstein The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) recognized such an order and placed it in superorder Proteanae in subclass Magnoliidae [=dicotyledons]. The Engler system, in its update of 1964, also recognized this order and placed it in subclass Archichlamydeae of class Dicotyledoneae. The Wettstein system, last revised in 1935, recognized this order and placed it in the Monochlamydeae in subclass Choripetalae of class Dicotyledones. These systems used the following circumscription: order Proteales family Proteaceae References Angiosperm orders	[ -0.07767896354198456, -0.2893330454826355, -0.33382612466812134, -0.19301284849643707, -0.505475640296936, 0.3146180212497711, 0.6115704774856567, 0.25830644369125366, -0.12520258128643036, -0.21315675973892212, -0.07240725308656693, 0.09338344633579254, -0.7789406180381775, 0.5025996565818787, -0.32047492265701294, 0.45982682704925537, 0.1805458664894104, 0.5332249402999878, -0.20469360053539276, -0.06464793533086777, -0.7406120896339417, -0.12667956948280334, 0.8403055667877197, -0.6130419969558716, 0.6998819708824158, -0.22094860672950745, -0.006031114142388105, 0.7107088565826416, 0.5304125547409058, -0.05313150957226753, -0.050586722791194916, 0.7446752190589905, 0.05986981466412544, -0.16350394487380981, -0.2726200222969055, 0.3013765811920166, -0.21610736846923828, -0.48004570603370667, -0.3049519956111908, -0.7257038950920105, -0.39277875423431396, 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247003	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business%20jet	Business jet	A business jet, private jet, or bizjet is a jet aircraft designed for transporting small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or express parcel deliveries, and some are used by public bodies, government officials or the armed forces. History Early developments The first small jet-powered civil aircraft was the Morane-Saulnier MS.760 Paris, developed privately in the early 1950s from the MS.755 Fleuret two-seat jet trainer. First flown in 1954, the MS.760 Paris differs from subsequent business jets in having only four seats arranged in two rows without a center aisle, similar to a light aircraft, under a large sliding canopy similar to that of a fighter. A U.S. type certificate was awarded in July 1958, but commercial sales were limited, with most examples going to the military; an improved civil version similar to a modern very light jet, with a 6-seat enclosed cabin and a conventional door, never proceeded past the prototype stage. The commercial failure of the MS.760 Paris prompted the cancellation of projects by Cessna and Douglas Aircraft to market similar jets. The development of center-aisle cabin business jets was accelerated by an August 1956 United States Air Force (USAF) letter of the requirement for two "off-the-shelf" aircraft: the larger UCX (cargo) and smaller UTX (trainer). These requirements differed from standard Air Force procurement contracts in that there would be no formal competitions, and manufacturers were expected to develop the aircraft without government funds; despite this, a substantial USAF purchase would offset the large investment necessary to develop prototypes. The Lockheed Corporation and McDonnell Aircraft both began the development of UCX aircraft, while North American Aviation pursued the UTX requirement. 1950s first flight The Morane-Saulnier MS.760 Paris had a gross weight of , initially powered by two Turboméca Marboré turbojets of thrust, although most aircraft were later upgraded to units. The aircraft seated a single pilot and up to three passengers under a sliding canopy and was first flown on 29 July 1954. 219 were built. The Lockheed JetStar, designed to meet USAF UCX requirements and seating ten passengers and two crew, first flew on 4 September 1957. A total of 204 aircraft were produced from 1957 to 1978 powered by several different engines; four Pratt & Whitney JT12 turbojets, then Garrett TFE731 turbofans for a MTOW, then two General Electric CF700 turbofans. The smaller, MTOW North American Sabreliner, tailored to the USAF UTX requirement, first flew on 16 September 1958. Powered by two Pratt & Whitney JT12 turbojet engines then Garrett TFE731s, more than 800 were produced from 1959 to 1982. Designed in 1957 for the UCX requirement, the McDonnell 119 was delayed by the cancellation of the Fairchild J83 engine program, and first flew on 11 February 1959 powered by four Westinghouse J34 turbojets. The 119 was certified for a MTOW with four Pratt & Whitney JT12 or General Electric CF700 engines, but no firm orders were received, and only the single prototype was completed. 1960s first flight The MTOW British Aerospace 125 first flew on 13 August 1962 as the de Havilland DH.125, powered by two Armstrong Siddeley Viper turbojets. Its engines were replaced by Garrett TFE731s, then Pratt & Whitney Canada PW300 turbofans. Almost 1,700 aircraft of all variants, including the Hawker 800, were produced between 1962 and 2013. The Aero Commander 1121 Jet Commander, which later became the IAI Westwind, first flew on 27 January 1963, powered by two General Electric CJ610 turbojets, then Garrett TFE731s. Production of Jet Commanders and Westwinds from 1965 to 1987 came to 442 aircraft; and it was developed as the IAI Astra, later re-branded as the Gulfstream G100. The MTOW Dassault Falcon 20 first flew on 4 May 1963, powered by two General Electric CF700s, then Garrett ATF3 turbofans and Garrett TFE731s. A total of 508 were built from 1963 to 1988, and it is the basis of the Dassault Falcon family. The first light jet first flew on 7 October 1963 : the Learjet 23. Powered by two General Electric CJ610s, its MTOW complies with FAR Part 23 regulations. The first member of the Learjet family, 104 were built between 1962 and 1966. The forward wing sweep, MTOW Hamburger Flugzeugbau HFB 320 Hansa Jet first flew on 21 April 1964, powered by two General Electric CJ610s; 47 were built between 1965 and 1973. The joint Piaggo-Douglas, MTOW Piaggio PD.808 first flew on 29 August 1964, powered by two Armstrong Siddeley Vipers, 24 were built for the Italian Air Force. On 2 October 1966 the first large business jet first flew, the MTOW Grumman Gulfstream II, powered by two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans. From 1967 to the late 70s, 258 were built and it led to the ongoing Gulfstream Aerospace long range family. The MTOW Cessna Citation I first flew on 15 September 1969, powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D turbofans. Produced between 1969 and 1985 for a total of 689 examples, it is the first of the Cessna Citation family. 1970s first flight The trijet Dassault Falcon 50 made its first flight on 7 November 1976. The MTOW airplane is powered by three TFE731 engines. With the cross-section of the Falcon 20, it is the basis of the larger Falcon 900. On 8 November 1978, the prototype Canadair Challenger took off. The MTOW craft, usually powered by two General Electric CF34s, formed the basis of the long range Bombardier Global Express family and of the Bombardier CRJ regional airliners. The 1000th Challenger entered service in 2015. On 30 May 1979 the all-new MTOW Cessna Citation III took off for the first time, powered by two TFE731s. The Mitsubishi MU-300 Diamond made its first flight on 29 August 1978. The MTOW jet was powered by two JT15D. The design was later sold and was renamed Beechjet 400 then Hawker 400, with a total of 950 produced of all variants. 1980s first flight The 1980s only saw the introduction of derivatives and no major new designs. Also there was an advent of fractional ownership in the late 1980s for business jets. For much of the 1980s, sales of new aircraft slumped. 1990s first flight On 29 April 1991, the Cessna CitationJet was first flown. Powered by two Williams FJ44 engines, the light jet used a modified Citation II fuselage with a new wing and tail, and was subsequently developed into the CJ series and M2, ultimately replacing the Citation I, Citation II and Citation V series. The 2,000th CitationJet was delivered in 2017. The first flight of the all-new Learjet 45 was on 7 October 1995. All of the 642 aircraft built since then have been powered by two TFE731 engines. Powered by two Williams FJ44s, the Beechcraft Premier I light jet made its first flight on 22 December 1998. Nearly 300 had been made before production stopped in 2013. 2000s first flight In the opposite way compared to Bombardier, which developed airliners from a business jet, Embraer derived the Legacy 600 from the Embraer ERJ family of regional jet airliners. Powered by two Rolls-Royce AE 3007s, the first flight of the aircraft was on 31 March 2001. On 14 August 2001, the Bombardier Challenger 300 made its first flight. The aircraft is powered by two HTF7000s. The 500th example was delivered in 2015. The first very light jet, the MTOW Eclipse 500, took off for the first time on 26 August 2002, powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW600s. Between then and the end of production in 2008, 260 were produced. Another new small jet, the Honda HA-420 HondaJet, first flew on 3 December 2003 powered by two GE Honda HF120 engines mounted above the wing in a configuration unique amongst business jets. As of March 2020, 150 had been delivered. It was followed by the MTOW Cessna Citation Mustang on 23 April 2005, powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW600s and with more than 450 produced. Then the Embraer Phenom 100 made its maiden flight on 26 July 2007. The MTOW airplane is powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW600s. With its Phenom 300 development, nearly 600 have been built. 2010s first flight The first flight of the midsize, fly-by-wire, Honeywell HTF7000-powered Embraer Legacy 500 was on 27 November 2012. It was followed by the shorter Legacy 450 on 28 December 2013. New models After peaking in 2008, deliveries slowed due to political instability but the industry hopes to revive demand by introducing more attractive and competitive new models, four in 2018: the range Bombardier Global 7500 large-cabin jet, before the Global 8000 in 2019; the large-cabin Gulfstream G500, replacing the Gulfstream G450, then the longer, G600 eventually superseding the G550; the Cessna Citation Longitude super midsize jet; the superlight Pilatus PC-24. In October 2018, consultant Jetcraft expected 20 variants or new designs to enter service before 2023 (seven large, seven midsize and six small): in 2019 the Global 5500/6500, Gulfstream G600, Citation XLS++ and a CitationJet CJ4+/, while the Embraer Praetor 500/600 to be introduced in 2019 were predicted for 2021/2022; in 2020 a Gulfstream G750; in 2021 the Dassault Falcon 6X, Learjet 70XR/75XR and Global 7500XR; in 2022 the Bombardier Challenger 350XRS; in 2023 the Citation Hemisphere, an Embraer Legacy 700, Phenom 100V+, Dassault Falcon 9X, Bombardier Challenger 750 and Gulfstream G400NG; in 2025 a Citation Mustang 2+. Configuration Most production business jets use two jet engines as a compromise between the operating economy of fewer engines and the ability to safely continue flight after an engine failure. Exceptions include the early Lockheed Jetstar with four engines; the Dassault Falcon 50 and derivatives with three; and the Cirrus Vision SF50 with one, a configuration also used in several similar very light jet design concepts. Most business jets use podded engines mounted on the rear fuselage with a cruciform tail or T-tail to reduce interference drag and increase exhaust clearance. Practical limits on the ground clearance of these smaller aircraft have prompted designers to avoid the common jetliner configuration of a low wing with underslung podded engines. The sole business jet to use this layout, the early McDonnell 119, was rejected by the USAF due to foreign object damage concerns, leading to the failure of the program. The recent HondaJet uses wing-mounted engines but mitigates this problem with its unique over-the-wing engine pods. As with jetliners, swept wings are often used to increase cruise speed, but straight wings are also commonplace; notably, Cessna deliberately prioritized docile low-speed handling in choosing straight wings for many models in its popular Citation family, envisioning that owners transitioning from slower piston engined or turboprop aircraft would want to maintain the ability to use relatively short runways, and that lower approach speeds would ease single-pilot operations, particularly by relatively inexperienced owner-pilots. Rolls-Royce plc powers over 3,000 business jets, 42% of the fleet: all the Gulfstreams and Bombardier Globals, the Cessna Citation X and Embraer Legacy 600, early Hawkers, and many small jets with the Williams-Rolls FJ44. Market Fleet About 70% of the fleet was in North America at the end of 2011, the European market is the next largest, with growing activity in the Middle East, Asia, and Central America. On 1 April 2017, there were 22,368 business jets in the worldwide fleet, of which 11.2% were for sale. By October 2018, the entire private jet fleet was dominated by Textron (Beechcraft, Cessna and Hawker branded aircraft) with 43.9%, then Bombardier with 22.4%, Gulfstream with 13.0%, Dassault with 9.6% and Embraer with 5.8%, mostly in North America (64.6%), followed by Europe (13.0%) South America (12.1%) and Asia-Pacific (5.9%). As on March 31, 2019 there are 22,125 business jets in the worldwide fleet and top 20 country markets account for 89% of this total fleet. Market shares In 2015 the total airplane billing amounted to US$21.9 billion, and 718 business jets were delivered to customers across the globe: 199 (%) by Bombardier Aerospace, 166 (%) by Textron Aviation, 154 (%) by Gulfstream Aerospace, 120 (%) by Embraer and 55 (%) by Dassault Aviation. In 2017, 676 business jets were shipped, led by Gulfstream with $6.56 billion for 120 aircraft, Bombardier with $5.2 billion for 140, Textron with $2.87 billion (including propeller aircraft and jets), Dassault with $2.42 billion for 49 and Embraer with $1.35 billion for 109. Second hand The residual value level for a five-year old aircraft is at 56% of the list price. A new business aircraft typically depreciates by 50% in five years before depreciation flattens between years 10 and 15, and the owner of a 15-to-20 year old aircraft is often the last, matching luxury cars. Business jets have varying value retention, between the leading Embraer Phenom 300E, sold for $9.45 million in 2018 and expected to retain 68% of its value 15 years later for $6.46 million in 2033, and the trailing $24.5 million Gulfstream G280, predicted to retain 42% of its value for $10.25 million. Forecasts In October 2017 Jetcraft forecast 8,349 unit deliveries in the next decade for $252 billion, a $M average. Cessna should lead the numbers with 27.3% of the deliveries ahead of Bombardier with 20.9%, while Gulfstream would almost lead the revenue market share with 27.8% trailing Bombardier with 29.2%. For 2016–2025, Jetcraft forecast Pratt & Whitney Canada should be the first engine supplier with 30% of the $24B revenue, in front of the current leader Rolls-Royce at 25%. Honeywell will hold 45% of the $16B in avionics revenue ahead of Rockwell Collins with 37% and Garmin. For 2019–2028, Honeywell predicts 7,700 aircraft to be delivered for $251 billion. Its breakdown is 62% big (87% in value) – super-midsize to business liner, 10% midsize (7% in value) – light-medium to medium, and 28% small (6% in value). The global demand is expected to come from North America for 61%, 16% from Europe, 12% from Latin America, 7% from Asia-Pacific and 4% from Middle East and Africa. For the next decade, Aviation Week predicts 8,683 business jets and 2,877 turboprops deliveries, from 792 jets in 2019 to 917 in 2028, and mostly in North America with 5,986 jets and 2,024 turboprops worth $126.1 billion. Most value will come from ultra-long-range jets with $104.7 billion, followed by super-midsize jets for $33.3 billion and large jets for $30.6 billion. The fleet was predicted to grow from 31,300 aircraft to nearly 35,600 with Textron leading the market with 25% of deliveries worth $32.1 billion. For the decade starting in 2018, 22,190 engine deliveries were forecast (including several turboprop engine models), led by the Honeywell HTF7000, Williams FJ44 and Pratt & Whitney Canada PW300. The average utilization was forecast to be 365 flight hours per aircraft per year. Engines Built by Pratt & Whitney Canada, variants of the PW300 power the Dassault Falcon 7X and Dassault Falcon 8X trijets and Dassault Falcon 2000 twinjet. The 10,000–20,000 lbf (45–89 kN) PW800 was launched in 2008 but was selected for the Cessna Citation Columbus, cancelled a year after. It was then chosen for the Gulfstream G500/G600 launched in 2014 and due to enter service in 2018/2019, and picked in 2018 for the Dassault Falcon 6X 2021 first flight. The Safran Silvercrest was rejected for the cancelled Falcon 5X, it is still selected for the Cessna Citation Hemisphere, but the aircraft development is suspended until the turbofan is perfected. GE Aviation produces the Passport for the Bombardier Global 7500, due to enter service in 2018, and is developing an engine for the supersonic Aerion AS2. Rolls-Royce plc was revealed as the engine supplier for the Global 5500/6500 with the Rolls-Royce Pearl 15, an improved BR710 resembling the Gulfstream G650's BR725. The AE3007C powered Cessna Citation X+ is near its production end. The Honeywell HTF7700L replaced the Silvercrest for the Citation Longitude, due to enter service in 2018, and already powers the Bombardier Challenger 300/350, Gulfstream G280 and Embraer Legacy 450/500. Its TFE731 powers the Learjet 70/75 and Dassault Falcon 900LX. Williams International’s FJ44 powers the Pilatus PC-24, launched in 2013 and introduced in early 2018, the Nextant 400XTi and the in-development SyberJet SJ30i, as well as the Cessna Citation CJ3+/4, while the smaller FJ33 powers the Cirrus Vision SF50 single-engine business jet. Operators There are three basic types of operators that own, manage and operate private jets. Flight departments Flight departments are corporate-owned operators that manage the aircraft of a specific company. Ford Motor Company, Chrysler, and Altria are examples of companies that own, maintain and operate their own fleet of private aircraft for their employees. Flight departments handle all aspects of aircraft operation and maintenance. In the United States, flight-department aircraft operate under FAR 91 operating rules. A 2010 study by the United States National Business Aviation Association found that small and midsize companies that use private jets produce a 219% higher earnings growth rate than those that strictly use airlines. Charter companies Charter operators own or manage private jets for multiple clients. Like traditional flight departments, charter companies handle all aspects of aircraft operation and maintenance. However, they are not aligned with just one corporation. They manage aircraft for a private owner or corporation and also handle the sales of available flight time on the aircraft they own or manage. Maintenance services can also be provided. In the United States, business aircraft may be operated under either FAR 91 as private operations for the business purposes of the owner, or under FAR 135 of the Federal Aviation Regulations as commercial operations for the business purposes of a third party. One common arrangement for operational flexibility purposes is for the aircraft's owner to operate the aircraft under FAR 91 when needed for its own purposes, and to allow a third-party charter-manager to operate it under FAR 135 when the aircraft is needed for the business purposes of third parties (such as for other entities within the corporate group of the aircraft's owner). Aircraft charter brokers have entered the marketplace through the ease of setting up a website and business online. Aircraft charter operators are legally responsible for the safe operation of aircraft and charter brokers require no economic authority and are largely unregulated. The Department of Transportation requires that air charter brokers disclose to the consumer that they do not operate aircraft and cannot use terms like "our fleet of aircraft", "we operate", "our charter service" and others. Fractional ownership Since 1996 the term "fractional jet" has been used in connection with business aircraft owned by a consortium of companies. Under such arrangements, overhead costs such as flight crew, hangarage and maintenance are split among the users. Fractional ownership of aircraft involves an individual or corporation that pays an upfront equity share for the cost of an aircraft. If four parties are involved, a partner would pay one-fourth of the aircraft price (a "quarter share"). That partner is now an equity owner in that aircraft and can sell the equity position if necessary. This also entitles the new owner to a certain number of hours of flight time on that aircraft, or any comparable aircraft in the fleet. Additional fees include monthly management fees and incidentals such as catering and ground transportation. In the United States, fractional-ownership operations may be regulated by either FAA part 91 or part 135. Other Operation Models Other operation models used by private jet hire companies include buying blocks of time in predetermined increments, pay as you fly and paying a flat rate for unlimited usage and access. Buying blocks of time in predetermined increments involves buying blocks of time in hours. This model usually depends on how many flight hours a client will be needing. Pay as you fly resembles the business model used by commercial airlines where a client only pays for a flight they use. The downside to this model is that clients find it difficult to secure flights because most private flights are usually booked in advance. Paying a flat rate for unlimited usage as the name implies, uses a business model where clients pay a flat rate, and then the jet is made available to them for the duration that payment lasts. This model makes it possible for a client to pay a certain amount for unlimited access and usage to a jet, or a fleet of jets for the duration. This model has been discontinued by most private jet hire companies because clients have exploited the usage in the past. This model now employs a fair usage policy. Surveillance With smaller equipment, long-range business aircraft can be modified as surveillance aircraft to perform specialized missions cost-effectively, from ground surveillance to maritime patrol: the , 6,000 nmi Bombardier Global 6000 is the platform for the USAF Northrop Grumman E-11A Battlefield Airborne Communications Node, the radar-carrying ground-surveillance Raytheon Sentinel for the UK Royal Air Force, and Saab's GlobalEye AEW&C carrying its Erieye AESA radar as UK's Marshall ADG basis for Elint/Sigint for the United Arab Emirates; it is also the base for the proposed Saab AB Swordfish MPA and the USAF Lockheed Martin J-Stars Recap battlefield-surveillance program, while IAI's ELI-3360 MPA is based on the Global 5000; The , 6,750 nmi Gulfstream G550 was selected for the IAI EL/W-2085 Conformal Airborne Early Warning AESA radar for Italy, Singapore and Israel (which also has IAI Sigint G550s) while L3 Technologies transfers the U.S. Compass Call electronic-attack system to the G550 CAEW-based EC-37B, like the NC-37B range-support aircraft, and will modify others for Australia's program, Northrop Grumman proposes the G550 for the J-Stars Recap; Dassault Aviation developed the Falcon 900 MPA and Falcon 2000 Maritime Multirole Aircraft for France (which delayed its Avsimar requirement), South Korea and the Japan Coast Guard with a mission system developed with L3 and Thales Group; Embraer delivered several EMB-145s as a platform for AEW&C, MPA and multi-intelligence; Classes Business jets can be categorized according to their size. Very light jets The very light jet (VLJ) is a classification initiated by the release of the Eclipse 500, on 31 December 2006, which was originally available at around US$1.5 million, cheaper than existing business jets and comparable with turboprop aircraft. Its introduction coincided with a speculative bubble for air taxi services, exemplified by DayJet, which ceased operations on September 2008. Eclipse Aviation failed to sustain its business model and filed for bankruptcy in February 2009. A MTOW limit was cited by engineering company Burns & McDonnell in 2005, Popular Mechanics in 2007, or GlobalSecurity.org. Cessna simultaneously developed the Citation Mustang, a six-place twinjet (2 crew + 4 passengers), followed by the Embraer Phenom 100 and the Honda Jet. Some VLJs such as the Eclipse and Mustang have no or limited lavatory facilities. They have a maximum takeoff weight lighter than the FAR Part 23 12,500 pounds limit, and are approved for single-pilot operation. They typically accommodate 6–7 passengers over a nmi average range, with a $M mean price. Light jets Light jets have been a staple of the business jet industry since the advent of the Learjet 23 in the early 1960s. They provide access to small airports and the speed to be an effective air travel tool. Aircraft of this class include: Beechcraft Premier Cessna CitationJet/CJ1/2/3 Cessna Citation II/Bravo/Ultra/Encore Hawker 400 Learjet 31 Learjet 40 Embraer Phenom 300 They typically accommodate 6–8 passengers over a nmi average range, with a $M mean price. Mid-size jets These aircraft are suitable for longer-range travel such as transcontinental flights and for travel with larger passenger capacity requirements. Aircraft of this class include: Citation Excel/XLS(+), Hawker 800/750/850/900/1000, Learjet 45 Learjet 60. They typically accommodate 9 passengers over a nmi average range, with a $M mean price. Super mid-size jets Super mid-size jets feature wide-body cabin space, high-altitude capability, speed, and long range. These jets combine transatlantic capability with the speed and comfort of a wide-body, high-altitude aircraft. Aircraft of this class include: Bombardier Challenger 300/350 Cessna Citation Sovereign Cessna Citation X Dassault Falcon 50 Gulfstream G200/G250 Hawker 4000 They typically accommodate 10–11 passengers over a nmi average range, with a $M mean price: Large jets Bombardier Challenger 600 Dassault Falcon 2000(ER) Dassault Falcon 900 Embraer Legacy 600/650 They typically accommodate 13–14 passengers over a nmi average range, with a $M mean price. Long range jets Dassault Falcon 7X Bombardier Global Express/5000/6000 Gulfstream IV/G350/G450 Gulfstream V/G500/G550 Gulfstream G650(ER) They typically accommodate 12–19 passengers over a nmi average range, with a $M mean price. At , the G650ER has the widest cabin yet but should be joined by the Falcon 5X (a Global 5000/G500 competitor) and its replacement, and the Citation Hemisphere in 2021; at , the Global 7000/8000 is wider than the Global 5000/6000, the same as the Gulfstream G500/G600 and the Canadair Challenger, while the Dassault Falcon 8X is wide and the G450/G550 . VIP airliners Business airliner can be contracted as bizliner. Airliners converted into business jets are used by sports teams or VIPs with a large entourage or press corps. Such airplanes can face operational restrictions based on runway length or local noise restrictions. They can be the most expensive type of private jet as they provide the greatest space and capabilities. Aircraft of this class include: Airbus Corporate Jets Boeing Business Jet Embraer Lineage 1000 See also Very light jet Air transports of heads of state and government Supersonic business jet Notes References Further reading Jet Private transport	[ 0.18724727630615234, -0.24331656098365784, 0.07931483536958694, 0.301075279712677, 0.23115625977516174, -0.09910161793231964, -0.18246591091156006, 0.2095090001821518, -0.4114595353603363, -0.28780367970466614, -0.6723407506942749, 0.3842717111110687, -0.6233502626419067, -0.002884208457544446, 0.0424722321331501, 0.0993085578083992, -0.018445471301674843, 0.4196200370788574, 0.046834152191877365, -0.3674505949020386, -0.5469515919685364, -0.15223060548305511, 0.3529531955718994, -0.2857271432876587, 0.19974066317081451, -0.10211574286222458, 0.13768313825130463, 0.6441192030906677, -0.20385152101516724, -0.05289073660969734, 0.18227031826972961, 0.19934605062007904, 0.1866416484117508, 0.19226089119911194, 0.005550123751163483, 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247008	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Manship	Paul Manship	Paul Howard Manship (December 24, 1885 – January 28, 1966) was an American sculptor. He consistently created mythological pieces in a classical style, and was a major force in the Art Deco movement. He is well known for his large public commissions, including the iconic Prometheus in Rockefeller Center and the Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial in Geneva, Switzerland. He is also credited for designing the modern rendition of New York City's official seal. Manship gained notice early in his career for rejecting the Beaux-Arts architecture movement and preferring linear compositions with a flowing simplicity. Additionally, he shared a summer home in Plainfield, New Hampshire, part of the Cornish Art Colony, with William Zorach for a number of years. Other members of the highly social colony were also contemporary artists. Manship created his own artist retreat on Cape Ann, developing a 15-acre site on two former granite quarries in Lanesville, a village of Gloucester, MA. A local nonprofit, the Manship Artists Residency + Studios was established in 2015 to preserve this estate as an artist residency program. Life Early life and education Paul Howard Manship was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, on December 24, 1885, the son of Charles H. and Mary Etta (Friend) Manship. His father, born in Mississippi, was a clerk for the St. Paul gas company, and with his wife, who was born in Pennsylvania, were parents of seven children. Charles and Mary were married in St. Paul, on July 14, 1870, and raised their family in a home they owned at 304 Nelson (later Marshall) Avenue. Paul H. Manship began his art studies at the St. Paul School of Art in Minnesota. From there he moved to Philadelphia and continued his education at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Following that he migrated to New York City where he enrolled in the Art Students League of New York, studying anatomy with George Bridgman and modeling under Hermon Atkins MacNeil. From 1905 to 1907 he served as an assistant to sculptor Solon Borglum and spent the two years after that studying with Charles Grafly and assisting Isidore Konti. In 1909, at Konti's urging, he entered the competition for, and won, the Rome Prize and shortly thereafter decamped for Rome where he attended the American Academy from 1909 until 1912. While in Europe he became increasingly interested in Archaic art, his own work began to take on some archaic features, and he became more and more attracted to classical subjects. He also developed an interest in classical sculpture of India, and traces of that influence can be observed in his work (see Dancer and Gazelles in Gallery). Manship was one of the first artists to become aware of the vast scope of art history being newly excavated at the time and became intensely interested in Egyptian, Assyrian and pre-classical Greek sculpture. Career When he returned to America from his European sojourn, Manship found that his style was attractive to both modernists and conservatives. His simplification of line and detail appealed to those who wished to move beyond the Beaux-Arts classical realism prevalent in the day. Also, his view of and use of a more traditional "beauty" as well as an avoidance of the more radical and abstract trends in art made his works attractive to more conservative art collectors. Manship's work is often considered to be a major precursor to Art Deco. Manship produced over 700 works and always employed assistants of the highest quality. At least two of them, Gaston Lachaise and Leo Friedlander, went on to create significant places for themselves in the history of American sculpture. Although not known as a portraitist, he did produce statues and busts of Theodore Roosevelt, Samuel Osgood, John D. Rockefeller, Robert Frost, Gifford Beal and Henry L. Stimson. Manship was very adept at low relief and used these skills to produce a large number of coins and medals. Among his more prominent are the Dionysus medal, the second issue of the long running Society of Medalists; the first term inaugural medal for Franklin D. Roosevelt; and the John F. Kennedy inaugural medal. Additionally, during WW II he designed the U. S. Merchant Marine's Distinguished Service Medal, Meritorious Service Medal and Mariner's Medal. Manship was chosen by the American Battle Monuments Commission to create monuments following both the First and Second World Wars. They are located respectively in the American Cemetery at Thiaucourt, France in 1926, and in the military cemetery at Anzio, Italy. His work was also part of the art competitions at the 1928 Summer Olympics and the 1932 Summer Olympics. Affiliations and awards For a number of summers early in his career, Manship found social and artistic companionship in Plainfield, New Hampshire, then part of the Cornish Art Colony, which attracted sculptors such as Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Herbert Adams, Daniel Chester French, and William Zorach. He visited first in 1915, returned the next three years, and then returned again a decade later. This period in his life has been recognized as significant, and Harry Rand observed that "Manship recognized 1916 as the year of his artistic maturity...[he] seemed to express modern ideas in terms of the primitive. Manship served on the board of the Smithsonian American Art Museum and chaired the board. Manship was affiliated with the National Academy of Design, the National Sculpture Society, and the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He served on the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts from 1937 to 1941. His many honors include a Pierpont Morgan fellowship, a Widener Gold Medal from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, and the award of Chevalier from the French Legion of Honor. Manship's extensive papers, maquettes and sculptures are housed in the Smithsonian's Archives of American Art. In 2004 the Smithsonian mounted a retrospective of Manship's career which resulted in a reappraisal of the sculptor's work. There is a gallery dedicated to the display of Manship's work at the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Manship was father of the artist John Paul Manship (1927–2000). Museums with Manship works Addison Gallery of American Art (Andover, Mass.) Amon Carter Museum (Texas) Art Institute of Chicago Ball State University Museum of Art (Muncie, Ind.) Brigham Young University Museum of Art (Utah) Cincinnati Art Museum Cape Ann Museum (Gloucester, Mass.) Carnegie Museum of Art (Pittsburgh, PA) Castle Hill on the Crane Estate, the Trustees of Reservations (Ipswich, MA) Cleveland Museum of Art Colby College Museum of Art (Waterville, Me.) Corcoran Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.) Courtauld Institute of Art (London) Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art (Bentonville, Ark.) Dayton Art Institute (Ohio) Delaware Art Museum (Wilmington, Del.) Harvard University Art Museums Heckscher Museum of Art (Huntington, N.Y.) Honolulu Museum of Art Hudson River Museum (Yonkers, N.Y.) The Huntington (San Marino, Calif.) Indianapolis Museum of Art Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum (Boston) Kalamazoo Institute of Arts (Kalamazoo, MI.) Joslyn Art Museum (Omaha, Neb.) Los Angeles County Museum of Art Minneapolis Institute of Arts Minnesota Museum of American Art (Saint Paul) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Houston National Academy of Design (New York City) National Gallery of Art (Washington D.C.) National Museum of Wildlife Art (Jackson Hole, Wyo.) New Britain Museum of American Art (Connecticut) New Orleans Museum of Art North Carolina Museum of Art (Raleigh, NC) Norton Museum of Art (West Palm Beach)) R.W. Norton Art Gallery (Shreveport, LA) Seattle Art Museum (Seattle, WA) Smithsonian American Art Museum (Washington D.C.) Speed Art Museum (Louisville, Ky.) Toledo Museum of Art (Ohio) Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (Richmond, VA) Walker Art Center (Minneapolis) Westmoreland Museum of American Art (Greensburg, Penn.) Public sculpture Indian Hunter, Boston Earth, Air, Water and Fire, bronze reliefs for the American Telephone & Telegraph Building (now 195 Broadway), Manhattan, New York City, 1914 Sphinxes, Untermyer Gardens, Yonkers, New York, 1917 J. Pierpont Morgan Relief Plaque, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Manhattan, New York City, 1920 Indian Hunter and his Dog, Cochran Park, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1926 Abraham Lincoln: The Hoosier Youth, Fort Wayne, Indiana, 1932 Waldo Hutchins bench, bench's sundial's small Art Deco bronze gnomon sculpture of a female dancer trailed by a wind-blown gown and flowing scarves, Central Park, Manhattan, New York City, 1932 Paul Rainey Memorial Gateway, Bronx Zoo, New York City, 1934 Prometheus, Rockefeller Center, New York City, 1934. Group of Bears, Bronx Zoo, New York City, 1926–39 Time and the Fates of Man Sundial, 1939 World's Fair, Queens, New York City, 1939 The Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial, Palais des Nations, United Nations Office, Geneva, Switzerland, 1939. Franklin Roosevelt Memorial, Keneseth Israel Synagogue 1946 President Albert Murphree, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 1946 Lehman/Tisch Gateway, Central Park Zoo, Manhattan, New York City, 1961 Theodore Roosevelt statue, Theodore Roosevelt Island, Washington, D.C., 1967 Gallery References Further reading Conner, Janis and Joel Rosenkranz, Rediscoveries in American Sculpture, Studio Works 1893–1939, University of Texas, Austin, Texas 1989 Greenthal, Kozol, Rameirez & Fairbanks, American Figurative Sculpture in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1986 Manship, John, Paul Manship, (New York, Abbeville Press, 1989, ) Murtha, Edwin, Paul Manship, (New York, The Macmillan Company, 1957) Nishiura, Elizabeth, editor, American Battle Monuments: A Guide to Military Cemeteries and Monuments Maintained By the American Battle Monuments Commission, Omnigraphics Inc., Detroit, Michigan 1989 Opitz, Glenn B., editor, Mantle Fielding’s Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors & Engravers, Apollo Book, Poughkeepsie NY, 1986 Proske, Beatrice Gilman, Brookgreen Gardens Sculpture, Brookgreen Gardens, South Carolina, 1968 Rand, Harry, Paul Manship, (London, Lund Humphries Publishers Limited, 1989, ) Rather, Susan, Archaism, Modernism and the art of Paul Manship, University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, 1993 Vitry, Paul, Paul Manship: Sculpteur Americain, Editions De La Gazette Des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1927 External links Links to Paul Manship sculpture images and references Manship Artists Residency + Studios (MARS), Gloucester, MA Two works by Manship (Insecula) Detailed biography (cached pages from the Internet Archive with no images) Page 1 \| Page 2 \| Page 3 \| Page 4 \| Page 5 Modern sculptors Art Deco sculptors Art Students League of New York faculty 1885 births 1966 deaths Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts alumni National Academy of Design members Artists from Saint Paul, Minnesota 20th-century American sculptors 20th-century male artists American male sculptors National Sculpture Society members Sculptors Guild members Sculptors from New York (state) Sculptors from Minnesota Olympic competitors in art competitions Presidents of the American Academy of Arts and Letters	[ -0.10720077902078629, 0.6522970199584961, -0.7848344445228577, 0.15106114745140076, 0.19812190532684326, 0.9843582510948181, 0.7674680352210999, -0.2180386632680893, -0.5059367418289185, -0.4856785833835602, 0.02873813919723034, 0.05715767294168472, -0.36786970496177673, 0.6027171015739441, -0.13370577991008759, 0.06476268172264099, -0.0951957106590271, -0.32683008909225464, -0.9285699129104614, 0.116082102060318, -0.3566565215587616, -0.8550680875778198, 0.4360567331314087, -0.22689050436019897, -0.9108006358146667, 0.3784836232662201, 0.04527050629258156, -0.47174423933029175, 0.09231432527303696, 0.2983241379261017, -0.2708248794078827, 0.1221194937825203, 0.42271843552589417, -0.842700719833374, -0.6757013201713562, -0.27253425121307373, 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247013	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXIT%20%28performance%20art%20group%29	EXIT (performance art group)	EXIT were a performance art group during the mid-1970s. EXIT members Penny Rimbaud and Gee Vaucher later founded anarchist punk rock band Crass, adopting many of EXIT's experimental/multi media techniques into Crass' presentation. The group performed as part of the 1972 ICES festival at the Roundhouse. Rimbaud acknowledges that EXIT in turn had been involved with the Fluxus Movement (of which Yoko Ono was a member). He also states that Crass was more influenced by the avant-garde than by any rock & roll precedent. Discography EXIT The Mystic Trumpeter - Live at the Roundhouse 1972, The ICES Tapes (Exit Stencil Music Cat No. EXMO2, CD and book, 2013) References Crass Theatre companies in the United Kingdom	[ -0.049441028386354446, 0.43192994594573975, -0.20485572516918182, -0.2630999982357025, -0.6442793607711792, 0.29919126629829407, 0.4403064250946045, -0.09162719547748566, -0.23486647009849548, -0.420136421918869, -0.055204540491104126, -0.0032747217919677496, -0.273303747177124, -0.10211610049009323, -0.28445690870285034, -0.4048236608505249, 0.25126877427101135, -0.0852694883942604, -0.2265443503856659, -0.2318534106016159, -0.15552645921707153, -0.3658532202243805, 0.36781904101371765, -0.35443663597106934, -0.2781212329864502, -0.2879089415073395, 0.0591663233935833, -0.03757857531309128, 0.6928980350494385, 0.22041717171669006, 0.10152526199817657, 0.5291090607643127, 0.2000742256641388, -0.6973583102226257, 0.22379450500011444, 0.2151285707950592, 0.027604496106505394, 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247016	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welland	Welland	Welland is a city in the Regional Municipality of Niagara in Southern Ontario, Canada. In 2016, it had a population of 52,293. The city is in the centre of Niagara and located within a half-hour driving distance to Niagara Falls, Niagara-on-the-Lake, St. Catharines, and Port Colborne. It has been traditionally known as the place where rails and water meet, referring to the railways from Buffalo to Toronto and Southwestern Ontario, and the waterways of Welland Canal and Welland River, which played a great role in the city's development. The city has developed on both sides of the Welland River and Welland Canal, which connect Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. History The area was settled in 1788 by United Empire Loyalists who had been granted land by the Crown to compensate for losses due to property they left in the British Thirteen Colonies during and after the American Revolutionary War. Tensions continued between Great Britain and the newly independent United States, and the War of 1812 broke out. On 19 October 1814, Canadian forces led by George Hay, 8th Marquess of Tweeddale, met an American raiding party, numbering approximately nine hundred, near the eastern edge of the present community during the Battle of Cook's Mills. After an intense skirmish, the Americans retreated to Buffalo, New York. Cook's Mills was the second to last engagement of the War of 1812 on Canadian soil. The First Welland Canal was extended in 1833 to reach Lake Erie and has influenced development of this city ever since. A wooden aqueduct was built to carry the Welland Canal over the Welland River at what is now downtown Welland, and the area became known as simply Aqueduct. A lock to cross from the canal to the river and vice versa was also built. A small shantytown soon developed around the facility, providing essential services in what was a convenient stop-over location for travellers and workers on the canal. The growing town was later named Merrittsville, after William Hamilton Merritt, the initiator of the Welland Canal project. This name is reflected in the name of the Merrittville Highway (Niagara Road 50), which served as the primary north-south route in central Niagara before the construction of Highway 406. Welland gained its present name when it was incorporated on 25 July 1858. It became a city in 1917. One of the few railway crossings across the canal was near Welland. Together with the canal, these two factors attracted the development of heavy industry in Welland. In 1906 the Plymouth Cordage Company was the first major industrial company to open a plant in Welland. By the 1930s, Welland was an important industrial city in the region and was developing rapidly. In the 1960s, the city was starting to outgrow the canal passing through its core. The Welland By-Pass project, started in 1967 and finished in 1973, provided a new, shorter alignment for the Welland Canal by moving it from downtown Welland to the city's outskirts. With the completion of the bypass, Welland's east end (and the former town of Crowland) was like an island between the new and old canal channels. The City of Welland is working to revitalize the downtown core through an ongoing community improvement plan. Integral to the program is the use of incentives to promote revitalization and redevelopment. A report published by the City of Welland in 2013 said, "for over 10 years now, these programs have produced only very moderate uptake and development since being introduced." Other former industrial cities have grappled with similar painful transitions. Government The Welland city council is made up of 12 councillors, each elected in his or her ward (this is known as election by single-member districts). Each of the six wards in Welland elects two councillors. It is led by the mayor, who is elected at-large, by all the voters in the city. Welland's mayor is Frank Campion. In addition, two regional councillors are elected at-large, to participate in the Niagara Regional Council. These councillors were George Marshall and the late Peter Kormos, who died in March 2013. Another representative of Welland was appointed to fill Kormos's seat since late May 2013, in order to represent the city on the Regional Council. The city is responsible for fire protection, libraries, parks and recreation and secondary streets, but many municipal services come from the broader level of government, the Niagara Region. Regional responsibilities include social welfare, community health, and policing through the Niagara Regional Police. The chief local political issue is the redevelopment of the downtown core, which has deteriorated in the years after the Welland By-Pass project. The Civic Square project has been completed after spanning the terms of three city councils and three mayors. The new building, facing both East Main Street and the old canal, houses the city hall and the Welland Public Library. The project is proving to be a catalyst for development, as several new establishments have been opened downtown and some businesses are expanding. Welland is represented in the House of Commons of Canada by the Liberal Party Member of Parliament Vance Badawey, and in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario by the NDP Member of Provincial Parliament Jeff Burch, representing the Niagara Centre and the provincial ridings of Niagara Centre, respectively. Demographics During the 2016 Census, the population of Welland was determined to be 52,293, making Welland the 97th largest city in Canada. The population rose from 50,631 in the 2011 Census. According to the 2016 census, 91.2% of the population is Caucasian, 3.9% Aboriginal, 1.6% Black, 0.8% Latin Americans, and 2.5% of Asian descent. 