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246235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta%20Beat%20%28WUSA%29 | Atlanta Beat (WUSA) | The Atlanta Beat was a professional soccer team that played in the Women's United Soccer Association. The team played at Bobby Dodd Stadium on the campus of the Georgia Institute of Technology in its first year of operation before moving to Herndon Stadium, on the campus of Morris Brown College in Atlanta, Georgia.
History
The team began play in 2001, and reached the playoffs in each of the WUSA's three seasons — the only team in the league to do so. They advanced to the Founders Cup in both 2001 and 2003, losing on both occasions.
The Beat's "founding players" were Briana Scurry, Cindy Parlow, and Nikki Serlenga of the USA women's national team. The Beat had the #1 pick in the inaugural WUSA draft, and selected China's Sun Wen, star of the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. Their first goal was scored by Japan star midfielder Homare Sawa.
The coach of the Atlanta Beat was Tom Stone.
League Suspension
The WUSA announced on September 15, 2003, that it was suspending operations. Several former Beat players went on to play for the Atlanta Silverbacks Women in the W-League, and five – Briana Scurry, Sharolta Nonen, Homare Sawa, Nancy Augustyniak, and Ifeoma Dieke—played in Women's Professional Soccer.
It was announced on October 7, 2009, that a newly formed version of the Atlanta Beat would be joining WPS. On June 17, 2009, the new Atlanta Beat announced that Shawn McGee would be the General Manager of the recently reformed team.
Players (All-Time Roster)
See also
Women's professional sports
List of soccer clubs in the United States
Women's association football
References
External links
Atlanta Beat (WUSA) (archived)
Defunct soccer clubs in Georgia (U.S. state)
Women's soccer clubs in the United States
B
Soccer clubs in Georgia (U.S. state)
Women's United Soccer Association teams
2001 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
2003 disestablishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Association football clubs established in 2001
Association football clubs disestablished in 2003 | [
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246237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina%20Courage | Carolina Courage | Carolina Courage was a professional soccer team that played in the Women's United Soccer Association. The team played at Fetzer Field on the UNC-Chapel Hill campus in 2001, and then at the soccer-specific SAS Stadium in Cary, North Carolina in 2002 and 2003.
History
The team was founded in 2000 and began play in 2001. After finishing the 2001 season in last place, the Carolina Courage won the 2002 Founders Cup, defeating the Washington Freedom 3–2. In 2003, the Carolina Courage finished 7th in the league with seven wins, nine losses, and four ties.
The Women's United Soccer Association announced on September 15, 2003, that it was suspending operations.
Players
2003 Roster
Coach: Jay Entlich
Assistant Coach: Susan Hill
Assistant Coach: Scott Calabrese
See also
Women's professional sports
List of soccer clubs in the United States
Women's association football
References
External links
Archive.org: Carolina Courage Website on September 30, 2003
Carolina Courage profile
Sports in Raleigh-Durham
Defunct soccer clubs in North Carolina
Women's soccer clubs in North Carolina
Women's United Soccer Association teams
2000 establishments in North Carolina
2003 disestablishments in North Carolina
Association football clubs established in 2000
Association football clubs disestablished in 2003 | [
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246238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Power | New York Power | The New York Power was an American professional soccer team that played in the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA), the first professional soccer league for women in the United States. The team played at Mitchel Athletic Complex in Uniondale, New York. The team played from 2001 to 2003 when the league ceased operations.
History
On February 15, 2000, it was announced that the first professional women's soccer league would be formed by a number of major U.S. media companies and individual investors in response to the successful and hugely popular U.S. women's national soccer team who had won the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. Time Warner Cable invested $5,000,000 for the operating rights for a team in the New York market. In addition to the upfront financial investment, league investors also provided resources for staff, facilities, and promotional efforts via cable television.
Team name and stadium unveiled
On November 16, 2000, the league announced the names of the eight teams admitted in the league. The New York Power was announced as the team name for the New York area with games to be played at the 10,000 capacity Mitchel Athletic Complex, a multi-purpose athletic facility located in Uniondale, New York. The team name was selected by team's front office with the slogan "Get emPOWERed" used in promotional materials.
Inaugural season
The Power began play in 2001 during the inaugural season of the WUSA. The team finished the regular season with a 9–7–5 record third in the standings. They reached the semi-finals in the playoffs where they faced the Bay Area CyberRays and lost 3–2. Average attendance for the club's home games during the 2001 season was 5,724. Tiffeny Milbrett was the leading scorer on the team with 16 goals on the season. She also led the team in points (35), shots (73), shots on goal (42), and game-winning goals (4). Goalkeeper Gao Hong recorded 87 saves with a 1.11 goals against average (GAA).
2002 season
During the league's second season, the Power finished last in the regular season standings with a 3–17–1 record. The club had a rough time recovering from a number of injuries and the retirement of Norwegian defender Gro Espeseth, who departed after the inaugural season. Goalkeeper Gao Hong, defender Christie Pearce and defender-midfielder Sara Whalen all suffered injuries destabilizing the team. In July, head coach Pat Farmer was fired after the team lost many more games than it won or tied. Assistant coach and former Rutgers University coach Charles Duccilli was named head coach. The team's general manager, Susan Marenoff, said of the coaching swap, "The team needed a change ... Pat worked very hard to make the best team he could. I really think we needed a different style, and that's what we've accomplished."
2003 season
The Power re-surged during the 2003 season to finish fifth among the league's eight teams, narrowly missing the playoffs. Australia women's national team coach and San Jose CyberRays assistant coach, Tom Sermanni, was named head coach during the 2002 postseason. The Power finished the regular season with a 7–9–5 record. Forward Christie Welsh led the team in goals with six while midfielder Shannon Boxx led in assists with eight. Inaugural season star Tiffeny Milbrett ranked second on the team for goals (5) and assists (6) and led the team in shots (51), shots on goal (22) and points (16). Goalkeeper Saskia Webber made 50 saves during her 13 appearances for the club recording a 1.52 goals against average (GAA).
Year-by-year
Players
The "founding players" of the Power were Tiffeny Milbrett, Christie Pearce and Sara Whalen of the 1999 USA Women's World Cup team. International players who played for the Power included Ann Kristin Aarønes (Norway), Gro Espeseth (Norway), Gao Hong (China), Cheryl Salisbury (Australia) and Anita Rapp (Norway).
2003 Roster
Coach: Tom Sermanni
Coaches
Pat Farmer (2001–02)
Charles Duccilli (2002)
Tom Sermanni (2003)
Awards
The New York Power received the WUSA Team Fair Play Award during the 2001 season. Tiffeny Milbrett received the WUSA Most Valuable Player and WUSA Offensive Player of the Year the same year. Gro Espeseth and Tiffeny Milbrett were named to the WUSA Global XI First Team in 2001.
In 2003, Coach Tom Sermanni was one of three nominees for Coach of the Year.
League suspension
The WUSA announced on September 15, 2003 that it was suspending operations.
See also
Women's professional sports
List of soccer clubs in the United States
Women's association football
References
External links
New York Power website (archive.org)
Defunct soccer clubs in New York (state)
Women's soccer clubs in the United States
Sports in Long Island
Women's soccer clubs in New York (state)
Women's United Soccer Association teams
2000 establishments in New York (state)
2003 disestablishments in the United States
Association football clubs disestablished in 2003
Association football clubs established in 2000 | [
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246239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Freedom | Washington Freedom | Washington Freedom was an American professional soccer club based in the Washington, D.C., suburb of Germantown, Maryland, that participated in Women's Professional Soccer. The Freedom was founded in 2001 as a member of the defunct Women's United Soccer Association. Beginning in 2004, the Freedom played its home games at the Maryland SoccerPlex. In 2011, the team relocated to Boca Raton, Florida, and became magicJack.
History
WUSA (2001–03)
The team played its home games at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C., where the team offices were also located. The team's "founding players" (players from the national team allocated three to each WUSA team) were Mia Hamm, Siri Mullinix and Michelle French. They were expected by some to be one of the best in the league but finished seventh out of the eight teams their first season.
However, this finish allowed the Freedom to select Abby Wambach as their first pick in the 2002 WUSA draft. Additional personnel changes, better performance from retained players, and a Mia Hamm improved by off-season knee surgery led to a far better finish, as Washington went undefeated in their last eight matches and finished in third place (only two points out of first). In the postseason, they won their semifinal match against the Philadelphia Charge, 1–0, and went to the Founders Cup, the WUSA championship match, which they lost, 3–2, to the Carolina Courage.
In 2003, the Freedom were just good enough to make the playoffs, clinching the fourth and final spot with two games to go. However, they would go on to beat the regular season champion Boston Breakers in the semifinals, 0–0 (3–1 penalty kick shootout), and then defeated the Atlanta Beat in the Founders Cup, 2–1, in overtime. It was the last Golden Goal in a FIFA-sanctioned first-division league before the practice was changed.
Exhibition years (2004–05)
After the WUSA folded, the Freedom maintained an existence as the Washington Freedom Soccer Club, moving their home stadium to the Maryland Soccerplex and putting together a team called Washington Freedom Reserves, which consisted of half-a-dozen players from the WUSA days along with young local players. In 2004, they played assorted exhibition matches against college and W-League teams and participated in the WUSA Festivals.
In 2005, the roster was significantly upgraded by adding former WUSA players like Tiffany Roberts, Kylie Bivens, and Emily Janss, as well as players Ali Krieger and Joanna Lohman from the U-21 National Team. The team also brought in former star soccer players Sun Wen and Brandi Chastain as guest players for one game each. In a season of exhibition matches, almost all against W-League teams, the Freedom compiled a 7–2–2 record.
W-League (2006–08)
The team became an associate member of the W-League in 2006 and played an exhibition season based on home-and-home series against east coast W-League teams. Then, on December 7, 2006, Washington announced that they had acquired a full W-League franchise.
In 2007, playing games that mattered for the first time since 2003, the Freedom compiled a 12–1–1 record, defeated the regular season champion Ottawa Fury in the Eastern Conference championship game, then went on to beat the Atlanta Silverbacks, 3–1, in the W-League championship match.
In 2008, the Freedom went 11–1–2 in the regular season, winning the Northeast Division, then defeated the Atlanta Silverbacks, 2–1, to capture the Eastern Conference championship, but then fell to the eventual W-League champion Pali Blues, 2–0, in the W-League semifinals.
Women's Professional Soccer: The first season (2009)
When the Women's Professional Soccer league formed in 2008, the Freedom became one of the original seven teams that started play in 2009.
The initial WPS player allocation, announced on September 16, 2008, assigned US Women's National Team players Abby Wambach, Cat Whitehill and Ali Krieger to the Freedom. Wambach had played for the Freedom in 2002 and 2003, while Krieger played for the Washington Freedom Reserves in 2004 and 2005, and for the W-League team in 2007.
In the 2008 WPS International Draft, conducted on September 24, 2008, the Freedom selected Japanese striker Homare Sawa, French players Sonia Bompastor and Louisa Necib and Australian forward Lisa De Vanna. Following the draft, the Freedom named Erin McLeod and Lene Mykjåland as post-draft discovery players.
Following that was the 2008 WPS General Draft on October 6, 2008, and all of the players selected by the Freedom were from the Freedom's 2008 W-League roster: Sarah Huffman, Becky Sauerbrunn, Lori Lindsey and Emily Janss. Lindsey had been on the Freedom roster since the final WUSA season in 2003, and Janss had been with the team since 2005.
The 2009 WPS Draft took place on January 16, 2009. The Freedom drafted Allie Long, Alex Singer, Jill Gilbeau, Parrissa Eyorokon, Briana Scurry, Rebecca Moros, Sarah Senty, Kati Jo Spisak, Claire Zimmeck, and Christen Karniski. Additionally, the Freedom received the rights to Joanna Lohman in a trade with Saint Louis Athletica. All of the players except for Long, Eyorokon, and Scurry had previous experience playing for the Freedom's W-League team.
Two players were added to the roster after tryouts and training camp: Kristin DeDycker and Madison Keller. Keller had experience with the Freedom going back to 2004, while DeDycker (née Warren) had played for the Atlanta Beat in the WUSA.
McLeod was intended to be the starting goalkeeper, but visa issues kept her unavailable through the first five matches of the regular season, and the Freedom had mixed success with Briana Scurry and Kati Jo Spisak in goal. Following her arrival, though, the Freedom won three out of the next six matches while only losing once.
Abby Wambach, meanwhile, was recovering from a broken leg and didn't feel fully recovered until late in the season, when she returned from national team duty having scored her 100th international goal. She then went on a tear, scoring five goals and two assists in the team's final four games. The Freedom won three of those four matches and thereby clinched third place in the standings and a home playoff match. But despite looking strong going into the playoff match, and coming off a solid 3–1 victory over their opponents, Sky Blue FC, they put on a listless performance and were eliminated from the playoffs, 2–1.
Women's Professional Soccer: season two (2010)
Unlike most of the other WPS teams, the Freedom made only limited changes in the offseason. The marquee signing was of young forward Lene Mykjåland from the Norway national football team, followed by picking up Nikki Marshall, Beverly Goebel, Kristi Eveland, and Caitlin Miskel in the 2010 college draft. The team then signed Christie Welsh, who had helped lead the 2007 Freedom to the W-League championship before being drafted by the WPS Los Angeles Sol and then traded to the St. Louis Athletica. Brittany Bock was acquired in the dispersal draft to place former Los Angeles Sol players. Marisa Abegg and Meagan McCray were brought in after going unsigned by their former WPS team, FC Gold Pride. After the St. Louis Athletica folded, the Freedom signed their 2010 second-round draft pick Ashlyn Harris, who went on to become the starting goalkeeper after Erin McLeod tore her ACL in a match on July 24. On August 5, the Freedom traded their rights to Nigerian defender Faith Ikidi to the Chicago Red Stars for English national team defender Anita Asante.
Players did not return for several reasons. Lori Lindsey and Sarah Senty were picked up in the expansion draft by the Philadelphia Independence, one of the two new WPS teams for 2010. Lindsey had originally joined the team in 2003 during its last year in the WUSA, while Senty joined the W-League team in 2007. Ali Krieger signed a two-year contract with FFC Frankfurt, keeping her there into 2012. Other players with extended Freedom experience not re-signed included Emily Janss (since 2005), Joanna Lohman (2005), Kati Jo Spisak (2007), and Christen Karniski (2008). Additionally, Alex Singer, who joined the W-League team in 2007, was cut on August 5 to make room for Anita Asante.
The Freedom started their season solidly in April and May, with a 4–2–1 record good enough for second place. However, in July and August they went on a ten-game winless streak ending with five losses in a row that put them out of playoff position and put head coach Gabarra's job in jeopardy. Longtime assistant coach Clyde Watson resigned and former Chicago Red Stars head coach Emma Hayes was hired as a consultant. The team rebounded to finish the regular season 4–1–2, good enough for the fourth and final playoff position. That led to a road match against the Philadelphia Independence, which the Freedom lost on a goal from Amy Rodriguez in the waning seconds of overtime, wasting a superb performance from rookie backup goalkeeper Ashlyn Harris.
Following the season, Gabarra announced his resignation, citing "irreconcilable differences" between himself and team management.
Women's Professional Soccer: purchase, relocation, and termination (2011)
Financial troubles that had stirred in the background during the middle of the previous season came to the front during the offseason, with the longtime team owners finally deciding to back out after ten years of supporting the club. With multiple teams having trouble making offseason payments, the league was under threat of folding.
Dan Borislow, owner of the phone service MagicJack, bought the Freedom in 2011. He changed the team name to Magicjack and moved the team to Boca Raton, Florida. He quickly came into conflict with the players and owners of other teams and the league terminated the franchise on October 25, 2011, accusing Borislow of misconduct. The WPS subsequently cancelled the 2012 season and the WPS ceased to exist.
Players
Most recent squad
As of August 8, 2010. This was the final roster to play under the Washington Freedom name.
Developmental players
Notable former players
This list includes players who participated in any games played by the top-level Washington Freedom team, whether competitive (WUSA, W-League, WPS) or friendly (WUSA Festivals in 2004, exhibition matches in 2004 and 2005, Hall of Fame game in 2007, etc.).
Bai Jie (2001–2002)
Kylie Bivens (2005)
Sonia Bompastor (2009–2010)
Brandi Chastain (2005)
Amanda Cromwell (2001)
Joy Fawcett (2004)
Julie Foudy (2004)
Michelle French (2001)
Gao Hong (2003)
Kelly Golebiowski (2003–2008)
Jennifer Grubb (2001–2006)
Mia Hamm (2001–2003, 2007)
Angela Hucles (2004)
Emily Janss (2005–2009)
Steffi Jones (2002–2003)
Ali Krieger (2004, 2006–2007, 2009)
Louise Lieberman (2000)
Lori Lindsey (2003–2009)
Joanna Lohman (2005–2006, 2009)
Shannon MacMillan (2004)
Anne Mäkinen (2001–2002)
Lene Mykjåland (2010)
Ella Masar (2008)
Jennifer Meier (2003)
Sandra Minnert (2003)
Heather Mitts (2004)
Carmelina Moscato (2006)
Siri Mullinix (2001–2003)
Carla Overbeck (2007)
Pretinha (2001)
Pu Wei (2002)
Christie Rampone (2004)
Tiffany Roberts (2005–2006)
Roseli (2001)
Chanté Sandiford (2007–2008)
Briana Scurry (2009–2010)
Tiffany Weimer (2006)
Sun Wen (2005)
Cat Whitehill (2009–2010)
Nicci Wright (2003–2006, 2009)
Hall of Freedom
In 2009, the Washington Freedom introduced the "Hall of Freedom", an honor bestowed upon former players and personnel "in recognition of exceptional achievements, dedication and service to the club." Current members of the Hall of Freedom are:
Jennifer Grubb, DF, 2001–2006, inducted July 24, 2010
Mia Hamm, FW, 2001–2003, inducted May 3, 2009
Steffi Jones, MF, 2002–2003, inducted July 5, 2009
Siri Mullinix, GK, 2001–2003, inducted May 3, 2009
David Vanole, goalkeeper coach, 2001–2003, inducted July 5, 2009
Most recent coaching staff
As of April 20, 2009.
Year-by-year
Annual Performance record
Honors
USL W-League Eastern Conference Champions 2008
USL W-League Northeast Division Champions 2008
USL W-League Champions 2007
USL W-League Eastern Conference Champions 2007
USL W-League Northeast Division Champions 2007
WUSA Founders Cup Champions 2003
Competition history
The Washington Freedom was one of the eight professional soccer teams that played in the Women's United Soccer Association from 2001 to 2003. The team won the WUSA Founders Cup III in their final year, shortly before the league announced on September 15, 2003, that it was suspending operations. Unique among the WUSA teams, though, the Freedom maintained a continued existence, playing exhibition seasons in 2004 and 2005, then joining the USL W-League in 2006 and winning the W-League Championship in 2007. The Freedom became a part of Women's Professional Soccer that launched in April 2009 and participated in that league in 2009 and 2010. The team was then sold, moved to Florida, and renamed MagicJack.
Despite the addition of a professional team, the Freedom maintained an elite amateur team, which played in the W-League in 2009 and 2010, finishing second in the league in 2009.
Logo
Head coaches
Jim Gabarra 2001–2010
Stadium
Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, Washington, D.C. 2001–2004, 2008–2010
Maryland SoccerPlex, Germantown, Maryland 2004–2010
While in the WUSA, the Washington Freedom played their home games in RFK Stadium in Washington DC. Since the WUSA ended, the Washington Freedom has played most of their home matches at the Soccerplex in Maryland. They have, however, continued to play some games at RFK as doubleheaders with DC United. These include games as the Freedom Reserves in 2004, while in the W-League, and since joining the WPS. They played three doubleheaders in 2009 and one doubleheader in 2010.
See also
Women's professional sports
List of soccer clubs in the United States
Women's association football
References
External links
Official Site
W-League page
Women's Professional Soccer page
Women's soccer clubs in the United States
F
Soccer clubs in Maryland
Women's Professional Soccer teams
USL W-League teams
Women's United Soccer Association teams
Association football clubs established in 2001
2001 establishments in Washington, D.C.
2011 disestablishments in Maryland
Association football clubs disestablished in 2011 | [
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246242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestead%20strike | Homestead strike | The Homestead strike, also known as the Homestead steel strike, Homestead massacre, or Battle of Homestead was an industrial lockout and strike which began on July 1, 1892, culminating in a battle between strikers and private security agents on July 6, 1892. The battle was a pivotal event in U.S. labor history. The dispute occurred at the Homestead Steel Works in the Pittsburgh area town of Homestead, Pennsylvania, between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (the AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company. The final result was a major defeat for the union of strikers and a setback for their efforts to unionize steelworkers.
Background
Carnegie Steel made major technological innovations in the 1880s, especially the installation of the open-hearth system at Homestead in 1886. It now became possible to make steel suitable for structural beams and for armor plate for the United States Navy, which paid far higher prices for the premium product. In addition, the plant moved increasingly toward the continuous system of production. Carnegie installed vastly improved systems of material-handling, like overhead cranes, hoists, charging machines, and buggies. All of this greatly sped up the process of steelmaking, and allowed the production of vastly larger quantities of the product. As the mills expanded, the labor force grew rapidly, especially with unskilled workers. However, while Carnegie Steel grew and progressed, workers at Homestead were seeing their wages drop.
Union
The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) was an American labor union formed in 1876. It was a craft union representing skilled iron and steelworkers.
The AA's membership was concentrated in ironworks west of the Allegheny Mountains. The union negotiated national uniform wage scales on an annual basis; helped regulate working hours, workload levels and work speeds; and helped improve working conditions. It also acted as a hiring hall, helping employers find scarce puddlers and rollers.
The AA organized the independently-owned Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works in Homestead in 1881. The AA engaged in a bitter strike at the Homestead works on January 1, 1882, in an effort to prevent management from including a non-union clause in the workers' contracts, known as a "yellow-dog contract". The violence occurred on both sides, and the plant brought in numerous strikebreakers. The strike ended on March 20 in a complete victory for the union.
The AA struck the steel plant again on July 1, 1889, when negotiations for a new three-year collective bargaining agreement failed. The strikers seized the town and once again made common cause with various immigrant groups. Backed by 2,000 townspeople, the strikers drove off a trainload of strikebreakers on July 10. When the sheriff returned with 125 newly deputized agents two days later, the strikers rallied 5,000 townspeople to their cause. Although victorious, the union agreed to significant wage cuts that left tonnage rates less than half those at the nearby Jones and Laughlin works, where technological improvements had not yet been made.
Carnegie officials conceded that the AA essentially ran the Homestead plant after the 1889 strike. The union contract contained 58 pages of footnotes defining work rules at the plant and strictly limited management's ability to maximize output.
For its part, the AA saw substantial gains after the 1889 strike. Membership doubled, and the local union treasury had a balance of $146,000. The Homestead union grew belligerent, and relationships between workers and managers became tense.
Nature of the 1892 strike
The Homestead strike was organized and purposeful, a harbinger of the type of strike which marked the modern age of labor relations in the United States. The AA strike at the Homestead steel mill in 1892 was different from previous large-scale strikes in American history such as the Great railroad strike of 1877 or the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886. Earlier strikes had been largely leaderless and disorganized mass uprisings of workers.
Plans of Carnegie and Frick
Andrew Carnegie placed industrialist Henry Clay Frick in charge of his company's operations in 1881. Frick resolved to break the union at Homestead. "The mills have never been able to turn out the product they should, owing to being held back by the Amalgamated men," he complained in a letter to Carnegie.
Carnegie was publicly in favor of labor unions. He condemned the use of strikebreakers and told associates that no steel mill was worth a single drop of blood. But Carnegie agreed with Frick's desire to break the union and "reorganize the whole affair, and . . . exact good reasons for employing every man. Far too many men required by Amalgamated rules." Carnegie ordered the Homestead plant to manufacture large amounts of inventory so the plant could weather a strike. He also drafted a notice (which Frick never released) withdrawing recognition of the union.
With the collective bargaining agreement due to expire on June 30, 1892, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with a 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit. Carnegie encouraged Frick to use the negotiations to break the union: "...the Firm has decided that the minority must give way to the majority. These works, therefore, will be necessarily non-union after the expiration of the present agreement." Carnegie believed that the Amalgamated was a hindrance to efficiency; furthermore it was not representative of the workers. It admitted only a small group of skilled workers. It was in its own way an elitist, discriminatory organization that was not worthy of the republic, Carnegie felt.
Frick announced on April 30, 1892 that he would bargain for 29 more days. If no contract was reached, Carnegie Steel would cease to recognize the union. Carnegie formally approved Frick's tactics on May 4. Then Frick offered a slightly better wage scale and advised the superintendent to tell the workers, "We do not care whether a man belongs to a union or not, nor do we wish to interfere. He may belong to as many unions or organizations as he chooses, but we think our employees at Homestead Steel Works would fare much better working under the system in vogue at Edgar Thomson and Duquesne."
Lockout
Frick locked workers out of the plate mill and one of the open hearth furnaces on the evening of June 28. When no collective bargaining agreement was reached by June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. A high fence topped with barbed wire, begun in January, was completed and the plant sealed to the workers. Sniper towers with searchlights were constructed near each mill building, and high-pressure water cannons (some capable of spraying boiling-hot liquid) were placed at each entrance. Various aspects of the plant were protected, reinforced, or shielded.
At a mass meeting on June 30, local AA leaders reviewed the final negotiating sessions and announced that the company had broken the contract by locking out workers a day before the contract expired. The Knights of Labor, which had organized the mechanics and transportation workers at Homestead, agreed to walk out alongside the skilled workers of the AA. Workers at Carnegie plants in Pittsburgh, Duquesne, Union Mills and Beaver Falls struck in sympathy the same day.
The Declaration of the Strike Committee, dated July 20, 1892 reads in part,
The employees in the mill of Messrs. Carnegie, Phipps & Co., at Homestead, Pa., have built there a town with its homes, its schools and its churches; have for many years been faithful co-workers with the company in the business of the mill; have invested thousands of dollars of their savings in said mill in the expectation of spending their lives in Homestead and of working in the mill during the period of their efficiency. . . . "Therefore, the committee desires to express to the public as its firm belief that both the public and the employees aforesaid have equitable rights and interests in the said mill which cannot be modified or diverted without due process of law; that the employees have the right to continuous employment in the said mill during efficiency and good behavior without regard to religious, political or economic opinions or associations; that it is against public policy and subversive of the fundamental principles of American liberty that a whole community of workers should be denied employment or suffer any other social detriment on account of membership in a church, a political party or a trade union; that it is our duty as American citizens to resist by every legal and ordinary means the unconstitutional, anarchic and revolutionary policy of the Carnegie Company, which seems to evince a contempt [for] public and private interests and a disdain [for] the public conscience. . . .
The strikers were determined to keep the plant closed. They secured a steam-powered river launch and several rowboats to patrol the Monongahela River, which ran alongside the plant. Men also divided themselves into units along military lines. Picket lines were thrown up around the plant and the town, and 24-hour shifts established. Ferries and trains were watched. Strangers were challenged to give explanations for their presence in town; if one was not forthcoming, they were escorted outside the city limits. Telegraph communications with AA locals in other cities were established to keep tabs on the company's attempts to hire replacement workers. Reporters were issued special badges which gave them safe passage through the town, but the badges were withdrawn if it was felt misleading or false information made it into the news. Tavern owners were even asked to prevent excessive drinking.
Frick was also busy. The company placed ads for replacement workers in newspapers as far away as Boston, St. Louis and even Europe.
But unprotected strikebreakers would be driven off. On July 4, Frick formally requested that Sheriff William H. McCleary intervene to allow supervisors access to the plant. Carnegie corporation attorney Philander Knox gave the go-ahead to the sheriff on July 5, and McCleary dispatched 11 deputies to the town to post handbills ordering the strikers to stop interfering with the plant's operation. The strikers tore down the handbills and told the deputies that they would not turn over the plant to nonunion workers. Then they herded the deputies onto a boat and sent them downriver to Pittsburgh.
Frick had ordered the construction of a solid board fence topped with barbed wire around mill property. The workers dubbed the newly fortified mill "Fort Frick."
Battle on July 6
Frick's intent was to open the works with nonunion men on July 6. Knox devised a plan to get the Pinkertons onto the mill property. With the mill ringed by striking workers, the agents would access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton agents assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles below Pittsburgh at 10:30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially-equipped barges and towed upriver. They were also given badges which read "Watchman, Carnegie Company, Limited." Many had been hired out of lodging houses at $2.50 per day and were unaware of what their assignment was in Homestead.
The strikers were prepared for the Pinkerton agents; the AA had learned of the Pinkertons as soon as they had left Boston for the embarkation point. The small flotilla of union boats went downriver to meet the barges. Strikers on the steam launch fired a few random shots at the barges, then withdrew—blowing the launch whistle to alert the plant. The strikers blew the plant whistle at 2:30 a.m., drawing thousands of men, women and children to the plant.
Pinkertons attempt to land
The Pinkertons attempted to land under cover of darkness about 4 a.m. A large crowd of families had kept pace with the boats as they were towed by a tug into the town. A few shots were fired at the tug and barges, but no one was injured. The crowd tore down the barbed-wire fence and strikers and their families surged onto the Homestead plant grounds. Some in the crowd threw stones at the barges, but strike leaders shouted for restraint.
The Pinkerton agents attempted to disembark, and more shots were fired. Conflicting testimony exists as to which side fired the first shot in this encounter. (Shooting having begun earlier when the barges were being towed up the river) John T. McCurry, a boatman on the steamboat Little Bill (which had been hired by the Pinkerton Detective Agency to ferry its agents to the steel mill) and one of the men wounded by the strikers, said: "The armed Pinkerton men commenced to climb up the banks. Then the workmen opened fire on the detectives. The men shot first, and not until three of the Pinkerton men had fallen did they respond to the fire. I am willing to take an oath that the workmen fired first, and that the Pinkerton men did not shoot until some of their number had been wounded." But according to The New York Times, the Pinkertons shot first. The newspaper reported that the Pinkertons opened fire and wounded William Foy, a worker. Regardless of which side opened fire first, the first two individuals wounded were Frederick Heinde, captain of the Pinkertons, and Foy. The Pinkerton agents aboard the barges then fired into the crowd, killing two and wounding eleven. The crowd responded in kind, killing two and wounding twelve. The firefight continued for about 10 minutes.
The strikers then huddled behind the pig and scrap iron in the mill yard, while the Pinkertons cut holes in the side of the barges so they could fire on any who approached. The Pinkerton tug departed with the wounded agents, leaving the barges stranded. The strikers soon set to work building a rampart of steel beams further up the riverbank from which they could fire down on the barges. Hundreds of women continued to crowd on the riverbank between the strikers and the agents, calling on the strikers to 'kill the Pinkertons'.
The strikers continued to sporadically fire on the barges. Union members took potshots at the ships from their rowboats and the steam-powered launch. The burgess of Homestead, John McLuckie, issued a proclamation at 6:00 a.m. asking for townspeople to help defend the peace; more than 5,000 people congregated on the hills overlooking the steelworks. A 20-pounder brass cannon was set up on the shore opposite the steel mill, and an attempt was made to sink the barges. Six miles away in Pittsburgh, thousands of steelworkers gathered in the streets, listening to accounts of the attacks at Homestead; hundreds, many of them armed, began to move toward the town to assist the strikers.
The Pinkertons attempted to disembark again at 8:00 a.m. A striker high up the riverbank fired a shot. The Pinkertons returned fire, and four more strikers were killed (one by shrapnel sent flying when cannon fire hit one of the barges). Many of the Pinkerton agents refused to participate in the firefight any longer; the agents crowded onto the barge farthest from the shore. More experienced agents were barely able to stop the new recruits from abandoning the ships and swimming away. Intermittent gunfire from both sides continued throughout the morning. When the tug attempted to retrieve the barges at 10:50 a.m., gunfire drove it off. More than 300 riflemen positioned themselves on the high ground and kept a steady stream of fire on the barges. Just before noon, a sniper shot and killed another Pinkerton agent. A Pinkerton agent on one of the barges was A.L. Wells, a Bennett Medical College student, who had joined the "expedition" to earn enough money during the summer months. During the fighting, he played a vital role and attended to the injured on the barge.
After a few more hours, the strikers attempted to burn the barges. They seized a raft, loaded it with oil-soaked timber and floated it toward the barges. The Pinkertons nearly panicked, and a Pinkerton captain had to threaten to shoot anyone who fled. But the fire burned itself out before it reached the barges. The strikers then loaded a railroad flatcar with drums of oil and set it afire. The flatcar hurtled down the rails toward the mill's wharf where the barges were docked. But the car stopped at the water's edge and burned itself out. Dynamite was thrown at the barges, but it only hit the mark once (causing a little damage to one barge). At 2:00 p.m., the workers poured oil onto the river, hoping the oil slick would burn the barges; attempts to light the slick failed.
Calls for state intervention
The AA worked behind the scenes to avoid further bloodshed and defuse the tense situation. At 9:00 a.m., outgoing AA international president William Weihe rushed to the sheriff's office and asked McCleary to convey a request to Frick to meet. McCleary did so, but Frick refused. He knew that the more chaotic the situation became, the more likely it was that Governor Robert E. Pattison would call out the state militia.
Sheriff McCleary resisted attempts to call for state intervention until 10 a.m. on July 6. In a telegram to Governor Pattison, he described how his deputies and the Carnegie men had been driven off, and noted that the workers and their supporters actively resisting the landing numbered nearly 5,000. Pattison responded by requiring McCleary to exhaust every effort to restore the peace. McCleary asked again for help at noon, and Pattison responded by asking how many deputies the sheriff had. A third telegram, sent at 3:00 p.m., again elicited a response from the governor exhorting McCleary to raise his own troops.
Pinkerton surrender
At 4:00 p.m., events at the mill quickly began to wind down. More than 5,000 men—most of them armed mill hands from the nearby South Side, Braddock and Duquesne works—arrived at the Homestead plant. Weihe wanted to prevent further trouble at Homestead, so he pleaded with Frick to confer with representatives of the Amalgamated to return to Homestead and stop the armed conflict. Weihe urged the strikers to let the Pinkertons surrender, but he was shouted down. Weihe tried to speak again, but this time his pleas were drowned out as the strikers bombarded the barges with fireworks left over from the recent Independence Day celebration. Hugh O'Donnell, a heater in the plant and head of the union's strike committee, then spoke to the crowd. He demanded that each Pinkerton be charged with murder, forced to turn over his arms and then be removed from the town. The crowd shouted their approval.
The Pinkertons, too, wished to surrender. At 5:00 p.m., they raised a white flag and two agents asked to speak with the strikers. O'Donnell guaranteed them safe passage out of town. Upon arrival, their arms were stripped from them. With heads uncovered, to distinguish them from the mill hands, they passed along between two rows of guards armed with Winchesters. As the Pinkertons crossed the grounds of the mill, the crowd formed a gantlet through which the agents passed. Men and women threw sand and stones at the Pinkerton agents, spat on them and beat them. Several Pinkertons were clubbed into unconsciousness. Members of the crowd ransacked the barges, then burned them to the waterline.As the Pinkertons were marched through town to the opera house (which served as a temporary jail), the townspeople continued to assault the agents. Two agents were beaten as horrified town officials looked on. The press expressed shock at the treatment of the Pinkerton agents, and the torrent of abuse helped turn media sympathies away from the strikers.
The strike committee met with the town council to discuss the handover of the agents to McCleary. But the real talks were taking place between McCleary and Weihe in McCleary's office. At 10:15 p.m., the two sides agreed to a transfer process. A special train arrived at 12:30 a.m. on July 7. McCleary, the international AA's lawyer and several town officials accompanied the Pinkerton agents to Pittsburgh.
But when the Pinkerton agents arrived at their final destination in Pittsburgh, state officials declared that they would not be charged with murder (per the agreement with the strikers) but rather simply released. The announcement was made with the full concurrence of the AA attorney. A special train whisked the Pinkerton agents out of the city at 10:00 a.m. on July 7.
William Pinkerton in his testimony before Congress stated that three Pinkerton agents died in the strike—two because of injuries and a third injured agent committed suicide. The total number of Pinkertons, according to the agents themselves, who died was seven and who were wounded was eleven. According to one newspaper report, an agent under cannon fire jumped off a barge and drowned. John Shingle, the captain of the steamboat Little Bill was killed. Between thirty-three to thirty-five agents and one crewman of the Little Bill were reported in the hospital injured. The total number of captured Pinkertons was 324. A roster of 266 names and 360 Winchester rifles and enough provisions to feed a regiment for a week were also taken from the barges.
Arrival of the state militia
On July 7, the strike committee sent a telegram to Governor Pattison to attempt to persuade him that law and order had been restored in the town. Pattison replied that he had heard differently. Union officials traveled to Harrisburg and met with Pattison on July 9. Their discussions revolved not around law and order, but the safety of the Carnegie plant.
Pattison, however, remained unconvinced by the strikers' arguments. Although Pattison had ordered the Pennsylvania militia to muster on July 6, he had not formally charged it with doing anything. Pattison's refusal to act rested largely on his concern that the union controlled the entire city of Homestead and commanded the allegiance of its citizens. Pattison refused to order the town taken by force, for fear a massacre would occur. But once emotions had died down, Pattison felt the need to act. He had been elected with the backing of a Carnegie-supported political machine, and he could no longer refuse to protect Carnegie interests.
The steelworkers resolved to meet the militia with open arms, hoping to establish good relations with the troops. But the militia managed to keep its arrival to the town a secret almost to the last moment. At 9:00 a.m. on July 12, the Pennsylvania state militia arrived at the small Munhall train station near the Homestead mill (rather than the downtown train station as expected). Their commander, Major General George R. Snowden, made it clear to local officials that he sided with the owners. When Hugh O'Donnell, the head of the union's strike committee attempted to welcome Snowden and pledge the cooperation of the strikers, Snowden told him that the strikers had not been law abiding, and that "I want you to distinctly understand that I am the master of this situation." More than 4,000 soldiers surrounded the plant. Within 20 minutes they had displaced the picketers; by 10:00 a.m., company officials were back in their offices. Another 2,000 troops camped on the high ground overlooking the city.
The company quickly brought in strikebreakers and restarted production under the protection of the militia. Despite the presence of AFL pickets in front of several recruitment offices across the nation, Frick easily found employees to work the mill. The company quickly built bunk houses, dining halls and kitchens on the mill grounds to accommodate the strikebreakers. New employees, many of them black, arrived on July 13, and the mill furnaces relit on July 15. When a few workers attempted to storm into the plant to stop the relighting of the furnaces, militiamen fought them off and wounded six with bayonets. But all was not well inside the plant. A race war between nonunion black and white workers in the Homestead plant broke out on July 22, 1892.
Desperate to find a way to continue the strike, the AA appealed to Whitelaw Reid, the Republican candidate for vice president, on July 16. The AA offered to make no demands or set any preconditions; the union merely asked that Carnegie Steel reopen the negotiations. Reid wrote to Frick, warning him that the strike was hurting the Republican ticket and pleading with him to reopen talks. Frick refused.
Attempted assassination and collapse of the strike
Frick, too, needed a way out of the strike. The company could not operate for long with strikebreakers living on the mill grounds, and permanent replacements had to be found.
On July 18, the town was placed under martial law, further disheartening many of the strikers.
National attention became riveted on Homestead when, on July 23, Alexander Berkman, a New York anarchist with no connection to steel or to organized labor, plotted with his lover Emma Goldman to assassinate Frick. He came in from New York, gained entrance to Frick's office, then shot and stabbed the executive. Frick survived and continued his role; Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison.
The Berkman assassination attempt undermined public support for the union and prompted the final collapse of the strike. Hugh O'Donnell was removed as chair of the strike committee when he proposed to return to work at the lower wage scale if the unionists could get their jobs back. On August 12, the company announced that 1,700 men were working at the mill and production had resumed at full capacity. The national AFL refused to intervene, the East European workers ignored the union and it had no strategy left. The union voted to go back to work on Carnegie's terms; the strike had failed and the union had collapsed.
Legal battles
The company had waged a second front in state court, and was winning. On July 18, sixteen of the strike leaders were charged with conspiracy, riot and murder. Each man was jailed for one night and forced to post a $10,000 bond.
The union retaliated by charging company executives with murder as well. The company men, too, had to post a $10,000 bond, but they were not forced to spend any time in jail. One judge issued treason charges against the Advisory Committee on August 30 for making itself the law. Most of the men could not raise the bail bond, and went to jail or into hiding. A compromise was reached whereby both sides dropped their charges.
The strike's conclusion
Support for the strikers evaporated. The AFL refused to call for a boycott of Carnegie products in September 1892. Wholesale crossing of the picket line occurred, first among Eastern European immigrants and then among all workers. The strike had collapsed so much that the state militia pulled out on October 13, ending the 95-day occupation. The AA was nearly bankrupted by the job action. Weekly union relief for a member averaged $6.25 but totaled a staggering $10,000 per week when including 1,600 strikers. With only 192 out of more than 3,800 strikers in attendance, the Homestead chapter of the AA voted, 101 to 91, to return to work on November 20, 1892.
In the end, only four workers were ever tried on the actual charges filed on July 18. Three AA members were found innocent of all charges. Hugh Dempsey, the leader of the local Knights of Labor District Assembly, was found guilty of conspiring to poison nonunion workers at the plant—despite the state's star witness recanting his testimony on the stand. Dempsey served a seven-year prison term. In February 1893, Knox and the union agreed to drop the charges filed against one another, and no further prosecutions emerged from the events at Homestead.
The striking AA affiliate in Beaver Falls gave in the same day as the Homestead lodge. The AA affiliate at Union Mills held out until August 14, 1893. But by then the union had only 53 members. The union had been broken; the company had been operating the plant at full capacity for almost a year, since September 1892.
Aftermath
The Homestead strike broke the AA as a force in the American labor movement. Many employers refused to sign contracts with their AA unions while the strike lasted. A deepening in 1893 of the Long Depression led most steel companies to seek wage decreases similar to those imposed at Homestead.
An organizing drive at the Homestead plant in 1896 was suppressed by Frick. In May 1899, three hundred Homestead workers formed an AA lodge, but Frick ordered the Homestead works shut down and the unionization effort collapsed.
De-unionization efforts throughout the Midwest began against the AA in 1897 when Jones and Laughlin Steel refused to sign a contract. By 1900, not a single steel plant in Pennsylvania remained unionized. The AA presence in Ohio and Illinois continued for a few more years, but the union continued to collapse. Many lodges disbanded, their members disillusioned. Others were easily broken in short battles. Carnegie Steel's Mingo Junction, Ohio, plant was the last major unionized steel mill in the country. But it, too, successfully withdrew recognition without a fight in 1903.
AA membership sagged to 10,000 in 1894 from its high of over 24,000 in 1891. A year later, it was down to 8,000. A 1901 strike against Carnegie's successor company, U.S. Steel collapsed. By 1909, membership in the AA had sunk to 6,300. A nationwide steel strike of 1919 also was unsuccessful. The AA maintained a rump membership in the steel industry until its takeover by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee in 1936. The two organizations officially disbanded and formed the United Steelworkers May 22, 1942.
In 1999 the Bost Building in downtown Homestead, AA headquarters throughout the strike, was designated a National Historic Landmark. It is used as a museum devoted not only to the strike, but also the steel industry in the Pittsburgh area. A railroad bridge over the Monongahela River near the site of the battle is named Pinkerton's Landing Bridge in honor of the dead. Two sites were each designated with a Pennsylvania state historical marker: the site where Pinkerton attempted to land, and the two adjoining cemeteries of St. Mary's and Homestead where are buried the remains of six of the seven Carnegie Steel Company workers that were killed. The Pinkerton landing site was also named a Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark.
Modern site
The pumphouse where the gunfight occurred remains as a museum and meeting hall. There are several historical markers as well as a metal commemorative sign with the US Steel logo that reads "In honor of the workers".
See also
Battle of Blair Mountain
Battle of Matewan
Frick Coke Company strike of 1891
Frick mine explosion
Johnstown Flood of 1889
Ludlow Massacre
Pittsburgh railroad strike
Pullman Strike
List of worker deaths in United States labor disputes
References
Bibliography
Bemis, Edward W. "The Homestead Strike," The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Jun., 1894), pp. 369–396 in JSTOR
Brody, David. Steelworkers in America: The Nonunion Era. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1969.
Cohen, Steven R. "Steelworkers Rethink the Homestead Strike of 1892," Pennsylvania History, 48 (April 1981), 155–77
David P. Demarest, Jr. (ed.), "The River Ran Red": Homestead, 1892. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992.
Foner, Philip. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 2: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism. New York: International Publishers, 1955.
House Judiciary Committee, Investigation of the Employment of Pinkerton Detectives in Connection with the Labor Troubles at Homestead, PA. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1892.
Kahan, Paul. The Homestead Strike: Labor, Violence, and American Industry. Routledge, 2014.
Krass, Peter. Carnegie. (2002). online edition
Krause, Paul. The Battle for Homestead, 1890–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992.
Krause, Paul. "Labor Republicanism and 'Za Clebom': Anglo-American and Slavic Solidarity in Homestead," in Struggle a Hard Battle": Essays on Working-Class Immigrants, edited by Dirk Hoerder (1986), 143–69
Marcus, Irwin. Jeanne Bullard, and Rob Moore, "Change and Continuity: Steel Workers in Homestead, Pennsylvania, 1880–1895," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 111 (January 1987), 62–75
Miner, Curtis. Homestead: The Story of a Steel Town (Pittsburgh 1989)
Montgomery, David. The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Oates, William C., George Ticknor Curtis, and Terence V. Powderly, "The Homestead Strike," North American Review, vol. 155, whole no. 430 (Sept. 1892), pp. 355–375.
Slavishak, Edward S., "Working-Class Muscle: Homestead and Bodily Disorder in the Gilded Age," The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 3 (October 2004): 339–68. online via Oxford University Press
Warren, Kenenth. Triumphant Capitalism: Henry Clay Frick and the Industrial Transformation of America (2000)
Wolff, Leon "Battle at Homestead" American Heritage Magazine April 1965
Wright, Carroll D. "The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steelworkers," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 7 (July 1893), 400–32. in JSTOR
External links
Battle of Homestead Foundation
United Steelworkers
(Contemporary book by Pittsburgh journalist Arthur Gordon Burgoyne.)
1892 labor disputes and strikes
1892 in Pennsylvania
Andrew Carnegie
Labor disputes led by the United Steelworkers
History of labor relations in the United States
Riots and civil disorder in Pittsburgh
Protest-related deaths
Homestead, Pennsylvania
Labor-related riots in the United States
Labor disputes in Pennsylvania
Manufacturing industry labor disputes in the United States
June 1892 events
July 1892 events
Knights of Labor | [
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246245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia%20Charge | Philadelphia Charge | The Philadelphia Charge was an American women's professional soccer team that played in the Women's United Soccer Association. The team played at Villanova Stadium on the campus of Villanova University near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
History
In spring of 2000, the newly formed Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA) announced eight cities were granted franchises to start the league, including Philadelphia. Most of the inaugural teams were owned by major media companies, with the new Philadelphia club operated by locally headquartered Comcast Corporation who invested an initial $5 million into WUSA. In November 2000, the club's name and logo was officially announced as the Philadelphia Charge and would play home matches at Villanova Stadium. The logo for the Charge incorporated the Comcast Corp. "C" as part of its marketing efforts. The Charge began preparations for the first team with a 15-person front office and was supported by the Comcast-Spector organization for stadium operations, marketing, promotions, tickets, and merchandise.
By late 2000, the Charge had announced that University of Hartford women's soccer coach, Mark Krikorian, would be appointed the first head coach of the team. Prior to the start of the season, Krikorian would bring on former Swedish international Pia Sundhage and John Natale as assistant coaches.
2001 season
The Charge would begin their first campaign lead by American forward Lorrie Fair, German defender Doris Fitschen, and English forward Kelly Smith. Finishing the inaugural season in fourth, the Charge advanced to the WUSA semi-final playoff match, losing to Atlanta Beat 3–2.
2002 season
Building on their first season, the Charge finished second in the standings for the regular season and lead the league in defense with fewest goals conceded (22). This season also featured the signing of Marinette Pichon, who lead the team in scoring and earning Most Valuable Player and Offensive Player of the Year awards. Similar to the first season, the Charge lost in the semi-finals, this time to Washington Freedom. Mark Krikorian also won WUSA Coach of the Year honors from the successful regular season.
2003 season
The Charge's final season featured the team's worst record, finishing last (eighth) in the WUSA regular season standings. This season also began the career of future national team goalkeeper, Hope Solo, who made her professional debut in the Charge's first win of the season at New York Power.
Stadium
The Charged played all their home matches at Villanova Stadium, located in Villanova, Pennsylvania. The 12,500 capacity stadium was the only WUSA stadium utilizing artificial turf. The Charge players, coaches and front office representatives took part in upgraded turf unveiling ahead of the 2002 season.
Players
Several notable U.S. Women's National Team stars made their pro debuts with the Charge, including defender Heather Mitts (2001-2003) and goalkeeper Hope Solo, who appeared in 8 matches as a rookie backup goalkeeper in 2003. Other notables included French international Marinette Pichon, who won the 2002 WUSA Most Valuable Player award for the Charge, and English star Kelly Smith.
2003 Roster
Coach: Mark Krikorian
Year-by-year
Source:
Awards
In 2001, Philadelphia Charge player, Doris Fitschen was named WUSA Defender of the Year.
In 2002, Philadelphia Charge player, Marinette Pichon was named WUSA's Most Valuable Player and Offensive Player of the Year and was the co-recipient with Mia Hamm for Goal of the Year for a scissor kick volley against the San Diego Spirit. Goalkeeper Melissa Moore was awarded Goalkeeper of the Year and Stacey Tullock was named Rookie of the Year. Coach Mark Krikorian took the honor of WUSA Coach of the Year the same year.
In 2003, the Charge was awarded the WUSA Team Fair Play Award and defender, Jenny Benson, was named WUSA Humanitarian of the Year.
League Suspension
The Women's United Soccer Association announced on September 15, 2003 that it was suspending operations.