14.8% of inhabitants are under the age of 14, while those over 65 account for 21.3%. Another significant cultural group was established with the opening of the Plymouth Cordage plant. Many workers relocated to Welland from the company's operations in Plymouth, Massachusetts were of Italian origin. To minimise the potential effects of cultural and language barriers, Plymouth Cordage sent four foremen to Welland: one was Italian, one French, one German and one English. The neighbourhood that the company built for its employees, now the Plymouth Cordage Heritage District, became the first Italian ethnic neighbourhood in Welland. The Top 5 largest ethnic groups include: English: 24.9%, French: 23.3%, Scottish: 14.4%, Italian: 13.3%, and Irish: 13.1%. There are also many people of eastern European origin from countries like Croatia, Hungary, and Poland, as well as a growing Hispanic community. In 1914, a local business called Empire Cotton Mills was bought by a Quebec-based company. They brought in twenty francophone families to work in the mill, giving a start to a French-speaking community. Welland is one of only three communities in southern Ontario (excluding eastern Ontario) where Franco-Ontarians, as a percentage of the community's population, exceed the provincial average of 4.8%. (The other two are Penetanguishene and Lakeshore.) Education Like the rest of Ontario, Welland has access to four public education systems: the regional school boards are the Niagara Catholic District School Board and the District School Board of Niagara. The Conseil scolaire Viamonde (the French public board) and the Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir (the French Catholic board) also operate schools in Welland. The Niagara Catholic District School Board operates six elementary schools within the city. The board also operates one secondary school in the city: Notre Dame, which offers Grade 9 through to Grade 12. Continuing education courses are also offered by the board at its Father Patrick H. Fogarty Learning Centre within the city. The District School Board of Niagara operates ten elementary schools within the city and two secondary schools: Welland Centennial servicing the western side of the city and Eastdale Secondary servicing the eastern side. A campus of Niagara College of Applied Arts and Technology is located in Welland. The college offers post-secondary diplomas, baccalaureate degrees and advanced-level programs. From 1995 to 2001, the city was home to a satellite campus of the defunct francophone Collège des Grands-Lacs. Economy Welland, because of its proximity to the Sir Adam Beck hydroelectric station at Niagara Falls, was historically known for its steel, automotive, and textile industries. Initially, manufacturing firms were the biggest employers in Welland. The plants of companies like Union Carbide, United Steel, Plymouth Cordage Company, three drop forges, a cotton mill, and the Atlas Steel Co., as well as general manufacturing plants, had big influence on shaping early Welland. While recent years saw the end of Welland operations for several companies, such as John Deere which announced in September 2008 that it would be closing its plant and relocating manufacturing to Wisconsin and Mexico, businesses such as Lakeside Steel (a pipe plant formerly owned by Stelco, since 2012 owned by JMC Steel) continues to employ residents. The Atlas Steel Co. was founded at some time in the 1920s. Roy H. Davis and partners bought the Welland plant from its American shareholders in 1928. Gun barrels were produced here during the second World War. It was for a time Canada's largest manufacturer of stainless steel. The plant housed a vacuum smelter line, necessary for the production of Titanium. The onset of the CanAm FTA, NAFTA, GATT and globalization brought decline, and subsequently the ownership changed hands numerous times: the Sammi group acquired it in 1989, followed by Slater Steels of Mississauga in 2000, who went bankrupt in 2003. The plant was finally torn down in 2007. The Canadian branch plant of the Plymouth Cordage Company was started in 1904 due to Parliament's initiation of a 25% import duty on rope and related products. Plymouth, with roots in Massachusetts, moved to secure its business in binding twine, necessary to package farm crops such as grass, wheat or straw. The city of Welland grew up around the Plymouth plant, which was prior to 1904, farmland. The cordage industry was a victim of the harvester-thresher, which obviated the need for binding (or baling) twine, as the threshing operation is now performed in a contiguous step immediately when the stalk is cut. Welland's electricity comes from the Sir Adam Beck hydroelectric generation plants at Niagara Falls via Welland Hydro. Thanks to the presence of the massive plant, power remained on in over half of Welland during the 2003 North America blackout until rolling blackouts began the next day in an effort to provide power to areas that hadn't had it for nearly 24 hours. Geography Welland is located in the centre of south Niagara. Over the years, urban growth has all but united the northwest part of Welland with the community of Fonthill. Prior to the Welland By-Pass project, the Welland Canal cut through the centre of Welland. As a result, a very prominent split was created between the east side and the west side of the city. The west side grew primarily to the north, while the east side expanded south. The west side also became the more affluent of the two. Today, even though the canal traffic no longer causes regular interruption in the traffic across the city, the channel lives on as Welland Recreational Waterway. The waterway still serves as a very prominent visual feature dividing the city, and it is perhaps for this reason that the east side/west side division is still very much alive in the minds of Wellanders. East side and west side are very commonly used as basic directions. The communities of Cooks Mills and Dain City have their own separation stories. Cooks Mills, located on the other side of the By-Pass channel than the rest of Welland, has arguably been protected against the impact of urban sprawl, but the necessity of using one of the two highway tunnels to cross the canal causes some residents to head to nearby Niagara Falls instead. Dain City, located in the south of the city where the two channels meet, is separated by the massive approaches to the Townline Tunnel required to provide the low grade for the rail lines that use the tunnel. Dain City was built for, and by, the Dain Manufacturing Company (Now known as John Deere), the main employer in the area, as a "company town". John Deere announced in September 2008 that it would be closing its plant and relocating manufacturing to Wisconsin and Mexico. There is a slight movement to develop the northern end of the east side, an undeveloped area. A community named Hunters Pointe is being built close to the banks of the By-Pass, and the area received further investment when a new Wal-Mart store opened on Woodlawn Road close to Highway 406. Technically, both the east side and Dain City are peninsulas, surrounded by the waters of the old and new channels of the Welland Canal and connected to "solid" ground only by the relatively small plug in the old canal along the Townline Tunnel approaches. Crowland is a former township created in 1788 that grew up around Ontario Road and Welland Recreational Canal. A man-made geographic feature is the Merritt Island, a strip of land approximately five kilometres long and, in some places, less than 100 metres wide. The island was created when the alignment of the First Welland Canal was constructed basically parallel to the Welland River and since the abandonment of the old canal has been established as Merritt Park, featuring a popular four kilometre-long paved trail. Climate Welland experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa/Dfb) typical of the Great Lakes region, with cold, snowy winters, mild, wet springs, warm to hot, humid summers, and cool, wet falls. The winter is the driest season, with no more than 77.8 mm (3.06 in.) of precipitation in its wettest month. Though, due to lake-effect snow, the city receives, on average, 97.8 cm (38.5 in.) of snow every winter. The average temperature in January, the coldest month, is −4.7 °C (23.5 °F). Spring is mild (13 °C (55.4 °F) on average) and rainy (240.3 mm (9.46 in.) of rain in April, May and June, also with 5.4 cm (2.12 in.) of snow in April and May). Summer is warm, with an average high temperature of 24.5 °C (76.2 °F) and, humid, with 251 mm (9.88in.) of total rainfall. Autumn is cool (average temperature of 4.3 °C (39.7 °F)) and wet (actually, the wettest of Welland's seasons) (273.7 mm 10.8 in.) of total precipitation. The extreme high and low temperatures are 37.8 °C (100 °F), recorded on 4 July 1911; 1 July 1931; 26 August 1948, and −32.8 °C (-27 °F), recorded on 25 January 1884. Daily precipitation extremes include a rainfall of 118.4 mm (4.66 in.) on 30 September 1959, and a snowfall of 81.3 cm (32.0 inches) on 1 March 1900. One of the worst winter storms to affect the Welland area was in January 1977 when the Blizzard of '77 hit Niagara and Western New York from 28 January to 1 February 1977. Parks Notable parks are Chippawa Park, an older, well-developed park in the northwest; Memorial Park, a newer park in the southeast which has been shrunk for suburban development; and Merritt Island Park along the canal with an upper level paved trail and lower level gravel trail. Chippawa Park has rolling hills, mature specimen trees (predominantly Carolinian, including several species of Hickory and Maple), playgrounds, a large pond, and small ornamental fish pond in a formal rose garden. It features a large war memorial carved from Lacasse granite and designed by a famous Canadian sculptor, Elizabeth Wyn Wood. Memorial Park was a project of the 1967 Centennial. It is very flat with younger trees. It has an outdoor pool shaped like a figure 8. There is also a cenotaph at this park. In the late 1960s, the eastern part of the park was used for the Welland Canal bypass. Patrons of the park can often see ships passing through the bypass. At the heart of the old city of Welland, near the Main Street Bridge, the Welland River passes under the old Welland Canal, then runs parallel to it for a few miles. Between the old canal and the river lies a long narrow strip of land referred to as Merritt Island that is now a park. The end of the park closest to the centre of the city has picnic tables and playground equipment. The island also includes a main trail that follows the bank of the old canal for the entire length of the park, with a variety of intermittent side paths and trails. Also located in the heart of downtown, between Main Street and Division Street bridges along the west side of the Welland Recreational Waterway, is a small parkette dubbed "Guerrilla Park" by locals. It was originally park space that had become neglected over years and was reclaimed as public space by volunteers. Through efforts of local artists and guerrilla gardening, the formerly neglected space is now tended by various unorganized volunteers, and features revitalized garden beds and flowers, outdoor paintings, and occasional impromptu events. Welland Canal trails The Welland Canal Parkway Trail is a paved recreational path beginning in the City of St. Catharines at Lake Ontario and ending at Lake Erie in Port Colborne. The sections of the trail located within Welland are paved. The trail follows alongside the Welland ship and Recreational Canals, and passes through downtown Welland. Transport Welland Canal The Welland Canal, linking Lake Ontario with Lake Erie, is the transportation mode that Welland is best known for. Until 1972, the canal passed through downtown Welland. As of the end of the 1972 shipping season, the canal was re-routed via the Welland Canal Bypass east of the city. Welland clings to its canal heritage, as evidenced by the steadfast preservation of the Main Street Lift Bridge (Welland Canal, bridge 13) shown in the photograph above. Roads Highway 406 is the main route in and out of Welland, leading north to Thorold, St. Catharines and onwards via Queen Elizabeth Way. Port Colborne is linked to Welland by Highways 140 and 58. Port Colborne residents then can take the 406 further north. The Mid-Peninsula Highway, once constructed, can play an important role in the transportation patterns of Welland, as it might cross the Welland Canal along the Highway 58A corridor in the south of the city. Should that occur, Highway 406 will likely be extended to reach the new thoroughfare. Two of the three tunnels under the canal, Main Street Tunnel and Townline Tunnel, are located in Welland, just east of the main urbanised area. Railways Welland boasts a rich railway history. The city motto is "Where Rails and Water Meet", referring to the two prevalent means of transportation. The Canada Southern Railway (CASO) passed through the south end of Welland, with a passenger station on King Street. The CASO operated very few trains of its own – the majority of traffic on the line consisted of New York Central Railway trains transiting between Windsor, Ontario (and the tunnel to Detroit), and one of two bridges over the Niagara River located at Niagara Falls and Fort Erie. Welland was also the terminus of the Toronto, Hamilton & Buffalo Railway's track (the link to Buffalo, New York being via the CASO line). The T, H & B ran joint passenger trains with the New York Central to provide through service between Toronto and Buffalo (via Hamilton, Ontario and Welland). There was also a Canadian National Railways (earlier, Grand Trunk Railway) line running in a North/South direction and crossing the CASO line at Welland Diamond. An interlocking tower (WX) stood here. Another line ran through the Dain City area of south Welland. This was the Canada Air Line Railway, and was also used by the Wabash Railway. Later, it became the Cayuga Subdivision of the Canadian National Railway. Lastly, the Niagara, St. Catharines and Toronto Railway provided electric interurban service from Port Colborne, Ontario to Thorold, Ontario via Welland. Passenger service ended in November 1959, but the tracks remained in freight use until 1981 when a trestle over the Welland River became unsafe and the line was removed from service. The relocation of the Welland Canal in the early 1970s caused massive changes in the local railway network. The new route of the canal was previously crossed by five separate railway lines. The new segment of canal would have no bridges, and just one railway tunnel, so all of these routes required redesign. The two branches of the CASO line, plus the Cayuga Subdivision were re-routed through the Townline Tunnel, while the North/South Canadian National line was split and discontinued as a through route. The station at King Street was abandoned and demolished. It was replaced by a new station outside of town, but passenger service ended soon after. Today, Welland is the location of one of only two remaining railway crossings that span the Welland Canal. The Townline Tunnel is built for three railway tracks, but the center track was removed in the early 1990s. Now, only two tracks run through the tunnel. The north track is the Canadian Pacific Railway Hamilton subdivision. The south track was formerly the Canadian National Railway Cayuga subdivision. Since the abandonment of the majority of that subdivision, operations on this track were limited to occasional trains interchanging with Trillium Rail's Port Colborne Harbour Railway. Today, Canadian Pacific also uses this track as their "Brookfield Siding". There is also a Trillium Railway (Port Colborne Harbour Railway) north-south line running through the east side of Welland on the former Welland Canal railway/Canadian National tracks beside the former site of the Atlas Specialty Steels plant (torn down in 2007). A daily as requested (Monday to Friday) train operates along this route to Merritton. Trillium Railway has a handful of industries throughout Thorold and St. Catharines, on the former Niagara, St. Catharines and Toronto trackage. No passenger trains stop in Welland – the closest Via Rail stations are in St. Catharines and Niagara Falls. Via Rail ceased operations of their own trains to these stations on 25 October 2012. Amtrak does operate 2 trains to these stations, under Via Rail control. Prior to the Welland Canal relocation in the early 1970s, there were two bridges crossing the old canal. The busiest was a swing bridge located between the Lincoln and Broadway bridges (the CASO line). This bridge was a relic of an earlier canal, and although it does not swing any longer, it remains in railway use. Once or twice per week, a local Trillium Rwy way freight crosses this bridge to access Vesuvius Industries on the west side of the old canal located on Trillium Rwy's West Welland Spur. The second crossing was as vertical lift bridge at Dain City, Ontario which also remains in use as the Trillium Rail Canal line. Prior to 1967, this section of The Canal line was referred to as CN's Cayuga Subdivision. The Cayuga Subdivision was then re-routed through the Townline Tunnel, which is to the north of Dain City. This section through Dain City was renamed the Canal Subdivision from this location at CN Welland Diamond, where it connects to the north-south trackage (former CN Welland Subdivision). This east-west trackage head continues to this day westward to a rail junction the by-pass of what is now operated as Trillium's Cayuga Spur, (Former location 3 miles away, west of Phillip's Road where the original ground of the CN Cayuga Subdivision continued onto St. Thomas, ON. Do note that CP Brookfield Siding becomes Trillium's Cayuga Spur where the Feeder Canal once cross through, prior to the building of this Townline Tunnel infrastructure, in the 1800s. This Cayuga Subdivision by-pass runs from between Wilhelm Road and Troup Road, east of Welland and to the west between Phillip's Road (mentioned above) Green Road S,(Formerly Farr Road S.). In total, the Cayuga Subdivision by-pass was a total length of 8.9 miles. A recent initiative proposed by local businessmen and politicians, in particular Trillium Railway owner Wayne Ettinger and former mayor Damian Goulbourne calls for the planned GO Train extension into the Niagara Region to include a station — and cross the Welland Canal — in Welland rather than St. Catharines. The proponents argue that an adequate rail line is already in place and using the Trillium's track through the Townline Tunnel would allow for uninterrupted train traffic to Niagara Falls. They also point out that a station in Welland would fit in the Niagara Region's "Grow South" policy of expanding the infrastructure south of the Niagara Escarpment. Air The closest airport to Welland is the Welland/Niagara Central Airport on the western edge of the city. It is a small field airport and is not served by any regular links, but it is an international point of entry. However, the airport is under a number of developments in hopes to expand its services. For now, most air travellers use either Toronto's Lester B. Pearson International Airport, Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport or Hamilton's John C. Munro International Airport. The Buffalo Niagara International Airport is also used by some, as it is the closest, although it requires that travellers cross the American border. Another option for Wellanders is St. Catharines/Niagara District Airport with flights to Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport thanks to FlyGTA Airways as well as various charter flights to/from Niagara. Public transit Between 1912 and 1930, local streetcar service was provided in Welland by the Niagara, Welland and Lake Erie railway which operated on East Main Street and King Street (then known as South Main Street). This company also provided a short-lived service on West Main Street and Niagara Street (then known as North Main) for about 6 months in 1922. Since 1973, Welland Transit operates the public transport service of scheduled bus services and paratransit covering the city. Also provided is Welland-St. Catharines Connection, a link to the St. Catharines public transit system from Niagara College to Brock University terminal in St. Catharines, with the first and last run of the day interconnecting to the downtown core. Service is also provided to Port Colborne and Pelham. Events The Concerts on the Canal series provides a line-up of free Friday night summer concerts on the floating stage at Merritt Park. Niagara Regional Exhibition, running since 1853, is held at the Fairgrounds in the north end of the city every fall. Tradition stands that on at least one of the operational days it will rain. Canada Day Celebrations has become a local favourite event. The free family fun event is hosted in downtown Welland at Merritt Park. The Farmers' Market, held downtown in the Market Square, features 80+ vendors offering food, Niagara wines, produce and homemade items every Saturday morning, year-round. Welland's Eastdale High School held its 50th Anniversary Reunion on 20, 21 and 22 May 2011. The Welland High and Vocational School Reunion was held 15/16 May 2009 in Welland. The Welland Dragon Boat Festival, takes place in June. The Welland Rose Festival is one of Niagara's longest running festivals. The Rose Festival promotes and encourages community participation through many events such as the Rose Parade, Baby Show, Rose Show, Days in the Park, and more. Celebrating 50 years in 2011, the Rose Festival continues to offer a host of spectacular events and entertainers in the month of June. The city will host the 2018 Canoe Polo World Championships at the Welland International Flatwater Centre. Welland FloatFest began in 2016 and usually occurs for one day in July. The aim of the event is to encourage participants to enjoy the Welland Recreational Waterway by use of an inflatable. The event is complemented with vendors and a concert. In 2017, FloatFest gained a Guinness World Record for a line of touching inflatables that extended 165 metres in the canal to make it into the record book. The Welland Zombie Walk is a community-based event held in October for the past several years. Notable people Stacey Allaster – former Chair, Women's Tennis Association Attack In Black – Alternative Band Paul Beeston – former president of Major League Baseball and former president of the Toronto Blue Jays. Paul Bissonnette – colour commentator and former NHL hockey player Ken Breitenbach – former Buffalo Sabres Hockey Player (NHL) Cal Clutterbuck – New York Islanders player Yvon Corriveau – retired NHL hockey player (Washington, Hartford) Brian Daboll – Head Coach, New York Giants Sabrina D'Angelo - Goalkeeper for Canadian Women's National Soccer Team and North Carolina Courage Andre Deveaux – professional hockey player, Florida Panthers Matt Ellis – Buffalo Sabres hockey player. Robert Hilborn Falls – Chief of the Defence Staff Simon Gatti – soccer player Daniel Girardi – New York Rangers hockey player. Wayne Groulx – former NHL/Austrian league Hockey player Chris Haney – Co-inventor of "Trivial Pursuit" board game Curtis Harrison – actor, writer Mike Hominuck – player for the Toronto Rock of the NLL. Nathan Horton – Columbus Blue Jackets player Bill Huard – former NHL Hockey Player Matt Johnson (ice hockey) – former NHL Hockey Player Peter Kormos – long-serving NDP Member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario Amy Ciupak Lalonde – actress Anna Olson – host of Sugar and Fresh with Anna Olson on Food Network Canada (Born in Georgia, United States, now resides in Welland) Daniel Paille – Boston Bruins hockey player. Gilbert Parent – former Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada Mike Pelino – professional hockey coach Matthew Santoro – YouTube comedian and video blogger Mike Smrek – former NBA player (Chicago, Los Angeles, San Antonio & Golden State) Daniel Romano – Country and Rock musician, visual artist and leather craftsman In popular culture Welland's Seaway Mall gained national attention when a flash mob was filmed singing the Hallelujah Chorus in the food court in November 2010. A video of the event went viral on YouTube, gaining 14.4 million views in less than a month. On 8 December, Canada AM broadcast a live performance from the same food court, drawing a crowd of about 500 people. Welland was the site of the first scene filmed for the movie Meatballs. Actor Bill Murray appears in front of the Kmart at Seaway Mall. See also Welland Canal, Welland By-Pass, Welland Recreational Waterway Battle of Cook's Mill Niagara College List of francophone communities in Ontario References Citations External links Cities in Ontario Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario Populated places established in 1788 1788 establishments in the Province of Quebec (1763–1791)	[ -0.5759479403495789, 0.31712713837623596, 0.4034099578857422, -0.09039994329214096, 0.016374530270695686, 0.534721314907074, 0.7069071531295776, 0.3262200951576233, 0.12548665702342987, -0.6840338110923767, -0.0723528116941452, 0.1839539259672165, 0.46593210101127625, 0.5751562118530273, -0.12924478948116302, 0.39803609251976013, -0.21877937018871307, 0.40142640471458435, 0.6283552050590515, -0.4162784814834595, -0.5544570684432983, -0.48485881090164185, 0.4723532795906067, 0.5059251189231873, 0.07279487699270248, 0.2147277444601059, 0.4646309018135071, 0.23829299211502075, 0.0772617980837822, 0.13198411464691162, -0.07101687043905258, 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247017	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koko%20the%20Clown	Koko the Clown	Koko the Clown is an animated character created by Max Fleischer. He first appeared as the main protagonist in Out of the Inkwell (1918-1929), a major animated series of the silent era. Throughout the series, he goes on many adventures with his canine companion “Fitz the Dog”, who would later evolve into Bimbo in the Betty Boop cartoons. History The character originated when Max Fleischer invented the Rotoscope, a device that allowed for animation to be more lifelike by tracing motion picture footage of human movement. The use of the clown character came after two previous tests and a search for an original character. Fleischer filmed his brother Dave in a clown costume. After tracing the film footage amounting to some 2,500 drawings and a year's work, the character that would eventually become Koko the Clown was born, although he did not have a name until 1924. "The Clown"'s appearance owes much to The Yama Yama Man. Dave's clown costume was clearly inspired by one worn by Bessie McCoy, with the additions of a black ruffled collar replacing the big white bow, three pom-pom front buttons, and a prominent cone-shaped cap also with three pom-poms. The white face with slit eyes was a design common among German circus clowns. Both costumes have white gloves with long fingers, white foot coverings, and a hat with the same white pom-pom as in front. A 1922 sheet music drawing makes the connection more explicit, saying "Out of the Inkwell, the New Yama Yama Clown", with a picture of Koko. Because of the realistic effects displayed in his sample films, the result of Fleischer's Rotoscope, and a past relationship with John R. Bray, he was hired as production manager for John R. Bray Studios, and in 1918 they began Out of the Inkwell as an entry in the Bray Pictograph Screen Magazine released through Paramount (1918), and later Goldwyn (1919-1921). Aside from the novelty of the Rotoscoped animation, this series combined live-action and animation centered on Max Fleischer as the creative cartoonist and "Master" of "The Clown." "The Clown" would often slip from Max's eye and go on an adventure, pull a prank on his creator. Fleischer wrote, and animated the early shorts along with Roland Crandall, with Dave directing the live action filming, performing on camera as "The Clown" for Rotoscoping, and assisted with the animation and Roto tracings. The series was very popular, and in 1921 Max and Dave Fleischer formed their own studio, Out of the Inkwell Films, Inc. Their films were distributed through the States Rights method through Warner Brothers, Winkler Pictures, Standard, and finally The Red Seal Pictures Corporation. The "Clown" was named Ko-Ko in 1924 when Dick Huemer came to the studio as their animation supervisor, having animated on the Mutt and Jeff series for eight years. He redesigned the "Clown" for more efficient animation production and moved the Fleischers away from their dependency upon the Rotoscope for fluid animation. Huemer created Ko-Ko's canine companion, Fitz. Most importantly, Huemer set the drawing style that gave the series its distinctive look. The illustration at the heading is an example by Huemer. In the films produced from 1924 to 1927, the clown's name was hyphenated, "Ko-Ko". The hyphen was dropped due to legal issues associated with the bankruptcy of the Fleischer's partnership company, The Red Seal Pictures Corporation. Alfred Weiss presented the Fleischers with a new Paramount contract beginning in mid-1927, and "Out of the Inkwell" was retitled as "The Inkwell Imps". The series continued for two years until July 1929, ending with "Chemical Koko." Due to alleged mismanagement under Alfred Weiss, the Inkwell Studios filed bankruptcy in January 1929, and Koko was put into retirement for two years. In 1931, the legal entanglements regarding Koko were resolved, and he returned to the screen beginning with "The Herring Murder Case" (1931) and became a regular in the new Fleischer Talkartoons series with costars, Betty Boop and Bimbo. Koko's last theatrical appearance was in the "Betty Boop" cartoon, "Ha! Ha! Ha!" (1934), a remake of an "Out of the Inkwell" silent, "The Cure" (1924). Koko in "Kolor" Koko's first color appearance was a cameo in the cartoon "Toys Will Be Toys" (1949), one of the revived Screen Songs series produced by Famous Studios. In 1958, Max Fleischer set out to revive Out of the Inkwell for television, and a series of 100 color episodes were produced in 1960–1961 by Hal Seeger using the voice talents of Larry Storch. Only two episodes have surfaced. See also Song Car-Tunes Animation in the United States during the silent era Golden age of American animation References Further reading Crafton, Donald (1993): Before Mickey: The Animated Film, 1898–1928. University of Chicago Press. Maltin, Leonard (1987): Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons. Penguin Books. Pointer, Ray (2000/2002): Max Fleischer's Famous Out of the Inkwell DVD. Inkwell Images. Pointer, Ray (2014) "The Search for Ko-Ko" http://www.traditionalanimation.com/2014/the-search-for-koko-the-clown/ Pointer, Ray (2016): The Art and Invention of Max Fleischer: American Animation Pioneer. McFarland & Co. Publishers. History of animation Fleischer Studios series and characters Fictional clowns Television series by U.M. & M. 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247034	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules%20L%C3%A9ger	Jules Léger	Joseph Jules Léger (April 4, 1913November 22, 1980) was a Canadian diplomat and statesman who served as Governor General of Canada, the 21st since Canadian Confederation. Léger was born and educated in Quebec and France prior to starting a career in the Canadian Department of External Affairs, and eventually served as ambassador to a number of countries. He was in 1973 appointed as governor general by Queen Elizabeth II, on the recommendation of Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Trudeau, to replace Roland Michener as viceroy, and he occupied the post until succeeded by Edward Schreyer in 1979. As the Queen's representative, Léger was credited for modernising the office and fostering Canadian unity. On June 1, 1979, Léger was sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, giving him the accordant style of The Honourable. However, as a former Governor General of Canada, Léger was entitled to be styled for life with the superior form of The Right Honourable. He died on November 22, 1980. Youth and career Born in Saint-Anicet, Quebec, to Ernest and Alda (née Beauvais), Léger, along with his brother (and future cardinal), Paul-Émile, was raised in a devoutly religious family. After completing high school, Léger went on to the Collège de Valleyfield and then the Université de Montréal, where he completed a law degree. Léger subsequently enrolled at the Sorbonne in Paris, from which he was awarded a doctorate in 1938, the same year that, on August 13, he married Gabrielle Carmel, whom he'd met at the University of Paris. The couple together had two daughters, Francine and Helene. When Léger returned to Canada at the end of 1938, he was hired as an associate editor of Le Droit in Ottawa, but remained there for only one year before he went on to become a professor of diplomatic history at the University of Ottawa until 1942. Simultaneously, Léger joined in 1940 the Department of External Affairs, and in just over 13 years received his first overseas diplomatic posting as Canada's ambassador to Mexico. After his retirement from that office on August 1, 1954, he returned to Ottawa to act as under-secretary of state for external affairs, until, on September 25, 1958, he was commissioned as ambassador and permanent representative to the North Atlantic Council, occupying that post until 5 July 1962, as well as the Canadian representative to the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation in Paris. Then, from 1962 to 1964, Léger held the commission of ambassador to Italy, and, from 1964 to 1968 was the ambassador to France. It was during this time, in July 1967, that French president Charles de Gaulle visited Canada to attend Expo 67, and in Montreal gave his Vive le Québec libre speech. This event caused a diplomatic chill for many years between Canada and France; however, Léger attracted admiration for his subsequent sensitive handling of de Gaulle's policy towards Quebec. By 1968, Léger had returned to Canada's capital and was appointed as under-secretary of state, providing the administrative basis for Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson's foreign policy, and the policies on bilingualism and multiculturalism developed by the Cabinet chaired by Pearson's successor, Pierre Trudeau. Léger left that position in 1972, and briefly served as ambassador to Belgium and Luxembourg between March 1973 and January 1974. His daughter Francine committed suicide at the Canadian Embassy in 1968. Governor General of Canada It was on October 5, 1973 that Queen Elizabeth II had, by commission under the royal sign-manual and Great Seal of Canada, appointed Pierre Trudeau's choice of Léger to succeed Roland Michener as the Queen's representative. He was subsequently sworn-in during a ceremony in the Senate chamber on January 14, of the following year. Only six months later, just prior to a ceremony wherein he was to receive an honorary degree from the Université de Sherbrooke, Léger suffered a stroke, leaving him with impeded speech and a paralysed right arm. Though he returned to his viceregal duties not long after, presiding over an Order of Canada investiture in December 1974, his wife assisted him on many occasions, even reading parts of the Speech from the Throne in 1976 and 1978. Still, the Légers travelled across the country, encouraging Canadian unity at a time fraught with Quebec sovereignty disputes and perceived alienation by other regions, as well promoting the fine arts and artistic endeavours, aided at such by their friendships with painters such as Jean Paul Lemieux, Alfred Pellan, and Jean Dallaire. In 1978 Léger established the Jules Léger Prize for New Chamber Music. He also established an award for heritage conservation and the Jules Léger Scholarship to promote academic excellence in bilingual programs at the University of Regina. Léger was credited with greatly modernising the Office of the Governor General, having, among other things, eschewed the traditional court dress of the Windsor uniform in favour of morning dress at state functions, though he was also negatively criticised for the same, as well as for asking that decorations, particularly those from the Second World War, not be worn at certain state events. He was further critiqued for remaining in such an important office despite his incapacitation. Still, he remained focused on the person and institution he represented, and was known to write to the Queen on a monthly basis. His official portrait was a first for including the viceregal consort, done to recognise Gabrielle's contributions to her husband's service. Post viceregal life After leaving Rideau Hall, the Légers continued to live in Ottawa. Léger died on November 22, 1980, and was survived by his wife and daughter. Honours Ribbon bars of Jules Léger Appointments June 19, 1973January 14, 1974: Companion of the Order of Canada (CC) January 14, 1974January 22, 1979: Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada (CC) January 22, 1979November 22, 1980: Companion of the Order of Canada (CC) January 14, 1974January 22, 1979: Chancellor and Commander of the Order of Military Merit (CMM) January 22, 1979November 22, 1980: Commander of the Order of Military Merit (CMM) January 14, 1974January 22, 1979: Knight of Justice, Prior, and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ) January 22, 1979November 22, 1980: Knight of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ) January 14, 1974January 22, 1979: Chief Scout of Canada 1974November 22, 1980: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club June 1, 1979November 22, 1980: Member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (PC) Medals January 14, 1974: Canadian Forces Decoration (CD) 1977: Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal Honorary military appointments January 14, 1974January 22, 1979: Colonel of the Governor General's Horse Guards January 14, 1974January 22, 1979: Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards January 14, 1974January 22, 1979: Colonel of the Canadian Grenadier Guards Honorary degrees 31 March 1974: University of British Columbia, Doctor of Laws (LLD) 8 June 1974: Université de Sherbrooke, Doctor of the University (DUniv) 7 February 1976: Royal Military College of Canada, Doctor of Laws (LLD) : University of Ottawa, Doctor of Laws (LLD) Honorific eponyms Awards : Jules and Gabrielle Léger Fellowship : Jules Léger Scholarship, University of Regina, Regina Arms See also Diplomatic corps References External links Website of the Governor General of Canada entry for Jules Léger 1913 births 1980 deaths University of Paris alumni Governors General of Canada Companions of the Order of Canada Members of the 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247035	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res	Trois-Rivières	Trois-Rivières (, ) is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River across from the city of Bécancour. It is part of the densely populated Quebec City–Windsor Corridor and is approximately halfway between Montreal and Quebec City. Trois-Rivières is the economic and cultural hub of the Mauricie region. The settlement was founded by French colonists on July 4, 1634, as the second permanent settlement in New France, after Quebec City in 1608. In 2021, the city's population was 140,420. The city's name, which is French for 'three rivers', is named for the fact the Saint-Maurice River has three mouths at the Saint Lawrence River; it is divided by two islands in the river. Historically, in English this city was once known as Three Rivers. Since the late 20th century, when there has been more recognition of Quebec and French speakers, the city has generally been referred to as Trois-Rivières in both English and French. The anglicized name still appears in many areas of the town (e.g., the city's Three Rivers Academy), bearing witness to the influence of English settlers in the town. The city's inhabitants are known as Trifluviens (Trifluvians). Trois-Rivières is also the name of a territory equivalent to a regional county municipality (TE) of Quebec, coextensive with the city of Trois-Rivières. Its geographical code is 371. Together with the regional county municipality of Les Chenaux, it forms the census division (CD) of Francheville (37). The municipalities within Les Chenaux and the former municipalities that were amalgamated into Trois-Rivières formerly constituted the regional county municipality of Francheville. Trois-Rivières is the seat of the judicial district of the same name. Origin of name The name of Trois-Rivières, which dates from the end of the 16th century, was used by French explorers in reference to the three channels in the Saint-Maurice River formed at its mouth with the Saint Lawrence, as it is divided by two islands, Potherie and Saint-Quentin island. The city occupies a location known to the French since 1535, when Jacques Cartier, in a trip along the St. Lawrence, stopped to plant a cross on Saint-Quentin island. But the Three Rivers name is used for the first time in 1599 by Sieur François Gravé Du Pont, a geographer under Champlain, whose records confirmed the name in 1603. As Sieur Gravé Du Pont sailed upriver toward Montreal, he saw what appeared to be three separate tributaries. He did not know two large islands divide the course of the Saint-Maurice River in three parts where the latter flows into the St. Lawrence River. History For thousands of years, the area that would later become known as Trois-Rivières was frequented by Indigenous peoples. The historic Algonquin and Abenaki peoples used it as a summer stopping place. They would fish and hunt here, as well as gather roots and nuts. The area was rich in resources. The French explorer Jacques Cartier described the site while on his second journey to the New World in 1535. The name "Trois-Rivières", however, was not given until 1599, by Captain Dupont-Gravé, and first appeared on maps of the area dated 1601. In 1603, while surveying the Saint-Lawrence River, Samuel de Champlain recommended establishing a permanent settlement in the area. Such a village was started on July 4, 1634, by its first governor, Sieur de Laviolette. Early inhabitants of Trois-Rivières included Quentin Moral, Sieur de St-Quentin; future governor Pierre Boucher de Grosbois, François Hertel de la Fresnière (father of Joseph-François Hertel de la Fresnière), François Marguerie, René Robineau, and Jean Sauvaget, and interpreter Jean Godefroy de Lintot, who married Marie, daughter of Michel Le Neuf. Jacques Leneuf de La Poterie, who would become governor of Trois-Rivières, and acting governor of New France, and royal judge Michel Le Neuf du Hérisson, who would be acting governor of Trois-Rivières, brothers, arrived with their widowed mother, Jeanne Le Marchand, in 1636. The Le Neufs were accompanied by Jacques' wife, Marguerite, and her brothers, Pierre Legardeur de Repentigny and future governor Charles Legardeur de Tilly. The city was the second to be founded in New France (after Quebec City, before Montreal). Given its strategic location, it played an important role in the colony and in the fur trade with First Nations peoples. The settlement became the seat of a regional government in 1665. Ursuline nuns first arrived at the settlement in 1697, where they founded the first school and helped local missionaries to Christianize the local Aboriginals and developing class of Métis. French sovereignty in Trois-Rivières continued until 1760, when the city was captured as part of the British conquest of Canada during the Seven Years' War. Sixteen years later, on June 8, 1776, it was the theatre of the Battle of Trois-Rivières (part of the ill-fated invasion of the province of Quebec by les Bostonnais, Americans from the Boston area) during the American Revolutionary War. Trois-Rivières continued to grow in importance throughout this period and beyond. In 1792 it was designated as the seat of a judicial district. In 1852, the Roman Catholic church made this the see of the Diocese of Trois-Rivières. In 1816, Captain A.G. Douglas, a former adjutant at the British military college at Great Marlow, recommended a military college for Catholic and Protestant boys be established at Trois-Rivières. He proposed it operate in a disused government house and he would be superintendent. Douglas' college was intended as a boarding school to educate the young sons of officers, amongst others, in Latin, English language, French Language, History, Geography, Drawing and Mathematics. This preceded the founding of the Royal Military College of Canada in 1876. In 1908, the greater part of the city of Trois-Rivières was destroyed by a fire; most of the city's original buildings, many dating to the French colonial years, were destroyed. Among the surviving buildings were the Ursuline Monastery and the De Tonnancour Manor. As a result of the destruction, a major redesign and renovation of the city was undertaken, including the widening and renewal of many of the city's roads. Many new businesses and industries became established in the town, attracting additional residents. During the mid-century, the city became heavily industrialized and lost jobs during the later restructuring. In the 1960s, Trois-Rivières undertook a large-scale project of economic diversification, including founding several cultural institutions and attractions. The Old City of Trois-Rivières was declared an "historic sector" in 1964. The Laviolette Bridge, linking Trois-Rivières to Bécancour and the south shore of the Saint-Lawrence River, was opened officially on December 20, 1967. In 1969, the city founded the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, known for its chiropractic school, its podiatric medical education, and its programs for primary and secondary school education. Although historically an important centre of commerce, trade and population, Trois-Rivières has been superseded by the two major cities of Quebec: the metropolis of Montreal and the capital of Quebec City. It remains as one of the principal medium-sized cities of Quebec, along with Saguenay, Sherbrooke, and Gatineau. Cityscape The city's main thoroughfare is Boulevard des Forges, an area several blocks long in the heart of the Old Town composed of century-old buildings housing a great variety of cafés, restaurants, clubs, bars, and shops. In the warmer months, the area is regularly closed to vehicular traffic to accommodate various festivals and events, turning the downtown core into a pedestrian mall. Notable landmarks include the Forges du Saint-Maurice, a foundry dating back to the 1730s, the Ursulines Monastery, and Notre-Dame-du-Cap Basilica. Economy Trois-Rivières is Canada's oldest industrial city, with its first foundry established in 1738. The forge produced iron and cast for 150 years, much of it being shipped to France to be used in French navy ships. The first port facility was built in 1818 near rue Saint-Antoine, and today handles 2.5 million tonnes of cargo annually. The first railway was built in 1879 to support the growing lumber industry. From the late 1920s until the early 1960s, the city was known as the pulp and paper industry capital of the world. The city once had five mills in operation (Trois-Rivières Ouest, Wayagamack, C.I.P., and St-Maurice Paper). Today, there are three mills left operating (Kruger Trois-Rivières Ouest, Kruger Wayagamack and Cascades Lupel ex-St-Maurice Paper); the closures resulted largely to a decline in newsprint demand and globalization. The closures were not limited to just the pulp and paper industry. Trois-Rivières had an industrial decline in the 1980s and 1990s, when several textile mills were closed after owners moved jobs offshore. Unemployment rose to 14 percent in the 1990s. Trois-Rivières is attempting an industrial revitalization by establishing technology parks and taking advantage of its central location to both Montreal and Quebec City, its university and port. An example of the new economy is Marmen Incorporated, which manufactures wind turbine towers and employs 1,000 people between its operations in Trois-Rivières and Matane. The city's other prominent industries include metal transformation, electronics, thermoplastics, and cabinet making. An industrial park adjoining Trois-Rivières Airport serves also as a major centre for the aeronautical industry. Also, the production of food crops is still important to the economy. Climate The area has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). Winters are long, cold, and snowy: the January high is , with lows dropping to on 27 nights per year and to on 2.9 nights. Snowfall averages , with reliable snow cover from December to March. Summers are warm, with an average July high of , and high temperatures reach on 5.5 days per summer. Spring and autumn are short and crisp. Precipitation averages , and is the greatest during summer. The highest temperature ever recorded in Trois-Rivières was on 17 July 1953. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 5 February 1923. Education Trois-Rivières is home to the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, and the Mauricie Campus of the Université de Montréal, a satellite campus for the university's faculty of medicine. Culture Trois-Rivières hosts the FestiVoix de Trois-Rivières, a 10-day summer music festival which attracts in excess of 300,000 visitors annually. The city also hosts the Festival International de la Poésie – an international poetry festival – as well as the Festival International Danse Encore, and the MetalFest de Trois-Rivières every November. In 2009, Trois-Rivières was designated as the 2009 Cultural Capital of Canada for cities having a population of 125,000 or more. Trois-Rivières is officially the "Poetry Capital of Quebec". Numerous plaques displaying poetic verses are installed throughout the centre of the city. An International Festival of Poetry is held annually in the first week of October. Demographics Trois-Rivières had a population of 134,413 as of 2016. The median age in Trois-Rivières was 47 compared to 41.2 in all of Canada. 22.8% of the population was of retirement age (65 and older). French was the mother tongue of 95.7% of residents. The next largest mother languages were English (1.1%), Spanish (0.8%), and Arabic (0.5%). 0.4% claimed both English and French as a first language, while 0.3% claimed both French and a non-official language. Approximately 92.9% of residents were White, 3.6% were Aboriginal and 3.5% were visible minorities. The largest visible minority groups in Trois-Rivières were Black (1.4%), Latin American (0.8%), and Arab (0.6%). As of 2011, 87.3% of people in Trois-Rivières were Catholic, while 0.7% were Muslim, 0.3% were Baptist and 0.2% were Pentecostal. 9.1% held no religious affiliation. The Trois-Rivières metropolitan area as defined by Statistics Canada comprises Trois-Rivières itself and six other municipalities. Saint-Maurice, Yamachiche, Champlain and Saint-Luc-de-Vincennes are all located on the North shore and except for Saint-Luc (which is separated from it by Saint-Maurice) are also directly adjacent to trois-Rivières. The city of Bécancour, Quebec and the enclaved indian reservation of Wôlinak are located opposite Trois-Rivières on the South shore of the Saint Lawrence River. Prior to amalgamation in 2001, the new city of Trois-Rivières was divided among six municipalities. Administration City Council Since its incorporation in 1845, the city has had thirty-six mayors. The mayor presides over the Trois-Rivières City Council. Municipal reorganization On January 1, 2002, the former city of Trois-Rivières along with its neighbouring towns of Cap-de-la-Madeleine, Sainte-Marthe-du-Cap, Saint-Louis-de-France, Trois-Rivières-Ouest, and the municipality of Pointe-du-Lac, were combined to form the new city of Trois-Rivières. Sport Trois-Rivières has an internationally known racetrack named Circuit Trois-Rivières. The track hosts American Le Mans Series, SCCA Pro Racing Trans-Am Series, Star Mazda Series, World RX of Canada and the NASCAR Canadian Tire Series events. In baseball, Trois-Rivières is represented by the Frontier League's Trois-Rivières Aigles which play their home games at Stade Quillorama. In ice hockey, Trois-Rivières will host the Trois-Rivières Lions of the ECHL beginning with the 2021-22 season, and has had several teams in the Ligue Nord-Américaine de Hockey, typically with home games at the Colisée de Trois-Rivières. The city is also the site of the only remaining pari-mutuel (wagering) harness racing track in Quebec, Hippodrome de Trois-Rivières, which operates live standardbred racing from May through October. In 2014, the hippodrome has resurrected the Prix d'Été, a once major Canadian race for four-year-old pacers that had been contested in Montreal until 1992. Transportation Local bus service is provided by the Société de transport de Trois-Rivières. The Laviolette Bridge links Trois-Rivières to Bécancour of the Centre-du-Québec administrative region on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River. The Laviolette Bridge is the only bridge across the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City; therefore it provides an important connection between the north and south shores of the river. Known for its impressive structure, its elegant aesthetics, the bridge has become a major landmark of Trois-Rivières and the Mauricie region. Approximately 40,000 vehicles cross the bridge each day. An airport also serves the city. On April 8, 2014 during morning commute an SUV fell into a giant pothole in Trois-Rivières caused by heavy rain accumulation. Nobody was injured during the incident. The city hosts a major ice-free port on the Saint Lawrence River, handling about 300 ships per annum. Media Islands Saint-Quentin Island lies at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice River and St. Lawrence River, where the city of Trois-Rivières developed. With the islands Saint-Christophe and De La Poterie, it creates three channels at the mouth of the Saint-Maurice River, where it flows into St. Lawrence River. The island was named in honour of judge Quentin Moral, also said to be a fur trader and one of the first dealers on this island. It is now a centre of popular outdoor activities and relaxation at the hearth of city. The patron saint of the island is Quentin de Rome. It was first inhabited by an Algonquin tribe who cultivate corn in the lowlands of the river. On October 7, 1535, Jacques Cartier planted a cross on the island and proclaimed the sovereignty of France on this territory. A commemorative wrought iron cross was erected at the site associated with Cartier's claim. The natural environment of Saint-Quentin has remained virtually unchanged. For nearly a century, it was not developed or cultivated. Since 1930, the island has become more important as a destination for recreation. The island belonged at the time to Quebec Savings and Trust Company Limited and the Canada Power and Paper Corporation. The city bid for the land in 1933, but did not take ownership until November 3, 1947. During World War II, it was the site of a training camp for the Royal Canadian Navy. Services were gradually introduced in 1950. The park and the beach on the island Saint-Quentin were officially inaugurated on June 24, 1962, in the presence of 5,000 people. There were more than 100 000 visitors that year. Since then, many facilities have been developed on the island, including a marina, a bike path, an interpretative trail, an ice rink, and camping ground. Several happenings and festivals are held annually on the island. Notable people Jean Victor Allard, first francophone Chief of the Defence Staff Jean-Christophe Beaulieu, Canadian football player Steve Bégin, NHL hockey player Jean Béliveau, retired NHL hockey player for the Montreal Canadiens, inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1972 Marc-André Bergeron, NHL hockey player Guy Bertrand, radio-TV personality and CBC French Radio and Television official linguistic adviser (French links::fr:C'est bien meilleur le matin) Pierre Boucher, 1654 Governor of Trois-Rivières, Quebec, Canada and the official interpreter and agent to the Indian Tribes John Conley, politician Gilles Courteau, president of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League Jacques De Noyon, worked in the fur trade as a coureur de bois, in 1688 he led an expedition beyond Lake Superior into territory previously unknown to fur traders, he was the first white man to explore this region Médard Des Groseilliers and Pierre-Esprit Radisson, explorers, fur traders, founders of the Hudson's Bay Company Josephte Dufresne, pianist Maurice Duplessis, former Premier of Quebec (1936–39, 1944–59) André Dupont, former NHL hockey player Madeleine Ferron, writer Gérald Godin, politician and poet Annie Groovie, children's book author Jean Grou, an original settler of Trois-Rivières with a national monument localized at his original farm Coulèe Grou Aaron Hart, businessman Ezekiel Hart, entrepreneur and politician, and the first Jew to be elected to public office in Canada Norman Iceberg, a Canadian singer-songwriter Simon Kean, super heavyweight boxer who qualified to represent Canada in the 2012 Olympics Urbain Lafontaine, trade union leader Claude G. Lajoie, federal liberal politician (elected in 1971, 1972, 1974, 1979, 1980), building contractor, businessman Alexandre Landry, actor Félix Leclerc, songwriter; worked in a Trois-Rivières radio station Eisha Marjara, Indo-Canadian filmmaker Martyr, a technical death metal band The New Cities, a Canadian rock band, notable for their song "Dead End Countdown" Ghyslain Raza, president of the Trois-Rivières Heritage Society, one of the first "internet celebrities" (the Star Wars Kid) René Robert, former NHL hockey player Jean-Guy Talbot, former NHL hockey player, an arena with his name Luc Tardif, president of the [[International Ice Hockey Federation Éric Thériault, comic book artist and writer Luc Tousignant, the only French Canadian to start as quarterback in the Canadian Football League (Montreal Concordes) Denis Villeneuve, critically acclaimed, Oscar-nominated film director. Notable movies include Arrival, Blade Runner 2049, Sicario, Incendies, Prisoners and Enemy. Henri Wittmann, linguist Mikaël Zewski, light middleweight professional boxer Sister city Châteaudun, France Tours, France See also List of regional county municipalities and equivalent territories in Quebec 1925 Charlevoix–Kamouraska earthquake École secondaire Chavigny Marcel-Léger Ecological Reserve Millette River Saint-Maurice River Government of Trois-Rivières List of governors of Trois-Rivières List of towns in New France List of population centres in Quebec List of towns in Quebec References External links Official site of Trois-Rivières Tourisme Trois-Rivières Municipal tourist office Pictures of Trois-Rivières (2001 to date) Cities and towns in Quebec Populated places established in 1634 1634 establishments in New France Quebec populated places on the Saint Lawrence River Territories equivalent to a regional county municipality Hudson's Bay Company trading posts French mission settlements in North America	[ -0.5298397541046143, 0.5278698205947876, 0.23187687993049622, 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247036	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seigneurial%20system%20of%20New%20France	Seigneurial system of New France	The manorial system of New France, known as the seigneurial system (), was the semi-feudal system of land tenure used in the North American French colonial empire. Both in nominal and legal terms, all French territorial claims in North America belonged to the French king. French monarchs did not impose feudal land tenure on New France, and the king's actual attachment to these lands was virtually non-existent. Instead, landlords were allotted land holdings known as manors and presided over the French colonial agricultural system in North America. Manorial land tenure was introduced to New France in 1628 by Cardinal Richelieu. Richelieu granted the newly formed Company of One Hundred Associates all lands between the Arctic Circle to the north, Florida to the south, Lake Superior in the west, and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. In exchange for this vast land grant and the exclusive trading rights tied to it, the Company was expected to bring two to three hundred settlers to New France in 1628, and a subsequent four thousand during the next fifteen years. To achieve this, the Company subinfeudated almost all of the land awarded to it by Cardinal Richelieu — that is, parceled it out into smaller units that were then run on a feudal-like basis and worked by habitants. The lands were arranged in long narrow strips called seigneuries or fiefs along the banks of the St. Lawrence River, its estuaries, and other key transit features. This physical layout of manorial property developed as a means of maximizing ease of transit, commerce, and communication by using natural waterways (most notably, the St. Lawrence river) and the relatively few roads. A desirable plot had to be directly bordering or in very close proximity to a river system, which plot-expansion was limited to one of two directions—left or right. Despite the official arrangement reached between Cardinal Richelieu and the Company of One Hundred Associates, levels of immigration to French colonies in North America remained extremely low. The resulting scarcity of labor had a profound effect on the system of land distribution and the habitant-seigneurial relationship that emerged in New France. King Louis XIV instituted a condition on the land, stating that it could be forfeited unless it was cleared within a certain period of time. This condition kept the land from being sold by the seigneur, leading instead to its being sub-granted to peasant farmers, the habitants. When a habitant was granted the title deed to a lot, he had to agree to accept a variety of annual charges and restrictions. Rent was the most important of these and could be set in money, produce or labour. Once this rent was set, it could not be altered, neither due to inflation nor time. A habitant was essentially free to develop his land as he wished, with only a few obligations to his seigneur. Likewise, a seigneur did not have many responsibilities towards his habitants. The seigneur was obligated to build a gristmill for his tenants, and they in turn were required to grind their grain there and provide the seigneur with one sack of flour out of every 14. The seigneur also had the right to a specific number of days of forced labour by the habitants and could claim rights over fishing, timber and common pastures. Though the demands of the seigneurs became more significant at the end of French rule, they could never obtain enough resources from the rents and fees imposed on the habitants alone to become truly wealthy, nor leave their tenants in poverty. Habitants were free individuals; seigneurs simply owned a "bundle of specific and limited rights over productive activity within that territory". The seigneur–habitant relationship was one where both parties were owners of the land, who split the attributes of ownership between them. Geographic characteristics Estates in free socage were the most macro-level of land division in New France but, within them, there existed several tenurial subdivisions. Immediately below the level of free socage was that of the villeinage (roture). Throughout New France, several thousand estates in villeinage were developed. Furthermore, these villein tenancies were remarkably uniform in terms of size. Barring extreme cases, it is estimated that around 95% of all villein estates were between in size, though most were likely 120 arpents or less. Estates of less than 40 square arpents were considered to be of little value by villein socagers. To maximize simplicity when surveying, estates in villein socage were almost invariably distributed in rectangular plots following a rowed system, wherein the first row bordered the river, and was the first to be filled, followed by the second behind it and so on. Typically, the proportions of such rectangles coincided with the ratio of 1:10 for width and length, respectively. However, extremes all the way up to 1:100 are known to have occurred. This method of land division confers obvious advantages in terms of easy access to transportation and cheap surveying, but also allowed socagers to live remarkably close to families on neighboring plots—often within a few hundred yards—creating something of a proto-neighborhood. Although legislation and enforcement varied depending on the period and administration, a socager’s rights of entitlement to their villeinage could not be revoked as long as they paid their duties and fees to the lord of the manor and satisfied the requirements of tenir feu et lieu. This stipulated that they were obliged to improve their landholdings or these would be confiscated. By ordinance of the Intendant in 1682, a socager could not hold more than two villeinages. Types of tenure The lord of the manor rented most of the land to tenants, known as censitaires or habitants, who cleared the land, built houses and other buildings, and farmed the land. A smaller portion of the land was kept as a demesne (land owned by the manorial lord and farmed by his family or by hired labour) which was economically significant in the early days of settlement, though less thereafter. Manorial land tenure in New France differed somewhat from its counterpart in France; the manorial lords of New France were not always nobles, though many were. Fiefs in North America were granted to military officers and – as in France – many were owned by the Catholic clergy. However, the system was feudal in the sense that there was a clear displacement of wealth happening from tenants to their landlords, which was not at all based on market forces (as land was plentiful and labor was not), but rather a system institutionalized by the crown. Villein socagers were able to divide their land for their children according to the Custom of Paris once they had families of their own, meaning that in the event of the death of a spouse, half the estate went to the surviving spouse, with the other half divided among the children (both male and female). This could lead to an unusual (for the time period) number of women, generally widows, who were in charge of large amounts of property. However, it is also worth noting that most widows remarried within a short time of their spouse’s death and often the meticulous splitting of estates demanded by the Custom of Paris was disregarded in favor of quickly solidifying the new union. In order to preserve each of the heirs' access to the river or road, the land would be divided lengthwise, resulting in narrower and narrower lots. In response to these increasingly subdivided farm plots and the issues of diminishing agricultural productivity associated with them, the Governor and the Intendant of New France petitioned the King in 1744 to issue a new ordinance rectifying the matter. The King responded by requiring the minimum plot size which a villein socager might cultivate or reside to be one arpent and a half of frontage by 30–40 arpents in depth. A final characteristic of villeinage is that the size of the fief typically varied in direct proportion with its distance from the nearest town, while its population density varied inversely. Elsewhere this kind of property inheritance law often led to fragmentation of estates. However, the subsistence level farming of many of the villein socagers in New France made fragmentation impossible and so it was common practice for one heir to buy out the others’ land, keeping estates in more or less one piece. It is also worth noting that anything but direct inheritance meant the property might be subject to the entry fine of 1/12th of the value of the property due to the lord. Economic impact on New France Some historians suggest that the structure of feudal land tenure itself might have caused delays in economic growth for New France. Morris Altman, for example, argued that by shifting disposable wealth and therefore spending power from the villein socagers to the manorial lords (crown vassals), the system deeply altered the economy of New France. Furthermore, since the manorial lords rarely had their estates as their chief source of income, the relatively insignificant sums of money from the feu-duties were used largely in the purchase of luxury items which were almost always imported from France. Altman theorizes that since the villein socagers would have either re-invested this money or bought goods produced locally, this limited growth and was damaging to the economy of New France. Though Altman later altered the precise estimates he made (based on annual outputs) of how much disposable income the socagers might have been deprived of (and therefore the amount of local investment lost), he confirmed his original thesis that the feudal fees reduced growth through wealth transfer. Other historians such as Allan Greer have also argued that the wealth transfer limited the growth of the villein socagers’ farms as well as other local enterprises, which in the long run might limit general economic growth. After the British conquest After the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and the conquest of Quebec by the British during the Seven Years' War, the system became an obstacle to colonization by British settlers, not least because England had already abolished feudal land tenure under the Tenures Abolition Act 1660. Nevertheless, the Quebec Act of 1774 retained French civil law and therefore the manorial system. Manorial land tenure remained relatively intact for almost a century. This was the prime land; also many Englishmen and Scotsmen purchased manorial estates; others were divided equally between male and female offspring; some were run by the widows of manorial lords as their children grew to adulthood. Over time land became subdivided among the owners' offspring and descendants, resulting in increasingly narrow plots of land. When Quebec was divided in December 1791 between Lower Canada (today's Quebec) and Upper Canada (today's Ontario), a segment of the colonial boundary was drawn at the west edge of the westernmost contiguous manorial estates along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, accounting for the small triangle of land at Vaudreuil-Soulanges that belongs to Quebec rather than Ontario. Only two outlying feudal manors were ever established in the area that became Upper Canada, being located at L'Original on the Ottawa River and Cataraqui at the eastern end of Lake Ontario at what is now Kingston and Wolfe Island. Tenure in the Upper Canada manors was converted into fee simple (freehold) under the Constitutional Act 1791. Abolition The British Parliament passed legislation in 1825 that provided for the commutation of manorial land tenure, upon the agreement of the lord of the manor and the tenants concerned. As no incentives were given, few such conversions took place. The Province of Canada also attempted to facilitate the process through passage of a further Act in 1845. The manorial system was formally abolished through the passage of the Feudal Abolition Act 1854 by the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, which received royal assent on 18 December 1854. It provided for: the conversion of all feudal tenure into that of allodial title the abolition of all feu-duties and feudal incidents, to be replaced by a rentcharge (rente constituée) calculated under a specified formula the determination of rights held by manorial lords and tenants through referral to a special Seigniorial Court the redemption of rentcharges in certain circumstances, upon payment of a determined amount to the lord After the required schedules for each manorial estate were published in 1859, the Legislative Assembly passed The Seigniorial Amendment Act of 1859, which provided for the commutation of all feu-duties and rents (other than those relating to cens et rentes) through payments to the lords from a fund appropriated for that purpose. Delay into the 20th century for commutation of rents Some of the vestiges of this system of landowning continued into the 20th century as some of the rentcharges continued to be collected as before on the traditional date of St. Martin's Day. The final steps towards actual abolition of the system of rentcharges took place under the government of Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, when the cause was promoted by Télesphore-Damien Bouchard, the Liberal deputy and mayor of Saint-Hyacinthe. He declared that "a very large number of villein socagers have not yet redeemed for over the seventy years that they have been able to do so [since the passage of the 1854 law]" and they must "make an annual pilgrimage to pay [the dues], very often, to a stranger who has acquired rights originally belonging to our ancestral families". In 1928, the Seigniories Act was amended to require the compilation of all information relating to dues and related capital by municipality. In 1935, the Legislative Assembly of Quebec passed the Seigniorial Rent Abolition Act, which aimed to “facilitate the freeing of all lands or lots of land from rentcharges.” It provided for: the incorporation of all county municipalities and independent city and town municipalities in which manorial estates were located, as the Syndicat national du rachat des rentes seigneuriales (SNRRS) (). the borrowing of money by the Syndicate, under provincial guarantee, in order to redeem all rentcharges. the preparation of land registers (terriers) in each municipality showing the lands, owners, rents and capital amounts concerned. the commutation of such rentcharges, upon the approval of the land registers by the municipal councils and their subsequent ratification by an Act of the Legislative Assembly, after which the funds borrowed by the Syndicate would be repaid through a special tax to be collected from the owners, which could be paid in a lump sum or over a period of up to 41 years. Final steps (1936–1970) It was contemplated that the manorial lords would receive their commutation payments by 11 November 1936, in consideration of the capital represented by the feu-duties to be collected. However, the work of the SNRRS was briefly on hiatus from 1936–1940 during the government of the Union Nationale. It was resumed by the new provincial Liberal government in 1940, after which the final feu-duties were paid in November 1940. Compared to the situation of the short cadastre (survey) of 1854, it was determined that annuities owed amount to no more than 25% of the original amount owed by the villein socagers overall. Some had not been paid since the 19th Century. To rectify the situation for once and all, the SNRRS issued an edict dated 15 September 1940 stating that whatever was due no later than 11 November of that year was to be paid directly to the manorial lord as before. Any amount owing after that date would be paid to the municipality. The amounts paid to the various municipalities were unequal as they did not directly correspond with the boundaries of the former manors. Many municipalities allowed a lump sum payment of the amount owing, rather than impose a small annual tax over the 41 years as permitted. The final installment paid to the SNRRS by the municipalities was made eleven years earlier than planned, on 11 November 1970 instead of 11 November 1981, due to an apparently effective management of the system. Historical evidence Remnants of the manorial system can be seen today in maps and satellite imagery of Quebec, with the characteristic "long lot" land system still forming the basic shape of current farm fields and clearings, as well as being reflected in the historic county boundaries along the St. Lawrence River. This form of land use can also be seen in images of Louisiana, which also was founded as a French colony with somewhat similar agricultural patterns. Also, this form of land use can be seen along the Red River in southern Manitoba and along certain portions of the South Saskatchewan River in Saskatchewan near Batoche, where significant Metis and French-Canadian settlement occurred. It was also the pattern in the Illinois Country developed by the French east of the Mississippi River, as in Prairie du Rocher, Illinois. This system is also visible in the streets of Detroit, Michigan. The earliest streets were named after the owners of each farm, such as Livernois being named after the Livernois Family ribbon farm. Vestiges of the former system still emerge from time to time. In February 2005, the Superior Court of Quebec issued an order cancelling mortgages that could still exist for feu-duties on a property that was once part of Beauport Manor, Four years later there was an announcement that a wind farm, consisting of 131 wind turbines, was to be developed there. In September 2014, the Quebec Court of Appeal upheld a Superior Court ruling that private ownership of the bed of a lake and related fishing rights were not conferred by the terms of a 1674 deed of feoffment creating the Manor of La Petite-Nation. The work of the SNRRS can be evaluated by reviewing the fonds given in 1975 by the Ministry of Municipal Affairs (which looked after the SNRRS) to the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec. These documents constitute an amount equal to 20.5 meters of textual records. A comparable manorial system was the patroon system of heritable land established by the Dutch West India Company. The company granted feudal powers to the "patroons", who paid for the transport of settlers in New Netherland. The system was not abolished by the British when they took possession of the Dutch holdings. See also Fee (feudal tenure) French nobility List of Seigneuries of New France List of seignories of Quebec Ribbon farm Seignory References Sources Further reading Bibliography Acts External links New France Feudalism in France History of agriculture in Canada Seigneurial system of New France	[ -0.34085676074028015, -0.06734907627105713, -0.6085403561592102, 0.230891615152359, -0.0748489573597908, 0.555741012096405, 0.6468812227249146, 0.3471677899360657, -0.15754690766334534, -0.7373634576797485, -0.2765738368034363, 0.3549191951751709, 0.1044730693101883, 0.4614779055118561, -0.6788833737373352, 0.7237446308135986, 0.74245685338974, 0.014660054817795753, 0.18006116151809692, -0.2903728783130646, -0.8974955677986145, -0.09366732835769653, 0.06236734241247177, 0.08024754375219345, 0.32273343205451965, -0.12213023751974106, 0.44050249457359314, -0.27570295333862305, -0.2440529614686966, -0.35702142119407654, -0.12059447914361954, 0.16854621469974518, -0.23779049515724182, 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247037	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumarioideae	Fumarioideae	Fumarioideae is a subfamily of the family Papaveraceae (the poppy family). It was formerly treated as a separate family, the Fumariaceae (the fumitory, fumewort or bleeding-heart family). It consists of about 575 species of herbaceous plants in 20 genera, native to the Northern Hemisphere and South Africa. The largest genus is Corydalis (with 470 species). Description Flower shape Plants in the fumitory subfamily are easily recognised by their peculiar flowers with two dissimilar pairs of petals. One or both of the outer petals is usually spurred, and the inner petals are connected at tip. There are two types of flowers. A given genus has one type or the other. Dicentra has flowers with two planes of symmetry, and Corydalis has flowers with one plane of symmetry (zygomorphic). Leaves Most species have compound leaves. Taxonomy The APG IV system of 2016 (unchanged from the earlier 1998 APG system, the 2003 APG II system, and the APG III system of 2009) includes the former family Fumariaceae within the Papaveraceae. The APG II system provided for its optional segregation as a separate family, but this option is not provided in the current APG IV system or the APG III system. Genera There are 20 genera: See also Bicuculline, a toxin found in plans of this subfamily External links Fumariaceae, Hypecoaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. Version: 3 May 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20070103200438/http://delta-intkey.com/. 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247041	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swinburne%20University%20of%20Technology	Swinburne University of Technology	Swinburne University of Technology (often simply called Swinburne) is a public research university based in Melbourne, Australia. It was founded in 1908 as the Eastern Suburbs Technical College by George Swinburne to serve those without access to further education in Melbourne's eastern suburbs. Its main campus is in Hawthorn, a suburb of Melbourne, 7.5 km from the Melbourne central business district. In addition to its main Hawthorn campus, it has campuses in the Melbourne metropolitan area at Wantirna and Croydon; in Sarawak, Malaysia; and in Sydney. In the 2022 QS World University Rankings, it placed 19th in Australia and moved up 50 places to 321st globally. In the 2020 Student Experience Survey, Swinburne was ranked equal 1st place in Victoria for the ’entire education experience’ for undergraduate students, with an overall satisfaction rate of 80 per cent. History Swinburne University of Technology has its origins in the Eastern Suburbs Technical College, which was established in 1908 in the Melbourne suburb of Hawthorn by George Swinburne. In 1913, the institution changed its name from Hawthorn College to Swinburne Technical College. It later became known as the Swinburne Institute of Technology. In the late 1980s, the Outer Eastern University Planning Council advocated for a new university to be established in outer eastern Melbourne. The area had the second lowest university participation rate in Melbourne, after the Mornington Peninsula. Partially in response to this advocacy, in 1990 Swinburne established it's "Eastern Campus" in Mooroolbark (sometimes described as Lilydale), on the site of the recently closed MDA Grammar School. However, students could not attend until 1992 due to council planning negotiation, and the campus was officially opened on 6 April 1992. By 1993, it was known as the "Mooroolbark Campus". The Dawkins reforms to Australian higher education in the early 1990s lead to many tertiary colleges being merged or split-up, and many given university status. On 1 January 1992, the university was given the Prahran Campus of Victoria College and the co-located Prahran College of TAFE, both of which had evolved from the Prahran Mechanics' Institute (established in 1854). Swinburne attained university status on 1 July 1992 with the passage of the Swinburne University of Technology Act. In 1997, Swinburne opened a campus at Lilydale, replacing it's nearby one at Mooroolbark. In 1998, it merged with the Outer East Institute of TAFE and began operating from campuses at Croydon and Wantirna. In 1999, Swinburne established the National Institute of Circus Arts (NICA). In 2000, the university opened a campus in Sarawak, Malaysia, as a partnership between the university and the Sarawak State Government. In 2008, it collaborated with two other universities in forming The Centre for Social Impact. In February 2011, the university opened the Advanced Technologies Centre, a 22,000 square metre building of modern architectural design at its Hawthorn campus, known locally as "the cheese grater building". Following a series of funding cuts announced by the Victorian Government to vocational education in May 2012, Swinburne announced that it would close its Lilydale and Prahran campuses. Lilydale campus officially closed on 1 July 2013. The university sold its Prahran campus to the Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE in 2014. The Lilydale campus was taken over by Box Hill Institute in 2016. In 2015, Swinburne launched its law school. Through a partnership with Leo Cussen Centre for Law, Swinburne Law School is the only law school in Victoria accredited by the Victorian Legal Admissions Board (VLAB) to enable students to accelerate their admission to legal practice by completing their practical legal training during the final year of their studies. Campuses Hawthorn The Hawthorn campus is Swinburne's main campus. It hosts a range of vocational, undergraduate, and postgraduate programs. Wantirna Wantirna is a TAFE-specific campus. The campus also offers courses in areas including health and community services, visual arts, business and accounting. Croydon The university's Croydon campus is a TAFE-specific campus, with a focus on training in trades such as building, carpentry, electrical and plumbing. Prahran Swinburne no longer operates a "Prahran Campus" (occupying and replacing buildings of the previous by Prahran College). Currently it is the home of the National Institute of Circus Arts (NICA). Sarawak, Malaysia The Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus is located in Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. Parramatta The Parramatta campus is quite small and located in a public library building as a tenant. It has connections to Sydney's bus, tram, metro and train networks as well as having a large taxi rink attached to the building. Swinburne Online Swinburne Online is the online arm of the university. Swinburne Online was founded in 2011 after a 50-50 joint venture between Swinburne University of Technology and SEEK Learning seeking to capitalise on increasing demand for off-campus education. Swinburne Online was originally created under the name Swinburne Direct, with an initial $10 million investment. It was formed to maximise the Australian Government's decision to lift caps on Commonwealth-supported university places from 2012, a policy which intended to increase the number of 25- to 34-year-olds with bachelor's degrees to 40 per cent by 2025. Swinburne Online originally provided higher education degrees at both bachelor and masters level. As of April 2015, it offered over twenty courses in business, communication, design, education, and social science. However, as of September 2015, Swinburne Online has begun offering vocational education. In April 2015, CEO Denice Pitt expressed a public desire to expand internationally to offer degrees to international students. In 2014 Swinburne Online was ranked fourth in Australia's 100 fastest growing companies. Its earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortisation grew by 48% to $29.8 million in 2014–15. Research institutes and centres , Swinburne has six research institutes: Data Science Research Institute (launched 2017) Iverson Health Innovation Research Institute (launched 2017) Manufacturing Futures Research Institute (launched 2016) Smart Cities Research Institute (launched 2017) Social Innovation Research Institute (launched 2017) Space Technology and Industry Institute (2021) The Swinburne Institute for Social Research formerly (until 2017) existed within the Faculty of Health, Arts and Design, It included the Public Interest Journalism Foundation (PIJ Foundation), which produced YouComm News. As of 2020, PIJF has evolved into an independent organisation, now named Public Interest Journalistic Freedom, which is partially crowd-funded. The Centre for Social Impact Swinburne (CSI Swin), established in 2014, is (was?) in the Faculty of Business and Law. It is part of the national network that also includes the University of New South Wales and the University of Western Australia. There are many other research centres, including the Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing, the Centre for Mental Health, and the Centre for Human Psychoppharmacology. Academic profile Rankings Swinburne is internationally recognized for the output from international partnership research. Swinburne performed fairly well in the 2020 Global Nature Index ranking, especially when compared with universities in the Asia-Pacific region. According to the CWTS Leiden rankings in 2020, Swinburne ranked 2nd in the world for Mathematics and Computer Science. Swinburne ranked 10th in Australia in the 2020-2021 European Commission-sponsored global U-Multirank ranking, behind Australian National University. Swinburne's consistent research and innovation outputs are presented in the updated Swinburne Research Impact Magazine and Swinburne is also renowned for producing favorable academic-industry partnership. Swinburne was ranked top 100 in the fields of computer science and engineering, automation and control and civil engineering by the Academic Ranking of World Universities in 2021. Swinburne was also ranked 19th in Australia and in the top 100 in the world for art and design in the 2022 QS World University Rankings, making it one of the top art and design schools. Swinburne has been placed in the top 200 for computer science engineering, mechanical engineering and civil engineering in Shanghai Ranking's Global Ranking of Academic Subjects in 2019. The university was listed in the top 50 for art and design subject area by the 2020 QS World Rankings of Universities by Subject. Swinburne also performed well in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2021 with Swinburne ranked in the top 200 for Engineering & technology, top 250 for Computer Science and Physical Sciences. Social Sciences ranked 301-400th, Business & Economics ranked 401-500th and Clinical, pre-clinical & health positioned at 501-600th in 2021. In 2021, Swinburne has improved in the subject areas of physical sciences, business and economics, computer sciences and engineering and technology in the Times Ranking. Swinburne Business School is a Member of The Centre for Social Impact. Swinburne has won the 2019 Australian Business Award on Business Innovation of the World Business Awards. Swinburne 's Faculty of Business and Law (Swinburne Business School) ranked in the top 25% Economists and Institutions in Australia and 272nd Business School in the world as of October 2019. Australia's only Graduate School of Entrepreneurship (AGSE) is located in Swinburne. Swinburne Business School issues the quarterly Australian Leadership Index. Swinburne ranked 351-400th in the Business & Management Studies in 2019 by QS World University Rankings, 301-400th in Business and Economics in the 2020 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and Business Administration ranked 201-300th by Shanghai Ranking in 2019. There were four Swinburne Master programs that ranked in top 200 worldwide by Eduniversal in 2019. Swinburne's online MBA ranked in the top 35（Tier One）internationally by the CEO Magazine 2019 ranking. Swinburne is affiliated with Globally Responsible Leadership Initiative and accredited by AACSB and Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME). Student life Swinburne Student Union (SSU) Swinburne Student Union (SSU) is the independent student representative body of Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne, Australia. Membership is opt-in for all students. Faculty Notable alumni Garth Davis: film director, Lion (2016) Houman Younessi: International authority and expert on information technology and biotechnology. Andrew Dominik: film director, Chopper (2000), The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007), Killing Them Softly (2012), and the documentary One More Time with Feeling (2016). Karl von Möller: film director, D'art (2019), Not Quite Hollywood: The Wild, Untold Story of Ozploitation! (2008) Mark Hartley: film director, Not Quite Hollywood: The Wild, Untold Story of Ozploitation! (2008) Bridget Hustwaite, Triple J radio presenter, television presenter, journalist and author Richard Lowenstein: film director, "Autoluminescent" (documentary film on the life of Rowland S. Howard; 2011), He Died with a Felafel in His Hand (2001), Dogs in Space (1986), "Strikebound" (1984) L. Scott Pendlebury (1914–1986): landscape and portrait artist; instructor (1946–1963), head of art school (1963–1974) at Swinburne Technical College Margaret Jane Gurney (born 1943): Australian artist (Swinburne Technical College) Sam Hammington: comedian who is primarily active in South Korea Amanda Howard: true crime writer and serial killer specialist David Williamson: Australian dramatist and playwright Gillian Armstrong: Australian director. See also Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing Education in Australia List of universities in Australia National Institute of Circus Arts Prahran Mechanics' Institute References External links University website Technical universities and colleges in Australia Australian vocational education and training providers Universities in Melbourne TAFE Colleges in Melbourne 1992 establishments in Australia Educational institutions established in 1992 Science and technology in Melbourne	[ 0.6370022892951965, 0.36802226305007935, 0.7730133533477783, 0.031916238367557526, 0.0247725248336792, 0.23259337246418, 0.5497443675994873, 0.2428140491247177, -0.3047790229320526, -0.04478953778743744, -0.2701186239719391, 0.21803899109363556, 0.42191991209983826, 1.0511199235916138, 0.577695906162262, -0.21292826533317566, 0.46142688393592834, 0.6303704380989075, 0.0789860337972641, -0.20401914417743683, -0.3311470150947571, -0.32295647263526917, 1.0202022790908813, 0.04710924252867699, 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247043	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranunculaceae	Ranunculaceae	Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide. The largest genera are Ranunculus (600 species), Delphinium (365), Thalictrum (330), Clematis (325), and Aconitum (300). Description [[File:Adonis autumnalis flowerdiagram.png\|thumb\|125px\|Floral diagram. Adonis annua]] Ranunculaceae are mostly herbaceous annuals or perennials, but some are woody climbers (such as Clematis) or shrubs (e.g. Xanthorhiza). Most members of the family have bisexual flowers which can be showy or inconspicuous. Flowers are solitary, but are also found aggregated in cymes, panicles, or spikes. The flowers are usually radially symmetrical but are also found to be bilaterally symmetrical in the genera Aconitum and Delphinium. The sepals, petals, stamens and carpels are all generally free (not fused), the outer flower segments typically number four or five. The outer stamens may be modified to produce only nectar, as in Aquilegia, Helleborus and Delphinium. In some genera, such as Thalictrum the sepals are colorful and appear petal-like (petaloid) and the petals can be inconspicuous or absent. The stems are unarmed. The leaves are variable. Most species have both basal and cauline (stem) leaves, which are usually compound or lobed but can be simple. They are typically alternate, or occasionally opposite or even whorled. Many species, especially the perennials form rhizomes that develop new roots each year. Ficaria verna can reproduce vegetatively by means of root tubers produced in the leaf axils. Some members of the genus Thalictrum utilize anemophily while others utilize entomophily. Flowers of the entomophilous genus Papaver, also of the Ranunculales order, produce only pollen. Until recently, it was believed that the species of the genus Anemone also lack nectar. The fruits are most commonly free, unfused achenes (e.g. Ranunculus, Clematis) or follicles (e.g. Helleborus, Eranthis, Nigella), but a berry in Actaea. Phytochemistry Ranunculaceae contain protoanemonin, which is toxic to humans and animals. Contact with plant sap may cause inflammation and blistering of the skin, while ingestion can cause irritation of the mouth, vomiting, and diarrhea. Other poisonous or toxic compounds, alkaloids and glycosides, are also common. Taxonomy Takhtajan (1997) included the Ranunculaceae as the only family in the Ranunculales which he placed in a subclass, the Ranunculidae, instead of a superorder. Previously, Thorn (1992) placed the Ranunculaceae in the Berberidales, an order within the Superorder Magnolianae. Earlier Cronquist in 1981 included the Ranunculaceae along with seven other families in the Rancunculales which was included in the Magnoliidae, which he regarded as a subclass. David, (2010) placed the Ranuculaceae, together with the Eupteleaceae, Lardizabalaceae, Menispermaceae, Berberidaceae, and Papaveraceae in the Ranunculales, the only order in the superorder Ranunculanae. This follows the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. The family Ranunculaceae sensu stricto is one of seven families included in the order Ranunculales within the eudicots according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification. The family is monophyletic with Glaucidium as sister to the remaining genera. This phylogeny is illustrated in the APG Poster. Subdivision Early subdivisions of the family, such as Michel Adanson (1763), simply divided it based on one-seeded or many-seeded fruit. Prantl (1887) envisaged three tribes, Paeonieae, Hellebroreae and Anemoneae with Paeonia, Glaucidium and Hydrastis forming Paeonieae. By the twentieth century Langlet (1932) used chromosome types to create two subfamilies, Ranunculoideae and Thalictroideae. In 1966 Tamura further developed Langlet's system by adding floral characteristics with six subfamilies; Helleboroideae Ranunculoideae Isopyroideae Thalictroideae Coptidoideae Hydrastidoideae but by 1988 he had reduced Coptidoideae to a tribe within Isopyroideae, leaving five subfamilies, an arrangement he continued in his 1993 monograph, dividing the larger subfamilies into tribes, though by then Paeonia and Glaucidium were no longer considered to belong to Ranunculaceae. Paeonia was separated from Ranuculaceae and placed in its own family of Paeoniaceae (order Saxifragales). other genera originally included in Ranunculaceae include Circaeaster which was placed in its own family Circaeasteraceae. Tamura's complete system was structured as follows; Subfamilies and tribes Subfamily Ranunculoideae Hutch. Adonideae Kunth Anemoneae DC. Ranunculeae DC. Subfamily Helleboroideae Hutch. Helleboreae DC. Cimicifugeae Torrey & A.Gray Delphineae Schrödinger Nigelleae Schrödinger Subfamily Isopyroideae Tamura Coptideae Langlet ex Tamura & K.Kosuge Dichocarpeae Tamura & K.Kosuge Isopyreae Schrödinger Subfamily Thalictroideae Subfamily Hydrastidoideae The genus Glaucidium, having been moved to its own family (Glaucidiaceae), has since been restored to Ranuculaceae. Molecular phylogenetics When subjected to molecular phylogenetic analysis only Thalictroideae is monophyletic. The position of Glaucidium and some of its unique morphological characteristics prompted Stevens to suggest that it be given subfamilial rank as the monotypic Glaucidioideae. Similarly Hydrastis has been assigned to subfamily Hydrastidoideae. Both genera are represented by a single species, Glaucidium palmatum and Hydrastis canadense respectively. The relationships between the genera suggest the existence of three major clades corresponding to Coptidoideae, Thalictroideae (clade A) and Ranunculoideae (clade F). The latter is the largest with four subclades (B–E). Of these C corresponds to Delphineae, D to Cimicifugae and E to Ranunculoideae. Consequently, Wang and colleagues (2009) proposed a new classification with five subfamilies, and further subdividing Ranunculoideae into ten tribes. The relationship between the subfamilies is shown in the cladogram; In addition to the two monotypic subgenera, Coptoideae has 17 species and Thalictroideae has 450, including Thalictrum and Aquilegia. The other genera (2025 species, 81% of the family) belong to Ranunculoideae. Kingdonia had been included by Tamura in Anemoneae, but is now added to Circaeasteraceae. Subfamilies of Ranunculaceae (5) and tribes of Ranunculoideae Glaucidioideae (Tamura) Loconte (1) Hydrastidoideae Engler (1) Coptidoideae Tamura (2) Thalictroideae Raf. (10) Ranunculoideae Arn. (46) Adonideae Kunth Delphinieae Schröd. Nigelleae Schröd. Helleboreae DC. Cimicifugeae Torr. and A.Gray Caltheae Bercht. and J.Presl Asteropyreae W.T.Wang and C. Y.Chang Callianthemeae W.Wang and Z. D.Chen Anemoneae DC. Ranunculeae DC. Genera Ranunculaceae contains approximately 43 genera. Subfamily Glaucidioideae Glaucidium Siebold & Zuccarini Subfamily Hydrastidoideae Hydrastis L. Subfamily Coptidoideae Coptis Salisb. Xanthorhiza Marshall Subfamily Thalictroideae Aquilegia L. Dichocarpum W.T.Wang & P.K.Hsiao Enemion Rafinesque Isopyrum L. Leptopyrum Reichenbach Paraquilegia J.R.Drumm. & Hutch. Paropyrum Ulbr. Semiaquilegia Makino Thalictrum L. Urophysa Ulbr. Subfamily Ranunculoideae Tribe Adonideae Adonis L. Megaleranthis Ohwi Trollius L. Tribe Delphinieae Aconitum L. Consolida Gray Delphinium L. Tribe Nigelleae Nigella L. Tribe Helleboreae Helleborus L. Tribe Cimicifugeae Actaea L. Anemonopsis Siebold & Zuccarini Beesia Balf.f. & W.W.Sm. Cimicifuga Wernisch. Eranthis Salisb. Souliea Franch. Tribe Caltheae Caltha L. Tribe Asteropyreae Asteropyrum J.R.Drumm. & Hutch. Tribe Callianthemeae Callianthemum C.A.Mey. Tribe Anemoneae Anemoclema (Franch.) W.T.Wang Anemone L. Clematis L. Hepatica Mill. Naravelia Adans. Pulsatilla Mill. Tribe Ranunculeae Barneoudia Gay Calathodes Hook.f. & Thomson Callianthemoides Tamura Ceratocephala Moench Ficaria Guett. Halerpestes Greene Hamadryas Comm. ex Juss. Knowltonia Salisb. Krapfia DC. Laccopetalum Ulbr. Metanemone W.T.Wang Miyakea Miyabe & Tatew. Myosurus L. Oreithales Schltdl. Oxygraphis Bunge Paroxygraphis W.W.Sm. Ranunculus L. Trautvetteria Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Previous genera Anemonella Spach → Thalictrum Psychrophila (DC.) Bercht. & J.Presl → Caltha Fossil record Fossils of fruits, pollen, seeds, and leaves are known from several dozen locations. The fossil record begins in the early Cretaceous and continues throughout the Tertiary. In most cases, the fossils are assigned to extant genera, or show a close relationship to a particular extant genus. Uses Some Ranunculaceae are used as herbal medicines because of their alkaloids and glycosides, such as Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal), whose root is used as a tonic. More than 30 species are used in homeopathy, including Aconitum napellus, Cimicifuga racemosa, Clematis recta, Clematis virginiana, Hydrastis canadensis, Ranunculus bulbosus, Helleborus niger, Delphinium staphisagria, Pulsatilla nigricans. Many genera are well known as cultivated flowers, such as Aconitum (monkshood), Clematis, Consolida (larkspur), Delphinium, Helleborus (Christmas rose), Trollius (globeflower). The seeds of Nigella sativa are used as a spice in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisine. Gallery Tribes of subfamily Ranunculoideae Other subfamilies Notes References Bibliography Langlet, O. (1932). Uber Chromosomenverhaltnisse und Systematik der Ranunculaceae. Svensk Bot. Tidskr 26, 381–401. , in Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, Schimper: Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen. 4. Auflage, Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, p. 459 (flower diagrams) Sandro Pignatti. Flora d'Italia'', Edagricole, Bologna 1982. External links Flora of North America: Ranunculaceae Flora of China: Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae in Topwalks Ranunculaceae in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database Ranunculaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants. NCBI Taxonomy Browser links at CSDL, Texas Japanese Ranunculaceae - Flavon's art gallery Family Ranunculaceae Flowers in Israel Cai et al. Molecular phylogeny of Ranunculaceae based on internal transcribed spacer sequences 2009 Aconitum heterophyllum (fam. 