See also
Philadelphia Independence
Women's Professional Soccer
National Women's Soccer League
Women's professional sports
Women's association football
List of soccer clubs in the United States
References
External links
Philadelphia Charge website (archive.org)
Defunct soccer clubs in Pennsylvania
Women's soccer clubs in the United States
Charge
C
Soccer clubs in Pennsylvania
Women's United Soccer Association teams
2000 establishments in Pennsylvania
2003 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
Association football clubs disestablished in 2003
Association football clubs established in 2000 | [
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246246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elko | Elko | Elko may refer to:
Place names
Canada
Elko, British Columbia
United States
Elko, Nevada
Elko County, Nevada
Elko, Georgia
Elko, Minnesota
Elko, Missouri
Elko, New York
Elko Tract in Henrico County, Virginia
Elko, South Carolina
Elko New Market, Minnesota
Transportation
Elko Station, a passenger rail station in Elko, Nevada
Elko Regional Airport, an airport in Elko, Nevada
Elko/Lionel P. Demers Memorial Airpark, an airport near Elko, British Columbia
Other uses
Elko (album), a live album by Railroad Earth
Elko (surname), surname
ELKO field, a spinor field in theoretical physics
Elko Grupa, a Latvia-based IT company
Elko, the Icelandic brand used by the Nordic consumer electronics retailer Elkjøp | [
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246247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Diego%20Spirit | San Diego Spirit | The San Diego Spirit was a professional soccer team that played in the Women's United Soccer Association. The team played at Torero Stadium on the campus of the University of San Diego in San Diego, California. The team began play in 2001. The league announced on September 15, 2003, it was suspending operations.
The founding members of the Spirit were Julie Foudy, Shannon MacMillan and Joy Fawcett. The team reached the playoffs in the 2003 season, losing to the Atlanta Beat in the semifinals. Other notable members of the Spirit included Scotland's Julie Fleeting, Brazil's Daniela and Canada's Christine Latham, as well as U.S. national team players Jenni Branam, Aly Wagner and Shannon Boxx.
Year-by-year
Players
The "founding players" of the Spirit were Julie Foudy, Shannon MacMillan and Joy Fawcett of the 1999 USA Women's World Cup team.
2003 Roster
Coach: Omid Namazi
Coaches
Carlos Juarez (2001-2002)
Kevin Crow (2002)
Omid Namazi (2003)
League suspension
The WUSA announced on September 15, 2003, that it was suspending operations.
See also
List of soccer clubs in the United States
Women's association football
References
External links
Soccertimes
Defunct soccer clubs in California
Women's soccer clubs in the United States
Women's United Soccer Association teams
Association football clubs established in 2001
2001 establishments in California
2003 disestablishments in California
Soccer clubs in California
Association football clubs disestablished in 2003 | [
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246248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piperales | Piperales | Piperales is an order of flowering plants (4,170 recognized species). It necessarily includes the family Piperaceae but other taxa have been included or disincluded variously over time. Well-known plants which may be included in this order include black pepper, kava, lizard's tail, birthwort, and wild ginger.
Classification
APG system
In the APG IV system, of 2016, this order is placed in the clade magnoliids and is circumscribed as follows:
order Piperales
family Aristolochiaceae (including Asaraceae, Hydnoraceae and Lactoridaceae)
family Piperaceae
family Saururaceae
This is an expansion from the APG system, of 1998, which used the same placement (in the magnoliids) but used this circumscription:
order Piperales''
family Aristolochiaceae
family Lactoridaceae
family Piperaceae
family Saururaceae
Earlier systems
The Cronquist system, of 1981, placed the order in the subclass Magnoliidae of class Magnoliopsida [=dicotyledons] and used this circumscription:
order Piperales
family Chloranthaceae
family Piperaceae
family Saururaceae
The Engler system, in its update of 1964, placed the order in subclassis Archichlamydeae in class Dicotyledoneae [=dicotyledons] and used this circumscription:
order Piperales
family Chloranthaceae
family Lactoridaceae
family Piperaceae
family Saururaceae
The Wettstein system, latest version published in 1935, assigned the order to the Monochlamydeae in subclass Choripetalae of class Dicotyledones. It used the circumscription:
order Piperales
family Piperaceae
References
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] |
246250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristolochiales | Aristolochiales | Aristolochiales is an order of flowering plants. It is not recognised in the APG or APG II systems, in which it is considered a synonym of Piperales. It also is not recognized in the Thorne system.
In the Cronquist, Dahlgren, Goldberg and Reveal systems it is composed of a single family, the Aristolochiaceae. In the Hutchinson system the carnivorous Nepenthaceae (now placed in Caryophyllales) and the parasitic Cytinaceae (now placed in Malvales) and Hydnoraceae (now placed in Piperales) are also included. In the Melchior (aka Engler) system Hydnoraceae and Rafflesiaceae (including Cytinaceae) are included in addition to Aristolochiaceae.
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246251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellsworth | Ellsworth | Ellsworth may refer to:
People
Ellsworth (surname)
Ellsworth P. Bertholf, US Coast Guard commodore
Ellsworth B. Buck, American politician
Ellsworth Bunker, American diplomat
Ellsworth Burnett, American politician
Ellsworth Cunningham, also known as Bert, American baseball player
Ellsworth Foote, American politician
Ellsworth "Bumpy" Johnson, American criminal
Ellsworth Kelly, American artist
Ellsworth Vines, American tennis player
Places
In the United States
Ellsworth, Connecticut, an unincorporated community in the town of Sharon
Ellsworth, Illinois
Ellsworth, Indiana, in Dubois County
Ellsworth, Indiana, now known as North Terre Haute, Indiana
Ellsworth, Iowa
Ellsworth, Kansas
Ellsworth, Maine
Ellsworth, Michigan
Ellsworth, Minnesota
Ellsworth, Missouri
Ellsworth, Nebraska
Ellsworth, New Hampshire
Ellsworth, Ohio
Ellsworth, Pennsylvania
Ellsworth (town), Wisconsin
Ellsworth, Wisconsin, village in the town of Ellsworth
Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota
Ellsworth County, Kansas
Ellsworth Township, Michigan
Ellsworth Township, Meeker County, Minnesota
In Antarctica
Named after Lincoln Ellsworth:
Ellsworth Land, a portion of the Antarctic continent bounded on the west by Marie Byrd Land and on the north by Bellingshausen Sea
Ellsworth Mountains, the highest range of Antarctica
Ellsworth Station
Mount Ellsworth (Antarctica), highest peak of Queen Maud Mountains
Lake Ellsworth (Antarctica), a subglacial lake
Companies
Ellsworth Handcrafted Bicycles Inc., a high end US bicycle manufacturer.
Other
Ellsworth (character), a cartoon character of the Walt Disney Company
Ellsworth Avenue, a major thoroughfare in the Shadyside neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Ellsworth Community College, a US college in Iowa Falls, Iowa
Ellsworth Toohey, a character in Ayn Rand's novel The Fountainhead
See also
Justice Ellsworth (disambiguation)
Lake Ellsworth (disambiguation) | [
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246255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmira | Elmira | Elmira may refer to:
Places
Canada
Elmira, Ontario
Elmira, Prince Edward Island
United States
Elmira, California
Elmira, Idaho
Elmira, Indiana
Elmira, Michigan
Elmira, Missouri
Elmira, New York
Elmira Correctional Facility
Elmira College
Elmira Corning Regional Airport
Elmira Pioneers, a baseball team
Elmira (town), New York
Elmira, Oregon
Elmira Prison, American Civil War POW camp
Persons
Elmira (name), a given name
Elvira
See also
Elmira (gastropod), genus of gastropods
Elmira Township (disambiguation)
Almira (disambiguation) | [
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246256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jose%20CyberRays | San Jose CyberRays | San Jose CyberRays was a professional soccer team that played in the Women's United Soccer Association. The team played at Spartan Stadium on the South Campus of San José State University in San Jose, California. Stars included U.S. National Team star Brandi Chastain, WUSA Goalkeeper of the Year LaKeysia Beene, and leading scorer Julie Murray. Other memorable CyberRays were Brazilians Sissi and Katia, Tisha Venturini (from the U.S. National Team), and "ironwoman" Thori Bryan, who played every minute of the first season. They were coached by Ian Sawyers, who received WUSA Coach of the Year honors in 2001.
History
Establishment
The CyberRays were founded in 2000 as a member of the Women's United Soccer Association, the first professional women's soccer league in the United States. The league featured many of the stars from the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. The team featured United States women's national team players and league founding players Brandi Chastain, Tisha Venturini and LaKeysia Beene.
Year-by-year
Inaugural season
The team won the WUSA title (known as the Founders Cup) for the league's inaugural season in 2001. The CyberRays triumphed over the Atlanta Beat, in a 4–2 shootout after double overtime of a 3–3 game. It was the only year in the country's history that both a women's and men's professional soccer team won championship titles in the same city.
2002
In 2002 the team changed its name from the Bay Area CyberRays to the San Jose CyberRays, and also gave their roster a facelift, allowing Murray to retire and trading for Pretinha from the Washington Freedom, who along with Katia and Sissi, gave the new attack a decidedly Brazilian flavor. The bold changes didn't have the desired effect, however, and the team finished out of the playoffs. One bright spot was the emergence of Katia, who scored 15 goals and broke Tiffeny Milbrett's record for most points in a season.
2003
The CyberRays had high hopes for 2003, but an anemic offense (worst in the league in goals scored) hurt the team all year. The team remained in contention until the end of the season, but finished out of the playoffs for a second straight year.
But even bigger problems were brewing in the background, as the WUSA continued to struggle financially. The CyberRays folded on September 15, 2003, when the league announced it was suspending operations.
Players
2003 roster
Stadium
The CyberRays played at Spartan Stadium on the South Campus of San Jose State University in San Jose, California. The stadium was used for the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup and was also the home of the San Jose Earthquakes of Major League Soccer from 1996 to 2005. At the time, the stadium featured a grass pitch and up to 30,456 capacity.
Broadcasting
In 2002, games were broadcast on television via PAX TV. California Bears assistant coach Jennifer Thomas provided color commentary while KCBS Radio sports announcer Hal Ramey was the play-by-play announcer. A number of league games were broadcast on Turner Sports and CNN/Sports Illustrated.
See also
Women's Professional Soccer
National Women's Soccer League
References
External links
San Jose CyberRays website (archive.org)
Defunct soccer clubs in California
Women's soccer clubs in the United States
C
Soccer clubs in California
Women's United Soccer Association teams
2001 establishments in California
2003 disestablishments in California
Association football clubs established in 2001
Association football clubs disestablished in 2003 | [
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246257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Hawke%2C%201st%20Baron%20Hawke | Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke | Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke, KB, PC (21 February 1705 – 17 October 1781), of Scarthingwell Hall in the parish of Towton, near Tadcaster, Yorkshire, was a Royal Navy officer. As captain of the third-rate , he took part in the Battle of Toulon in February 1744 during the War of the Austrian Succession. He also captured six ships of a French squadron in the Bay of Biscay in the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre in October 1747.
Hawke went on to achieve a victory over a French fleet at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759 during the Seven Years' War, preventing a French invasion of Britain. He developed the concept of a Western Squadron, keeping an almost continuous blockade of the French coast throughout the war.
Hawke also sat in the House of Commons from 1747 to 1776 and served as First Lord of the Admiralty for five years between 1766 and 1771. In this post, he was successful in bringing the navy's spending under control and also oversaw the mobilisation of the navy during the Falklands Crisis in 1770.
Origins
He was the only son of Edward Hawke, a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, by his wife Elizabeth Bladen, a daughter of Nathaniel Bladen of Hemsworth in Yorkshire, and widow of Col. Ruthven. Hawke benefited from the patronage of his maternal uncle Colonel Martin Bladen, a Member of Parliament.
Early life
Hawke joined the navy as a volunteer in the sixth-rate on the North American Station in February 1720. Promoted to lieutenant on 2 June 1725, he transferred to the fifth-rate on the West Coast of Africa later that month, to the fourth-rate in the Channel Squadron in April 1729 and to the fourth-rate in November 1729. After that he moved to the fourth-rate HMS Edinburgh in the Mediterranean Fleet in May 1731, to the sixth-rate in January 1732 and to the fourth-rate , flagship of Commodore Sir Chaloner Ogle, Commander-in-Chief of the Jamaica Station, in December 1732.
After this, Hawke's career accelerated: promoted to commander on 13 April 1733, he became commanding officer of the sloop later that month and promoted to captain on 20 March 1734, he became commanding officer of the sixth-rate later that month. The following year he went on half-pay and did not go to sea again until July 1739 when he was recalled to become commanding officer of HMS Portland on the North American Station and was sent to cruise in the Caribbean with orders to escort British merchant ships. He did this successfully, although it meant his ship did not take part in the British attack on Porto Bello in November 1739 during the War of Jenkins' Ear.
Battle of Toulon
Hawke became commanding officer of the third-rate in June 1743: he did not see action until the Battle of Toulon in February 1744 during the War of the Austrian Succession. The fight at Toulon was extremely confused, although Hawke had emerged from it with a degree of credit. While not a defeat for the British, they had failed to take an opportunity to comprehensively defeat the Franco-Spanish fleet when a number of British ships had not engaged the enemy, leading to a mass court martial. Hawke's ship managed to capture the only prize of the battle, the Spanish ship Poder, although it was subsequently destroyed by the French. He was then given command of the second-rate in August 1745.
Battle of Cape Finisterre
Despite having distinguished himself at Toulon, Hawke had few opportunities over the next three years. However, he was promoted to rear admiral on 15 July 1747 and appointed Second-in-Command of the Western Squadron, with his flag in the fourth-rate in August 1747. He went on to replace Admiral Peter Warren as the Commander-in-Chief, English Channel in charge of the Western Squadron, with his flag in the third-rate , in October 1747. Hawke then put a great deal of effort into improving the performance of his crews and instilling in them a sense of pride and patriotism. The Western Squadron had been established to keep a watch on the French Channel ports. Under a previous commander, Lord Anson, it had successfully contained the French coast and in May 1747 won the First Battle of Cape Finisterre when it attacked a large convoy leaving harbour.
The British had received word that there was now an incoming convoy arriving from the West Indies. Hawke took his fleet and lay in wait for the arrival of the French. In October 1747, Hawke captured six ships of a French squadron in the Bay of Biscay in the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre. The consequence of this, along with Anson's earlier victory, was to give the British almost total control in the English Channel during the final months of the war. It proved ruinous to the French economy, helping the British to secure an acceptable peace at the negotiations for the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Peace
For Hawke, however, the arrival of peace brought a sudden end to his opportunities for active service. In December 1747, he was elected as a Member of Parliament for the naval town of Portsmouth, which he was to represent for the next thirty years. He was not on good terms with the new First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Anson, although they shared similar views on how any future naval war against France should be waged. In spite of their personal disagreements, Anson had a deep respect for Hawke as an admiral, and pushed unsuccessfully for him to be given a place on the Admiralty board. Promoted to vice admiral on 26 May 1748, he became Port Admiral at Portsmouth serving in that post for three years. He was installed as a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath (KB) on 26 June 1749 and was recalled as Port Admiral at Portsmouth in 1755.
Seven Years' War
As it began to seem more likely that war would break out with France, Hawke was ordered to hoist his flag in the first-rate HMS St George and to reactivate the Western Squadron in Spring 1755. This was followed by a command to cruise off the coast of France intercepting ships bound for French harbours. He did this very successfully, and British ships captured more than 300 merchants ships during the period. This in turn further worsened relations between Britain and France, bringing them to the brink of declaring war. France would continue to demand the return of the captured merchant ships throughout the coming war. By early 1756, after repeated clashes in North America, and deteriorating relations in Europe, the two sides were formally at war.
Fall of Menorca
Hawke was sent to replace Admiral John Byng as commander in the Mediterranean, with orders to hoist his flag in the second-rate HMS Ramillies, in June 1756. Byng had been unable to relieve Menorca (historically called "Minorca" by the British) following the Battle of Minorca and he was sent back to Britain where he was tried and executed. Almost as soon as Menorca had fallen in June 1756, the French fleet had withdrawn to Toulon in case they were attacked by Hawke. Once he arrived off Menorca, Hawke found that the island had surrendered and there was little he could do to reverse this. He decided not to land the troops he had brought with him from Gibraltar. Hawke then spent three months cruising off Menorca and Marseille before returning home where he gave evidence against Byng. Hawke was subsequently criticised by some supporters of Byng, for not having blockaded either Menorca or Toulon. He was promoted to full admiral on 24 February 1757.
Descent on Rochefort
Hawke blockaded Rochefort in 1757 and later in the year he was selected to command a naval escort that would land a large force on the coast of France. The expedition arrived off the coast of Rochefort in September. After storming the offshore island of Île-d'Aix, the army commander Sir John Mordaunt hesitated before proceeding with the landing on the mainland. Despite a report by Colonel James Wolfe that they would be able to capture Rochefort, Mordaunt was reluctant to attack. Hawke then offered an ultimatum – either the Generals attacked immediately or he would sail for home. His fleet was needed to protect an inbound convoy from the West Indies, and could not afford to sit indefinitely off Rochefort. Mourdaunt hastily agreed, and the expedition returned to Britain without having made any serious attempt on the town. The failure of the expedition led to an inquiry which recommended the court-martial of Mordaunt, which commenced on 14 December 1757 and at which he was acquitted.
In 1758 Hawke directed the blockade of Brest for six months. In 1758 he was involved in a major altercation with his superiors at the Admiralty which saw him strike his flag and return to port over a misunderstanding at which he took offence. Although he later apologised, he was severely reprimanded. In Hawke's absence the Channel Fleet was placed under the direct command of Lord Anson.
Battle of Quiberon Bay
In May 1759 Hawke was restored to the command of the Western Squadron. Meanwhile, the Duc de Choiseul was planning a French invasion of Britain. A French army was assembled in Brittany, with plans to combine the separate French fleets so they could seize control of the English Channel and allow the invasion force to cross and capture London. When Hawke's force was driven off station by a storm, the French fleet under Hubert de Brienne, Comte de Conflans, took advantage and left port. During a gale on 20 November 1759 Hawke took the risky decision to follow French warships in to an area of shoals and rocky islands. The British, unlike the French, had no maps or knowledge of the area, and the French admiral fully expected the British ships to wreck themselves in the dangerous waters. Hawke ordered the master of his ship to follow the French admiral in to these waters. The master of the Royal George, Hawke's flagship, is said to have remonstrated as to the danger of doing so, further compounded by a lee-shore. To this Hawke gave his famous reply "You have done your duty Sir, now lay me alongside the Soleil Royal". He won a sufficient victory in the Battle of Quiberon Bay, that when combined with admiral Edward Boscawen's victory at the Battle of Lagos, the French invasion threat was removed. Although he had effectively put the French channel fleet out of action for the remainder of the war, Hawke was disappointed he had not secured a more comprehensive victory, asserting that had he had two more hours of daylight the whole enemy fleet would have been taken.
Blockade of France
Although Hawke's victory at Quiberon Bay ended any immediate hope of a major invasion of Great Britain, the French continued to entertain hopes of a future invasion for the remainder of the war, which drove the British to keep a tight blockade on the French coast. This continued to starve French ports of commerce, further weakening France's economy. After a spell in England, Hawke returned to take command of the blockading fleet off Brest. The British were now effectively mounting a blockade of the French coast from Dunkirk to Marseille. Hawke attempted to destroy some of the remaining French warships, which he had trapped in the Vilaine Estuary. He sent in fire ships, but these failed to accomplish the task. Hawke developed a plan for landing on the coast, seizing a peninsula, and attacking the ships from land. However, he was forced to abandon this when orders reached him from Pitt for a much larger expedition.
Capture of Belle Île
In an effort to further undermine the French, Pitt had conceived the idea of seizing the island of Belle Île, off the coast of Brittany and asked the navy to prepare for an expedition to take it. Hawke made his opposition clear in a letter to Anson, which was subsequently widely circulated. Pitt was extremely annoyed by this, considering that Hawke had overstepped his authority. Nonetheless Pitt pressed ahead with the expedition against Belle Île. An initial assault in April 1761 was repulsed with heavy loss but, reinforced, the British successfully captured the island in June. Although the capture of the island provided another victory for Pitt, and lowered the morale of the French public by showing that the British could now occupy parts of Metropolitan France – Hawke's criticisms of its strategic usefulness were borne out. It was not a useful staging point for further raids on the coast and the French were not especially concerned about its loss, telling Britain during subsequent peace negotiations that they would offer nothing in exchange for it and Britain could keep it if they wished.
First Lord of the Admiralty
Hawke then retired from active duty, and became Rear-Admiral of Great Britain on 4 January 1763 and Vice-Admiral of Great Britain on 5 November 1765. He was made First Lord of the Admiralty in the Chatham Ministry in December 1766 and promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 15 January 1768. His appointment drew on his expertise on naval matters, as he did little to enhance the government politically. During his time as First Lord, Hawke was successful in bringing the navy's spending under control. He also oversaw the mobilisation of the navy during the Falklands Crisis in 1770 and was then succeeded as First Lord by Lord Sandwich in January 1771.
Hawke was influential in the decision to give Captain James Cook command of his first expedition that left in 1768. When at a meeting in the Royal Geographical Society it was suggested that a civilian should lead the expedition Hawke is supposed to have remarked that, he would sooner have his right hand cut off than allow this to happen. Cook named a series of prominent places that he came across in the 'New World' after Hawke as a sign of his gratitude.
Hawke was created Baron Hawke "of Towton" (in which Yorkshire parish was situated his residence of Scarthingwell Hall, inherited by his wife) on 20 May 1776. Towards the end of his life he had his country house built in Sunbury-on-Thames and lived alternately there and at a rented home in North Stoneham, Hampshire. He died at his house in Sunbury-on-Thames on 17 October 1781 and was buried at St. Nicolas' Church, North Stoneham.
Cultural references
His memorial, carved by John Francis Moore and depicting the Battle of Quiberon Bay, is in St. Nicolas' Church, North Stoneham
In the iconic 1883 novel Treasure Island, Robert Louis Stevenson has Long John Silver claim that he "Served in the Royal Navy and lost his leg under "the immortal Hawke"."
Places named after Hawke include:
Australia
Cape Hawke in New South Wales.
New Zealand
Hawke Bay and subsequently Hawke's Bay Region in the North Island.
Canada
Hawke's Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador.
Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia.
Royal Navy ships named in Hawke's honour
The 74-gun launched in 1820.
built in 1891.
Marriage and issue
In 1737 he married Catherine Brooke, the only the daughter and sole heiress of Walter Brooke (1695-1722) of Burton Hall, Gateforth near Hull and of Gateforth Hall in Yorkshire, by his wife Catherine Hammond (d.1721) daughter and heiress of William Hammond of Scarthingwell Hall, in the parish of Towton, Yorkshire. Hawke made his home at Scarthingwell Hall and took for his barony the territorial designation "of Towton" from the parish in which it was situated. By his wife he had three sons and one daughter, who survived, and three children who died in infancy.
References
Sources
External links
1705 births
1781 deaths
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
British MPs 1747–1754
British MPs 1754–1761
British MPs 1761–1768
British MPs 1768–1774
British MPs 1774–1780
Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath
Lords of the Admiralty
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Royal Navy admirals of the fleet
Royal Navy personnel of the Seven Years' War
Royal Navy personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Edward 1
Military personnel from London | [
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246260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristolochiaceae | Aristolochiaceae | The Aristolochiaceae () are a family, the birthwort family, of flowering plants with seven genera and about 400 known species belonging to the order Piperales. The type genus is Aristolochia L.
Description
They are mostly perennial, herbaceous plants, shrubs, or lianas. The membranous, cordate simple leaves are spread out, growing alternately along the stem on leaf stalks. The margins are commonly entire. No stipules are present. The bizarre flowers are large to medium-sized, growing in the leaf axils. They are bilaterally or radially symmetrical.
Classification
Aristolochiaceae are magnoliids, a basal group of angiosperms which are not part of the large categories of monocots or eudicots. As of APG IV (2016), the former families Hydnoraceae and Lactoridaceae are included, because exclusion would make Aristolochiaceae in the traditional sense paraphyletic.
Some newer classification schemes, such as the update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, place the family Aristolochiaceae in the order Piperales, but it is still quite common, though superseded, for the Aristolochiaceae to be assigned, sometimes with some other families, their own order (Aristolochiales).
Phylogeny
Four assemblages can be distinguished in the genus-level cladogram of Aristolochiaceae:
Aristolochia is closely related to Thottea.
Hydnora is closely related to Prosopanche.
Lactoris occupies an isolated position.
Asarum is closely related to Saruma, and both genera display a deep-branching position in the family.
Phytochemistry
Many members of Aristolochia and some of Asarum contain the toxin aristolochic acid, which discourages herbivores and is known to be carcinogenic in rats. Aristolochia species are carcinogenic to humans.
Genomics
The complete plastid genome sequence of one species of Aristolochiaceae, Hydnora visseri, has been determined. As compared to the chloroplast genome of its closest photosynthetic relatives, the plastome of Hydnora visseri shows extreme reduction in both size (ca. 27 kilo base pairs) and gene content (24 genes appear to be functional). This Aristolochiaceae species therefore possesses one of the smallest plastid genomes among flowering plants.
Ecology
Pipevine swallowtail butterflies lay their eggs on pipevine (Aristolochia species), and the larvae feed on the plant, but are not affected by the toxin, which then offers the adult butterfly protection against predators.
Fossil record
The oldest fossil leaf remains are of †Aristolochites dentata from the Late Cretaceous of Nebraska, United States. Pollen record of †Aristolochiacidites viluiensis has been described from Upper Cretaceous sediments of Siberia. Fossil wood is known from the Deccan Traps of India some 66 million years ago. Leaf fossils of Aristolochia are known from the Early and Late Tertiary of North America and the Late Tertiary of Abkhazia, Ukrainia and Poland. Fossil leaf remains of †Aristolochia austriaca have been described from Late Miocene sediments of the Pellendorf site at the Vienna Basin in Austria. †A. austriaca is most similar to the extant Mediterranean species A. rotunda and A. baetica.
References
External links
International Agency for Research on Cancer evaluation
Dietary Supplements: Aristolochic Acid, U.S. Food and Drug Administration alerts
Health Canada advising not to use products labelled to contain Aristolochia
Aristolochiaceae in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database
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246267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium%20sulfate | Magnesium sulfate | Magnesium sulfate or magnesium sulphate (in English-speaking countries other than the US) is a chemical compound, a salt with the formula , consisting of magnesium cations (20.19% by mass) and sulfate anions . It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water but not in ethanol.
Magnesium sulfate is usually encountered in the form of a hydrate , for various values of n between 1 and 11. The most common is the heptahydrate , known as Epsom salt, which is a household chemical with many traditional uses, including bath salts.
The main use of magnesium sulfate is in agriculture, to correct soils deficient in magnesium (an essential plant nutrient because of the role of magnesium in chlorophyll and photosynthesis). The monohydrate is favored for this use; by the mid 1970s, its production was 2.3 million tons per year. The anhydrous form and several hydrates occur in nature as minerals, and the salt is a significant component of the water from some springs.
Hydrates
Magnesium sulfate can crystallize as several hydrates, including:
Anhydrous, ; unstable in nature, hydrates to form epsomite.
Monohydrate, ; kieserite, monoclinic.
or .
Dihydrate, ; orthorhombic.
or .
Trihydrate, .
Tetrahydrate, ; starkeyite, monoclinic.
Pentahydrate, ; pentahydrite, triclinic.
Hexahydrate, ; hexahydrite, monoclinic.
Heptahydrate, ("Epsom salt"); epsomite, orthorhombic.
Enneahydrate, , monoclinic.
Decahydrate, .
Undecahydrate, ; meridianiite, triclinic.
As of 2017, the existence of the decahydrate apparently has not been confirmed.
All the hydrates lose water upon heating. Above 320 °C, only the anhydrous form is stable. It decomposes without melting at 1124 °C into magnesium oxide (MgO) and sulfur trioxide (SO3).
Heptahydrate (Epsom salt)
The heptahydrate takes its common name "Epsom salt" from a bitter saline spring in Epsom in Surrey, England, where the salt was produced from the springs that arise where the porous chalk of the North Downs meets the impervious London clay.
The heptahydrate readily loses one equivalent of water to form the hexahydrate.
It is a natural source of both magnesium and sulphur. Epsom salts are commonly used in bath salts, exfoliants, muscle relaxers and pain relievers. However, these are different from Epsom salts that are used for gardening, as they contain aromas and perfumes not suitable for plants.
Monohydrate
The monohydrate can be prepared by heating the hexahydrate to approximately 150 °C. Further heating to approximately 300–320 °C gives anhydrous magnesium sulfate.
Undecahydrate
The undecahydrate , meridianiite, is stable at atmospheric pressure only below 2 °C. Above that temperature, it liquefies into a mix of solid heptahydrate and a saturated solution. It has an eutectic point with water at −3.9 °C and 17.3% (mass) of MgSO4. Large crystals can be obtained from solutions of the proper concentration kept at 0 °C for a few days.
At pressures of about 0.9 GPa and at 240 K, meridianiite decomposes into a mixture of ice VI and the enneahydrate .
Enneahydrate
The enneahydrate was identified and characterized only recently, even though it seems easy to produce (by cooling a solution of and sodium sulfate in suitable proportions).
The structure is monoclinic, with unit-cell parameters at 250 K: a = 0.675 nm, b = 1.195 nm, c = 1.465 nm, β = 95.1°, V = 1.177 nm3 with Z = 4. The most probable space group is P21/c. Magnesium selenate also forms an enneahydrate , but with a different crystal structure.
Natural occurrence
As and ions are respectively the second cation and the second anion present in seawater after and , magnesium sulfates are common minerals in geological environments. Their occurrence is mostly connected with supergene processes. Some of them are also important constituents of evaporitic potassium-magnesium (K-Mg) salts deposits.
Bright spots observed by the Dawn Spacecraft in Occator Crater on the dwarf planet Ceres are most consistent with reflected light from magnesium sulfate hexahydrate.
Almost all known mineralogical forms of MgSO4 are hydrates. Epsomite is the natural analogue of "Epsom salt". Meridianiite, MgSO4·11H2O, has been observed on the surface of frozen lakes and is thought to also occur on Mars. Hexahydrite is the next lower (6) hydrate. Three next lower hydrates—pentahydrite, starkeyite, and especially sanderite—are rare. Kieserite is a monohydrate and is common among evaporitic deposits. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate was reported from some burning coal dumps.
Preparation
Magnesium sulfate is usually obtained directly from dry lake beds and other natural sources. It can also be prepared by reacting magnesite (magnesium carbonate, ) or magnesia (oxide, ) with sulfuric acid.
Another possible method is to treat seawater or magnesium-containing industrial wastes so as to precipitate magnesium hydroxide and react the precipitate with sulfuric acid.
Physical properties
Magnesium sulfate relaxation is the primary mechanism that causes the absorption of sound in seawater at frequencies above 10 kHz (acoustic energy is converted to thermal energy). Lower frequencies are less absorbed by the salt, so that low frequency sound travels farther in the ocean. Boric acid and magnesium carbonate also contribute to absorption.
Uses
Medical
Magnesium sulfate is used both externally (as Epsom salt) and internally.
The main external use is the formulation as bath salts, especially for foot baths to soothe sore feet. Such baths have been claimed to also soothe and hasten recovery from muscle pain, soreness, or injury. Potential health effects of magnesium sulfate are reflected in medical studies on the impact of magnesium on resistant depression and as an analgesic for migraine and chronic pain. Magnesium sulfate has been studied in the treatment of asthma, preeclampsia and eclampsia.
Magnesium sulfate is the usual component of the concentrated salt solution used in isolation tanks to increase its specific gravity to approximately 1.25–1.26. This high density allows an individual to float effortlessly on the surface of water in the closed tank, eliminating as many of the external senses as possible.
In the UK, a medication containing magnesium sulfate and phenol, called "drawing paste", is useful for small boils or localized infections and removing splinters.
Internally, magnesium sulfate may be administered by oral, respiratory, or intravenous routes. Internal uses include replacement therapy for magnesium deficiency, treatment of acute and severe arrhythmias, as a bronchodilator in the treatment of asthma, preventing eclampsia, a tocolytic agent, and as an anticonvulsant.
Agriculture
In agriculture, magnesium sulfate is used to increase magnesium or sulfur content in soil. It is most commonly applied to potted plants, or to magnesium-hungry crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, peppers, lemons, and roses. The advantage of magnesium sulfate over other magnesium soil amendments (such as dolomitic lime) is its high solubility, which also allows the option of foliar feeding. Solutions of magnesium sulfate are also nearly pH neutral, compared with the slightly alkaline salts of magnesium as found in limestone; therefore, the use of magnesium sulfate as a magnesium source for soil does not significantly change the soil pH. Contrary to the popular belief that magnesium sulfate is able to control pests and slugs, helps seeds germination, produce more flowers, improve nutrient uptake, and is environmentally friendly, it does none of the purported claims except for correcting magnesium deficiency in soils. Magnesium sulfate can even pollute water if used in excessive amounts.
Magnesium sulfate was historically used as a treatment for lead poisoning prior to the development of chelation therapy, as it was hoped that any lead ingested would be precipitated out by the magnesium sulfate and subsequently purged from the digestive system. This application saw particularly widespread use among veterinarians during the early-to-mid 20th century; Epsom salt was already available on many farms for agricultural use, and it was often prescribed in the treatment of farm animals that inadvertently ingested lead.
Food preparation
Magnesium sulfate is used as a brewing salt in making beer. It may also be used as a coagulant for making tofu.
Chemistry
Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is commonly used as a desiccant in organic synthesis owing to its affinity for water and compatibility with most organic compounds. During work-up, an organic phase is treated with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The hydrated solid is then removed by filtration, decantation, or by distillation (if the boiling point is low enough). Other inorganic sulfate salts such as sodium sulfate and calcium sulfate may be used in the same way.
Construction
Magnesium sulfate is used to prepare specific cements by the reaction between magnesium oxide and magnesium sulfate solution, which are of good binding ability and more resistance than Portland cement. This cement is mainly adopted in the production of lightweight insulation panels. Weakness in water resistance limits its usage.
Magnesium (or sodium) sulfate is also used for testing aggregates for soundness in accordance with ASTM C88 standard, when there are no service records of the material exposed to actual weathering conditions. The test is accomplished by repeated immersion in saturated solutions followed by oven drying to dehydrate the salt precipitated in permeable pore spaces. The internal expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion, simulates the expansion of water on freezing.
Magnesium sulfate is also used to test the resistance of concrete to external sulfate attack (ESA).
Aquaria
Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate is also used to maintain the magnesium concentration in marine aquaria which contain large amounts of stony corals, as it is slowly depleted in their calcification process. In a magnesium-deficient marine aquarium, calcium and alkalinity concentrations are very difficult to control because not enough magnesium is present to stabilize these ions in the saltwater and prevent their spontaneous precipitation into calcium carbonate.
Double salts
Double salts containing magnesium sulfate exist. There are several known as sodium magnesium sulfates and potassium magnesium sulfates. A mixed copper-magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Mg,Cu)SO4·7H2O was recently found to occur in mine tailings and has been given the mineral name alpersite.
See also
Calcium sulfate
Magnesium chloride
References
External links
International Chemical Safety Cards—Magnesium Sulfate
Desiccants
Laxatives
Magnesium compounds
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246270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Indonesia | Music of Indonesia | The music of Indonesia its cultural diversity, the local musical creativity, as well as subsequent foreign musical influences that shaped contemporary music maybe scenes of Indonesia. Nearly thousands of Indonesian islands having its own cultural and artistic history and character. This results in hundreds of different forms of music, which often accompanies by dance and theatre.
The musics of Java (inc. Sundanese), Sumatra, Bali, Flores and other islands have been documented and recorded,
and research by Indonesian and international scholars is ongoing. The music in Indonesia predates historical records, various Native Indonesian tribes often incorporate chants and songs accompanied with musics instruments in their rituals. Today the contemporary music of Indonesia is popular in the region, including neighbouring countries; Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei.
Traditional regional musics and songs of Indonesia natively compromises of strong beat and harmony type musics with strong influence of Indian and Malay classical music. The influence is strongly visible in the traditional popular music genre of Dangdut.
Musical instruments
The musical identity of Indonesia as we know it today began as the Bronze Age culture migrated to the Indonesian archipelago in the 2nd-3rd century BC. Traditional musics of Indonesian tribes often uses percussion instruments, especially gendang (drums) and gongs. Some of them developed elaborate and distinctive musical instruments, such as sasando string instrument of Rote island, angklung of Sundanese people, and the complex and sophisticated gamelan orchestra of Java and Bali.
Indonesia is the home of gong chime, gong chime is a generic term for a set of small, high-pitched bossed pot gongs. The gongs are ordinarily placed in order of pitch, with the boss upward on cords held in a low wooden frame. The frames can be rectangular or circular (the latter are sometimes called "gong circles"), and may have one or two rows of gongs. They are played by one to four musicians, each using two padded sticks to strike them. They are an important instrument in many Indonesian musical ensembles, such as gamelan, kulintang, and talempong.
Gamelan
The most popular and famous form of Indonesian music is probably gamelan, an ensemble of tuned percussion instruments that include metallophones, drums, gongs and spike fiddles along with bamboo flutes. Similar ensembles are prevalent throughout Indonesia and Malaysia, however gamelan is originated from Java, Bali, and Lombok.
In the Central Java, gamelan is intricate and meticulously laid out. The central melody is played on a metallophone in the centre of the orchestra, while the front elaboration and ornamentation on the melody, and, at the back, the gongs slowly punctuate the music. There are two tuning systems. Each gamelan is tuned to itself, and the intervals between notes on the scale vary between ensembles. The metallophones cover four octaves, and include types like the slenthem, demung, saron panerus and balungan. The soul of the gamelan is believed to reside in the large gong, or gong ageng. Other gongs are tuned to each note of the scale and include ketuk, kenong and kempul. The front section of the orchestra is diverse, and includes rebab, suling, siter, bonang and gambang. Male choruses (gerong) and female (pesindhen) solo vocalists are common. With the arrival of the Dutch colonisers, a number system called kepatihan was developed to record the music. Music and dance at the time were divided into several styles based on the main courts in the area—Surakarta, Yogyakarta, Pakualaman and Mangkunegaran.
Gamelan from eastern Java is less well-known than central or western parts of the island. Perhaps most distinctive of the area is the extremely large gamyak drum. In West Java, formerly Sunda, has several types of gamelan. Gamelan Degung, gamelan salendro and tembang sunda are three primary types. The Osing Javanese minority in eastern Java are known for social music for weddings and other celebrations called gandrung, as well as angklung, played by young amateur boys, which is very similar to Balinese gamelan.
In Indonesia, gamelan often accompanies dance, wayang puppet performances, or rituals and ceremonies. Typically players in the gamelan will be familiar with dance moves and poetry, while dancers are able to play in the ensemble. In wayang, the dalang (puppeteer) must have a thorough knowledge of gamelan, as he gives the cues for the music. Gamelan can be performed by itself – in "klenengan" style, or for radio broadcasts – and concerts presentation are common in national arts conservatories founded in the middle of the 20th century.
Gamelan's role in rituals is so important that there is a Javanese saying, "It is not official until the gong is hung". Some performances are associated with royalty, such as visits by the sultan of Yogyakarta. Certain gamelans are associated with specific rituals, such as the Gamelan Sekaten, which is used in celebration of Mawlid an-Nabi (Muhammad's birthday). In Bali, almost all religious rituals include gamelan performance. Gamelan is also used in the ceremonies of the Catholic church in Indonesia. Certain pieces are designated for starting and ending performances or ceremonies. When an "ending" piece (such as "Udan Mas") is begun, the audience will know that the event is nearly finished and will begin to leave. Certain pieces are also believed to possess magic powers, and can be used to ward off evil spirits.
Talempong
Talempong is a traditional instrument of the Minangkabau of West Sumatra. The shape is almost the same as the bonang instrument in the gamelan device. Talempongs can be made of brass, but some are made of wood and stone. Talempongs are played by being hit using a wooden rod or a stick. Talempong is usually used to accompany dance or welcoming performances, such as the typical Tari Piring, Tari Pasambahan, Tari Alang, Tari Suntiang Pangulu and Tari Gelombang. Talempong is usually performed with an accordion accompaniment, a type of organ supported and played with the right hand played by the player. In addition to the accordion, instruments such as saluang, gandang, serunai and other traditional Minangkabau instruments are also commonly played with talempong.
Kulintang
Kolintang or kulintang is a bronze and wooden percussion instrument native to eastern Indonesia and also The Philippines. In Indonesia it is particularly associated with Minahasa people of North Sulawesi, however it also popular in Maluku and Timor. The instrument consist of a row/set of 5 to 9 graduated pot gongs, horizontally laid upon a frame arranged in order of pitch with the lowest gong found on the players' left. The gongs are laid in the instrument face side up atop two cords/strings running parallel to the entire length of the frame, with bamboo/wooden sticks/bars resting perpendicular across the frame, creating an entire kulintang set called a "pasangan".
The main purpose for kulintang music in the community is to function as social entertainment at a professional, folk level. This music is unique in that it is considered a public music in the sense everyone is allowed to participate. Not only do the players play, but audience members are also expected to participate. These performances are important in that they bring people in the community and adjacent regions together, helping unify communities that otherwise may not have interacted with one another. Traditionally, when performers play kulintang music, their participation is voluntary. Musicians see performances as an opportunity to receive recognition, prestige and respect from the community and nothing more.
kulintang music differs in many aspects from gamelan music, primarily in the way the latter constructs melodies within a framework of skeletal tones and prescribed time interval of entry for each instruments. The framework of kulintang music is more flexible and time intervals are nonexistent, allowing for such things as improvisations to be more prevalent.
Angklung
Angklung is a bamboo musical instrument native to Sundanese people of West Java. It is made out of bamboo tubes attached to a bamboo frame. The tubes are carved so that they have a distinctive resonant pitch when being vibrated. Each angklung only plays one note.
This musical instrument made of bamboo is played by shaking it. The sound of the Angklung is generated from the impact of bamboo tubes. It has a distinctive sound that vibrates in a composition of 2, 3, to 4 notes in each size.
Angklung existed before the Hindu era in Indonesia. In the days of the Sundanese kingdom (12th to 16th centuries), Angklung became a musical instrument that was always used in various events or celebrations, especially traditional events in farming. At that time, Angklung was played as worship of "Dewi Sri", namely the Goddess of Rice or the Goddess of Fertility to be given blessings to the plants she planted and also to prosper in life. Not only that, during the Sundanese kingdom, Angklung was also used as a trigger for the spirit of war.
The types of bamboo that are commonly used as musical instruments are black bamboo (awi wulung) and ater bamboo (awi temen), which when dry are whitish yellow. Each note (barrel) is produced from the sound of the bamboo tube in the form of a blade (wilahan) for each bamboo segment from small to large. Each bamboo size has a different pitch. UNESCO designated the angklung a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 18 November 2010.
Suling
Suling is the Sundanese word for seruling the word of Indonesian, which means 'flute'. Made from bamboo, Indonesian flutes are always end blown and vary in size. The fingering position changes the wavelength of sound resonance inside the suling's body. Depending on the distance of nearest hole to the suling's head, different notes can be produced. The airflow speed also can modify the tone's frequency. A note with twice frequency can be produced mostly by blowing the air into suling's head's hole with twice speed. Generally, the shorter the suling the higher the pitch. This simple suling produces tunes or melodies that have traditionally been interpreted as the sound of joyful learning. There are many regions in Indonesia that use suling as a traditional instrument and have different local names for it. In Java, Sunda, and Bali, this instrument is commonly called suling, in Minang it is called saluang, in Toraja, it is called Lembang flute, in Halmahera, it is called bangsil, and in West Nusa Tenggara it is called silu. Suling is an Indonesian bamboo ring flute which is used in various traditional musical ensemble performances, including gamelan, gambus, and dangdut. This flute is made of a long, thin-walled bamboo tube called tamiang and a thin rattan band encircles the mouthpiece.
Kacapi suling
Kacapi suling is a type of instrumental music that is highly improvisational and popular in parts of West Java that employs two instruments, kacapi (zither) and suling (bamboo flute). It is related to tembang sunda. The rhythmic strains of the kecapi are slow in tempo, produced by strings that blend into soft music when combined with the melody of the suling or melismatic vocals. The kacapi is a traditional zither of Sundanese musical instrument derived from the Chinese , and similar to the Japanese koto, the Mongolian , the Korean , the Vietnamese and the Kazakh jetigen, and suling is a bamboo flute.
Kendang
Kendang or Gendang is a two-headed drum used by peoples from Indonesian archipelago. Among the Javanese, Sundanese, or Malay peoples, the kendang has one side larger than the other, with the larger, lower-pitched side usually placed to the right, and are usually placed on stands horizontally and hit with the hands on either side while seated on the floor. Amongst groups like the Balinese both sides are of equal size, and are played on either one or both sides using a combination of hands and/or sticks. Among the Makassarese, the Ganrang drums have much more importance, with it considered the most sacred of all musical instruments, comparable to gongs in Java.
One of the best known variations of the Kendang is the Gendang beleq. Gendang beleq is a traditional music from Lombok island, Indonesia. The name gendang beleq is a Sasak language term, which means "big drum (big gendang)", as the performance is about a group of musicians playing, dancing and marching with their traditional instruments, centered on two big drum (gendang). The drum is made from a wood frame with goat skin drum-head. The wood is selected from woods which is hard yet light. In a Gendang beleq performance, the drummers carry and play gendang and dance a dramatic and confrontational duet. The drummers play interlocking tune with their large drums. Aside from able to play their instruments, the players must have the agility and stamina to perform the dance and marching with their instrument.
Sasando
Sasando is a plucked string instrument native of Rote island of East Nusa Tenggara. The parts of sasando are a bamboo cylinder surrounded by several wedges where the strings are stretched, surrounded by a bag-like fan of dried lontar or palmyra leaves (Borassus flabellifer), functioned as the resonator of the instrument.
Tapanuli ogong
Musical performance from Tapanuli area of North Sumatra. Tapanuli ogong is a form of dance music played with a type of lute, trumpet and flute.
Genres
The diverse world of Indonesian music genres was the result of the musical creativity of its people, and also the subsequent cultural encounters with foreign musical influences into the archipelago. Next to distinctive native form of musics, several genres can traces its origin to foreign influences; such as gambus and qasidah from Middle Eastern Islamic music, keroncong from Portuguese influences, and dangdut with notable Hindi music influence.
Folk music
Indonesian regional folk pop musics reflects the diversity of Indonesian culture and Indonesian ethnicity, mostly use local languages and a mix of western and regional style music and instruments. Indonesian folk music is quite diverse, and today embraces pop, rock, house, hip hop and other genres, as well as distinct Indonesian forms. There are several kinds of "ethnic" pop music, generally grouped together as Pop Daerah (regional pop). These include Pop sunda, Pop Minang, Pop Batak, Pop Melayu, Pop Ambon, Pop Minahasa and others. Other than featuring the legacy of Lagu Daerah (regional traditional songs) of each regional cultures, the musician might also create some new compositions in their own native language.
Tembang Sunda
Tembang sunda, also called "seni mamaos cianjuran", or just cianjuran, is a form of sung poetry which arose in the colonial-era of Cianjur. It was first known as an aristocratic art; one cianjuran composer was R.A.A. Kusumahningrat (Dalem Pancaniti), ruler of Cianjur (1834–1862). The instruments of Cianjuran are kacapi indung, kacapi rincik and suling or bamboo flute, and rebab for salendro compositions. The lyrics are typically sung in free verse, but a more modern version, panambih, is metrical. It is usually the drums.
Jaipongan
Jaipongan is a very complex rhythmic dance music from the Sundanese people of western Java. The rhythm is liable to change seemingly randomly, making dancing difficult for most listeners. Its instruments are entirely Sundanese, completely without imported instruments. It was invented by artists like Gugum Gumbira after Sukarno prohibited rock and roll and other western genres in the 1960s.
Gambus
Gambus literally means oud, referring to a type of lute or 12-string pear-shaped guitar, is the Middle-Eastern-derived Islamic vocal and instrumental music. These traditions began to be incorporated throughout many areas of Indonesia by the 16th century.
Qasidah modern
Qasidah is an ancient Arabic word for religious poetry accompanied by chanting and percussion. Qasidah modern adapts this for pop audiences. It is used to denote a type of orchestra and the music it plays, believed to be introduced by Muslim settlers from Yemen. Qasidah modern were derived from Islamic pop, adding local dialects and lyrics that address Indonesian contemporary issues. Though popular among Arabs in Indonesia, it has gained little popularity elsewhere. One of the oldest qasidah modern musical groups in Indonesia is Nasida Ria.
The contemporary form of Islamic Middle Eastern-influenced music in Indonesia is exemplified by the band Debu, that feature a sufism approach on music to spread their message.
Kroncong
Kroncong (alternative spelling: Keroncong) has been evolving since the arrival of the Portuguese, who brought with them European instruments. By the early 1900s, it was considered a low-class urban music. This changed in the 1930s, when the rising Indonesian film industry began incorporating kroncong. And then even more so in the mid- to late 1940s, it became associated with the struggle for independence.
Perhaps the most famous song in the kroncong style is "Bengawan Solo", written in 1940 by Gesang Martohartono, a Solonese musician. Written during the Japanese Imperial Army occupation of the island in World War II, the song (about the Bengawan Solo River, Java's longest and most important river) became widely popular among the Javanese, and then later nationally when recordings were broadcast over the local radio stations. The song also became quite popular with the Japanese soldiers, and when they returned to Japan at the end of the war re-recordings of it (by Japanese artists) became best-sellers. Over the years it has been re-released many times by notable artists, mainly within Asia but also beyond (like Anneke Grönloh), and in some places it is seen as typifying Indonesian music. Gesang himself remains the most renowned exponent of the style, which although it is seen now as a somewhat starchy and "dated" form is still popular among large segments of the population, particularly the older generation.