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247052	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Harriman	John Harriman	John Harriman may refer to: John Harriman (botanist) (1760–1831), English botanist John Harriman (Star Trek), a fictional Star Trek captain John Emery Harriman, inventor of an aerocar in 1906 See also John Harriman House, a historic house in West Virginia	[ 0.17865659296512604, 0.918907880783081, -0.40714290738105774, 0.25274962186813354, 0.1460649073123932, 0.49738427996635437, 0.5795934796333313, -0.4231337606906891, -0.6361703276634216, -0.22493959963321686, -0.07992967963218689, 0.0060398331843316555, -0.2605074644088745, 0.6701844334602356, 0.2063310146331787, 0.09903796017169952, -0.34591054916381836, 0.5265473127365112, -0.5304943323135376, -0.17510023713111877, -0.11945685744285583, -0.39414113759994507, 0.22976921498775482, -0.5634740591049194, -0.10475009679794312, -0.28411126136779785, -0.09064706414937973, -0.25989896059036255, 0.08593200147151947, 0.38009288907051086, -0.03819059208035469, 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247064	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20the%20West%20Was%20Won	How the West Was Won	How the West Was Won may refer to: How the West Was Won (film), a 1962 American Western film How the West Was Won (TV series), a 1970s television series loosely based on the film How the West Was Won (Bing Crosby album) (1959) How the West Was Won (Led Zeppelin album) (2003) How the West Was Won (Peter Perrett album) (2017) How the West Was Won, a 2002 album by Luni Coleone "How the West Was Won", a 1987 song by Laibach from Opus Dei "How the West Was Won", a 1996 song by the Romo band Plastic Fantastic See also How the West Was Fun, a 1994 TV movie starring Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen How the West Was One (disambiguation) "How the West Was Won and Where It Got Us", a 1997 song by R.E.M.	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247071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrobaileyales	Austrobaileyales	Austrobaileyales is an order of flowering plants consisting of about 100 species of woody plants growing as trees, shrubs and lianas. The best-known species is Illicium verum, commonly known as star anise. The order belongs to the group of basal angiosperms, the ANA grade (Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales), which diverged earlier from the remaining flowering plants. Austrobaileyales is sister to all remaining extant angiosperms outside the ANA grade. The order includes just three families of flowering plants, the Austrobaileyaceae, a monotypic family containing the sole genus, Austrobaileya scandens, a woody liana, the Schisandraceae, a family of trees, shrubs, or lianas containing essential oils, and the Trimeniaceae, essential oil-bearing trees and lianas. In different classifications Until the early 21st century, the order was only rarely recognised by systems of classification (an exception is the Reveal system). The APG system, of 1998, did not recognize such an order. The APG II system, of 2003, does accept this order and places it among the basal angiosperms, that is: it does not belong to any further clade. APG II uses this circumscription: order Austrobaileyales family Austrobaileyaceae, one species of woody vines from Australia family Schisandraceae [+ family Illiciaceae], several dozen species of woody plants, found in tropical to temperate regions of East and Southeast Asia and the Caribbean. The best known of those is Star anise. family Trimeniaceae, half-a-dozen species of woody plants found in subtropical to tropical Southeast Asia, eastern Australia and the Pacific Islands Note: "+ ..."=optional segregate family, that may be split off from the preceding family. The Cronquist system, of 1981, also placed the plants in families Illiciaceae and Schisandraceae together, but as separate families, united at the rank of order, in the order Illiciales. 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247073	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illiciales	Illiciales	Illiciales is an order of flowering plants that is not recognized by the current most widely used system of plant classification, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's APG III system. The order was comprised differently in various systems of plant taxonomy, but is composed of 2-4 families of shrubs, trees, and lianas native to Australasia, south eastern Asia, and the southeastern United States. The families all contain species with essential oils, and flowers with a perianth with bracts (when present), sepals, and petals incompletely distinguished from each other and not arranged in definite whorls. The families of the order had been variably placed in other orders (Magnoliales, Austrobaileyales) in different taxonomies. The Cronquist system, of 1981, recognized Illiciales as an order consisting of the families Illiciaceae and Schisandraceae and placed it in the subclass Magnoliidae, in class Magnoliopsida (or dicotyledons) of division Magnoliophyta (or angiosperms). The Dahlgren system also recognised the order and placed it in superorder Magnolianae, in subclass Magnoliideae (Dahlgren's dicotyledons), in class Magnoliopsida with the same circumscription of families as the Chronquist system. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) does not recognize the order, initially leaving the family Illiciaceae unplaced as to order. In its second higher level taxonomy of angiosperms (APG II), the APG recognized Illicium and Schisandra as closely related taxa in the family Illiciaceae, and created the order Austrobaileyales with the families Illiciaceae, Trimeniaceae, and Austrobaileyaceae. 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247075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical%20database%20model	Hierarchical database model	A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data are organized into a tree-like structure. The data are stored as records which are connected to one another through links. A record is a collection of fields, with each field containing only one value. The type of a record defines which fields the record contains. The hierarchical database model mandates that each child record has only one parent, whereas each parent record can have one or more child records. In order to retrieve data from a hierarchical database, the whole tree needs to be traversed starting from the root node. This model is recognized as the first database model created by IBM in the 1960s. History The hierarchical structure was developed by IBM in the 1960s and used in early mainframe DBMS. Records' relationships form a treelike model. This structure is simple but inflexible because the relationship is confined to a one-to-many relationship. The IBM Information Management System (IMS) and the RDM Mobile are examples of a hierarchical database system with multiple hierarchies over the same data. RDM Mobile is a newly designed embedded database for a mobile computer system. The hierarchical data model lost traction as Codd's relational model became the de facto standard used by virtually all mainstream database management systems. A relational-database implementation of a hierarchical model was first discussed in published form in 1992 (see also nested set model). Hierarchical data organization schemes resurfaced with the advent of XML in the late 1990s (see also XML database). The hierarchical structure is used primarily today for storing geographic information and file systems. Currently, hierarchical databases are still widely used especially in applications that require very high performance and availability such as banking, health care, and telecommunications. One of the most widely used commercial hierarchical databases is IMS. Another example of the use of hierarchical databases is Windows Registry in the Microsoft Windows operating systems. Examples of hierarchical data represented as relational tables An organization could store employee information in a table that contains attributes/columns such as employee number, first name, last name, and department number. The organization provides each employee with computer hardware as needed, but computer equipment may only be used by the employee to which it is assigned. The organization could store the computer hardware information in a separate table that includes each part's serial number, type, and the employee that uses it. The tables might look like this: In this model, the employee data table represents the "parent" part of the hierarchy, while the computer table represents the "child" part of the hierarchy. In contrast to tree structures usually found in computer software algorithms, in this model the children point to the parents. As shown, each employee may possess several pieces of computer equipment, but each individual piece of computer equipment may have only one employee owner. Consider the following structure: In this, the "child" is the same type as the "parent". The hierarchy stating EmpNo 10 is boss of 20, and 30 and 40 each report to 20 is represented by the "ReportsTo" column. In Relational database terms, the ReportsTo column is a foreign key referencing the EmpNo column. If the "child" data type were different, it would be in a different table, but there would still be a foreign key referencing the EmpNo column of the employees table. This simple model is commonly known as the adjacency list model and was introduced by Dr. Edgar F. Codd after initial criticisms surfaced that the relational model could not model hierarchical data. However, the model is only a special case of a general adjacency list for a graph. See also Tree structure Hierarchical query Hierarchical clustering References External links Troels' links to Hierarchical data in RDBMSs Managing Hierarchical Data in MySQL (This page is from archive.org as the page has been removed from MySQL.com) Hierarchical data in MySQL: parents and children in one query Create Hierarchy Chart from Hierarchical Database Database models	[ -0.5169405341148376, 0.21950575709342957, -0.23139308393001556, 0.5531191825866699, -0.41909316182136536, 0.14088086783885956, 0.12477327883243561, 0.0881078913807869, -0.4801424443721771, -0.5574319958686829, -0.2811639606952667, 0.16872814297676086, -0.5487810969352722, 0.6535906791687012, 0.014755984768271446, 0.45168671011924744, 0.2610622048377991, 0.48497071862220764, 0.2629441022872925, -0.17669017612934113, -0.39657947421073914, -0.14259737730026245, -0.005000357981771231, 0.03177808225154877, 0.17582464218139648, -0.09459646791219711, 0.12340617179870605, 0.16356036067008972, 0.04454244300723076, 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247077	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20River%20Gorge%20Bridge	New River Gorge Bridge	The New River Gorge Bridge is a steel arch bridge long over the New River Gorge near Fayetteville, West Virginia, in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. With an arch long, the New River Gorge Bridge was the world's longest single-span arch bridge for 26 years; it is now the fifth longest. Part of U.S. Route 19, its construction marked the completion of Corridor L of the Appalachian Development Highway System. An average of 16,200 motor vehicles cross the bridge each day. The roadway of the New River Gorge Bridge is above the New River, making the bridge one of the highest vehicular bridges in the world; it is the third highest in the United States. When completed in 1977, it was the world's highest bridge carrying a regular roadway, a title it held until the 2001 opening of the Liuguanghe Bridge in China. Because of its height, the bridge has attracted daredevils since its construction. It is now the centerpiece of the annual "Bridge Day", during which hundreds of people, with appropriate equipment, are permitted to climb on or jump from the bridge. In 2005, the structure gained additional attention when the US Mint issued the West Virginia state quarter with the bridge depicted on one side. In 2013, the bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. History Construction began on the bridge in June 1974, and was completed on October 22, 1977. The bridge was designed by the Michael Baker Company under the direction of Chief Engineer Clarence V. Knudsen and Corporate Bridge Engineer Frank J. Kempf, and executed by U.S. Steel's American Bridge Division. The final cost of construction was $37 million (equivalent to $ million in dollars). It was approximately $4 million, or $ million in dollars, over bid. It is made from COR-TEN steel. The use of COR-TEN in construction presented several challenges; notable among them was ensuring that the weld points weathered at the same rate as the rest of the steel. At the time, the bridge was the West Virginia Department of Highways' largest project in its history, important both in terms of its overall cost, and that the federal government provided 70 percent of the funding. Construction gave a boost to the state and local economy; completion improved transportation. The bridge cut the vehicle travel time from one side of the gorge to the other from about 45 minutes to 45 seconds. On August 14, 2013, the bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Even though it was not yet 50 years old, it was listed for its exceptional impact on local transportation and its engineering significance. Tourism The New River Gorge Bridge is within the National Park Service's New River Gorge National Park and Preserve, which protects this portion of the New River Gorge. At the northern end of the bridge, the Park Service operates a visitor center; it has scenic overlooks and a staircase that descends part of the way into the gorge. A steel catwalk two feet (60 cm) wide runs the full length of the bridge underneath the roadway. Originally built to facilitate inspections, the catwalk is open for guided, handicapped-accessible quarter-mile "Bridge Walk" tours; visitors use safety rigging. Since its opening, the bridge has been the centerpiece of Fayette County's "Bridge Day", held the third Saturday of every October. This festival includes demonstrations of rappelling, ascending, and BASE jumping. Bungee jumping, however, has been banned during Bridge Day since 1993. The bridge is closed to vehicular traffic during the festival. Prior to the September 11 terrorist attacks, two of the bridge's four lanes were open to traffic during the festivals. Since 2001, security concerns have caused the entire span to be closed to vehicles during these events. The first person to jump off the New River Gorge Bridge was Burton Ervin, who lives in Cowen, West Virginia, and was a coal-mine foreman. Burton jumped on August 1, 1979, using a conventional parachute. Four BASE jumpers have died at the bridge, three of these during Bridge Day festivals. Probably because of its height (and lack of barriers), the bridge has regularly attracted suicide jumpers. Gallery See also 50 State Quarters List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in West Virginia List of bridges in the United States by height List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia List of highest bridges List of suicide sites Midland Trail, a nearby National Scenic Byway National Register of Historic Places listings in Fayette County, West Virginia New River Gorge National Park and Preserve, the park surrounding the bridge References and notes External links Bridge Day (official site) Bridge Day History New River Gorge Bridge at Bridges & Tunnels New River Gorge Bridge at Roads to the Future New River Gorge Bridge at HighestBridges.com U.S. Route 19 Bridges completed in 1977 Transportation in Fayette County, West Virginia Landmarks in West Virginia Buildings and structures in Fayette County, West Virginia Tourist attractions in Fayette County, West Virginia Road bridges in West Virginia Weathering steel Historic American Engineering Record in West Virginia Bridges of the United States Numbered Highway System Road bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia National Register of Historic Places in Fayette County, West Virginia Steel bridges in the United States Truss arch bridges in the United States National Register of Historic Places in New River Gorge National Park and Preserve	[ -0.12836407124996185, -0.038229312747716904, 0.26650869846343994, -0.02085426263511181, 0.5588945150375366, 0.5490904450416565, 0.6599127650260925, 0.2712753117084503, -0.08835151046514511, -1.0258733034133911, 0.23222637176513672, 0.4718576669692993, -0.6084089279174805, 0.5847203135490417, -0.9397743344306946, 0.5984484553337097, 0.35882052779197693, -0.32768377661705017, 0.4766036570072174, -1.0855073928833008, -0.0491146557033062, 0.233759805560112, 0.6178033947944641, 0.020574558526277542, -0.576264500617981, 0.057114701718091965, 0.1511053889989853, -0.1703464835882187, 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247079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%20%28chocolate%20bar%29	Mars (chocolate bar)	Mars, commonly known as Mars bar, is the name of two varieties of chocolate bar produced by Mars, Incorporated. It was first manufactured in 1932 in Slough, England by Forrest Mars, Sr. In its British version the bar consists of caramel and nougat coated with milk chocolate. An American version of the Mars bar was produced which had nougat and toasted almonds covered in milk chocolate; later, caramel was added to the recipe as well. The American version was discontinued in 2002, then revived in a slightly different form the following year under the name "Snickers Almond". Versions UK and worldwide In most of the world, a Mars bar is a candy bar with nougat and caramel, coated with milk chocolate, but without almonds. In the United States, it is marketed as the Milky Way bar. It was first manufactured in Slough, England under the Mars bar name in 1932 by Forrest Mars, Sr., son of American candy maker Frank C. Mars. He modelled it after his father's Milky Way bar, which was already popular in the US, adjusting the recipe to better suit European tastes. He had a staff of twelve people, and originally advertised it as using Cadbury's chocolate couverture. The bar and the proportions of the main components have changed over the years. With minor variations, this version is sold worldwide, except for the US, and is packaged in a black wrapper with red gold-edged lettering. 3 million Mars bars accompanies the British task force to the Falklands in 1982. In 2002, the Mars bar was reformulated and its logo was updated with a more cursive appearance except in Australia where it still has the pre-2002 logo. Its price also increased. The nougat was made lighter, the chocolate on top became thinner, and the overall weight of the bar was reduced slightly. The slogan "Pleasure you can't measure" was intended to appeal more to women and youths. Various sizes are made (sizes as of 2008): miniature bars called "Fun Size" (19.7 g) and "Snack Time" (36.5 g) (both sold in multiple packs); a larger multi-pack size of 54 g; the regular sized single 58 g bar and a "king-size" 84 g bar which has since been replaced by "Mars Duo" (85 g) – a pack that contains 2 smaller bars of 42.5 g each instead of 1 large one. The regular 58 g single bar contains 260 calories. In the second half of 2008, Mars UK reduced the weight of regular bars from 62.5 g to 58 g. Although the reduction in size was not publicised at the time, Mars claimed the change was designed to help tackle the obesity crisis in the UK. The company later confirmed that the real reason for the change was rising costs. In 2013, the "standard" Mars bar was further reduced to 51 g, bringing the change to around 20% in 5 years. In May 2009, the Mars bar size reduced from 60g to 53g in Australia, citing portion sizes and the obesity debate as the primary driver. As of 2022, it was noted the Mars bar size has been reduced further to 47g in Australia. United States In the United States, the Mars bar is a candy bar with nougat and toasted almonds coated with milk chocolate. The same candy bar is known outside the United States as a Mars Almond bar. Originally it did not have caramel, but at some point caramel was added to it. It was discontinued in 2002, relaunched in January 2010 (initially exclusively through Walmart stores), discontinued again at the end of 2011, and relaunched again in September 2016 by Ethel M, the gourmet chocolate subsidiary of Mars, Incorporated. The 2016 version is the "original American recipe", which doesn't have caramel. It's available in their stores and on Amazon.com. In 2003, the company introduced a replacement called Snickers Almond. It's similar to the Mars bar, containing nougat, almonds, caramel, and a milk chocolate coating, although there are some differences. For example, the almonds are in smaller pieces in Snickers Almond than in the Mars bar. The European version of the Mars bar is also sold in some United States grocery stores that stock imported food products. Spinoff products Other products have also been released using the Mars branding. Mars Delight (discontinued in the UK as of 2009) Mars Choc Brownie Mars Extra Chocolate Drink Mars Active Energy Drink Mars No Added Sugar Drink Mars Ice Cream bars Mars Midnight Ice Cream bars McVities Mars Mini Rolls Mars Biscuits (Australia and the UK – a biscuit with Mars topping) Mars Pods (Australia and New Zealand – a small crunchy wafer shell with Mars filling, also available in variants) Mars Rocks Mars Planets Mars Mix Mars Frozen Dessert Bar Mars Protein – A mars bar with less sugar and added protein, this comes as a 50g size. Packaging claims "More protein, 40% less sugar" to a normal mars bar. Custom packaging The Original Mars bar in "Believe" packaging was sold in the UK from 18 April 2006 until the end of the 2006 FIFA World Cup in July. "Believe" took prominence on the packaging ("Original Mars" appeared in smaller print) to indicate support for the England national football team. Advertising in other nations of the UK was tailored to reflect their own teams after the public condemnation, although in Scotland the "Believe" packaging was still used – causing negative publicity. On 30 July 2008, the Tasmanian government announced that it had secured a major sponsor, Mars for a bid to enter the Australian Football League in a deal worth $4 million over 3 years and will temporarily change the name of its top-selling chocolate bar in Australia to Believe, to help promote Tasmania's cause. Mars were re-branded "Hopp" ("Go!" in English) in Switzerland during UEFA Euro 2008. Like the "Believe" packaging sold in the UK in 2006, "Original Mars" was also shown in smaller print. In 2010, to promote England's involvement in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the background of the UK Mars packaging became the St. George cross. Advertising slogans Former "Maxis from Mars" – United Kingdom (1969) A number of white Austin Maxis were driven around the country with numbers on the doors and if the number inside your Mars wrapper matched the Maxi you would see driving around your area, you won that very car. "Mars bringt verbrauchte Energie sofort zurück." (Mars replenishes lost energy instantaneously) - Germany (1960s) "Mars macht mobil bei Arbeit, Sport und Spiel" (Mars mobilises you at work, sports and play) – Germany (1980s and 1990s)"A Mars a day helps you work, rest and play" – Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand"Out of this world!" – Australia, UK"Earth – what you'd eat if you lived on Mars" – New Zealand"Another way to make your day" – UK (2005)"Feels good to be back! " – Australia (2005)"An almond in every bite!" – US"Un Mars, et ça repart" (A Mars, and you're off again) – France (late 1990s and renewed from 2006)"Mars, que du bonheur" (Mars, only happiness) – France"Mars, haal eruit wat erin zit!" (Mars, get the most out of it!) – The Netherlands and Flanders, Belgium"Who knows? In 1,000 years we could all be sitting on Mars eating Earth bars." – United Kingdom (a full-page advertisement placed in the official Guide Book for the Millennium Dome in 2000) Current "Mars your day" – Australia"A Mars a day helps you work, rest and play" – UK, Australia"Recharge on Mars" – Canada"Mars, pleasure you just can't measure" – Europe"Un coup de barre? Mars et ça repart!" (Feeling beat? A Mars and you're off again!) – France"Nimm Mars, gib Gas" (Take Mars, step on the gas) – Germany"Mars, momento di vero godimento" (Mars, a moment of pure enjoyment) – Italy"Mars, geeft je energie" (Gives you energy) – The Netherlands and Flanders, Belgium"Work-Rest-Play" – UK (later "Work-Rest-Play your part")"Turn Up the Heat!"'' – (UK promotional packs in 2010) Deep-fried Mars bar This is a Mars bar which has been coated with batter and deep-fried in oil or beef fat. First reports of battered Mars bars being sold in Stonehaven, Scotland date back to 1995. The product is "not authorised or endorsed" by Mars, Inc. Deep-fried Mars bars are available from some fish-and-chip shops in the UK (mainly in Scotland), Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Ireland and the United States. A similar dish has reportedly appeared in Kathmandu, Nepal where momo (dumplings) have used Mars bars as fillings, though this variation is unknown to the larger population of momo eaters. Recalls In July 2005, Mars bars, along with the Snickers bar, were recalled due to an anonymous extortion attempt against Star City Casino in Sydney. The extortionist claimed to have poisoned seven Mars and Snickers bars at random stores in New South Wales. As a result, Masterfoods Corporation, the company that manufactures Mars bars in Australia, recalled the entire Mars and Snickers product from store shelves in New South Wales. Nineteen people were possibly affected, with two being admitted to hospital. In the later half of August 2005, the threat to the public was deemed negligible and the bars returned to shelves. In February 2016, Mars, Snickers and various other Mars, Inc. chocolate products were recalled in 55 countries in Europe, the Middle East and Asia. The precautionary recall was issued after a customer found pieces of plastic in a Snickers bar purchased in Germany. The error was traced back to a Mars, Inc. factory in Veghel, The Netherlands. Animal products controversy In May 2007, Mars UK announced that Mars bars, along with many of their other products such as Snickers, Maltesers, Minstrels and Twix would no longer be suitable for vegetarians because of the introduction of rennet, a chemical sourced from calves' stomachs used in the production of whey. The rabbinical authorities declared that the products remained kosher for Jewish consumption. The decision was condemned by several groups, with the Vegetarian Society stating that "at a time when more and more consumers are concerned about the provenance of their food, Mars' decision to use non-vegetarian whey is a backward step". Mars later abandoned these plans, stating that it became "very clear, very quickly" that it had made a mistake. Economics It has been observed on several occasions that the price of a Mars bar correlates fairly accurately with the change in value of the pound sterling since World War II, much in the way that the Big Mac Index has proven to be a good indicator of the actual relative purchasing power of world currencies. Popular culture Northern Irish pop-punk band The Undertones wrote and recorded a song called "Mars Bars", released as a B-side in 1979. 1960s Liverpool band Gerry and the Pacemakers were originally known as Gerry Marsden and the Mars Bars before changing their name due to the objection of Mars, Incorporated. References External links The Visible Mars bar project, which shows the difference between US and UK Mars bars. 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247080	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Comic%20Strip	The Comic Strip	The Comic Strip is a group of British comedians who came to prominence in the 1980s. They are known for their television series The Comic Strip Presents..., which was labelled as a pioneering example of the alternative comedy scene. The core members are Adrian Edmondson, Dawn French, Rik Mayall (died 2014), Nigel Planer, Peter Richardson and Jennifer Saunders, with appearances by Keith Allen, Robbie Coltrane, Alexei Sayle and others. Early history Two double acts, Adrian Edmondson and Rik Mayall under the name "20th Century Coyote" and Nigel Planer and Peter Richardson as "The Outer Limits", started performing at the newly opened Comedy Store in London in 1980, alongside compere Alexei Sayle who had been resident there since the Comedy Store opened in 1979. Concurrently Richardson searched for a venue to mount a play he had produced with Michael White. He planned to run The Comic Strip late at night after the play's performances. He sourced the Raymond Revuebar in Soho, but realising it was unsuitable for a theatrical production and running out of enthusiasm for the play, he decided to continue with the idea of a cabaret night. He persuaded the double acts and Sayle to move from the Comedy Store along with Arnold Brown, an older stand-up comic who did not fit so obviously into the alternative comedy scene. Sayle again resumed his compere duties and decided the running order, with Richardson having behind-the-scenes control. Richardson put out an advert for female performers which was answered by French and Saunders. Richardson prompted members to sign a contract to signify their attachment to the group. The Comic Strip opened at the Revuebar's Boulevard Theatre on 7 October 1980 and ran until 1981, when the troupe went on a national tour and then a tour of Australia. While the performers gained more exposure, actors such as Jack Nicholson and Robin Williams turned up to watch. A half-hour television documentary about The Comic Strip was broadcast in 1981. Richardson approached producer Mike Bolland, the newly appointed Channel 4 youth-and-entertainment commissioning editor to propose a series of Comic Strip films for the channel. Bolland agreed to his proposal, his first commission for the station and Jeremy Isaacs quickly approved the budget. Richardson negotiated a deal with the channel for six self-contained half-hour films, using the group as actors rather than standup performers. Almost simultaneously, the BBC signed Edmondson, Mayall, Planer, and Sayle to star in The Young Ones, a sitcom in the same anarchic style as the Comic Strip. Richardson was initially to have played the role of Mike (ultimately given to Christopher Ryan), but did not, the result of differences with the show's producer, Paul Jackson. Television The Comic Strip Presents... The Comic Strip Presents... debuted on 2 November 1982, the opening night of Channel 4. Each episode was prefixed by an animated lead-in consisting of the words "The Comic Strip Presents" accompanied by a soundtrack consisting of a drum machine and a Farfisa organ rendition of "Quando quando quando", together with a bomb labelled "Have a nice day", falling towards a map. In the early episodes the map was of a section of north Dorset and southern Wiltshire, centred on the town of Shaftesbury. The first episode was Five Go Mad in Dorset, a parody of The Famous Five. It was written by Peter Richardson and Pete Richens, who wrote most of the early episodes. Five Go Mad... drew anger from some viewers for the way it mercilessly satirised a children's classic, although the Enid Blyton estate had given permission for the broadcast. A meeting was called to discuss the group's future with Channel 4, after complaints from viewers. The final episode of the first series was to have been a spoof chat show called Back to Normal with Eddie Monsoon (referred to as An Evening with Eddie Monsoon by some sources). It was never produced, as it was considered too vulgar even for the "alternative" Channel 4, and contained material that was possibly libellous. The script—which, uniquely for the Comic Strip, was written as a collaboration by the entire cast—was later published, along with the rest of the series, in book form. A second series of seven episodes followed in 1983–84, including Five Go Mad on Mescalin, a sequel to the first episode, and the newly written Eddie Monsoon – A Life?, a spoof documentary on the life and times of the title character, an obscene, drunken television host (played by Adrian Edmondson). Michael White, the theatre impresario and Rocky Horror Show producer who had been brought in by Richardson as executive producer on the series, appeared in this episode as Monsoon's producer, who had been responsible for axing Eddie's television comeback show—called Back to Normal with Eddie Monsoon. The reasons given for the cancellation (e.g. "the things you said about Burt Reynolds") are presumably the same problems that led to the real Back to Normal... being dropped by Channel 4. (The name Eddie Monsoon—a corruption of "Edmondson"—was later used by Jennifer Saunders, core member and Adrian Edmondson's wife, for her character in Absolutely Fabulous.) A Fistful of Travellers' Cheques was the first episode to be filmed outside the United Kingdom, being made on location in and around San José, Andalusia, Spain, using some of the same locations as A Fistful of Dollars which it spoofs. Two one-off episodes were aired on Channel 4 over Christmas 1985, reflecting the tight schedules of the group. Consuela was a French and Saunders-led pastiche of the Alfred Hitchcock film Rebecca (1940), with French's eponymous crazed housekeeper taking centre stage. The second episode, Private Enterprise, was the tale of a music business rip-off, where Peter Richardson steals a studio recording session tape and passes the results off as his own work. The group made two feature films—The Supergrass (1985) and Eat the Rich (1987)—as well as three one-off Comic Strip Presents... episodes which were the next to be screened on Channel 4. The first of these, The Bullshitters, was a parody of television spy and detective shows such as The Professionals. It was not broadcast under the Comic Strip name, partly because of the original group only Richardson appears (he is the only performer to appear in every single episode), and partly because co-star and co-writer Keith Allen did not want to be so closely associated with the group. The third series was broadcast in 1988, and some episodes had longer running times, mostly around 50 minutes. Five of the six episodes (all except Funseekers) were given a limited theatrical release. They included The Strike, which won the Golden Rose of Montreux; More Bad News, a sequel to Bad News Tour showing the band reforming after five years to play at Castle Donington; and Mr. Jolly Lives Next Door, written by Mayall and Edmondson in the violent style of their sitcoms Filthy Rich and Catflap and Bottom, which featured Peter Cook as a psychotic contract killer (the eponymous Mr. Jolly) and Nicholas Parsons. Peter Richardson and Pete Richens only contributed one episode to the third series, allowing cast members such as Planer and Sayle to get their ideas on screen. By then, the show had proved a hit, and some big names appeared in later productions, including Leslie Phillips, Miranda Richardson, Lionel Jeffries, Nicholas Parsons, Peter Capaldi, Hugh Cornwell, Kate Bush, Richard Vernon, Ruby Wax, Graham Crowden, Paul McCartney, Ozzy Osbourne, Lemmy, Elvis Costello, and Benjamin Zephaniah (as a Rastafarian police van driver), and several musical acts, particularly from the Bad News series which was also aided by Queen guitarist Brian May, such as Def Leppard and Marillion. BBC and after In 1990, the series transferred to BBC2. By now, all the regulars (with the exception of Peter Richardson) had become more famous for their own shows, and more recurring performers such as Gary Beadle, Phil Cornwell, Steve O'Donnell, Mark Caven, Sara Stockbridge, and Doon Mackichan were brought in. Rik Mayall was contracted to ITV's The New Statesman, and was only able to appear in two of the BBC productions (GLC, and the Comic Relief special Red Nose of Courage). Richardson and Richens took over the bulk of the writing again, and Richardson also took over as director, having previously directed the two feature films, as well as The Strike. The six-part 1990 series was followed by three individual specials in 1992, and a final six episodes in 1993. Return to Channel 4 In 1998, the original team reunited and returned to Channel 4 for the first time since 1988, for a one-off special, Four Men in a Car. This was followed in 2000 by a sequel, Four Men in a Plane. After a five-and-a-half-year hiatus, another 60-minute one-off special, Sex Actually (a parody of the 2003 film Love Actually), was made in 2005. It starred Sheridan Smith (Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps) and Tamer Hassan (Layer Cake) alongside several of the regular cast members. Four Men in a Car was notable for being the first broadcast, on either television or radio, to involve Rik Mayall since his quad bike accident. Permission was thus given by Mayall's family to show the special. Peter Richardson, who has built his career as a writer-director with the TV series Stella Street and films such as Churchill: The Hollywood Years, has not ruled out the possibility of a whole new series of The Comic Strip Presents... featuring younger cast members. In June 2011, a casting call went out for a new hour-long episode, starring most of the original team. This was followed by an announcement that The Comic Strip was to produce a one-off special entitled The Hunt for Tony Blair, starring Stephen Mangan as Blair and Robbie Coltrane as Inspector Hutton. The one-off show included Jennifer Saunders (as Margaret Thatcher), as well as Harry Enfield, Rik Mayall, and a host of others. The move to Gold As of 2009, the archive of Channel 4 episodes has been broadcast on UKTV's flagship channel, Gold. In May 2010, it was announced that Gold would broadcast 30th-anniversary documentary, preceded by the next new scripted episode of the series, Five Go to Rehab, a sequel to Five Go Mad in Dorset which featured the entire original cast (Ade Edmondson, Dawn French, Jennifer Saunders, Peter Richardson, as well as Rik Mayall, Nigel Planer, Stephen Mangan and Robbie Coltrane) and was filmed in the first weeks of July 2012, in and around Totnes; Richardson wrote and directed the film. The film showcased the characters thirty years on trying to recapture their youth. The film broadcast on Gold 7 November 2012. In addition, a documentary broadcast 3 November 2012, 30 Years of Comic Strip, detailed the filming and reception of several Comic Strip episodes including both original Five Go Mad episodes, The Strike and its semi-sequel GLC: The Carnage Continues, A Fistful of Travellers' Cheques, The Bullshitters/Detectives on the Edge of a Nervous Breakdown, Bad News Tour/More Bad News, and The Hunt for Tony Blair. For A Fistful of Travellers' Cheques, a short sequel was made and broadcast in several parts, showing the two main characters reuniting, despite the ending of the original episode; unshown scenes of the original episode were also aired for the first time. For the Bad News aspect of the documentary, Planer and Richardson dressed up as their respective characters Den Dennis and Spider Webb, recalling their time as Bad News. Some of the telling of the Bad News story was real, due to their real-life signing to EMI; and some fictional, such as the scenes from More Bad News detailing the recording of their debut album. A lot of the original cast were interviewed for the documentary, alongside other people involved with the series at some point such as James Buckley and Stephen Mangan. As Gold, in its current format at least, has never screened the BBC's GLC, ...Nervous Breakdown, or Channel 4's The Hunt for Tony Blair, these were the first time clips from these episodes were aired on the channel. In May 2018, a two-hour documentary history produced by Sean Doherty aired on Gold titled How The Young Ones Changed Comedy. It combined archive footage with revelations from many of the stars involved – such as Planer, Alexei Sayle, John Lloyd, Paul Jackson, and Lise Mayer – while later comedians discussed The Young Ones impact on British comedy generally. Home media In 1986, Virgin Video released various episodes of the programme dating between 1982 and 1984, which have now become rare. The 1988 series was released on video the same year by Palace Video, each episode having its own video. The only existing episode of the BBC series on video is "GLC", which PolyGram Video released with The Strike in 1994. When the Virgin and Palace Video videos went out of print in 1990, the rights were transferred to PolyGram Video. After three years, all the Channel 4 episodes of The Comic Strip were released on video. Eat the Rich is available as a Region 1 (American) DVD, a Region 2 (German) DVD, and a Region 4 (Australian) DVD and was finally released on DVD in the UK on 25 October 2019. The Supergrass was released to VHS and DVD in 2003, albeit favouring the short 93-minute version rather than the longer original which had been released theatrically and on VHS (103 minutes) in the late 1980s. A nine-disc Region 2 DVD set, The Comic Strip Presents: The Complete Collection was released in July 2005 (and re-released in August 2007). This included all the Channel 4 and BBC episodes (finally canonising The Bullshitters as a Comic Strip episode) plus The Supergrass across eight discs, but not Eat the Rich (due to rights issues), and was released too early to include Sex Actually. The ninth disc includes a retrospective documentary from 2005, Julien Temple's 1981 film The Comic Strip (which retroactively lays a strong claim to being the actual first 'episode'), and the two Comic Strip episodes of the 1998 documentary series First on Four. Across the new and archive documentaries are featured interviews with every single key Comic Strip member. The DVD set contains revised edits of South Atlantic Raiders (both parts approximately 10 minutes), Wild Turkey, and Four Men in a Car, in addition to featuring the pre-existing, 93-minute version of The Supergrass. The DVD re-editing was a deliberate creative decision, with the work undertaken by Peter Richardson himself alongside editor Geoff Hogg, though the decision was a controversial one with fans of the series. As of 1 May 2012, the entire Comic Strip Presents... series was available on Netflix's streaming service in the U.S., split into eight seasons. It was eventually removed in May 2013. A slimmed down, five-disc Region 2 DVD set The Best of The Comic Strip Presents was released on 7 October 2013. This includes the first disc release of Sex Actually, The Hunt for Tony Blair, and Five Go to Rehab as well as Gold's 30th-anniversary documentary. From the earlier box set, the following films were included: Bad News Tour, More Bad News (revised edit), Five Go Mad in Dorset, A Fistful of Travellers' Cheques, The Strike, GLC, Gino, Susie, Mr. Jolly Lives Next Door, Spaghetti Hoops, Red Nose of Courage, Bullshitters, Detectives on the Edge of a Nervous Breakdown, Gregory: Diary of a Nutcase, The Crying Game, Four Men in a Car (revised edit), and Four Men in a Plane. Episodes The Comic Strip Presents... originally ran for three series and one special on Channel 4 from 1983 to 1988. Two series and three specials subsequently aired on BBC Two between 1990 and 1993. Since then, specials have aired sporadically on Channel 4, beginning in 1998 and most recently in 2016. The collective also created four theatrical films between 1985 and 2004. There have been a total of 42 television episodes, four feature films, and one short film. See also Alternative Cabaret Saturday Live (British TV programme) The Comedy Store (London) References External links Peter Richardson TV BBC Comedy Guide – The Comic Strip Presents... 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247083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask	Mask	A mask is an object normally worn on the face, typically for protection, disguise, performance, or entertainment. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practical purposes, as well as in the performing arts and for entertainment. They are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on the wearer's body. More generally in art history, especially sculpture, "mask" is the term for a face without a body that is not modelled in the round (which would make it a "head"), but for example appears in low relief. Etymology The word "mask" appeared in English in the 1530s, from Middle French masque "covering to hide or guard the face", derived in turn from Italian maschera, from Medieval Latin masca "mask, specter, nightmare". This word is of uncertain origin, perhaps from Arabic maskharah مَسْخَرَۃٌ "buffoon", from the verb sakhira "to ridicule". However, it may also come from Provençal mascarar "to black (the face)" (or the related Catalan mascarar, Old French mascurer). This in turn is of uncertain origin – perhaps from a Germanic source akin to English "mesh", but perhaps from mask- "black", a borrowing from a pre-Indo-European language. One German author claims the word "mask" is originally derived from the Spanish más que la cara (literally, "more than the face" or "added face"), which evolved to "máscara", while the Arabic "maskharat" – referring to the buffoonery which is possible only by disguising the face – would be based on these Spanish roots. Other related forms are Hebrew masecha= "mask"; Arabic maskhara مَسْخَرَ = "he ridiculed, he mocked", masakha مَسَخَ = "he transfomed" (transitive). History The use of masks in rituals or ceremonies is a very ancient human practice across the world, although masks can also be worn for protection, in hunting, in sports, in feasts, or in wars – or simply used as ornamentation. Some ceremonial or decorative masks were not designed to be worn. Although the religious use of masks has waned, masks are used sometimes in drama therapy or psychotherapy. One of the challenges in anthropology is finding the precise derivation of human culture and early activities, with the invention and use of the mask only one area of unsolved inquiry. The use of masks dates back several millennia. It is conjectured that the first masks may have generally been used by primitive people to associate the wearer with some kind of unimpeachable authority, such as "the gods" or to otherwise lend credence to the person's claim on a given social role. The oldest masks that have been discovered are 9,000 years old, being held by the Musée "Bible et Terre Sainte" (Paris), and the Israel Museum (Jerusalem). Most probably the practice of masking is much older – the earliest known anthropomorphic artwork is circa 30,000–40,000 years old. However, insofar as it involved the use of war-paint, leather, vegetative material, or wooden masks, the masks probably have not been preserved; they are visible only in paleolithic cave drawings, of which dozens have been preserved. At the neanderthal Roche-Cotard site in France, a flintstone likeness of a face was found which is about 35,000 years old, but it is not clear that it was intended as a mask. In the Greek bacchanalia and the Dionysus cult, which involved the use of masks, the ordinary controls on behaviour were temporarily suspended, and people cavorted in merry revelry outside their ordinary rank or status. René Guénon claims that in the Roman saturnalia festivals, the ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, only to be killed after the festival ended. The Carnival of Venice, in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD. The use of carnivalesque masks in the Jewish Purim festivities probably originated in the late 15th century, although some Jewish authors claim it has always been part of Judaic tradition. The North American Iroquois tribes used masks for healing purposes (see False Face Society). In the Himalayas, masks functioned above all as mediators of supernatural forces. Yup'ik masks could be small finger masks, but also masks hung from the ceiling or carried by several people. Masks have been created with plastic surgery for mutilated soldiers. Masks in various forms – sacred, practical, or playful – have played a crucial historical role in the development of understandings about "what it means to be human", because they permit the imaginative experience of "what it is like" to be transformed into a different identity (or to affirm an existing social or spiritual identity). Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have. Masks in performance Throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance – both ritually and in various theatre traditions. The ritual and theatrical definitions of mask usage frequently overlap and merge but still provide a useful basis for categorisation. The image of juxtaposed Comedy and Tragedy masks are widely used to represent the Performing Arts, and specifically drama. In many dramatic traditions including the theatre of ancient Greece, the classical Noh drama of Japan (14th century to present), the traditional Lhamo drama of Tibet, Talchum in Korea, and the Topeng dance of Indonesia, masks were or are typically worn by all the performers, with several different types of mask used for different types of character. In Ancient Rome, the word persona meant 'a mask'; it also referred to an individual who had full Roman citizenship. A citizen could demonstrate his or her lineage through imagines, death masks of the ancestors. These were wax casts kept in a lararium, the family shrine. Rites of passage, such as initiation of young members of the family, or funerals, were carried out at the shrine under the watch of the ancestral masks. At funerals, professional actors would wear these masks to perform deeds of the lives of the ancestors, thus linking the role of mask as a ritual object and in theatre. Masks are a familiar and vivid element in many folk and traditional pageants, ceremonies, rituals, and festivals, and are often of an ancient origin. The mask is normally a part of a costume that adorns the whole body and embodies a tradition important to the religious and/or social life of the community as whole or a particular group within the community. Masks are used almost universally and maintain their power and mystery both for their wearers and their audience. The continued popularity of wearing masks at carnival, and for children at parties and for festivals such as Halloween are good examples. Nowadays these are usually mass-produced plastic masks, often associated with popular films, TV programmes, or cartoon characters – they are, however, reminders of the enduring power of pretence and play and the power and appeal of masks. Ritual masks Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer a protective role to the society who utilise their powers. Biologist Jeremy Griffith has suggested that ritual masks, as representations of the human face, are extremely revealing of the two fundamental aspects of the human psychological condition: firstly, the repression of a cooperative, instinctive self or soul; and secondly, the extremely angry state of the unjustly condemned conscious thinking egocentric intellect. In parts of Australia, giant totem masks cover the body. Africa There are a wide variety of masks used in Africa. In West Africa, masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of the Yoruba, Igbo, and Edo cultures, including Egungun Masquerades and Northern Edo Masquerades. The masks are usually carved with an extraordinary skill and variety by artists who will usually have received their training as an apprentice to a master carver – frequently it is a tradition that has been passed down within a family through many generations. Such an artist holds a respected position in tribal society because of the work that he or she creates, embodying not only complex craft techniques but also spiritual/social and symbolic knowledge. African masks are also used in the Mas or Masquerade of the Caribbean Carnival. Djolé (also known as Jolé or Yolé) is a mask-dance from Temine people in Sierra Leone. Males wear the mask, although it does depict a female. Many African masks represent animals. Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People of Burkina Faso known as the Bwa and Nuna call to the spirit to stop destruction. The Dogon of Mali have complex religions that also have animal masks. Their three main cults use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of the ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard-working farmer. Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is the Bamana people of Mali. The antelope (called Chiwara) is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe the antelope symbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain. Masks may also indicate a culture's ideal of feminine beauty. The masks of Punu of Gabon have highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and a narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off. The whiteness of the face represent the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite the masks representing women. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is the Idia's Mask of Benin in present-day Edo State of Nigeria. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies. The Senoufo people of the Ivory Coast represent tranquility by making masks with eyes half-shut and lines drawn near the mouth. The Temne of Sierra Leone use masks with small eyes and mouths to represent humility and humbleness. They represent wisdom by making bulging forehead. Other masks that have exaggerated long faces and broad foreheads symbolize the soberness of one's duty that comes with power. War masks are also popular. The Grebo of the Ivory Coast and Liberia carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat. Today, the qualities of African art are beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However, most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship, they nearly always lack the spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks. Oceania The variety and beauty of the masks of Melanesia are almost as highly developed as in Africa. It is a culture where ancestor worship is dominant and religious ceremonies are devoted to ancestors. Inevitably, many of the mask types relate to use in these ceremonies and are linked with the activities of secret societies. The mask is regarded as an instrument of revelation, giving form to the sacred. This is often accomplished by linking the mask to an ancestral presence, and thus bringing the past into the present. As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars, Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic. In Papua New Guinea, six-metre-high totem masks are placed to protect the living from spirits; whereas the duk-duk and tubuan masks of New Guinea are used to enforce social codes by intimidation. They are conical masks, made from cane and leaves. North America Arctic Coastal groups have tended towards simple religious practice but a highly evolved and rich mythology, especially concerning hunting. In some areas, annual shamanic ceremonies involved masked dances and these strongly abstracted masks are arguably the most striking artifacts produced in this region. Inuit groups vary widely and do not share a common mythology or language. Not surprisingly their mask traditions are also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. In some areas Inuit women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing. Pacific Northwest Coastal indigenous groups were generally highly skilled woodworkers. Their masks were often master-pieces of carving, sometimes with movable jaws, or a mask within a mask, and parts moved by pulling cords. The carving of masks was an important feature of wood craft, along with many other features that often combined the utilitarian with the symbolic, such as shields, canoes, poles, and houses. Woodland tribes, especially in the North-East and around the Great Lakes, cross-fertilized culturally with one another. The Iroquois made spectacular wooden ‘false face’ masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in a great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function. Pueblo craftsmen produced impressive work for masked religious ritual, especially the Hopi and Zuni. The kachinas, god/spirits, frequently take the form of highly distinctive and elaborate masks that are used in ritual dances. These are usually made of leather with appendages of fur, feathers or leaves. Some cover the face, some the whole head and are often highly abstracted forms. Navajo masks appear to be inspired by the Pueblo prototypes. In more recent times, masking is a common feature of Mardi Gras traditions, most notably in New Orleans. Costumes and masks (originally inspired by masquerade balls) are frequently worn by krewe members on Mardi Gras Day. Laws against concealing one's identity with a mask are suspended for the day. Latin America Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms. In the Andes, masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric, but later burial masks were sometimes made of beaten copper or gold, and occasionally of clay. For the Aztecs, human skulls were prized as war trophies, and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance. In post-colonial Latin America, pre-Columbian traditions merged with Christian rituals, and syncretic masquerades and ceremonies, such as All Souls/Day of the Dead developed, despite efforts of the Church to stamp out the indigenous traditions. Masks remain an important feature of popular carnivals and religious dances, such as The Dance of the Moors and Christians. Mexico, in particular, retains a great deal of creativity in the production of masks, encouraged by collectors. Wrestling matches, where it is common for the participants to wear masks, are very popular, and many of the wrestlers can be considered folk heroes. For instance, the popular wrestler El Santo continued wearing his mask after retirement, revealed his face briefly only in old age, and was buried wearing his silver mask. Asia China In China, masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along the Yangtze. Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols from shamanism and Buddhism. Shigong dance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank the gods, while nuo dance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and "Swallowing Animal" masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the "swallowing" of disaster. Opera masks were used in a basic "common" form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today's Peking opera. India/Sri Lanka/Indo-China Masked characters, usually divinities, are a central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. Countries that have had strong Indian cultural influences – Cambodia, Burma, Indonesia, Thailand, and Lao – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles. The masks are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with the carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades of Hindu and Buddhist temples. These faces or Kirtimukhas, 'Visages of Glory', are intended to ward off evil and are associated with the animal world as well as the divine. During ceremonies, these visages are given active form in the great mask dramas of the South and South-eastern Asian region. Indonesia In Indonesia, the mask dance predates Hindu-Buddhist influences. It is believed that the use of masks is related to the cult of the ancestors, which considered dancers the interpreters of the gods. Native Indonesian tribes such as Dayak have masked Hudoq dance that represents nature spirits. In Java and Bali, masked dance is commonly called topeng and demonstrated Hindu influences as it often feature epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. The native story of Panji also popular in topeng masked dance. Indonesian topeng dance styles are widely distributed, such as topeng Bali, Cirebon, Betawi, Malang, Yogyakarta, and Solo. Japan Japanese masks are part of a very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults, they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are the gigaku. The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. The bugaku developed from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws. The nō or noh mask evolved from the gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. The nō mask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making. Nō masks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions. Kyōgen are short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays. Kabuki is the theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces. Korea Korean masks have a long tradition associated with shamanism and later in ritual dance. Korean masks were used in war, on both soldiers and their horses; ceremonially, for burial rites in jade and bronze and for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits; to remember the faces of great historical figures in death masks; and in the arts, particularly in ritual dances, courtly, and theatrical plays. The present uses are as miniature masks for tourist souvenirs, or on mobile phones, where they hang as good-luck talismans. Middle East Theatre in the Middle East, as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising man's relationship with nature, the gods, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre – mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling – had a ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time, some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks, a vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According to George Goyan, this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of his life (see Masks in Performance above). Europe Masks are used throughout Europe, and are frequently integrated into regional folk celebrations and customs. Old masks are preserved and can be seen in museums and other collections, and much research has been undertaken into the historical origins of masks. Most probably represent nature spirits, and as a result many of the associated customs are seasonal. The original significance would have survived only until the introduction of Christianity which then incorporated many of the customs into its own traditions. In the process their meanings were also changed so, for example, old gods and goddesses were, literally, demonised and were viewed as mere devils, subjugated to the Abrahamic God. Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is the Fool, sometimes considered to be the synthesis of the two contrasting type of Handsome and Ugly. The oldest representations of masks are animal masks, such as the cave paintings of Lascaux in the Dordogne in southern France. Such masks survive in the alpine regions of Austria and Switzerland, and may be connected with hunting or shamanism, and tend to be particularly associated with the New Year and Carnival festivals. The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, where monsters, bears, wild men, harlequins, hobby horses, and other fanciful characters appear in carnivals throughout the continent. It is generally accepted that the masks, noise, colour and clamour are meant to drive away the forces of darkness and winter, and open the way for the spirits of light and the coming of spring. In Sardinia existed the tradition of Mamuthones e Issohadores of Mamoiada; Boes e Merdules of Ottana; Thurpos of Orotelli; S'Urtzu, Su 'Omadore and Sos Mamutzones of Samugheo. Another tradition of European masks developed, more self-consciously, from court and civic events, or entertainments managed by guilds and co-fraternities. These grew out of the earlier revels and had become evident by the 15th century in places like Rome, and Venice, where they developed as entertainments to enliven towns and cities. Thus the Maundy Thursday carnival in St Marks Square in Venice, attended by the Doge and aristocracy also involved the guilds, including a guild of maskmakers. There is evidence of 'commedia dell'arte'-inspired Venetian masks and by the late 16th century the Venetian Carnival began to reach its peak and eventually lasted a whole 'season' from January until Lent. By the 18th century, it was already a tourist attraction, Goethe saying that he was ugly enough not to need a mask. The carnival was repressed during the Napoleonic Republic, although in the 1980s its costumes and the masks aping the C 18th heyday were revived. It appears other cities in central Europe were influenced by the Venetian model. During the Reformation, many of these carnival customs began to die out in Protestant regions, although they seem to have survived in Catholic areas despite the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities. So by the 19th century, the carnivals of the relatively wealthy bourgeois town communities, with elaborate masques and costumes, existed side by side with the ragged and essentially folkloric customs of the rural areas. Although these civic masquerades and their masks may have retained elements drawn from popular culture, the survival of carnival in the 19th century was often a consequence of a self-conscious 'folklore' movement that accompanied the rise of nationalism in many European countries. Nowadays, during carnival in the Netherlands masks are often replaced with face paint for more comfort. In the beginning of the new century, on 19 August 2004, the Bulgarian archeologist Georgi Kitov discovered a 673 g gold mask in the burial mound "Svetitsata" near Shipka, Central Bulgaria. It is a very fine piece of workmanship made out of massive 23 karat gold. Unlike other masks discovered in the Balkans (of which 3 are in Republic of Macedonia and two in Greece), it is now kept in the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia. It is considered to be the mask of a Thracian king, presumably Teres. Masks in theatre Masks play a key part within world theatre traditions, particularly non-western theatre forms. They also continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage takes a variety of forms. In many cultural traditions, the masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition, actors in Ancient Greek theatre wore masks, as they do in traditional Japanese Noh drama. In some Greek masks, the wide and open mouth of the mask contained a brass megaphone enabling the voice of the wearer to be projected into the large auditoria. In medieval Europe, masks were used in mystery and miracle plays to portray allegorical creatures, and the performer representing God frequently wore a gold or gilt mask. During the Renaissance, masques and ballet de cour developed – courtly masked entertainments that continued as part of ballet conventions until the late eighteenth century. The masked characters of the Commedia dell'arte included the ancestors of the modern clown. In contemporary western theatre, the mask is often used alongside puppetry to create a theatre which is essentially visual rather than verbal, and many of its practitioners have been visual artists. Masks are an important part of many theatre forms throughout world cultures, and their usage in theatre has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions. Contemporary theatre Masks and puppets were often incorporated into the theatre work of European avant-garde artists from the turn of the nineteenth century. Alfred Jarry, Pablo Picasso, Oskar Schlemmer, and other artists of the Bauhaus School, as well as surrealists and Dadaists, experimented with theatre forms and masks in their work. In the 20th century, many theatre practitioners, such as Meyerhold, Edward Gordon Craig, Jacques Copeau, and others in their lineage, attempted to move away from Naturalism. They turned to sources such as Oriental Theatre (particularly Japanese Noh theatre) and commedia dell'arte, both of which forms feature masks prominently. Edward Gordon Craig (1872–1966) in A Note on Masks (1910) proposed the virtues of using masks over the naturalism of the actor. Craig was highly influential, and his ideas were taken up by Brecht, Cocteau, Genet, Eugene O'Neill – and later by Arden, Grotowski, and Brook and others who "attempted to restore a ritualistic if not actually religious significance to theatre". Copeau, in his attempts to "Naturalise" the actor decided to use mask to liberate them from their "excessive awkwardness". In turn, Copeau's work with masks was taken on by his students including Etienne Decroux and later, via Jean Daste, Jacques Lecoq. Lecoq, having worked as movement director at Teatro Piccalo in Italy, was influenced by the Commedia tradition. Lecoq met Amleto Satori, a sculptor, and they collaborated on reviving the techniques of making traditional leather Commedia masks. Later, developing Copeau's "noble mask", Lecoq would ask Satori to make him masques neutre (the neutral mask). For Lecoq, masks became an important training tool, the neutral mask being designed to facilitate a state of openness in the student-performers, moving gradually on to character and expressive masks, and finally to "the smallest mask in the world" the clown's red-nose. One highly important feature of Lecoq's use of mask, wasn't so much its visual impact on stage, but how it changed the performers movement on stage. It was a body-based approach to mask work, rather than a visually led one. Lecoq's pedagogy has been hugely influential for theatre practitioners in Europe working with mask and has been exported widely across the world. This work with masks also relates to performing with portable structures and puppetry. Students of Lecoq have continued using masks in their work after leaving the school, such as in John Wright's Trestle Theatre. In America, mask-work was slower to arrive, but the Guerrilla Theatre movement, typified by groups such as the San Francisco Mime Troupe and Bread and Puppet Theatre took advantage of it. Influenced by modern dance, modern mime, Commedia dell'arte and Brecht such groups took to the streets to perform highly political theatre. Peter Schumann, the founder of Bread and Puppet theatre, made particular use of German Carnival masks. Bread and Puppet inspired other practitioners around the world, many of whom used masks in their work. In the US and Canada, these companies include In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theater of Minneapolis; Arm-of-the Sea Theatre from New York State; Snake Theater from California; and Shadowland Theatre of Toronto, Ontario. These companies, and others, have a strong social agenda, and combine masks, music and puppetry to create a visual theatrical form. Another route masks took into American Theatre was via dancer/choreographers such as Mary Wigman, who had been using masks in dance and had emigrated to America to flee the Nazi regime. In Europe, Schumann's influence combined with the early avant-garde artists to encourage groups like Moving Picture Mime Show and Welfare State (both in the UK). These companies had a big influence on the next generation of groups working in visual theatre, including IOU and Horse and Bamboo Theatre, who create a theatre in which masks are used along with puppets, film and other visual forms, with an emphasis on the narrative structure. Functional masks Masks are also familiar as pieces of kit associated with practical functions, usually protective. There has been a proliferation of such masks recently but there is a long history of protective armour and even medical masks to ward off plague. The contrast with performance masks is not always clear-cut. Ritual and theatrical masks themselves can be considered to be practical, and protective masks in a sports context in particular are often designed to enhance the appearance of the wearer. Medical Some masks are used for medical purposes: Oxygen mask, a piece of medical equipment that assists breathing. Anesthetic mask. Burn mask, a piece of medical equipment that protects the burn tissue from contact with other surfaces, and minimises the risk of infection. Surgical mask, a piece of medical equipment that helps to protect both the surgeon and patient from acquiring infection from each other. Face shield, to protect a medical professional from bodily fluids. Pocket mask or CPR mask, used to safely deliver rescue breaths during a cardiac arrest or respiratory arrest. Protective Protective masks are pieces of kit or equipment worn on the head and face to afford protection to the wearer, and today usually have these functions: Providing a supply of air or filtering the outside air (respirators and dust masks). Protecting the face against flying objects or dangerous environments, while allowing vision. In Roman gladiatorial tournaments masks were sometimes used. From archaeological evidence it is clear that these were not only protective but also helped make the wearer appear more intimidating. In medieval Europe and in Japan soldiers and samurai wore similarly ferocious-looking protective armour, extending to face-masks. In the 16th century, the Visard was worn by women to protect from sunburn. Today this function is attributed to thin balaclavas. In sport the protective mask will often have a secondary function to make the wearer appear more impressive as a competitor. Before strong transparent materials such as polycarbonate were invented, visors to protect the face had to be opaque with small eyeslits, and were a sort of mask, as often in mediaeval suits of armour, and (for example) Old Norse grímr meant "mask or visor". Disguise Masks are sometimes used to avoid recognition. As a disguise the mask acts as a form of protection for the wearer who wishes to assume a role or task without being identified by others. Robbers and other criminal perpetrators may wear masks as a means in concealing their faces and thus identities from their victims and from law enforcement. Occasionally a witness for the prosecution appears in court in a mask to avoid being recognized by associates of the accused. Participants in a black bloc at protests usually wear masks, often bandannas, to avoid recognition, and to try to protect against any riot control agents used. Masks are also used to prevent recognition while showing membership of a group: Masks are use by penitents in ceremonies to disguise their identity in order to make the act of penitence more selfless. The Semana Santa parades throughout Spain and in Hispanic or Catholic countries throughout the world are examples of this, with their cone-shaped masks known as capirote. Masks are used by vigilante groups. The cone-shaped mask in particular is identified with the Ku Klux Klan in a self-conscious effort to combine the hiding of personal identity with the promotion of a powerful and intimidating image. Members of the group Anonymous frequently wear masks (usually Guy Fawkes masks, best known from V for Vendetta) when they attend protests. While the niqāb usually shows membership of some Islamic community, its purpose is not to hinder recognition, although it falls under some anti-mask laws such as the French ban on face covering. Cloth face masks may also be worn as a piece of apparel; in this context they are also known as anime masks. Occupational Beaked masks containing herbs in the beak were worn in early modern Europe by plague doctors to try to ward off the Black Death. Filter mask, a piece of safety equipment. Full-face diving mask as part of self-contained breathing apparatus for divers and others; some let the wearer talk to others through a built-in communication device Respirator (gas or particulate mask), a mask worn on the face to protect the body from airborne pollutants and toxic materials, and fine particulate matter or infectious particles. Oxygen mask worn by high-altitude pilots, or used in medicine to deliver oxygen, anesthetic, or other gases to patients Welding mask to protect the welder's face and eyes from the brightness and sparks created during welding Sports American football helmet face mask Balaclava, also known as a "ski mask", to protect the face against cold air. Baseball catcher's mask. Diving mask, an item of diving equipment that allows scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers to see clearly underwater. Fencing mask. Goaltender mask, a mask worn by an ice or field hockey goaltender to protect the head and face from injury. Hurling helmets were made mandatory in 2010, and have a wire mask on the front to protect the player's face. Kendo, a mask called Men is used in this Japanese sword-fighting martial art. Paintball mask. Visor (ice hockey). An interesting example of a sports mask that confounds the protective function is the wrestling mask, a mask most widely used in the Mexican/Latin lucha libre style of wrestling. In modern lucha libre, masks are colourfully designed to evoke the images of animals, gods, ancient heroes, and other archetypes. The mask is considered "sacred" to some degree, placing its role closer to the ritual and performance function. Punitive Masks are sometimes used to punish the wearer either by signalling their humiliation or causing direct suffering: Particularly uncomfortable types, such as an iron mask, for example the Scold's bridle, are fit as devices for humiliation, corporal punishment or torture. Masks were used to alienate and silence prisoners in Australian jails in the late 19th century. They were made of white cloth and covered the face, leaving only the eyes visible. Use of masks is also common in BDSM practices. Fashion Decorative masks may be worn as part of a costume outside of ritual or ceremonial functions. This is often described as a masque, and relates closely to carnival styles. For example, attendants of a costume party will sometimes wear masks as part of their costumes. Several artists in the 20th and 21st century, like Isamaya Ffrench and Damselfrau, create masks as wearable art. Wrestling masks are used most widely in Mexican and Japanese wrestling. A wrestler's mask is usually related to a wrestler's persona (for example, a wrestler known as 'The Panda' might wear a mask with a panda's facial markings). Often, wrestlers will put their masks on the line against other wrestlers' masks, titles or an opponent's hair. While in Mexico and Japan, masks are a sign of tradition, they are looked down upon in the United States and Canada. Several bands and performers, notably members of the groups Slipknot, Mental Creepers and Gwar, and the guitarist Buckethead, wear masks when they perform on stage. Several other groups, including Kiss, Alice Cooper, and Dimmu Borgir simulate the effect with facepaint. Hollywood Undead also wears masks but often remove them mid-performance. Leather-working, steampunk, and other methods and themes are occasionally used to create artisanal gas masks. In works of fiction Masks have been used in many horror films to conceal the identities of the killer. Notable examples include Jason Voorhees of the Friday the 13th series, Jigsaw Killer from Saw, Ghostface of the Scream series, and Michael Myers of the Halloween series. Other types A "buccal mask" is a mask that covers only the cheeks (hence the adjective "buccal") and mouth. A death mask is a mask either cast from or applied to the face of a recently deceased person. A "facial" (short for facial mask) is a temporary mask, not solid, used in cosmetics or as therapy for skin treatment. A "life mask" is a plaster cast of a face, used as a model for making a painting or sculpture. An animal roleplay mask is used for people to create a more animal-like image in fetish role play. Gallery See also Anti-mask law Character mask Pareidolia Domino mask Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic Notes References Further reading Hungarian translation of Rasmussen 1926. Sivin, Carole (1986). "Maskmaking". Worcester, Massachusetts, USA: Davis Publications, Inc. Wilsher, Toby, "The Mask Handbook – A Practical Guide", Routledge 2007, www.routledge.com External links Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice The Noh Mask Effect: A Facial Expression Illusion Mask Makers of Mas, Bali Smithsonian Institution African Mask Links Virtual Museum of Death Mask Gallery of Masks from Around the World Costa Rica Traditional Face Mask African clothing	[ 0.2955912947654724, -0.0351707749068737, -0.20867013931274414, 0.3963545560836792, 0.13774795830249786, -0.04693125933408737, 0.7636579275131226, 0.012841843999922276, -0.14430224895477295, -0.5754352807998657, -0.7426387667655945, 0.7701793313026428, -0.32884249091148376, -0.2275162786245346, -0.5592086911201477, 0.35265669226646423, 0.17451569437980652, 0.40735650062561035, 0.27795740962028503, 0.327345609664917, -0.4313051402568817, -0.20365861058235168, 0.1886480152606964, -0.4070083200931549, 0.39481258392333984, -0.3721126317977905, 0.037476249039173126, 0.288020521402359, -0.3218672275543213, 0.30053946375846863, 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247084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toreador	Toreador	Toreador may refer to: Torero or bullfighter The Toreador, a musical comedy The "Toreador Song" from Georges Bizet's opera Carmen The Daily Toreador, the student newspaper of Texas Tech University The Hallucinogenic Toreador is the name of a Salvador Dalí painting "Toreador I" and "Toreador II", songs made by Apocalyptica "Toreador", a song by Band of Skulls on their 2014 album Himalayan The mascot for Boone High School in Boone, Iowa, U.S. Toreador (World of Darkness), a fictional clan of vampires in Vampire: The Masquerade and Vampire: The Dark Ages The mascot for Monterey High School in Monterey, California, United States adiosToreador, the username for Tavros Nitram, a fictional character in the web comic Homestuck "El Toreador", a song by The Charlie Daniels Band on their 1980 album Full Moon "El Toreador", a song by Gil Evans on his 1964 album The Individualism of Gil Evans	[ 0.03597262501716614, 0.15856915712356567, 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247087	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20the%20Netherlands	Music of the Netherlands	The Netherlands has multiple musical traditions. Contemporary Dutch popular music is heavily influenced by music styles that emerged in the 1950s, in the United Kingdom and United States. The style is sung in both Dutch and English. Some of the latter exponents, such as Golden Earring and Shocking Blue, have attained worldwide fame. Sometimes partly based and raised upon the tradition of indie rock, new acts with a mixture of Mainstream pop music, Dance, Jazz, Funk and Soul emerged in the mid-1980s. Many of them were and still are performing in and/or outside The Netherlands, and some of them gained (international) recognition, which would sometimes also result in a collaboration with major players from the United States or United Kingdom. An early example of these could be Massada, a band with strong Moluccan roots, in the tradition of Santana. Some of the most successful artists among them were Mai Tai, Lois Lane, working with Prince, Julya Lo'ko, and saxophone player Candy Dulfer, also working with Prince, Dave Stewart and Pink Floyd. The mid-1990s saw the rise of Total Touch, with singer Trijntje Oosterhuis. Another popular genre of Dutch music is known as "Levenslied", meaning "Song of/about life". These songs have catchy, simple rhythms and melodies, and are always built up on choruses and verses. Themes are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional Dutch musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are essential to levenslied, though in recent years many levenslied artists also use synthesizers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Koos Alberts and the late André Hazes and Willy Alberti. Dutch techno, hardstyle, gabber, trance and other styles in electronic dance music conquered the world. Most of the best-known DJs in the EDM scene (and the world) hail from the Netherlands, including Tiësto, Don Diablo, Armin van Buuren, Ferry Corsten, Sander van Doorn, Fedde le Grand, Hardwell, Showtek, Afrojack, Oliver Heldens, Ran-D and Martin Garrix all of whom consistently rank high in the DJ Mag Top 100 DJs and other rankings. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These artists also contribute significantly to the mainstream pop music played over the airwaves all around the world, as they frequently collaborate and produce for many notable artists. Hip-hop in the Dutch language (nederhop) is also very popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Classical and contemporary classical music Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (May 1562 – October 16, 1621) was a Dutch composer, organist, and pedagogue whose work straddled the end of the Renaissance and beginning of the Baroque eras. Sweelinck was a master improviser, and acquired the informal title of the "Orpheus of Amsterdam". Over 70 keyboard works of his have survived, and many of them may be similar to the improvisations that residents of Amsterdam around 1600 were likely to have heard. Even his vocal music, which is more conservative than his keyboard writing, shows a striking rhythmic complexity and an unusual richness of contrapuntal devices. His influence was international. Some of his music appears in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, which otherwise mainly contains the work of English composers. Sweelinck wrote variations on John Dowland's internationally famous Lachrimae Pavane, and John Bull, the English keyboard composer, wrote a set of variations on a theme of Sweelinck, indicating the close connection between the different schools of composition across the North Sea. Jacob van Eyck (ca. 1590–1657) was a blind recorder and organ virtuoso, who composed a unique collection of flute music. Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer (1692–1766) was an accomplished baroque composer, whose work Concerti Armonici erroneously was attributed to Giovanni Battista Pergolesi. Igor Stravinsky used Unico's music for Pulcinella. Alphons Diepenbrock (September 2, 1862 in Amsterdam - April 5, 1921). He created a musical idiom which, in a highly personal manner, combined 16th-century polyphony with Wagnerian chromaticism, to which in later years was added the impressionistic refinement that he encountered in Debussy's music. Willem Pijper (1894–1947) is generally considered one of the most important figures in modern Dutch music. Between 1918 and 1922 he grew into one of the more advanced composers in Europe. In each successive work he went a step further and, from 1919, Pijper's music can be described as atonal. However, Pijper remained a composer of strong emotional character, to which his Third Symphony (1926) bears witness. In Pijper's later works the harmonic expression seems at times to approach monotonality. As a teacher Pijper had a great influence on modern Dutch music, teaching many prominent Dutch composers of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s. He was senior master of instrumentation in the Amsterdam Conservatoire, and from 1930 until his death in 1947 he was Head of the Rotterdam Conservatoire. Ton de Leeuw (born Rotterdam, 16 November 1926 - died Paris, 31 May 1996) is known for his experiments with microtonality. He wrote one opera, Antigone (1990–1991). Lex van Delden (1919–1988) was an important composer. Louis Andriessen (June 6, 1939 in Utrecht – July 1, 2021) was a composer whose early works show experimentation with various contemporary trends: postwar serialism (Series, 1958), pastiche (Anachronie I, 1966–67), and tape (Il Duce, 1973). Andriessen's mature music combines the influences of Stravinsky and American minimalism. His harmonic writing eschews the consonant modality of much minimalism, preferring postwar European dissonance, often crystallised into large blocks of sound. Large-scale pieces such as De Staat [‘Republic’] (1972–76), for example, were influenced by the energy of the big band music of Count Basie and Stan Kenton and the repetitive procedures of Steve Reich, both combined with bright, clashing dissonances. Andriessen's music is thus anti-Germanic and anti-Romantic, and marks a departure from postwar European serialism and its offshoots. He also played a role in providing alternatives to traditional performance practice techniques, often specifying forceful, rhythmic articulations, and amplified, non-vibrato, singing. Other notable works include Workers Union (1975), a melodically indeterminate piece "for any loud sounding group of instruments"; Mausoleum (1979) for 2 baritones and large ensemble; De Tijd [‘Time’] (1979–81) for female singers and ensemble; De Snelheid [‘Velocity’] (1982-3), for 3 amplified ensembles; De Materie [‘Matter’] (1984–88) a large four part work for voices and ensemble; collaborations with filmmaker and librettist Peter Greenaway on the film M is for Man, Music, Mozart and the operas Rosa: A Horse Drama (1994) and Writing to Vermeer (1998); and the recent La Passione (2000–02) for female voice and ensemble. Significant composers after Andriessen include Klaas de Vries (b. 1944), Jacob Ter Veldhuis, a.k.a. JacobTV (b. 1951), Guus Janssen (b. 1951) and Cornelis de Bondt (b. 1953). Folk Dutch folk music, is characterized by simple straightforward bass motives heavily supplemented with fast, often happy, melody. (Click here for an example.) Uncommon among other European folk, in Dutch music the bass line, not the melody, is the musical line that is danced to. This means that though the music itself may sound fast, the dances are usually quite moderate to slow in tempo. The dances themselves are mainly group dances rather than individual or dual dances. Clogs are often worn during dances; however, Dutch clog dancing is very different from its more modern counterpart. It is virtually impossible to perform highly active dances with Dutch clogs (which are entirely made from wood, not just the sole) and hence the clogs function as additional percussion, by stamping rhythmically. In the early 19th century, rural Dutch folk began moving to cities like Amsterdam and Rotterdam, bringing with them folk traditions. Many of their songs and dances, however, began to dwindle in popularity. In the early part of the 20th century, however, a number of urban intellectuals travelled to the countrysides to record with local musicians, a process paralleled in other European countries, such as Spain. In the 1970s, the Netherlands underwent a roots revival, led by artists like Gerard van Maasakkers, Jos Koning, Dommelvolk and RK Veulpoepers BV, Fungus and Wolverlei. Many of the folk songs performed by these musicians was collected by Cobi Schreijer and Ate Doornbosch, the latter of whom broadcast them on his radio program Onder de groene linde (Under the green lime). It was in about 1974 that the Dutch folk revival peaked, a year marked by the first recording of Fungus and the birth of Wargaren from the band Pitchwheel. The mainstream popularity of the Dutch roots revival was short-lived, but it continued in Friesland, where a handful of groups, starting with Irolt in the mid-1970s, sang in the West Frisian language. Frisian folk music has survived thus, aided in part by the Aaipop Festival in Nylân and annual festival in Joure. At Joure's festival, established in 1955, participants dress in 19th century-style clothes and perform traditional music and dance like the skotsploech ensembles. Modern revivalists include the Groningen band Törf, Folkcorn, Pekel and Twee Violen en een Bas, Lirio, Dubius, Mus, Matzko, Wè-nun Henk. Moluccan-Dutch musicians like Tala Mena Siwa and the Moluccan Moods Orchestra have had some success with pop-based Moluccan music, while kaseko, a style from the former Dutch colony of Suriname, has also seen mainstream popularity, primarily due to musicians like William Souvenir and Carlo Jones. Jazz The North Sea Jazz Festival attracts artists from international acclaim. Misha Mengelberg (June 5, 1935 - March 3, 2017) was a jazz pianist and composer. He was the pianist on Eric Dolphy's last album, Last Date (1964). Also featuring on that record was the drummer Han Bennink, and together with Piet Noordijk they formed a quartet which had a number of different bassists. They played at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1966. In 1967 he co-founded the Instant Composers Pool, an organisation which promoted avant garde Dutch jazz performances and recordings, with Han Bennink and Willem Breuker. Mengelberg played with a large variety of musicians. He often performed in a duo with compatriot Bennink, and with other musicians including Derek Bailey, Peter Brötzmann, Evan Parker, Anthony Braxton. Han Bennink (born April 17, 1942) is a jazz drummer, percussionist and multi-instrumentalist. Through the 1960s he drummed with a number of American musicians visiting the Netherlands, including Dexter Gordon, Sonny Rollins and Eric Dolphy. He subsequently became a central figure in the emerging European free improvisation (or free jazz) scene. From the late 1960s he played in a trio with saxophonist Peter Brötzmann and Belgian pianist Fred Van Hove, which became a duo after Van Hove's departure in 1976. Through much of the 1990s he played in Clusone 3 (also known as the Clusone Trio), a trio with saxophonist and clarinetist Michael Moore and cellist Ernst Reijseger. He has often played duos with Mengelberg and collaborated with him alongside other musicians. As well as playing with these long-standing groups, Bennink has performed and recorded solo (such as Tempo Comodo (1982)) and played with many free improvisation and free jazz musicians including Derek Bailey, Conny Bauer, Don Cherry and Alexander von Schlippenbach, as well as more conventional jazz musicians. Willem Breuker (November 4, 1944 – July 23, 2010) was a jazz bandleader, composer, arranger, saxophonist, and bass clarinetist. Since 1974 he led the 10-piece Willem Breuker Kollektief, which performed jazz in a theatrical and often unconventional manner, drawing elements from theater and vaudeville. Pop music in Dutch language Many Dutch artists have become popular by singing songs in their own language. It started with Peter Koelewijn in the late 1950s, the first to sing Rock and Roll in Dutch. In the 1960s it was mainly Boudewijn de Groot - to this day extremely popular. In the 1970s there were many performers, of which Rob de Nijs stood out. The 1980s were for André Hazes and less Koos Alberts. The 1990s were dominated by Marco Borsato. Other well-known names throughout the years were Jan Smit, Frans Bauer, Gerard Joling, Gordon, Guus Meeuwis and René Froger. Another notable Dutch band is Tambourine. In addition, there is a great number of bands that compose and perform pop and rock songs in the Dutch language. That started in the 1970s with Polle Eduard, Bots and Normaal - which sang in dialect. Late 70s and early 80s there was a big boom of bands that used the Dutch-speaking songs. Well known representatives from that period: Doe Maar, Het Goede Doel, Frank Boeijen Groep and Toontje Lager, and during the late 80s De Dijk, The Scene and Tröckener Kecks. In the 90s there was a second boom Acda en de Munnik, Bløf, Van Dik Hout and IOS. Rock and pop music Pioneers of Dutch rock were the so-called Indorock bands from the late 1950s, like The Tielman Brothers and the Blue Diamonds. They played rock guitar instrumentals when most of the Dutch youth had hardly heard of rock 'n' roll. They stemmed from the Indo community in The Hague and were pivotal in earning that city the title of Beatstad ('Beat city') in later years. With 60s bands like Golden Earring and Shocking Blue, and Kane and Anouk in the 1990s, The Hague became synonymous for mainstream rock. More progressive music emerged in the 1960s in Amsterdam. In 1964 (see 1964 in music), The Outsiders were the first Dutch psychedelic rock band to become successful. Well known was the 'Haagse Scene' - many of the popular bands of the 60s came from The Hague, such as Shocking Blue, which topped the US charts in 1970 with "Venus", Golden Earring, Q65, The Motions, Earth & Fire. Other representatives from this period: the Cats, Tee-Set, Bintangs, Sandy Coast, Cuby & the Blizzards and Brainbox. George Baker acquired international fame with the songs Little Green Bag (1969), and "Una Paloma Blanca" (1975). From the late 1960s the post-war generation gained political influence. Many state subsidized rock venues opened all over the country. These clubs, like Amsterdam's