After World War II and during Indonesian National Revolution (1945–1949) and afterwards, kroncong was associated with patriotism, since many of Indonesian poets and patriotic songs authors uses kroncong and somewhat jazz fusion as the genre of their works. The patriotic theme and romantic wartime romance was obvious in the works of Ismail Marzuki, such as "Rayuan Pulau Kelapa", "Indonesia Pusaka", "Sepasang Mata Bola", "Keroncong Serenata" and "Juwita Malam". These patriotic songs can be sung in hymn or even in orchestra, but most often was sung in kroncong style known as kroncong perjuangan (struggle kroncong). The kroncong divas; Waldjinah, Sundari Sukoco and Hetty Koes Endang, was instrumental in reviving the style in the 1980s.
Langgam Jawa
There is a style of kroncong native to Surakarta (Solo) called langgam jawa, which fuses kroncong with the gamelan seven-note scale.
Gambang kromong
Early in the 20th century, kroncong was used in a type of theatre called Komedi Stambul; adapted for this purpose, the music was called gambang kromong. Gambang kromong is quite prevalent in Betawi culture of Jakarta.
Tanjidor
Tanjidor is a traditional Betawi musical ensemble of Jakarta. The instruments used are almost the same as a military marching band and/or corps of drums/drum and bugle corps, usually consists of tuba or sousaphone, trumpet, clarinet, tambourine and drums. The term tanjidor was derived from Portuguese tanger (playing music) and tangedor (playing music outdoors), subsequently adopted in Betawi language as tanji (music). Other than Jakarta, tanjidor musical ensamble is also can be found in Pontianak, West Kalimantan.
Campursari
A musical fusion style of traditional Javanese music and dangdut that prevalent in Javanese cultural sphere, mainly Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java, Perhaps its greatest current artist is Didi Kempot. In the western part of Java, the Sundanese Dangdut or Campursari version of the Sundanese was born and developed from traditional Jaipong music with a distinctive drum beat.
Dangdut
Dangdut is a popular traditional music genre of Indonesia which is partly derived of Indian, Arab, and Malay music. It consists of melodious and harmonical music with the main Tabla as the percussion beat especially in the classical dangdut versions. It was originally an Indonesian dance music that has spread throughout Southeast Asia, became the dominant pop style in the mid-1970s. Famous for its throbbing beat and the slightly moralistic lyrics that appeal to youth, dangdut stars dominate the modern pop scene. However dangdut—especially performed by female singers—also often featuring suggestive dance movements and naughty lyrics to appeal the larger audience. This development was strongly opposed by the conservative older generation dangdut artist.
Dangdut is based around the singers, and stars include Rhoma Irama and Elvy Sukaesih (the King and Queen of Dangdut), Mansyur S., A. Rafiq, Camelia Malik and Fahmy Shahab; along with Cici Paramida, Evie Tamala, Inul Daratista, Julia Perez and Dewi Perssik from younger generation.
Contemporary music
The contemporary music of Indonesia is diverse and vibrant. Throughout its history, Indonesian musicians were open to foreign influences of various music genres of the world. American jazz was heavily marketed in Asia, and foxtrots, tangos, rumbas, blues and Hawaiian guitar styles were all imitated by Indonesian musicians. As the result, various genres were developed within Indonesian music frame: Indonesian pop, rock, jazz, and hip hop.
Indonesian music also plays a vital role in the Indonesian creative pop culture, especially as the soundtracks or theme songs of Indonesian cinema and sinetrons (Indonesian TV drama). Indonesian film Badai Pasti Berlalu (1977) were also produced successful soundtrack hit with same title in the same year, the soundtrack was remade in 1999 with Chrisye as the main singer and rendered by Erwin Gutawa in orchestra style. In 2007 the film was remade again with a new soundtrack that still features same songs performed by younger generation artist. Another popular Indonesian coming of age teen movie Ada Apa Dengan Cinta (2002) also produced successful soundtrack hits with most songs written and performed by Melly Goeslaw.
Today the Indonesian music industry enjoys nationwide popularity. Thanks to common culture and intelligible languages between Indonesian and Malay, Indonesian music enjoyed regional popularity in neighbouring countries such as Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. However, the overwhelming popularity of Indonesian music in Malaysia had alarmed the Malaysian music industry. In 2008 Malaysian music industry demanded the restriction of Indonesian songs on Malaysian radio broadcasts.
Orchestra
Western classical music reached Indonesia in the era of Dutch East Indies as early as the 18th century, but it was enjoyed only by a handful of wealthy Dutch plantation owners and officers in elite social clubs and ballrooms such as Societeit Harmonie in Batavia and Societeit Concordia in Bandung. De Schouwburg van Batavia (today Gedung Kesenian Jakarta) was designed as a concert hall in the 19th century. Classical music has been restricted to the refined, wealthy and educated high-class citizen, and never penetrated the rest of the population during the East Indies colonial era. The type of western-derived music that transcended the social barrier at that time was Kroncong, known as lower-class music.
An amateur group called Bataviasche Philharmonic Orchestra was established in Dutch colonial times. It became the NIROM orchestra when the radio broadcasting station Nederlandsch-Indische Radio Omroep Maatschappij was born in 1912. Today it is known as Jakarta Symphony Orchestra that has existed in the country's musical world for almost a century through its changing formats to suit prevailing trends and needs. In 1950, a merger of the Cosmopolitan Orchestra under Joel Cleber and the Jakarta Studio Orchestra under Sutedjo and Iskandar appeared as the Djakarta Radio Orchestra under Henkie Strake for classical repertoires, and the Jakarta Studio Orchestra led by Syaiful Bachri specialised in Indonesian pieces. In 2010 Jakarta Symphony Orchestra staged a comeback after a fairly long absence.
In the 1960s to 1980s classical music in Indonesia aired mainly by the national radio broadcasting service Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) and the national TV station Televisi Republik Indonesia (TVRI) through their programs. During these decades, the classical orchestra mainly developed in Universities as an extracurricular activity for students which included choir. In the 1990s the group of professional symphony orchestra start to take form, notably The Twilite Orchestra led by Adie MS, was founded in June 1991, initially an ensemble with 20 musicians. The ensemble has developed since then into a full symphonic orchestra with 70 musicians, a 63-member Twilite Chorus, and a repertoire that ranges from Beethoven to The Beatles. The orchestra has played a role in promoting Indonesian music, especially in the preservation of national songs by Indonesian composers and traditional songs. Aided by the Victorian Philharmonic Orchestra with the Twilite Chorus, Addie MS re-recorded the Indonesian national anthem, Indonesia Raya, by WR Supratman in its original orchestral arrangement by Jos Cleber, as well as other Indonesian popular national songs in the album Simfoni Negeriku.
The Indonesian composer who is considered most prominent and well known worldwide in the classical / contemporary music is Ananda Sukarlan (born 1968), with many orchestral works, chamber and instrumental. His most celebrated works are a series of virtuosic Rapsodia Nusantara for piano solo, with musical motifs based on Indonesian folktunes. He has written works for musicians such as from the Boston Symphony Orchestra, violinist Midori Goto etc., and his works are widely performed worldwide
Today, major cities like Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, Medan and Batam are no strangers to orchestral music, with their own symphony groups. Jakarta, for instance, has its Nusantara Symphony Orchestra, the Twilite Orchestra and the Jakarta Chamber Orchestra.
Indonesia also has many patriotic songs that are used, played, and memorized by the population, some of these national songs are used during the colonial era of the Dutch East Indies, Japanese Occupation, and today Indonesia. Many of these songs have been recorded using orchestral recordings on different albums such as 'Simfoni Negeriku' conducted by Addie MS. List of Indonesian national songs.
Pop
Indonesian pop music today, known simply as "pop Indonesia" is heavily influenced by trends and recordings from America, Britain, Japan, and Korea. Although influences ranging from American pop, British pop, and also Asian J-pop and K-pop are obvious, the Indonesian pop phenomena is not completely derivative; it expresses the sentiments and styles of contemporary Indonesian life.
Koes Bersaudara later formed as Koes Plus is considered one of the pioneers of Indonesian pop and rock and roll music in the 1960s and 1970s. The American and British music influences were obvious in the music of Koes Bersaudara, The Beatles were known to be the main influences of this band. Several Indonesian pop and ballad singers were survived through decades and become Indonesian music legends, such as Iwan Fals and Chrisye. One of the most influential Indonesian singers in pop music scene, especially during early 2000, is Agnes Monica, who had later known as Agnez Mo.
In late 90s through 2000s, the popular bands include Peterpan, Ungu, Slank, Dewa 19, Gigi, Sheila on 7, Padi, Radja, D'Masiv and Nidji, all of which tour regularly in Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia and was featured on MTV Asia.
Some of Indonesian pop bands are rekindled with their Malay roots and revived a genre called "Band Pop Melayu" (Pop Malay Band) and popular in the late 2000s. The pop Malay bands include ST 12.
Indonesian pop music from the 1980s and 1980 are commonly referred to as "Indonesian city pop", due to their perceived similarities to the Japanese genre. The Japanese city pop itself gained popularity among youngsters and amateur musicians in the late 2010s via the Internet.
The most recent foreign influences on Indonesian pop music are influenced from J-pop and K-pop. Several bands such as J-Rocks emulate Japanese and Korean pop culture. Girl groups are also spreading among boy bands, such as 7icons and Cherrybelle, as well as JKT48 which is an offshoot of the Japanese AKB48.
Rock
Just like pop music, Indonesian rock scene also was heavily influenced by the development of rock music in America. The most influential Indonesian rock bands was probably Panbers that was popular in the 1970s and 1980s. In the late 1980s to mid-1990s several female rock singers popularly known as "Lady Rockers" were famous in Indonesia, such as Nicky Astria and Anggun who started her career in as a pop-rock singer in Indonesia before moving to France and pursue her international career. Other notable rock bands include Slank and Jamrud. Metal bands also exist, such as the metalcore band Killing Me Inside, Death Metal / Grindcore band Jasad and the Groove Metal / Metalcore band Burgerkill.
Jazz fusion
Some of Indonesian musicians and bands were exploring the jazz music. Notable Indonesian jazz musicians include Jack Lesmana, Benny Likumahuwa, Benny Mustafa, Maryono, Bubi Chen Maliq & D'Essentials. Various other groups fuse contemporary westernised jazz fusion music with the traditional ethnic music traditions of their hometown. In the case of Krakatau and SambaSunda, the bands from West Java, the traditional Sundanese kacapi suling and gamelan orchestra is performed alongside drum set, keyboard and guitars. The Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival is performed annually. The latest development of Jazz in Indonesia reflected with many Jazz Festivals being held every year.
Notable contemporary artists
Agnez Mo
Benyamin Sueb
Bing Slamet
Brian Immanuel (Rich Brian)
Chrisye
Ebiet G. Ade
Fariz RM
Gesang
Gombloh
Guruh Sukarnoputra
Harry Roesli (1950s–1970s)
Iwan Fals
Nicole Zefanya (Niki)
Titiek Puspa
The Tielman Brothers, Eurasians originally from Indonesia who gained popularity in Europe. Their style is called Indorock, after the colonial term used for Eurasians: Indo-European, shortened to Indo.
Rainych
Stephanie Poetri
See also
Anugerah Musik Indonesia
List of Indonesian musicians and musical groups
List of Indonesian composers
List of Indonesian rock bands
List of Indonesian pop musicians
Culture of Indonesia
Music of Sunda
Music of Java
Music of Bali
Music of Sumatra
Indonesian popular music recordings
Indonesian hip hop
Rock music
Pop music
Jengglong
References
Bass, Colin. "No Risk -- No Fun!". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 131–142. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Heaton, Jenny and Steptoe, Simon. "A Storm of Bronze". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 117–130. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
External links
Music of Indonesia Series of 20 CDs by Smithsonian Folkways
Audio clips: Traditional music of Indonesia. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed 25 November 2010.
BBC TV channel 3 Audio (60 minutes): Music of Bali. Accessed 25 November 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Java, Jakarta to Solo. Accessed 25 November 2010.
The traditional music of Indonesia
Indonesian Fusion
Various Types Of Indonesian Musical Instruments
Listening to Balinese Gamelan: A Beginners' Guide from Connexions accessed 20/01/2012 | [
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246274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FindSounds | FindSounds | FindSounds is a website run by the Comparisonics Corporation. It searches an index of over 1,000,000 sounds on the internet, with 100,000 users and 1,000,000 searches each month. The index mainly consists of sound effects and musical instrument samples. Results are in AIFF, AU and WAV formats, in both mono and stereo.
The site offers the FindSounds Palette, a program which also searches the FindSounds index.
The website has been shown on television: TechTV; in newspapers: The New York Times; in magazines: Electronic Musician, Mix, Online, PC World, Popular Science Video Systems, Yahoo! Internet Life; and on countless websites, such as Yahoo's Pick of the Day, and USAToday.com.
The New York Times wrote:
See also
List of search engines
References
External links
FindSounds.com
Sound
Product searching websites | [
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246275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earwig | Earwig | Earwigs make up the insect order Dermaptera. With about 2,000 species in 12 families, they are one of the smaller insect orders. Earwigs have characteristic cerci, a pair of forcep-like pincers on their abdomen, and membranous wings folded underneath short, rarely used forewings, hence the scientific order name, "skin wings". Some groups are tiny parasites on mammals and lack the typical pincers. Earwigs are found on all continents except Antarctica.
Earwigs are mostly nocturnal and often hide in small, moist crevices during the day, and are active at night, feeding on a wide variety of insects and plants. Damage to foliage, flowers, and various crops is commonly blamed on earwigs, especially the common earwig Forficula auricularia.
Earwigs have five molts in the year before they become adults. Many earwig species display maternal care, which is uncommon among insects. Female earwigs may care for their eggs, and even after they have hatched as nymphs will continue to watch over offspring until their second molt. As the nymphs molt, sexual dimorphism such as differences in pincer shapes begins to show.
Some earwig specimen fossils are in the extinct suborders Archidermaptera or Eodermaptera, the former dating to the Late Triassic and the latter to the Middle Jurassic. Dermaptera belongs to the major grouping Polyneoptera, their closest living relatives being the angel insects of the order Zoraptera.
Etymology
The scientific name for the order, "Dermaptera", is Greek in origin, stemming from the words derma, meaning skin, and pteron (plural ptera), wing. It was coined by Charles De Geer in 1773. The common term, earwig, is derived from the Old English , which means "ear", and , which means "insect", or literally, "beetle". Entomologists suggest that the origin of the name is a reference to the appearance of the hindwings, which are unique and distinctive among insects, and resemble a human ear when unfolded. The name is more popularly thought to be related to the old wives' tale that earwigs burrowed into the brains of humans through the ear and laid their eggs there. Earwigs are not known to purposefully climb into ear canals, but there have been anecdotal reports of earwigs being found in the ear.
Distribution
Earwigs are abundant and can be found throughout the Americas and Eurasia. The common earwig was introduced into North America in 1907 from Europe, but tends to be more common in the southern and southwestern parts of the United States. The only native species of earwig found in the north of the United States is the spine-tailed earwig (Doru aculeatum), found as far north as Canada, where it hides in the leaf axils of emerging plants in southern Ontario wetlands. However, other families can be found in North America, including Forficulidae (Doru and Forficula being found there), Spongiphoridae, Anisolabididae, and Labiduridae.
Few earwigs survive winter outdoors in cold climates. They can be found in tight crevices in woodland, fields and gardens. Out of about 1,800 species, about 25 occur in North America, 45 in Europe (including 7 in Great Britain), and 60 in Australia.
Morphology
Most earwigs are flattened (which allows them to fit inside tight crevices, such as under bark) with an elongated body generally long. The largest extant species is the Australian giant earwig (Titanolabis colossea) which is approximately long, while the possibly extinct Saint Helena earwig (Labidura herculeana) reached . Earwigs are characterized by the cerci, or the pair of forceps-like pincers on their abdomen; male earwigs generally have more curved pincers than females. These pincers are used to capture prey, defend themselves and fold their wings under the short tegmina. The antennae are thread-like with at least 10 segments.
The forewings are short oblong leathery plates used to cover the hindwings like the elytra of a beetle, rather than to fly. Most species have short and leather-like forewings with very thin hindwings, though species in the former suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina (epizoic species, sometimes considered as ectoparasites) are wingless and blind with filiform segmented cerci (today these are both included merely as families in the suborder Neodermaptera). The hindwing is a very thin membrane that expands like a fan, radiating from one point folded under the forewing. Even though most earwigs have wings and are capable of flight, they are rarely seen in flight. These wings are unique in venation and in the pattern of folding that requires the use of the cerci.
Internal
The neuroendocrine system is typical of insects. There is a brain, a subesophageal ganglion, three thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. Strong neuron connections connect the neurohemal corpora cardiaca to the brain and frontal ganglion, where the closely related median corpus allatum produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal arota. The digestive system of earwigs is like all other insects, consisting of a fore-, mid-, and hindgut, but earwigs lack gastric caecae which are specialized for digestion in many species of insect. Long, slender (excretory) malpighian tubules can be found between the junction of the mid- and hind gut.
The reproductive system of females consist of paired ovaries, lateral oviducts, spermatheca, and a genital chamber. The lateral ducts are where the eggs leave the body, while the spermatheca is where sperm is stored. Unlike other insects, the gonopore, or genital opening is behind the seventh abdominal segment. The ovaries are primitive in that they are polytrophic (the nurse cells and oocytes alternate along the length of the ovariole). In some species these long ovarioles branch off the lateral duct, while in others, short ovarioles appear around the duct.
Life cycle and reproduction
Earwigs are hemimetabolous, meaning they undergo incomplete metamorphosis, developing through a series of 4 to 6 molts. The developmental stages between molts are called instars. Earwigs live for about a year from hatching. They start mating in the autumn, and can be found together in the autumn and winter. The male and female will live in a chamber in debris, crevices, or soil deep. After mating, the sperm may remain in the female for months before the eggs are fertilized. From midwinter to early spring, the male will leave, or be driven out by the female. Afterward the female will begin to lay 20 to 80 pearly white eggs in two days. Some earwigs, those parasitic in the suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina, are viviparous (give birth to live young); they would be fed by a sort of placenta. When first laid, the eggs are white or cream-colored and oval-shaped, but right before hatching they become kidney-shaped and brown. Each egg is approximately tall and wide.
Earwigs are among the few non-social insect species that show maternal care. The mother will pay close attention to the needs of her eggs, such as warmth and protection, though studies have shown that the mother does not pay attention to the eggs as she collects them. The mother has been shown to pick up wax balls by accident, but they would eventually be rejected as they do not have the proper scent. The mother will also faithfully defend the eggs from predators, not leaving them to eat unless the clutch goes bad. Another distinct maternal care unique to earwigs is that the mother continuously cleans the eggs to protect them from fungi. Studies have found that the urge to clean the eggs persists for days after they are removed; when the eggs were replaced after hatching, the mother continued to clean them for up to 3 months.
The eggs hatch in about seven days. The mother may assist the nymphs in hatching. When the nymphs hatch, they eat the egg casing and continue to live with the mother. The nymphs look similar to their parents, only smaller, and will nest under their mother and she will continue to protect them until their second molt. The nymphs feed on food regurgitated by the mother, and on their own molts. If the mother dies before the nymphs are ready to leave, the nymphs may eat her.
After five to six instars, the nymphs will molt into adults. The male's forceps will become curved, while the females' forceps remain straight. They will also develop their natural color, which can be anything from a light brown (as in the Tawny earwig) to a dark black (as in the Ringlegged earwig). In species of winged earwigs, the wings will start to develop at this time. The forewings of an earwig are sclerotized to serve as protection for the membranous hindwings.
Behavior
Most earwigs are nocturnal and inhabit small crevices, living in small amounts of debris, in various forms such as bark and fallen logs. Species have been found to be blind and living in caves, or cavernicolous, reported to be found on the island of Hawaii and in South Africa. Food typically consists of a wide array of living and dead plant and animal matter. For protection from predators, the species Doru taeniatum of earwigs can squirt foul-smelling yellow liquid in the form of jets from scent glands on the dorsal side of the third and fourth abdominal segment. It aims the discharges by revolving the abdomen, a maneuver that enables it simultaneously to use its pincers in defense.
Under exceptional circumstances, earwigs form swarms and can take over significant areas of a district. In August 1755 they appeared in vast numbers near Stroud, Gloucestershire, U K, especially in the cracks and crevices of "old wooden buildings...so that they dropped out oftentimes in such multitudes as to literally cover the floor. A similar "plague" occurred in 2006, in and around a woodland cabin near the Blue Ridge Mountains, U.S.; it persisted through winter and lasted at least two years.
Ecology
Earwigs are mostly scavengers, but some are omnivorous or predatory. The abdomen of the earwig is flexible and muscular. It is capable of maneuvering as well as opening and closing the forceps. The forceps are used for a variety of purposes. In some species, the forceps have been observed in use for holding prey, and in copulation. The forceps tend to be more curved in males than in females.
The common earwig is an omnivore, eating plants and ripe fruit as well as actively hunting arthropods. To a large extent, this species is also a scavenger, feeding on decaying plant and animal matter if given the chance. Observed prey include largely plant lice, but also large insects such as bluebottle flies and woolly aphids. Plants that they feed on typically include clover, dahlias, zinnias, butterfly bush, hollyhock, lettuce, cauliflower, strawberry, blackberry, sunflowers, celery, peaches, plums, grapes, potatoes, roses, seedling beans and beets, and tender grass shoots and roots; they have also been known to eat corn silk, damaging the corn.
Species of the suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina are generally considered epizoic, or living on the outside of other animals, mainly mammals. In the Arixeniina, family Arixeniidae, species of the genus Arixenia are normally found deep in the skin folds and gular pouch of Malaysian hairless bulldog bats (Cheiromeles torquatus), apparently feeding on bats' body or glandular secretions. On the other hand, species in the genus Xeniaria (still of the suborder Arixeniina) are believed to feed on the guano and possibly the guanophilous arthropods in the bat's roost, where it has been found. Hemimerina includes Araeomerus found in the nest of Long-tailed pouch rats (Beamys), and Hemimerus which are found on Giant Cricetomys rats.
Earwigs are generally nocturnal, and typically hide in small, dark, and often moist areas in the daytime. They can usually be seen on household walls and ceilings. Interaction with earwigs at this time results in a defensive free-fall to the ground followed by a scramble to a nearby cleft or crevice. During the summer they can be found around damp areas such as near sinks and in bathrooms. Earwigs tend to gather in shady cracks or openings or anywhere that they can remain concealed during daylight. Picnic tables, compost and waste bins, patios, lawn furniture, window frames, or anything with minute spaces (even artichoke blossoms) can potentially harbour them.
Predators and parasites
Earwigs are regularly preyed upon by birds, and like many other insect species they are prey for insectivorous mammals, amphibians, lizards, centipedes, assassin bugs, and spiders. European naturalists have observed bats preying upon earwigs. Their primary insect predators are parasitic species of Tachinidae, or tachinid flies, whose larvae are endoparasites. One species of tachinid fly, Triarthria setipennis, has been demonstrated to be successful as a biological control of earwigs for almost a century.<ref>Dimick, R.E. and Mote, D.C. (1934) Progress report regarding the introduction in Oregon of Digonocheata setipennis, a tachinid parasite of the European earwig. Journal of Economic Entomology 27, 863-865.</ref> Another tachinid fly and parasite of earwigs, Ocytata pallipes, has shown promise as a biological control agent as well. The common predatory wasp, the yellow jacket (Vespula maculifrons), preys upon earwigs when abundant. A small species of roundworm, Mermis nigrescens, is known to occasionally parasitize earwigs that have consumed roundworm eggs with plant matter. At least 26 species of parasitic fungus from the order Laboulbeniales have been found on earwigs. The eggs and nymphs are also cannibalized by other earwigs. A species of tyroglyphoid mite, Histiostoma polypori (Histiostomatidae, Astigmata), are observed on common earwigs, sometimes in great densities; however, this mite feeds on earwig cadavers and not its live earwig transportation. Hippolyte Lucas observed scarlet acarine mites on European earwigs.
Evolution
The fossil record of the Dermaptera starts in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic period about in England and Australia, and comprises about 70 specimens in the extinct suborder Archidermaptera. Some of the traits believed by neontologists to belong to modern earwigs are not found in the earliest fossils, but adults had five-segmented tarsi (the final segment of the leg), well developed ovipositors, veined tegmina (forewings) and long segmented cerci; in fact the pincers would not have been curled or used as they are now. The theorized stem group of the Dermaptera are the Protelytroptera, which are similar to modern Blattodea (cockroaches) with shell-like forewings and the large, unequal anal fan, are known from the Permian of North America, Europe and Australia. No fossils from the Triassic — during which Dermaptera would have evolved from Protelytroptera — have been found. Amongst the most frequently suggest order of insects to be the closest relatives of Dermaptera is Notoptera, theorized by Giles in 1963. However, other arguments have been made by other authors linking them to Phasmatodea, Embioptera, Plecoptera, and Dictyoptera. A 2012 mitochondrial DNA study suggested that this order is the sister to stoneflies of the order Plecoptera. A 2018 phylogenetic analysis found that their closest living relatives were angel insects of the order Zoraptera, with very high support.
Archidermaptera is believed to be sister to the remaining earwig groups, the extinct Eodermaptera and the living suborder Neodermaptera (= former suborders Forficulina, Hemimerina, and Arixeniina). The extinct suborders have tarsi with five segments (unlike the three found in Neodermaptera) as well as unsegmented cerci. No fossil Hemimeridae and Arixeniidae are known. Species in Hemimeridae were at one time in their own order, Diploglassata, Dermodermaptera, or Hemimerina. Like most other epizoic species, there is no fossil record, but they are probably no older than late Tertiary.
Some evidence of early evolutionary history is the structure of the antennal heart, a separate circulatory organ consisting of two ampullae, or vesicles, that are attached to the frontal cuticle to the bases of the antennae. These features have not been found in other insects. An independent organ exists for each antenna, consisting of an ampulla, attached to the frontal cuticle medial to the antenna base and forming a thin-walled sac with a valved ostium on its ventral side. They pump blood by elastic connective tissue, rather than muscle.
Taxonomy
Distinguishing characteristics
The characteristics which distinguish the order Dermaptera from other insect orders are:
General body shape: Elongate; dorso-ventrally flattened.
Head: Prognathous. Antennae are segmented. Biting-type mouthparts. Ocelli absent. Compound eyes in most species, reduced or absent in some taxa.
Appendages: Two pairs of wings normally present. The forewings are modified into short smooth, veinless tegmina. Hindwings are membranous and semicircular with veins radiating outwards.
Abdomen: Cerci are unsegmented and resemble forceps. The ovipositor in females is reduced or absent.
The overwhelming majority of earwig species are in Forficulina, grouped into nine families of 180 genera, including Forficula auricularia, the common European Earwig. Species within Forficulina are free-living, have functional wings and are not parasites. The cerci are unsegmented and modified into large, forceps-like structures.
The first epizoic species of earwig was discovered by a London taxidermist on the body of a Malaysian hairless bulldog bat in 1909, then described by Karl Jordan. By the 1950s, the two suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina had been added to Dermaptera.
Arixeniina represents two genera, Arixenia and Xeniaria, with a total of five species in them. As with Hemimerina, they are blind and wingless, with filiform segmented cerci. Hemimerina are viviparous ectoparasites, preferring the fur of African rodents in either Cricetomys or Beamys genera. Hemimerina also has two genera, Hemimerus and Araeomerus, with a total of 11 species.
Phylogeny
Dermaptera is relatively small compared to the other orders of Insecta, with only about 2,000 species, 3 suborders and 15 families, including the extinct suborders Archidermaptera and Eodermaptera with their extinct families Protodiplatyidae, Dermapteridae, Semenoviolidae, and Turanodermatidae. The phylogeny of the Dermaptera is still debated. The extant Dermaptera appear to be monophyletic and there is support for the monophyly of the families Forficulidae, Chelisochidae, Labiduridae and Anisolabididae, however evidence has supported the conclusion that the former suborder Forficulina was paraphyletic through the exclusion of Hemimerina and Arixeniina which should instead be nested within the Forficulina. Thus, these former suborders were eliminated in the most recent higher classification.
Relationship with humans
Earwigs are fairly abundant and are found in many areas around the world. There is no evidence that they transmit diseases to humans or other animals. Their pincers are commonly believed to be dangerous, but in reality, even the curved pincers of males cause little or no harm to humans. Earwigs have been rarely known to crawl into the ears of humans, but they do not lay eggs inside the human body or human brain as is often claimed.
There is a debate whether earwigs are harmful or beneficial to crops, as they eat both the foliage and the insects eating such foliage, such as aphids, though it would take a large population to do considerable damage. The common earwig eats a wide variety of plants, and also a wide variety of foliage, including the leaves and petals. They have been known to cause economic losses in fruit and vegetable crops. Some examples are the flowers, hops, red raspberries, and corn crops in Germany, and in the south of France, earwigs have been observed feeding on peaches and apricots. The earwigs attacked mature plants and made cup-shaped bite marks in diameter.
In literature and folklore
Oscar Cook wrote the short story (appearing in Switch On The Light, April, 1931; A Century Of Creepy Stories 1934; Pan Horror 2, 1960) Boomerang, which was later adapted by Rod Serling for the Night Gallery TV-series episode, The Caterpillar. It tells the tale of the use of an earwig as a murder instrument applied by a man obsessed with the wife of an associate.
Robert Herrick in Hesperides describes a feast attended by Queen Titania through writing: "Beards of mice, a newt's stew'd thigh, A bloated Earwig and a fly".
Thomas Hood discusses the myth of earwigs finding shelter in the human ear in the poem "Love Lane" by saying the following: 'Tis vain to talk of hopes and fears, / And hope the least reply to wing, / From any maid that stops her ears / In dread of earwigs creeping in!"
In some parts of rural England the earwig is called "battle-twig", which is present in Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem The Spinster's Sweet-Arts: 'Twur as bad as battle-twig 'ere i' my oan blue chamber to me."
In some regions of Japan, earwigs are called "Chinpo-Basami" or "Chinpo-Kiri", which means "penis cutter". Kenta Takada, a Japanese cultural entomologist, has inferred that these names may be derived from the fact that earwigs were seen around old Japanese-style toilets.
In Roald Dahl's children's book George's Marvellous Medicine'', George's Grandma encourages him to eat unwashed celery with beetles and earwigs still on them. A big fat earwig is very tasty,' Grandma said, licking her lips. 'But you've got to be very quick, my dear, when you put one of those in your mouth. It has a pair of sharp nippers on its back end and if it grabs your tongue with those, it never lets go. So you've got to bite the earwig first, chop chop, before it bites you.
References
External links
Earwig Research Center by Fabian Haas, Heilbronn
Dermaptera Species File by Heidi Hopkins, Michael D. Maehr, Fabian Haas, and Lesley S. Deem
Ringlegged earwig on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website
Langston RL & JA Powell (1975) The earwigs of California (Order Dermaptera). Bulletin of the California Insect Survey. 20
Earwigs from What's That Bug?
Rhaetian first appearances
Extant Late Triassic first appearances | [
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246280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polly%20Bergen | Polly Bergen | Polly Bergen (born Nellie Paulina Burgin; July 14, 1930 – September 20, 2014) was an American actress, singer, television host, writer and entrepreneur.
She won an Emmy Award in 1958 for her performance as Helen Morgan in The Helen Morgan Story. For her stage work, she was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical for her performance as Carlotta Campion in Follies in 2001. Her film work included Cape Fear (1962) and The Caretakers (1963), for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama. She hosted her own weekly variety show for one season (The Polly Bergen Show), was a regular panelist on the TV game show To Tell The Truth, and later in life had roles in The Sopranos and Desperate Housewives. She wrote three books on beauty, fashion, and charm. She is also the inspiration behind Mother Goose in The Land of Stories.
Early life
Bergen was born in Knoxville, Tennessee to Lucy (née Lawhorne; 1909–1985) and William Hugh Burgin (1909–1982), a construction engineer. Bill Bergen, as he was later known, had singing talent and appeared with his daughter in several episodes of her 18-episode comedy/variety show The Polly Bergen Show, which aired during the 1957–1958 television season to much fanfare. They released a duet Columbia LP Polly and Her Pop.
Career
Bergen appeared in many film roles, most notably in the original Cape Fear (1962) opposite Gregory Peck and Robert Mitchum. She had roles as the romantic interest in three Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis comedy films in the early 1950s: At War with the Army, That's My Boy, and The Stooge. She was featured in a number of Westerns during the 1950s, including Warpath, Arena, and Escape from Fort Bravo. She starred in the horse racing comedy Fast Company; she starred as the first female commander-in-chief in Kisses for My President; and as the wife of James Garner in the romantic comedy Move Over, Darling, which also starred Doris Day. Bergen's later roles included Mrs. Vernon-Williams in Cry-Baby, a John Waters film.
Bergen received an Emmy Award for her portrayal of singer Helen Morgan in the episode The Helen Morgan Story of the 1950s television series Playhouse 90. Signed to Columbia Records, she also enjoyed a successful recording career during this era. In the 1950s, she was known as "The Pepsi Cola Girl", having done a series of commercials for this product.
She was a regular panelist on the game show To Tell the Truth during its original run. She was an occasional panelist and appeared three times as the mystery guest on What's My Line?. She appeared on the interview program Here's Hollywood. She earned two Emmy Award nominations for her role as Rhoda Henry, wife of Captain "Pug" Henry (played by Mitchum), in two miniseries: The Winds of War and its sequel War and Remembrance.
Bergen starred in a 2001 Broadway revival of Stephen Sondheim's Follies at the Belasco Theater and received a Tony Award nomination as Best Featured Actress in a Musical. In 2003, she starred at the same theatre in Six Dance Lessons in Six Weeks opposite Mark Hamill in a role she took over from Rue McClanahan.
In 2004, Bergen played Fran Felstein on HBO's The Sopranos, the former mistress of Johnny Soprano and John F. Kennedy. From 2007 to 2011, Bergen had a guest role in Desperate Housewives as Stella Wingfield, which earned her an Emmy Award nomination.
She was a semi-regular cast member of Commander-in-Chief (2006) as the mother of Mackenzie Allen, the fictional president of the United States, played by Geena Davis. Bergen had once played the first female president of the United States in the movie Kisses for My President (1964). Another late appearance came in the Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation Candles on Bay Street (2006), in which she played the assistant to a husband-and-wife team of veterinarians.
In 1965, Bergen created the Polly Bergen Company cosmetics line also known as Oil of the Turtle. She also created lines of jewelry and shoe brands, and wrote three books on beauty.
Personal life
Bergen was married to actor Jerome Courtland in the early 1950s. In 1957, she married Hollywood agent-producer Freddie Fields, with whom she had two adopted children, Pamela Kerry Fields and Peter William Fields, and stepdaughter, Kathy Fields. Bergen converted from Southern Baptist to Judaism upon marrying Fields. The couple divorced in 1975. She was married to entrepreneur Jeffrey Endervelt in the 1980s.
In 1991, Bergen spoke about having had an abortion, for inclusion in the book The Choices We Made: Twenty-Five Women and Men Speak Out About Abortion.
On March 31, 1993, Brandon Lee died accidentally on the set of The Crow, and in early April, Bergen held a memorial at her home in Los Angeles, and 200 of Lee's family, friends and business associates attended.
Bergen was a liberal-minded, politically active Democrat and feminist. She was an active advocate of the Equal Rights Amendment, women's education, and Planned Parenthood. Bergen's niece is the television producer Wendy Riche.
Death
Bergen died of natural causes on September 20, 2014, at her home in Southbury, Connecticut, surrounded by family and close friends. She had been diagnosed with emphysema and other ailments in the late 1990s. Upon her death, she was cremated.
Filmography
Film
Television
Radio appearances
Discography
Albums list adapted from AllMusic and Discogs.
Albums
1955: Little Girl Blue (10" LP)
1956: The Girls
1956: Today's Hits (EP)
1957: Bergen Sings Morgan (Billboard 200 – No. 10)
1957: The Party's Over (Billboard 200 – No. 20)
1958: Polly and Her Pop (accompanied on guitar & vocals by her father, Bill Bergen)
1959: My Heart Sings – Columbia #CS 8018 – orchestra conducted by Luther Henderson (re-released in 1996)
1959: All Alone by the Telephone
1959: First Impressions – with Farley Granger and Hermione Gingold
1960: Four Seasons of Love
1961: Sings the Hit Songs from Do-Re-Mi and Annie Get Your Gun
1963: Act One, Sing Too
Singles
1958: "Come Prima" (Billboard Hot 100 – No. 67)
Bibliography
References
External links
Polly Bergen – Madame President
Gallery: Polly Bergen in Knoxville, TN
1930 births
2014 deaths
Actresses from Indiana
Actresses from Tennessee
American film actresses
American musical theatre actresses
American television actresses
American stage actresses
American entertainment industry businesspeople
American memoirists
American women memoirists
American women in business
Columbia Records artists
Compton High School alumni
Connecticut Democrats
Converts to Judaism from Baptist denominations
Former Baptists
Indiana Democrats
Jewish American actresses
Jewish singers
Jubilee Records artists
RCA Victor artists
Torch singers
Traditional pop music singers
Musicians from Richmond, Indiana
Nightclub performers
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Knoxville, Tennessee
Tennessee Democrats
Writers from Richmond, Indiana
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American women | [
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246281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pepsi-Cola%20Playhouse | The Pepsi-Cola Playhouse | The Pepsi-Cola Playhouse is an American dramatic anthology series that aired on ABC from 1953 to 1955, sponsored by Pepsi-Cola. The show was hosted by Arlene Dahl (1953), Anita Colby (1954), and, finally, Polly Bergen (1955). Initially the series was done live, but switched to film during the first season.
Guest stars
Claude Akins
Frances Bavier
Whit Bissell
Charles Bronson
Sally Brophy
Jean Byron
Pat Carroll
Bobby Clark
Andy Clyde
Lloyd Corrigan
Walter Coy
Ross Elliott
Beverly Garland
Nancy Gates
Peter Graves
Rick Jason
Carolyn Jones
Brian Keith
Jack Kelly
Barton MacLane
Lee Marvin
Vera Miles
Dennis Morgan
George Nader
Jay Novello
Patrick O'Neal
Frances Rafferty
Karen Sharpe
Craig Stevens
Onslow Stevens
Episode status
The UCLA Film and Television Archive has three episodes of the series in its collection.
References
External links
The Pepsi-Cola Playhouse at CVTA with episode list
1953 American television series debuts
1955 American television series endings
1950s American anthology television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
Black-and-white American television shows
English-language television shows
Television series by Universal Television
American live television series | [
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246283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clara%20Peller | Clara Peller | Clara Peller (August 4, 1902 – August 11, 1987) was a Russian-born American manicurist and television personality who, already an octogenarian, starred in the 1984 "Where's the beef?" advertising campaign for the Wendy's fast food restaurant chain, created by the Dancer Fitzgerald Sample advertising agency.
Life and career
Born in Imperial Russia, in 1902, one of eight or nine children born to Wolf Swerdlove (Swerdlov/Sverdlov; died 1949) and Yudis (aka "Julia" or "Judith") Tilkin (or Tilken; died 1952), young Clara spent most of her early life in Chicago. Her father left Russia when he was being drafted for the second time, and they settled down in Illinois. Clara married at age 20 to a local jeweler, William Peller. They had a son (Leslie) and a daughter (Marlene), but later divorced. She never remarried. She worked for 35 years as a manicurist at a local Chicago beauty salon, and later moved to the suburban North Shore area to be near her daughter, Marlene Necheles.
At age 80, Peller was hired as a temporary manicurist for a television commercial set in a Chicago barbershop. Impressed by her no-nonsense manners and unique voice, the agency later asked her to sign a contract as an actress for the agency. Though hard of hearing and suffering from emphysema, which limited her ability to speak long lines of dialogue, Peller was quickly used in a number of TV spot advertisements. She first attracted attention as a comical cleaning lady in an advertisement for the new Massachusetts State Lottery game "Megabucks", and later nationally in a series of commercials for the Wendy's restaurant chain.
Wendy's campaign
First airing on January 10, 1984, the Wendy's commercial portrayed a fictional fast-food competitor named "Big Bun", where three elderly ladies are served an enormous hamburger bun containing a minuscule hamburger patty. While two of the women are commenting on the size of the bun, they are interrupted by an irascible Peller, who looks around in vain for customer assistance while making the outraged demand: "Where's the beef!" Sequels featured a crotchety Peller yelling her famous line in various scenes, such as storming drive-thru counters, or in telephone calls to a fast-food executive attempting to relax on his yacht, the S.S. Big Bun.
Peller's "Where's the beef" line instantly became a catchphrase across the United States and Canada. The diminutive octogenarian actress made the three-word phrase a cultural phenomenon, and herself a cult star. At Wendy's, sales jumped 31% to $945 million in 1985 worldwide. Wendy's senior vice president for communications, Denny Lynch, stated at the time that "with Clara we accomplished as much in five weeks as we did in 14½ years." Former Vice-President Walter Mondale also used the line against rival Senator Gary Hart in his bid for the Democratic nomination in the 1984 presidential campaign.
While hugely popular, the advertising campaign proved to be short-lived, at least for Wendy's. Peller had made actor-scale wages — $317.40 per day — for the initial Wendy's TV commercial of the campaign in January 1984. Her fee for subsequent work as a Wendy's spokesperson was not disclosed, though Peller acknowledged in an interview with People magazine that she had earned $30,000 from the first two commercials and profits from product tie-in sales. Wendy's later stated that the company had paid Peller a total of $500,000 for her work on the campaign, though Peller denied earning that much.
Per the terms of her Screen Actors Guild union contract, the actress was free to participate in any commercials for products, goods or services, which did not directly compete with Wendy's hamburgers. She subsequently signed a contract with the Campbell Soup Company to appear in an advertisement for Prego Pasta Plus spaghetti sauce. In the Prego commercial, Peller examines the Prego sauce and after wondering "Where's the beef?" declares, "I found it! I really found it". However, after the Prego commercial aired on television in 1985, Wendy's management decided to terminate her contract, contending that the Prego commercial implies "that Clara found the beef at somewhere other than Wendy's restaurants". In announcing the dismissal, Wendy's Denny Lynch stated, "Clara can find the beef only in one place, and that is Wendy's". Peller responded, "I've made them millions, and they don't appreciate me."
Following the conclusion of the "Where's the beef" campaign, Wendy's Restaurants entered a two-year sales slump. Vice President Lynch later admitted that consumer awareness of the Wendy's brand did not recover for another five years, with the advent of a new, humorous line of TV commercials featuring the brand's founder, Dave Thomas.
Final appearances and death
Despite the setback with Wendy's, Peller continued to make the most of her newfound fame, granting numerous press interviews and making several guest TV appearances. She regularly amused interviewers and friends by claiming not to know exactly how old she was, once telling a frustrated Social Security clerk (who was given three different ages by Peller) that she was "whichever one will get me Social Security."
On April 14, 1984, Peller made an uncredited cameo appearance on Saturday Night Live which was hosted that night by 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern. She also made an appearance in the low-budget 1985 Neal Israel comedy Moving Violations. In Larry Cohen's The Stuff, she appeared with Abe Vigoda in a commercial. In the "Remote Control Man" episode of the Steven Spielberg show Amazing Stories, she had a cameo as a disgruntled motorist. On April 7, 1986, she made an appearance at WrestleMania 2 at Chicago's Rosemont Horizon, where she was the guest timekeeper for the 20-man invitational over-the top-rope battle royal involving both wrestlers and NFL players of the 1970s and 1980s.
Peller died on August 11, 1987, in Chicago, one week after her 85th birthday, from congestive heart failure. She is buried at Waldheim Jewish Cemetery.
References
External links
Clara Peller at graveyards.com
1902 births
1987 deaths
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Actresses from Chicago
American film actresses
American television actresses
Jewish American actresses
Wendy's International
20th-century American actresses
Burials in Forest Park, Illinois
20th-century American Jews
American people of Russian-Jewish descent | [
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246289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gore-Tex | Gore-Tex | Gore-Tex is a waterproof, breathable fabric membrane and registered trademark of W. L. Gore & Associates. Invented in 1969, Gore-Tex can repel liquid water while allowing water vapor to pass through and is designed to be a lightweight, waterproof fabric for all-weather use. It is composed of stretched polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), which is more commonly known by the generic trademark Teflon. The material is formally known as the generic term expanded PTFE (ePTFE).
History
Gore-Tex was co-invented by Wilbert L. Gore and Gore's son, Robert W. Gore. In 1969, Bob Gore stretched heated rods of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and created expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE). His discovery of the right conditions for stretching PTFE was a happy accident, born partly of frustration. Instead of slowly stretching the heated material, he applied a sudden, accelerating yank. The solid PTFE unexpectedly stretched about 800%, forming a microporous structure that was about 70% air. It was introduced to the public under the trademark Gore-Tex.
Gore promptly applied for and obtained the following patents:
, issued April 27, 1976, for a porous form of polytetrafluoroethylene with a micro-structure characterized by nodes interconnected by fibrils
, issued February 5, 1980
on March 18, 1980 for a "waterproof laminate", together with Samuel Allen
Another form of stretched PTFE tape was produced prior to Gore-Tex in 1966, by John W. Cropper of New Zealand. Cropper had developed and constructed a machine for this use. However, Cropper chose to keep the process of creating expanded PTFE as a closely held trade secret and as such, it had remained unpublished.
In the 1970s Garlock, Inc. allegedly infringed Gore's patents by using Cropper's machine and was sued by Gore in the Federal District Court of Ohio. The District Court held Gore's product and process patents to be invalid after a "bitterly contested case" that "involved over two years of discovery, five weeks of trial, the testimony of 35 witnesses (19 live, 16 by deposition), and over 300 exhibits" (quoting the Federal Circuit). On appeal, however, the Federal Circuit disagreed in the famous case of Gore v. Garlock, reversing the lower court's decision on the ground, as well as others, that Cropper forfeited any superior claim to the invention by virtue of having concealed the process for making ePTFE from the public. As a public patent had not been filed, the new form of the material could not be legally recognised. Gore was thereby established as the legal inventor of ePTFE.
Following the Gore v. Garlock decision, Gore sued C. R. Bard for allegedly infringing its patent by making ePTFE vascular grafts. Bard promptly settled and agreed to exit the market. Gore next sued IMPRA, Inc., a smaller maker of ePTFE vascular grafts, in the federal district court in Arizona. IMPRA had a competing patent application for the ePTFE vascular graft. In a nearly decade-long patent/antitrust battle (1984–1993), IMPRA proved that Gore-Tex was identical to prior art disclosed in a Japanese process patent by duplicating the prior art process and through statistical analysis, and also proved that Gore had withheld the best mode for using its patent, and the main claim of Gore's product patent was declared invalid in 1990. In 1996, IMPRA was purchased by Bard and Bard was thereby able to reenter the market. After IMPRA's vascular graft patent was issued, Bard sued Gore for infringing it.
Gore-Tex is used in products manufactured by many different companies.
Other products have come to market exploiting similar technologies following the expiry of the main Gore-Tex patent.
For his invention, Robert W. Gore was inducted into the U.S. National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2006.
In 2015, Gore was ordered by the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals to pay Bard $1 billion in damages. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the Federal Circuit's decision.
Manufacture
PTFE is made using an emulsion polymerization process that utilizes the fluorosurfactant PFOA, a persistent environmental contaminant. In 2013, Gore eliminated the use of PFOAs in the manufacture of its weatherproof functional fabrics.
Design
Gore-Tex materials are typically based on thermo-mechanically expanded PTFE and other fluoropolymer products. They are used in a wide variety of applications such as high-performance fabrics, medical implants, filter media, insulation for wires and cables, gaskets, and sealants. However, Gore-Tex fabric is best known for its use in protective, yet breathable, rainwear.
The simplest sort of rain wear is a two layer sandwich. The outer layer is typically woven nylon or polyester and provides strength. The inner one is polyurethane (abbreviated: PU), and provides water resistance, at the cost of breathability.
Early Gore-Tex fabric replaced the inner layer of PU with a thin, porous fluoropolymer membrane (Teflon) coating that is bonded to a fabric. This membrane had about 9 billion pores per square inch (around 1.4 billion pores per square centimeter). Each pore is approximately the size of a water droplet, making it impenetrable to liquid water while still allowing the more volatile water vapour molecules to pass through.
The outer layer of Gore-Tex fabric is coated on the outside with a Durable Water Repellent (DWR) treatment. The DWR prevents the main outer layer from becoming wet, which would reduce the breathability of the whole fabric. However, the DWR is not responsible for the jacket being waterproof. Without the DWR, the outer layer would become soaked, there would be no breathability, and the wearer's sweat being produced on the inside would fail to evaporate, leading to dampness there. This might give the appearance that the fabric is leaking, but it is not.
Wear and cleaning will reduce the performance of Gore-Tex fabric by wearing away this Durable Water Repellent (DWR) treatment. The DWR can be reinvigorated by tumble drying the garment or ironing on a low setting.
Gore requires that all garments made from their material have taping over the seams, to eliminate leaks. Gore's sister product, Windstopper, is similar to Gore-Tex in being windproof and breathable and it can stretch but it is not waterproof.
The Gore naming system does not imply specific technology or material but instead specific set of performance characteristics.
Clothing technology
Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene is used in clothing due to its breathability and water protection capabilities. It is used in rain jackets, and ePTFE can now be found in space suits and heart patches.
Other uses
Gore-Tex is also used internally in medical applications, because it is nearly inert inside the body. Specifically, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (E-PTFE) can take the form of a fabric-like mesh. Implementing and applying the mesh form in the medical field is a promising type of technological material feature. In addition, the porosity of Gore-Tex permits the body's own tissue to grow through the material, integrating grafted material into the circulation system. Gore-Tex is used in a wide variety of medical applications, including sutures, vascular grafts, heart patches, and synthetic knee ligaments, which have saved thousands of lives. In the form of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (E-PTFE), Gore-Tex has been shown to be a reliable synthetic, medical material in treating patients with nasal dorsal interruptions. In more recent observations, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (E-PTFE) has recently been used as membrane implants for glaucoma surgery.
Gore-Tex has been used for many years in the conservation of illuminated manuscripts.
Explosive sensors have been printed on Gore-Tex clothing leading to the sensitive voltametric detection of nitroaromatic compounds.
The "Gore-Tex" brand name was formerly used for industrial and medical products.