Paradiso and Melkweg, were stepping stones for many alternative rock bands on their first European tour and the Dutch crowd stayed well informed about new British and American acts. In the 1970s some artists stood out. Herman Brood became the country's ultimate rock 'n roll icon. He even scored a hit in the US with "Saturday Night", and subsequently became the epitome of the "rock'n'roll junkie" he often sang about. He had been in the media spotlight until his suicide in 2001. Other bands from the 70s include Pussycat (lead singer Toni Willé), whose song Mississippi hit the charts at number 1 in Netherlands in 1975 and many other countries including UK in 1976, Gruppo Sportivo, Massada, Vitesse, Solution, the Nits, Focus and still Golden Earring with their greatest hit ever: "Radar Love", also Top 10 in the US. The band Teach-In is best known for winning the Eurovision Song Contest 1975 with their song "Ding-A-Dong". The band was founded in 1969 and parted in 1980. Throughout this time there were several changes in lineup. The late 70s and early 80s gave rise to many one-hit wonders and some bands that lasted for longer. Girl groups Luv' and Dolly Dots but also disco bands Spargo and Time Bandits were among the most successful, alongside the Golden Earring, which scored some of their biggest hits with "Radar Love", "Twilight Zone' and "When The Lady Smiles". The Nits developed a large audience outside the Netherlands, including Finland, Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium, Greece and Canada and in 1989 were the first Dutch band to play in the (then still) Soviet Union. Urban Dance Squad was a cross-over band, combining hip-hop with funk and rock. The band's minor American success proved to be influential. Their music style (rapcore) influenced bands like Rage Against the Machine. Van Halen was created by Edward Van Halen who was of Dutch heritage. The 1990s made international hits courtesy of 2 Unlimited, 2 Brothers On The 4th Floor, and Vengaboys. However, the 1990s was also the start of the DJ-era. Ferry Corsten, Tiësto, Armin van Buuren, DJ Jean and Bart Claessen started their careers in the 1990s and became the stars of their era. Dutch bands in the 2000s are Intwine, The Sheer, Naked Shepherd, Krezip, Di-rect and Johan. Originally a semi-finalist in the fifth season of The Voice of Holland, singer-songwriter Duncan Laurence went on to win the Eurovision Song Contest 2019 with his song "Arcade", thereby granting the country its first Eurovision win since Teach-In in 1975. "Arcade" later became a sleeper hit by early 2021 and also made its way onto the top 30 of the US Billboard Hot 100, thus allowing Laurence to join the list of a few Dutch pop acts to score a hit in the US. Current pop acts include Esmée Denters, Anouk, Sharon Doorson, Davina Michelle, Maan, Nielson, Eva Simons, Ilse DeLange, Toni Willé (Pussycat), Celine Cairo and Belgian-Dutch girl group K3. Hard rock Brothers and founding members of Van Halen, lead guitarist Edward Van Halen and drummer Alex Van Halen, are from the Netherlands, having been born in Nijmegen in the mid-1950s before eventually moving to the United States in 1962. Punk rock Ivy Green was among the first punk bands, originating from Hazerswoude. Tedje en de Flikkers, a group of homosexuals ("flikkers" is Dutch for "faggots") from Nijmegen, was one of the most infamous punk formation of the Netherlands. They sprang from the left wing and gay movements that thrived in Nijmegen during the 1970s and 1980s. Their provocative performances (politically more than musically) often literally resulted in orgies of sex, drugs and noise. They existed only for three years (1977–1980). The Ex is an Amsterdam group of musicians making something that could be called punk. De Heideroosjes is also a well-known Dutch punk rock group, singing in Dutch, English, German and Limburgish. Boerenrock Some bands create a kind of rock music sometimes called "Boerenrock" ('farmers rock'). These bands mix rock and pop music with regional influences, sometimes sung in one of the regional dialects, and lyrics influenced by life in rural areas. Examples include BZB (Band Zonder Banaan) and WC Experience from North Brabant, Normaal and Jovink en de Voederbietels from Gelderland who sing in Dutch Low Saxon, Rowwen Hèze and Neet Oét Lottum from Limburg who sing in Limburgish, Mooi Wark from Drenthe who also sing in Dutch Low Saxon and Jitiizer from Friesland who sing in West-Frisian. Musically, the music played by such bands can be described as a rowdy, straightforward style of rock music, inspired by bands such as ZZ Top, Motörhead, AC/DC and Creedence Clearwater Revival. At other times, influences from pop music and folk music (for instance the case with Rowwen Hèze) can be heard. Not rarely, these bands display a lot of humorous elements in their repertoire, lyrics and live performances. An example is the repertoire of the WC Experience, which contains cover songs from bands such as Queen, Guns N' Roses and Madness, only the lyrics are replaced by different, rather silly lyrics in their own dialect. Also, the name of 'Band Zonder Banaan' means "Band without a Banana", and is a humorous play on the name of a famous Dutch pop-band, BZN (Band Zonder Naam, or 'Band Without a Name'). The name "Jovink en de Voederbietels" is a contraction of the names of the two founding band members (Hendrik Jan Lovink en Gijs Jolink), and "voederbietel" is a humorous contraction of the Dutch Low Saxon word for sugar beets (used as food for horses) and the name of the world-famous British popband The Beatles, of which they used a number of songs in which they replaced the lyrics for Achterhooks ones. Boerenrock bands tend to perform at local festivities and concerts in big tents in rural areas, rather than in concert halls in bigger cities. An event where a lot of Boerenrock music can be heard, and a famous event amongst Boerenrock bands and fans, is the annual Zwarte Cross Festival ('Black Motocross'), which is organized by members of 'Jovink en de Voederbietels'. The event is a mixture of several motocross related activities and a rock festival. Indie rock In the 1990s indie rock band Bettie Serveert was formed and independent record label Excelsior Recordings released albums of Dutch indie rock bands like Caesar, Ghost Trucker, Alamo Race Track, Johan, Spinvis, Gem, Bauer, Daryll-Ann, zZz and many others. After 2000 Voicst was formed and became popular after a beer commercial hit single for Heineken. After leaving Zoppo and forming Avec-A musician Yuri Landman received international attention as an experimental luthier for famous experimental rock bands. Dutch noise rock acts are The Ex, Gone Bald, The Moi Non Plus, Adept, Bonne Aparte, Feverdream. Post rock: We vs Death, Electropunk: Aux Raus. In the Netherlands the indie music scene is mainly present in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Groningen and Utrecht. A cross media platform called Subbacultcha! hosts nights in venues where many international touring avant garde rockbands like Health, Enon, Miracle Fortress, Mahjongg, These Are Powers, Pre perform as well as local indie and noise rock acts like The Moi Non Plus, Bonne Aparte, Adept, Hospital Bombers, Pfaff. Subbacultcha! also publishes a musical magazine with in depth interviews with the touring bands and arranges instant recording sessions in a studio in the Vondelpark with those bands. In The Hague a yearly festival State-X New Forms happens in Paard van Troje. Heavy metal Symphonic metal The Netherlands are also known for symphonic metal bands such as Within Temptation, The Gathering, Stream of Passion, After Forever, Delain and Epica. They became successful in the late 1990s and in the beginning of the new millennium. However, bands like Supersister and Kayak (who had a hit with Ruthless Queen) were already internationally successful in the 1970s. In the 1980s Vandenberg was internationally successful. Progressive metal Unique progressive metal music is composed by Arjen Anthony Lucassen. From the long list of his projects, Ayreon is the most famous. Arjen's music is characterised by distinct vocals, storyline concepts and the wide spectrum of musical instruments used. Extreme metal Death metal Similarly, in the last decade of the previous century a more extreme variety of metal, death metal, has had some success. Starting in the late 1980s and early 1990s, bands like Pestilence, Sinister, Asphyx, Altar, Gorefest, and God Dethroned gained popularity both inside and outside of Europe. At the present, bands like Pyaemia, Disavowed, Prostitute Disfigurement, Hail of Bullets, The Monolith Deathcult, Inhume, Callenish Circle, Rompeprop, Legion of the Damned, MaYaN and Severe Torture enjoy a similar status. Black metal Several black metal bands have risen to prominence from the Netherlands recently. Carach Angren, Cirith Gorgor, Israthoum, Dodecahedron, Ordo Draconis, Funeral Winds, Lugubre, Slechtvalk and Urfaust are some of the best-known. Israeli group Melechesh have also made the Netherlands their permanent base of operations. Viking/folk metal band Heidevolk are also gaining popularity. Doom metal Dutch doom metal bands include Officium Triste, Deinonychus, The Gathering and to a certain extent Asphyx. Experimental The Dutch musical culture has a small experimental music scene with a few artists that tour international such as Machinefabriek, solo projects of members of The Ex, Toktek, Gijs Gieskes, Knalpot, Yuri Landman, Jaap Blonk, Wessel Westerveld, Wouter van Veldhoven, Michiel van de Weerthof, Bram Stadhouders, his brother Jasper Stadhouders, Lukas Simonis and Michel Banabila . Also Pierre Bastien lives and works in The Netherlands, although not strongly connected to the Dutch scene. Venues like WORM in Rotterdam, Extrapool in Nijmegen and STEIM, OT301 and Mediamatic in Amsterdam are the main venues for this musical niche. Electronic dance music In the early 1990s, Dutch DJs developed a style of electronic dance music called gabber. The style was developed in reaction to the commercialization of house music and was heavily influenced by early hardcore from Frankfurt and New York City. The DJs stripped the music of what they perceived as excess sounds, songs were reduced to a high-speed monotonous beat, of sometimes over 260 beats per minute. The first ever record to be labeled gabber was 'Amsterdam waar lech dat dan?' by Rotterdam-based 'The Euromasters' as a reaction to the media always focusing on Amsterdam. It has to be said that Amsterdam-based D-Shake was probably to be the first to use the term gabber in a 1990 Dutch TV program. Important gabber groups and DJs are the Rotterdam Terror Corps, The Dark Raver and Neophyte. Gabbers distinguish themselves through hair (bald heads) and clothes (Australian and Cavello). Now, gabber is usually called early hardcore. Gabber also spawned happy hardcore, an offshoot of gabber and Breakbeat Hardcore, a genre of dance music that originated in England. Important groups and DJs in happy hardcore include Charly Lownoise and Mental Theo, Party Animals and Flamman & Abraxas. The Netherlands has also spawned many Eurodance acts, such as 2 Unlimited, Alice Deejay, the Venga Boys, the Two Brothers on the 4th Floor and Twenty Four Seven. Many of the world's top trance DJs are Dutch, such as Armin van Buuren, Ferry Corsten and Tiësto. The DJ Magazine Top 10 has been dominated by the Dutch for many years. In 2012, five of the 10 DJ's were Dutch. Tiësto has been awarded best DJ three times in a row by DJ Magazine and is still present in the top 10. Armin van Buuren then took over first place, subsequently doing this for four years in a row. Many foreign DJs also live in and operate from the Netherlands. Drum and bass is also popular in the Netherlands, with notable artists including Noisia and Black Sun Empire. The Netherlands is also home to many of the largest trance events on earth, including Sensation and Trance Energy. Other popular DJ's from the Netherlands include Afrojack, Hardwell, Laidback Luke, Fedde le Grand, Nicky Romero, Dash Berlin, D-Block & S-Te-Fan, DJ Isaac, Wildstylez, Headhunterz, Brennan Heart, Sander van Doorn, W&W, Ummet Ozcan, R3HAB, Yellow Claw, Ran-D and Martin Garrix. The Dutch have through the years also made a reputation for themselves with their underground scene. A multitude of small independent record labels, event organizations and artists have cropped up through the years. Artists such as Speedy J, the Acid Junkies, Orlando Voorn, Miss Djax, Unit Moebius, and I-F have all gained international recognition, paving the way for several new electronic artists from the Lowlands. Hip hop Several Dutch groups have played an important role in the development of rap and hiphop in the Netherlands. The Urban Dance Squad, led by Rude Boy (who later also played with Junkie XL), produced an original mix of rock and rap, laying the foundation for the nu metal hype of the late 1990s and early 2000s. Def La Desh and the Fresh Witness, led by Wendy Wright, brought rap with vocals to the forefront, with groups like TLC following. The Osdorp Posse were the founders of Dutch rap or nederhop. Their frontman, Def P (Pascal Griffioen), switched from English to Dutch in 1988, which made him one of the first to rap in Dutch commercially. That year, Def P, IJsblok, King and Seda formed the Osdorp Posse. Over the years, they explored all sides of hiphop, from poetic hiphop to politically engaged hiphop. They introduced several Anglicisms in the Dutch language, such as moederneuker ("motherfucker"). But before Osdorp Posse, Rotterdam-based rapper Def Rhymz and other members of Bad Boys Posse already used the Dutch language for raps during underground concerts. Other important Dutch rappers are The Opposites, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, Pete Philly & Perquisite, Extince, Kempi, Brainpower, Opgezwolle, Spookrijders, Snelle, Polderkartel, Typhoon, and Def Rhymz. Currently, Nicolay is one of the leading hip hop producers to come out of the region. See also Andy Tielman Culture of the Netherlands Netherlands in the Eurovision Song Contest Music of Bonaire and Curaçao Music of Belgium Clan of Xymox Notes References Bloemendaal, Wim. "Tilting at Windmills". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 207–210. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.	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247089	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullfighter	Bullfighter	A bullfighter (or matador) is a performer in the activity of bullfighting. Torero () or toureiro (), both from Latin taurarius, are the Spanish and Portuguese words for bullfighter and describe all the performers in the activity of bullfighting as practised in Spain, Portugal, Mexico, Peru, France, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and other countries influenced by Portuguese and Spanish culture. The main performer and leader of the entourage in a bullfight, and who finally kills the bull, is addressed as maestro (master), or with the formal title matador de toros (killer of bulls). The other bullfighters in the entourage are called subalternos and their suits are embroidered in silver as opposed to the matador's gold. They include the picadores, rejoneadores, and banderilleros. Present since the sport's earliest history, the number of women in bullfighting has steadily increased since the late-19 century, both on foot and on horseback. Usually, toreros start fighting younger bulls (novillos or, more informally in some Latin American countries, vaquillas), and are called novilleros. Fighting of mature bulls commences only after a special match, called "the Alternative". At this same bullfight, the novillero (junior bullfighter) is presented to the crowd as a matador de toros. History Bullfighting on foot became a means for poor, able-bodied men to achieve fame and fortune, similar to the role of boxing in many countries; a famous sentence reflecting that is más cornadas da el hambre ("there's more goring from hunger") to explain why someone became a bullfighter. Another frequent case for bullfighters is to be born in a family of bullfighters. In English, a torero is sometimes referred to by the term toreador, which was popularized by Georges Bizet in his opera Carmen. In Spanish, the word designates bullfighters on horseback, but is little used today, having been almost entirely displaced by rejoneador. Bullfighting, historically, started more with nobles upon horseback, all lancing bulls with accompanying commoners on foot doing helper jobs. As time went by, the work of the commoners on foot gained in importance up to the point whereupon they became the main and only act. Bullfighting on horseback became a separate and distinct act called "rejoneo" which is still performed, although less often. The established term, Maletilla or espontáneo, is attributed to those who illegally jump into the ring and attempt to bullfight for their sake and glory. While the practice itself is widely despised by many spectators and fans alike, some, such as El Cordobés, started their very careers this way. Types Matador de toros A matador de toros (lit. "killer of bulls", from Latin mactator, killer, slayer, from mactare, to slay) is considered to be both an artist and an athlete, possessing agility and coordination. One of the earliest matadors was Juan Belmonte (1892–1962), whose technique in the ring fundamentally changed bullfighting and remains an established standard by which bullfighters are judged by aficionados. The style of the matador was regarded as being equally important as to whether or not he kills the bull. The more successful matadores were treated like rock stars, with comparable financial incomes, cult followings and accompanied by tabloid stories about their romantic conquests with women. The danger associated with bullfighting added to the matador's performance; they are regularly injured by bulls and, concurrently, 533 professional bullfighters have been killed in the arena since 1700. Spanish bullfighter Manolete died from an injury in 1947. Matador Iván Fandiño died on 17 June 2017 in Aire-sur-l'Adour, France from a similar bullfighting injury. This hazard is said to be central to the nature and appeal of bullfighting. The American writer Ernest Hemingway was a bullfighting aficionado. In his 1926 fictional work, The Sun Also Rises, the main storyline features a matador and scenes of bullfighting, as do his short stories The Capital of the World and The Undefeated. Outside of fiction, he also wrote at length on the subject in Death in the Afternoon (1932) and The Dangerous Summer (1959). In 1962, Hollywood producer David Wolper produced The Story of a Matador, documenting what it was like to be a matador. In this case, it was the Matador Jaime Bravo. Picador A picador is a bullfighter who uses a special lance called pica while on horseback to test the bull's strength and to provide clues to the matador on which side the bull is favoring. They perform in the tercio de varas which is the first of the three stages in a Spanish bullfight. The shape of the lance or pica is regulated by Spanish law to prevent serious injury to the bull which was viewed as unfair cheating in the past. The bull will charge the horses in the ring and, at the moments prior to contact, the picador lances the bull in a large muscle at the back of the neck; thus begins the work of lowering his head. The picador continues to stab at the bull's neck leading to the animal's first major loss of blood. During this time, the bull's injured nape will fatigue—however, as a result of the enraged bull charging, the picador's horse will tussle with avoiding the bull throes at trying to lift the horse with its horns. The enduring loss of blood and exertion gradually weakens the bull further and makes it ready for the next stage. In order to protect the horse from the bull's horns, the horse is surrounded by a 'peto' – a mattress-like protection. Prior to 1928, horses did not wear any protection and a bull would frequently disembowel the opposing horse during this vulnerable stage. Banderillero The banderillero is a torero who plants the banderillas (lit. little flags). These are colorful sticks, usually colored with the flag of the banderillero's birthplace, with a barbed point which are increasingly placed in the top of the bull's shoulder. Banderilleros attempt to place the sticks while running as close to the bull as possible. They are judged by the crowd on their form and bravery. Sometimes a matador, who was a particularly skillful banderillero before becoming a matador, will place some of the banderillas himself. Skilled banderilleros can correct faults in the manner in which the bull charges by lancing the bull in such a way that the bull ceases hooking to one side, and thereby removing a potential source of danger to the matador by limiting the bull's offensive movements. Costume Because of the decorations and elaborateness of the costume, the Spanish refer to the torero's outfit as traje de luces, meaning the "suit of lights". Matador costume structure provides great ease of movement. See also Spanish-style bullfighting List of bullfighters List of female bullfighters Banteng References Further reading Poon, Wena. Alex y Robert, Salt Publishing, London, 2010. This is a novel about an American teenage girl training as a matador in contemporary Spain. External links "Haunted By The Horns", (2006) An ESPN online article about Matador Alejandro Amaya and Matador Eloy Cavazos. The article investigates why a matador chooses their profession. Female Matadors: A Fierce Beauty – slideshow by Life magazine Spanish fan with matador illustration, 1887, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database Spanish culture Sports occupations and roles	[ -0.01288615446537733, 0.049667246639728546, -0.47423413395881653, 0.30363929271698, -0.5085223317146301, -0.3026445806026459, 0.6226707100868225, 0.3849394917488098, -0.41894346475601196, -0.028719836845993996, -0.20789507031440735, 0.7775075435638428, 0.1469012051820755, -0.3813270032405853, -0.4973331391811371, 0.5426437258720398, 0.33294767141342163, 0.4786897599697113, 0.38752278685569763, -0.030381856486201286, -0.5663701295852661, -0.6064366698265076, 0.003358192043378949, -0.1064123660326004, 0.1848551630973816, 0.0452524796128273, -0.4426916539669037, 0.280354380607605, -0.1940755695104599, 0.2922869324684143, 0.15549112856388092, 0.49965357780456543, 0.19320425391197205, 0.04349403455853462, -0.2169179469347, 0.23875471949577332, 0.3024009168148041, 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247094	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einar%20%C3%96rn%20Benediktsson	Einar Örn Benediktsson	Einar Örn Benediktsson (born 29 October 1962), often billed as Einar Örn, is an Icelandic popular music singer, trumpet player, artist and politician, best known as a former member of the Sugarcubes and a current member of Ghostigital. He served as a member of the Reykjavík City Council between 2010 and 2014. With Björk and the Sugarcubes Einar has been described as the first punk in Iceland. He claims he became interested in punk rock after reading about Johnny Rotten vomiting on an aeroplane and listening to John Peel on his mother's car radio. Einar spent the summer of 1977 in London, where his father worked. Through this, he was able to make contacts enabling the Reykjavík arts festival to book The Clash in 1980. In the early 1980s, Einar was the lead singer of the short-lived punk group Purrkur Pillnikk. Following Purrkur Pillnikk's demise in 1983, Einar became a member of the anarcho-punk Kukl along with the already notable Icelandic singer Björk Guðmundsdóttir. During this period, whilst studying media at the Polytechnic of Central London (now the University of Westminster) he got in touch with several punk groups such as Flux of Pink Indians and the anarchist band Crass. This eventually led to the release of Kukl's two studio albums, 1984's The Eye and 1986's Holidays in Europe, on Crass' in-house label Crass Records. In June 1986, Smekkleysa SM or Bad Taste SM ltd was formed by a group of friends which included Einar, Björk, Sigtryggur, Einar Melax from Kukl, Bragi Ólafsson and Friðrik Erlingsson from Purrkur Pillnikk, Þór Eldon, Ólafur Engilberts and Sjón from the surrealist group Medúsa and lastly Ásmundur Jónsson from Gramm Records. Out of this group the Sugarcubes were formed, with Einar sharing vocal duties with Björk. While with the Sugarcubes, some critics scorned him for his bizarre spoken-word rants and discordant singing, which often overshadowed Björk's more popular vocalizations. Others, however, defended his contributions as an essential component of the group's free-spirited, chaotic ethos. Einar remained with the Sugarcubes until the band's breakup in 1992. In 2006, Einar reunited with the Sugarcubes for a one-off performance at the Laugardalshöll arena in Reykjavík. Post-Sugarcubes After the breakup of the Sugarcubes, Einar wrote a newspaper column "Close Encounter" ("about daily life in Reykjavík"), promoted records for the Sugarcubes' former Icelandic label, Bad Taste (Smekkleysa), which he had co-founded, and worked as a bartender. Music went on the backburner: "I was discovering other things, like family life. I wanted to make music a hobby again." He recorded with Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson (HÖH) in 1992: "We were great friends who decided to make music for the hell of it, and it turned into a record" (Frostbite, on One Little Indian). He also worked in concert promotion (two Björk shows, The Prodigy, Fugees and Massive Attack) and co-founded Reykjavík's first cybercafe The Siberia Cafe: 'We were too early. Those who knew what it was all about preferred to do their Internet hacking at home." Einar worked for the Reykjavík Arts Festival before moving back to London in late 1997 to set up OLI's Web sites: "I saw this gap, which I could fill. It's always good to get a new perspective." In 1998, Einar teamed up with Hilmar Örn and former Sugarcubes drummer Sigtryggur "Siggi" Baldursson as Grindverk. "It's dance music for people who cannot dance. It'll probably be instrumental too. It's not because people have criticised me, I just don't think I've written anything I want to sing." Grindverk released a single album, Gesundheit Von K, on the British-based Fat Cat Records. In 2000, Einar collaborated with Blur lead singer Damon Albarn on the soundtrack for the acclaimed Icelandic film 101 Reykjavík. The soundtrack was released by EMI the following year. Einar also worked with Albarn's project Gorillaz on the song "Stop The Dams." The track originally appeared as a 2006 B-side on the single "Kids With Guns" / "El Mañana." It was re-released on the 2007 compilation album D-Sides. Einar has not ruled out future musical projects stating, "I'm waiting to see if the occasion arises. The Sugarcubes wasn't scripted, remember. Of course, I'm older but I would treat the occasion with the same passion!" Ghostigital In December 2003 Einar embarked on his first solo project. He debuted with an album called Ghostigital, recorded with the New York City-based Icelandic producer Curver. It was released by Honest Jon's Records in December 2003. The name of this first album would later turn into the name of a band, comprising Einar and Curver and a host of collaborators. The music is described as "electronic beat music", drawing in elements of dub, hip-hop, Rock and noise, combined with Einar's idiosyncratic worldview. In 2005 Ghostigital signed with the California-based label Ipecac Recordings co-founded by Faith No More singer Mike Patton. Their first Ipecac release, In Cod We Trust, was released in March 2006. On this record Einar's son Kaktus (currently frontman of Fufanu) plays trumpet. It also features contributions from Mark E Smith, Sensational, Ásgerður Júníusdóttir and KatieJane Garside. Ghostigital released their third studio album called Division of Culture & Tourism on Smekkleysa SM/BadTaste Records on 12 November 2012. It features contributions from Damon Albarn, David Byrne, Nick Zinner, Dälek, and King Buzzo. Art practice In his art practice Einar Örn has utilized a wide range of media; sound art, performance, words, music and multimedia but is currently focusing on works on paper, large scale murals and textile prints. All connected through his playful way of telling stories that simultaneously amuse and baffle. Einar Örn has exhibited internationally and in Iceland. Politics Although he had no prior political experience, Einar was elected to the Reykjavík City Council in May 2010 as a member of the satirical Best Party (Besti flokkurinn) along with Reykjavík Mayor Jón Gnarr and others. Einar is second on the party's list behind Jón. Einar and other Best Party members were part of the governing coalition in Reykjavík along with the Social Democratic Alliance (Samfylkingin). He chaired the city's committee for culture and tourism. The Best Party did not run for re-election in 2014, instead choosing to disband. References External links Official website of Einar Örn Official website of Ghostigital City of Reykjavík site (in Icelandic) Ghostigital interviewed in Chaos Control Digizine Ghostigital at MusicBrainz Interview with Einar Örn Benediktsson in Chief Magazine 1962 births Alumni of the University of Westminster Einar Orn Benediktsson Einar Orn Benediktsson Living people Einar Orn Benediktsson Einar Orn Benediktsson Einar Orn Benediktsson Einar Orn Benediktsson Kukl (band) members The Sugarcubes members	[ 0.15268126130104065, 0.5148422122001648, 0.20010659098625183, -0.2956588864326477, -0.004168422892689705, 0.547275185585022, 0.7038917541503906, 0.48216357827186584, -0.7271450757980347, 0.2730603516101837, -0.1161293014883995, 0.6149490475654602, -0.6432824730873108, -0.17489585280418396, 0.20422054827213287, 0.0981474369764328, 0.6225165128707886, 0.6996151804924011, -0.6031744480133057, -0.4179592728614807, 0.5244055986404419, -0.1063777506351471, 0.6031510829925537, 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247095	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury	Treasury	A treasury is either A government department related to finance and taxation, a finance ministry. A place or location where treasure, such as currency or precious items are kept. These can be state or royal property, church treasure or in private ownership. The head of a treasury is typically known as a treasurer. This position may not necessarily have the final control over the actions of the treasury, particularly if they are not an elected representative. The adjective for a treasury is normally treasurial. The adjective "tresorial" can also be used, but this normally means pertaining to a treasurer. History The earliest found artefacts made of silver and gold are from Lake Varna in Bulgaria dated 4250–4000 BC, the earliest of copper are dated 9000–7000 BC. The term treasury was first used in Classical times to describe the votive buildings erected to house gifts to the gods, such as the Siphnian Treasury in Delphi or many similar buildings erected in Olympia, Greece by competing city-states to impress others during the ancient Olympic Games. In Ancient Greece treasuries were almost always physically incorporated within religious buildings such as temples, thus making state funds sacrosanct and adding moral constraints to the penal ones to those who would have access to these funds. The sovereigns' treasury within the palace in ancient Jerusalem, is considered to be similar in nature to the temple treasury. The temple treasury of the settlement had appointed officials and functioned akin to a bank. In excavations of Persepolis a text containing information pertaining to the activities of a temple treasury were discovered dated to the fifth century BC. The texts written in the Elamite language name the treasurer as ganzabara The ancient Roman word aerarium signified the treasury of the Senate, fiscus was used to indicate the imperial treasury used by Caesar. Treasuries as government departments Treasury In the United Kingdom, Her Majesty's Treasury is overseen by the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The traditional honorary title of First Lord of the Treasury is held by the prime minister. Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs administers the taxation system. In the United States, the Treasurer reports to an executive-appointed Secretary of the Treasury. The IRS is the revenue agency of the US Department of the Treasury. Ministry of finance In many other countries, the treasury is called the "ministry of finance" and the head is known as the finance minister. Examples include the Bahamas, Bangladesh, Belgium, Spain, Italy, New Zealand, Ghana, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, India, Japan, the Netherlands, Pakistan and Zimbabwe. Both In some other countries, a "Treasury" will exist alongside a separate "Ministry of Finance", with divided functions. The State Treasury () in Polish law represents the Polish state acting in the field of civil law relations in which it is treated as equal partner to private entities (as opposed to the sphere of public law relations in which the State represented by public authorities decides unilaterally on the legal situation of individuals). It can be represented by various officials or institutions depending on circumstances and has its own ministry, the Ministry of State Treasury. Historically, it was created in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland in 1590, when the public treasury (or the Crown Treasury) was split from the Royal Treasury. The government of Ukraine also includes the Ministry of Finance as well as the Ministry of State Treasury. It was the same in Italy before the creation of the united Ministry of Economy. In the Australian federal government a treasurer and a finance minister co-exist. The Department of the Treasury is responsible for drafting the government budget, economic policy (except monetary policy), some market regulation and revenue policy (which is administered by the Australian Taxation Office). The Finance Minister, who manages the Department of Finance and Deregulation, is responsible for budget management, government expenditure and market deregulation. Treasuries as locations A treasury is also a room or building in which precious or valuable objects are preserved, especially objets d’art in precious metals and jewels, of a ruler or other collector which are kept in a secure room and often found in the basement of a palace or castle. State treasuries In past times revenue collected by the monarch would be kept in a secure stronghold; the kings of England traditionally used the Tower of London, which also housed the Royal Mint. Latterly gold reserves are held in a countries central bank; the gold reserves of the United Kingdom are housed in a vault at the Bank of England. The country with the largest gold reserve is the United States; the US claims to have 8133.5 tonnes of gold, held at Fort Knox (58%), West Point (20%), the US Mint in Denver (16%) and the residue (approx 5%) at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. The second largest reserve, that of Germany, is held at the Deutsche Bundesbank in Frankfurt am Main, the Federal Reserve Bank in New York and the Bank of England in London. The third, held by the IMF, is in a number of in designated deposits. These treasuries are believed to satisfy a number of essential criteria, which include cost efficiency, security, and the ability to liquidate reserves at short notice. Church treasuries The Church has a variety of treasures that have spiritual or religious value rather than financial worth; these are housed in treasuries at most cathedrals. These take the form of relics, icons, manuscripts, votive offerings and liturgical garments. Of particular note are the St Chad Gospels at Lichfield Cathedral, and the Codex Eyckensis at St Catherine's Church, Maaseik. The treasury at Aachen cathedral has a number of valuable artifacts, such as the Cross of Lothair and the Treasury Gospels. Private treasuries Collections of personal treasures, where the objects assembled are there because of the interest of the collector, rather than any intrinsic value, have been seen since the times of the Ancient Greeks, and more particularly, the Romans. For example, various Roman emperors devoted considerable effort to bring Egyptian obelisks from the Middle East to Rome, or had copies made in Rome itself. In medieval times a number of monarchs had menageries of exotic beasts; Henry III (r.1216-1292) owned three leopards, a polar bear and an African elephant, while emperor Frederick II (r.1220-1250) owned giraffes, cheetahs, lynxes, leopards, exotic birds and an elephant, and had a variety of rare falcons. The private collection of curiosities in England has been ascribed to 16th century polymath Francis Bacon, and in Europe to the emperor Rudolph II. In Russia this was pioneered by tsar Peter the Great. Notable modern collections include the Waddesdon and the Wallace collections in Britain, and the Getty and Guggenheim collections in the USA. See also Bank Finance Minister Fiscus Mint Treasury management HM Treasury (United Kingdom) United States Department of the Treasury Government bond References External links Government institutions	[ 0.7162443399429321, 0.06260470300912857, -0.27095267176628113, 0.37244558334350586, -0.14457878470420837, 0.31796959042549133, 0.006700333673506975, 0.1944592297077179, -0.5879364609718323, -0.18111270666122437, -0.5510483384132385, 0.9404886364936829, 0.2778022289276123, 0.25033271312713623, -0.12044372409582138, -0.18180102109909058, 0.6064046025276184, 0.6701954007148743, 0.7695329189300537, -0.5173268914222717, -0.4011460840702057, 0.010171975009143353, -0.2017742395401001, -0.30828288197517395, 0.36998695135116577, -0.33987054228782654, 0.37584853172302246, -0.14198985695838928, -0.4042842388153076, -0.24870334565639496, -0.01592852920293808, 0.06796102225780487, -0.241253063082695, 0.1347246915102005, 0.14774656295776367, -0.29301199316978455, 0.3907712697982788, 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247097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasurer	Treasurer	A treasurer is the person responsible for running the treasury of an organization. The significant core functions of a corporate treasurer include cash and liquidity management, risk management, and corporate finance. Government The treasury of a country is the department responsible for the country's economy, finance and revenue. The treasurer is generally the head of the treasury, although, in some countries (such as the United Kingdom or the United States) the treasury reports to a Secretary of the Treasury or Chancellor of the Exchequer. In Australia, the Treasurer is a senior minister and usually the second or third most important member of the government after the Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. Each Australian state and self-governing territory also has its own treasurer. From 1867 to 1993, Ontario's Minister of Finance was called the Treasurer of Ontario. Originally the word referred to the person in charge of the treasure of a noble; however, it has now moved into wider use. In England during the 17th century, a position of Lord High Treasurer was used on several occasions as the third great officer of the Crown. Now the title First Lord of the Treasury is the official title of the British Prime Minister. Corporate treasurers In corporations, the Treasurer is the head of the corporate treasury department. They are typically responsible for liquidity risk management, cash management, issuing debt, foreign exchange and interest rate risk hedging, securitization, oversight of pension investment management, and capital structure (including share issuance and repurchase). They also typically advise the corporation on matters relating to corporate finance. They could also have oversight of other areas, such as the purchase of insurance. In the Inns of Court In the Inns of Court, the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales, the bencher or master of the bench who heads the inn for that year holds the title 'master treasurer'. This title is similarly used by other legal associations sharing a British heritage, such as the Law Society of Upper Canada. Volunteer organizations Many volunteer organizations, particularly not-for-profit organizations such as charities and theaters, appoint treasurers who are responsible for conservation of the treasury, whether this be through pricing of a product, organizing sponsorship, or arranging fundraising events. The treasurer would also be part of the group which would oversee how the money is spent, either directly dictating expenditure or authorizing it as required. It is their responsibility to ensure that the organization has enough money to carry out their stated aims and objectives, and that they do not overspend, or under spend. They also report to the board meetings and/or to the general membership the financial status of the organization to ensure checks and balances. Accurate records and supporting documentation must be kept to a reasonable level of detail that provides a clear audit trail for all transactions. See also Bursar Bursary Certified Treasury Professional Chief financial officer Comptroller Auditor general Treasury management References Further reading Treasury Management International, The Functions of a Corporate Treasury, Dr Heinrich Degenhart, Verband Deutscher Treasurer e.V. External links O*NET-SOC 11-3031.01 ~ Treasurers and Controllers U.S. Department of Labor SOC 11-3031 ~ Financial Managers Association of Public Treasurers of the United States and Canada (APTUSC) California Municipal Treasurers Association (CMTA) Oklahoma Municipal Treasurers' Association (OKMTA) Government Treasurers' Organization of Texas (GTOT) Virginia Treasurers' Association (TAV) Government occupations Local government in the United States Finance occupations es:Tesorería	[ 0.1700841635465622, 0.4072812795639038, -0.3308943510055542, 0.6534721851348877, 0.10229702293872833, -0.15605835616588593, -0.06261663883924484, 0.23805032670497894, -0.5792708992958069, -0.20687676966190338, -0.34389129281044006, 0.6232696771621704, 0.23416027426719666, -0.10191608965396881, -0.39986512064933777, -0.30792340636253357, 0.6712638139724731, 0.8067570924758911, 0.24537599086761475, -0.6490004658699036, -0.9087913036346436, -0.0006501575699076056, 0.14960798621177673, -0.03946400061249733, 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247098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabotage%20%281936%20film%29	Sabotage (1936 film)	Sabotage, released in the United States as The Woman Alone, is a 1936 British espionage thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Sylvia Sidney, Oskar Homolka, and John Loder. It is loosely based on Joseph Conrad's 1907 novel The Secret Agent, about a woman who discovers that her husband, a London shopkeeper, is a terrorist agent. Sabotage should not be confused with Hitchcock's film Secret Agent, which was also released in 1936, but instead loosely based on two stories in the 1927 collection Ashenden: Or the British Agent by W. Somerset Maugham. It also should not be confused with Hitchcock's film Saboteur (1942), which includes the iconic fall from the torch of the Statue of Liberty which presaged the Mount Rushmore scene in North by Northwest (1959). The film holds a rare 100% rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes. In 2017, a poll of 150 actors, directors, writers, producers and critics for Time Out magazine ranked the film 44th best British film ever. In 2021, The Daily Telegraph ranked the film at No. 3 on its list of "The 100 best British films of all time". Plot In London, sand is put into the bearings of an electrical generator, causing a power blackout. At a cinema owned by Karl Verloc (Oscar Homolka), people demand their money back. Verloc enters through a back entrance to the living quarters above. He washes sand from his hands, but when his wife (Sylvia Sidney) comes for him, he pretends to have been asleep. He instructs her to refund the money, saying he has "some money coming in" anyway. As the money is about to be disbursed to the customers downstairs, the lights go back on. The next day, Verloc meets his contact. They are part of a gang of terrorists from an unnamed European country who are planning a series of attacks in London, though no exact motive is made clear. Verloc's contact is disappointed that the newspapers mocked the short loss of electricity, and instructs Verloc to place a parcel of "fireworks" at the Piccadilly Circus tube station on Saturday, during the Lord Mayor's Show. Verloc is not comfortable with killing, but his contact says to get someone else to do it. Verloc is given the address of a bird shop, whose owner also makes bombs. Scotland Yard suspects Verloc's involvement in the plot and has placed Detective Sergeant Ted Spencer (John Loder) undercover as a greengrocer's helper next to the cinema. He befriends Mrs. Verloc and her little brother, Stevie (Desmond Tester), who lives with them, by treating them to a meal at Simpson's. At this point, Spencer and Scotland Yard are unsure whether Mrs. Verloc is complicit in the terrorist plots or innocently unaware; but by the end of the meal, he is convinced she is innocent and is falling for her. Verloc goes to the bird shop. The bomb-maker says he will prepare a time bomb and set it to explode at 1:45 p.m. on Saturday. Later that night, members of the terrorist group meet in Verloc's living room above the cinema. Detective Spencer attempts to eavesdrop on the conversation, but is seen and recognized. The meeting ends abruptly and the members scatter, worried that they are all being followed. Verloc tells his wife the police are investigating him, but maintains his innocence. The next day, Verloc receives a package containing two caged canaries – a present for Stevie – and the bomb. Spencer shows up with Stevie and tells Mrs. Verloc of Scotland Yard's suspicions. Verloc sees them talking, and becomes nervous. Before he can be questioned, Verloc asks Stevie to deliver a film canister to another cinema, and since it is on his way, to deposit another package in the cloakroom at Piccadilly Circus station by 1:30 p.m. He says it contains projector parts to be repaired and the repairman will collect it there. Unknowingly carrying the time bomb for Verloc, Stevie is delayed by several events, including the Lord Mayor's Show procession. Now late, Stevie manages to talk himself aboard a bus to Piccadilly Circus, even though flammable nitrate film is not allowed on public vehicles. The bomb explodes on the bus, killing Stevie and others. Verloc confesses to his wife, but blames Scotland Yard and Spencer for Stevie's death, since they were the ones who prevented Verloc from delivering the bomb himself. Soon afterwards, as they are preparing to eat dinner, she becomes infuriated and stabs him to death with a knife. When Spencer arrives to arrest Verloc he realises what has happened, but he insists that she should not admit stabbing her husband. Even if it was self-defense, she might not be believed in court. Spencer plans to abandon his career and leave the country with her. The bomb-maker goes to Verloc's flat to retrieve the birdcage in case it might incriminate him, but the police, who already suspect him, follow him. When they arrive, Mrs. Verloc tries to confess, but moments after she says her husband is dead, the bomb-maker sets off a bomb he was carrying, killing himself and destroying Verloc's body. Afterwards, the police superintendent is unsure whether she spoke before or after the explosion, as Ted and Mrs. Verloc flee the city. Cast Sylvia Sidney listed as Sylvia Sydney as Mrs. Verloc Oskar Homolka listed as Oscar Homolka as Karl Anton Verloc, "Her Husband" Desmond Tester as Steve (Stevie) "Her Young Brother" John Loder as Sergeant Ted Spencer Joyce Barbour as Renee Matthew Boulton as Superintendent Talbot S. J. Warmington as Hollingshead William Dewhurst as The Professor Charles Hawtrey as a Studious Youth at the aquarium (uncredited) Peter Bull as Michaelisa, a Conspirator (uncredited) Torin Thatcher as Yunct (uncredited) Production Hitchcock wanted to cast Robert Donat – with whom he had previously worked in The 39 Steps (1935) – as Spencer, but was forced to cast another actor (John Loder) owing to Donat's chronic asthma. According to Hitchcock, in his interviews with the French director François Truffaut, Alexander Korda, to whom Donat was under contract, refused to release him. Hitchcock, who was not happy with Loder's casting, later commented, "The actor we got wasn't suitable, and I was forced to rewrite the dialogue during the shooting". Hitchcock also chose the young Bobby Rietti – later known as Robert Rietti – to play the part of Steve, but was not able to sign him for legal reasons. Reception Frank S. Nugent of The New York Times praised the film as "a masterly exercise in suspense." Variety wrote, "Competent and experienced hand of the director is apparent throughout this production, which is a smart one and executed in a business-like manner from start to finish." However, the review noted that the motivation of the terrorists "is not made clear. As a result, the audience watches the piece and its suspensive moments with interest, and when it is over, is still hazy as to the why and wherefore." Harrison's Reports called it "A thrilling melodrama," adding that Hitchcock "again shows his skill in building up a situation to a tense climax." The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "The individual genius of Hitchcock is very clearly shown in