See also
Extended Cold Weather Clothing System
Hipora
SympaTex
"The Dinner Party" (Seinfeld)
References
External links
Gore website
American inventions
Brand name materials
Fluoropolymers
Products introduced in 1976
Technical fabrics | [
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246291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsey%20Burnette | Dorsey Burnette | Dorsey Burnette (December 28, 1932 – August 19, 1979) was an American early rockabilly singer. With his younger brother Johnny Burnette and a friend named Paul Burlison, he was a founder member of The Rock and Roll Trio. He is also the father of country musician and Fleetwood Mac member Billy Burnette.
Background and early career
Dorsey William Burnett Jr. was born on December 28, 1932, to Willie Mae and Dorsey William Burnett, Sr. in Memphis, Tennessee, United States. The 'e' at the end of his surname was added later. John Joseph "Johnny" Burnett, his younger brother, was born on March 25, 1934. The family lived in a public housing project in the Lauderdale Courts area of Memphis, Tennessee.
Dorsey was a competent athlete with an interest in boxing. Both of the Burnette brothers turned out to be successful amateur boxers, becoming local Golden Gloves champions. In 1949, Dorsey was introduced to another young boxing contender named Paul Burlison by Jimmy Denson, his boxing teacher, and they were to become friends. Later, Burlison was introduced to Johnny Burnette, and they also became friends. All three men had a mutual interest in music. Burlison had begun to receive guitar lessons when he was eight years old. In 1939, Dorsey Sr. gave his two sons a pair of Gene Autry guitars. According to most sources, the brothers immediately broke them over each other's head. Dorsey Sr. then bought them two more guitars. Dorsey later recalled that their father had said "Learn to play those guitars. You can be like those folks on the Grand Ole Opry if you want to." Dorsey said that "he learned the G, C and E chords and when the strings broke, he would use baling wire".
After graduating from a Catholic high school in Memphis, Dorsey became a professional boxer before working at a number of daytime jobs, which included a cotton picker, an oiler on a Mississippi riverboat, a fisherman, a carpet layer. He was finally to work at the Crown Electric Company with Paul Burlison as an apprentice electrician and would spend six years studying for an electrician's license. Johnny Burnette also worked as a deck hand on barges, which traversed the Mississippi River and though they worked separately, each of them would bring his guitar on board and write songs during his spare time. After work, they would perform those and other songs together at local bars with a varying array of sidemen. Paul Burlison joined them after his discharge from the United States Armed Forces, and in 1952 or 1953, they formed a group, which may have been called The Rhythm Rangers at the time. Johnny Burnette sang the vocals and played acoustic guitar, Dorsey played bass, and Paul Burlison played lead guitar.
The Rock and Roll Trio
For economic reasons, in 1956, the three young men moved to New York City, where they got an audition with the Ted Mack on Original Amateur Hour. They won the competition three times in a row, which gained them a place in the finals and a recording contract with Coral Records and they officially became The Rock and Roll Trio. Promotional appearances were arranged on Dick Clark's American Bandstand, Steve Allen's Tonight Show and Perry Como's Kraft Music Hall, together with a summer tour with Carl Perkins and Gene Vincent. On September 9, 1956, they appeared as finalists in the Ted Mack Original Amateur Hour at Madison Square Garden. Despite all of this activity, however, the three singles released over this period failed to make the national charts.
To cover their living expenses, the Trio was forced to go on the road. This exhausting regime led to squabbles, which were exacerbated in Dorsey's case by Jerome's use of the name Johnny Burnette and the Rock and Roll Trio on records and live dates. Things finally came to a head at a gig in Niagara Falls in the fall of 1956, when as a result of a fight, Dorsey quit the group a week before they were to appear in Alan Freed's film Rock, Rock, Rock. Johnny Burnette and Paul Burlison recruited Johnny Black, the brother of Elvis Presley's bassist Bill Black, to fill Dorsey's place, and the Trio completed their spot in the film. Despite the film appearance and three more single releases and one LP release, the group failed to achieve any chart success, and the Trio officially disbanded in the fall of 1957.
Move to California
Colin Escott of Showtime Magazine states that during or after his stint with his own trio, Dorsey recorded a demo session with Fabor Robinson (owner of Fabor Records, co-owner of Abbott Records and sometime manager of Johnny Horton and Jim Reeves). French researchers Giles Vignal and Marc Alesina place the demo session at the Sun Records Studio in November 1956, and they have Dorsey's being backed by Johnny Burnette and Paul Burlison. "Let's Fall in Love" and four other tracks were cut, but all are believed to be lost. On November 24, 1956, Dorsey went to a session at the Fabor Studio in Malibu, California, where he cut four tracks: "The Devil Queen", "Let's Fall in Love", "At a Distance" and "Jungle Magic". These tracks were released as two singles: "Let's Fall in Love/The Devil's Queen" (Abbott 188–45) on November 24, 1956 and "Jungle Magic/At a Distance" (Abbott 190–45) on February 23, 1957. Fabor Robinson offered to place Dorsey on either the Louisiana Hayride or the Town Hall Party (the West Coast's leading showcase for country music).
After moving to California, Dorsey found work as an electrician to make ends meet and began writing songs in his spare time. Once he had become settled, Dorsey sent for his family. By the fall of 1957, Johnny Burnette was unemployed, and he tried his luck on the West Coast of the United States. With a friend, Joe Campbell, he hitched a ride in a railroad boxcar to Los Angeles, where they joined Dorsey. With their past differences forgotten, the brothers attempted to resurrect The Rock and Roll Trio by sending for Paul Burlison. He briefly joined them, but returned to Memphis and concentrated on his electrical business. Dorsey continued with his day job as an electrician to pay the family expenses, and he and Johnny continued with their song-writing activities in their spare time.
The Burnette Brothers
In November 1957, the brothers were approached by songwriter John Marascalco, who had written "Ready Teddy" and "Rip It Up" for Little Richard as well as "Good Night My Love". He was looking for a singer to help him with "Bertha Lou", a new song. Dorsey and Johnny went into the Master Recorders Studio in Hollywood and backed by Odell Hull (lead guitar), Danny Flores (piano) and H.B. Barnum (drums) cut two tracks: "Bertha Lou" and "‘Till The Law Says Stop". It originally was planned that Johnny should sing the lead vocals, but when he recalled that he was still under contract to Coral Records, Dorsey suggested that nobody would care if he sang the song. The vocal duties were switched, with Johnny singing some of the backing vocals. The two sides were released as a single (Surf SR5019-45) under Dorsey's name. Coral threatened to sue, and so label owner Kenny Babcock withdrew the record. Babcock had Dorsey's voice overdubbed with that of Johnny Faire (also known as John Faircloth). Surf SR5019-45 was subsequently re-released as by Johnny Faire. Johnny Faire later changed his name and found fame as Donnie Brooks.
The songwriting credits show John Marascalco as the writer of "Bertha Lou", but Cub Koda reports Brooks as saying that the song was in fact written by Johnny Burnette, who, as part of the recording deal, sold it to Marascalo. John Marascalco later was persuaded to release Dorsey's version, which he still owned. In 1965, "Bertha Lou"/"Keep a Knockin’" was released as Cee-Jam No. 6 with "Bertha Lou" under the name of Dorsey Burnette. The flipside "Keep a Knockin’" was released under the name The Brothers. In 1966, "Bertha Lou"/"’Til The Law Says Stop" was released as Cee-Jam No. 16 with both sides under the name Dorsey Burnette.
It was sheer bravado that enabled the Burnette Brothers to have their first major breakthrough as songwriters. On arriving in Los Angeles, Joe Campbell bought a copy of "A Map to the Stars", which showed the location of the then teen idol Ricky Nelson's home. In an effort to get their songs to him, the Burnettes and Campbell sat on the steps of the star's home until they could get a meeting with him. This persistence worked, and Nelson was impressed with their work, and he recorded "Believe What You Say", "It's Late" and "Waitin' in School". Other artists on Imperial Records, Nelson's label, such as Roy Brown, who covered the brothers' "Hip Shakin' Baby", benefited from their songwriting abilities, and this led to their signing a recording contract with Imperial.
As the Burnette Brothers, Dorsey and Johnny had a single release on the Imperial label, "Warm Love"/"My Honey" (Imperial X5509), released on May 5, 1958. It did not make the charts. In 1961, they had two instrumentals releases on the small Infinity and Gothic labels. The first single "Green Grass of Texas"/"Bloody River" (Infinity INX-001) was released on February 20, 1961. The second single "Rockin' Johnny Home"/"Ole Reb" (Gothic GOX-001) was released on May 29, 1961. Both singles were released under the name The Texans. Another instrumental, "Lonely Island"/"Green Hills" (Liberty 55460), under the name The Shamrocks, appeared on Liberty Records on June 6, 1962. "Green Grass of Texas"/"Bloody River" was re-released in February 1965 on the Vee-Jay label (VJ 658), again under the name of The Texans.
Solo career
Pop years
Dorsey Burnette had two single releases while contracted to Imperial Records as a solo artist: "You Came as a Miracle"/"Try" (Imperial X5561), released on March 9, 1959, and "Lonely Train"/"Misery" (Imperial X 5597), released on September 7, 1959. Neither record was a hit. In late 1959, Dorsey offered "Tall Oak Tree" to Ricky Nelson, who turned it down. Now signed to Era Records, Dorsey recorded the song himself, and it was released on January 11, 1960 backed with "Juarez Town" (Era 3012). The record entered the charts and reached No. 23 on the Hot 100. He was the first of the Burnette Brothers to have a hit record. This success spurred Coral Records to dig into their archives and release two old Rock and Roll Trio recordings as "Blues Stay Away from Me"/"Midnight Train" (Coral 9–62190). The top side was released under the name Dorsey Burnette, but the flip side was under the names Dorsey and Johnny Burnette. It did not make the charts. On May 2, 1960, Era released a follow-up record, "Hey Little One"/"Big Rock Candy Mountain" (Era 3019), by Dorsey and it reached No. 48 in the Hot 100. Two days later on May 4, 1960, "Dreamin’", Johnny Burnette's first major solo hit record, was released on Liberty Records. On May 23, 1960, Imperial Records followed Coral's example and released "Way in the Middle of the Night"/"Your Love" (Imperial X 5668) under the name Dorsey Burnette, but it failed to make the charts.
"The Ghost of Billy Malloo"/"Red Roses" (Era 3025), Dorsey Burnette's third single on the Era Label, was released on August 29, 1960 but unlike its predecessors, it failed to enter the charts. His final release for the Era label that year was "This Hotel"/"The River and the Mountain" (Era 3033), released on November 7, 1960, but it also failed to become a hit. In 1961, he had two single releases on Era Records: "Hard Rock Mine"/"(It's No) Sin" (Era 3041), released February 27, 1961, and "Great Shakin' Fever"/"That's Me Without You" (Era 3045) released April 24, 1961. These singles failed to become hits, and in May 1961, Herb Newman of Era Records sold Dorsey's contract together with the masters of his last two Era recording sessions to Dot Records (its biggest recording artist at that time was Pat Boone).
Dorsey had three singles released during his time with Dot. The first was "Rainin'"/"A Full House" (Dot 45–16230), released May 1961; followed by "Feminine Touch"/"Sad Boy" (Dot 45–16265), released September 25, 1961; and finally "Dying Ember"/"A Country Boy in the Army" (Dot 45–16305) released January 1962. None of these releases caught the public's ear, and he was released at the end of his six-month contract. From here, he moved to Reprise Records, the label owned at that time by Frank Sinatra. At Reprise, Dorsey worked with producer Jimmy Bowen and arranger Jack Nitzsche and had two single releases in 1962. "Castle in the Sky"/"The Boys Kept Hangin' Around" (Reprise R-20,093) was released on June 30, 1962, and "I'm Waitin' for Ya Baby"/"Darling Jane" (Reprise R-20,121) was released October 27, 1962. Neither single was a hit. During 1963, he had four singles releases on Reprise. The first was "Foolish Pride"/"Four For Texas" (Reprise R-20,146) released February 23, 1963; followed by "Hey Sue"/"It Don't Take Much" (Reprise R-20,153), released March 9, 1963; then "Invisible Chains/Pebbles" (Reprise R-20,177), released May 9, 1963. His final release was "Where's the Lonely Girl?"/"One of the Lonely" (Reprise R-20,208) released August 24, 1963. To coincide with this single, Imperial released "Circle Rock"/"House with a Tin Roof Top" (Imperial 5987) in August 1963. None of these singles reached the charts, and so he moved to the Mel-O-Dy label, a subsidiary of Motown Records. The label's early releases were soul-oriented and included tracks by Lamont Dozier, The Vells (Martha and the Vandellas) and The Pirates (The Temptations).
The single "The Greatest Love"/"Thin Little, Simple Little, Plain Little Girl" (Liberty 56087) was released in late 1968 and was in "hitbound" status on some radio stations as of December 25, 1968.
Johnny Burnette's death
Three months later Dorsey Burnette suffered a family tragedy from which, according to most sources, he never fully recovered. On August 14, 1964, his brother Johnny had gone on a fishing trip on Clear Lake, California. After dark, his tiny, unlit fishing boat was struck by an unaware cabin cruiser, and the impact threw him into the lake where he drowned. Dorsey was distraught, and he telephoned Paul Burlison, who immediately flew to comfort him. The two men renewed their friendship, and Johnny Burnette was interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. His last two Mel-O-Dy singles, "Jimmy Brown"/"Everybody's Angel" (Mel-O-Dy 116) released October 1964 and "Long Long Time Ago"/"Ever Since the World Began" (Mel-O-Dy 118), released in November 1964, failed to make the charts. The label was discontinued in April 1965, and from then on, Dorsey recorded without luck on a series of labels, including Liberty, Merri, Happy Tiger, Music Factory, Smash (where he re-recorded "Tall Oak Tree"), Mercury, Hickory and Condor, which released "The Magnificent Sanctuary Band"/"Can't You See It Happening" (Condor FF-1005) on February 7, 1970.
Country years
By the 1970s Dorsey had become a born-again Christian and had returned to country material. He found success on the country charts with self-penned songs such as "In the Spring (The Roses Always Turn Red)" (Capitol 3307; 1972; No. 21), "I Just Couldn't Let Her Walk Away" (Capitol 3404; 1972; No. 40), "Darlin’" (Capitol 3678; 1973; No. 26), "Molly (I Ain't Getting' Any Younger)" (Melodyland 6007: 1975; No. 28) and "Things I Treasure" (Calliope 8004; 1977; No. 31). He was voted Most Promising Newcomer by the Academy of Country Music in 1973, and in all, he had 15 country hits, but none made the top 20.
Films
During the 1970s, Dorsey turned to the big screen. In 1974, he was credited with writing the songs for the film Bootleggers (also known as Bootleggers Angel). In 1976, he helped compose the music, with Mike Curb and Duane Eddy, for Dixie Dynamite. In 1977, he was credited as the composer of the original music for the soundtrack of the horror movie Kingdom of the Spiders. In 1978, he was credited with singing the title song of the movie My Boys Are Good Boys as well as co-writing the song in collaboration with Doug Goodwin.
Death
In 1979, he signed with Elektra/Asylum label. Just after his first record release, however, he died of a massive heart attack at his home in Canoga Park, California on August 19, 1979, aged 46. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.
Final public performance
Dorsey last appeared in public on August 18, 1979 at The Performing Arts Center in Oxnard, California. He played a half-hour show at a benefit for the Arthritis Foundation the day before he died.
Patrick Landreville, who played the final show with Dorsey, statedMost people that play benefits for national or international charities get paid for their performances, at the least their expenses are paid. But Dorsey and I choose to play for free at these affairs, though neither one of us is well off financially. Dorsey is a legendary figure in music and could command a hefty sum for his services but he's chosen to give, not to take. I'm proud to know him and to have had the opportunity to make music with him and I'm especially proud that he considers me his peer.
Legacy
After his death, singer and friend Delaney Bramlett organized a benefit concert for Dorsey Burnette's widow at The Forum in Inglewood, California, where Kris Kristofferson, Hoyt Axton, Tanya Tucker, Glen Campbell, Edward James Olmos, Duane Eddy, Delaney and Bonnie, Gary Busey, Maureen McGovern and Roger Miller appeared. Burnette's pioneering contribution to the genre has been recognized by the Rockabilly Hall of Fame.
Discography
Albums
Singles
References
External links
Dorsey Burnette discography at Discogs
Johnny Burnette's Rock 'n' Roll Trio – general info.
Motown Records by LG Nilsson – For details of Mel-O-Dy Records and its artists
Survey of American Popular Music by Frank Hoffmann – Dorsey and Johnny Burnette
1932 births
1979 deaths
American country singer-songwriters
American rockabilly musicians
Slap bassists (double bass)
Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee
Singer-songwriters from Tennessee
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Abbott Records artists
Era Records artists
Imperial Records artists
Motown artists
Smash Records artists
People from Canoga Park, Los Angeles
20th-century American singers
Country musicians from Tennessee
20th-century double-bassists | [
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246292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Highland%20bagpipe | Great Highland bagpipe | The Great Highland bagpipe ( "the great pipe") is a type of bagpipe native to Scotland, and the Scottish analogue to the Great Irish Warpipes. It has acquired widespread recognition through its usage in the British military and in pipe bands throughout the world.
The bagpipe is first attested in Scotland around 1400, having previously appeared in European artwork in Spain in the 13th century. The earliest references to bagpipes in Scotland are in a military context, and it is in that context that the Great Highland bagpipe became established in the British military and achieved the widespread prominence it enjoys today, whereas other bagpipe traditions throughout Europe, ranging from Portugal to Russia, almost universally went into decline by the late 19th and early 20th century.
Though widely famous for its role in military and civilian pipe bands, the Great Highland bagpipe is also used for a solo virtuosic style called pìobaireachd, ceòl mòr, or simply pibroch.
History
Though popular belief sets varying dates for the introduction of bagpipes to Scotland, concrete evidence is limited until approximately the 15th century. One clan still owns a remnant of a set of bagpipes said to have been carried at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, though the veracity of this claim is debated. There are many ancient legends and stories about bagpipes which were passed down through minstrels and oral tradition, whose origins are now lost. However, textual evidence for Scottish bagpipes is more definite in 1396, when records of the Battle of the North Inch of Perth reference "warpipes" being carried into battle. These references may be considered evidence as to the existence of particularly Scottish bagpipes, but evidence of a form peculiar to the Highlands appears in a poem written in 1598 and later published in The Complaynt of Scotland which refers to several types of pipe, including the Highland: "On hieland pipes, Scotte and Hybernicke / Let heir be shraichs of deadlie clarions."
In 1746, after the forces loyal to the Hanoverian government had defeated the Jacobites in the Battle of Culloden, King George II attempted to assimilate the Highlands into Great Britain by weakening Gaelic culture and the Scottish clan system, though the oft-repeated claim that the Act of Proscription 1746 banned the Highland bagpipes is not substantiated by the text itself, nor by any record of any prosecutions under this act for playing or owning bagpipes. However, the loss of the clan chief's power and patronage and widespread emigration did contribute to its decline. It was soon realised that Highlanders made excellent troops and a number of regiments were raised from the Highlands over the second half of the eighteenth century. Although the early history of pipers within these regiments is not well documented, there is evidence that these regiments had pipers at an early stage and there are numerous accounts of pipers playing into battle during the 19th century, a practice which continued into World War I when it was abandoned after the early battles, due to the high casualty rate.
The custom was revived by the 51st Highland Division for their assault on the enemy lines at the start of the Second Battle of El Alamein on 23 October 1943. Each attacking company was led by a piper, playing tunes that would allow other units to recognise which Highland regiment they belonged to. Although the attack was successful, losses among the pipers were high, and they were not used in combat again during the war. Bill Millin, the personal piper of Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat, was at the landing of 1st Special Service Brigade at Sword Beach on 6th June 1944 in Normandy. At Lovat's request he marched up and down the beach playing his pipes under fire. The Calgary Highlanders had company pipers play during the unit's first battle in Normandy in July 1944, but likewise refrained from using pipers again for the rest of the war. A final use of the pipes in combat was in 1967 during the Aden Emergency, when 1st Battalion, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders were led into the rebel-held Crater district by their pipe major playing the regimental marches.
Design
The Great Highland bagpipe is classified as a woodwind instrument, like the bassoon, oboe, and clarinet. Although it is further classified as a double-reed instrument, the reeds are all closed inside the wooden "stocks", instead of being played directly by mouth as most other woodwinds are. The Great Highland bagpipe actually has four reeds: the chanter reed (double), two tenor drone reeds (single), and one bass drone reed (single).
A modern set has a bag, a chanter, a blowpipe, two tenor drones, and one bass drone.
The scale of the chanter is in Mixolydian mode, which has a flattened seventh scale degree. It has a range from one whole tone lower than the tonic to one octave above it. The drones are tuned to this tonic note, called A (specifically A4). The nine notes of the chanter scale are "low G, low A, B, C (sounds as a C), D, E, F (sounds as a F), high G, and high A". However, the A pitch of most pipers and pipe bands currently is somewhere around 470–480 Hz, which is actually sharper than standard pitch B4 at 466.16 Hz. So the scale actually sounds closest to A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, and can be considered a transposing instrument in E-flat major. Historically it was indeed flatter, as evidenced by recordings, and extant instruments.
Highland bagpipe music is written in the key of D major, where the C and F are sharp (despite the key-signature usually being omitted from scores), however only some tunes are in D major. Due to the lack of chromatic notes, to change key is also to change modes; tunes are in A Mixolydian (most commonly), D major, B minor, or occasionally E Dorian. In concert pitch (notes on the piano) it will be B Mixolydian, E major, C Aeolian, or occasionally F Dorian.
Traditionally, certain notes were sometimes tuned slightly off from just intonation. For example, on some old chanters the D and high G would be somewhat sharp. According to Forsyth (1935), the C and F holes were traditionally bored exactly midway between those for B and D and those for E and G, respectively, resulting in approximately a quarter-tone difference from just intonation, somewhat like a "blue" note in jazz. Today, however, the notes of the chanter are usually tuned in just intonation to the Mixolydian scale, with the G tuned to the harmonic seventh which is significantly flatter than the just minor seventh or the equal temperament minor seventh. The two tenor drones are an octave below the keynote of the chanter (low A), and the bass drone two octaves below. There are some documented examples of other tunings: Forsyth lists three traditional drone tunings: Ellis, A3–A3–A2; Glen, A4–A4–A2; and Mackay, G3–B3–C2.
Modern developments have included reliable synthetic drone reeds as well as synthetic bags that deal with moisture arguably better than hide bags.
The chanter reed is typically made out of cane. It is possible to get synthetic reeds for chanters but it is not very common. The cane reeds change pitch as the moisture levels change, meaning that as they are played they go out of tune. Until recently drone reeds were also cane but now many pipers have replaced cane reeds with synthetic reeds. Cane drone reeds are incredibly unreliable; they could stop working without warning and also change pitch as they are played. Synthetic reeds are much more reliable, they are easier to use and don't change pitch meaning once the drones are tuned to each other they will stay there and only have to be tuned to the chanter.
Materials
Highland pipes were originally constructed of such locally available woods as holly, laburnum, and boxwood. Later, as expanding colonisation and trade provided access to more exotic woods, tropical hardwoods including cocuswood (from the Caribbean), ebony (from West Africa and South and Southeast Asia) and African blackwood (from sub-Saharan Africa) became standard in the late 18th and early 19th century. In the modern day, synthetic materials, particularly Polypenco, have become quite popular, especially among pipe bands where uniformity of chanters is desirable.
Ornamentation on stands of pipes can be made from: ivory, horn, nickel, German silver, silver, stainless steel, imitation ivory (often catalin or possibly bakelite depending on the year the pipes were made), or other exotic woods.
Music
The Scottish Gaelic word simply means "pipe music", but it has been adapted into English as piobaireachd or pibroch. In Gaelic, this, the "great music" of the Great Highland bagpipe is referred to as ceòl mòr, and "light music" (such as marches and dance tunes) is referred to as ceòl beag.
Ceòl mòr consists of a slow "ground" movement () which is a simple theme, then a series of increasingly complex variations on this theme, and ends with a return to the ground. Ceòl beag includes marches (, , , , etc.), dance tunes (particularly strathspeys, reels, hornpipes, and jigs), slow airs, and more. The ceòl mòr style was developed by the well-patronized dynasties of bagpipers MacArthurs, MacGregors, Rankins, and especially the MacCrimmons and seems to have emerged as a distinct form during the 17th century.
Compared to many other musical instruments, the Great Highland bagpipe is limited by its range (nine notes), lack of dynamics, and the enforced legato style, due to the continuous airflow from the bag. The Great Highland bagpipe is a closed reed instrument, which means that the four reeds are completely encased within the instrument and the player cannot change the sound of the instrument via mouth position or tonguing. As a result, notes cannot be separated by simply stopping blowing or tonguing, so grace notes and combinations of grace notes, called "embellishments", are used for this purpose. These are more complicated ornaments using two or more grace notes include doublings, taorluaths, throws, grips, and birls. There are also a set of ornaments usually used for pìobaireachd, for example the dare, vedare, chedare, darado, taorluath and crunluath. Some of these embellishments have found their way into light music over the course of the 20th century. These embellishments are also used for note emphasis, for example to emphasize the beat note or other phrasing patterns. These three single grace notes (G, D, and E) are the most commonly used and are often played in succession. All grace notes are performed rapidly, by quick finger movements, giving an effect similar to tonguing or articulation on modern wind instruments. Due to the lack of rests and dynamics, all expression in Great Highland bagpipe music comes from the use of embellishments and to a larger degree by varying the duration of notes. Despite the fact that most Great Highland bagpipe music is highly rhythmically regimented and structured, proper phrasing of all types of Great Highland bagpipe music relies heavily on the ability of the player to stretch specific notes within a phrase or measure. In particular, the main beats and off-beats of each phrase are structured. However, sub-divisions within each beat are flexible.
"Few attempts have been made hitherto to combine the bagpipes with classical orchestral instruments, due mainly to conflicts of balance and tuning," said composer Graham Waterhouse about his work Chieftain's Salute Op. 34a for Great Highland Bagpipe and String Orchestra (2001). "A satisfactory balance was achieved in this piece by placing the piper at a distance from the orchestra." Peter Maxwell Davies' Orkney Wedding, With Sunrise (1985) also features a Great Highland Bagpipe solo towards the end.
Bagpipes are rarely played with other instruments due to their tuning. Most other instruments are tuned at standard concert pitch (440 Hz), whilst a bagpipe is tuned around 470–480 Hz. It is possible to change the pitch by using different chanters and reeds; however, the pipes sound more rich when played at their standard tuning.
Cultural role
The Great Highland Bagpipe plays a role as both a solo and ensemble instrument. In ensembles, it is generally played as part of a pipe band. One notable form of solo employment is the position of Piper to the Sovereign, a piper tasked to perform for the British sovereign, a position dating back to the time of Queen Victoria.
Popular music
The Great Highland bagpipes have played a minor, but not insignificant role in rock and pop music. Well-known examples of songs giving prominence to bagpipes include:
"Mull of Kintyre" by Wings featuring the Campbeltown Pipe Band
"It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)" by AC/DC played by Bon Scott
Further examples can be found at List of nontraditional bagpipe usage.
Worldwide diffusion
The Great Highland bagpipe is widely used by both soloists and pipe bands, both civilian and military, and is now played in countries around the world. It is particularly popular in areas with large Scottish and Irish emigrant populations, mainly England, Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
Former British Empire
The Great Highland Bagpipe has also been adopted by many countries that were formerly part of the British Empire, despite their lack of a Scottish or Irish population. These countries include India, Pakistan, Nepal, Malaysia and Singapore.
The Great Highland Bagpipe also spread to parts of Africa and the Middle East where the British military's use of pipes made a favourable impression. Piping spread to Arabic countries such as Jordan, Egypt and Oman, some of whom had previously existing bagpipe traditions. In Oman, the instrument is called habban and is used in cities such as Muscat, Salalah, and Sohar. In Uganda president Idi Amin forbade the export of African blackwood, to encourage local bagpipe construction, during the 1970s.
Thailand
The Great Highland Bagpipe was also adopted in Thailand; around 1921, King Rama VI ordered a set to accompany the marching exercises of the Sua Pa Wild Tiger Corps. This was a royal guard unit which had previously practiced to the sounds of an oboe called pi chawa.
Although the bagpipes arrived from the British Isles with a user's manual, no one was able to figure out how to play them, so bassoon player Khun Saman Siang-prajak went to the British Embassy and learned how to play the instrument with the British soldiers, and then became instructor to the rest of the Corps. The band, which plays Thai as well as Scottish tunes, still practices at Vachiravuth High School in Bangkok, which is named for Rama VI.
Brittany
During the First World War, some Breton pipers serving in the French Army came in contact with the pipers of Scottish regiments, and brought back home a few Great Highland Bagpipes which Breton pipe-makers started copying. Polig Monjarret led the introduction of the Great Highland bagpipe to Brittany during the Celtic revival of the 1920s Breton folk music scene, inventing the bagad, a pipe band incorporating a binioù braz section, a bombarde section, a drums section, and in recent years almost any added grouping of wind instruments such as the saxophones, and brass instruments such as the trumpet and trombone.
Well known bagadoù include Bagad Kemper, Kevrenn Alre, Bagad Brieg and Bagad Cap Caval. In Brittany, the Great Highland bagpipe is known as the binioù braz, in contrast to the binioù kozh, the small traditional Breton bagpipe.
One notable development of the Highland bagpipe in Brittany is the creation of slightly shorter drones in C (Scottish "B"; see notes on tuning above), so that the many tunes played in that key will have drone accompaniment in the tonic. Many bagad pipers will keep two sets of pipes, one in standard B (Scottish "A") and one in C, and a whole suite may be performed in C.
Notable bands
Some of the most famous pipe bands in the world are the Shotts and Dykehead Caledonia Pipe Band, Simon Fraser University Pipe Band (SFUPB), The Inveraray & District Pipe Band, The Field Marshal Montgomery Pipe Band and the St. Laurence O'Toole Pipe Band, all of which have won the World Pipe Band Championships.
Related instruments
Practice chanter, a bagless and droneless double-reeded pipe with the same fingerings as the Great Highland bagpipe. These are meant to serve as practice instruments which are more portable and less expensive than a set of pipes.
Practice goose, a small, single-chanter, droneless bag used to transition between the practice chanter and full pipes
Reel pipes (or "kitchen" or "parlour" pipes), smaller versions of the Great Highland bagpipe for indoor playing
Border pipes are similar to the Great Highland bagpipe, but quieter and thus suited to playing for dances and sessions. Rather than being inflated by mouth, their air is provided by bellows under the arm.
Scottish smallpipes are a modern interpretation of extinct smaller Scottish pipes used for recreational music. They were revived in the late 20th century by pipemakers such as Colin Ross.
Electronic bagpipes are electronic instruments with a touch-sensitive "chanter" which senses finger position and modifies its tone accordingly. Some models also produce a drone sound, and the majority are made to simulate Great Highland bagpipe tone and fingering.
Great Irish Warpipes an instrument, believed to have existed in Ireland until around the 1700s, and to have been similar or practically identical to the extant Great Highland Bagpipe.
Brian Boru bagpipes, invented by Henry Starck, perhaps inspired by the Great Irish Warpipes, and based on Great Highland bagpipe but with a keyed chanter to extend the range and add chromatic notes.
See also
Bagpipes
Pibroch
Pipe band
List of bagpipes
Canntaireachd
Bibliography
Hugh Cheape. The Book of the Bagpipe (Belfast: The Appletree Press, 1999).
Francis Collinson. The Traditional and National Music of Scotland (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966).
Francis Collinson. The Bagpipe (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975).
William Donaldson. The Highland Pipe and Scottish Society 1750–1950 (Edinburgh: Tuckwell Press, 1999).
John Gibson. Old and New World Highland Bagpiping (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002).
Further reading
Edinburgh Research Archive. The Bagpipe: perceptions of a national instrument. Hugh Cheape.
Alexander Ellis's early (1885) measurements of the Bagpipe scale, and its relation to Arabian scales.
Music at a Medieval Gaelic Chieftain's Court Paper on How Bagpipes, Shepherd Trumpets, and Fiddles (and/or Harps) all Could Play in the Same "Key" Together.
References
External links
Bob Dunsire Bagpipe Web Directory
Andrew Lenz's Bagpipe Journey
National symbols of Scotland
Bagpipes
Scottish musical instruments
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246294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LJ | LJ | LJ may refer to:
Arts and media
L. J. Burrows, a fictional character on the TV series Prison Break
Lemon Jelly, a British electronica duo
Library Journal, an American trade publication for librarians
Linux Journal, a monthly technology magazine
LiveJournal, a social networking service
Businesses and organizations
LJ Air, a Chinese airline
Jin Air, a South Korean airline (IATA code LJ)
Lashkar i Jhangvi, a Muslim terrorist organization
People
L. J. Hoes, American baseball player
L. J. McCray, American football player
LJ Reyes, Filipina actress
Larry Johnson (running back)
Larry Johnson (basketball, born 1969)
Lawrence Jackson, USC defensive lineman
Places
La Jolla, California
Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia
Science and technology
System LJ, Gentzen's sequent calculus for intuitionist logic
LaserJet, a printer brand name
Lennard-Jones potential, a function used in chemical physics
Lightweight Java, a programming language
Other uses
Lj (digraph), a digraph used in some Slavic languages
Lord Justice of Appeal
See also
Lje, a letter of the Cyrillic script | [
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246297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%20Koch | Ed Koch | Edward Irving Koch ( ; December 12, 1924February 1, 2013) was an American politician, lawyer, political commentator, film critic, and television personality. He served in the United States House of Representatives from 1969 to 1977 and was mayor of New York City from 1978 to 1989.
Koch was a lifelong Democrat who described himself as a "liberal with sanity". The author of an ambitious public housing renewal program in his later years as mayor, he began by cutting spending and taxes and cutting 7,000 employees from the city payroll. As a congressman and after his terms as mayor, Koch was a fervent supporter of Israel. He crossed party lines to endorse Rudy Giuliani for mayor of New York City in 1993, Michael Bloomberg for mayor of New York City in 2001, and George W. Bush for president in 2004.
A popular figure, Koch rode the New York City Subway and stood at street corners greeting passersby with the slogan "How'm I doin'?" A lifelong bachelor with no children, Koch rebuffed speculation about his sexual orientation and refused to publicly discuss his romantic relationships. After his retirement from politics, he declared that he was heterosexual.
Koch was first elected mayor of New York City in 1977, and he won reelection in 1981 with 75% of the vote. He was the first New York City mayor to win endorsement on both the Democratic and Republican party tickets. In 1985, Koch was elected to a third term with 78% of the vote. His third term was fraught with scandal regarding political associates (although the scandal never touched him personally) and with racial tensions, including the killings of Michael Griffith and Yusuf Hawkins. In a close race, Koch lost the 1989 Democratic primary to his successor, David Dinkins.
Early life
Koch was born in Crotona Park East section of The Bronx borough of New York City, the son of Yetta (or Joyce, née Silpe) and Louis (Leib) Koch, Polish-Jewish immigrants from Kozliv and Uścieczko in Eastern Galicia. He came from a family of Conservative Jews who resided in Newark, New Jersey, where his father worked at a theater. As a child, he worked as a hatcheck boy in a Newark dance hall. He graduated from South Side High School in Newark in 1941.
In 1943 he was drafted into the United States Army, where he served as an infantryman with the 104th Infantry Division, landing in Cherbourg, France, in September 1944. He earned a European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with two campaign stars, a World War II Victory Medal, and the Combat Infantryman Badge for service in the European Theater of Operations. After V-E Day, because he could speak German, Koch was sent to Bavaria to help remove Nazi public officials from their jobs and find non-Nazis to take their place. He was honorably discharged with the rank of Sergeant in 1946.
Koch returned to New York City to attend City College of New York, graduating in 1945, and New York University School of Law, receiving his law degree in 1948. Koch was a sole practitioner from 1949 to 1964, and a partner with Koch, Lankenau, Schwartz & Kovner from 1965 to 1968. A Democrat, he became active in New York City politics as a reformer and opponent of Carmine DeSapio and Tammany Hall. In 1962 Koch ran for office for the first time, unsuccessfully opposing incumbent William Passannante, a DeSapio ally, for the Democratic nomination for the State Assembly.
In 1963, Koch defeated DeSapio for the position of Democratic Party leader for the district which included Greenwich Village, and Koch won again in a 1965 rematch. Koch served on the New York City Council from 1967 to 1969.
Career
Elections
1968
Koch ran for Congress in New York's 17th congressional district after Republican Theodore Roosevelt Kupferman retired. He defeated Republican Whitney Seymour Jr. and Conservative Richard J. Callahan, who partly split the conservative vote. He won 48.5% of the vote to Seymour's 45.6% and Callahan's 5.9%.
1970
Koch was reelected with 62% of the vote, defeating Republican Peter J. Sprague and Conservative Callahan who finished with 32% and 6%, respectively.
1972
In advance of the 1972 elections, Koch's district was redistricted into the 18th district. He defeated Republican Jane Pickens Langley and Socialist Workers nominee Rebecca Finch, 70%-29%-1%.
1973
Koch briefly ran for mayor in 1973, but garnered little support and dropped out before the Democratic primary. He threw his support to State Assemblyman Albert H. Blumenthal, but Blumenthal's bid was derailed by a scandal and he came in third. Comptroller Abraham Beame won the election.
1974
Koch won reelection (with career-best 76.7% of the vote) to the 18th district against John Boogaerts Jr. (Republican, 18.8%), Gilliam M. Drummond (Conservative, 3.7%), and Katherine Sojourner (Socialist Workers, 0.8%).
1976
Koch was again reelected, this time with 75.7% of the vote, defeating Sonia Landau (Republican, 20.1%), and James W. McConnell (Conservative, 4.3%).
1977
Koch announced his campaign for mayor of New York City against incumbent Beame. Koch and future governor Mario Cuomo finished first (19.8%) and second (18.7%) in the Democratic primary, eliminating Beame (18%). In the runoff, Koch defeated Cuomo, 55%-45%.
Koch ran to the right of the other candidates on a "law and order" platform. According to historian Jonathan Mahler, the New York City blackout of July 1977 and the subsequent rioting helped catapult Koch and his message of restoring public safety to front-runner status.
1981
Koch won both the Democratic and Republican nominations and appeared on the ballot with both of their lines. He faced opposition only from third parties. He won 74.6% of the vote, with Unity candidate Frank Barbaro netting next-best 13.3%. John A. Esposito (Conservative) and Mary T. Codd (Liberal) also ran. Koch swept all five boroughs by landslide margins, breaking 60% of the vote in Manhattan and 70% in Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens and Staten Island.
1982
After incumbent Hugh Carey announced he would not run for reelection, Koch announced his candidacy for governor of New York. Cuomo, who had been elected lieutenant governor, also ran. Koch received the party's endorsement with 61% of the convention vote, but Cuomo won the Democratic primary. The New York Times called Cuomo's victory a "stunning upset" that relied on "an unusual coalition of liberal Democrats, labor, minorities and upstaters." Koch ran strongly in Jewish communities, while Cuomo won black, liberal, and Italian communities by a similar margin. A key to Cuomo's victory was his strong showing in New York City itself; though Koch won the city and its four suburban counties (Rockland, Westchester, Suffolk, and Nassau) as expected, Cuomo kept the margin close and won half of the city's Assembly districts. That, combined with large victories in nearly every upstate county, allowed Cuomo to win. Koch endorsed Cuomo immediately, declaring "what's important to all of us is that we keep a Democrat in Albany." Many say the deciding factor in Koch's loss was an interview with Playboy magazine in which he called the lifestyle of suburbia and upstate New York "sterile" and lamented the thought of having to live in "the small town" of Albany as governor. Koch's remarks are thought to have alienated many voters from outside New York City. Cuomo was elected governor over Republican Lewis Lehrman, and served three terms.
1985
Koch was reelected to a third term in a landslide. He defeated Carol Bellamy (Liberal) and Dian McGrath (Republican/Conservative), 78%-10%-9%, respectively, and was sworn into his third and final term in January 1986. As of 2021, this is the most recent mayoral election in which a Democrat carried Staten Island. During the campaign, Koch visited the late Lubavitcher Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, seeking his blessing and endorsement.
1989
Koch ran for an unprecedented fourth term in 1989. No mayor had ever won a fourth term, though Fiorello La Guardia and Robert Wagner also served three terms, and Wagner attempted to run for a fourth in 1969. Koch lost the Democratic primary to Manhattan Borough President David Dinkins, who finished with 547,901 votes to Koch's 456,313. Dinkins was helped in part by large margins in Manhattan, the Bronx, and Brooklyn, while Koch carried Staten Island and Queens. Dinkins defeated Rudy Giuliani in the general election by a narrow margin, with Giuliani carrying both counties Koch won in the primary. Giuliani won a rematch against Dinkins in 1993.
U.S. Congressional tenure
Koch was the Democratic U.S. Representative from New York's 17th congressional district from January 3, 1969, until January 3, 1973, when, after a redistricting, he represented New York's 18th congressional district until December 31, 1977, when he resigned to become Mayor of New York City.
Koch said he began his political career as "just a plain liberal", with positions including opposing the Vietnam War and marching in the South for civil rights. In April 1973, Koch coined the term "Watergate Seven" when, in response to U.S. Senator Lowell P. Weicker, Jr.'s indicating that one of the men in Watergate scandal had been ordered in the spring of 1972 to keep certain senators and representatives under surveillance, he posted a sign on his office door reading, "These premises were surveilled by the Watergate Seven. Watch yourself". At about the same time, Koch began his rightward shift toward being a "liberal with sanity" after reviewing the 1973 controversy around then-New York City Mayor John Lindsay's attempt to place a 3,000-person housing project in a middle-class community in Forest Hills, Queens. Koch met with residents of the community, most of whom were against the proposal. He was convinced by their arguments, and spoke out against the plan, shocking some of his liberal allies.
Koch was active in advocating for a greater U.S. role in advancing human rights within the context of fighting Communism. He had particular influence in the foreign aid budget, as he sat on the House Appropriations Subcommittee on Foreign Operations. In 1976, Koch proposed that the U.S. cut off military aid and supplies to the military dictatorship of Uruguay. In mid-July 1976, the CIA learned that two high-level Uruguayan intelligence officers had discussed a possible assassination attempt on Koch by Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional (DINA), the Chilean secret police under dictator Augusto Pinochet. The CIA did not regard these threats as credible until after the September 1976 assassination of Orlando Letelier in Washington, D.C., by DINA agents coordinated by Operation Condor. After that, Director of Central Intelligence George H.W. Bush informed Koch of the threat. Koch subsequently asked both the CIA and the FBI for protection, but none was extended.
Tenure as mayor of New York City
First term
When Koch took office, the city was reeling from high crime, a devastating blackout, and a fiscal crisis. During his first term, which many considered his best, he instituted austerity measures and moderated the municipal unions, measures that helped bolster the city’s finances during his second term. During his first term, a number of major events occurred in New York City. John Lennon's abrupt assassination sent shock waves around the world. Grief-stricken New Yorkers walked the streets openly crying for days after the shooting, which took place in front of Lennon’s place of residence, The Dakota, on Manhattan’s Upper West Side. Koch also dealt with the second transit strike, and pushed for the 1980 Democratic National Convention to be in NYC. His first term also saw a sister city relationship begin with Beijing.
Second term
Among the events of Koch's second term as mayor were the Brooklyn Bridge's 100th anniversary, the appointing of Benjamin Ward as the city's first ever African American police commissioner in 1983, the emergence of AIDS as a public health crisis, extensive media coverage of Bernhard Goetz's shooting of four African-American teenagers in the subway in 1984, and the United Nations' 40th anniversary.
Koch often deviated from the conventional liberal line, strongly supporting the death penalty, adding 3,500 officers to the NYPD in the 1980s, and taking a hard line on "quality of life" issues, such as giving police broader powers in dealing with the homeless and signing legislation banning the playing of radios on subways and buses. These positions prompted harsh criticism from the local chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union and many African-American leaders, particularly Reverend Al Sharpton.
In 1984, Koch published his first memoir, Mayor, which became a best-seller and was adapted into an off-Broadway and later Broadway musical, Mayor.
Third term
In 1986, Koch signed a lesbian and gay rights ordinance for the city after the City Council passed the measure (on March 20), after 15 years of failed attempts by that body to approve such legislation. Despite his overall pro-lesbian and pro-gay-rights stance, he nonetheless backed up the New York City Health Department's decision to shut down the city's gay bathhouses in 1985 in response to concerns over the spread of AIDS. The enactment of the measure the next year placed the city in a dilemma, as it apparently meant that the bathhouses would have to be reopened because many heterosexual "sex clubs"most notably Plato's Retreatwere in operation in the city at the time, and allowing them to remain open while keeping the bathhouses shuttered would have been a violation of the newly adopted anti-discrimination law. The Health Department, with Koch's approval, reacted by ordering the heterosexual clubs, including Plato's Retreat, to close as well. Also in 1986, Koch participated in Hands Across America and in the Statue of Liberty's 100th anniversary celebration. The career-ending face-slashing of model Marla Hanson, the paralyzing shooting of NYCPD detective Steven McDonald, crack cocaine and its related gangs, the Robert Chambers "preppie murder" case, the Howard Beach incident, and the racially motivated murder of Yusef Hawkins also happened during Koch's third term.
Koch consistently demonstrated a fierce love for New York City, which some observers felt he carried to extremes on occasion: in 1984 he went on record as opposing the creation of a second telephone area code for the city, claiming that this would divide the city's population; and when the National Football League's New York Giants won Super Bowl XXI in January 1987, he refused to grant a permit for the team to hold their traditional victory parade in the city, quipping famously, "If they want a parade, let them parade in front of the oil drums in Moonachie" (a town in New Jersey adjacent to the East Rutherford site of the Meadowlands Sports Complex, where the Giants play their home games).
In his third term, Koch's popularity was shaken after a series of corruption scandals, touched off by Donald Manes's suicide and the PVB scandal, which revealed that he had acceded to the requests of political allies (most notably Queens Borough President Manes, Bronx Democratic Party official Stanley M. Friedman and Brooklyn Democratic Party chairman Meade Esposito, an American Mafia associate long perceived as New York City's preeminent political leader) to stack city agencies with patronage appointments. There were no allegations that Koch obtained any financial benefit from the corruption, but the scandals undermined Koch's claims that he ran a patronage-free municipal government. Michael Tager attributes the scandals not to Koch's failures but to the steadily declining power of the Democratic machine and its bosses' desperate efforts to reverse the collapse.
Koch suffered a stroke in 1987, but recovered and was able to continue his duties.
In July 1987, Koch proposed banning bicycling on Fifth, Park and Madison Avenues during weekdays, but many bicyclists protested and had the ban overturned.
It has been said that race relations in Koch's last years in office were poor. He became a controversial figure in the 1988 presidential campaign with his public criticism of Democratic candidate Jesse Jackson, who surprised many political observers by winning key primaries in March and running even with the front-runner, Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis. As the April New York primary approached, Koch reminded voters of Jackson's earlier anti-Semitic statements, and said that Jews would be "crazy" to vote for Jackson. Koch endorsed Tennessee Senator Al Gore, who had run well in his native South, but hadn't won 20% in a northern state. As Koch's anti-Jackson rhetoric intensified, Gore seemed to shy away from Koch. On primary day, Gore finished a weak third place with 10% of the vote and dropped out of the race. Jackson ran ten points behind Dukakis, whose nomination became assured after his New York win.
Post-mayoral years
In the years following his mayoralty, Koch became a partner in the law firm of Robinson, Silverman, Pearce, Aronsohn, and Berman LLP (now Bryan Cave LLP) and a commentator on politics, as well as reviewing movies and restaurants for newspapers, radio and television. He also became an adjunct professor at New York University (NYU) and the judge on The People's Court for two years (1997–99) following the retirement of Judge Joseph Wapner. In 1999, he was a visiting professor at Brandeis University. Koch regularly appeared on the lecture circuit, and had a high-rated talk show on WABC radio. He also hosted his own online movie review show, The Mayor at the Movies.
On August 12, 1993, a street in southern Tel Aviv was named after Koch in a ceremony attended by him alongside prominent Israeli and American dignitaries.
In 2004, together with his sister Pat (also Pauline) Koch Thaler, Koch wrote a children's book, Eddie, Harold's Little Brother; it tells the story of Koch's childhood, when he tried unsuccessfully to emulate his older brother Harold's baseball talents, before realizing that he should instead focus on what he was already good at, which was telling stories and speaking in public.
On March 23, 2011, the New York City Council voted to rename the Queensboro Bridge the Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge.
Later, city councilman Peter Vallone (D-Queens) introduced legislation banning the naming of New York City property after people who are still alive, but the legislation failed.
Koch formed an organization called New York Uprising to push for statewide redistricting reform. In April 2011, he publicly upbraided 42 state legislators he claimed had broken their promises to support redistricting reform.
In May 2011, Koch sat for a portrait by Dmitry Borshch that has been exhibited at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, DePaul University, Brecht Forum, and CUNY Graduate Center, and is included in the Catalog of American Portraits at the Smithsonian's National Portrait Gallery.
"Mayor at the Movies"
In the summer of 2009, Koch began appearing in weekly movie review segments for an online show, Mayor at the Movies. He was an avid moviegoer who often saw two or three movies a weekend. Although he was invited to private screenings, Koch preferred to see films with a public audience and was often approached by moviegoers who were surprised to find him there. His reviews were outspoken and wry, with his rating system consisting not of stars but of a "plus" for a good film or a "minus" for a bad one. He sought out great documentaries, and had a particular passion for anything of Jewish interest.
He had a particular passion for independent cinema and documentaries, but enjoyed dramas and action films as well. In addition to Mayor at the Movies, his film reviews were regularly featured on The Huffington Post and in the New York newspaper The Villager. Koch also appeared in more than 60 Hollywood films and television shows as himself, including Sex and the City, Spin City, and Double Rush, and also hosted Saturday Night Live. A documentary about his life, Koch, had its world premiere at the Hamptons International Film Festival on October 8, 2012, and was released theatrically on February 1, 2013 (coincidentally, the day of Koch's death).
Political endorsements
After leaving office, Koch frequently endorsed prominent Republican candidates, including Rudy Giuliani and Michael Bloomberg for mayor, Al D'Amato for U.S. Senate, Peter T. King for U.S. House, George Pataki for governor, and, in 2004, George W. Bush for president. Koch also endorsed Democrats, including Eliot Spitzer for governor in the 2006 election. He endorsed Bill Bradley for president in 2000.