the distinctive and original direction," and called Oscar Homolka's performance "remarkable." John Mosher of The New Yorker called it "rather exciting for the most part. It's a lively, minor Alfred Hitchcock picture." Writing for The Spectator, Graham Greene gave the film a good review, pronouncing that "in Sabotage for the first time [Hitchcock] has really 'come off'". Greene identified the children's matinée scene as an "ingenious and pathetic twist stamped as Mr Hitchcock's own", and he praised the melodrama present in the screenplay writing, the dialogue, and the acting cast generally. Greene's only complaint was in relation to the acting of the "unconvincing" detective (Loder) and the "invincibl[y] distaste[ful]" prep school student (Tester). Sabotage garnered 100% approval on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 7.4/10. Adaptation Bennett liberally adapted Joseph Conrad's novel, transforming the highly political Tsarist-era agents provocateurs into foreign agents without any obvious political leanings. Verloc's shop is transformed into a cinema, with the films being shown echoing the story, and the policeman investigating the case is an undercover officer posing as a greengrocer. Since the film was produced in the years immediately preceding World War II, the unnamed hostile power behind the bombings has been assumed by many viewers to be Nazi Germany. However, the film does not specify this, and indeed, Verloc's first name has been changed, presumably because his name in the novel, Adolf, had too many connotations by the time the film was made. Stevie, Mrs. Verloc's brother, is portrayed as an ordinary schoolboy, with few of the visionary attributes of his literary counterpart. Stevie's death is a climactic moment in the plot, providing insight into Hitchcock's views about how the innocent suffer through random acts of violence. When a critic condemned Stevie's death as brutal and unnecessary, Hitchcock said that he regretted including it in the film, not because of the brutality, however, but because it violated his method of suspense, whereby tension eventually had to be relieved. Yet, Hitchcock remained faithful to the novel in having the bomb go off, and it also allowed him to justify in the movie that the boy's sister would eventually kill her husband, who was responsible for the boy's death, and got away with it. Allusions The fact that many scenes of the film were set in a cinema allowed Hitchcock to include references to contemporary films and storylines. Perhaps the most famous of these is the final film sequence, an excerpt from a Walt Disney Silly Symphony Who Killed Cock Robin? (1935). Legacy Quentin Tarantino used the scene where Stevie is initially not allowed onto the bus due to the nitrate film he is carrying, in his film Inglourious Basterds. This was used to explain the use of nitrate film for the character's terrorist plot. See also The Secret Agent (1992, TV miniseries) The Secret Agent (1996) The Secret Agent (2016, TV miniseries) References External links Alfred Hitchcock Collectors’ Guide: Sabotage at Brenton Film 1936 films 1930s psychological thriller films 1930s spy thriller films British films British black-and-white films British spy thriller films English-language films Films based on British novels Films based on mystery novels Films based on works by Joseph Conrad Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock Films set in a movie theatre Films about terrorism Films set in London Films scored by Jack Beaver British psychological thriller films	[ -0.20964662730693817, 0.199710875749588, -0.5404205918312073, 0.04795951023697853, 0.22912095487117767, 0.5115023255348206, 0.556524395942688, -0.6337804198265076, -0.5527955889701843, 0.2914566993713379, -0.011452971957623959, 0.615510880947113, -0.39233309030532837, 0.295788437128067, -0.22755946218967438, 0.07482060045003891, 0.6456723213195801, 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247104	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninety-nine%20%28trick-taking%20card%20game%29	Ninety-nine (trick-taking card game)	Ninety-nine is a card game for 2, 3, or 4 players. It is a trick-taking game that can use ordinary French-suited cards. Ninety-nine was created in 1967 by David Parlett; his goal was to have a good 3-player trick-taking game with simple rules yet great room for strategy. In ninety-nine, players bid for the number of tricks that they will take; players who gain exactly that number of tricks (no more or less) gain a significant bonus. One unusual feature of ninety-nine is that players bid by discarding three cards. Rules Dealing A round of ninety-nine begins with the deal of a shuffled deck. The two- and three-player versions of the game use only the 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, J, Q, K, A (ranked from lowest to highest) - note that 6 is the lowest rank, and that the 2 through 5 are not included in the deck. The four-player version of the game uses the entire 52-card deck (in which case the 2 is the lowest rank). Players are dealt the entire deck, one card at a time, with all cards face down. In the two-player version, the cards are dealt to the two players and also to a third pseudo-player called the "dummy". As a result, in the two- and three-player versions players are initially dealt 12 cards, while in the four-player version players are initially dealt 13 cards. Players should sort their cards by suit, and by rank inside a suit. Trump suit is then determined. In the very first round of a game, there are no trumps. After that, the trump suit is determined by the number of players who won the last round: Diamonds if 0, Spades if 1, Hearts if 2, and Clubs if 3. In the four-player version, if all four players win a round, the next round is played with no trumps. Bidding Each player then bids on the number of tricks they expect to take. Players bid by discarding any three cards in their hand; each suit is worth a certain number of tricks, and the total number bid by three cards determines the bid using the following code: Thus, if a player discards a club and two diamonds, they have bid 3+0+0=3 tricks. Normally, these discarded "bid" cards are placed face-down on the table, so that the other players will not know how many tricks that player is trying to take. However, a player who is very confident with his hand can also make two kinds of premium bids, which are made out loud to the other players: a declaration, where the bid cards will be shown face-up, or a revelation, where every one of the player's cards will be placed face up. Only one player can make a premium bid in a round; a revelation outbids a declaration, otherwise the Dealer's left has the highest priority. A declarer in position can reveal if a player behind them states intent to reveal. In a 2-player game, both live players can declare, but neither player can reveal. Also, in the 2-player game, three cards are arbitrarily chosen from the dummy's hand and set aside as the dummy's bid (neither live player knows what the dummy has "bid"). Trick-taking After the bidding has been completed, trick-taking begins. If playing the 2-player version, the "dummy's" cards other than the 3 bidding cards are first placed face-up and sorted by suit. In 3- and 4-player versions, the player to the dealer's left plays the first card, and play continues clockwise. In the 2-player version, the non-dealer begins play. Players must follow suit of the suit led if they can, else they can play any card; they need not beat a card even if they can. If a trump card is played, the highest-ranking trump card wins, else the highest-ranking card of the suit led wins. The winner of a trick leads to the next trick. In the 2-player version, if a live player leads to a trick, then the other live player plays next, and the leading player then can choose any (legal) card from the dummy's hand. If the dummy wins a trick, the live player who last led chooses the dummy's card, the other live player plays next, and the player who last led plays from his own hand. Thus, the "dummy" is always first or last to play in the 2-player version. Scoring a round After all the cards have been played, the round is scored. Players earn one point for every trick they won, regardless of any other bonuses (or the lack of them). A player who acquired exactly the number of tricks they bid gains a bonus depending on the number of others who also made their bid. If only one player succeeded, that player earns 30 points; if two succeeded, each earns 20 points; if three succeeded, each earns 10 points; and if all four succeeded in a 4-player game there is no bonus. A declaration adds 30 points (to the declarer if successful, to the others if not); a revelation is worth 60 points (to the declarer if successful, to the others if not). Note that in the 3-player game, the maximum score in one round is ninety-nine (hence the name): 9 points for winning all nine tricks, 30 points for bidding 9 tricks and getting them (while no one else got their bid), and 60 points for a revelation. In the 2-player version, the dummy is considered to have succeeded if the dummy wins fewer tricks than it bid, failed if it wins more tricks than it bid, and declared if it met exactly the number of bid tricks. If both live players declare and neither makes it, the dummy gets 60 points. Games and matches Ninety-nine can be played by simply playing until some player reaches a predetermined total over many rounds (e.g., 200 or 500); the player with the largest score wins. If playing as a 2-player game, the dummy's score is not tracked. Parlett's recommending system for scoring games and matches is more intricate. He recommends that a game end when a player has reaches 100 points or more; any player who reaches or exceeds 100 points in that round also gains a 100-point game bonus, but they only get the game bonus if they succeed in that round (otherwise, they do not get the game bonus, though they get any other bonuses they are entitled to). A new game then starts. When one or more players wins 3 game bonuses, the totals across all games are totalled, and the player with the highest score wins. Variants Parlett's original rules, now referred to as the "classic" version, included a joker in the deal. This meant that (in the three-player game) there was one card remaining after the players were dealt their cards. This card was then turned over to indicate the trump suit for that deal (same suit as the turn-up). If the card turned over was the joker or a nine, then the hand was played as "no trumps". A player receiving the joker in their hand, treated it exactly as if it were the turn-up card, both for bidding and trick-taking purposes. Another variant is Oxford Whist. This game is solely for three players and originated in Oxford Road, Bootle, which is how the name was derived. It is played in the same way as Ninety-nine as far as discarding 3 cards to determine the number of tricks required. This version differs in three ways: All three discards always remain face down. A maximum of 10 points is awarded to any player who wins the declared number of tricks. The leftover cards (2s to 5s) are shuffled and placed in a face-down stock. Before each deal, the top card is turned over to determine trumps. The game is over when the 'trump stock' is used up, i.e. 20 deals. The player with the highest score wins. Strategy A key to playing ninety-nine well is discarding cards wisely to make a bid. In the two- and three-handed games, three cards must be discarded from twelve, resulting in 220 different options. Players must estimate what will happen to each of the cards they retain, and need to consider important factors such as what suit is trump and who will lead first. Players often want to get rid of "middle" cards, cards that are neither likely winners nor likely losers, and may want to "void" themselves of a suit since, once they have no card in a suit, they are free to play any other card if that suit is led. One of the most common bids is three, and one of the next most common bids is zero. Diamonds and spades are more likely to be discarded as bid cards than other suits. There will be fewer in play and these suits are less valuable. Few clubs tend to be discarded, making high clubs likely winners. If a hand is unbiddable and the cards needed to bid with are the cards needed for play, one strategy is to discard surprising cards such as all high cards of a given suit. The player doesn't intend to make the bid, and hopes to make it hard for anyone else to make their bids. Often players want to gain the lead early and play their most uncertain cards first. If they win tricks, they can try to throw away some other strong cards. If the uncertain cards lose, they can try to pick up tricks with stronger cards. References Parlett, David. Card Games. 1999. External links The designer's 99 page Additional 99 variants and information at Pagat.com Rules for Card Games at WhiteKnuckleCards.com Card games introduced in 1967 Exact bidding group English card games French deck card games	[ 0.20844951272010803, 0.2705320417881012, -0.11697307974100113, -0.12910978496074677, 0.0406239815056324, 0.1813020557165146, -0.013153848238289356, 0.2471390664577484, -0.5135945081710815, 0.22665919363498688, 0.23013971745967865, 0.44470250606536865, -0.29903528094291687, -0.32028868794441223, -0.24736443161964417, 0.6453748345375061, 0.8902303576469421, -0.11540546268224716, -0.10678837448358536, -0.7076604962348938, 0.09792327135801315, 0.07314713299274445, 0.38421565294265747, -0.5464634299278259, -0.4754442572593689, 0.3228710889816284, 0.29775336384773254, -0.13711221516132355, -0.37275230884552, 0.2932768762111664, -0.005021961871534586, 0.7007980942726135, 0.695433497428894, -0.46493449807167053, 0.031169960275292397, -0.043418772518634796, 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247107	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illustration	Illustration	An illustration is a decoration, interpretation or visual explanation of a text, concept or process, designed for integration in print and digital published media, such as posters, flyers, magazines, books, teaching materials, animations, video games and films. An illustration is typically created by an illustrator. Digital illustrations are often used to make websites and apps more user-friendly, such as the use of emojis to accompany digital type. llustration also means providing an example; either in writing or in picture form. The origin of the word "illustration" is late Middle English (in the sense ‘illumination; spiritual or intellectual enlightenment’): via Old French from Latin illustratio(n-), from the verb illustrare. Illustration styles Contemporary illustration uses a wide range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia, 3D modelling. Depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. Specialist areas include: Architectural illustration Archaeological illustration Botanical illustration Concept art Fashion illustration Information graphics Livre d'art Technical illustration Medical illustration Narrative illustration Picture books Scientific illustration Technical and scientific illustration Technical and scientific illustration communicates information of a technical or scientific nature. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, diagrams. The aim is "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer". Technical and scientific illustration is generally designed to describe or explain subjects to a nontechnical audience, so must provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer's interest and understanding". In contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. Illustration as fine art In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design and fine art. Today, however, due in part to the growth of graphic novel and video game industries, as well as increased use of illustration in magazines and other publications, illustration is now becoming a valued art form, capable of engaging a global market. Original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwell's painting "Breaking Home Ties" sold in a 2006 Sotheby's auction for US$15.4 million. Many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. History Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the industrial processes of printing and publishing. Early history The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were individually hand drawn and painted. With the invention of the printing press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed, often illustrated with woodcuts. Some of the earliest illustrations come from the time of ancient Egypt (Khemet) often as hieroglyph. A classic example of illustrations exists from the time of The Tomb of Pharaoh Seti I, circa 1294 BC to 1279 BC,who was father of Ramses II, born 1303 BC. 1600s Japan saw the origination of Ukiyo-e, an influential illustration style characterised by expressive line, vivid colour and subtle tones, resulting from the ink-brushed wood block printing technique. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life. Hokusai’s The Great Wave off Kanagawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching. In 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake (1757–827), who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality. 19th century In Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and "serious" publications. At this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. The British humorous magazine Punch (1841–2002) built on the success of Cruikshank's Comic Almanac (1827–1840) and employed many well-regarded illustrators, including Sir John Tenniel, the Dalziel Brothers, and Georges du Maurier. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators. Historically, Punch was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s. The magazine was the first to use the term "cartoon" to describe a humorous illustration and its widespread use led to John Leech being known as the world's first "cartoonist". In common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from reliance on caricature to sophisticated topical observation. The "Golden Age" From the early 1800s newspapers, mass-market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color and rendering techniques. These developments in printing effected all areas of literature from cookbooks, photography and travel guides, as well as children's books. Also, due to advances in printing, it became more affordable to produce color photographs within books and other materials. By 1900, almost 100 percent of paper was machine-made, and while a person working by hand could produce 60-100lbs of paper per day, mechanization yielded around 1,000lbs per day. Additionally, in the 50-year period between 1846 and 1916, book production increased 400% and the price of books was cut in half. In America, this led to a "golden age of illustration" from before the 1880s until the early 20th century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time. Among the best-known illustrators of that period were N.C. Wyeth and Howard Pyle of the Brandywine School, James Montgomery Flagg, Elizabeth Shippen Green, J. C. Leyendecker, Violet Oakley, Maxfield Parrish, Jessie Willcox Smith, and John Rea Neill. In France, on 1905, the Contemporary Book Society commissioned Paul Jouve to illustrate Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Book. Paul Jouve will devote ten years to the 130 illustrations of this book which will remain as one of the masterpieces of bibliophilia. See also Association of Illustrators Association of Medical Illustrators Comic book illustration Communication design Graphic design Illustrators Institute of Medical Illustrators Posters Society of Illustrators References External links Illustrators Design Communication design Graphic design	[ 0.6658176779747009, 0.18643204867839813, -0.30554482340812683, 0.5739637017250061, -0.07986024767160416, -0.06763207912445068, -0.36305853724479675, 0.4403565526008606, -0.24305203557014465, -0.9789561629295349, -0.7525147199630737, 0.3762610852718353, -0.21514524519443512, -0.019719569012522697, -0.09465612471103668, 0.3144897222518921, 0.058892231434583664, 0.5440738797187805, -0.2336168736219406, -0.24502728879451752, -0.7367545962333679, -0.37589433789253235, -0.1792963445186615, -0.6760842204093933, 0.26988181471824646, -0.6366453766822815, 0.4365413188934326, 0.03226165845990181, -0.2109723836183548, 0.19817698001861572, 0.0407327339053154, 0.03242562711238861, 0.08238296210765839, 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247110	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Hungary	Music of Hungary	Hungary has made many contributions to the fields of folk, popular and classical music. Hungarian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity and continues to play a major part in Hungarian music. It is also strong in the Szabolcs-Szatmár area and in the southwest part of Transdanubia. The Busójárás carnival in Mohács is a major Hungarian folk music event, formerly featuring the long-established and well-regarded Bogyiszló orchestra. Hungarian classical music has long been an "experiment, made from Hungarian antedecents and on Hungarian soil, to create a conscious musical culture [using the] musical world of the folk song". Although the Hungarian upper class has long had cultural and political connections with the rest of Europe, leading to an influx of European musical ideas, the rural peasants maintained their own traditions such that by the end of the 19th century Hungarian composers could draw on rural peasant music to (re)create a Hungarian classical style. For example, Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály, two of Hungary's most famous composers, are known for using folk themes in their music. Bartók collected folk songs from across Central and Eastern Europe, including the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania and Slovakia, whilst Kodály was more interested in creating a distinctively Hungarian musical style. During the era of Communist rule in Hungary (1949–1989) a Song Committee scoured and censored popular music for traces of subversion and ideological impurity. Since then, however, the Hungarian music industry has begun to recover, producing successful performers in the fields of jazz such as trumpeter Rudolf Tomsits, pianist-composer Károly Binder and, in a modernized form of Hungarian folk, Ferenc Sebő and Márta Sebestyén. The three giants of Hungarian rock, Illés, Metró and Omega, remain very popular, especially Omega, which has followings in Germany and beyond as well as in Hungary. Older veteran underground bands such as Beatrice from the 1980s also remain popular. Characteristics Unlike most Western European peoples, the Hungarian people, Magyars, emerged from the intermingling of Ugric and Eastern Turkish peoples during the fifth to eighth centuries CE. This makes the origins of their traditional music unique in Europe. According to author Simon Broughton, the composer and song collector Kodály identified songs that "apparently date back 2,500 years" in common with the Mari people of Russia; and, as well as the Mari, the ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl indicates similarities in traditional Hungarian music with Mongolian and Native American musical styles. Bence Szabolcsi, however, claims that the Finno-Ugric and Turkish-Mongolian elements are present but "cannot be attached to certain, definite national or linguistic groups". Nonetheless, Szabolcsi claims links between Hungarian musical traditions and those of the Mari, Kalmyk, Ostyak, northwest Chinese, Tatar, Vogul, Anatolian Turkish, Bashkirian, Mongol and Chuvash musics. These, he claims, are evidence that "Asian memories slumber in the depths of Hungarian folk music and that this folk music is the last Western link in the chain of ancient Eastern cultural relations". According to Broughton, traditional Hungarian music is "highly distinctive" like the Hungarian language, which invariably is stressed on the first syllable, lending a strongly accented dactylic rhythm to the music". Nettl identifies two "essential features" of Hungarian folk music to be the use of "pentatonic scales composed of major seconds and minor thirds" (or "gapped scales") and "the practice of transposing a bit of melody several times to create the essence of a song". These transpositions are "usually up or down a fifth", a fundamental interval in the series of overtones and an indication perhaps of the "influence of Chinese musical theory in which the fifth is significant". According to Szabolcsi, these 'Hungarian transpositions', along with "some melodic, rhythmical and ornamental peculiarities, clearly show on the map of Eurasia the movements of Turkish people from the East to the West". The subsequent influence on neighbouring countries' music is seen in the music of Slovakia, Poland, and, with intervals of the third or second, in the music of the Czech Republic. Hungarian and Finnoic musical traditions are also characterised by the use of an ABBA binary musical form, with Hungary itself especially known for the A A' A' A variant, where the B sections are the A sections transposed up or down a fifth (A'). Modern Hungarian folk music evolved in the 19th century, and is contrasted with previous styles through the use of arched melodic lines as opposed to the more archaic descending lines. Music history The earliest documentation of Hungarian music dates from the introduction of Gregorian chant in the 11th century. By that time, Hungary had begun to enter the European cultural establishment with the country's conversion to Christianity and the musically important importation of plainsong, a form of Christian chant. Though Hungary's early religious musical history is relatively well documented, secular music remains mostly unknown, though it was apparently a common feature of community festivals and other events. The earliest documented instrumentation in Hungary dates back to the whistle in 1222, the Koboz around 1237-1325, the bugle in 1355, the fiddle in 1358, the bagpipe in 1402, the lute in 1427 and the trumpet in 1428. Thereafter the organ came to play a major role. The 16th century saw the rise of Transylvania (a region inhabited by Hungarians, never occupied by the Turks) as a centre for Hungarian music. It also saw the first publication of music in Hungary, in Kraków. At this time Hungarian instrumental music was well known in Europe; the lutenist and composer Bálint Bakfark, for example, was famed as a virtuoso player. His compositions pioneered a new style of writing for the lute based on vocal polyphony. The lutenist brothers Melchior and Konrad Neusiedler were also noted, as was Stephan Monetarius, the author of an important early work in music theory, the Epithoma utriusque musices. During the 16th century, Hungary was divided into three parts: an area controlled by the Turks; an area controlled by the Habsburgs; and Transylvania. Historic songs declined in popularity and were replaced by lyrical poetry, whilst minstrels were replaced by court musicians. Many courts or households maintained large ensembles of musicians who played the trumpet, whistle, cimbalom, violin or bagpipes. Some of these ensemble musicians were German, Polish, French or Italian; the court of Gábor Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania, included a Spanish guitarist. Little detail about the music played during this era survives, however. Musical life in the areas controlled by the Ottoman Turks declined precipitously, with even the formerly widespread and entrenched plainsong style disappearing by the end of the 17th century. Outside of the Ottoman area, however, plainsong flourished after the establishment of Protestant missions in around 1540, while a similarly styled form of folk song called verse chronicles also arose. During the 18th century, some of the students at colleges such as those in Sárospatak and Székelyudvarhely were minor nobles from rural areas who brought with them their regional styles of music. Whilst the choirs in these colleges adopted a more polyphonic style, the students' songbooks indicate a growth in the popularity of homophonic songs. Their notation, however, was relatively crude and no extensive collection appeared until the publication of Ádám Pálóczi Horváth’s Ötödfélszáz Énekek in 1853. These songs indicate that during the mid to late 18th century the previous Hungarian song styles died out and musicians looked more to other (Western) European styles for influence. The 18th century also saw the rise of verbunkos, a form of music initially used by army recruiters. Like much Hungarian music of the time, melody was treated as more important than lyrics, although this balance changed as verbunkos became more established. Folk music Hungarian folk music changed greatly beginning in the 19th century, evolving into a new style that had little in common with the music that came before it. Modern Hungarian music was characterised by an "arched melodic line, strict composition, long phrases and extended register", in contrast to the older styles which always utilize a "descending melodic line". Modern Hungarian folk music was first recorded in 1895 by Béla Vikár, setting the stage for the pioneering work of Béla Bartók, Zoltán Kodály and László Lajtha in musicological collecting. Modern Hungarian folk music began its history with the Habsburg Empire in the 18th century, when central European influences became paramount, including a "regular metric structure for dancing and marching instead of the free speech rhythms of the old style. Folk music at that time consisting of village bagpipers who were replaced by string-based orchestras of the Gypsy, or Roma people. In the 19th century, Roma orchestras became very well known throughout Europe, and were frequently thought of as the primary musical heritage of Hungary, as in Franz Liszt's Hungarian Dances and Rhapsodies, which used Hungarian Roma music as representative of Hungarian folk music Hungarian Romani music is often represented as the only music of the Roma, though multiple forms of Roma music are common throughout Europe and are often dissimilar to Hungarian forms. In the Hungarian language, 19th-century folk styles like the csardas and the verbunkos, are collectively referred to as cigányzene, which translates literally as Gypsy music. Hungarian nationalist composers, like Bartók, rejected the conflation of Hungarian and Roma music, studying the rural peasant songs of Hungary which, according to music historian Bruno Nettl, "has little in common with" Roma music, a position that is held to by some modern writers, such as the Hungarian author Bálint Sárosi. Simon Broughton, however, has claimed that Roma music is "no less Hungarian and... has more in common with peasant music than the folklorists like to admit", and authors Marian Cotton and Adelaide Bradburn claimed that Hungarian-Roma music was "perhaps... originally Hungarian in character, but (the Roma have made so many changes that) it is difficult to tell what is Hungarian and what is" the authentic music of the Roma. The ethnic Csángó Hungarians of Moldavia's Seret Valley have moved in large numbers to Budapest, and become a staple of the local folk scene with their distinctive instrumentation using flutes, fiddles, drums and the lute. Prominent folk ensembles, such as the Hungaria Folk Orchestra, the Danube Folk Ensemble and the Hungarian State Folk Ensemble have regular performances in Budapest and are a popular attraction for visitors. Verbunkos In the 19th century, verbunkos was the most popular style in Hungary. This consisted of a slow dance followed by a faster dance; this dichotomy, between the slower and faster dances, has been seen as the "two contrasting aspects of the Hungarian character". The rhythmic patterns and embellishments of the verbunkos are distinctively Hungarian in nature, and draw heavily upon the folk music composed in the early part of the century by Antal Csermak, Ferdinand Kauer, Janos Lavotta and others. Verbunkos was originally played at recruitment ceremonies to convince young men to join the army, and was performed, as in so much of Hungarian music, by Roma bands. One verbunkos tune, the "Rákóczi March" became a march that was a prominent part of compositions by both Liszt and Hector Berlioz. The 18th-century origins of verbunkos are not well known, but probably include old dances like the swine-herd dance and the Hajduk dance, as well as elements of Balkan, Slavic and Levantine music, and the cultured music of Italy and Vienna, all filtered through the Roma performers. Verbunkos became wildly popular, not just among the poor peasantry, but also among the upper-class aristocratics, who saw verbunkos as the authentic music of the Hungarian nation. Characteristics of verbunkos include the bokázó (clicking of heels) cadence-pattern, the use of the interval of the augmented second, garlands of triplets, widely arched, free melodies without words, and alternately swift and slow tempi. By the end of the 18th century, verbunkos was in use in opera, chamber and piano music, and in song literature, and was regarded as "the continuation, the resurrection of ancient Hungarian dance and music, and its success signified the triumph of the people's art". The violinist Panna Czinka was among the most celebrated musicians of the 19th century, as was the Roma bandleader János Bihari, known as the "Napoleon of the fiddle". Bihari, Antal Csermák and other composers helped make verbunkos the "most important expression of the Hungarian musical Romanticism" and have it "the role of national music". Bihari was especially important in popularizing and innovating the verbunkos; he was the "incarnation of the musical demon of fiery imagination". Bihari and others after his death helped invent nóta, a popular form written by composers like Lóránd Fráter, Árpád Balázs, Pista Dankó, Béni Egressy, Márk Rózsavölgyi and Imre Farkas. Many of the biggest names in modern Hungarian music are the verbunkos-playing Lakatos family, including Sándor Lakatos and Roby Lakatos. Roma music Though the Roma are primarily known as the performers of Hungarian styles like verbunkos, they have their own form of folk music that is largely without instrumentation, in spite of their reputation in that field outside of the Roma community. Roma music tends to take on characteristics of whatever music the people are around, however, embellished with "twists and turns, trills and runs", making a very new, and distinctively Roma style. Though without instruments, Roma folk musicians use sticks, tapped on the ground, rhythmic grunts and a technique called oral-bassing which vocally imitates the sound of instruments. Some modern Roma musicians, like Ando Drom, Romano Drom, Romani Rota and Kalyi Jag have added modern instruments like guitars to the Roma style, while Gyula Babos' Project Romani has used elements of avant-garde jazz. Hungarian music abroad Ethnic Hungarians live in parts of the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Serbia, Slovenia, and elsewhere. Of these, the Hungarian population of Romania (both in the region of Transylvania and among the Csángó people) - being the more rural, outer rims of the kingdom of Hungary - has had the most musical impact on Hungarian folk music. The Hungarian community in Slovakia has produced the rootsy band Ghymes, who play in the táncház tradition. The Serbian region of Vojvodina is home to a large Hungarian minority Transylvanian folk music remains vital part of life in modern Transylvania. Bartók and Kodály found Transylvania to be a fertile area for folk song collecting. Folk bands are usually a string trio, consisting of a violin, viola and double bass, occasionally with a cimbalom; the first violin, or primás, plays the melody, with the others accompanying and providing the rhythm. Transylvania is also the original home of the táncház tradition, which has since spread throughout Hungary. Táncház Táncház (literally "dance house") is a dance music movement which first appeared in the 1970s as a reaction against state-supported homogenised and sanitised folk music. They have been described as a "cross between a barn dance and folk club", and generally begin with a slow tempo verbunkos (recruiting dance), followed by swifter csárdás dances. Csárdás is a very popular Hungarian folk dance that comes in many regional varieties, and is characterized by changes in tempo. Táncház began with the folk song collecting of musicians like Béla Halmos and Ferenc Sebő, who collected rural instrumental and dance music for popular, urban consumption, along with the dance collectors György Martin and Sándor Timár. The most important rural source of these songs was Transylvania, which is actually in Romania but has a large ethnic Hungarian minority. The instrumentation of these bands, based on Transylvanian and sometimes the southern Slovak Hungarian communities, included a fiddle on lead with violin, a kontra (a 3-string viola also called a brácsa), and bowed double bass, and sometimes a cimbalom as well. Many of the biggest names in modern Hungarian music emerged from the táncház scene, including Muzsikás and Márta Sebestyén. Other bands include Vujicsics, Jánosi, Téka and Kalamajka, while singers include Éva Fábián and András Berecz. Famous instrumentalists include fiddlers Csaba Ökrös and Balázs Vizeli, cimbalomist Kálmán Balogh, violinist Félix Lajkó (from Subotica in Serbia) and multi-instrumentalist Mihály Dresch. Classical music Hungary's most important contribution to the worldwide field of European classical music is probably Franz Liszt, a renowned pianist in his own time and a well-regarded composer of 19 Hungarian Rhapsodies and a number of symphonic poems such as Les préludes. Liszt was among the major composers during the late 19th century, a time when modern Hungarian classical music was in its formative stage. Along with Liszt and his French Romantic tendencies, Ferenc Erkel's Italian and French-style operas, with Hungarian words, and Mihály Mosonyi's German classical style, helped set the stage for future music, and their influence is "unsurpassed even by their successors, because in addition to their individual abilities they bring about an unprecedented artistic intensification of the Romantic musical idiom, which is practically consumed by this extreme passion". Elements of Hungarian folk music, especially verbunkos, became an important elements of many composers, both Hungarians like Kalman Simonffy and foreign composers like Johannes Brahms and Ludwig van Beethoven. Hungary has also produced Karl Goldmark, composer of the Rustic Wedding Symphony, composer and pianist Ernő Dohnányi, composer and ethnomusicologist László Lajtha, and the piano composer Stephen Heller. A number of violinists from Hungary have also achieved international renown, especially Joseph Joachim, Jenő Hubay, Edward Reményi, Sándor Végh, Franz von Vecsey, Ede Zathureczky, Emil Telmányi, Tibor Varga and Leopold Auer. Hungarian-born conductors include Antal Doráti; ; Eugene Ormandy; Fritz Reiner; George Szell and Georg Solti, Ádám Fischer and Iván Fischer, as well as Gregory Vajda. Pianists of international renown: Géza Anda, Tamás Vásáry, Georges Cziffra, Annie Fischer, Zoltán Kocsis, Dezső Ránki, András Schiff and Jenő Jandó Hungarian opera The origins of Hungarian opera can be traced to the late 18th century, with the rise of imported opera and other concert styles in cities like Pozsony, Kismarton, Nagyszeben and Budapest. Operas at the time were in either the German or Italian style. The field Hungarian opera began with school dramas and interpolations of German operas, which began at the end of the 18th century. School dramas in places like the Pauline School in Sátoraljaújhely, the Calvinist School in Csurgó and the Piarist School in Beszterce. Pozsony produced the first music drama experiments in the country, though the work of Gáspár Pacha and József Chudy; it was the latter's 1793 Prince Pikkó and Jutka Perzsi that is generally considered the first opera in a distinctively Hungarian style. The text of that piece was translated from Prinz Schnudi und Prinzessin Evakathel by Philipp Hafner. This style was still strongly informed by the Viennese Zauberposse style of comedic play, and remained thus throughout the 19th century. Though these operas used foreign styles, the "idyllic, lyric and heroic" parts of the story were always based on verbunkos, which was becoming a symbol of the Hungarian nation during this time. It was not until the middle of the 19th century that Ferenc Erkel wrote the first Hungarian language opera, using French and Italian models, thus launching the field of Hungarian opera. Bartók and Kodály At the end of the 19th century, Hungarian music was dominated by compositions in the German classical style, while Viennese-style operettas gained immensely in popularity. This ended beginning in about 1905, when Endre Ady's poems were published, composer Béla Bartók was published for the first time, and Zoltán Kodály began collecting folk songs. Bartók and Kodály were two exceptional composers who created a distinctively Hungarian style. Bartók collected songs across Eastern Europe, though much of his activity was in Hungary, and he used their elements in his music. He was interested in all forms of folk music, while Kodály was more specifically Hungarian in his outlook. In contrast to previous composers who worked with Hungarian popular musical idioms, Kodály and Bartók drew a sharp line between the popular music played by Roma (also known as "magyarnóta", or Hungarian music or Gypsy music) and the music of farmers. Their work was a watershed that incorporated "every great tradition of the Hungarian people" and influenced all the later composers of the country. Later 20th century For the first half of the 20th century, Bartók and Kodály were potent symbols for a generation of composers, especially Kodály. Starting in about 1947, a revival in folk choir music began, ended as an honest force by 1950, when state-run art became dominant with the rise of Communism. Under Communism, "(c)ommitment and ideological affiliation (were) measured by the musical style of a composer; the ignominious adjectives 'formalistic' and 'cosmopolitan' gain currency ... (and the proper Hungarian style was) identified with the major mode, the classical aria, rondo or sonata form, the chord sequences distilled" from Kodály's works. Music was uniformly festive and optimistic, with every deviation arousing suspicion; this simplicity led to a lack of popular support from the public, who did not identify with the sterile approved styles. The most prominent composers of this period were Endre Szervánszky, Ferenc Szabó and Lajos Bárdos. Beginning in about 1955, a new wave of composers appeared, inspired by Bartók and breathing new life into Hungarian music. Composers from this era included András Mihály, Endre Szervánszky, Pál Kadosa, Ferenc Farkas and György Ránki. These composers both brought back old techniques of Hungarian music, as well as adapting imported avant-garde and modernist elements of Western classical music. György Ligeti and György Kurtág are often mentioned in the same sentence. They were born near each other in Transylvania and studied in Budapest in the 1940s. Both were influenced by Stockhausen. Kurtág's modernism borrowed many influences from the past. By contrast Ligeti invented a new language with chromatic tone clusters and elements of parody. Both were multi-lingual and became exiles. This is reflected in the texts for their works. The foundation of the New Music Studio in 1970 helped further modernise Hungarian classical music though promoting composers that felt audience education was as important a consideration as artistic merit in composition and performance; these Studio's well-known composers include László Vidovszky, László Sáry and Zoltán Jeney. Miklós Rózsa, who studied in Germany and eventually settled in the United States, achieved international recognition for his Hollywood film scores as well as his concert music. Popular music Hungarian popular music in the early 20th century consisted of light operettas and the Roma music of various styles. Nagymező utca, the "Broadway of Budapest", was a major centre for popular music, and boasted enough nightclubs and theatres to earn its nickname. In 1945, however, this era abruptly ended and popular music was mostly synonymous with the patriotic songs imposed by the Russian Communists. Some operettas were still performed, though infrequently, and any music with Western influences was seen as harmful and dangerous. In 1956, however, liberalisation began with the "three Ts" ("tiltás, tűrés, támogatás", meaning "prohibition, toleration, support"), and a long period of cultural struggle began, starting with a battle over African American jazz. Jazz became a part of Hungarian music in the early 20th century, and although common place in Budapest's venues such as the Tabarin, the Astoria and Central Cafe which set up its own coffee jazz band, it has not achieved widespread renown until the 1970s, when Hungary began producing internationally known performers like the Benkó Dixieland Band and Béla Szakcsi Lakatos. Other renowned performers from the younger generation are the Hot Jazz Band and the Bohém Ragtime Jazz Band. Rock In the early 1960s, Hungarian youths began listening to rock in droves, in spite of condemnation from the authorities. Three bands dominated the scene by the beginning of the 1970s, Illés, Metró and Omega, all three of which had released at least one album. A few other bands recorded a few singles, but the Record-Producing Company, a state-run record label, did not promote or support these bands, which quickly disappeared. In 1968, the New Economic Mechanism was introduced, intending on revitalising the Hungarian economy, while the band Illés won almost every prize at the prestigious Táncdalfesztivál. In the 1970s, however, the hard-liners of the Communist party cracked down on dissidence in Hungary, and rock was a major target. The band Illés was banned from performing and recording, while Metró and Omega left. Some of the members of these bands formed a supergroup, Locomotiv GT, that quickly became very famous. The remaining members of Omega, meanwhile, succeeded in achieving stardom in Germany, and remained very popular for a time. Rock bands in the late 1970s had to conform to the Record Company's demands and ensure that all songs passed the inspection of the Song Committee, who scoured all songs looking for hidden political messages. LGT was the most prominent band of a classic rock style that was very popular, along with Illés, Bergendy and Zorán, while there were other bands like The Sweet and Middle of the Road who catered to the desires of the Song Committee, producing rock-based pop music without a hint of subversion. Meanwhile, the disco style of electronic music produced such performers as the expensively produced and managed Neoton Familia, Beatrice and Szűcs Judit, while the more critically acclaimed progressive rock scene produced bands like East, V73, Color and Panta Rhei. In the early 1980s, economic depression wracked Hungary, leading to a wave of politically disillusioned and alienated yet vibrant youth culture, a crucial part of which were hard rock, punk, new wave and art rock. Major bands from this era included Beatrice, who had moved from disco to punk and folk-influenced rock and were known for their splashy, uncensored and theatrical performances, P. Mobil, Bikini, Hobo Blues Band, A. E. Bizottság, Európa Kiadó, Sziámi and Edda művek. The first major prison sentences for rock-related subversion were given out, with the members of the punk band CPg sentenced to two years for political incitement. As the communist system was falling apart, the Hungarian Record Company (MHV) was privatized and smaller independent labels such as Bahia and Human Telex were formed. Major multinational companies such as EMI established headquarters in Budapest. Hungarian popular music became incorporated into the global music industry. Electronic music Clubbing and electronic dance music started gaining popularity in Hungary following the change of regime in 1989 and corresponding to Electronic music's increasing popularity in the worldwide musical mainstream. The political freedom and cultural boom of western culture opened the way for the clubbing scene, with several venues starting all around the country, especially in Budapest and around Lake Balaton. The 1990s also marked the creation of several dance formations, notably Soho Party, Splash, Náksi & Brunner and also rave formations such as Emergency House and Kozmix. Notable techno and house DJ-s are Sterbinszky, Budai, and Newl. The workings of the scene culminated in events like Budapest Parade, the largest such street festival in Hungary, that was held yearly from 2000 to 2006, attracting more than half million visitors. The history of Electronic Dance Music and Techno culture in Hungary is documented in Ferenc Kömlődy's book "Fénykatedrális", (1999 in Hungarian). A thriving underground scene was marked by the start of Tilos Rádió in 1991, the first free independent community station, starting out as a pirate radio. The station soon developed strong ties with the first alternative electronic formations, and inspired to start many others. Bands like Korai Öröm and Másfél (also check Myster Mobius) started, playing ambient, psychedelic music. Anima Sound System, one of the most influential bands on the scene, was created in 1993 playing dub and trip-hop influenced by acid jazz and ethnic music. Several other bands and formations followed, like