Koch took back his endorsement of Spitzer in the aftermath of the governor's prostitution scandal. He said, "At the time the prostitution episode emerged, I commented that nothing could explain his behavior other than the fact that he had a screw loose in his head. Probably several."
Though Koch supported Giuliani's first mayoral bid, he became opposed to him in January 1996, and began writing a series of columns in the New York Daily News criticizing Giuliani, most frequently accusing him of being authoritarian and insensitive. In 1999, the columns were compiled into the book Giuliani: Nasty Man. He resumed his attacks, and had the book republished, in 2007, after Giuliani announced his candidacy for president. In May 2007, Koch called Giuliani "a control freak" and said that "he wouldn't meet with people he didn't agree with. That's pretty crazy." He also said that Giuliani "was imbued with the thought that if he was right, it was like a God-given right. That's not what we need in a president."
Koch originally endorsed Hillary Clinton for president during the 2008 campaign, then endorsed Democratic nominee Barack Obama in the general election. In his endorsement of Obama, Koch wrote that he felt that (unlike in 2004) both candidates would do their best to protect both the United States and Israel from terrorist attacks, but that he agreed with Obama's domestic policies much more and that the idea of Republican vice-presidential nominee Sarah Palin ascending to the presidency "would scare me". In 2010 he rescinded his support for Obama, saying that Obama could very well harm American–Israeli relations.
In 2011, Koch endorsed Republican Bob Turner for Congress, because Koch "wanted to send a message to Obama to take a stronger position in support of Israel."
In October 2012, Koch told Al Sharpton that after a conversation with Obama about his position on Israel he was satisfied, and endorsed his reelection.
Early in 2013, Koch endorsed Christine Quinn in the Democratic primary for that year's mayoral election.
Other political statements
Koch often wrote in defense of Israel and against anti-Semitism. He also appeared in the documentary FahrenHYPE 9/11 defending President Bush and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and blasting Michael Moore. Koch was quoted in the film saying of Moore's film Fahrenheit 9/11, "It's not a documentary, it's a lie."
Koch praised New York Governor Andrew Cuomo, saying that he had the right approach in reducing government spending and refraining from raising taxes.
Koch was an early supporter of the Iraq War. In July 2007, Koch wrote that he was "bailing out" of his previous support for that war, due to the failure of the United States' NATO allies, and other Arab countries, to contribute to the war effort. Koch wrote, "I would support our troops remaining in Iraq if our allies were to join us. But they have made it clear they will not." He added that the U.S. must still "prepare for the battles that will take place on American soil by the Islamic forces of terror who are engaged in a war that will be waged by them against Western civilization for at least the next 30 years."
On April 8, 2010, Koch wrote a piece in The Jerusalem Post excoriating what he saw as increasing anti-Catholicism in the media, largely made evident by coverage of the priest sex abuse scandals. While denouncing the abuse, Koch wrote, "the procession of articles on the same events are, in my opinion, no longer intended to inform, but simply to castigate." He also wrote that he believed that many in the media, some themselves Catholic, exhibited such anti-Catholicism largely because of their opposition to the Catholic Church's teachings on such issues as abortion, homosexuality, and artificial contraception. He stated that, while he opposed the Church's teaching in all these matters, he firmly believed that the Church had the right to espouse these beliefs and to expect its members to espouse them as well, calling the Church "a force for good in the world, not evil."
Personal life
Koch was a lifelong bachelor, and his sexual orientation became an issue in the 1977 mayoral election with the appearance of placards and posters (disavowed by the Cuomo campaign) with the slogan "Vote for Cuomo, Not the Homo." Koch denounced the attack.
In 1989, Koch was interviewed about a book he had coauthored with Cardinal John J. O'Connor. When the interviewer asked Koch to clarify his views on homosexuality relative to O'Connor, Koch responded, "I happen to believe that there's nothing wrong with homosexuality. It's whatever God made you. It happens that I'm a heterosexual." He once told New York magazine, "Listen, there's no question that some New Yorkers think I'm gay, and voted for me nevertheless. The vast majority don't care, and others don't think I am. And I don't give a shit either way!"
He was frequently accompanied at political functions by his friend Bess Myerson, whose presence was regarded by some observers as an effort to defuse rumors of his alleged homosexuality.
Death and funeral
Koch died of heart failure on February 1, 2013. He was a resident of Greenwich Village for most of his adult life; at the time of his death, he lived at 2 Fifth Avenue, overlooking Washington Square Park.
His funeral took place on February 4, 2013, at Temple Emanu-El, a Reform Jewish congregation in Manhattan. Because of Koch's fierce loyalty to Israel, the Israeli Consul-General to New York City spoke. Former president Bill Clinton also addressed the congregation, serving as President Obama's representative. New York City Police Department helicopters gave a fly-over at the service.
In April 2008, Koch had purchased a burial plot in Trinity Church Cemetery so that he could be buried in Manhattan. It is the only graveyard in the borough that is accepting new burials. He chose to put the last words of the late journalist Daniel Pearl on his tombstone: "My father is Jewish, my mother is Jewish, I am Jewish."
Wit
A practiced public speaker since his days stumping for Adlai Stevenson, Koch was well known for his quips and one-liners. A few include:
(On the occasion of his primary loss to David Dinkins) "The people have spoken...and they must be punished."
"I'm the sort of person who will never get ulcers. Why? Because I say exactly what I think. I'm the sort of person who might give other people ulcers."
"If you agree with me on nine out of 12 issues, vote for me. If you agree with me on 12 out of 12 issues, see a psychiatrist."
Works
Koch, Edward I. (1980). The Mandate Millstone. US Conference of Mayors. .
See also
List of Jewish members of the United States Congress
List of mayors of New York City
Timeline of New York City, 1970s–1980s
References
Notes
Primary sources
Koch, Edward, and Daniel Paisner. Citizen Koch: an autobiography (St. Martin's Press, 1992).
Koch, Ed. The Koch Papers: My Fight Against Anti-Semitism (Macmillan, 2008).
Further reading
Goodwin, Michael, ed. New York Comes Back: The Mayoralty of Edward I. Koch, powerHouse Books, 2005. .
Harrington, Michael. "When Ed Koch Was Still a Liberal". Dissent (1987): 595–602. online
Mollenkopf, John H. A Phoenix in the Ashes: The Rise and Fall of the Koch Coalition in New York City Politics. Princeton University Press, 1994.
Newfield, Jack and Barrett, Wayne. City For Sale: Ed Koch and the Betrayal of New York, London: HarperCollins, 1989. .
Soffer, Jonathan. Ed Koch and the Rebuilding of New York City (Columbia University Press; 2010) 494 pages.
Thompson, J. Phillip. "David Dinkins' victory in New York City: The decline of the Democratic Party organization and the strengthening of black politics." PS: Political Science & Politics (1990) 23#2 pp. 145–148.
Paterson, David "Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity."Skyhorse Publishing. New York, New York, 2020
External links
Interviews
Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Edward Koch from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
The Trust Is Gone Opinion piece by Koch, critical of current administration's relationship with Israel
Interview with Ed Koch: On the 1988 Tompkins Square Park Riots
Oral history interview with Ed Koch (2008) from Justice in New York: An Oral History (full transcript and audio clips)
News collections
Podcasts of Ed Koch commentaries at Bloomberg.com
Archives
Edward I. Koch Collection of La Guardia and Wagner Archives – Koch's mayoral records as well as personal papers and photographs
Notable New Yorkers – Edward I. Koch Biography, photographs, and interviews of Ed Koch from the Notable New Yorkers collection of the Oral History Research Office at Columbia University.
Ed Koch Threatened with Assassination in 1976 from the National Security Archive (with archival documents)
FBI Records: The Vault – Edward Erving "Ed" Koch at fbi.gov
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1924 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Burials at Trinity Church Cemetery
Deaths from heart disease
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Jewish American attorneys
Jewish American military personnel
Jewish American people in New York (state) politics
Jewish mayors of places in the United States
Jewish members of the United States House of Representatives
Jews and Judaism in New York City
Lawyers from Newark, New Jersey
Malcolm X Shabazz High School alumni
Mayors of New York City
Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)
New York (state) Democrats
New York (state) lawyers
New York City Council members
New York Press people
New York University School of Law alumni
New York University faculty
Operation Condor
People from Greenwich Village
People of Galician-Jewish descent
Politicians from Newark, New Jersey
Politicians from the Bronx
Recycling in New York City
Television judges
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army non-commissioned officers
Writers from Manhattan
Writers from the Bronx | [
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246298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Oates | Adam Oates | Adam Robert Oates (born August 27, 1962) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player, former co-head coach for the New Jersey Devils and former head coach for the Washington Capitals. He played 19 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Detroit Red Wings, St. Louis Blues, Boston Bruins, Washington Capitals, Philadelphia Flyers, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and Edmonton Oilers. Known as an elite playmaker, Oates' career total of 1,079 assists was the fifth-highest total in NHL history at the time of his 2004 retirement.
After retiring as a player, Oates served as an assistant coach for the Tampa Bay Lightning and New Jersey Devils prior to joining the Capitals as their head coach for two seasons, from 2012 to 2014. In 2017, Oates was named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players in history.
As a college player, Oates was a standout forward for the RPI Engineers. He set single-season school records for assists and points and was named an Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) all-star and National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) All-American in both 1984 and 1985. Oates was named a tournament all-star in helping RPI win the 1985 national championship, and in 1990–91, the NHL included him in its Second All-Star Team; he played in five All-Star Games. He holds the record for most points all-time of any NHL player who also played NCAA Hockey. Oates was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 12, 2012.
Early life
Oates was born on August 27, 1962 in Weston, a neighborhood in Toronto. As a youth, he played both hockey and box lacrosse, favouring the latter sport. He played in the 1975 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a minor ice hockey team from Toronto.
Oates played five seasons with the Etobicoke Eclipse of the Ontario Lacrosse Association (OLA) Junior A Lacrosse League. An offensive standout, Oates' total of 181 points in 19 games in 1981 was the 11th highest total in OLA junior history at the time. As the league's leading scorer, he won the Bobby Allan Award and in one game that season, set OLA Junior A single-game records of 19 assists and 29 points. Oates played one season of Senior A with the Brampton Excelsiors of Major Series Lacrosse but left the game in 1984 to focus on his hockey career.
Describing his younger self as a "punk", Oates said he partied frequently. He dropped out of high school to focus on hockey and ended up working as a gas station attendant at age 19. Oates played two full seasons and parts of a third with the Junior A Markham Waxers of the Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League (OPJAHL). He scored 89 points in 43 games during 1980–81, and 159 points – including 105 assists – in 1981–82. He went unselected in the NHL Entry Draft, however, as scouts considered him too slow to play in the NHL. He returned to high school to complete his diploma when he was recruited to play for Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI).
Playing career
College
RPI's assistant coach Paul Allen noticed Oates during a 1982 OPJAHL game while scouting a different player and offered him a position on the school's team. Consequently, Oates played three seasons with the RPI Engineers, leading the team in assists each year. After scoring 42 points in 22 games in his freshman season of 1982–83, he spent the summer working with a skating instructor to improve his foot speed. In 1983–84, he set school records in points with 83 and assists with 57. He was named to the East Coast Athletic Conference (ECAC) second all-star team and became the first RPI hockey player to earn a berth on the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) All-American team since 1965.
In 1984–85, Oates broke his own school records by recording 60 assists and 91 points. His career total of 150 assists remains a school record . Again named an NCAA All-American, he was voted to the ECAC first all-star team, and was a finalist for the Hobey Baker Award as the top hockey player in the NCAA. After helping RPI win the 1985 national championship, he was included in the all-tournament team. In his three years with RPI, the Engineers recorded an record and won the ECAC championships in 1984 and 1985. Oates was voted to the ECAC's all-decade team of the 1980s. He was inducted into RPI's Athletics Hall of Fame, and was named the inaugural member of the hockey team's Ring of Honor in 2004.
Detroit and St. Louis
NHL teams took interest in Oates following his junior season; at least five teams attempted to sign him. Choosing to forgo his final year of college eligibility, Oates signed a four-year, $1.1 million contract with the Detroit Red Wings that made him the highest paid rookie in the NHL in 1985–86. He made his NHL debut on October 10, 1985, against the Minnesota North Stars, scoring his first goal that night on goaltender Don Beaupre and added an assist. After this, Oates struggled offensively and was pointless in his following 16 games; the team subsequently demoted him to the Adirondack Red Wings of the American Hockey League (AHL). Oates split the remainder of the season between Detroit and Adirondack, finishing his first NHL season with 38 games played, 9 goals and 11 assists. In the AHL, he scored 18 goals and 28 assists in 34 games. Having finished the NHL season in Detroit, he was returned to Adirondack for the AHL playoffs which the team won to take the Calder Cup championship.
Oates established himself as a full-time NHLer in 1986–87, scoring 47 points in 76 games. He improved to 54 points in 63 games the following year despite missing a month due to a groin injury, and finished third in team scoring with 78 points in 1988–89. However, Detroit made changes following a first round loss in the playoffs; Oates, along with Paul MacLean, was traded to the St. Louis Blues on June 15, 1989, in exchange for veterans Bernie Federko and Tony McKegney. The deal, which is now considered one of the worst in Red Wings' history, left Oates "heartbroken" to leave his first NHL club.
The Blues made Oates their first-line centre and played him alongside Brett Hull. The pair, dubbed "Hull and Oates" as a play on the band Hall and Oates, put up prolific offensive numbers. In 1989–90, Oates topped the 100-point mark for the first time in his career with 102 points. He improved to 115 in 1990–91. He helped Hull score 72 and 86 goals those seasons, the latter the third highest in single-season total in NHL history. Oates was named to the second all-star team following the season and played in the 1991 All-Star Game.
Oates signed a four-year, $3 million contract extension with the Blues prior to the 1991–92 season, but after the team signed Brendan Shanahan, Garth Butcher and Ron Sutter to significant deals, felt he was underpaid. After playing in his second career All-Star Game, he threatened to walk off the team following the All-Star break if the Blues did not renegotiate his contract, prompting a negative reaction from St. Louis fans, who booed him loudly. The conflict was resolved on February 7, 1992, when the team traded him to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Craig Janney and Stéphane Quintal.
Boston and Washington
Oates' best individual season came in his first full year in Boston. He led the league with 97 assists in 1992–93 and finished third in overall scoring with 142 points. At the 1993 All-Star Game, Oates set a record by recording four assists in one period as part of a 16–6 victory for the Wales Conference. He played in his fourth consecutive All-Star Game in 1994 and again finished third in league scoring with 112 points in 1993–94. In a five-year period between 1989 and 1994, Oates was the second-highest point producer in the NHL. His average of 114 points per season over that time was second to Wayne Gretzky's 124.
A finger injury suffered during the 1994 Stanley Cup playoffs hampered Oates throughout the 1994–95 season and required surgery at the season's conclusion. Despite the injury, Oates finished fourth in the NHL with 41 assists in a season disrupted by a work stoppage. In game five of the conference quarter-final series against the New Jersey Devils, Oates scored the final goal in the history of the Boston Garden in a 4–1 loss. The Bruins signed him to a five-year, $10 million contract extension late in that season, but Oates once again became frustrated with his salary relative to the rest of the league by 1997. With the Bruins struggling on the ice and out of playoff contention late in 1996–97 season, Oates publicly berated team management, saying, "You go on a [road] trip and everyone says it's a big trip. For what? So we can win five games because we're lousy and we get in the eighth spot and lose four straight and get embarrassed and then get shelled all summer? It's upstairs, baby. That's their job, not ours. ... Are we rebuilding? What are we doing? What direction are we going in?"
Less than two weeks after his tirade, on March 1, 1997, Oates was traded to the Washington Capitals. In the trade, Oates, Bill Ranford and Rick Tocchet went to Washington in exchange for Jim Carey, Anson Carter, Jason Allison and a draft pick. Oates initially refused to report to Washington, demanding his contract be renegotiated, but chose to join the team after a four-day holdout. He continued to demand a new contract in the off-season, while his agent claimed Oates would retire before playing for the Capitals again. After several months of contentious negotiations, the two sides agreed to a three-year contract worth around $2.9 million per season with an option on a fourth year.
Oates became the 47th player in NHL history, and the 15th fastest, to score his 1,000th career point on October 7, 1997, against the New York Islanders. He reached the milestone by scoring a hat-trick and adding two assists for the sixth five-point game of his career. He finished the 1997–98 season as the team leader with 56 assists, and second to Peter Bondra in team scoring with 78 points. The Capitals reached the 1998 Stanley Cup Finals, which they lost to the Detroit Red Wings, their first finals appearance in franchise history.
The Capitals named Oates the ninth captain in franchise history prior to the 1999–2000 season, following the departure of his predecessor, Dale Hunter. He led the team in scoring with 71 points and played his 1,000th NHL game on December 22, 1999, against the Vancouver Canucks. He led the league in assists the following two seasons, at the ages of 38 and 39, with 69 in 2000–01 and 64 in 2001–02. On January 14, 2002, Oates became the eighth player in NHL history to reach 1,000 career assists when he set up Dainus Zubrus' overtime winning goal in a 1–0 victory over the Boston Bruins.
Philadelphia, Anaheim and Edmonton
With Washington out of playoff contention late in the 2001–02 season and with his contract expiring following the season, the Capitals traded Oates to the Philadelphia Flyers on March 19, 2002, in exchange for goaltender Maxime Ouellet and the Flyers' first, second and third round selections in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft. The Flyers hoped that bringing Oates in would solidify their playoff chances. The move did not work, as the Flyers were defeated in the first round by the lower ranked Ottawa Senators, losing the series in five games. The team scored only one goal in regulation time and were shut-out three times by Ottawa's Patrick Lalime.
The Flyers chose not to offer Oates a new contract following the loss, making him an unrestricted free agent. He then signed a $3.5 million contract for the 2002–03 season, with an option for 2003–04, with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim on July 1, 2002. He scored 45 points in 67 games with the Mighty Ducks, and added 13 points in 21 playoff games. Anaheim reached the 2003 Stanley Cup Finals, where in the third game of the series against the New Jersey Devils, Oates assisted on Ruslan Salei's overtime-winning goal. It was Oates' ninth career playoff overtime point, tying him with Joe Sakic and Doug Gilmour for the NHL all-time lead. The Ducks ultimately lost the series in seven games.
The Mighty Ducks declined their option on the 41-year-old Oates' contract, again making him a free agent. He remained unsigned six weeks into the 2003–04 season, until he agreed to a one-year contract with the Edmonton Oilers on November 17, 2003. He appeared in 60 games in Edmonton, scoring 2 goals and 16 assists. The Oilers were eliminated from playoff contention in their final game of the season with a 5–2 loss to the Vancouver Canucks on April 4, 2004. Oates announced his retirement as a player immediately after the game.
Playing style
Oates was one of the NHL's great playmakers, a style that he credits his father as encouraging: "It was just kind of our family talks: 'If you can be unselfish, your teammates will always like you.' And it just kind of became my role, where I was obviously trying to please my dad, growing up and becoming a playmaker out of that." Oates' father, a British immigrant, idolized Stanley Matthews, considered one of the greatest association football (soccer) players of all-time and hoped that his son would adopt a pass-first mentality similar to Matthews.
Oates led the NHL in assists three times – 1992–93, 2000–01 and 2001–02 – and finished in the top ten on 12 occasions. Oates finished third in league scoring three times; 1990-91, 1992-93, and 1993-94. He is also the only player in NHL history to centre three 50-goal scorers, helping Brett Hull, Cam Neely and Peter Bondra reach the mark. His teammates praised his consistency, noting Oates continued to score points at an elite level when he did not have star players as linemates. Oates was able to score himself, reaching the 20 goal mark seven times, including a career high 45 in 1992–93, a season in which he led the league with 11 game-winning goals. Boston teammate Ray Bourque suggested in 1994 that Oates was underrated, saying, "I think a lot of people take what he does for granted. He does it in a quiet way. He's not a flashy guy. He's not looking for attention, he just goes out and does it. He's the best centerman I've been around. I never knew he was this good playing against him because I didn't see him this much." Others have concurred, noted that Oates never received the attention nor honors of the other nine players on the NHL's top ten all-time assists list.
At the time of Oates' retirement, his 1,420 points was the 13th highest total in NHL history, and his 1,079 assists ranked 5th. He played in a total of five NHL All-Star Games and was a six-time finalist for the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy for sportsmanship and gentlemanly conduct on the ice (Oates has described himself as the Susan Lucci for the Lady Byng.) The Markham Waxers retired his jersey number 10 in 1999. Oates was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as part of its 2012 class.
Coaching career
Assistant coach
The Tampa Bay Lightning hired Oates as an assistant coach in the 2009–10 season, where he worked with the team's offence. Under his guidance, the team's power play finished ninth in the league and he was credited with playing a significant role in Steven Stamkos' offensive development. Oates then joined the New Jersey Devils in 2010, where he served an additional two years as an assistant coach, helping the team reach the 2012 Stanley Cup Finals, which they lost to the Los Angeles Kings in six games. New Jersey general manager Lou Lamoriello praised Oates' work with the team: "He did an outstanding job for us. I wish him well. He's very communicative, very intelligent, he explains things very well. He has the resume behind him as a player and having the success he had – all the credentials are there for having the kind of respect players have for him."
Washington Capitals
The same day Oates was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame, June 26, 2012, he returned to Washington Capitals, where he was named the 16th head coach in franchise history, succeeding Dale Hunter, who had decided not to renew his contract. Oates' former teammates praised his appointment as head coach, calling him a "detail-oriented players' coach" with excellent communication skills. While the 2012–13 NHL lockout delayed Oates' debut with the Capitals, he acted as co-coach with Mark French for Washington's AHL affiliate, the Hershey Bears.
When the NHL resumed for the shortened 2012–13 season, Oates and the Capitals struggled initially and won only 2 of their first 11 games. However, the team improved throughout the season and went from last place in the Southeast Division to first; they won 15 of their final 19 games to win the division title. Oates' players praised his positive outlook and willingness to work closely with them as a primary reasons why the team was able to turn its season around. However, the Capitals were defeated in the first round of the 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs, losing to the New York Rangers in seven games.
The Capitals struggled throughout the 2013–14 season and faced increasing discontent from the fans as the team had failed to advance far into the playoffs in 16 years. The team finished with a 38–30–14 record, but finished ninth in the Eastern Conference and missed the playoffs. As a consequence, the Capitals opted to dismiss both Oates as head coach and the team's general manager, George McPhee.
New Jersey Devils
On December 27, 2014, Oates was hired by the New Jersey Devils to become what the team referred to as a "co-head coach" following the team's firing of head coach Peter DeBoer. Oates split coaching duties with former Devils captain Scott Stevens, with each coach responsible for a specific group of players; Oates was responsible for the forwards while Stevens was responsible for the defensemen. Oates and Stevens were assisted by Devils general manager Lou Lamoriello, who had previously served as the team's interim head coach. On June 1, 2015, John Hynes was named the new full-time head coach.
Personal life
Although Oates left RPI after three years to begin his professional hockey career, he continued his studies during the off-seasons. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree in management from the school in 1991.
While a member of the Bruins, Oates also worked for a brief time with the investment firm Boston Capital Partners.
Oates is a co-founder of sporting apparel retailer Old Time Hockey, a company that donates a portion of all sales to the NHL emergency assistance fund.
Oates operated a men's boutique on 69th and 3rd in New York City for a few years, which he discussed when profiled by Harry Rosen.
His parents are David and Loretta, and he has two sisters: Michelle and Laurel. Oates was once engaged to model and actress Darlene Vogel, however the couple cancelled their planned 1998 marriage at the last moment. He also has a house in Osterville, Massachusetts.
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
Coaching
Awards and honours
See also
List of NHL statistical leaders
References
Career statistics:
External links
1962 births
Living people
Adirondack Red Wings players
Boston Bruins players
Canadian ice hockey centres
Detroit Red Wings players
Edmonton Oilers players
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Toronto
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim players
National Hockey League All-Stars
New Jersey Devils coaches
People from Weston, Toronto
Philadelphia Flyers players
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute alumni
RPI Engineers men's ice hockey players
St. Louis Blues players
Tampa Bay Lightning coaches
Undrafted National Hockey League players
Washington Capitals coaches
Washington Capitals captains
Washington Capitals players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
People from Osterville, Massachusetts
Sportspeople from Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Canadian ice hockey coaches
NCAA men's ice hockey national champions
AHCA Division I men's ice hockey All-Americans | [
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] |
246299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20H.%20Schottky | Walter H. Schottky | Walter Hans Schottky (23 July 1886 – 4 March 1976) was a German physicist who played a major early role in developing the theory of electron and ion emission phenomena, invented the screen-grid vacuum tube in 1915 while working at Siemens, co-invented the ribbon microphone and ribbon loudspeaker along with Dr. Erwin Gerlach in 1924 and later made many significant contributions in the areas of semiconductor devices, technical physics and technology.
Early life
Schottky's father was mathematician Friedrich Hermann Schottky (1851–1935). Schottky had one sister and one brother. His father was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Zurich in 1882, and Schottky was born four years later. The family then moved back to Germany in 1892, where his father took up an appointment at the University of Marburg.
Schottky graduated from the Steglitz Gymnasium in Berlin in 1904. He completed his B.S. degree in physics, at the University of Berlin in 1908, and he completed his PhD in physics at the Humboldt University of Berlin in 1912, studying under Max Planck and Heinrich Rubens, with a thesis entitled: Zur relativtheoretischen Energetik und Dynamik (translates as About Relative-Theoretical Energetics and Dynamics).
Career
Schottky's postdoctoral period was spent at University of Jena (1912–14). He then lectured at the University of Würzburg (1919–23). He became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Rostock (1923–27). For two considerable periods of time, Schottky worked at the Siemens Research laboratories (1914–19 and 1927–58).
Inventions
In 1924, Schottky co-invented the ribbon microphone along with Erwin Gerlach. The idea was that a very fine ribbon suspended in a magnetic field could generate electric signals. This led to the invention of the ribbon loudspeaker by using it in the reverse order, but it was not practical until high flux permanent magnets became available in the late 1930s.
Major scientific achievements
In 1914, Schottky developed the well-known classical formula, written here as
.
This computes the interaction energy between a point charge q and a flat metal surface, when the charge is at a distance x from the surface. Owing to the method of its derivation, this interaction is called the "image potential energy" (image PE). Schottky based his work on earlier work by Lord Kelvin relating to the image PE for a sphere. Schottky's image PE has become a standard component in simple models of the barrier to motion, M(x), experienced by an electron on approaching a metal surface or a metal–semiconductor interface from the inside. (This M(x) is the quantity that appears when the one-dimensional, one-particle, Schrödinger equation is written in the form
Here, is Planck's constant divided by 2π, and m is the electron mass.)
The image PE is usually combined with terms relating to an applied electric field F and to the height h (in the absence of any field) of the barrier. This leads to the following expression for the dependence of the barrier energy on distance x, measured from the "electrical surface" of the metal, into the vacuum or into the semiconductor:
Here, e is the elementary positive charge, ε0 is the electric constant and εr is the relative permittivity of the second medium (=1 for vacuum). In the case of a metal–semiconductor junction, this is called a Schottky barrier; in the case of the metal-vacuum interface, this is sometimes called a Schottky–Nordheim barrier. In many contexts, h has to be taken equal to the local work function φ.
This Schottky–Nordheim barrier (SN barrier) has played an important role in the theories of thermionic emission and of field electron emission. Applying the field causes lowering of the barrier, and thus enhances the emission current in thermionic emission. This is called the "Schottky effect", and the resulting emission regime is called "Schottky emission".
In 1923 Schottky suggested (incorrectly) that the experimental phenomenon then called autoelectronic emission and now called field electron emission resulted when the barrier was pulled down to zero. In fact, the effect is due to wave-mechanical tunneling, as shown by Fowler and Nordheim in 1928. But the SN barrier has now become the standard model for the tunneling barrier.
Later, in the context of semiconductor devices, it was suggested that a similar barrier should exist at the junction of a metal and a semiconductor. Such barriers are now widely known as Schottky barriers, and considerations apply to the transfer of electrons across them that are analogous to the older considerations of how electrons are emitted from a metal into vacuum. (Basically, several emission regimes exist, for different combinations of field and temperature. The different regimes are governed by different approximate formulae.)
When the whole behaviour of such interfaces is examined, it is found that they can act (asymmetrically) as a special form of electronic diode, now called a Schottky diode. In this context, the metal–semiconductor junction is known as a "Schottky (rectifying) contact'".
Schottky's contributions in surface science/emission electronics and in semiconductor-device theory now form a significant and pervasive part of the background to these subjects. It could possibly be argued that – perhaps because they are in the area of technical physics – they are not as generally well recognized as they ought to be.
Awards
He was awarded the Royal Society's Hughes medal in 1936 for his discovery of the Schrot effect (spontaneous current variations in high-vacuum discharge tubes, called by him the "Schrot effect": literally, the "small shot effect") in thermionic emission and his invention of the screen-grid tetrode and a superheterodyne method of receiving wireless signals.
In 1964 he received the Werner von Siemens Ring honoring his ground-breaking work on the physical understanding of many phenomena that led to many important technical appliances, among them tube amplifiers and semiconductors.
Controversy
The invention of superheterodyne is usually attributed to Edwin Armstrong. However, Schottky published an article in the Proceedings of the IEEE that may indicate he had invented and patented something similar in Germany in 1918.
The Frenchman Lucien Lévy had filed a claim earlier than either Armstrong or Schottky, and eventually his patent was recognized in the US and Germany.
1939: first p–n junction
Legacy
The Walter Schottky Institute for semiconductor research and the Walter Schottky Prize are named after him.
Books written by Schottky
Thermodynamik, Julius Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1929.
Physik der Glühelektroden, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 1928.
See also
Schottky transistor
Schottky junction solar cell
Surface-barrier transistor
References
External links
Walter Schottky
Biography of Walter H. Schottky
Walter Schottky Institut
Reinhard W. Serchinger: Walter Schottky – Atomtheoretiker und Elektrotechniker. Sein Leben und Werk bis ins Jahr 1941. Diepholz; Stuttgart; Berlin: GNT-Verlag, 2008.
Schottky's math genealogy
Semiconductor physicists
1886 births
1976 deaths
German electrical engineers
20th-century German physicists
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Werner von Siemens Ring laureates
University of Rostock faculty
20th-century German inventors | [
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] |
246302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disarming%20Act | Disarming Act | The Disarming Act (1 George 1 session 2 C.26) was an 18th-century Act of Parliament of Great Britain that was enacted to curtail Jacobitism among the Scottish clans in the Scottish Highlands after the Jacobite rising of 1715. The new law, which came into effect on 1 November 1716, aimed at "securing the peace of the highlands in Scotland". It outlawed anyone in defined parts of Scotland from having "in his or their custody, use, or bear, broad sword, poignard, whinger, or durk, side pistol, gun, or other warlike weapon" unless authorised.
However, the act proved ineffectual at enforcing the ban. In 1725 a new act was passed that for "disarming the highlands in that part of Great Britain called Scotland; and for the better securing the peace and quiet of that part of the kingdom". This new law was enforced by Major-General George Wade, who used it to successfully confiscate a significant number of weapons. Wade's efforts to confiscate weapons of war from was proven by the number of antiquated weapons brandished by the Highlanders who answered the call when Bonnie Prince Charlie began the Jacobite rising at Glenfinnan in 1745. Nevertheless, the Jacobite forces quickly acquired many of the latest British Army-issued government Land Pattern Muskets and bayonets after their resounding victory at Prestonpans.
The main articles of the Disarming Act were further strengthened in the Act of Proscription 1746 following the defeat of Bonnie Prince Charlie at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.
References
External links
Act of Proscription 1747
Act against the Highland Dress
Acts against the Highland Dress
Military disbanding and disarmament
Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1716
Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1725
Legal history of Scotland
Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain concerning Scotland
18th century in Scotland
1716 in Scotland
1725 in Scotland
Gun politics in the United Kingdom
Firearm laws | [
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246303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Lyon%20Mackenzie | William Lyon Mackenzie | William Lyon Mackenzie (March12, 1795 August28, 1861) was a Scottish-born Canadian-American journalist and politician. He founded newspapers critical of the Family Compact, a term used to identify elite members of Upper Canada. He represented York County in the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada and aligned with Reformers. He led the rebels in the Upper Canada Rebellion; after its defeat, he rallied American support for an unsuccessful invasion of Upper Canada as part of the Patriot War. Although popular for criticising government officials, he failed to implement most of his policy objectives. He is one of the most recognizable Reformers of the early 19th century.
Raised in Dundee, Scotland, Mackenzie emigrated to York, Upper Canada, in 1820. He published his first newspaper, the Colonial Advocate in 1824, and was elected a York County representative to the Legislative Assembly in 1827. York became the city of Toronto in 1834 and Mackenzie was elected its first mayor; he declined the Reformers' nomination to run in the 1835 municipal election. He lost his re-election for the Legislative Assembly in 1836; this convinced him that reforms to the Upper Canadian political system could only happen if citizens initiated an armed conflict. In 1837, he rallied farmers in the area surrounding Toronto and convinced Reform leaders to support the Upper Canada Rebellion. Rebel leaders chose Mackenzie to be their military commander, but were defeated by government troops at the Battle of Montgomery's Tavern.
Mackenzie fled to the United States and rallied American support to invade Upper Canada and overthrow the province's government. This violated the Neutrality Act, which prohibits invading a foreign country (with which the United States is not at war) from American territory. Mackenzie was arrested and sentenced to eighteen months imprisonment. He was jailed for more than ten months before he was pardoned by the American president Martin Van Buren. After his release, Mackenzie lived in several cities in New York State and tried to publish newspapers, but these ventures failed. He discovered documents that outlined corrupt financial transactions and government appointments by New York State government officials. He published these documents in two books. The parliament of the newly created Province of Canada, formed from the merger of Upper and Lower Canada, granted Mackenzie amnesty in 1849 and he returned to Canada. He represented the constituency of Haldimand County in the province's legislature from 1851 to 1858. His health deteriorated in 1861 and he died on August28.
Early life and immigration (1795–1824)
Background, early years in Scotland, and education
William Lyon Mackenzie was born on March 12, 1795, in Dundee, Scotland. Both of his grandfathers were part of Clan Mackenzie and fought for Charles Edward Stuart at the Battle of Culloden. His mother, Elizabeth Chambers ( Mackenzie), a weaver and goat herder, was orphaned at a young age. His father, Daniel Mackenzie, was also a weaver and seventeen years younger than Elizabeth. The couple married on May 8, 1794. After attending a public dance, Daniel became sick, blind and bedridden. He died a few weeks after William was born.
Although Elizabeth had relatives in Dundee, she insisted on raising William independently and instructed him on the teachings of the Presbyterian church. Mackenzie reported he was raised in poverty, although the extent of his family's wealth is difficult to authenticate. At five years old, Mackenzie received a bursary for a parish grammar school in Dundee. When he was eleven, he used the reading room of the Dundee Advertiser newspaper and meticulously documented and summarized the 957 books he read. In 1811, he was a founding member of the Dundee Rational Institution, a club for scientific discussion.
In 1813, William moved to Alyth, Scotland, to help his mother open a general store. He had a sexual relationship with Isabel Reid, and she gave birth to their son James on July 17, 1814. His congregation agreed to baptize James after Mackenzie endured public criticism for fathering an illegitimate child and paid a fine of thirteen shillings and fourpence () to the church. A recession followed the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, and Mackenzie's store went bankrupt. He moved to southern England and worked as a bookkeeper for the Kennet and Avon Canal Company. He spent most of his money on wild behaviour and became a gambler.
Early years in Canada
Mackenzie's friend John Lesslie suggested they emigrate to Canada in 1820, and the two men travelled there aboard a schooner named Psyche. When Mackenzie arrived in North America, he worked in Montreal for the owners of the Lachine Canal as a bookkeeper and The Montreal Herald as a journalist. Later that year he moved to York, Upper Canada, and the Lesslie family employed him at a bookselling and drugstore business. He wrote articles for the York Observer under the pseudonym Mercator. The Lesslies opened a second shop in Dundas, Upper Canada, and Mackenzie moved there to become its manager.
In 1822, his mother and his son joined Mackenzie in Upper Canada. Elizabeth invited Isabel Baxter to immigrate with them, as she had chosen Baxter to marry her son. Although they were schoolmates, Mackenzie and Baxter did not know each other well before meeting in Upper Canada. The couple wed in Montreal on July 1, 1822, and they had thirteen children.
The Colonial Advocate and early years in York (1823–1827)
Creation of the Colonial Advocate
The partnership between the Lesslies and Mackenzie ended in 1823. Mackenzie moved in 1824 to Queenston, a town near Niagara Falls, to open a new general store. A few months later he sold his store and bought a printing press to create the Colonial Advocate, a political newspaper. He refused government subsidies and relied on subscriptions, although he sent free copies to people he considered influential. The newspaper printed articles that supported the policies of the Upper Canadian Reform movement and criticized government officials. He organized a ceremony for the start of the construction of the memorial to Isaac Brock, a British major-general who died in the War of 1812. Mackenzie sealed a capsule within the memorial's stonework containing an issue of the Colonial Advocate, the Upper Canada Gazette, some coins, and an inscription he had written. Lieutenant governor Peregrine Maitland ordered the capsule's removal a few days after it was placed in the monument because of the Colonial Advocates critical stance of the government.
In November 1824, Mackenzie relocated the paper and his family to York. Although the Colonial Advocate had the highest circulation among York newspapers, he still lost money on every issue because of low paid subscription numbers and late payments from readers. James Buchanan Macaulay, a government official in York, accused Mackenzie of improper business transactions in 1826 and made jokes about Mackenzie's Scottish heritage and his mother. Mackenzie retaliated by pretending to retire from the paper on May 4, 1826, and published a fictitious meeting where contributors selected Patrick Swift as the new editor. Mackenzie used the Swift alias to continue publishing the Colonial Advocate.
Types Riot
In the spring of 1826, Mackenzie published articles in the Colonial Advocate under the Swift pseudonym that questioned the governance of the colony and described the personal lives of government officials and their families. On June 8, 1826, rioters attacked the Colonial Advocate office. They harassed Mackenzie's family and employees, destroyed the printing press and threw its movable type, the letters a printing press uses to print documents, into the nearby bay. Mackenzie hired Marshall Spring Bidwell to represent him in a civil suit against eight rioters.
Bidwell argued that Mackenzie lost income from the damaged property and his inability to fulfill printing contracts. Upon cross-examination, Mackenzie's employees confirmed that Mackenzie authored Patrick Swift's editorials in the Colonial Advocate. The court awarded Mackenzie £625 () in damages which he used to pay off his creditors and restart production of his newspaper. One year after the riots, he documented the incident in a series of articles, which he later published as The History of the Destruction of the Colonial Advocate Press.
Reform member of the Legislative Assembly (1827–1834)
Election to the Legislative Assembly
In December 1827, Mackenzie announced his candidacy to become one of the two representatives for the York County constituency in the 10th Parliament of Upper Canada. The Types Riot settlement was used to fund his campaign and he cited the incident as an example of corruption in Upper Canada. Mackenzie ran as an independent and refused to buy alcohol and treats for supporters or bribe citizens to vote for him, as was done by most politicians at this time. He published weekly articles in his newspaper called "The Parliament Black Book for Upper Canada, or Official Corruption and Hypocrisy Unmasked" where he listed accusations of wrongdoing by his opponents. He came in second in the election, becoming one of the representatives for York County.
In parliament, Mackenzie chaired a committee that assessed the effectiveness of the post office and recommended that local officials should determine local postal rates. He also chaired a committee that evaluated the appointment process of officials who administer elections in Upper Canada. He was a member of committees that looked at the banking and currency regulations of Upper Canada, the condition of roads, and the Church of England's power. Mackenzie opposed infrastructure projects until the province's debt was paid. He spoke against the Welland Canal Company, denouncing the financing methods of William Hamilton Merritt, the company's financial agent, and its close links with the Executive Council, the advisory committee to the lieutenant governor of Upper Canada.
In the election for the 11th Parliament of Upper Canada in 1830, Mackenzie campaigned for legislative control of the budget, independent judges, an executive council that would report to the legislature, and equal rights for Christian denominations. He was re-elected to represent York County in the parliament. The Reform group lost their majority in the legislature, mostly because the Legislative Council of Upper Canada blocked the passage of their proposed legislation. In the new parliament, Mackenzie chaired a committee that recommended increased representation for Upper Canadian towns, a single day for voting in elections, and voting by ballot instead of voice.
During a legislative break, Mackenzie travelled to Quebec City and met with Reform leaders in Lower Canada. He wanted to develop closer ties between the Reform leaders of each province and learn new techniques to oppose Upper Canada government policies. He gathered grievances from several communities in Upper Canada and planned to present these petitions to the Colonial Office in England.
Expulsions, re-elections, and appeal to the Colonial Office
Mackenzie criticized the Legislative Assembly in the Colonial Advocate and called the legislature a "sycophantic office". For this, the assembly expelled him for libel of the character of the Assembly of Upper Canada. Mackenzie won the resulting by-election on January 2, 1832, by a vote of 119–1. Upon his victory, his supporters gifted him a gold medal worth £250 () and organized a parade through the streets of York. He was expelled again when he printed an article critical of the assemblymen who voted for his first expulsion.
Mackenzie won the second by-election on January 30 with 628 votes against two opponents—a Tory who received 23 votes and a moderate Reformer (who assumed his expulsion barred Mackenzie from becoming a legislator)—who received 96 votes. Mackenzie toured Upper Canada to promote his policies and Tory supporters, unhappy with his agitation, tried to harm him. In Hamilton, William Johnson Kerr organized an assault of Mackenzie by three men. In York, twenty to thirty men stole a wagon he was using as a stage while another mob smashed the windows of the Colonial Advocate office. On March 23, 1832, Mackenzie's effigy was carried around York and burned outside the Colonial Advocate office while James FitzGibbon, a magistrate in York, arrested Mackenzie in an attempt to placate the mob. Mackenzie feared for his life and stopped appearing in public until he left for England.
In April 1832, Mackenzie travelled to London to petition the British government for reforms in Upper Canada. He visited Lord Goderich, the Secretary of State for the Colonies of the United Kingdom, to submit the grievances he had collected in Upper Canada. In November 1832, Goderich sent instructions to the Upper Canada lieutenant governor John Colborne to lessen the legislature's negative attitude against Mackenzie and reform the province's political and financial systems. Tories in Upper Canada were upset that Mackenzie received a positive reception from Goderich and expelled him from the legislature; he was re-elected on November 26 by his constituents. Mackenzie published Sketches of Canada and the United States in 1833 to describe Upper Canada politics. The book named thirty members of the Family Compact, the group that governed Upper Canada and controlled its policies. In November 1833, Mackenzie was expelled from the legislature again.
Edward Smith-Stanley replaced Goderich as the colonial secretary and reversed the Upper Canada reforms. Mackenzie was upset by this and, upon his return to Upper Canada in December 1833, renamed the Colonial Advocate to The Advocate to signal his displeasure with the province's colonial status. During that time he was also re-elected to the legislature by the farmers in York County to fill the vacancy caused by his expulsion the previous month. He won the election by acclamation, but the other members of the legislature would not let him participate in their proceedings and expelled him again. The legislature barred him from sitting as an elected representative until after the 1836 legislative election.
Upper Canada politics (1834–1836)
Municipal politics
In 1834, York changed its name to Toronto and held elections for its first city council. Mackenzie ran to be an alderman on the council to represent St. David's Ward. He won the election on March 27, 1834, with 148 votes, the highest among all candidates for alderman in the city. The other aldermen chose him to be Toronto's first mayor by a vote of 10–8. The city council and Mackenzie approved a tax increase to build a boardwalk along King Street despite citizen backlash. He designed the first coat of arms for Toronto and presided as a judge for the city's Police Court, which heard cases of drunkenness and disorderly conduct, physical abuse of children and spouses and city bylaw violations. Mackenzie chose the newly built market buildings as Toronto's city hall and moved the offices of The Advocate into a southern wing of the complex.
In July 1834, Toronto declared a second cholera outbreak. Mackenzie chaired the Toronto Board of Health in his role as mayor, which was tasked to implement the city's response to the outbreak. The board was divided between the Tories and the Reformers and they argued over Mackenzie's alleged interference with the work of health officers. He remained on the board when it restructured two weeks after the start of the outbreak, although he was no longer its chairman. He brought people to the hospital until he was also infected with the disease and remained in his home until he recovered later that year. Mackenzie declined the nomination for alderman in the 1835 municipal election, printing in his paper that he wanted to focus on provincial politics. Reformers included him on their ticket for the election, and he received the fewest votes in his ward.
Provincial politics
In the 1834 election for the 12th Parliament of Upper Canada, Mackenzie's York County constituency was split into four, each new section (known as a riding) electing one member. Mackenzie was elected in the 2nd Riding of York by a vote of 334–178. After the election, he sold The Advocate to William John O'Grady because of its debt and to devote more time to his political career.
The legislature appointed Mackenzie as chairman of the Committee on Grievances. which questioned several members of the Family Compact on their work and government efficiency. The committee documented their findings in The Seventh Report from the Select Committee of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada on Grievances. The report expressed Mackenzie's concern on the excessive power of the executive branch in Upper Canada and the campaigning of government officials for Tory politicians during elections. It also criticized companies that mismanaged funds given to them by the government and the salaries of officials who received patronage appointments. Mackenzie used the Committee on Grievances to investigate the Welland Canal Company. The Upper Canadian government partly owned the company and appointed directors to its board; in 1835 the legislature appointed Mackenzie. He discovered parcels of company land were given to Family Compact members or the Anglican Church for low prices, or swapped with land that was of lesser value. Mackenzie printed his investigation in a newspaper he created that summer in the Niagara peninsula called The Welland Canal.
When the new lieutenant governor Francis Bond Head arrived in Upper Canada, Mackenzie believed Bond Head would side with the Reform movement. After meeting Reformers, Bond Head concluded they were disloyal subjects of the British Empire. He wrote, "Mackenzie's mind seemed to nauseate its subjects" and "with the eccentricity, the volubility, and indeed the appearance of a madman, the tiny creature raved". Bond Head called an election in July 1836 and asked citizens to show loyalty to the British monarch by voting for Tory politicians. Bond Head's campaigning was successful and Reformers across the province lost their elections, Edward William Thomson defeating Mackenzie to represent the 2nd Riding of York in the 13th Parliament. Mackenzie was upset over this loss, weeping in a neighbour's home while supporters consoled him. Feeling disenchanted with the Upper Canada political system, Mackenzie created a new newspaper called the Constitution on July 4, 1836. The paper accused the government and their supporters of corruption and encouraged citizens to prepare "for nobler actions than our tyrants can dream of."
Upper Canada Rebellion (1837–1838)
Planning
In March 1837 the British government rejected reforms in Upper Canada and reconfirmed the authoritarian power of the lieutenant governor. This ended Mackenzie's hope that the British government would enact his desired reforms in the colony. In July 1837, Mackenzie organized a meeting with Reformers dubbed the Committee of Vigilance and Mackenzie was selected as the committee's corresponding secretary. Mackenzie published a critique of Bond Head describing him as a tyrant upholding a corrupt government. Mackenzie spent the summer of 1837 organizing vigilance committees throughout Upper Canada and proposed self-government for the Upper Canada colony instead of governance by a distant British Parliament. He liked attending these meetings because they confirmed that his politics were aligned with Upper Canadians who were not involved with governing the colony. He attracted large crowds but also faced physical attacks from Family Compact supporters. During the fall of 1837, he visited Lower Canada and met with their rebel leaders, known as the Patriotes.
On October 9, 1837, Mackenzie received a message from the Patriotes asking him to organize an attack on the Upper Canada government. Mackenzie gathered Reformers the following month and proposed seizing control of the Upper Canada government by force, but the meeting did not reach a consensus. He tried to convince John Rolph and Thomas David Morrison, two other Reform leaders, to lead a rebellion. He cited that Upper Canadian troops were sent to suppress the Lower Canada Rebellion and a quick attack on Toronto would allow rebels to seize control of the government before a militia could be organized against them. The two Reformers asked Mackenzie to determine the level of support in the countryside for the revolt. He travelled north and convinced rural Reform leaders that they could forcefully take control of the government. They decided that the rebellion would begin on December 7, 1837, and that Anthony Anderson and Samuel Lount would lead the assembled men. Mackenzie relayed this plan to Rolph and Morrison upon his return to Toronto.
Mackenzie wrote a declaration of independence and printed it at Hoggs Hollow on December 1. A Tory supporter reported the declaration to authorities, and a warrant was issued for Mackenzie's arrest. Upon his return to Toronto, Mackenzie discovered that Rolph had sent him a warning about the warrant. When the messenger could not find Mackenzie, he relayed the warning to Lount instead, who responded by marching a group of men towards Toronto to begin the rebellion. Mackenzie attempted to stop Lount but could not reach him in time.
Rebellion and retreat to the United States
Lount's men arrived at Montgomery's Tavern on the night of December 4. Later that night Anderson was killed by John Powell during a scouting expedition. Lount refused to lead the rebellion by himself so the group chose Mackenzie as their new leader.
Mackenzie gathered the rebels at noon on December 5 and marched them towards Toronto. At Gallows Hill, Rolph and Robert Baldwin announced the government's offer of full amnesty for the rebels if they dispersed immediately. Mackenzie and Lount asked that a convention be organized to discuss the province's policies and for the truce to be presented as a written document. Rolph and Baldwin returned, stating the government had withdrawn their offer. Mackenzie grew increasingly erratic and spent the evening punishing Tory families by burning down their houses and trying to force the Upper Canada Postmaster's wife to cook meals for his rebellion. Mackenzie tried marching the troops towards the city, but along the way a group of men fired at the rebels, causing them to flee.
Mackenzie spent the next day robbing a mail coach and kidnapping passing travellers to question them about the revolt. He reassured the troops at Montgomery's Tavern that 200 men were going to arrive from Buffalo, New York, to help with the rebellion. Mackenzie also sent a letter to a newspaper called The Buffalo Whig and Journal asking for troops from the United States.
On December 7, government forces arrived at Montgomery's Tavern and fired towards the rebel position. Mackenzie was one of the last to flee north, leaving his papers and cloak behind. He met with rebel leaders who agreed the rebellion was over and that they needed to flee Upper Canada. Bond Head issued a warrant and a £1,000 () reward for Mackenzie's apprehension. Mackenzie travelled to the Niagara River and entered the United States by boat.
Attempted invasion from the United States
Mackenzie arrived in Buffalo on December 11, 1837, and gave a speech outlining his desire for Upper Canada to be independent of Britain. He blamed the failed rebellion on a lack of weapons and supplies. Josiah Trowbridge, Buffalo's mayor, and a newspaper called the Commercial Advertiser interpreted the speech as a rallying cry for help with the rebellion.
On December 12, Mackenzie asked Rensselaer Van Rensselaer to lead an invasion of Upper Canada. Van Rensselaer would lead Patriot forces, composed of volunteers who sympathized with the cause and were living in the United States. Rebel leaders chose Van Rensselaer because the Van Rensselaer family name would bring respectability to their campaign, his father had been a successful military general in the War of 1812, and he claimed to have military experience. Van Rensselaer, Mackenzie and 24 supporters occupied Navy Island on December 14 and Mackenzie proclaimed the State of Upper Canada on the island, declared Upper Canada's separation from the British Empire, proclaimed himself appointed chairman of its new government and wrote a draft for the constitution of the new state. Van Rensselaer planned to use the island as a staging point to invade the Upper Canadian mainland, but this was stopped when their ship, the Caroline, was destroyed by British forces in the Caroline affair. On January 4, Mackenzie travelled to Buffalo to seek medical help for his wife. On the way he was arrested for violating the Neutrality Act, a law that prohibited participating in an invasion of a country against which the US government had not declared war. He was released on $5,000 () bail, paid by three men in Buffalo, and returned to Navy Island in January. British forces invaded the island on January 4, 1838, and the rebels dispersed to the American mainland.
Mackenzie wanted Canadians to lead the next invasion but still receive American assistance. When Van Rensselaer attempted an invasion of Kingston from Hickory Island, Mackenzie refused to participate, citing a lack of confidence in the mission's success. Patriot forces near Detroit attempted to invade Upper Canada but were repelled by British forces. Mackenzie stopped recruiting for the Patriots to avoid ridicule.
Years in the United States (1838–1849)
Support for Patriots and Mackenzie's Gazette
Mackenzie and his wife arrived in New York City and launched Mackenzie's Gazette on May 12, 1838, after soliciting subscriptions from friends. Its early editions supported the Patriots and focused on Canadian topics, but pivoted to American politics in August 1838. He suspended publication of his paper in the fall of 1838 and moved to Rochester to rebuild the Patriot forces by creating the Canadian Association. The association struggled to attract Canadian members and unsuccessfully fundraised for Mackenzie to publish an account of the Upper Canada Rebellion. The money was reallocated to Mackenzie's defence fund for his upcoming trial. He restarted Mackenzie's Gazette in Rochester on February 23, 1839.
Neutrality law trial
The trial for Mackenzie's violation of American neutrality laws began on June 19, 1839; he represented himself in the proceedings. The district attorney argued that Mackenzie recruited members, established an army, and stole weapons for an invasion. Mackenzie contended that Britain and the United States were at war because the British destroyed an American ship in the Caroline affair and the Neutrality Act did not apply. Mackenzie wanted to submit evidence that the Upper Canadian Rebellion was a civil war, as a person cannot be convicted of violating the Neutrality Act if the country is engaged in a civil war. The judge refused to allow this evidence because, according to American law, only the United States Congress can declare if a country is in a civil war, which they did not do. Mackenzie was frustrated and did not call further witnesses.
The judge sentenced Mackenzie to eighteen months in jail and a $10 () fine. Mackenzie did not appeal the ruling after consulting with lawyers. He said after the trial that he was depending upon key witnesses to give testimony, but they did not come to the courtroom. He also denounced the application of neutrality laws, wrongly stating the law had not been applied for nearly fifty years.
Imprisonment
Mackenzie was imprisoned on June 21, 1839. He chose to be jailed in Rochester to be closer to his family. He published The Caroline Almanack and drew an image of the Caroline affair for the cover. He also published issues of the Gazette, in which he described the trial and appealed for his release. Later issues reported on the upcoming New York state elections, the 1840 United States elections and the Durham Report.
While imprisoned, Mackenzie's mother became sick. He was denied permission to see her, so John Montgomery, the tavern keeper of Montgomery's Inn during the Upper Canada Rebellion, arranged for him to be a witness at a trial. Montgomery convinced the state attorney to hold the trial in Mackenzie's house, and the magistrate stalled the proceedings so Mackenzie could visit his mother. She died a few days later, and Mackenzie witnessed the funeral procession from his prison window. Mackenzie encouraged friends and readers of his newspaper to petition President Martin Van Buren for a pardon, which would release him from imprisonment. Over 300,000 people signed petitions that were circulated in New York State, Michigan, and Ohio. Van Buren did not want others to believe he supported Mackenzie's actions and increase hostilities with Britain, so he was reluctant to grant this pardon. Democrats submitted petitions to the United States Congress calling for Mackenzie's release. Van Buren believed it was politically easier to release Mackenzie from prison than explain his imprisonment to fellow Democrats, so on May 10, 1840, Van Buren granted Mackenzie a pardon.
After the pardon
After a summer hiatus, the Gazette denounced all invasions into Canada and supported Van Buren's re-election. The paper's subscriptions continued to decline and the last issue was published on December 23, 1840. In April, he launched The Rochester Volunteer and printed articles criticising Canadian Tory legislators. The Volunteer stopped production in September 1841 because the newspaper was not profitable or politically influential. Mackenzie moved back to New York City in June 1842.
Mackenzie worked for several publishers but refused to accept a job as an editor. He became an American citizen in April 1843. He wrote a biography of 500 Irish patriots entitled, The Sons of the Emerald Isle; the first volume was published on February 21, 1844. The goal of the series was to stop nativist attitudes towards immigrants to North America by reminding Americans that their ancestors were also immigrants. Mackenzie attended the founding meeting of the National Reform Association in February 1844. Its goal was to distribute public lands to people who would live on the property, limit the amount of land an individual could own, and outlaw the confiscation of free homesteads given to settlers. He spoke at many meetings and remained on the association's central committee until July 1844.
In July 1844, Mackenzie was nominated as an inspector at the New York custom house, but this was withdrawn after American Whig newspapers criticized him for being an immigrant. He was instead appointed as a clerk in the custom house's archives office. Mackenzie copied the private letters of Jesse Hoyt, a New York State politician, which described negotiations for financial transactions in exchange for government appointments by New York State government officials. After submitting his resignation from the custom house in June 1845, Mackenzie published some of the letters as Lives and Opinions of Benjamin Franklin Butler and Jesse Hoyt. It sold 50,000 copies and made $12,000 () in profit before an injunction stopped the book's sale. The pamphlet's profits were given to the publishers because Mackenzie did not want to benefit from exposing a scandal. In April 1846, Mackenzie published another book based on Hoyt's letters called Life and Times of Martin Van Buren: The Correspondence of His Friends, Family, and Pupils. This book criticized Van Buren and contained Mackenzie's commentary on American politics.
In October 1845, Mackenzie published the second volume of The Sons of the Emerald Isle. Horace Greeley hired him to go to Albany, New York, and report on the New York State Constitutional Convention for the New-York Tribune. He continued to work for the Tribune until his resignation in April 1848.
Return to Canada (1849–1858)
Amnesty and return to Canada
After the Upper Canada Rebellion, British colonial officials sent Lord Durham to investigate its causes. Durham sent an agent to interview Mackenzie for the report, who told the agent that his grievance against the Upper Canadian government was the composition of the Legislative Council and his desire "to lift the hand of tyranny from the soil." Durham's finding were presented to the British government as the Durham Report and recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be merged into the Province of Canada, which occurred in 1840. After the 1848 election, Reformers held a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada and the BaldwinLafontaine ministry was formed.
In 1849 there were revolutionary movements in Europe, including one for an independent Ireland. Lord Elgin, the Governor-General of the Province of Canada and the British monarch's representative to the colony, was concerned that Canadians would become disloyal to the British monarch. He hoped that granting amnesty for participants of the 1837 rebellions, on behalf of the monarchy, would increase Canada's loyalty to Britain. The passage of this general amnesty bill in the Canadian Legislature in 1849 allowed Mackenzie to return to Canada.
Mackenzie travelled to Montreal in February and his arrival caused his effigy to be burned in Kingston and riots in Belleville and Toronto. He returned to New York on April 4 and documented his visit in A Winter's Journey through the Canadas. Horace Greeley hired Mackenzie to assemble Whig almanacs and the Business Men's Almanack, which were published in 1850. Mackenzie moved to Toronto in May 1850 with his family, wrote weekly articles for the Tribune and contributed to the Examiner and The Niagara Mail. York County and the provincial government accepted his claim for income he did not receive in the 1830s as a public servant and Welland Canal Company commissioner.
Return to the Legislature
In February 1851 David Thompson, the representative for Haldimand County in the Parliament of Canada, died. Mackenzie ran as a candidate in the subsequent by-election, promising to be an independent voice in the legislature. He claimed that the government supported his opponent George Brown's campaign and Brown would be beholden to them if elected. Mackenzie won the by-election with 294 votes, defeating Brown and , who both claimed to be running as Reformers, and Ronald McKinnon, the Tory Party candidate. In the legislature, Mackenzie proposed abolishing the Court of Chancery, which Robert Baldwin had reorganized. Mackenzie believed the court was too expensive to maintain and denounced its practice of taking written testimony instead of having lawyers speak before the judges. The majority of Canada West (formerly known as Upper Canada) legislators supported Mackenzie's proposal. The lack of support from Baldwin's colleagues for his project caused him to resign from the Canadian cabinet. In the October 1851 election, Mackenzie campaigned against moderate Reformers like Baldwin, Francis Hincks and James Hervey Price in their constituencies while winning his own election in Haldimand County with 63% of the vote.
Mackenzie refused to participate in the 1852 negotiations to merge the Reform movement with the Clear Grits, a new political movement in Canada West. On October 5, 1852, Mackenzie wrote a letter to the Examiner that Lesslie wanted to edit before printing. Mackenzie rejected the edits and Lesslie did not publish any of Mackenzie's letters. Losing his only way to communicate with his constituents, Mackenzie began his own newspaper on December 25, 1852, called Mackenzie's Weekly Message, which he later renamed the Toronto Weekly Message. Mackenzie faced a difficult re-election campaign in 1854 for his Haldimand seat. Local newspapers complained he only came to the constituency during elections and his colleagues in the assembly had a negative opinion of Mackenzie. His positions against religious school boards caused some voters to withdraw their support. He won the election by 54 votes, a smaller majority than in the previous election.
In the 5th Parliament of the Province of Canada, Mackenzie opposed the MacNab–Morin coalition government and denounced Reform members who supported the administration. He believed it was unconstitutional when Lord Elgin did not give Reform legislators a chance to form a government before accepting a Tory coalition. He was chairman of the Committee of Public Accounts while its reports criticized the province's disorganized record-keeping and exposed government expenditures that parliament had not approved. Mackenzie proposed a resolution that condemned previous administrations for similar acts and parliament removed him from the committee in retaliation.
In 1855, Mackenzie's health deteriorated and in February he closed the Toronto Weekly Message. He wrote columns for Examiner until it merged with The Globe in August 1855. In December 1855, he revived the Message and published the Reader's Almanac in April 1856, outlining his arguments to split the union of Upper and Lower Canada. Mackenzie felt that tax revenue from Upper Canada was subsidizing infrastructure projects in Lower Canada and that the union maintained duplicate government officials, records and executives for Canada East (formerly known as Lower Canada) and Canada West.
In the 1857 election, Mackenzie was narrowly reelected to the constituency of Haldimand with 38% of the vote. He accepted Brown's invitation to caucus with opposition members against the Macdonald–Cartier administration. When the government was defeated, he supported the Brown–Dorion administration, although he criticized the differing viewpoints of ministers and was disappointed when he was not appointed to be a minister. Mackenzie resigned his seat on August 16, 1858, calling the legislature illegitimate after the Governor-General reinstated the Macdonald–Cartier administration without an election.
Later life and death (1858–1861)
At the end of 1858, Mackenzie collected petitions for the dissolution of the Province of Canada and planned to deliver them to the Colonial Office in England. The Homestead Fund, set up by James Lesslie to financially support Mackenzie, refused to fund the trip, so he travelled to New York to fundraise. He was unsuccessful so he cancelled his trip and returned to Toronto. He wrote Almanac for Independence and Freedom for 1860, which outlined arguments for dissolving the Province of Canada. In October he moved to a home in Toronto purchased by the Homestead Fund and ended publication of the Message on September 15, 1860, because of a lack of subscriptions.
In 1861 his health deteriorated and he refused to take medication. At the end of August, he went into a coma and died on August28. His funeral procession stretched a half-mile (0.8 km) and included Reformers and Family Compact members. He was buried at Toronto Necropolis. A twelve-foot Celtic cross made of grey granite serves as a grave marker. He is buried with his wife, four of his children, his son-in-law Charles Lindsey, and his descendants.
Writing style
Mackenzie wrote about current events and topics he was thinking about at a particular moment. His writing format often lacked structure and used obscure references difficult for today's readers to understand. Historian Lillian F. Gates struggled to comprehend The Life and Times of Martin Van Buren because Mackenzie did not describe events chronologically and in her opinion used too many footnotes and large lists. Frederick Armstrong, another historian, said Mackenzie used long examples and had "excursions into trivia". William Kilbourn critiqued Sketches of Canada and the United States as unconcerned with conventional storytelling techniques or "a sense of order", and Charles Lindsey described the book as disregarding the order of the stories.
Kilbourn stated the Colonial Advocates articles were better when read aloud and thought Mackenzie's slow pace was similar to "a three-volume Victorian novel". He described The Constitution as "baroque convolutions of style" adding "their harsh jumble of book learning are really not for the printed page". Anthony W. Rasporich differed in his analysis of Mackenzie's writing and believed it was exciting for both subscribers in the 1800s and contemporary readers in 1972. Mackenzie ignored possible consequences when publishing his work and chronicled other people's situations to explain complicated financial concepts. He sometimes plagiarized other newspapers, did not attribute direct quotations, and invented misattributed quotations. He also printed information after promising his sources that he would not.
Political philosophy and views
Political philosophy
Mackenzie promoted a wide range of policies but was never the lead advocate on any issue. He believed that a person's political ideas should be shaped by their experience and that politicians should be willing to change their political position on an issue. This belief caused Mackenzie to frequently change the issues for which he advocated and his position on government policy. He constantly disagreed with the province's administrators and refused to compromise, believing political institutions were corrupt. Mackenzie chose his political positions impulsively and replaced rational arguments with energetic actions.
Mackenzie's articles in his newspapers favoured radical reform causes. He followed a political theory that believed outlining problems publicly would lead to solutions. He professed in the Colonial Advocate he was a British Whig but became a Jacksonian democrat of the Locofocos faction after meeting Andrew Jackson in 1829. One of Mackenzie's biographers, John Charles Dent, said his policies aligned with Conservative Party policies of the 1880s. John King, Mackenzie's son-in-law, disagreed and stated all Canadian political parties adopted Mackenzie's policies and called him a Liberal. Armstrong described Mackenzie in the 1850s as politically left of the Clear Grits. John Sewell, a biographer of Mackenzie and mayor of Toronto in 1978, said previous biographers described Mackenzie as radical but that current scholars regard him as "an ideologue ranting against the Family Compact".
The social causes Mackenzie supported were conservative for their time. He adopted a puritanical outlook towards gambling and prostitution and wanted women to return to an agrarian lifestyle of taking care of the home. He opposed performers coming to York because of their amoral skits and double entendres. Rasporich described his editorials on Jews, Catholics, French Canadians and black people as prejudiced and in opposition to reform causes. According to Armstrong, Mackenzie's views on minority groups depended on their support for his policies; he was not concerned with the social standing of impoverished or oppressed people. The income gap between the richest and poorest people in Great Britain disturbed Mackenzie and he wanted to avoid this disparity in North America.
Mackenzie wanted the Canadian colonies to keep the Constitution of the United Kingdom but believed British institutions had to be modified for the Upper Canadian social structure and agrarian society. He opposed Upper Canada's lack of representation in the British legislature, especially when they passed legislation governing the province. He supported responsible government to solve the conflicts between the Legislative Assembly and Executive Council of Upper Canada. He wanted to include American ideas, like the election of town magistrates and governors, but avoided publicizing these opinions until 1832 because of public sentiment in Upper Canada was against American political institutions. When exiled to the United States, Mackenzie declared himself a believer in social democracy and the equality of everyone in society and the law.
Religious views
Elizabeth Mackenzie gave her son a Presbyterian seceder education. William rebelled against the religion in his youth, but he returned to it upon his arrival to Canada and remained faithful for the rest of his life. He was less reliant on faith after reading texts from the Age of Enlightenment and his religious practice was not an important part of his values. Mackenzie supported the Social Gospel, believed clergy should advocate for equality among citizens and opposed clergy who tried to maintain the status quo in the United States and Canada. In the 1830 election, he campaigned for equal rights for religious denominations. He was against attacking Catholics or Protestants for their religious beliefs and believed all Christian denominations persecuted other faiths at different points in their history. He criticized the Papacy in the Message in 1859.
Mackenzie initially praised clergy reserves and their role in creating a colonial upper class, although he believed all Christian denominations should benefit from them. Mackenzie changed his position between 1824 and 1830 and opposed government funding to churches. He criticized a government grant given to British Wesleyans to proselytize to indigenous communities in Upper Canada, causing Egerton Ryerson and Methodists to withdraw their support for the Reform movement in 1833. In his State of Upper Canada constitution, Mackenzie proposed religious equality and a separation of the government and religious institutions. His state would transfer ownership of clergy reserves to the legislature and distribute funds from their sale to municipalities. He wanted to abolish a religious test for employment and services and opposed creating an established church within Upper Canada.
Economic policies
Mackenzie's economic policies focused on an agrarian structure where agriculture was the foundation of an economy. His ideal economic society contained educated farmers and small business owners served by printing presses. His State of Upper Canada constitution proposed a ban on banks and trading companies, declaring the only way to generate wealth was through labour. He wanted labourers to profit from their work instead of giving payments to privileged politicians, religious leaders or economic institutions. He was against anything perceived as a monopoly and worked to dismantle banking institutions and end a printers union strike in 1836.
Mackenzie struggled to understand how stocks and banknotes denoted wealth. His State of Upper Canada constitution established gold and silver as the only legal tender and would only use coins as currency, whose value the legislature would regulate. He was critical of granting state aid or privileges to companies that would make them monopolies. He wanted tougher laws for lending money to corporations. In 1859, he proposed a requirement for three-fourths of members in parliament, and approval from the government leader, before the government could provide a loan. He opposed farmers buying land on credit because it caused them to buy more property than they could afford. Mackenzie wanted the government to give free plots of land to immigrants or allow people to work in government projects to save enough money for land purchases. He supported tariffs to stop lower-priced products from entering Canadian markets. In the 1830s, he advocated letting the province choose which countries it could trade with because it gave farmers access to cheaper goods and reduced Upper Canada's dependence on British markets.
Legacy
Historical reputation
Upon his death, newspapers printed obituaries emphasizing Mackenzie's independence, desire for honest public administration, and misguided patriotism. George Brown wrote he was "a man of impulse, prompt in action, full of courage and fire". John King called him "one of the greatest Liberal leaders in Canada". Historian Albert Schrauwers described Mackenzie as the "best-known reformer" of the early 1800s.
John Dent criticized Mackenzie's leadership of the Upper Canada Rebellion and his personal character. His research was refuted by Mackenzie's son James and John King, the latter publishing his opinion as The Other Side of the "Story". A manuscript written by William Dawson LeSueur for the Makers of Canada series was rejected by its publishers because it did not portray Mackenzie as an influencer in Canada's creation. Instead, the publishers asked Lindsey and his son to condense Lindsey's previous biography for its inclusion in the series.
Mackenzie emphasized the moral and political failings of the government but was unsure of how to create his ideal society. His term as mayor was overshadowed by a desire to reform government institutions instead of focusing on the problems of the city. His policy proposals were often rejected as politically impossible to implement. Many of Mackenzie's biographers agree that he delayed the implementation of responsible government because the Upper Canada Rebellion caused an exodus of Reform politicians from the colony.
Memorials
Mackenzie's last home was designated as a historical site in 1936 to prevent its demolition. The Mackenzie Homestead Foundation turned the building into the Mackenzie House museum and operated the facility until it was sold to the City of Toronto in 1960. The William Lyon Mackenzie Centennial Committee commissioned a statue of Mackenzie which was sculpted by Walter Seymour Allward and placed in Queen's Park west of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1940. Dennis Lee included Mackenzie in his poem 1838 and John Robert Colombo called Mackenzie a hero in The Mackenzie Poems. In 1976, Rick Salutin wrote a play about Mackenzie and the Upper Canada Rebellion called 1837: The Farmers' Revolt. In 1991 a group of volunteers opened the Mackenzie Printery museum in Mackenzie's Queenston home to document the newspaper industry in North America.
In the Spanish Civil War Canadian volunteers formed the Mackenzie–Papineau Battalion, naming it after Mackenzie and the leader of the Lower Canada Rebellion, Louis-Joseph Papineau. In 1960, Southview Collegiate in North York was renamed William Lyon Mackenzie Collegiate Institute after students suggested the name. The Toronto Fire Services named a fireboat the William Lyon Mackenzie in 1964. "The Rebel Mayor", a Twitter account which posted satirical comments on candidates in Toronto's 2010 mayoral election, was written in Mackenzie's persona. Shawn Micallef, a journalist for Eye Weekly and Spacing magazine, created the feed.
Works
The History of the Destruction of the Colonial Advocate Press by Officers of the Provincial Government of Upper Canada and Law Students of the Attorney & Solicitor General (1827)
Catechism of Education: Part First (1830)
Sketches of Canada and the United States (1833)
The seventh report from the Select Committee of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada on grievances (1835)
Mackenzie's Own Narrative of the Late Rebellion (1837)
The Caroline Almanack (1840)
The Sons of the Emerald Isle, or Lives of One Thousand Remarkable Irishmen (1845)
The Lives and Opinions of Benj'n Franklin Butler, United States District Attorney for the Southern District of New York; and Jesse Hoyt, Counsellor at Law, formerly Collector of Customs for the Port of New York (1845)
The Life and Times of Martin Van Buren: the Correspondence of his Friends, Family and Pupils (1846)
Almanac for Independence and Freedom for 1860 (1860)
See also
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
External links
Mackenzie – Lindsey family documents given to the Archives of Ontario.
1795 births
1861 deaths
American male journalists
Canadian male journalists
Canadian republicans
Canadian revolutionaries
Canadian theatre critics
Immigrants to Lower Canada
Journalists from Dundee
Journalists from Ontario
Mayors of Toronto
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada West
People from Dundee
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Politicians from Dundee
Recipients of American presidential pardons
Scottish emigrants to pre-Confederation Ontario
Scottish emigrants to the United States
Scottish journalists
Upper Canada Rebellion people
Burials at Toronto Necropolis
19th-century Canadian politicians | [
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246305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livorno | Livorno | Livorno () is a port city on the Ligurian Sea on the western coast of Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Livorno, having a population of 158,493 residents in December 2017. It is traditionally known in English as Leghorn (pronounced , or ).
During the Renaissance, Livorno was designed as an "ideal town". Developing considerably from the second half of the 16th century by the will of the House of Medici, Livorno was an important free port, giving rise to intense commercial activity, in the hands, for the most part, of foreign traders, and seat of consulates and shipping companies, becoming the main port-city of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The status of a multiethnic and multicultural Livorno lasted until the second half of the nineteenth century; however, the vestiges of that time can still be seen in the churches, villas and palaces of the city.
Livorno is considered the most modern among all the Tuscan cities, and is the third most populous of Tuscany, after Florence and Prato.
History
Origins
The origins of Livorno are controversial, although the place was inhabited since the Neolithic Age as shown by worked bones, pieces of copper and ceramic found on the Livorno Hills in a cave between Ardenza and Montenero. The Etruscan settlement was called Labro. The construction of the Via Aurelia coincided with the occupation of the region by the Romans, who left traces of their presence in the toponyms and ruins of towers. The natural cove called Liburna is a reference to the type of ship, the liburna, used by Roman navy. Other ancient toponyms include Salviano (Salvius) and Antignano (Ante ignem) which was the place situated before Ardenza (Ardentia) where beacons directed the ships to Porto Pisano.
Cicero mentioned Liburna in a letter to his brother and called it Labrone.
Medieval
Livorna is mentioned for the first time in 1017 as a small coastal village, the port and the remains of a Roman tower under the rule of Lucca. In 1077, a tower was built by Matilda of Tuscany. The Republic of Pisa owned Livorna from 1103 and built a quadrangular fort called Quadratura dei Pisani ("Quarter of the Pisans") to defend the port. Porto Pisano was destroyed after the crushing defeat of the Pisan fleet in the Battle of Meloria in 1284. In 1399, Pisa sold Livorna to the Visconti of Milan; in 1405 it was sold to the Republic of Genoa; and on 28 August 1421 it was bought by the Republic of Florence.
The name 'Leghorn' derives from Genoese name Ligorna.
Livorno was used certainly in the eighteenth century by Florentines.
Between 1427 and 1429, a census counted 118 families in Livorno, including 423 persons. Monks, Jews, military personnel, and the homeless were not included in the census. The only remainder of medieval Livorno is a fragment of two towers and a wall, located inside the Fortezza Vecchia.
Medicean period (1500-1650)
After the arrival of the Medici, the ruling dynasty of Florence, some modifications were made; between 1518 and 1534 the Fortezza Vecchia was constructed, and the voluntary resettlement of the population to Livorno was stimulated, but Livorno still remained a rather insignificant coastal fortress.
By 1551, the population had grown to 1562 residents.
During the Italian Renaissance, when it was ruled by the Grand Duchy of Tuscany of the House of Medici Livorno was designed as an "Ideal town". In 1577 the architect Bernardo Buontalenti drew up the first plan. The new fortified town had a pentagonal design, for which it is called Pentagono del Buontalenti, incorporating the original settlement. The Porto Mediceo was overlooked and defended by towers and fortresses leading to the town centre.
In the late 1580s, Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, declared Livorno a free port (porto franco), which meant that the goods traded here were duty-free within the area of the town's control. In 1593, the Duke's administration established the Leggi Livornine to regulate trade. These laws protected merchant activities from crime and racketeering, and instituted laws regarding international trade. The laws established a well-regulated market and were in force until 1603. Expanding Christian tolerance, the laws offered the right of public freedom of religion and amnesty to people having to gain penance given by clergy in order to conduct civil business. The Grand Duke attracted numerous Turks, Persians, Moors, Greeks, and Armenians, along with Jewish immigrants. The arrival of the latter began in the late sixteenth century with the Alhambra Decree, which resulted in the expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal - while Livorno extended to them rights and privileges; they contributed to the mercantile wealth and scholarship in the city.
Livorno became an enlightened European city and one of the most important ports of the entire Mediterranean Basin. Many European foreigners moved to Livorno. These included Christian Protestant reformers who supported such leaders as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others. French, Dutch, and English arrived, along with Orthodox Greeks. Meanwhile, Jews continued to trade under their previous treaties with the Grand Duke. On 19 March 1606, Ferdinando I de' Medici elevated Livorno to the rank of city; the ceremony was held in the Fortezza Vecchia Chapel of Francis of Assisi.
The Counter-Reformation increased tensions among Christians; dissidents to the Papacy were targeted by various Catholic absolute rulers. Livorno's tolerance fell victim to the European wars of religion. But, in the preceding period, the merchants of Livorno had developed a series of trading networks with Protestant Europe, and the Dutch, British, and Germans worked to retain these. In 1653 a naval battle, the Battle of Leghorn was fought near Livorno during the First Anglo-Dutch War.
17th century and later
At the end of the 17th century, Livorno underwent a period of great urban planning and expansion. Near the defensive pile of the Old Fortress, a new fortress was built, together with the town walls and the system of navigable canals through neighbourhoods. After the port of Pisa had silted up in the 13th century, its distance from the sea increased and it lost its dominance in trade, so Livorno took over as the main port in Tuscany.
By 1745 Livorno's population had risen to 32,534 persons.
The more successful of the European powers re-established trading houses in the region, especially the British with the Levant Company. In turn, the trading networks grew, and with it, Britain's cultural contact with Tuscany. An increasing number of British writers, artists, philosophers, and travellers visited the area and developed the unique historical ties between the two communities. The British referred to the city as "Leghorn". Through the centuries, the city's trade fortunes fell and rose according to the success or failure of the Great Powers. The British and their Protestant allies were important to its trade.
During the Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars of the late eighteenth century, Napoleon's troops occupied Livorno with the rest of Tuscany. Under the Continental System, the French prohibited trade with Britain, and the economy of Livorno suffered greatly. The French had altogether taken over Tuscany in 1808, incorporating it into the Napoleonic empire. After the Congress of Vienna, Austrian rule replaced the French.
In 1861, Italy succeeded in its wars of unification. At that time it counted 96,471 inhabitants. Livorno and Tuscany became part of the new Kingdom of Italy and as part of the Kingdom the town lost its status as a free port and the city's commercial importance declined.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Livorno had numerous public parks housing important museums such as the Museo Civico Giovanni Fattori, Museo di storia naturale del Mediterraneo, and cultural institutions as the Biblioteca Labronica F.D. Guerrazzi and others in Neoclassical style as Cisternone, Teatro Goldoni and Liberty style as Palazzo Corallo, Mercato delle Vettovaglie, Stabilimento termale Acque della Salute, the Scuole elementari Benci all the last on project by Angiolo Badaloni.
During the 1930s, numerous villas were built on the avenue along the sea in Liberty style on design by Cioni.
In the early 19th century, the first American-born saint, Elizabeth Ann Seton, converted from Protestantism to Catholicism while visiting Italian friends in Livorno.
The city suffered extensive damage during World War II. Many historic sites and buildings were destroyed by bombs of the Allies preceding their invasion, including the cathedral and Synagogue of Livorno.
Livorno's citizens in recent decades have become well known for their left-wing politics. The Italian Communist Party was founded in Livorno in 1921.
Climate
Livorno has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa). Summers have warm days with the heat lingering on throughout the night, hence going above the subtropical threshold in spite of its relatively high latitude. Winters are mild for the latitude due to the influence from the Mediterranean Sea. Precipitation is in a wet winter/dry summer pattern as with all climates fitting the Mediterranean definition.
Government
Main sights
Civil architecture
Venezia Nuova
Ferdinando II de' Medici considered, in 1629, the opportunity to enlarge the town, on project by Giovanni Battista Santi, toward north in an area included among Fortezza Vecchia and Fortezza Nuova, in order to give an adequate space to the maritime and commercial activities. There was the need to build a mercantile district, close to Porto Mediceo, provided with houses and depots to store the merchandise and a system of canals to facilitate their transport. The new rione (district), called , was built in an area gained to the sea, intersected by canals and linked to the town with bridges, for this reason, Venetians skilled workers were recruited.
The Chiesa di Sant'Anna, dedicated to Saint Anne, was built in 1631 on the ground of the Arch confraternity of the Company of the Nativity; in the same year Giovanni Battista Santi died and the control of the project passed to Giovanni Francesco Cantagallina though the works slowed down due to the lack of funds.
A new impulse to the works was given in 1656 concerning the distribution of the spaces where to build other houses and stores; consequently arose the problem of the diverse oriented road scheme with respect to the axis of Piazza d’Arme, it was resolved by adopting a road plan perpendicular to the Navicelli channel. The paving of the roads and along the canals in Venezia Nuova was provided in 1668,
while the Pescheria Nuova (New fish market) was built in 1705 close to the Scali del Pesce where the fish was unloaded.
In the 1700s Venezia Nuova was the district of the Consuls of the Nations and of the most important international retailers who had the warehouses filled with goods from everywhere waiting to be shipped by sea to the most different destinations. The palaces along the canals had the turrets from which to see the ships approaching the port, moreover, they had the stores at the canal level to facilitate the unloading of the goods from the boats.
The Venezia Nuova district retains much of its original town planning and architectural features such as the bridges, narrow lanes, the houses of the nobility, churches as Santa Caterina da Siena and San Ferdinando, and a dense network of canals that once served to link its warehouses to the port.
Monumento dei quattro mori
The Monument of the Four Moors is dedicated to Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and is one of the most popular monuments of Livorno. Ferdinando I commissioned it to Giovanni Bandini in 1595 to carry out a monument in white Carrara marble to represent him in the uniform of the Grand master of the Order of Saint Stephen which in that period prevailed in several naval battles against the Barbary pirates. The monument was completed in 1599, shortly before the death of Bandini which occurred on 18 April,
and arrived to Livorno by sea from Carrara in 1601.
Ferdinando I projected to add four statues of moors prisoners at the pedestal of his monument and gave the task to Pietro Tacca in 1602 but the monument remained in a corner of the square till 29 May 1617 when it was inaugurated by Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. In the meantime Tacca received the approval to add the four moors to the pedestal; the first two statues were fused in Florence in 1622 and carried on the barges along the Arno to Livorno; according to the tradition the young moor was named Morgiano and the older Alì Salentino; the other two sculptures were installed in 1626. During the French occupation of Livorno, from 1796 to 1799, the monument was removed from Sextius Mollis commander of the French garrison because it represented an insult to the tyranny, as soon as the French left the town the monument was put back in its former place.
During World War II the monument was transferred to a protected place in order to avoid being damaged by allied attacks, the statue of Ferdinando I was hidden in the Pisa Charterhouse and the four moors in the Medici Villa at Poggio a Caiano.
The monument has been restored recently in 1990 and 2013.
Acquedotto Leopoldino
The Acquedotto Leopoldino and the neoclassical cisterns of Livorno were part of a sophisticated scheme to provide water to Livorno.
La Gran Conserva
La Gran Conserva, or Il Cisternone, situated on what were the outskirts of 19th-century Livorno, is the largest and best known of the city's covered cisterns.
Cisternino di città
Cisternino di città is an austere neoclassical design which was approved in 1837 and completed in 1848.
Piazza della Repubblica
At the beginning of the 19th century arose the need to connect the Medicean road system of the Pentagono del Buontalenti to the new eastern districts of the town, on the other side of the Fosso Reale, and the requirement to dismantle the city gate Porta a Pisa. The solution adopted in 1844 was that of Luigi Bettarini which considered the coverage of the Fosso Reale with an imposing vault, 240 meters long and 90 meters wide, creating an elliptical paving. The portion of the canal covered by the new structure continued to be navigable.
The new square was commonly called Piazza del Voltone until 1850, then Piazza dei Granduchi in honour of the Lorraine dynasty until 1859, in the period of the Italian unification was named to Carlo Alberto until June 1946 when was given the current name Piazza della Repubblica. The square, adorned with 52 marble benches, 92 pillars and two statues dedicated to Ferdinand III by Francesco Pozzi were inaugurated on 8 September 1847 and that dedicated to Leopold II by Paolo Emilio Demi was installed on 6 June 1848. The statue of Leopoldo II was damaged by the crowd on 6 May 1849 and removed from the square because the Emperor was seen as the symbol of the Austrian domination; the statue was placed in Piazza XX Settembre in 1957.
Terrazza Mascagni
The Terrazza Mascagni is a wide sinuous belvedere toward the sea with views to the Livorno hills, the Tuscan Archipelago to Corsica, and the Port of Livorno. It is located on the site of the Forte dei Cavalleggieri (Cavalrymen Fort) built in the 17th century by Cosimo I de' Medici to deter pirate raids, subsequently replaced by a leisure park in the 1800s, and a heliotherapy centre in the early 1900s. A new parterre, built between 1925 and 1928 by Enrico Salvais and Luigi Pastore, was formed by a series of flower beds and a walkway which follow the outline of the sea with numerous balustrades named after Costanzo Ciano. The Terrazza has a paved surface of 8,700 square meters formed by 34,800 black and white tiles placed as a checkerboard and 4,100 balusters. In 1932, a gazebo for musical performances was built in the large square; it was destroyed during World War II. In 1937 the Livorno Aquarium was constructed. After the war, the Terrazza was dedicated to Pietro Mascagni and in 1994 it underwent a complete restoration using the same kind of materials originally employed; the works were completed on 10 July 1998 with the reconstruction of the gazebo.
Palazzo Comunale
Livorno was elevated to the status of city on 19 March 1606 by Ferdinando I de' Medici, the first Gonfaloniere Bernardetto Borromei and the Community representatives held their meetings in the Church of Saint Mary and Saint Julia. On 13 June 1646 a building, placed in Via del Porticciolo, was purchased for the sum of seven thousand ducats, in order to accommodate the Community. It was evident that it was inadequate to the task and the Council deliberated, on 27 January 1720, the construction of the new town hall on the project by Giovanni del Fantasia .
The new neo-renaissance palace, positioned between Palazzo della Dogana and Palazzo Granducale on the north side of Piazza d’Arme, was partially destroyed by the 1742 earthquake. Restored in 1745 by Bernardino Ciurini and Antonio Fabbri a double white marble stairway and a small bell tower on the top of the façade were added. In 1867 the complex was enlarged with the acquisition of three other buildings in the back. With the settlement of the Podestà in the fascist period was carried out a new enlargement in 1929 by Enrico Salvais and Luigi Pastore transforming the adjacent former fire station in the council hall. Damaged by the bombing during World War II it was rebuilt and renovated under the direction of Primavera and was inaugurated in 1949 by the mayor Furio Diaz.
Religious architecture
Cathedral of Saint Francis of Assisi
The cathedral of the town, commonly called , is dedicated to Francis of Assisi, Mary, mother of Jesus, and Julia of Corsica, and was built in a central position of the Pentagono del Buontalenti on the south side of Piazza Grande once named Piazza d’Arme. The original plan was drawn up by Bernardo Buontalenti when he projected the new town. The construction began in June 1581 on a reviewed plan by Alessandro Pieroni under the direction of Antonio Cantagallina. The church had a rectangular plant with a single nave, the original wooden ceiling, executed from 1610 to 1614, was carved by Vincenzo Ricordati and gilded with seven inserted paintings. Jacopo Ligozzi, Domenico Cresti and Jacopo Chimenti decorated, from 1610 to 1614, three large paintings representing "Saint Francis with Child and the Virgin", the "Assumption of Mary" and the "Apotheosis of Saint Julia", the other four paintings were works by minor artists. The simply façade had a marble porch with twin Doric columns surmounted by a terrace added in 1605 on a project by Alessandro Pieroni.
The church was consecrated on 19 February 1606 by Monsignor Nunzio Antonio Grimani; on request by Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1629, was elevated to collegiate church and the Curato was substituted from a Proposto having the functions of the Vicar of the archbishop of Pisa.
The plant of the church was modified in Christian cross when in 1716 was added the first of two lateral chapels. The left side chapel, dedicated to the Eucharist, was built on a project by Giovanni del Fantasia with frescoes by Giovanni Maria Terreni and the altar attributed to Giovanni Baratta, The right side chapel, dedicated to Immaculate Conception, was built in 1727 and was decorated with paintings by Luigi Ademollo. The Collegiata in 1806 was elevated to cathedral and in 1817 was added the bell tower 50 meters high on project by Gaspero Pampaloni.
The cathedral was completely destroyed in 1943 from the Allied bombardment during World War II; it was then rebuilt respecting the original structure except for the two marble porches added to the transepts and was consecrated on 21 December 1952 by Bishop Giovanni Piccioni.
Since 2006, on the occasion of the bicentennial of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Livorno, the "Christ Crowned with Thorns", by Fra Angelico, was displayed in the Chapel of the Eucharist.
Church of the Madonna
The Church of the Madonna is placed on the homonymous street which connects directly the city centre with the district Venezia Nuova through the John of Nepomuk bridge. According to the tradition the church was built to host the statute of Our Lady of Mount Carmel subtracted from a Turkish ship. The church was important as it was a place of worship for foreigners communities. Ferdinando I de' Medici gave the church to the Franciscan which had the nearby Oratory of Saints Cosmas and Damian. The construction began on 25 March 1607 on a project by Alessandro Pieroni and was completed in 1611; the church at first was dedicated to Saint Mary, Saint Francis and Saints Cosmas and Damian but in 1638 was dedicated to the Immaculate Conception following enlargement of the building.
The church has a rectangular plant with a single nave and groin vault, on each side, there are the three altars of the foreign Nations. The altar of the French Nation was built in 1613 and the painting, by Matteo Rosselli, represents Saint Louis. The altar of the Corsica Nation, which at the time was under the Republic of Genoa, has a painting representing John the Evangelist. The altar of the Portuguese Nation built in the 17th century had a wooden statue of Saint Mary until 1728 when this was positioned near the main altar and replaced by one of Anthony of Padua. The altar of the Dutch-German Nation is dedicated to Andrew the Apostle. Outside the body of the building, separated by a railing, is a Chapel dedicate to the Madonna di Montenero built in 1631. The simple façade was covered in white marble in 1972
Church of the Most Holy Annunciation
The Church of the Most Holy Annunciation is located in the central street of Via della Madonna, not far from the Armenian community Church of Gregory the Illuminator and the Church of the Madonna. The church is called Unite Greeks too because was the worship place for the Greek community of Byzantine Rite who once lived in Livorno. At the end of the 16th century, numerous Greeks came to Tuscany to take service aboard the galleys of the Order of Saint Stephen. The church was built in 1601 on a project by Alessandro Pieroni, was completed in 1605 and consecrated on 25 March 1606.
The baroque façade was built in 1708 presumably on a project by Giovanni Baratta with a triangular pediment and Doric order and was decorated by the statues of Meekness and Innocence by Andrea Vaccà. The interior has a single nave and the ceiling is adorned by a coffer structure with a central painting representing the Annunciation by Giovanni Domenico Ferretti (1750).
The precious wooden Iconostasis in Byzantine style date back to 1641 and has three doors painted by Agostino Wanonbrachen in 1751; on the central door is represented the Most Holy Annunciation and Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom and Athanasius of Alexandria; in the right door is painted the Nativity of Jesus and the four Apostles, in the left door is represented the Adoration of the Shepherds.
The church was entirely destroyed by the bombings during World War II and the restoration was completed in 1985.
Church of Saint Caterina
The Church of Saint Caterina is a baroque church in the centre of Livorno, in Venezia Nuova district.
Church of Saint Ferdinand
San Ferdinando is a Baroque style, Roman Catholic church located in Venezia Nuova district next to the Piazza del Luogo Pio.
Church of Saint John the Baptist
San Giovanni Battista is a Baroque-Mannerist style, Roman Catholic church located at the crossing of Via San Giovanni and Via Carraia in central Livorno.
Church of Our Lady of the Rescue
Santa Maria del Soccorso is a Neoclassical-style Marian votive church in central Livorno. The tall brick church façade is located scenically at the end of Via Magenta, and has a park surrounding it. In front is a Monument to Fallen Soldiers (caduti) in the first World War.
Old English Cemetery
The Old English Cemetery is the oldest foreign Protestant burial ground in Italy. It was founded around 1645 and contains over 300 Carrara marble graves of notable people from 10 different nationalities. Tobias Smollett and Francis Horner were buried here, but also some of the friends of Byron and Shelley and the husband of Saint Elizabeth Seton. The cemetery was closed in 1839 and a new one, still active, was opened.
Sanctuary of Montenero
Up in the hills, the Sanctuary of Montenero, dedicated to Our Lady of Graces, the patron saint of Tuscany, is a destination for pilgrims. It is famous for the adjacent gallery, decorated with ex-voto, chiefly related to events of miraculous rescues of people at sea.
Temple of the Dutch German Congregation
The Temple of the Dutch German Congregation, known more simply as the Dutch-German Church, is situated in Livorno, on the stretch of the Fosso Reale canal that runs between Piazza della Repubblica and Piazza Cavour.
The Synagogue
The Synagogue of Livorno is the main Jewish place of worship in Livorno located in Piazza Elijah Benamozegh.
Military architecture
Fortezza Vecchia
The origin of Fortezza Vecchia takes place not far from what once was Porto Pisano (Pisan Port) where a square tower was built in 1077, on request of Matilda of Tuscany, on the remains of a Roman tower; in 1241 the Pisans built a massive cylindrical tower, 30 meters high erroneously called Mastio di Matilde (Matilda keep).
Pisa realized the strategic importance of the castle of Livorno which owned since 1103 and in 1377 the Doge Gambacorti of the Republic of Pisa built a quadrangular Fort called Quadratura dei Pisani (Quartered of the Pisans) on plans attributed to Puccio di Landuccio and Francesco di Giovanni Giordani. In 1392 this fort was connected to a wall in order to defend better the town and the Darsena. Livorno, in 1405, was sold to Genoa which reinforced the defences, building three forts under the Quartered, afterwards Livorno was bought from Florence on 28 August 1421 at the price of 100.000 Tuscan florin.
The project to build Fortezza Vecchia was commissioned to Antonio da Sangallo the Elder in 1506, the fortress had to incorporate the existing Pisan and Genovese constructions.
The works started in 1518 on the order of Cardinal Giulio De' Medici under the supervision of Nicolao da Pietrasanta. The construction was suspended since the popular revolt forced the Medici in exile and was resumed in 1530 on their return. Fortezza Vecchia is a massive fortification completed on 1 April 1534 under Alessandro de' Medici; it was built in red-brick with sloping walls and the interposition of clear stones, it has a quadrangular plant with a perimeter of 1500 meters and was equipped with 24 cannons to protect each side. One of the corners directs inside to join the Quartered of the Pisans and Matilda and Genoa keep; the three others are protected by triangular bastions with rounded tips. The bastion towards the north is called Capitana because there moored the main Galley, to the east is Ampolletta since housed the sand-glass used to control the guard duty, to the west is the Canaviglia derived from Cavaniglia the name of the commander of the galleys of the Grand Ducky of Tuscany. The land on the side toward the town was excavated in order to have the fortress surrounded by the sea for better defence.
Cosimo I de' Medici built in 1544 an imposing palace, overlooking the Vecchia Darsena, above the Quartered of the Pisans which went destroyed during World War II.
The successor Francesco I de' Medici built a small palace toward the sea, later became Porto Mediceo, on the top of Canaviglia bastion situated at the entrance of Vecchia Darsena. On the opposite side was built a church dedicated to Saint Francis where on 19 March 1606 Ferdinando I de' Medici elevated Livorno to the status of city.
Fortezza Vecchia changed its function to the coming of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine in 1737, by a defensive structure to a military college for officers of the Army of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1769) and afterwards in garrison (1795).
Fortezza Nuova
The origin of Fortezza Nuova (New fortress) take place at the end of the 1500s, by the adjustment of Baluardo San Francesco (Saint Francis rampart) and Baluardo Santa Barbara (Saint Barbara rampant) of the project commissioned by Cosimo I to Bernardo Buontalenti with the intention to develop a new urban plan of the town that led to a pentagonal shape surrounded by canals.
The original project was then modified by Don Giovanni de' Medici, Claudio Cogorano and Alessandro Pieroni to allow the construction of Fortezza Nuova in order to strengthen the military apparatus of the town. The works started on 10 January 1590 and ended in 1604, the result is a considerable fortification, in stones and red bricks, with a polygonal plant surrounded by water; the new modification brought to the construction of Forte San Pietro (Saint Peter fort) to defend the Venezia Nuova quarter.
In 1629 part of the fortress was demolished to permit the building of Venezia Nuova and San Marco quarters wanted by Ferdinando II.
Fortezza Nuova has been used for military purpose until the end of World War II, inside were built barracks and warehouses and a chapel dedicated to Immaculate Conception.
The fortress was heavily damaged during World War II with the destruction of most parts of the buildings, the restoration was completed in 1972 and the superior part is used at present as a public park and centre for events and displays.
Pentagono del Buontalenti
Francesco I de' Medici gave to Bernardo Buontalenti in 1575 the task to project the ideal town in order to transform Livorno from a fishing village in a fortified town to accommodate 12,000 inhabitants, to include the original settlement and the Fortezza Vecchia, capable to become the trade centre of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The development of the project led to a pentagonal plant as in use in the Renaissance period, each side 600 meters long, with defensive walls, rampant and five bastions at the vertices, surrounded by canals; the fifth bastion coincided with Fortezza Vecchia. The plan gave no information regarding the function of the new urban area, indicating only a series of building blocks within a road system absolutely orthogonal, cardo and Decumanus Maximus.
The road axis from north to south (cardo) underline the direction that united the centre of the town with a significant place as the Sanctuary of Montenero; the axis from west to east (decumanus) linked the Baluardo Santa Giulia to Baluardo Sant’Andrea.
In August 1576 was created the Office of the Fabbrica di Livorno with the task of supervising the construction and Alessandro Puccini was the chief superintendent.
Francesco I de' Medici laid the first stone for the construction of the Baluardo di San Francesco (Saint Francis rampant) of the new town on 28 March 1577; the works went on with several changes compared with the original plan including the construction of the Fortezza Nuova.
Livorno became a town, encircled by the navigable Fosso Reale (Royal canal), with numerous palaces, warehouse, garrisons and custom-houses. The central street at that time was Via Ferdinanda extended for 750 meters, later called Via Grande, from Porta Colonnella (Colonella city gate), in the proximity of Vecchia Darsena, to Porta Pisana (Pisan city gate). The Baluardo Sant’Andrea was initiated in 1578 while the Baluardo Santa Giulia started in 1582.
In 1594 it was decided to create a huge square, at halfway of Via Ferdinanda, where to build the church of the new town. The church, which was built in a central position on the south side of Piazza d’Arme, later Piazza Grande, was completed in 1602 under the direction of Antonio Cantagaliina and Alessandro Pieroni. Piazza d’Arme was completed and enlarged with the old Porticciolo dei Genovesi (Port of Genovesi) filled up with earth to make room to the building called Tre Palazzi (Three palaces); the square was adorned with a series of marble arcades attributed to Alessandro Pieroni.