Colorstar and Neo. Neo has won a worldwide reputation for their unique electro-pop style and the "Mozart of pop music" award (Cannes, 2004) they received for their soundtrack album called "Control". Apart from Anima, ethnic and folk influenced the scene in many ways, exemplified by formations like Balkan Fanatik, or Mitsoura. One of the most successful Hungarian electronic musician is Yonderboi, who recently co-created Žagar, gaining wide reputation in the country. In the past few years, dubstep has gained popular attention as well, nationwide. Experimental and minimal scene is in its early age, although several crews and DJs are working, organising numerous events. Notable performers include c0p, Cadik, Ferenc Vaspöeri and Isu. Hip hop Hip hop and rap have been developing in Hungary with two scenes, underground and mainstream, which is mostly popular among young people in Hungary. Underground rappers condemn the mainstream for "selling" their music and usually provide deeper message. Mainstream hip hop is dominated by the pioneer of Gangsta rap in Hungary, Ganxsta Zolee, and there are also other famous ones including FankaDeli, Sub Bass Monster, Dopeman, and LL Junior. Mainstream hip-hop is extremely popular among the Romani youth. Bëlga started as an offshoot hiphop project at Tilos Rádió. As lyrical innovators and phenomenal parodists, they gained wide popularity for an extremely explicit criticism of Budapest public transport company BKV, as well as hilarious wordplays and self-irony. Their lyrics are significant beyond the hip-hop scope as a cultural documentation of turn-of-the-millennia Culture of Hungary. Hungarian Slam sessions are rare and few, and still a novelty for the mainstream, but are gaining popularity with literary performers, emcees and audiences alike. Hardcore, metal Despite being unknown among most Hungarian people, hardcore and metal are flourishing styles of music in Hungary. Metal bands are formed all over the country. Dominant styles are death metal, black metal and thrash. There are also power metal, folk metal and heavy metal groups, including Dalriada and Thy Catafalque. Hardcore and metalcore are most common in Budapest and Western Hungary, in towns like Győr, Csorna, Szombathely and Veszprém, but Eastern Hungary and Debrecen is getting into a more and more important place in the hardcore scene. The first Hungarian acts that tagged themselves Hardcore like AMD, Leukémia, Marina revue emerged in the late 1980s, and were followed by a number of acts, constituting a scene that flourishes since the early 1990s. Notable bands were Dawncore and Newborn of the late 1990s gaining also some international success. Members of these bands went on to form Bridge to Solace and The Idoru. Other important, active bands: Hold X True, Fallenintoashes, Embers, Suicide Pride, Subscribe, Road, Shell Beach, Hatred Solution, Blind Myself, Superbutt, Stillborn (Hatebreed tribute). An internationally known band is Ektomorf, infusing heavy ethnic content with harsh vocals, One of North America's most popular metal band with record sales over two million albums; Five Finger Death Punch was formed by the Hungarian born, Golden God Shredder Award winning guitarist Zoltan Bathory Extreme hardcorepunk and grindcore bands from Hungary include Jack (crustgrind), Human Error(crustcore), Step On It (allschool hardcore), Another Way (fastcore), Gyalázat (crustpunk). Indie The origins of the Hungarian indie music scene go back to the early 1980s when Európa Kiadó, Sziami and Balaton released their records. The first revival took place in the mid-1990s when bands like Sexepil gained international success, followed by Heaven Street Seven. The second and most notable revival of the indie-alternative scene took place in the mid-2000s when bands like Amber Smith, The Moog signed to international labels. Other notable bands include EZ Basic, The KOLIN and Dawnstar. The Hungarian indie scene is closely intertwined with electronic music therefore artists like Yonderboi and Žagar are often considered part of the indie scene. The Hungarian indie music has its special, Hungarian languaged line. It is based rather on 1980s bands like Európa Kiadó or Neurotic. The most notable bands and artists are Kispál és a borz (the lead singer and songwriter András Lovasi was honored by the Kossuth Prize), Hiperkarma (Róbert Bérczesi made alone the first album), and Quimby (most notable member is Tibor Kiss). Punk The origins of the Hungarian punk movement go back to the early eighties, when a handful of bands like ETA, QSS, CPG, and Auróra emerged as angry young men playing fast and raw punk rock music. Like many other musicians of their age, they often criticised the communist government. They were a part of the national movement to reject the oppressiveness, and particularly the censorship, of the communist regime. As their music was on the verge of acceptance both by the public and the authorities, concerts were held under tight police control, and often caused moral outrage. With band members often living under constant surveillance, prison was a serious possibility. Two members of the band CPG were found guilty and sent to prison for two years for allegedly unmoral lyrics. After their release, they had to leave Hungary, as did Auróra’s lead singer. The change of regime in 1989 brought a new situation, and bands now revolted against corruption and the Americanisation of the country. They felt that the new system retained the bad things from the previous one, but lacked that good things that many expected. In lyrics, they often mention the newly appearing organised crime, and the still low standard of living. Today the Hungarian punk scene is low profile, but vibrant with several active bands, often touring the country and beyond. Summer brings a slew of punk and alternative festivals where they can all be sampled. Top venues playing punk music around Budapest include Vörös Yuk, Borgödör, Music Factory and A38 Hajó. Major bands include Auróra, the oldest Hungarian punk band with twenty-five years of history, come from the northwest Hungarian town of Győr and their originally street punk music has been recently updated with a ska-punk flavor, HétköznaPI CSAlódások (also called PICSA), a simplistic but powerful punk band, most popular in the end of the 1990s. They, similarly to Junkies, Fürgerókalábak, and Prosectura, are part of the new wave of punk bands that had risen in the mid-late 1990s in Hungary. Out of the newer bands, two northeast Hungarian bands are the most known, both playing California punk: Alvin és a mókusok come from Nyíregyháza, while Macskanadrág are from Salgótarján. Festivals, venues and other institutions Folk and classical music Budapest, the capital and music centre of Hungary, is one of the best places to go in Hungary to hear "really good folk music", says world music author Simon Broughton. The city is home to an annual folk festival called Táncháztalálkozó ("Meeting of the Táncházak", literally "dance houses"), which is a major part of the modern music scene. The Budapest Spring Festival along with the Budapest Autumn Festival are large scale cultural events every year. The Budapesti Fesztivál Zenekar (Budapest Festival Orchestra) has recently been awarded the Editor's Choice Gramophone Award. Long-standing venues in Budapest include the Philharmonic Society (founded 1853), the Opera House of Budapest (founded 1884) the Academy of Music, which opened in 1875 with President Franz Liszt and Director Ferenc Erkel and which has remained the centre for music education in the country since. Popular music festivals Several musical festivals have been launched since the early 1990s propelled by increasing demand of the developing youth culture. Aside from country-wide events like Sziget Festival or Hegyalja Festival, local festivals started to emerge since the first half of the first decade of the new millennium, with the aim to showcase known bands in all regions of Hungary. Growing out of a low-profile student meeting in 1993, Sziget Festival became one of the largest open-air festival in the world, taking place each summer in the heart of Budapest, the 108 hectare Óbudai island. Visited by hundreds of thousands from all over Europe, it is the largest cultural event in Hungary, inviting world-class performers from all genres. Also having a history from 1993, VOLT Festival is the second-largest music festival in the country, held each year in Sopron. With a colorful mix of musical styles, and popularity increasing each year, is considered to be the "cheaper version" of Sziget. Also founded by the Sziget management, Balaton Sound is a festival of mainly electronic music, held yearly in Zamárdi, next to Lake Balaton. With prestigious performers and exclusive surroundings, it tries to position itself as a high-standard event. Hegyalja Festival, held in Tokaj, the historic wine-region of the country, is the largest such event in the Northern part. Visited by 50.000 guests each year, it showcases mainly hard rock and rock formations, but many more genres are present. BalaTone, another major event near lake Balaton is held in Zánka. Magyar Sziget, held in Verőce, has a nationalist theme, with mainly right-wing performers, bands representing the recently emerged nationalistic rock, folk and folk-rock. As a tradition, each larger University (or more precisely, its students' union) holds a periodical music festival, "University Days", of various size, the largest one is PEN (of the University of Pécs). Examples of smaller, local festivals are SZIN held in Szeged, the free Utcazene Fesztivál held on the streets of Veszprém, Pannónia Fesztivál in Várpalota, or the recently (2008) started Fishing on Orfű, held on the beach of the Orfű lake. Funding The Hungarian Ministry of Culture helps to fund some forms of music, as does the government-run National Cultural Fund. Non-profit organisations in Hungary include the Hungarian Jazz Alliance and the Hungarian Music Council. See also Kontra Hungary in the Eurovision Song Contest References Notes Further reading External links Audio clips: Traditional music of Hungary. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010. 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247112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian%20music	Hungarian music	Hungarian music may refer to: Music of Hungary, which includes many kinds of music associated with Serbian, Roma and ethnically Hungarian people Hungarian folk music, which is found in Hungary as well as parts of Serbia, Slovakia and Romania	[ 0.19159914553165436, 0.22809195518493652, -0.47579383850097656, -0.2898223102092743, 0.25605806708335876, 0.3900570869445801, 0.306583046913147, 0.551937460899353, -0.6525959968566895, -0.5375736355781555, -0.417250394821167, 0.05200890079140663, -0.24987994134426117, 0.19365893304347992, -0.7737574577331543, 0.6388604640960693, 1.0536545515060425, 0.38722068071365356, 0.4985671639442444, -0.33735769987106323, -0.20856258273124695, 0.12647506594657898, 0.23163220286369324, 0.3401434123516083, -0.18367481231689453, -0.27590101957321167, 0.02671671472489834, 0.4077939987182617, -0.07040712237358093, -0.04826135188341141, -0.41211411356925964, 1.1093076467514038, 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247120	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue	Revenue	In accounting, revenue is the total amount of income generated by the sale of goods and services related to the primary operations of the business. Commercial revenue may also be referred to as sales or as turnover. Some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. "Revenue" may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, earned during a period of time, as in "Last year, Company X had revenue of $42 million". Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period. In accounting, in the balance statement, revenue is a subsection of the Equity section and revenue increases equity, it is often referred to as the "top line" due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the "bottom line" which denotes net income (gross revenues minus total expenses). In general usage, Revenue is the total amount of income generated by the sale of goods or services related to the company's primary operations Sales revenue is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time. Tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. Fundraising revenue is income received by a charity from donors etc. to further its social purposes. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a particular standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, do not use the same process for measuring revenue. Corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or on International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading "Revenue" or "Revenues" on an income statement. Revenue account-names describe the type of revenue, such as "Repair service revenue", "Rent revenue earned" or "Sales". Non-profit organizations For non-profit organizations, revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, support, contributions, etc. This operating revenue can include donations from individuals and corporations, support from government agencies, income from activities related to the organization's mission, income from fundraising activities, and membership dues. Revenue (income and gains) from investments may be categorized as "operating" or "non-operating"—but for many non-profits must (simultaneously) be categorized by fund (along with other accounts). Association dues revenue For non-profits with substantial revenue from the dues of their voluntary members: non-dues revenue is revenue generated through means besides association membership fees. This revenue can be found through means of sponsorships, donations or outsourcing the association's digital media outlets. Business revenue Business revenue is money income from activities that are ordinary for a particular corporation, company, partnership, or sole-proprietorship. For some businesses, such as manufacturing or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods. Service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees and interest generated by lending assets to other organizations or individuals. Revenues from a business's primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices. Most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the business's primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales. Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue (a.k.a. non-operating revenue) is revenue from peripheral (non-core) operations. For example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as "regular" revenue. If that same company also rented a portion of one of its buildings, it would record that revenue as “other revenue” and disclose it separately on its income statement to show that it is from something other than its core operations. The combination of all the revenue-generating systems of a business is called its revenue model. Accounting terms Net sales = gross sales – (customer discounts, returns, and allowances) Gross profit = net sales – cost of goods sold Operating profit = gross profit – total operating expenses Net profit = operating profit – taxes – interest Net profit = net sales – cost of goods sold – operating expense – taxes – interest Financial statement analysis Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company's performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows (revenues) compare with its asset outflows (expenses). Net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call. If a company displays solid “top-line growth”, analysts could view the period's performance as positive even if earnings growth, or “bottom-line growth” is stagnant. Conversely, high net income growth would be tainted if a company failed to produce significant revenue growth. Consistent revenue growth, if accompanied by net income growth, contributes to the value of an enterprise and therefore the stock price. Revenue is used as an indication of earnings quality. There are several financial ratios attached to it: The most important being gross margin and profit margin; also, companies use revenue to determine bad debt expense using the income statement method. Price / Sales is sometimes used as a substitute for a Price to earnings ratio when earnings are negative and the P/E is meaningless. Though a company may have negative earnings, it almost always has positive revenue. Gross Margin is a calculation of revenue less cost of goods sold, and is used to determine how well sales cover direct variable costs relating to the production of goods. Net income/sales, or profit margin, is calculated by investors to determine how efficiently a company turns revenues into profits. Government revenue Government revenue includes all amounts of money (i.e., taxes and fees) received from sources outside the government entity. Large governments usually have an agency or department responsible for collecting government revenue from companies and individuals. Government revenue may also include reserve bank currency which is printed. This is recorded as an advance to the retail bank together with a corresponding currency in circulation expense entry, that is, the income derived from the Official Cash rate payable by the retail banks for instruments such as 90-day bills. There is a question as to whether using generic business-based accounting standards can give a fair and accurate picture of government accounts, in that with a monetary policy statement to the reserve bank directing a positive inflation rate, the expense provision for the return of currency to the reserve bank is largely symbolic, such that to totally cancel the currency in circulation provision, all currency would have to be returned to the reserve bank and canceled. See also List of companies by revenue Legal tender#Demonetization References External links	[ 0.2576583921909332, 0.4399319887161255, 0.05657004565000534, 0.42897459864616394, 0.05390113964676857, 0.13899730145931244, 0.0693296566605568, 0.30719828605651855, -0.3940940797328949, 0.06585638970136642, -0.5026770830154419, 0.9841720461845398, 0.21559813618659973, 0.29419782757759094, -0.2597796618938446, 0.12021465599536896, 0.35526150465011597, 0.5361449122428894, 0.6309747099876404, -0.4598301947116852, -0.7485220432281494, -0.09098202735185623, 0.2340741753578186, -0.141402006149292, 0.4333544969558716, -0.04511995241045952, 0.3098357319831848, 0.1108814999461174, -0.7727251052856445, -0.25490668416023254, -0.023496460169553757, 0.13091742992401123, -0.08068925142288208, -0.046985238790512085, -0.06409163028001785, -0.028505569323897362, -0.2848276197910309, -0.566832423210144, -0.9941168427467346, -0.8386382460594177, 0.06182507425546646, 0.05530906096100807, -0.4927223324775696, 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247121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Romania	Music of Romania	Romania is a European country with a multicultural music environment which includes active ethnic music scenes. Romania also has thriving scenes in the fields of pop music, hip hop, heavy metal and rock and roll. During the first decade of the 21st century some Europop groups/artists, such as Tom Boxer, Morandi, Akcent, Edward Maya, Alexandra Stan, and Inna, achieved success abroad. Traditional Romanian folk music remains popular, and some folk musicians have come to national (and even international) fame. History Folk music is the oldest form of Romanian musical creation, characterised by great vitality; it is the defining source of the cultured musical creation, both religious and lay. Conservation of Romanian folk music has been aided by a large and enduring audience, also by numerous performers who helped propagate and further develop the folk sound. One of them, Gheorghe Zamfir, is famous throughout the world today and helped popularize a traditional Romanian folk instrument, the panpipes. The religious musical creation, born under the influence of Byzantine music adjusted to the intonations of the local folk music, saw a period of glory between the 15th and 17th centuries, when reputed schools of liturgical music developed within Romanian monasteries. Russian and Western influences brought about the introduction of polyphony in religious music in the 18th century, a genre developed by a series of Romanian composers in the 19th and 20th centuries. Traditional music Traditional Romanian music reflects a confluence of sounds similar to Central European (especially Hungarian) as well as Balkan traditional music. In Romanian folk music, emphasis is on melody rather than percussion, with frequent use of the violin for melody and often only the cimbalom for percussion. The melody itself and especially the melodic embellishments are reminiscent of music from further south in the Balkans and of a distant Turkish influence. Banat In Banat, the violin is the most common folk instrument, now played alongside imported woodwind instruments; other instruments include the taragot (today often the saxophone plays the taragot role in bands). Efta Botoca is among the most renowned violinists from Banat. Bucovina Bucovina is a remote province and its traditions include some of the most ancient Romanian instruments, including the ţilincă and the cobza. Pipes (fluieraş (small pipe) or fluier mare (large pipe)) are also played, usually with accompaniment by a cobza (more recently, the accordion). Violins and brass instruments have been imported in modern times. Crişana Crişana has an ancient tradition of using violins, often in duos. This format is also found in Transylvania but is an older tradition. Petrică Paşca has recently helped popularize the taragot in the region. Also, in Roşia village are well known two local instruments: Hidede, a type of violin with a trumpet, replacing the resonance box and a type of drum called Dobă. Northern Dobrogea Dobrujan music is characterized by Balkan and Turkish rhythm and melodicism. Dobrogea's population is ethnically mixed and the music here has a heavier Turkish, Bulgarian, Tatar and Ukrainian import than in the rest of the country. The most popular dance from Dobrogea is the geamparale, which is quite different from the other traditional dances of Romania. Maramureş and Oaş The typical folk ensemble from Maramureş is zongora and violin, often with drums. Taragot, saxophone and accordion have more recently been introduced. In Oaş, a violin adapted to be shriller is used, accompanied by the zongora. The singing in this region is also unique, shrill with archaic melodic elements. Moldavia (Moldova) Violin and ţambal are the modern format most common in Moldavian dance music. Prior to the 20th century, however, the violin was usually accompanied by the cobza, which, although very rare, is still in use today. Brass ensembles are now found in the central part of the county. Moldavia is also known for brass bands similar to those in Serbia. Transylvania Transylvania has been historically and culturally more linked to Central European countries than Southeastern Europe, and its music reflects those influences. The province is tied historically to the smaller western regions of Maramures, Crisana and Banat and they are often referred to collectively as Transylvania. Violin, kontra and double bass, sometimes with a cimbalom, are the most integral ensemble unit. All these instruments are used to play a wide variety of songs, including numerous kinds of specific wedding songs. Drum, guitar and violin make up the typical band in Maramureş and virtuoso fiddlers are also popular in the area. In the end of the 1990s, the Maramuzical music festival was organized to draw attention to the indigenous music of the area. Wallachia Wallachia, consisting of Muntenia and Oltenia, is home to the taraf bands, which are perhaps the best-known expression of Romanian folk culture. Dances associated with tarafs include brâu, geamparale, sârbă and hora. The fiddle leads the music, with the cimbalom and double bass accompanying it. The cobza, once widespread in the region, has been largely replaced by the cimbalom. Lyrics are often about heroes like the haidouks. Taraf de Haïdouks is an especially famous taraf and have achieved international attention since their 1988 debut with the label Ocora. The Haidouks first attained visibility as lăutari, traditional entertainers at weddings and other celebratory occasions. Oltenia Oltenia's folk music and dance are similar to those in Muntenia. Violins and pipes are used, as are ţambal and guitar, replacing the cobza as the rhythmic backing for tarafs. The cimpoi (bagpipe) is also popular in this region. Muntenia Muntenia has a diverse set of instrumentation. The flute (fluier in Romanian) and violin are the traditional melodic element, but now clarinets and accordions are more often used. Accordionists include the renowned performers Vasile Pandelescu and Ilie Udilă. Doina The most widespread form of Romanian folk music is the doina. Other styles of folk music include the bocet ("lament") and cântec batrânesc (traditional epic ballads; literally "song of the elders"). Doina is poetic and often melancholic, sometimes compared to the blues for that reason. Doinas are often played with a slow, free rhythm melody against a fast accompaniment pattern in fixed tempo, giving an overall feeling of rhythmic tension. Melodies are sometimes repeated in differing songs and typically follow a descending pattern. Regional styles of doina: Ca pe luncă - found along the southern Danube De codru - codru means "forest" Hora lungă - means "long dance", from the region of Maramureş, Transylvania Klezmer - originally played by Jewish musicians from Bessarabia and Moldavia Oltului - found along the River Olt Other styles of doina: Ca din tulnic - unique type in which the melody imitates a type of bugle called the tulnic Ciobanul - shepherd's doina De dragoste - popular form, usually about love; dragoste means "love". De jale - mellow, mournful doina; jale means "grief". De leagăn - a lullaby; leagăn means "cradle". De pahar - drinking song; pahar means "drinking glass". Foaie verde - classical form; literally "green leaves". Classical music Notable Romanian composers of the 19th and 20th centuries include Ciprian Porumbescu, Anton Pann, Eduard Caudella, Mihail Jora, Dinu Lipatti and especially George Enescu. Also famous are the composer and conductor Sergiu Celibidache and Vladimir Cosma. The Australian composer Julian Cochran wrote works extensively titled Romanian Dances with a collection of piano works and six orchestral works, exemplifying affinity amongst classical composers with the Romanian folk music tradition outside of Romania.. And from the second half of the 20th century by the Romanian spectralism school: Ştefan Niculescu, Horațiu Rădulescu, Iancu Dumitrescu, Octavian Nemescu, Ana-Maria Avram and others. Jazz Jazz has been imported in Romania as early as the interwar period, thanks to musicians such as Sergiu Malagamba. However, jazz music was banned after World War II, with the arrival of the communist regime. The ban was dropped in 1964. Promoted but not limited to Cornel Chiriac, jazz musicians and others such as Eugen Ciceu, helped establish the genre in Romania, initially promoted alongside "easy music". Vocalist Aura Urziceanu has performed at New York City in 1972 and toured extensively under the name Aura Rully. Although restrained, jazz after 1989 still has cult following, with a number of festivals such as Gărâna International Jazz Festival. Contemporary jazz singers include Johnny Răducanu, Anca Parghel and others. In recent years a few bands have emerged that make use of elements of nu-jazz, trip hop and electronic music: Aievea, Jazzadezz, Norzeatic & Khidja and others. Popular music Rock Romanian rock music has a great history with an array of influences. During the 1980s, bands such as Iris, Transsylvania Phoenix, Celelalte Cuvinte, Compact, Holograf or Cargo achieved popularity, with songs about love and friendship. Contemporary popular Romanian rock bands include Vița de Vie, Robin And The Backstabbers, Coma, Alternosfera, Vama, Luna Amară, The Kryptonite Sparks, and Grimus. Muzică uşoară românească The term could be translated literally as "Romanian Easy Music" and, in the most common sense, this music is synonym with "Muzică de stradă" (from French "estrade", which means "podium"), defining a branch of Pop music developed in Romania after World War II, which appears generally in the form of easy danceable songs, made on arrangements, which are performed by orchestras (and lately pop bands), following a mix of the Soviet and Western pop music influences. This musical form shows many similarities with Western Popular music, as most songs could be defined as a form of Schlager. It supported influences from other similar melodic styles, like Musica leggera italiana (from Italy) and Canción Melódica (from Spain). This Romanian style of music was popularized abroad through the international Golden Stag Festival, held in Brașov, since 1968. The most representative singers of that era are those from the 1980s, 1970s and rarely, the 1960s: Aurelian Andreescu, Elena Cârstea, Corina Chiriac, Mirabela Dauer, Stela Enache, Luigi Ionescu, Horia Moculescu, Margareta Pâslaru, Angela Similea, Dan Spătaru and Aura Urziceanu. Romanţe Romanţă (plural: romanţe) is a vocal or instrumental musical piece, sung in a poetic and sentimental mood. It appears as an accessible and expressive melody, on the background of piano and guitar orchestral arrangements. It presents similarities to British music style "Easy Music". The history of Romanian romanţe can be traced back until the Interwar period, when it became famous through the agency of the most popular Romanian singer of that time, Marin Teodorescu, who is better known as Zavaidoc. After World War II, singers like Gică Petrescu integrated in this music orchestral elements, which are specific for Argentinian style, Tango Nuevo. Folclor Suburban - Manele Anton Pann had the first few transcriptions of a new style that was present in the suburbs of Bucharest in the 19th century. The new style flourished and grew, being promoted by ordinary musicians playing in suburbs called Mahala. This musical style combined the Balkan and Gypsy styles into a new style that we call today, Manele. After the Romanian Revolution at the end of the 1989, this genre was booming. The performers are from the Gypsy (roma) minority in the country. This style always represented the low-educated musicians and addressed a low-educated public. There are a few subjects described in those songs. The main subjects are: money, enemies, own loved one or own power/qualities. A few contemporary bands that promoted the style are: Azur (vocalist: Nelu Vlad) - the first band to use electronic beats Albatros (vocalist: Iolanda Cristea a.k.a. Naste din Berceni) Generic (vocalist: Dan Ciotoi) Miracol C (vocalist: Cezar Duţu a.k.a. Cezărică) Odeon (vocalist: Costel Geambaşu) Real B (vocalist: Cristian Rizescu) Tomis Junior (from Galați) Some modern manele singers are: Guță Florin Salam Vali Vijelie And others Etno Etno music is a popular Romanian style, which keeps most accurate the typical ethnic sound of Romanian traditional folk music. It is adapted to the modern sound of music, as employs frequently synthesizers along with the typical traditional instruments. It emerged in the early 1990s as a revival of Romanian traditional folk music and maintained a constant popularity until nowadays. It has the largest audience through the fans of Romanian folk music and it is popularized, along with Romanian folk music, through the medium of Etno TV, a Romanian Television, dedicated mainly to Romanian folk music, especially the modern side of this music. Contemporary Romanian Folk Acoustic Romanian style of music, inspired by American folk music, with sweet lyrics and played almost exclusively with guitar. Generally, it evokes a poetic and melancholic atmosphere. It emerged in the early 1960s, along with the first releases of Phoenix band. It was promoted later, through the medium of the Cenaclul Flacăra, a cultural phenomenon from the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s, which was initiated by Adrian Păunescu, a Romanian poet. A lot of Romanian folk artists gain affirmation through the Cenaclul Flacăra movement: Mircea Vintilă, Vasile Șeicaru, Florian Pittiș, Valeriu Sterian, Nicu Alifantis, Alexandru Zărnescu, Victor Socaciu, Vasile Mardare. Romanian Reggaeton There are also many Latin Romanian Reggaeton artists. Reggaeton originated in Puerto Rico, and is popular among not only Puerto Rico, but also other Spanish speaking countries and the United States. Latin Romania has adopted reggaeton as well, giving it their own unique sound, not only with the composition but vocal style as well. Popular artists include Dani Mocano and Jador. Many popular songs feature Latin American reggaeton artists such as Jay Maly. Rock music From the early years of the communist regime (the 1960s) there was an active rock scene in Romania. Because of their free attitude which was associated with Western culture and the capitalist society, the communist regime censored rock musicians as much as possible. From the beginning they had a "paria" social position. Symbols of the movement such as long hair, jeans, stage attitude were considered decadent. The bands operated under the name of "instrumental-vocal musical ensemble" to avoid the expression "rock", which was considered to be subversive. Despite this, the rock scene resisted with consequence in a kind of "official underground" before the 1989 Revolution. Veterans of the scene kept the rock spirit alive under difficult restrictive conditions. The connection with the "news" from the West was made within radio stations such "Free Europe", which were forbidden. Rock was in these troubled times for its Romanian supporters more than music. It was attitude against the lack of freedom. Names with historical resonance for the Romanian rock movement include Phoenix, Sfinx, Roșu și Negru, Mondial, Sincron, Sideral, Semnal M, Metropol, FFN, Progresiv TM, Pro Musica, Catena, Iris, Compact, Holograf, Timpuri Noi, Krypton, Cargo, Celelalte Cuvinte, Post Scriptum, Florian Pittiș, Cornel Chiriac, Dan Andrei Aldea, Octave Octavian Teodorescu, Sorin Chifiriuc, Nicu Covaci, Valeriu Sterian, Mircea Baniciu, Ovidiu Lipan, Ilie Stepan, Liviu Tudan, Mircea Florian, Dorin Liviu Zaharia, Teo Peter, Florin Ochescu, Cristi Minculescu, Dan Bittman. The political freedom and the cultural openness gained after the 1989 Revolution marked a new era for rock music in Romania. The scene is now very active, despite rock music not being one of the main acts in Romanian mass media. Rock clubs have a rich list of concerts. There are yearly organized great rock festivals with national and international character. Mainstream In the 1990s and the early 2000s, with the emergence of independent television and radio stations, the term easy music has been replaced by pop. Mainstream success is shared between early dance-pop bands such as A.S.I.A., Animal X, Blondy, Body & Soul, L.A., 3rei Sud Est or Akcent, pop-rock singers and bands such as Ștefan Bănică Jr., Holograf, Bosquito, Voltaj or VH2, hip-hop outfits such as B.U.G. Mafia, La Familia, Paraziții or Ca$$a Loco, Latino singers (Pepe) and others (the electronic band Șuie Paparude and alternative rock bands such as Vama Veche, Bere Gratis, Sarmalele Reci, OCS, Spitalul de Urgență, Zdob și Zdub or Luna Amară that are still popular, especially underground). Romanian Dance-Pop With the exception of Moldavian-based band O-Zone, Romanian Europop had not achieved considerable echoes outside the borders of the country until 2005, when the band Morandi achieved success with songs written in English, Portuguese and other languages. The sound of Morandi, DJ Project, Fly Project and a few others marks the transitional period to the Romanian Dance-Pop of the late 2000s and early 2010s. Thanks to a couple of artists such as Inna, Edward Maya, Alexandra Stan, Antonia, David Deejay, Play & Win, Radio Killer and others, a new sound has emerged that has managed to achieve commercial success outside Romania and dominate the national TV and radio music charts. This new sound, nicknamed pejoratively by some "popcorn" after the name of one of its characteristic synths, is characterized by "shiny", danceable melodies, hooks sometimes based on synthesized accordion and simple lyrics written most often in English, accompanied by videos frequently featuring young women. "Popcorn" has been criticized by some as superficial (sometimes being even compared to Manele), overly commercial, repetitive and easily grating, as a large number of producers and performers (including singers that initially achieved notoriety in the early 2000s, such as Andreea Bănică or Connect-R) have adopted this sound in a short period of time. However, since Romanian spectralism is virtually unknown outside the avant-garde music community, "popcorn" may be considered the first movement in the history of Romanian history to gain momentum. House music An important influence on Romanian dance-pop was house music, which gained so much following in clubs that, thanks to radio stations such as Pro FM, has attained mainstream status. Minimal house in the vein of Ricardo Villalobos has and is being produced by DJs such as Petre Inspirescu, but vocal-based house continues to have more success. As of recently, dubstep has emerged alongside house music, although currently still underground. Underground music Pre-1989 underground bands include the new-wave band Rodion G.A. alongside older rock bands such as Celelalte Cuvinte and Semnal M. First electronic music attempts belong to composer Adrian Enescu. First represented by bands such as Vorbire Directă and R.A.C.L.A., hip-hop music has achieved quickly mainstream success with bands such as B.U.G. Mafia, La Familia and Paraziții, in spite of them being criticized for delivering explicit language and themes. The scene is currently split between mainstream rappers (Puya, Guess Who) and underground rappers (Vexxatu Vexx, C.T.C., Haarp Cord). Labels dedicated to hip-hop include Hades Records, 20 CM Records and Facem Records (the first independent hip-hop label from Romania). Rock scene is currently split between metal bands (such as Negură Bunget and Trooper), progressive and indie rock outfits (byron, Kumm, Robin and the Backstabbers). There are also other niches such as punk rock (E.M.I.L. Haos, Terror Art) or post-rock (Valerinne). Underground electronic music scene has been until 2010 somewhat unified by the existence of the Timișoara-based festival TMBase, reuniting DJs and producers from genres such as drum and bass, breakbeat, dub techno, electronic rock etc. A result of TMBase collaborations is the IDM outfit Makunouchi Bento, who have attracted some attention with their Bandcamp-released material. Also notable is the label La Strada Music, which has been home to names such as Silent Strike (who has gained acclaim on the Internet and some radio stations with the single Astenie featuring Ada Milea), Yvat (a prolific IDM producer of Belgian origin, based in Bucharest), Electric Brother, nu-jazz outfit Aievea and others. Trip hop and post-rock have influenced a few bands such as Margento, but dream pop, shoegaze and other niche genres are poorly represented. Freak folk is partially known due to the success of singer-songwriter Ada Milea, but is practiced by only a few other bands such as Nu & Apa Neagră. The producer Minus has attempted to introduce bitpop and, more recently, chillwave. Dubstep DJs have started to emerge, though with the genre has also been associated the band R.O.A., who have achieved some mainstream success thanks to the leader Junkyard, formerly vocalist in Șuie Paparude. Music festivals Jazz festivals Bucharest Masters of Jazz Festival - Bucharest EUROPAfest, Bucharest - international festival - blues, jazz, pop, classic Gărâna Jazz Festival - Gărâna, Caraș-Severin Jazzy Spring Festival Bucharest, Bucharest Jazz and More, Sibiu Sibiu Jazz Festival - Sibiu Festivalul Internațional "Richard Oschanitzky", Iaşi Timișoara Jazz Festival - Timișoara Transilvania Jazz Festival - Cluj-Napoca Jazz in the Park Electronic Music Untold Festival - Cluj-Napoca, Untold Festival Electric Castle - Cluj-Napoca AWAKE Festival Neversea Festival Golden Stag Festival - Brașov - muzică ușoară Artmania Festival - Sibiu - Transylvanian Music and Arts Festival - mainly Rock Music Peninsula Festival - Târgu Mureș - rock, metal, pop, electro Transilvania International Guitar Festival - Cluj-Napoca Steaua de Cristal - Gura Humorului - International Festival of Pop Music for Children and Youth “Crystal Star” The International George Enescu Festival Terra Siculorum International Classical Guitar Festival (each year at middle of April) Harmonia Cordis International Classical Guitar Festival (each year at ending of August or at beginning of September) ABC Festival - Arad - electro Sunwaves Festival - Mamaia See also List of Romanian musicians List of Romanian singers Kontra Opera in Romania Romania in the Eurovision Song Contest Vioara cu goarnă Bibliography Broughton, Simon. "Taraf Traditions". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 237–247. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Pascu, George & Boţocan, Melania. "Carte de istorie a muzicii", Muzica contemporană, pp 547–625. Vasiliana '98 Publishing, 2011. 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247123	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceratophyllum	Ceratophyllum	Ceratophyllum is a cosmopolitan genus of flowering plants including four accepted living species in 2016, commonly found in ponds, marshes, and quiet streams in tropical and in temperate regions. It is the only extant genus in the family Ceratophyllaceae, itself the only extant family in the order Ceratophyllales. They are usually called coontails or hornworts, although hornwort is also used for unrelated plants of the division Anthocerotophyta. Ceratophyllum grows completely submerged, usually, though not always, floating on the surface, and does not tolerate drought. The plant stems can reach 1–3 m in length. At intervals along nodes of the stem they produce rings of bright green leaves, which are narrow and often much-branched. The forked leaves are brittle and stiff to the touch in some species, softer in others. The plants have no roots at all, but sometimes they develop modified leaves with a rootlike appearance, which anchor the plant to the bottom. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, with the male and female flowers on the same plant. In ponds it forms thick buds (turions) in the autumn that sink to the bottom which give the impression that it has been killed by the frost but come spring these will grow back into the long stems slowly filling up the pond. Taxonomy Ceratophyllum is considered distinctive enough to warrant its own family, Ceratophyllaceae. It was considered a relative of Nymphaeaceae and included in Nymphaeales in the Cronquist system, but recent research has shown that it is not closely related to Nymphaeaceae or any other extant plant family. Some early molecular phylogenies suggested it was the sister group to all other angiosperms, but more recent research suggests that it is the sister group to the eudicots. The APG III system placed the family in its own order, the Ceratophyllales. The APG IV system accepts the phylogeny shown below: Species The subgeneric division of the genus Ceratophyllum into its appropriately recognized species, subspecies, and varieties is not settled. More than 30 species have been described and published. A narrow interpretation of this work rejects over 24 of these taxa as variants, accepting only 6 species. This narrow interpretation lumps to the point of failing to give these potential species the taxonomic importance of even being named on a subspecific or varietal level. The genus as narrowly defined in this manner contains the following six species: Ceratophyllum australe Griseb. Ceratophyllum demersum L. (rigid/common hornwort) – cosmopolitan Ceratophyllum echinatum A.Gray (spiny hornwort) – North America Ceratophyllum muricatum Cham. (prickly hornwort) – Near-cosmopolitan Ceratophyllum platyacanthum Cham. – Europe and Asia Ceratophyllum submersum L. (soft/tropical hornwort) – Europe, Middle-East, Central Asia, northern and central Africa, Florida, and Dominican Republic Ceratophyllum tanaiticum Sapjegin References External links Ceratophyllaceae of Mongolia in FloraGREIF Angiosperm genera Freshwater plants	[ 0.16897118091583252, 0.6084455251693726, -0.5424063801765442, -0.36498332023620605, -0.3012903928756714, 0.4632291793823242, 0.9017013311386108, 0.026163268834352493, -0.17495952546596527, 0.49385643005371094, -0.21088281273841858, -0.3516354262828827, -0.5110730528831482, 0.6984052658081055, 0.2197195291519165, 0.21710386872291565, 0.5422270894050598, 1.0599939823150635, 0.5421877503395081, 0.27393412590026855, -0.2896082103252411, -0.347126305103302, 0.620581328868866, -0.7669978737831116, 0.36037424206733704, -0.3559090197086334, 0.25440743565559387, 0.3075215518474579, 0.43824443221092224, -0.07218828797340393, -0.32828614115715027, 0.7626248002052307, 0.1485971063375473, -0.6487876176834106, 0.5193758606910706, 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247124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceratophyllaceae	Ceratophyllaceae	Ceratophyllaceae is a cosmopolitan family of flowering plants including one living genus commonly found in ponds, marshes, and quiet streams in tropical and in temperate regions. It is the only extant family in the order Ceratophyllales. Species are commonly called coontails or hornworts, although hornwort is also used for unrelated plants of the division Anthocerotophyta. Living Ceratophyllum grows completely submerged, usually, though not always, floating on the surface, and does not tolerate drought. Taxonomy Ceratophyllaceae was considered a relative of Nymphaeaceae and included in Nymphaeales in the Cronquist system, but research has shown that it is not closely related to Nymphaeaceae or any other extant plant family. Some early molecular phylogenies suggested it was the sister group to all other angiosperms, but more recent research suggests that it is the sister group to the eudicots. The APG III system placed the family in its own order, the Ceratophyllales. The APG IV system accepts the phylogeny shown below: Genera The family contains one living genus, and several extinct genera described from the fossil record. 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247134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterstereotype	Counterstereotype	A counterstereotype is an idea or object that goes against a standardized mental picture that is held in common by members of a group and that represents an oversimplified opinion, prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment. Although counterstereotypes arise in opposition to stereotypes, they may eventually become stereotypes themselves if they are too popular. An example is the character type called the magical negro; Spike Lee popularized this term deriding the archetype of the "super-duper magical negro" in 2001 while discussing films with students at Washington State University and at Yale University. Examples American popular literature in the 19th century contained stereotypical images of black people as grotesque and servile. In protest, a counter-stereotype arose which showed black people as graceful and wise. In the United States during the 1970s, in response to feminist criticism, advertising agencies chose to display counter-stereotypical images of women as sexually assertive and intellectual. In comic books, when the superhero began in the 1930s, he was an invulnerable, unalterably benevolent figure. However, a desire for increased dramatic potential led to a move away from this stereotypical character, until in the 1980s and 1990s, the counterstereotypical angst-ridden anti-hero had become so popular as to constitute a new stereotype. Michael Moorcock's character Elric of Melniboné—a tormented, sickly albino sorcerer with a demonic sword and a sizeable evil streak—was intended to be the polar opposite of the typical fantasy heroes of the time, who were almost universally muscular, Conan-like figures. As in the above example, Elric's success was such that he inspired an explosion of similar characters in popular fiction. Scott Adam's Dilbert featured the character Antina, created in response to allegations that Tina the Brittle Tech Writer was too stereotypical. Antina was, of course, herself considered to be too stereotypical. The noble savage myth, used by supporters or admirers of indigenous peoples, is the opposite of the usual stereotypes implied by the word "savage". The bear subculture, composed of gay men who embrace a hypermasculine image, has made headway in countering the old stereotypes of campiness and effeminacy. The Lazy Husband is a trope typically portraying a dysfunctional man, married but incapable of contributing equally to his partner's efforts in a relationship either practically or emotionally. This counterstereotype is used heavily in advertising but is also seen in cinema and in various TV series. It contrasts with the old-fashioned view of the husband as the breadwinner and of the man as the charming and chivalrous knight. Social psychology of counterstereotypical people Social psychologists have found that people tend to react more negatively to counterstereotypical people than to stereotypical people. 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