The Palazzo del Picchetto was built, on plan by Giovanni Battista Foggini and Giovanni del Fantasia in 1707, at the end of Via Ferdinanda in the proximity of Porta Pisana.
Accademia Navale
The Italian Naval Academy is a mixed-sex military university in Livorno, which is responsible for the technical training of military officers of the Italian Navy.
Society
Foreigner minorities
Armenian community
Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany issued in 1591 a decree encouraging Armenians to settle in Livorno to increase its trade with the Ottoman Empire and western Asia. By the beginning of the 17th century, Armenians operated 120 shops in town. In 1701 the Armenian community, who were members of the Armenian Apostolic Church, were authorized to build their own church, which they dedicated to Gregory the Illuminator. The project was by Giovanni Battista Foggini and the church was completed a few years later but did not open for worship until 1714. The church had a Latin cross plant and a dome at the intersection of the transept and nave. Destroyed during World War II, it was partly restored in 2008 but is not open to worship.
Greek community
The first Greeks who settled in Livorno early in the 16th century were former mercenaries in the fleet of Cosimo de' Medici and their descendants. This community grew and became significant in the 18th and 19th centuries when Livorno became one of the principal hubs of the Mediterranean trade. Most of the new Greek immigrants came from western Greece, Chios, Epirus and Cappadocian Greek.
Based on its status since the late 16th century as a free port (port franc) and the warehouses constructed for long-term storage of goods and grains from the Levant, until the late 19th century Livorno enjoyed a strong strategic position related to Greek mercantile interests in the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the North Atlantic. The conflicts between Great Britain and France during the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, with associated port embargoes, piracy, and confiscation of cargoes, played out to the advantage of those Greek merchants willing to accept risk. By the 1820s, Greek entrepreneurs gradually replaced the Protestant British, Dutch, French and other merchants who left the city.
The Greeks concentrated on the grain market, banking and ship-brokering. Cargoes of wheat from the Black Sea were received at Livorno, before being re-shipped to England. Returning ships carried textiles and other industrial goods, which Greek merchants shipped to Alexandria and other destinations in the Ottoman Empire. Men from the Greek island of Chios controlled much of the trade. In 1839 Livorno had ten major commercial houses, led primarily by ethnic Greeks and Jewish Italians.
The ethnic Greek community (nazione) had a distinctive cultural and social identity based on their common Greek Orthodox religion, language and history. In 1775 they established the Confraternity of Holy Trinity (Confraternita della SS. Trinità) and the Chiesa della Santissima Trinità, the second non-Roman Catholic church in Tuscany. The Armenians had earlier built their own Orthodox church. The community founded a Greek school, awarding scholarships for higher studies to young Greeks from the Peloponnese, Epirus, Chios or Smyrna. The community raised funds to support the Greek Revolution of 1821, as well as various Greek communities in the Ottoman Empire and in Italy.
It also assisted non-Greeks. The Rodocanachi family financed the "School of Mutual Education" established in Livorno by the pedagogist Enrico Mayer. The community contributed to founding a school for poor Roman Catholic children. The local governing authorities recognized the contributions of distinguished members of the Greek community (e.g. members of the Papoudoff, Maurogordatos, Rodocanachi, Tossizza and other families) and granted them titles of nobility. After unification and the founding of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, the Greek community in Livorno declined, as the privileges of the free port were rescinded.
Jewish community
See the history of the Jews in Livorno.
Dialects
Vernacolo
Livorno inhabitants speak a variant of the Italian Tuscan dialect, known as a vernacolo. Il Vernacoliere, a satirical comic-style magazine printed chiefly in the Livornese dialect, was founded in 1982 and is now nationally distributed.
Bagitto
The bagitto was a Judæo-Italian regional dialect once used by the Jewish community in Livorno. It was a language based on Italian, developed with words coming from Tuscan, Spanish, Portuguese, Hebrew and Yiddish; the presence of Portuguese and Spanish words is due to the origin of the first Jews who came to Livorno, having been expelled from the Iberian peninsula in the late 15th century.
Museums
Acquario comunale "Diacinto Cestoni"
Livorno Aquarium, dedicated to Diacinto Cestoni, is the main in Tuscany. It is situated by Terrazza Mascagni on the seafront promenade. It was built on a project by Enrico Salvais and Luigi Pastore as a heliotherapy centre and was opened to the public on 20 June 1937. Destroyed during World War II was rebuilt in 1950; in 1999 underwent extensive reconstruction, on a plan by Studio Gregotti and works carried out by Opera Laboratori Fiorentini, was opened definitely on 31 July 2010.
On the ground floor, the exhibition includes: Diacinto Cestoni Room which consists of 12 exhibition tanks, Mediterranean Area, Indus-Pacific tank, Caribbean Sea, Ligurian coast, Tropical waters, Greek-Roman archaeological coastal area. Livorno Aquarium has 33 exhibition tanks containing 2000 animals of 300 different species.
Museo Civico "Giovanni Fattori"
Dedicated to painter Giovanni Fattori, the museum was inaugurated in 1994 and is placed inside Villa Mimbelli, an 18th-century construction surrounded by a vast park. The origin of the museum dates back to 1877 when the Comune of Livorno founded a Civic Gallery where to collect all the artistic objects kept in several places around the town; in the same period was written the guideline of the gallery which hosted a collection of paintings of authors by Livorno. The ground and first floors of the museum are adorned with decorations, furnishings and draperies of the 18th century style with frescoes by Annibale Gatti.
In these two floors are shown works by Enrico Pollastrini, Guglielmo Micheli, Ulvi Liegi, Oscar Ghiglia, Giovanni Bartolena, Leonetto Campiello and Mario Puccini. The main exhibition of the museum is at the second floor, where are displayed the paintings by Giovanni Fattori and other macchiaioli as Silvestro Lega, Telemaco Signorini, Vincenzo Cabianca, Giovanni Boldini, Adolfo Tommasi, Angiolo Tommasi and Ludovico Tommasi. In the other halls are the post-macchiaioli as Eugenio Cecconi, Vittorio Matteo Corcos and divisionism as Benvenuto Benvenuti and Plinio Nomellini. Giovanni Fattori was the main representative artist of the macchiaioli, some of his paintings exhibited are: Carica di Cavalleria a Montebello (1862), La Signora Martelli a Castiglioncello (1867), Assalto alla Madonna della Scoperta (1868), Giornata grigia (1893), Mandrie maremmane (1893), Lungomare ad Antignano (1894), Ritratto della terza moglie (1905).
Museo Ebraico "Yeshivà Marini"
The Yeshivà Marini Museum is housed in a neoclassical building already place of worship as Marini Oratory since 1867; once was home of the Confraternity Malbish Arumin which was provided to help the city's poor. In the post-war period was utilized as a synagogue in the waiting for the construction of the new one. The museum has a collection of liturgical objects coming from the old Synagogue destroyed in World War II. The commerce practised by the Jews community increased the property of the synagogue allowing a varied religious heritage of Dutch, Florentine, Venetian, Roman and Northern African origin. The display regard the Torah ark, the sefer Torah, paintings, religious objects as the Oriental-style wooden hekhal; the oldest and most important pieces went lost.
Museo di storia naturale del Mediterraneo
The origins of the museum date back to 1929 and part of the objects went destroyed by World War II. After the war, the museum was reopened inside the Livorno Aquarium and only in 1980 was transferred to Villa Henderson. The museum is divided in several halls regarding the Man, the Man in the Mediterranean context, the Invertebrates, the Sea, the Flight in Nature. Inside the museum is a Planetarium and an Auditorium.
Museo Mascagnano
The Museo Mascagnano houses memorabilia, documents and operas by the great composer Pietro Mascagni, who lived here. Every year some of his operas are traditionally played during the lyric music season, which is organized by the Goldoni Theatre. Also the Terrazza Mascagni is situated on the boulevard on the seafront, is named in his honour.
Orto Botanico del Mediterraneo
The Orto Botanico del Mediterraneo is a botanical garden located on the grounds of the Museo di storia naturale del Mediterraneo.
Economy
Port of Livorno
The city and its port have continued as an important destination for travelers and tourists attracted to its historic buildings and setting. The port processes thousands of cruise-ship passengers of the following cruise line:
AIDA Cruises
Azamara Club Cruises
Carnival Cruise Lines
Celebrity Cruises
Costa Crociere
Cunard Line
Holland America Line
MSC Cruises
Norwegian Cruise Line
P&O Cruises
Princess Cruises
Pullmantur Cruises
Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd.
Silversea Cruises
Thomson Cruises
Viking Ocean Cruises
many of whom take arranged buses to inland destinations as Florence, Pisa and Siena.
Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando
Since 1866 Livorno has been noted for its Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando.
Azimut-Benetti acquired the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando, then of Fincantieri, in 2003.
Eni petrochemical
The Eni plant produces gasoline, diesel fuel, fuel oil and lubricants. Livorno refinery was established in 1936 by Azienda Nazionale Idrogenazione Combustibili (ANIC) but the plant was completely destroyed during World War II. The plant was rebuilt thanks to an agreement between the ANIC and the Standard Oil forming the STANIC. The production of the new plant raised from 700,000 to 2 million tons in 1955; nowadays the capacity of refining is 84,000 barrels per day. The refinery, now property of Eni, is linked to the Darsena petroli (Oil dock) and to Firenze depots by two pipelines.
Leonardo Sistemi di Difesa
The former Whitehead Alenia Sistemi Subacquei (WASS) plant, based in Livorno produced heavy and light torpedoes, anti-torpedo countermeasure systems for submarines and ships and sonar systems for underwater surveillance. The factory was founded by Robert Whitehead in 1875 in Fiume, in that period Austria-Hungary, and produced for the first time torpedoes sold all around the world. In 1905 the factory changed its name to Torpedo Fabrik Whitehead & Co. Gesellschaft and before his death, Whitehead sold his shares package to Vickers Armstrong Whitworth. At the end of World War I the factory was in economic crisis and was purchased by Giuseppe Orlando, one of the owners of the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando of Livorno, as Whitehead Torpedo, in 1924 when was signed the Treaty of Rome and Fiume passed to Italy. Whitehead Torpedo established in Livorno the Società Moto Fides that initially produced motorcycles but changed the production to that of torpedoes. With the end of World War II the Fiume factory closed and merged with Moto Fides forming the Whitehead Moto Fides Stabilimenti Meccanici Riuniti on 31 July 1945 manufacturing 1000 A244 light torpedo sold to 15 Navies.
The Whiteheads Moto Fides continued the production of torpedoes in a new plant which opened in 1977 and still operating, then entered in the Fiat Group in 1979 and in 1995 passed definitely to Finmeccanica. It is now owned by Leonardo S.p.A., as the latter has been renamed since 2018.
Tuaca
Tuaca liqueur was produced in Livorno until 2010; the famous distillery was closed and operations were brought to the United States by the new owners. Galliano is still made here and enjoyed by locals and tourists alike.
Culture
Schools
Istituto Tecnico Industriale "Galileo Galilei"
The Industrial Technical Institute named to Galileo Galilei was founded in 1825 as a School of Arts and Crafts in order to prepare the young to a profession in the sector of the mechanic industry as in the decorative arts. In 1923 with the Gentile Reform it was transformed in an Industrial Technical Institute for mechanics and electrical engineering, and in 1947 was added chemistry. In the following years other specialities were added as physics, electronics, biology, nuclear physics and informatics. The institute is structured with 32 laboratories, 8 special school-rooms, library, film library, gymnasiums and machine-shops.
Istituto Nautico "Alfredo Cappellini"
The Nautical Institute Alfredo Cappellini was formed on 13 December 1863, with a Royal Law and it was the first Technical Institute in the Province of Livorno. In 1921 it was transferred under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Navy then returned to the Ministry of Education. The school give the professional preparation to form the Merchant navy Officers.
Liceo Classico "Niccolini Palli"
The Liceo Classico Niccolini was established on 10 March 1860 by law of Terenzio Mamiani, then Ministry of the Public Instruction. The first Preside elected was Luigi De Steffani who remained in charge from 1862 to 1867. The Liceo was entitled to Giovanni Battista Niccolini, Ugo Foscolo's friend, in 1862; in 1883 it was named to Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi; the name came into effect in 1889 and remained until the unification of the Liceo with the Istituto magistrale. The most famous professor was Giovanni Pascoli who taught Greek and Latin from 1887 to 1895. Among the pupils were Pietro Mascagni, Guglielmo Marconi, Amedeo Modigliani, Giosuè Borsi and Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, who was teacher in 1945.
Library
Biblioteca Labronica
The on the Viale della Libertà was founded in 1816, by the fellows of the Accademia Labronica, which was made public in 1840 and it was given to the Comune in 1854. The civic library was dedicated to Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi in 1923 and take place in Villa Fabbricotti. According to the tradition, the origin of the villa date back to the Medicean period when an edifice was built as a suburban residence for Ferdinando II de' Medici. Villa Fabbricotti received the name from its last owner Bernardo Fabbricotti from Carrara, who acquired it from the English merchant Thomas Lloyd in 1881. Fabbricotti, following to adverse economic affairs, sold the Villa and the park to the Comune in 1936. During World War II the building was used by the German command as headquarters, and later taken by the American forces; in the post-war period was restored in order to adapt it into library. In the warehouse of the Biblioteca Labronica are stored: 120,000 books, 1,500 manuscripts, 117 incunables, 2,000 cinquecentine (is a book printed in the 16th century) and 60,000 autographs; the library is organized with reading rooms with 80 places of capacity, 18 seats for consultation of manuscripts, 4 internet positions and a conference room with 60 seats. The library has a collection of autographs including those of Galileo Galilei and Giacomo Leopardi, manuscripts by Ugo Foscolo, and ancient books printed in Livorno since the 17th century, including the Encyclopédie printed in 1770 in Livorno by the ancient Bagno dei forzati (Gaol of the convicts).
Media
Il Tirreno
Il Tirreno is a regional newspaper, printed and published in Livorno and distributed in Tuscany. Il Tirreno also features sixteen local editions around the whole region.
Il Vernacoliere
Il Vernacoliere is a satirical monthly magazine printed in Livorno founded in 1982 and distributed in central Italy.
Sport
People of international ranking from Livorno include Fabrizio Mori, 400 meters hurdles world champion in 1999, and Aldo Montano, Olympic gold medallist in fencing.
A.S. Livorno Calcio football team currently plays in Serie D. Its matches are played at the Stadio Armando Picchi.
Pallacanestro Don Bosco Livorno, founded in 1996, is an amateur basketball club, playing in the Serie C Gold as of April 2017.
Livorno also has its own rugby and American football teams.
Transport
Airport
The nearest airport is the main airport of Tuscany, Pisa International Airport, which is about away.
Buses
Livorno bus network, as the entire Regione Toscana, is performed by Autolinee Toscane which manages, since 1 November 2021, two High Mobility Lines (LAM Blu and LAM Rossa), seventeen urban lines, one school line and six suburban routes departing from Livorno across the Province. Autolinee Toscane operates a funicular which connect lower Montenero to the Sanctuary.
Port
The Port of Livorno is one of the largest seaports both in Italy and the Mediterranean Sea as a whole.
The Port has regular ferry links of the following operators with the following cities:
Corsica Ferries - Sardinia Ferries to Golfo Aranci and Bastia
Grimaldi Lines to Barcelona and Tangier
Moby Lines to Olbia and Bastia
Toremar to Capraia
Trains
The city is served by Livorno Centrale station.
Twin towns – sister cities
Livorno is twinned with:
Bat Yam, Israel
Guadalajara, Spain
Haiphong, Vietnam
Novorossiysk, Russia
Oakland, United States
Notable people
Luca Agamennoni, rower
Andrea Aghini, retired rally driver
Romano Albani, cinematographer
Massimiliano Allegri, former football player, football coach
Mario Ancona (1860–1931), Jewish opera baritone
Domenico Angelo (1716–1802), fencing master, author
Federigo Luigi Appelius (1835–1876), naturalist
Chaim Joseph David Azulai (1724–1807), prolific Rabbinic scholar
Angiolo Badaloni (1849–1920), engineer
Baldo Baldi, fencer
Andrea Baldini (born 1985), fencer, World Champion
David Balleri, footballer
Giovanni Bartolena (1866–1942), painter
Enzo Bartolini, rower
Piero Barontini (1919–2003), painter
Leonardo Bellandi (born 2000), Italian footballer
Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh (1822–1900), rabbi and scholar of Kabbalah
Malachi ben Jacob
Bino Bini
Lidia Biondi, actress
Giotto Bizzarrini
Bernardetto Borromei (?–1610), first Gonfaloniere
Ranieri de' Calzabigi
Giuseppe Cambini
Leonetto Cappiello (1875–1942), painter
Federico Caprilli (1868–1946), cavalry officer, equestrian
Giorgio Caproni (1912–1990), poet
Fortunato Cassone (1828–1889), commander of Regia Accademia Navale
David Castelli (1836–1901), Jewish Biblical scholar
Diacinto Cestoni (1637–1718), naturalist
Mario Checcacci
Pierluigi Chicca
Giorgio Chiellini (born 1984), football player
Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (1920–2016), former President of the Republic of Italy
Piero Ciampi (1934–1980), musician
Costanzo Ciano
Gian Galeazzo Ciano (1903–1944), Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Benito Mussolini's son-in-law
Arduíno Colassanti
Antonio Corazzi
Vittorio Matteo Corcos (1859–1933), painter
Moses Cordovero, leading scholar and Kabbalist
Giovanni de Gamerra
Serafino De Tivoli
Pio Alberto Del Corona (1837–1912), bishop
Paolo Emilio Demi (1798–1863), sculptor
Manlio Di Rosa
Marco Di Viesti, football player
Dino Diluca
Giulio Dolci (1883–1965), literate
Federigo Enriques
Paolo Enriques (1878–1932), zoologist (genetics)
Giovanni Fattori (1825–1908), painter
Bruno Filippi
Giorgio Fontanelli (1925–1993), professor, poet, essayist
Voltolino Fontani (1920–1976), painter
Alberto Fremura (born 1936), artist
Angelo Froglia (1955–1997), painter and creator of the scandal of the heads of Modigliani
Vivi Gioi (1914-1975) actress
Filippo Gragnani (1768–1820), virtuoso guitarist and composer
Gino Graziani (1893-1976) President of the Chamber of Commerce of Livorno during the reconstruction after the Second World War, Industrialist
Oreste Grossi
Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi (1804–1873), writer and politician
Marzio Innocenti, former captain of Italy national rugby union team
Abraham Khalfon (1741–1819), Tripoli Jewish community leader, historian, and scholar
Aurelio Lampredi
Dario Lari
Gio Batta Lepori (1911–2002), painter
Francis Levett, English merchant, the Levant Company
Augusto Liverani (1858–1929), educator
Llewelyn Lloyd (1879-1949), painter
Alessandro Lucarelli (born 1977), football player
Cristiano Lucarelli (born 1975), football player, top scorer of Serie A in 2004–05
Mario Magnozzi
Vincenzo Malenchini (1813–1881), lawyer, patriot
Giovanni Marradi (1852-1922) poet, writer, patriot and politician
Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945), opera composer
Davide Matteini
Matteo Mazzantini (born 1976), rugby player
Luca Mazzoni
Enrico Mayer (1802–1877), pedagogist, writer
Umberto Melnati
Guido Menasci
Carlo Meyer (1837–1897), engineer, patriot
Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920), Painter and sculptor, famous for the paintings of long-necked women
Aldo Montano (born 1978), fencer, Olympic gold medalist
Moses Haim Montefiore (1784–1885), Jewish financier and philanthropist in Britain
Rabbi Sabato Morais (1823–1897), rabbi in Philadelphia, USA, and founder of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York City
Fabrizio Mori
Alfredo Muller (1869–1940), artist
Aldo Nadi
Nedo Nadi (1894–1940), won 5 gold medals in fencing at the 1920 Olympics
Renato Natali (1883-1979) Painter, heir to the Macchiaioli and Impressionists, founder of the Grppo Labronico
Alessandro Neri (1820–1896), patriot
Adriano Novi Lena (1840–1888), lawyer, Member of Parliament
Angeliki Palli writer
Giorgio Pellini
Armando Picchi (1935–1971), football player and manager
Enrico Pollastrini
Oreste Puliti
Ottorino Quaglierini
Giulia Quintavalle
Dario Resta (1884–1924), race car driver, Indy 500 winner
Rolando Rigoli
Eugenio Sansoni (1828–1906), first mayor from 1865 to 1867
Giovanni Schmidt
Dante Secchi
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Hezekiah da Silva
Mauro Simonetti
Mauro Sordi (1916–1989), biologist, director of Livorno Aquarium
Athos Tanzini
Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti
Giuseppe Maria Terreni (1739–1811), painter
Rabbi Elio Toaff (1915–2015), Chief rabbi of Rome
Ilaria Tocchini
Angiolo Tommasi (1858–1923), artist
Dino Urbani
Samuel Uziel (17th century), rabbi and Talmudist
Antonio Vinciguerra (born 1937), sculptor, painter, designer
Paolo Virzì (born 1964), film screenwriter and director
Filippo Volandri, tennis player
Points of interest
Acquario comunale Diacinto Cestoni
Cathedral of Saint Francis of Assisi
Cisternone
Fanale dei Pisani
Fortezza Vecchia
Fortezza Nuova
Fosso Reale
Museo di storia naturale del Mediterraneo
Museo Civico Giovanni Fattori
Old English Cemetery
Orto Botanico del Mediterraneo
Porto Mediceo
Sanctuary of Montenero
Terrazza Mascagni
Venezia Nuova
Gallery
See also
Port of Livorno
Jewish community of Livorno
Livorno Hills
Battle of Livorno
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Municipal website
Port of Livorno website
Photographic map of Livorno city
Ferdinando I De Medici, Document Inviting Jewish Merchants to Settle in Livorno and Pisa, in Italian, Manuscript on Vellum, Florence, Italy, 10 June 1593 (fac-simile)
Livorno Video Tour
Livorno Boat Tour along the Medicean canals
Coastal towns in Tuscany
Historic Jewish communities | [
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246306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leghorn | Leghorn | Leghorn may refer to:
Livorno, an Italian port city, traditionally known in English as Leghorn
Leghorn chicken, a breed of chicken from Tuscany
The naval Battle of Leghorn, 1653, during the First Anglo-Dutch War
See also | [
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246307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovene | Slovene | Slovene or Slovenian may refer to:
Something of, from, or related to Slovenia, a country in Central Europe
Slovene language, a South Slavic language mainly spoken in Slovenia
Slovenes, an ethno-linguistic group mainly living in Slovenia
Slavic peoples, an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group
Ilmen Slavs, the northernmost tribe of the Early East Slavs
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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246308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bannockburn | Bannockburn | Bannockburn (Scottish Gaelic Allt a' Bhonnaich) is an area immediately south of the centre of Stirling in Scotland. It is part of the City of Stirling. It is named after the Bannock Burn, a burn running through the town before flowing into the River Forth.
History
Land in the vicinity of Bannockburn town, probably between the Pelstream and Bannock burns (hence Bannockburn), was the site of the Battle of Bannockburn fought in 1314—one of the pivotal battles of the 13th/14th century Wars of Independence between the kingdoms of Scotland and England. A large monument and visitor centre is located near the site of the battle. In previous generations tourists came to visit the site and look at the Borestone. The dignity of the barony of Bannockburn is currently held by Hope Vere Anderson, a descendant of the Sandilands and Vere families of Sandilands and Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire who were the original Barons of Bannockburn in the 14th century. In the year of 1746, after the Battle of Culloden, Bonnie Prince Charlie stayed in Bannockburn House where he met the future mother of his child.
Bannockburn village used to be famous for its carpet and tweed factories and woollen mills. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries the Wilson family of Bannockburn designed and wove tartans for the British Army. Many of the so-called Clan tartans were created by the Wilsons in response to the needs of the Clan chiefs who, without their own authentic tartans, approached the Wilsons for suitable patterns. The visit of King George IV to Edinburgh in 1822, and his insistence that the Clan chiefs attend his banquets and levees in their Clan tartans, prompted this reaction. The woollen mills employed 7-800 people around 1880. The last mill closed in 1924.
The turnpike road between Edinburgh and Stirling was constructed in the 1750s and passed through Bannockburn. The route originally passed over the Old Bridge, until the construction in 1819 of a circular-arch stone bridge, built by engineer Thomas Telford, spanning the burn downstream of the battle site. Growth of both Stirling and Bannockburn during the 19th and 20th centuries means that the two now form a contiguous conurbation, and Bannockburn was latterly incorporated into the city (then royal burgh) of Stirling. Bannockburn had a population of 7,352 at the time of the 2001 census.
The area contains most necessary amenities, including a library, and local shops. It is served by Bannockburn Primary School, in the centre of the community, and Bannockburn High School in nearby Broomridge. Several new private housing schemes have been built in and around Bannockburn since the 1990s, increasing pressure on the already overcrowded high school. As a result of this, in 2007 and 2008 Bannockburn High School was extended to provide additional capacity.
Between 1852 and 1949 Bannockburn had a railway station on the Scottish Central Railway, located next to the site of the bus depot. Nowadays, however, residents wishing to use the train must travel into the centre of Stirling. Introduction of a new station with a park-and-ride facility was proposed in the Strategic Transport Projects Review in 2009. Bannockburn is served by the 38, 54, 54A, 56 and 60 bus services.
Sports
Football
Bannockburn and Hillpark have two amateur football teams, Bannockburn Amateurs (Est. 1968) and Milton FC (Est. 1972).
Bannockburn Amateurs won the West of Scotland Amateur Cup for the fifth time in 2019.
Rugby
Bannockburn also hosts its own Rugby Club. Formerly known as St Modans HSFP RFC (Est. 1978), it changed its name to Bannockburn RFC in 1996. Bannockburn currently plays in the Scottish Hydro Electric Regional League: Caledonia Division 2 Midlands.
Cricket
Bannockburn also plays host to St Modans HSFP Cricket Club, who play in the Strathmore and Perthshire Cricket Union Division 1. In July 2013, playing against Perth Doo'cot CC, St Modans scored 329 runs in response to Perth's 326, making it what is believed to be the highest scoring game ever recorded in the SPCU.
Places of worship
Murrayfield United Free Church Of Scotland
Our Lady and St Ninian's R.C. Church
The town also has a Gospel Hall and two Church of Scotland churches. Christadelphians meet in a hall on Main Street. The hall used to be a carpet factory.
Notes and references
Historic Environment Scotland
External links
Bannockburn Community Website
Towns in Stirling (council area) | [
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246309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent%20Cassel | Vincent Cassel | Vincent Cassel (; born Vincent Crochon , 23 November 1966) is a French actor. He first achieved recognition for his performance as a troubled French Jewish youth in Mathieu Kassovitz's 1995 film La Haine (Hate), for which he received two César Award nominations. He garnered wide recognition with English-speaking audiences for his performances in Ocean's Twelve (2004) and Ocean's Thirteen (2007), as well as Eastern Promises (2007), Black Swan (2010), and Jason Bourne (2016). Cassel is also renowned for playing the infamous French bank-robber Jacques Mesrine in Mesrine: Killer Instinct and Mesrine: Public Enemy Number One (both in 2008). In 2020, he portrayed Engerraund Serac in the HBO television series Westworld.
Throughout his career, which spans more than three decades, Cassel has earned critical acclaim and numerous accolades, including a César Award in 2009 and a Canadian Screen Award in 2016.
Early life and family
Cassel was born in Paris, France, to journalist Sabine Litique and actor Jean-Pierre Cassel (born Jean-Pierre Crochon). Cassel's brother, Mathias, is a rapper with the group Assassin under the name "Rockin' Squat". His half-sister, Cécile Cassel, is an actress.
Career
Early work in France (1990s)
One of Cassel's first on screen appearances was a bit part in a 1994 Renault Clio advert which was used in the UK.
Cassel's breakthrough role was in Mathieu Kassovitz's critically acclaimed film La Haine (1995), in which he portrayed a troubled youth living in the deprived outskirts of Paris. For his role in La Haine, Cassel was nominated for two César Awards, for Best Actor and Most Promising Actor.
Throughout the 1990s and the early 2000s, Cassel performed in a string of French films. In 1996, he starred opposite Monica Bellucci (before they married) in the moody French film L'Appartement. The film was a critical success, winning a BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language and the first British Independent Film Award for the Best Film in a Foreign Language. The film was also a modest hit in France gaining 55,565 admissions its opening weekend and 152,714 admissions total. Although the film was never released theatrically in the United States, it was released on DVD on 22 August 2006.
In 1998, he portrayed Henry, Duc d'Anjou in Elizabeth. In 1999, he portrayed Gilles de Rais in Luc Besson's The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc. Other notable roles during this period of his career include the violent film Dobermann (1997), the genre-bending Brotherhood of the Wolf (2001), and the highly controversial Irréversible (2002), where he appears fully nude (with Monica Bellucci, after they married).
Transition into English films (2000s)
Since the early 2000s, Cassel has also appeared in a number of English-language films, such as Shrek (as the voice of Monsieur Hood) and Birthday Girl (both 2001) Ocean's Twelve and Ocean's Thirteen (2004, 2007), and Derailed (2005). He has also dubbed the voice of Diego (Denis Leary) in the Ice Age franchise and Rodney Copperbottom (Ewan McGregor) in Robots.
In 2007, Cassel attracted significant critical acclaim for his performance in David Cronenberg's thriller film Eastern Promises, in which he starred opposite Viggo Mortensen and Naomi Watts. The film premiered on 8 September 2007 at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival where it won the Audience Prize for best film on 15 September 2007. Film Journal International critic Doris Toumarkine dubbed Cassel's performance "particularly delicious". J. Hoberman of The Village Voice wrote that "Cassel literally flings himself into [his role]".
In October 2008, Cassel was signed to be the face of a new Yves Saint Laurent men's fragrance. The new fragrance, La Nuit de l'Homme, was launched worldwide in 2009. Cassel appeared in a two-part film about Jacques Mesrine, who was France's "public enemy number one" in the seventies. He won the César Award for Best Actor for his performance as Mesrine. Also that year, he starred in the Portuguese-language, Brazilian film Adrift (À Deriva), and made his debut as a singer on Zap Mama's album ReCreation, singing alongside them on the singles "Paroles, Paroles" and "Non, Non, Non".
Later work (2010s)
The following year, in 2010, Cassel played Thomas Leroy in Darren Aronofsky's critically acclaimed Black Swan (2010), alongside Natalie Portman and Mila Kunis, which attracted considerable acclaim. For his performance in Black Swan, he was nominated alongside his cast for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture.
In 2011, Cassel played the lead role in the French-Spanish thriller-drama film The Monk, directed by Dominik Moll. Screen Daily praised his performance, writing that "Cassel exudes otherworldly gravitas and his singular looks are perfect for the role." That year, he also starred in the German-Canadian historical film A Dangerous Method, directed by David Cronenberg; in the latter, he starred opposite Keira Knightley, Michael Fassbender, and Mortensen (marking their second film together). The film premiered at the 68th Venice Film Festival and was also featured at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival.
In 2014, he portrayed The Beast opposite Léa Seydoux as Belle in the French-language adaptation of Beauty and the Beast. The film was screened out of competition at the 64th Berlin International Film Festival. It was released in France on in February 2014 to positive reviews, becoming a box office success. In Japan, the film topped the box office on its release, making it the first non-English-language foreign film to top the Japanese box office since Red Cliff II in 2009, and the first French film to top the Japanese box office since Mathieu Kassovitz's The Crimson Rivers in 2001.
In 2016, Cassel was featured in American action thriller film Jason Bourne, directed by Paul Greengrass; the film is the fifth installment of the Bourne film series and a direct sequel to The Bourne Ultimatum (2007). Despite mixed reviews, the film was a box office success, grossing more than $400 million worldwide. That year, he also attracted critical acclaim for his performance as Antoine in Xavier Dolan's It's Only the End of the World, which premiered at the Cannes Film Festival. For his work in the film, Cassel won the Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor; he also received nominations for the César Award for Best Supporting Actor, the Globes de Cristal Award for Best Actor, and the Jury Prize for Best Actor at the Riviera International Film Festival.
Recent work (2020s)
In 2020, he portrayed trillionaire Engerraund Serac, the main antagonist of the third season of the HBO series Westworld.
In 2021, he narrated the documentary Reset, directed by Thierry Donard.
Personal life
Cassel met Italian actress Monica Bellucci on the set of their 1996 film The Apartment. They married in 1999, and have two daughters, Deva (born 12 September 2004) and Léonie (born 21 May 2010). Cassel and Bellucci announced their separation on 26 August 2013 and later divorced.
He married 21-year-old French model , on 24 August 2018 in Bidart, France, after being in a relationship for more than two years. They have a daughter, Amazonie (born 19 April 2019).
Besides his native French, Cassel speaks English, Portuguese, Italian, and basic conversational Russian, which he learned for his role in Eastern Promises. Cassel lived in Rio de Janeiro for five years, before moving back to Paris in 2018, and he used to have Brazilian citizenship. Cassel is known for having a great identification with Brazil, being a practitioner of the martial art of capoeira; he displayed this talent in the movie Ocean's Twelve.
Cassel went to different schools, including a Catholic school, eventually becoming irreligious. He opened up about his religious views in an interview, saying: "I’m totally secular myself, and I have a tremendous respect for life. Which means that I essentially believe in God in a certain sense, but I'm not a Catholic or Jewish or Muslim. I'm without a religion."
Filmography
Live-action
Animated
References
External links
Vincent Cassel's Films at subtitledonline.com
CNN interview with Vincent Cassel
1966 births
Living people
Male actors from Paris
French male film actors
French film producers
French male voice actors
French capoeira practitioners
French Wing Chun practitioners
French expatriates in Brazil
French expatriates in Spain
Best Actor Lumières Award winners
Knights of the National Order of Merit (France)
Best Actor César Award winners
Best Supporting Actor Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
20th-century French male actors
21st-century French male actors | [
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] |
246310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJ | IJ | IJ, ij or iJ may refer to:
Places
Ich, Zanjan or Īj, a village in Zanjan Province, Iran
IJ (Amsterdam), a body of water near Amsterdam, Netherlands
İj River or Izh River, a river in Udmurtia and Tatarstan, Russian Federation
Ij, Iran, a city in Fars Province, Iran
Other uses
Ikkjutt Jammu, a political party in Jammu and Kashmir, India
IJ (digraph), in the Dutch language
See also Latin alphabet#Medieval and later developments
Congregation of the Holy Infant Jesus
Infinite Jest, a novel by David Foster Wallace
Institute for Justice, a United States non-profit libertarian public interest law firm
Inspectioneering Journal, a chemical and refining industry trade journal focusing on mechanical integrity
iJustine (born 1984), American YouTube personality
Impractical Jokers, an American hidden camera reality prank television series
Great Wall Airlines (IATA: IJ), a former Shanghai-based airline
Spring Japan (IATA: IJ), a current Japanese airline
See also
IJK (disambiguation) | [
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246311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenes | Slovenes | The Slovenes, also known as Slovenians ( ), are a South Slavic ethnic group native to Slovenia, and adjacent regions in Italy, Austria and Hungary. Slovenes share a common ancestry, culture, history and speak Slovene as their native language.
Outside of Slovenia and Europe, Slovenes form diaspora groups in the United States, Canada, Argentina and Australia.
Population
Population in Slovenia
Most Slovenes today live within the borders of the independent Slovenia (2,100,000 est. July 2020). In the Slovenian national census of 2002, 1,631,363 people ethnically declared themselves as Slovenes, while 1,723,434 people claimed Slovene as their native language.
Population abroad
The autochthonous Slovene minority in Italy is estimated at 83,000 to 100,000, the Slovene minority in southern Austria at 24,855, in Croatia at 13,200, and in Hungary at 3,180.
Significant Slovene expatriate communities live in the United States and Canada, in other European countries, in Brazil, Argentina, and in Australia and New Zealand. The largest population of Slovenes outside of Slovenia is in Cleveland, Ohio.
Genetics
In a 2013 Y-DNA study, 29-32% of 399–458 sampled Slovenian males belong to Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a, more frequent than in South Slavic peoples. The second largest Haplogroup was the Haplogroup R1b, which was at 26-28%, following was the Haplogroup I, with 30-31%. Due to the geographic position of Slovenia, the population is substantially diverse, sharing genes with Italic peoples, Germanic peoples, Slavs and Hungarians. The Slovenian population displays close genetic affiliations with West Slavic, Germanic and Italic populations. The homogenous genetic strata of the West Slavic populations and the Slovenian population suggest the existence of a common ancestral population in central European region. The R-Z92 branch of R-Z280 which is significant among East Slavs is recorded as completely absent among Slovenes. In 2016 study, including 100 sampled Slovenians, 27.1% belong to R1b, of which 11.03% of R1b belongs to the R-P312 branch, 6% to the eastern and 4% to R-U106. In the 2018 autosomal analysis of Slovenian population, the Slovenes clustered with Hungarians and were close to Czechs.
History
Early Alpine Slavs
In the 6th century AD, Slavic people settled the region between the Alps and the Adriatic Sea in two consecutive migration waves: the first wave came from the Moravian lands around 550, while the second wave, coming from the southeast, moved in after the retreat of the Lombards to Italy in 568 (see Slavic settlement of Eastern Alps).
From 623 to 658 Slavic peoples between the upper Elbe River and the Karawanks mountain range united under the leadership of King Samo (Kralj Samo) in what was to become known as "Samo's Tribal Union". The tribal union collapsed after Samo's death in 658, but a smaller Slavic tribal principality, Carantania (Slovene: Karantanija), remained, with its centre in the present-day region of Carinthia.
Alpine Slavs during the Frankish Empire
Faced with the pressing danger of Avar tribes from the east, the Carantanians accepted a union with Bavaria in 745, and later in the 8th century recognized Frankish rule and accepted Christianity.
The last Slavic state formation in the region, the principality of Prince Kocel, lost its independence in 874. Slovene ethnic territory subsequently shrank due to pressure from Germans from the west and the arrival of Hungarians in the Pannonian plain; it stabilized in its present form in the 15th century.
16th century: Slovene Protestant reformation and consolidation of Slovene
The first mentions of a common Slovene ethnic identity, transcending regional boundaries, date from the 16th century. During this period, the first books in Slovene were written by the Protestant preacher Primož Trubar and his followers, establishing the base for the development of standard Slovene. In the second half of the 16th century, numerous books were printed in Slovene, including an integral translation of the Bible by Jurij Dalmatin.
At the beginning of the 17th century, Protestantism was suppressed by the Habsburg-sponsored Counter Reformation, which introduced the new aesthetics of Baroque culture.
18th century: Slovenes under Maria Theresa and Joseph II
The Enlightenment in the Habsburg monarchy brought significant social and cultural progress to the Slovene people. It hastened economic development and facilitated the appearance of a middle class. Under the reign of Maria Theresa and Emperor Joseph II (1765–1790) many reforms were undertaken in the administration and society, including land reforms, the modernization of the Church and compulsory primary education in Slovene (1774). The start of cultural-linguistic activities by Slovene intellectuals of the time brought about a national revival and the birth of the Slovene nation in the modern sense of the word. Before the Napoleonic Wars, some secular literature in Slovene emerged. During the same period, the first history of the Slovene Lands as an ethnic unity was written by Anton Tomaž Linhart, while Jernej Kopitar compiled the first comprehensive grammar of Slovene.
Slovenes under Napoleon (1809–1813)
Between 1809 and 1813, Slovenia was part of the Illyrian Provinces, an autonomous province of the Napoleonic French Empire, with Ljubljana as the capital. Although the French rule was short-lived, it significantly contributed to the rise of national consciousness and political awareness of Slovenes. After the fall of Napoleon, all Slovene Lands were once again included in the Austrian Empire. Gradually, a distinct Slovene national consciousness developed, and the quest for a political unification of all Slovenes became widespread. In the 1820s and 1840s, the interest in Slovene language and folklore grew enormously, with numerous philologists advancing the first steps towards standardization of the language. Illyrian movement, Pan-Slavic and Austro-Slavic ideas gained importance. However, the intellectual circle around the philologist Matija Čop and the Romantic poet France Prešeren was influential in affirming the idea of Slovene linguistic and cultural individuality, refusing the idea of merging Slovenes into a wider Slavic nation.
1840s: the first Slovene national political programme
In the 1840s, the Slovene national movement developed far beyond literary expression. In 1848, the first Slovene national political programme, called United Slovenia (), was written in the context of the Spring of Nations movement within the Austrian Empire. It demanded a unification of all Slovene-speaking territories in an autonomous kingdom, named Slovenija, within the empire and an official status for Slovene. Although the project failed, it served as an important platform of Slovene political activity in the following decades, particularly in the 1860s and 1870s, when mass Slovene rallies, named tabori, were organised. The conflict between Slovene and German nationalists deepened. In 1866, some Slovenes were left to Italy, and in 1867 some remained in the Hungarian part of the Austria-Hungary. This significantly affected the nation and led to further radicalisation of the Slovene national movement. In the 1890s, the first Slovene political parties were established. All of them were loyal to Austria, but they were also espousing a common South Slavic cause.
Emigration
Between 1880 and World War I, the largest numbers of Slovenes emigrated to America. Most of these went between 1905 and 1913, although the exact number is impossible to determine because Slovenes were often classified as Austrians, Italians, Croats, or under other, broader labels, such as Slavonic or Slavic. Those who settled in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania came to be called Windish, from the Austrian German term Windisch 'Wend'.
The largest group of Slovenes in the United States eventually settled in Cleveland, Ohio, and the surrounding area. The second-largest group settled in Chicago, principally on the Lower West Side. The American Slovenian Catholic Union (Ameriško slovenska katoliška enota) was founded as an organization to protect Slovene-American rights in Joliet, Illinois, southwest of Chicago, and in Cleveland. Today there are KSKJ branches all over the country offering life insurance and other services to Slovene-Americans. Freethinkers were centered around 18th and Racine Ave. in Chicago, where they founded the Slovene National Benefit Society; other Slovene immigrants went to southwestern Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio and the state of West Virginia to work in the coal mines and lumber industry. Some Slovenes also went to the Pittsburgh or Youngstown, Ohio, areas, to work in the steel mills, as well as Minnesota's Iron Range, to work in the iron mines and also to Copper Country on the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan for copper mining. Many also went west to Rock Springs in Wyoming to work in the coal mines that supported the Union Pacific Railway.
World War I
There were more than 30,000 casualties among ethnic Slovenes during World War I because they were and still are inhabiting the territory where the Isonzo Front was fought. While the majority of them were drafted in the Austro-Hungarian Army, also Slovene civil inhabitants from the Gorizia and Gradisca region suffered in hundreds of thousands because they were resettled in refugee camps where, however, Slovene refugees were treated as state enemies by Italians and several thousands died of malnutrition in Italian refugee camps.
Fascist Italianization of Littoral Slovenes
After the First World War (1914–1918), the majority of Slovenes joined other South Slavs in the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, followed by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and finally the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In the new system of banovinas (since 1929), Slovenes formed a majority in the Drava Banovina.
In the ex-Austrian Empire area given to Italy in exchange for joining Great Britain in World War I, the forced Fascist Italianization of Slovene minority in Italy (1920–1947) was under no international restraint especially after Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922. Already during the period of Italian occupation, between the years 1918 and 1920, all Slovene cultural associations (Sokol, "reading rooms" etc.) had been forbidden Fascist Italy brought Italian teachers from Southern Italy to Italianize ethnic Slovene and Croatian children, while the Slovene and Croatian teachers, poets, writers, artists and clergy were exiled to Sardinia and elsewhere to Southern Italy. In 1926, claiming that it was restoring surnames to their original Italian form, the Italian government announced the Italianization of names and surnames not only of citizens of the Slovene minority, but also of Croatian and German. Some Slovenes willingly accepted Italianization in order to lose the status of being second-class citizens with no upward social mobility. By the mid-1930s, around 70,000 Slovenes had fled the region, mostly to Yugoslavia and South America.
In the bilingual regions people of Carinthia decided in a 1920 referendum that most of Carinthia should remain in Austria.
Slovene volunteers also participated in the Spanish Civil War and the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.
World War II and aftermath
During World War II, Slovenes were in a unique situation. While Greece shared its experience of being trisected, Slovenia was the only country that experienced a further step—absorption and annexation into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Hungary. After Yugoslavia was invaded by Axis Powers on 6 April 1941, Germany and Hungary occupied northern Slovenia. Some villages in Lower Carniola were annexed by the Independent State of Croatia.
The Nazis started a policy of violent Germanisation. During the war, tens of thousands of Slovenes were resettled or chased away, imprisoned, or transported to labor, internment and extermination camps. Many were sent into exile to Nedić's Serbia and Croatia. The numbers of Slovenes drafted to the German military and paramilitary formations has been estimated at 150,000 men and women, almost a quarter of them lost their lives on various European battlefields, mostly on the Eastern Front.
Compared to the German policies in the northern Nazi-occupied area of Slovenia and the forced Fascist italianization in the former Austrian Littoral that was annexed after the First World War, the initial Italian policy in the central Slovenia was not as violent. Tens of thousands of Slovenes from German-occupied Lower Styria and Upper Carniola escaped to the Province of Ljubljana until June 1941.
However, after resistance started in Province of Ljubljana, Italian violence against the Slovene civil population easily matched that of the Germans. The province saw the deportation of 25,000 people—which equated to 7.5% of the total population of the province—in one of the most drastic operations in Europe that filled up many Italian concentration camps, such as Rab concentration camp, in Gonars concentration camp, Monigo (Treviso), Renicci d'Anghiari, Chiesanuova (Padua) and elsewhere. To suppress the mounting resistance by the Slovene Partisans, Mario Roatta adopted draconian measures of summary executions, hostage-taking, reprisals, internments, and the burning of houses and whole villages. The "3C" pamphlet, tantamount to a declaration of war on civilians, involved him in Italian war crimes.
In the summer of 1941, a resistance movement led by the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation, emerged in both the Italian and in the German occupation zones. The resistance, pluralistic at the beginning, was gradually taken over by the Communist Party, as in the rest of occupied Yugoslavia. Contrary to elsewhere in Yugoslavia, where on the freed territories the political life was organized by the military itself, the Slovene Partisans were subordinated to the civil political authority of the Front.
In the summer of 1942, a civil war between Slovenes broke out. The two fighting factions were the Slovenian Partisans and the Italian-sponsored anti-communist militia, later re-organized under Nazi command as the Slovene Home Guard. Small units of Slovenian Chetniks also existed in Lower Carniola and Styria. The Partisans were under the command of the Liberation Front (OF) and Tito's Yugoslav resistance, while the Slovenian Covenant served as the political arm of the anti-Communist militia. The civil war was mostly restricted to the Province of Ljubljana, where more than 80% of the Slovene anti-partisan units were active. Between 1943 and 1945, smaller anti-Communist militia existed in parts of the Slovenian Littoral and in Upper Carniola, while they were virtually non-existent in the rest of the country. By 1945, the total number of Slovene anti-Communist militiamen reached 17,500.
Immediately after the war, some 12,000 members of the Slovene Home Guard were killed in the Kočevski Rog massacres, while thousands of anti-communist civilians were killed in the first year after the war. In addition, hundreds of ethnic Italians from the Julian March were killed by the Yugoslav Army and partisan forces in the Foibe massacres; some 27,000 Istrian Italians fled Slovenian Istria from Communist persecution in the so-called Istrian–Dalmatian exodus. Members of the ethnic German minority either fled or were expelled from Slovenia.
The overall number of World War II casualties in Slovenia is estimated at 97,000. The number includes about 14,000 people, who were killed or died for other war-related reasons immediately after the end of the war, and the tiny Jewish community, which was nearly annihilated in the Holocaust. In addition, tens of thousands of Slovenes left their homeland soon after the end of the war. Most of them settled in Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Australia, and the United States.
Most of Carinthia remained part of Austria and around 42,000 Slovenes (per 1951 population census) were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. Slovenes in the Austrian state of Styria (4,250) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of 27 July 1955 states otherwise. Many Carinthians remain uneasy about Slovene territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars. The former governor, Jörg Haider, regularly played the Slovene card when his popularity started to dwindle, and indeed relied on the strong anti-Slovene attitudes in many parts of the province for his power base.
Yugoslavia acquired some territory from Italy after WWII but some 100,000 Slovenes remained behind the Italian border, notably around Trieste and Gorizia.
Slovenes in Socialist Yugoslavia
Following the re-establishment of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, Slovenia became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, declared on 29 November 1943. A socialist state was established, but because of the Tito-Stalin split, economic and personal freedoms were broader than in the Eastern Bloc. In 1947, Italy ceded most of the Julian March to Yugoslavia, and Slovenia thus regained the Slovene Littoral.
The dispute over the port of Trieste however remained opened until 1954, until the short-lived Free Territory of Trieste was divided among Italy and Yugoslavia, thus giving Slovenia access to the sea. This division was ratified only in 1975 with the Treaty of Osimo, which gave a final legal sanction to Slovenia's long disputed western border. From the 1950s, the Socialist Republic of Slovenia exercised relatively wide autonomy.
The Stalinist period
Between 1945 and 1948, a wave of political repressions took place in Slovenia and in Yugoslavia. Thousands of people were imprisoned for their political beliefs. Several tens of thousands of Slovenes left Slovenia immediately after the war in fear of Communist persecution. Many of them settled in Brazil and Argentina, which became the core of Slovenian anti-Communist emigration. More than 50,000 more followed in the next decade, frequently for economic reasons, as well as political ones. These later waves of Slovene immigrants mostly settled in Canada and in Australia, but also in other western countries.
Additionally, due to the removal of German Yugoslavs (which included in many cases ethnic Slovenes of partial German or Austrian heritage) from Yugoslavia under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, many citizens were interned in concentration and work camps or forcibly expelled from the country in the years that followed WWII. As a result, a large number of German and Austrian Slovenes emigrated to Italy, Austria, Croatia, Hungary, and other European countries. Most who settled in Hungary during this period fled or were expelled to Germany and Austria in turn. Many expatriates ultimately settled in the Cleveland metropolitan area in the United States; the high concentration of Slovenes in Cleveland specifically is attributed to the industrial opportunities at the time, as well as the existing workforce in the area being largely of Germanic and Slavic descent. Many Slovene expats during this period were sponsored to work in the United States by wealthy Slovenes or Slovene community organizations within the Greater Cleveland area, which greatly contributed to the large Slovene population in the city.
The 1948 Tito–Stalin split and aftermath
In 1948, the Tito–Stalin split took place. In the first years following the split, the political repression worsened, as it extended to Communists accused of Stalinism. Hundreds of Slovenes were imprisoned in the concentration camp of Goli Otok, together with thousands of people of other nationalities. Among the show trials that took place in Slovenia between 1945 and 1950, the most important were the Nagode trial against democratic intellectuals and left liberal activists (1946) and the Dachau trials (1947–1949), where former inmates of Nazi concentration camps were accused of collaboration with the Nazis. Many members of the Roman Catholic clergy suffered persecution. The case of bishop of Ljubljana Anton Vovk, who was doused with gasoline and set on fire by Communist activists during a pastoral visit to Novo Mesto in January 1952, echoed in the western press.
Between 1949 and 1953, a forced collectivization was attempted. After its failure, a policy of gradual liberalization followed.
1950s: Heavy industrialization
In the late 1950s, Slovenia was the first of the Yugoslav republics to begin a process of relative pluralization. A decade of industrialisation was accompanied also by a fervent cultural and literary production with many tensions between the government and the dissident intellectuals. From the late 1950s onward, dissident circles started to be formed, mostly around short-lived independent journals, such as Revija 57 (1957–1958), which was the first independent intellectual journal in Yugoslavia and one of the first of this kind in the Communist bloc, and Perspektive (1960–1964). Among the most important critical public intellectuals in this period were the sociologist Jože Pučnik, the poet Edvard Kocbek, and the literary historian Dušan Pirjevec.
1960s: Self-management
By the late 1960s, the reformist faction gained control of the Slovenian Communist Party, launching a series of reforms, aiming at the modernization of Slovenian society and economy. A new economic policy, known as workers self-management started to be implemented under the advice and supervision of the main champion of the Yugoslav Communist Party, Slovene Edvard Kardelj.
1970s: Years of Lead
In 1973, the trend was stopped by the conservative faction of the Slovenian Communist Party, backed by the Yugoslav Federal government. A period known as the "Years of Lead" (Slovene: svinčena leta) followed.
1980s: Towards independence
In the 1980s, Slovenia experienced a rise in cultural pluralism. Numerous grass-roots political, artistic and intellectual movements emerged, including the Neue Slowenische Kunst, the Ljubljana school of psychoanalysis, and the Nova revija intellectual circle. By the mid-1980s, a reformist fraction, led by Milan Kučan, took control of the Slovenian Communist Party, starting a gradual reform towards market socialism and controlled political pluralism.
Slovenes in independent Slovenia
1990s: Slovenian Spring, democracy and independence
The first clear demand for Slovene independence was made in 1987 by a group of intellectuals in the 57th edition of the magazine Nova revija. Demands for democratisation and increase of Slovenian independence were sparked off. A mass democratic movement, coordinated by the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights, pushed the Communists in the direction of democratic reforms.
In 1991, Slovenia became an independent nation state after a brief ten-day war. In December 1991, a new constitution was adopted, followed in 1992 by the laws on denationalisation and privatization. The members of the European Union recognised Slovenia as an independent state on 15 January 1992, and the United Nations accepted it as a member on 22 May 1992.
2010s: Slovenian disillusionment with socio-economic elites
The disillusionment with domestic socio-economic elites at municipal and the State's level was expressed at the 2012–2013 Slovenian protests on a wider scale than in the smaller 15 October 2011 protests – Slovenian disillusionment with the elites and financial institutions at the European and global level. In relation to the leading politicians' response to allegations made by official Commission for the Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Slovenia, law experts expressed the need for changes in the system that would limit political arbitrariness.
Identity
The first researchers of the origin of Slovenes believed, on the basis of the German name for Slovenes, Wenden or Winden, that Slovenes were descendants of the Germanic tribe of the Vandals. Even today, some German speakers refer to the Slovenian minority in Carinthian Austria as Windische, as if a separate ethnicity. This claim is rejected by linguists on the basis that their dialect is by all standards a variant of Slovene. The Germanic word Wenden generally refers to the Wends, a West Slavic tribe that settled along the now Eastern Germany, and who are more commonly known as Sorbs. The first to define Slovenes as a separate branch of the Slavic people was Anton Tomaž Linhart in his work An Essay on the History of Carniola and Other Lands of the Austrian South Slavs, published in 1791. In it, Linhart also established the linguistic unity of the Slovene ethnic territory and set the foundations of the Slovene ethnography.
After the disintegration of Yugoslavia during the late 1980s and the formation of independent Slovenia in the early 1990s motivated interest in a particularly Slovenian national identity. One reflection of this was an attempt at the rejection of a Slavic identity in favour of a "Venetic" one. The autochthonist "Venetic theory" was advanced in the mid 1980s, but it never gained wide currency. The identification with Slavic roots remains strong in Slovenia and in 2004 even led to the establishment of the Forum of Slavic Cultures in Ljubljana.
In the late 1980s, several symbols from the Middle Ages were revived as Slovenian national symbols. Among them, the most popular are the so-called Slovene Hat which featured in the coat of arms of the Slovene March, and the Black Panther, a reconstruction of the supposed coat of arms of the Carolingian duchy of Carantania. After being used in the Flag of Slovenia, the graphical representation of Triglav has become recognised as a national symbol. Per the Constitution of Slovenia and the Slovenian act on national symbols, the flag of the Slovene nation is a white-blue-red flag without the coat-of-arms. The ratio of the width to height of the flag is one to two.
Language
Freising manuscripts are the first written words in Slovene. Four parchment leaves and a further quarter of a page have been preserved. They consist of three texts in the oldest Slovenian dialect. Linguistic, stylistic and contextual analyses reveal that these are church texts of careful composition and literary form.
Primož Trubar (1508–1586) is the author of the first printed book in Slovene. He was Slovenian Protestant Reformer of the Lutheran tradition.
Religion
Most ethnic Slovenes are Roman Catholic by faith, with some historical Protestant minorities, especially Lutherans in Prekmurje. A sizable minority of Slovenes are non-religious or atheists, which is in line with the pan-European trend toward lapsed forms of religion and general irreligiosity. According to the published data from the 2002 Slovenian census, out of a total of 47,488 Muslims (who represent 2.4% of the total population), 2,804 Muslims (who in turn represent 5.9% of the total Muslims in Slovenia) declared themselves as Slovenian Muslims.
See also
List of Slovenes
Carinthian Slovenes
Hungarian Slovenes
Prekmurje Slovenes
References
South Slavs
Ethnic groups in Slovenia | [
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246320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized%20permutation%20matrix | Generalized permutation matrix | In mathematics, a generalized permutation matrix (or monomial matrix) is a matrix with the same nonzero pattern as a permutation matrix, i.e. there is exactly one nonzero entry in each row and each column. Unlike a permutation matrix, where the nonzero entry must be 1, in a generalized permutation matrix the nonzero entry can be any nonzero value. An example of a generalized permutation matrix is
Structure
An invertible matrix A is a generalized permutation matrix if and only if it can be written as a product of an invertible diagonal matrix D and an (implicitly invertible) permutation matrix P: i.e.,
Group structure
The set of n × n generalized permutation matrices with entries in a field F forms a subgroup of the general linear group GL(n, F), in which the group of nonsingular diagonal matrices Δ(n, F) forms a normal subgroup. Indeed, the generalized permutation matrices are the normalizer of the diagonal matrices, meaning that the generalized permutation matrices are the largest subgroup of GL(n, F) in which diagonal matrices are normal.
The abstract group of generalized permutation matrices is the wreath product of F× and Sn. Concretely, this means that it is the semidirect product of Δ(n, F) by the symmetric group Sn:
Sn ⋉ Δ(n, F),
where Sn acts by permuting coordinates and the diagonal matrices Δ(n, F) are isomorphic to the n-fold product (F×)n.
To be precise, the generalized permutation matrices are a (faithful) linear representation of this abstract wreath product: a realization of the abstract group as a subgroup of matrices.
Subgroups
The subgroup where all entries are 1 is exactly the permutation matrices, which is isomorphic to the symmetric group.
The subgroup where all entries are ±1 is the signed permutation matrices, which is the hyperoctahedral group.
The subgroup where the entries are mth roots of unity is isomorphic to a generalized symmetric group.
The subgroup of diagonal matrices is abelian, normal, and a maximal abelian subgroup. The quotient group is the symmetric group, and this construction is in fact the Weyl group of the general linear group: the diagonal matrices are a maximal torus in the general linear group (and are their own centralizer), the generalized permutation matrices are the normalizer of this torus, and the quotient, is the Weyl group.
Properties
If a nonsingular matrix and its inverse are both nonnegative matrices (i.e. matrices with nonnegative entries), then the matrix is a generalized permutation matrix.
The determinant of a generalized permutation matrix is given by where is the sign of the permutation associated with and are the diagonal elements of .
Generalizations
One can generalize further by allowing the entries to lie in a ring, rather than in a field. In that case if the non-zero entries are required to be units in the ring, one again obtains a group. On the other hand, if the non-zero entries are only required to be non-zero, but not necessarily invertible, this set of matrices forms a semigroup instead.
One may also schematically allow the non-zero entries to lie in a group G, with the understanding that matrix multiplication will only involve multiplying a single pair of group elements, not "adding" group elements. This is an abuse of notation, since element of matrices being multiplied must allow multiplication and addition, but is suggestive notion for the (formally correct) abstract group (the wreath product of the group G by the symmetric group).
Signed permutation group
A signed permutation matrix is a generalized permutation matrix whose nonzero entries are ±1, and are the integer generalized permutation matrices with integer inverse.
Properties
It is the Coxeter group , and has order .
It is the symmetry group of the hypercube and (dually) of the cross-polytope.
Its index 2 subgroup of matrices with determinant equal to their underlying (unsigned) permutation is the Coxeter group and is the symmetry group of the demihypercube.
It is a subgroup of the orthogonal group.
Applications
Monomial representations
Monomial matrices occur in representation theory in the context of monomial representations. A monomial representation of a group G is a linear representation of G (here F is the defining field of the representation) such that the image ρ(G) is a subgroup of the group of monomial matrices.
References
Matrices
Permutations
Sparse matrices | [
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246324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine%20Sea | Philippine Sea | The Philippine Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean east of the Philippine archipelago (hence the name), the largest in the world, occupying an estimated surface area of . The Philippine Sea Plate forms the floor of the sea. Its western border is the first island chain to the west, comprising the Ryukyu Islands in the northwest and Taiwan in the west. Its southwestern border comprises the Philippine islands of Luzon, Catanduanes, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. Its northern border comprises the Japanese islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyūshū. Its eastern border is the second island chain to the west, comprising the Bonin Islands and Iwo Jima in the northeast, the Mariana Islands (including Guam, Saipan, and Tinian) in the due east, and Halmahera, Palau, Yap and Ulithi (of the Caroline Islands) in the southeast. Its southern border is Indonesia's Morotai Island.
The sea has a complex and diverse undersea relief. The floor is formed into a structural basin by a series of geologic faults and fracture zones. Island arcs, which are actually extended ridges protruding above the ocean surface due to plate tectonic activity in the area, enclose the Philippine Sea to the north, east and south. The Philippine archipelago, Ryukyu Islands, and the Marianas are examples. Another prominent feature of the Philippine Sea is the presence of deep sea trenches, among them the Philippine Trench and the Mariana Trench, containing the deepest point on the planet.
Geography
Location
The Philippine Sea has the Philippines and Taiwan to the west, Japan to the north, the Marianas to the east and Palau to the south. Adjacent seas include the Celebes Sea which is separated by Mindanao and smaller islands to the south, the South China Sea which is separated by Philippines, and the East China Sea which is separated by the Ryukyu Islands.
Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Philippine Sea as "that area of the North Pacific Ocean off the Eastern coasts of the Philippine Islands", bounded as follows:
On the west. By the eastern limits of the East Indian Archipelago, South China Sea and East China Sea.
On the north. By the southeast coast of Kyushu, the southern and eastern limits of the Inland Sea and the south coast of Honshu Island.
On the east.
By the ridge joining Japan to the Bonin, Volcano and Ladrone (Mariana) Islands, all these being included in the Philippine Sea.
On the south. By a line joining Guam, Yap, Pelew (Palau) and Halmahera Islands.
Geology
The Philippine Sea Plate forms the floor of the Philippine Sea. It subducts under the Philippine Mobile Belt which carries most of the Philippine archipelago and eastern Taiwan. Between the two plates is the Philippine Trench.
Marine biodiversity
The Philippine Sea has a marine territorial scope of over , and an EEZ of 2.2 million km2. Attributed to an extensive vicariance and island integrations, the Philippines contains the highest number of marine species per unit area relative to the countries within the Indo-Malay-Philippines Archipelago, and has been identified as the epicenter of marine biodiversity. With its inclusion in the Coral Triangle, the Philippine Sea encompasses over 3,212 fish species, 486 coral species, 800 seaweed species, and 820 benthic algae species, wherein the Verde Island Passage is dubbed as "the center of the center of marine fish biodiversity". Within its territory, thirty-three endemic species of fish have been identified, including the blue-spotted angelfish (Chaetodontoplus caeruleopunctatus) and the sea catfish (Arius manillensis). The Philippine marine territory has also become a breeding and feeding ground for endangered marine species, such as the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), the dugong (Dugong dugon), and the megamouth shark (Megachasma pelagios). Within the South China Sea, Philippine scientists have discovered an abundant amount of marine life and species that have the potential to be biomedical advances for the Philippines as well.
Coral Triangle
The Coral Triangle (also called the Indo-Malayan Triangle) is considered to be the global center of marine biodiversity. Its total oceanic area is approximately 2 million square kilometers. It encompasses the tropical waters of Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands. The Philippine islands, which lie at its apex, make up of it. The part of the Coral Triangle's coral reef area that lies within the Philippines ranges from to . It contains over 500 species of scleractinian or stony corals, and at least 12 endemic coral species.
The Coral Triangle contains 75% of the world's coral species (around 600 species). It is home to over 2000 types of reef fish, and six of the world's seven species of marine turtles (the hawksbill, loggerhead, leatherback, green turtle, olive ridley, and sea turtle). There is no single causal explanation for the unusually high biodiversity found in the Coral Triangle, but most researchers have attributed it to geological factors such as plate tectonics.
The Philippine Sea provides or supports the livelihoods of 120 million people, and is a source of food for the Philippine coastal communities and for millions more people worldwide. Whale-shark tourism in the Coral Triangle also provides a steady source of income for the surrounding community. The marine resources in the Coral Triangle have a high economic value, not only in the Philippines, but across the globe. The countries surrounding the Coral Triangle work to provide their people with technical assistance and other resources needed to promote conservation, sustainability, biodiversity, food security, sources of livelihood, and economic development.
Climate change is affecting the coastal ecosystem found in the Coral Triangle. It is contributing to rising sea levels and ocean acidification, thus endangering marine animals like fish and turtles. This has a negative effect on local sources of livelihood, such as fishing and tourism. It is also making the waters warmer, which endangers corals. Warmer water causes corals to absorb more carbon dioxide. This alters the water's pH balance, making it acidic, a condition to which the corals are not adapted, and in which they are ill-equipped to survive.
Biology
The Philippine Sea hosts an exotic marine ecosystem. There are 421 of the 577 known species of corals in coastal waters, including 19 seagrass species and 30 species of mangrove, both of which contribute nutrients to coral systems. The Philippines also consists of 20 percent of the shellfish globally. Sea turtles, sharks, moray eels, octopuses, and sea snakes, along with numerous species of fish such as tuna can commonly be observed. Additionally, the Philippine Sea serves as spawning ground for Japanese eel, tuna, and different whale species.
Biodiversity
The Philippine Sea is a centre of marine biodiversity as well as a biodiversity hotspot. However, at least 418 species are being threatened because of unsustainable practices.
The rise in temperature change caused shifts in the marine ecosystems. which could cause corals to die due to changing sea temperature. As fish and other marine life rely on corals for sustenance and habitat, communities that rely on fishing are heavily affected as well. As the Philippine Sea is situated in a particularly active Western Pacific tropical cyclone basin, the physical damage caused by typhoons coming from the east can further destroy the marine habitats.
History
The first European to navigate the Philippine Sea was Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, who named it Mar Filipinas when he and his men were in the Mariana Islands prior to the exploration of the Philippines. Later it was discovered by other Spanish explorers from 1522 to 1565.
Battle of the Philippine Sea
A historic battle between the naval fleets of the United States and Japan took place in the vicinity of the Philippine Sea. This was called The Battle of the Philippine Sea, and occurred near the Mariana Islands from 19 to 20 June 1944. It was also the largest carrier-to-carrier battle in history which featured the United States Fifth Fleet and the 1st Mobile Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy.
Aside from the navy, aerial activity was also present in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, as hundreds of aircraft from both countries fired at each other. The Americans indisputably won, and nicknamed the aerial war the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot" due to the number of Japanese aircraft shot down.
Japan struggled to recover from the severe damages of its imperial navy and air strength suffered from the battle. This heavily attributed to the victory of the United States in the Battle of the Philippine Sea which was a vital part of the Americans' reclamation of the Philippines, and the Mariana Islands from Japan.
Post-World War II
In 1989, the United States Department of Defense revealed the loss of a one-megaton nuclear bomb in the Philippine Sea during the 1965 Philippine Sea A-4 incident.
Following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, various Philippine government agencies started using the designation "West Philippine Sea" to refer to parts of the South China Sea. However, a PAGASA spokesperson said that the sea east of the Philippine archipelago will continue to be called the Philippine Sea.
Economy
Fisheries
The Philippines depends on the Philippine Sea as one of the sources of its food, and for many people's livelihoods. In the Coral Triangle area, the Philippines harvests seaweeds, milkfish, shrimp, oyster, mussel, and live reef fish as aquaculture products. Fishermen catch many types of fish, including small pelagic, anchovy, sardine, mackerel, and tuna, among others.
Recent scientific expeditions have found that the Benham Rise (also known as the Philippine Rise) in the Philippine Sea has a diverse marine ecosystem that attracts migratory commercial fish like tuna, marlin and mackerel. The Benham Rise is a rich fishing ground for fishermen from Aurora, Quezon and Bicol. The Philippines Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources trains fishermen in sustainable-fishing techniques to prevent the destruction of coral formations, which could negatively affect the food chain that the migratory fish depend on. Migratory fish generally sell at high prices. For example, a single bluefin tuna from the Benham Rise can be sold at market for .
See also
Philippine Trench
Philippine Sea Plate
Benham Rise
Devil's Sea
References
Seas of Asia
Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
Seas of the Philippines
Bodies of water of Guam
Bodies of water of the Federated States of Micronesia
Seas of Taiwan
Seas of Japan
Bodies of water of Palau
Articles containing video clips
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246325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonalizable%20matrix | Diagonalizable matrix | In linear algebra, a square matrix is called diagonalizable or non-defective if it is similar to a diagonal matrix, i.e., if there exists an invertible matrix and a diagonal matrix such that or equivalently (Such are not unique.) For a finite-dimensional vector space a linear map is called diagonalizable if there exists an ordered basis of consisting of eigenvectors of . These definitions are equivalent: if has a matrix representation as above, then the column vectors of form a basis consisting of eigenvectors of and the diagonal entries of are the corresponding eigenvalues of with respect to this eigenvector basis, is represented by Diagonalization is the process of finding the above and
Diagonalizable matrices and maps are especially easy for computations, once their eigenvalues and eigenvectors are known. One can raise a diagonal matrix to a power by simply raising the diagonal entries to that power, and the determinant of a diagonal matrix is simply the product of all diagonal entries; such computations generalize easily to Geometrically, a diagonalizable matrix is an inhomogeneous dilation (or anisotropic scaling) — it scales the space, as does a homogeneous dilation, but by a different factor along each eigenvector axis, the factor given by the corresponding eigenvalue.
A square matrix that is not diagonalizable is called defective. It can happen that a matrix with real entries is defective over the real numbers, meaning that is impossible for any invertible and diagonal with real entries, but it is possible with complex entries, so that is diagonalizable over the complex numbers. For example, this is the case for a generic rotation matrix.
Many results for diagonalizable matrices hold only over an algebraically closed field (such as the complex numbers). In this case, diagonalizable matrices are dense in the space of all matrices, which means any defective matrix can be deformed into a diagonalizable matrix by a small perturbation; and the Jordan normal form theorem states that any matrix is uniquely the sum of a diagonalizable matrix and a nilpotent matrix. Over an algebraically closed field, diagonalizable matrices are equivalent to semi-simple matrices.
Definition
A square matrix, , with entries in a field is called diagonalizable or nondefective if there exists an invertible matrix (i.e. an element of the general linear group GLn(K)), , such that is a diagonal matrix. Formally,
Characterization
The fundamental fact about diagonalizable maps and matrices is expressed by the following:
An matrix over a field is diagonalizable if and only if the sum of the dimensions of its eigenspaces is equal to , which is the case if and only if there exists a basis of consisting of eigenvectors of . If such a basis has been found, one can form the matrix having these basis vectors as columns, and will be a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are the eigenvalues of . The matrix is known as a modal matrix for .
A linear map is diagonalizable if and only if the sum of the dimensions of its eigenspaces is equal to which is the case if and only if there exists a basis of consisting of eigenvectors of . With respect to such a basis, will be represented by a diagonal matrix. The diagonal entries of this matrix are the eigenvalues of
Another characterization: A matrix or linear map is diagonalizable over the field if and only if its minimal polynomial is a product of distinct linear factors over (Put another way, a matrix is diagonalizable if and only if all of its elementary divisors are linear.)
The following sufficient (but not necessary) condition is often useful.
An matrix is diagonalizable over the field if it has distinct eigenvalues in i.e. if its characteristic polynomial has distinct roots in however, the converse may be false. Consider which has eigenvalues 1, 2, 2 (not all distinct) and is diagonalizable with diagonal form (similar to and change of basis matrix : The converse fails when has an eigenspace of dimension higher than 1. In this example, the eigenspace of associated with the eigenvalue 2 has dimension 2.
A linear map with is diagonalizable if it has distinct eigenvalues, i.e. if its characteristic polynomial has distinct roots in .
Let be a matrix over If is diagonalizable, then so is any power of it. Conversely, if is invertible, is algebraically closed, and is diagonalizable for some that is not an integer multiple of the characteristic of then is diagonalizable. Proof: If is diagonalizable, then is annihilated by some polynomial which has no multiple root (since and is divided by the minimal polynomial of
Over the complex numbers , almost every matrix is diagonalizable. More precisely: the set of complex matrices that are not diagonalizable over considered as a subset of has Lebesgue measure zero. One can also say that the diagonalizable matrices form a dense subset with respect to the Zariski topology: the non-diagonalizable matrices lie inside the vanishing set of the discriminant of the characteristic polynomial, which is a hypersurface. From that follows also density in the usual (strong) topology given by a norm. The same is not true over
The Jordan–Chevalley decomposition expresses an operator as the sum of its semisimple (i.e., diagonalizable) part and its nilpotent part. Hence, a matrix is diagonalizable if and only if its nilpotent part is zero. Put in another way, a matrix is diagonalizable if each block in its Jordan form has no nilpotent part; i.e., each "block" is a one-by-one matrix.
Diagonalization
If a matrix can be diagonalized, that is,
then:
Writing as a block matrix of its column vectors
the above equation can be rewritten as
So the column vectors of are right eigenvectors of and the corresponding diagonal entry is the corresponding eigenvalue. The invertibility of also suggests that the eigenvectors are linearly independent and form a basis of This is the necessary and sufficient condition for diagonalizability and the canonical approach of diagonalization. The row vectors of are the left eigenvectors of
When a complex matrix is a Hermitian matrix (or more generally a normal matrix), eigenvectors of can be chosen to form an orthonormal basis of and can be chosen to be a unitary matrix. If in addition, is a real symmetric matrix, then its eigenvectors can be chosen to be an orthonormal basis of and can be chosen to be an orthogonal matrix.
For most practical work matrices are diagonalized numerically using computer software. Many algorithms exist to accomplish this.
Simultaneous diagonalization
A set of matrices is said to be simultaneously diagonalizable if there exists a single invertible matrix such that is a diagonal matrix for every in the set. The following theorem characterizes simultaneously diagonalizable matrices: A set of diagonalizable matrices commutes if and only if the set is simultaneously diagonalizable.
The set of all diagonalizable matrices (over with is not simultaneously diagonalizable. For instance, the matrices
are diagonalizable but not simultaneously diagonalizable because they do not commute.
A set consists of commuting normal matrices if and only if it is simultaneously diagonalizable by a unitary matrix; that is, there exists a unitary matrix such that is diagonal for every in the set.
In the language of Lie theory, a set of simultaneously diagonalizable matrices generate a toral Lie algebra.
Examples
Diagonalizable matrices
Involutions are diagonalizable over the reals (and indeed any field of characteristic not 2), with ±1 on the diagonal.
Finite order endomorphisms are diagonalizable over (or any algebraically closed field where the characteristic of the field does not divide the order of the endomorphism) with roots of unity on the diagonal. This follows since the minimal polynomial is separable, because the roots of unity are distinct.
Projections are diagonalizable, with 0s and 1s on the diagonal.
Real symmetric matrices are diagonalizable by orthogonal matrices; i.e., given a real symmetric matrix is diagonal for some orthogonal matrix More generally, matrices are diagonalizable by unitary matrices if and only if they are normal. In the case of the real symmetric matrix, we see that so clearly holds. Examples of normal matrices are real symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrices (e.g. covariance matrices) and Hermitian matrices (or skew-Hermitian matrices). See spectral theorems for generalizations to infinite-dimensional vector spaces.
Matrices that are not diagonalizable
In general, a rotation matrix is not diagonalizable over the reals, but all rotation matrices are diagonalizable over the complex field. Even if a matrix is not diagonalizable, it is always possible to "do the best one can", and find a matrix with the same properties consisting of eigenvalues on the leading diagonal, and either ones or zeroes on the superdiagonal – known as Jordan normal form.
Some matrices are not diagonalizable over any field, most notably nonzero nilpotent matrices. This happens more generally if the algebraic and geometric multiplicities of an eigenvalue do not coincide. For instance, consider
This matrix is not diagonalizable: there is no matrix such that is a diagonal matrix. Indeed, has one eigenvalue (namely zero) and this eigenvalue has algebraic multiplicity 2 and geometric multiplicity 1.
Some real matrices are not diagonalizable over the reals. Consider for instance the matrix
The matrix does not have any real eigenvalues, so there is no real matrix such that is a diagonal matrix. However, we can diagonalize if we allow complex numbers. Indeed, if we take
then is diagonal. It is easy to find that is the rotation matrix which rotates counterclockwise by angle
Note that the above examples show that the sum of diagonalizable matrices need not be diagonalizable.
How to diagonalize a matrix
Diagonalizing a matrix is the same process as finding its eigenvalues and eigenvectors, in the case that the eigenvectors form a basis. For example, consider the matrix
The roots of the characteristic polynomial are the eigenvalues Solving the linear system gives the eigenvectors and while gives that is, for These vectors form a basis of so we can assemble them as the column vectors of a change-of-basis matrix to get:
We may see this equation in terms of transformations: takes the standard basis to the eigenbasis, so we have:
so that has the standard basis as its eigenvectors, which is the defining property of
Note that there is no preferred order of the eigenvectors in changing the order of the eigenvectors in just changes the order of the eigenvalues in the diagonalized form of
Application to matrix functions
Diagonalization can be used to efficiently compute the powers of a matrix
and the latter is easy to calculate since it only involves the powers of a diagonal matrix. For example, for the matrix with eigenvalues in the example above we compute:
This approach can be generalized to matrix exponential and other matrix functions that can be defined as power series. For example, defining we have:
This is particularly useful in finding closed form expressions for terms of linear recursive sequences, such as the Fibonacci numbers.
Particular application
For example, consider the following matrix:
Calculating the various powers of reveals a surprising pattern:
The above phenomenon can be explained by diagonalizing To accomplish this, we need a basis of consisting of eigenvectors of One such eigenvector basis is given by
where ei denotes the standard basis of Rn. The reverse change of basis is given by
Straightforward calculations show that
Thus, a and b are the eigenvalues corresponding to u and v, respectively. By linearity of matrix multiplication, we have that
Switching back to the standard basis, we have
The preceding relations, expressed in matrix form, are
thereby explaining the above phenomenon.
Quantum mechanical application
In quantum mechanical and quantum chemical computations matrix diagonalization is one of the most frequently applied numerical processes. The basic reason is that the time-independent Schrödinger equation is an eigenvalue equation, albeit in most of the physical situations on an infinite dimensional space (a Hilbert space).
A very common approximation is to truncate Hilbert space to finite dimension, after which the Schrödinger equation can be formulated as an eigenvalue problem of a real symmetric, or complex Hermitian matrix. Formally this approximation is founded on the variational principle, valid for Hamiltonians that are bounded from below.
First-order perturbation theory also leads to matrix eigenvalue problem for degenerate states.
See also
Defective matrix
Scaling (geometry)
Triangular matrix
Semisimple operator
Diagonalizable group
Jordan normal form
Weight module – associative algebra generalization
Orthogonal diagonalization
Notes
References
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246327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny%20Burnette | Johnny Burnette | John Joseph Burnette (March 25, 1934 – August 14, 1964) was an American singer and songwriter of rockabilly and pop music. In 1952, Johnny and his brother, Dorsey Burnette, and their mutual friend Paul Burlison formed the band that became known as the Rock and Roll Trio. His career was cut short on August 14, 1964, when he was killed in a boat crash at age 30.
He is the father of 1980s rockabilly singer Rocky Burnette.
Early life
Johnny Burnette was born to Willie May and Dorsey Burnett Sr. in Memphis, Tennessee, United States. (The "e" at the end of his name was added later.) Johnny grew up with his parents and Dorsey Jr. in a public housing project in the Lauderdale Courts area of Memphis, which from 1948 until 1954 was also the home of Gladys and Vernon Presley and their son, Elvis.
Johnny attended Blessed Sacrament School, and after graduating from eighth grade he went to Catholic High School, in Memphis. (Early press reports, dating back to 1956, stated erroneously that Johnny attended Humes High School with Presley.) He showed an aptitude for sports, being on the school baseball team and playing linebacker on the football team. Both he and Dorsey were also keen amateur boxers and later became Golden Gloves champions. After leaving high school, Burnette tried his hand at becoming a professional boxer, but after one fight with a sixty-dollar purse and a broken nose or an encounter with Norris Ray, a top paycheck of $150, he decided to quit boxing. He went to work on barges traversing the Mississippi River, where Dorsey also worked. Johnny worked mainly as a deck hand; Dorsey worked as an oiler. After work, they would go back to Memphis and perform songs in local bars with a varying array of sidemen, including another former Golden Gloves champion, Paul Burlison, whom Dorsey had met at an amateur boxing tournament in Memphis in 1949.
The Rock and Roll Trio
In 1952, the Burnette brothers and Burlison formed a group called the Rhythm Rangers. Johnny sang and played acoustic guitar, Dorsey played bass and Paul Burlison played lead guitar. For economic reasons, the three moved to New York in 1956 and managed to get an audition for Ted Mack's Original Amateur Hour. Winning the competition three times in a row gained them a place in the finals and a recording contract with Coral Records, and they renamed themselves the Rock and Roll Trio. They also gained a manager, the bandleader Henry Jerome, and a drummer, Tony Austin (a cousin of Carl Perkins).
Promotional appearances were arranged on Dick Clark's American Bandstand, Steve Allen's Tonight Show and Perry Como's Kraft Music Hall, together with a summer tour with Carl Perkins and Gene Vincent. On Sunday September 9, 1956, they appeared as finalists in the Original Amateur Hour at Madison Square Garden. Despite this activity, the three singles they released over this period failed to make the national charts.
In order to cover their living expenses, the Trio was forced to go on the road, for what seemed to be an endless stream of one-night stands. This exhausting regime led to squabbles, which were exacerbated in Dorsey's case by Jerome's use of the name Johnny Burnette and the Rock and Roll Trio on records and live dates. Things finally came to a head at a gig in Niagara Falls in autumn 1956, when, as a result of a fight, Dorsey quit the group a week before they were to appear in Alan Freed's film Rock, Rock, Rock.
Johnny Black, the brother of Elvis's bassist Bill Black, was rapidly recruited to fill Dorsey's place. Despite the film appearance and three more single releases and one LP release, the group failed to achieve any chart success. The Rock and Roll Trio disbanded in autumn 1957.
Success in California with Ricky Nelson
Now unemployed in Memphis, Burnette decided to try his luck in California. He and a friend, Joe Campbell, hitchhiked to the West Coast, where they joined Dorsey. With their past differences forgotten, the brothers attempted to resurrect the Rock and Roll Trio and sent for Paul Burlison. He joined them briefly but decided to return to Memphis and concentrate on his electrical business. Dorsey and Johnny continued with their songwriting, but Dorsey kept his day job as an electrician to pay the family expenses.
The Burnettes' brashness got them their first success in the music business in California. On arriving in Los Angeles, Joe Campbell bought a copy of "A Map to the Stars", which showed the location of the house of the teen idol Ricky Nelson. In an effort to get their songs to him, the Burnettes and Campbell decided to sit on the steps of his house until they could get a meeting with him. Their persistence worked, and Nelson was sufficiently impressed with their work that he eventually recorded several of their songs, including "Believe What You Say", "It's Late", "Waitin' in School", and "Just a Little Too Much", amongst others. Other Imperial Records artists, such as Roy Brown, benefited from their songwriting. The success of his recording of the brothers' "Hip Shakin' Baby" led to a recording contract with Imperial Records as a duo. While in California, they met Doyle Holly, who played bass guitar for a short time with the band. Holly went on to become the bass player for Buck Owens and the Buckaroos and to record as a solo artist.
As the Burnette Brothers, they released one single, for Imperial, "Warm Love" backed with "My Honey" (Imperial X5509), on May 5, 1958. It did not make the charts. After this failure, they continued to work together as songwriters but began to follow separate careers as performing artists. In 1961, however, Johnny and Dorsey released two instrumental singles, credited to the Texans, for two small labels, Infinity and Gothic: "Green Grass of Texas" backed with "Bloody River" (Infinity INX-001), released on February 20, 1961, and "Rockin' Johnny Home" backed with "Ole Reb" (Gothic GOX-001), released on May 29, 1961. Another instrumental, "Lonely Island" backed with"Green Hills" (Liberty 55460), credited to the Shamrocks, was released by Liberty Records on June 6, 1962. "Green Grass of Texas" and "Bloody River" were to be re-released in February 1965 on the Vee Jay label (VJ 658), again credited to the Texans.
Solo career
The Liberty years
In the fall of 1958, Johnny Burnette obtained a recording contract as a solo artist with Freedom Records, an offshoot of Liberty Records. He released three singles on this label: "Kiss Me" backed with "I'm Restless" (44001), released on September 11, 1958; "Gumbo" backed with "Me and the Bear" (44011), released on March 6, 1959; and "Sweet Baby Doll" backed with "I'll Never Love Again" (44017), released on June 24, 1959. All of these songs except "Sweet Baby Doll" were written by Burnette. None of these records were hits.
In mid-1959, the Freedom label was shut down, and Burnette moved to the parent Liberty label, under the direction of the producer Snuff Garrett. Liberty had better promotional capabilities than Freedom, so that Johnny's singles for Liberty stood a greater chance of succeeding. His first two singles for Liberty, "Settin' the Woods on Fire" backed with "Kentucky Waltz" (Liberty F-55222), released on November 10, 1959, and "Patrick Henry" backed with "Don't Do It" (Liberty F-55243), released on March 4, 1960, sold well regionally but were not national hits. However, his third single, "Dreamin'" backed with "Cincinnati Fireball" (Liberty F-55285), released on May 4, 1960, reached number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 5 in Britain. It sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA.
His fourth Liberty single, "You're Sixteen" (written by the Sherman Brothers) backed with "I Beg Your Pardon" (Liberty F-55285), released on October 5, 1960, did even better, reaching number 8 on the Hot 100 and number 3 in the UK Singles Chart, and earned him another gold record. Burnette went back into the studio and under Snuff Garrett's direction recorded "Little Boy Sad". This was released on January 3, 1961, backed with "(I Go) Down to the River" (Liberty F-55298). Shortly after its release, Burnette was hospitalized with a ruptured appendix, which kept him bedridden for several weeks. He was unable to undertake many personal appearances to promote the new record, and it reached only number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 12 in Britain. Frustrated by this prolonged inactivity he tried to return to work too early, and he promptly collapsed. This meant that his fifth Liberty single, "Big Big World" backed with "Ballad of the One Eyed Jacks" (Liberty F-55318), released on March 30, 1961, received no promotion at all and reached only number 58 on the Hot 100.
His sixth Liberty single, "I've Got a Lot of Things to Do" backed with "Girls" (Liberty F-55345), released June 14, 1961, was handled differently from his previous records. In Britain, the upbeat side, "Girls", was promoted as the topside and reached number 23 in the UK chart in September 1961. In the United States it was flipped over with "I've Got a Lot of Things to Do" as the topside, but despite heavy promotion it failed to become a hit, peaking just outside the Hot 100 at number 109.
After recovering from his illness, Burnette returned to the road with a tour of Northern cities, culminating in a season at the Brooklyn Paramount Theatre, after which he undertook a tour of Australia with Connie Francis. Back in the limelight, his next release was scheduled to be a Carl Perkins song, "Fools Like Me", backed with "Honestly I Do" (Liberty 55377), but this was cancelled in favour of "God, Country and My Baby" backed with "Honestly I Do" (Liberty 55379), which was released on September 27, 1961. It reached number 18 on the Hot 100, but was to be Burnette's last major American hit.
In 1962, Burnette toured Britain for the first time, with Gary U.S. Bonds and Gene McDaniels, where he made an appearance on the New Musical Express Poll Winners' Concert and several TV appearances. His next single "Clown Shoes" backed with "The Way I Am" (Liberty 55416) was released on January 26, 1962, but it failed to make the US Hot 100. It was more successful in Britain, where it reached number 35. "Clown Shoes" was written by P. J. Proby.
Burnette had two more single releases on Liberty Records. These were "The Fool of the Year" backed with "The Poorest Boy in Town" (Liberty 55448), which was released on April 13, 1962 and "Damn the Defiant" backed with "Lonesome Waters" (Liberty 55489), which was released on July 30, 1962. Neither of these singles was a hit, but "Damn the Defiant", a Johnny Horton–style naval saga, was Burnette's first self-penned A-side for Liberty, It was also his last single for the label.
The Chancellor stint
Burnette moved to Chancellor Records, which had had success with teen idols like Fabian Forte and Frankie Avalon. Chancellor released three singles by Burnette in 1962: "I Wanna Thank Your Folks" backed with "The Giant" (Chancellor C-1116), "Tag Along" backed with "Party Girl" (Chancellor C-1123) and "Remember Me (I'm the One Who Loves You)" backed with "Time Is Not Enough" (Chancellor C-1129). None of these singles were hits.
The Capitol sessions
Burnette moved on from Chancellor, briefly joining Dorsey on Reprise Records for one single, "Hey Sue" backed with "It Don't Take Much" (20153), before signing a one-year contract with Capitol Records in the summer of 1963. Johnny's first recording session was held on July 23, 1963, at the Capitol Tower with Jim Economides and Jimmie Haskell overseeing the proceedings. A number of tracks were recorded: "It Isn't There", "Wish It Were Saturday Night", "I'll Give You Three Guesses", "All Week Long" and "Congratulations, You've Hurt Me Again". Of these "It Isn't There" backed with "Wish It Were Saturday Night" (Capitol 5023) were issued on August 19, 1963, as his first American single. In Britain, the flipside was changed to "All Week Long", but neither single made the charts. On December 13, 1963, a second session was held, with the same two men in charge. Four more songs were recorded, of which "The Opposite" backed with "You Taught Me the Way to Love You" (Capitol 5114) was released as a single on January 20, 1964. Again it failed to find chart success. A third session was held on February 14, 1964, which produced four songs: "Aunt Marie", "Two Feet in Front of Me", "If I Were An Artist", and "And Her Name Is Scarlett". None of these songs were deemed fit for release and remained in the can for thirty years. A fourth session was held on March 16, 1964, which was overseen by David Gates, who later went on to fame with the band Bread. This session produced "Sweet Suzie, I Think She Knows" and "It All Depends on Linda", which was written by Bobby Bare. Of these songs, "Sweet Suzie" backed with "Walkin' Talkin' Doll", which had been held back from the December 1963 session, were released as Capitol single (Capitol 5176) on April 5, 1964. This single also failed to make the charts.
Sahara and Magic Lamp labels
When his Capitol contract ran out, Burnette decided to take charge of his own affairs on his own terms. He formed his own label Sahara and in July 1964 released the single "Fountain of Love" backed with "What a Summer Day" (Sahara 512). When he was informed that the name Sahara had already been taken, he renamed the label Magic Lamp and a different single, "Bigger Man" backed with "Less Than a Heartbeat" (Magic Lamp 515) was released.
Death
On August 14, 1964, Burnette's unlit fishing boat was struck by an unaware cabin cruiser in Clear Lake, California. The impact threw him off the boat, and he drowned. When he received the news, Dorsey Burnette called Paul Burlison, who flew out to comfort him and attend Johnny's funeral. The two men were to keep in touch until Dorsey's death of a heart attack in 1979. Johnny Burnette is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.
Legacy
Burnette gained prominence in 1973 for Ringo Starr's version of "You're Sixteen". In addition, Burnette's original song was recognized by the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. One of his songs, "Train Kept A-Rollin'" by Tiny Bradshaw, would later be recorded by the Yardbirds, Aerosmith and Motörhead.
The Cramps covered his song "Tear it Up", Poison Ivy heavily influenced by Burnette's raw guitar style and Lux Interior borrowing Burnette's vocal approach, and fellow rockabilly band Tav Falco's Panther Burns did a cover of "You're Undecided", both songs from Burnette's first album and again, heavily indebted to Burnette quivering, emotional vocal delivery.
The Beatles, with John Lennon on vocal, performed "Lonesome Tears in My Eyes" at the BBC on July 10, 1963 for broadcast airing on July 23, 1963. During the airing Lennon introduced the song, originally recorded by Johnny Burnette and the Rock 'n Roll Trio on July 3, 1956 and released in March 1957, joking, "This is a Dorsey Burnette number, brother of Johnny Burnette, called 'Lonesome Tears in My Eyes', recorded on their very first LP in 1822!" This live in-studio recording of 'Lonesome Tears in My Eyes' (including Lennon's spoken intro) was later included on the Beatles' 1994 two-CD set, Live at the BBC.
Quotation
NME, February 1961
Discography
Studio albums
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;
|-
! Year
! Album
! Record label
|-
| rowspan="1" | 1957
| align=left | Rock 'n Roll Trio
| rowspan="1" | Coral Records
|-
| rowspan="1" | 1960
| align=left | Dreamin| rowspan="5" | Liberty Records
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1961
| align=left | Johnny Burnette
|-
| align=left | Sings
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1962
| align=left | Roses Are Red
|-
| align=left | Johnny Burnette's Hits and Other Favorites
|}
Compilation
Singles
Johnny Burnette and the Rock 'n' Roll Trio
The Johnny Burnette Trio
Johnny Burnette
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;
|-
! rowspan="2" | Year
! rowspan="2" | Title
! colspan="2" | Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2" | Record label
! rowspan="2" | B-side
! rowspan="2" | Album
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! align=centre| US
! align=centre| UK
|-
| rowspan="1" | 1955
| align=left | "You're Undecided"
| –
| –
| rowspan="1" | Von Records
| "Go Mule Go"
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1957
| align=left | "Eager Beaver Baby"
| –
| –
| rowspan="3" | Coral Records
| "Touch Me"
|
|-
| align=left | "Butterfingers"
| –
| –
| "Drinking Wine, Spo-Dee-O-Dee, Drinking Wine"
|
|-
| align=left | "Rock Billy Boogie"
| –
| –
| "If You Want It Enough"
|
|-
| rowspan="1" | 1958
| align=left | "Kiss Me"
| –
| –
| rowspan="3" | Freedom Records
| "I'm Restless"
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1959
| align=left | "Me and the Bear"
| –
| –
| "Gumbo"
|
|-
| align=left | "I'll Never Love Again"
| –
| –
| "Sweet Baby Doll"
|
|-
| align=left | "Settin' the Woods on Fire"
| –
| –
| rowspan="11" | Liberty Records
| "Kentucky Waltz"
| rowspan="1" | Dreamin'''
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1960
| align=left | "Patrick Henry"
| –
| –
| "Don't Do It"
|
|-
| align=left | "Dreamin'"
| 11
| 5
| "Cincinnati Fireball"
| rowspan="1" | Dreamin
|-
| align=left | "You're Sixteen"
| 8
| 3
| "I Beg Your Pardon"
| rowspan="1" | Johnny Burnette|-
| rowspan="5" | 1961
| align=left | "Little Boy Sad"
| 17
| 12
| "(I Go) Down to the River"
| rowspan="2" | Sings|-
| align=left | "Big Big World"
| 58
| –
| "Ballad of the One Eyed Jacks"
|-
| align=left | "Girls"
| –
| 37
| "I've Got a Lot of Things to Do" (#109 BB)
| rowspan="1" | Roses Are Red|-
| align=left | "Fools Like Me"
| –
| –
| "Honestly I Do"
|
|-
| align=left | "God, Country and My Baby"
| 18
| –
| "Honestly I Do"
| rowspan="1" | Johnny Burnette's Hits and Other Favorites|-
| rowspan="6" | 1962
| align=left | "Clown Shoes"
| 113
| 35
| "The Way I Am"
| rowspan="2" | Roses Are Red|-
| align=left | "The Fool of the Year"
| 113
| 35
| "The Poorest Boy in Town"
|-
| align=left | "I Wanna Thank Your Folks"
| 117
| –
| rowspan="1" | Chancellor Records
| "The Giant"
|
|-
| align=left | "Damn the Defiant"
| –
| –
| rowspan="1" | Liberty Records
| "Lonesome Waters"
|
|-
| align=left | "Tag-Along"
| –
| –
| rowspan="2" | Chancellor Records
| "Party Girl"
|
|-
| align=left | "(Remember Me) I'm the One Who Loves You"
| –
| –
| "Time is Not Enough"
|
|-
| rowspan="1" | 1963
| align=left | "It Isn't There"
| –
| –
| rowspan="3" | Capitol Records
| "(Wish It Were Saturday Night) All Week Long"
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1964
| align=left | "You Taught Me the Way to Love You"
| –
| –
| "The Opposite"
|
|-
| align=left | "Sweet Suzie"
| –
| –
| "Walkin', Talkin' Doll"
|
|-
| align=left | "What a Summer Day"
| –
| –
| rowspan="1" | Sahara Records
| "Fountain of Love"
|
|-
| align=left | "Bigger Man"
| –
| –
| rowspan="1" | Magic Lamp Records
| "Less Than a Heartbeat"
|
|}
References
Other sources
Johnny Burnette's Rock 'n' Roll Trio
– for single releases 1954 to 1964, Infinity, Gothic and Vee Jay releases as the Texans, Liberty release as the Shamrocks
The Johnny & Dorsey Burnette Discography by Gilles Vignal and Marc Alesina – For recording session details, including demo sessions 1954 to 1964
Survey of American Popular Music by Frank Hoffmann – Dorsey and Johnny Burnette
"Rock Billy Boogie/Johnny Burnette Trio" by Colin Escott (sleeve notes to Bear Family CD BCD 15474/AH) – general background details including original spelling of Burnette name, Dorsey Sr.'s 1939 purchase of Gene Autry guitars, boxing and 1949 meeting with Paul Burlison
"Johnny and Dorsey/The Burnette Brothers" by Adam Komorowski (sleeve notes to Rockstar CD RSRCD 005) – early Freedom singles and possibility of Eddie Cochran's presence on Gumbo
That's The Way I Feel: The Complete Capitol Recordings – Johnny Burnette by Adam Komorowski (sleeve notes to Rockstar CD RSRCD 006) – details of Infinity, Gothic and Vee Jay singles, Reprise single, Capitol sessions and releases, Sahara and Magic Lamp releases, death and Dorsey's reunion with Paul Burlison
"You're Sixteen: The Best of Johnny Burnette" by Dawn Eden (sleeve notes to Liberty CD 82-99997) – broken nose and sixty dollar boxing purse, details of first meeting at the home of Ricky Nelson, details of Liberty releases, Hot 100 and UK chart positions, UK/US switch of sides "I've Got a Lot of Things to Do"/"Girls", reference to P. J. Proby, Capitol, Sahara and Magic Lamp releases
Dreamin' Johnny Burnette – Johnny Burnette'' by N. E. Fulcanwright (sleeve notes to Beat Goes on CD BGOCD329) – For Johnny's ruptured appendix in 1961 and its consequences, Liberty release, Hot 100 and UK chart positions, UK/US switch of sides "I've Got a Lot of Things to Do"/"Girls", US tour and Australian tour with Connie Francis, UK 1962 tour, reference to P. J. Proby
External links
Johnny Burnette article by Dr. Frank Hoffmann
Rockabilly.net
Rockabilly.nl
1934 births
1964 deaths
Accidental deaths in California
Deaths by drowning in California
American rockabilly musicians
American rock singers
Songwriters from Tennessee
Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Charly Records artists
Liberty Records artists
20th-century American singers
Articles containing video clips
Country musicians from Tennessee
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246328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe%20band | Pipe band | A pipe band is a musical ensemble consisting of pipers and drummers. The term pipes and drums, used by military pipe bands is also common.
The most common form of pipe band consists of a section of pipers playing the Great Highland bagpipe, a section of snare drummers (often referred to as 'side drummers'), several tenor drummers and usually one, though occasionally two, bass drummers. The tenor drummers and bass drummer are referred to collectively as the 'bass section' (or in North America as the 'midsection'), and the entire drum section is collectively known as the drum corps. The band follows the direction of the pipe major; when on parade the band may be led by a drum major, who directs the band with a mace. Standard instrumentation for a pipe band involves 6 to 25 pipers, 3 to 10 side drummers, 1 to 6 tenor drummers and 1 bass drummer. Occasionally this instrumentation is augmented to include additional instruments (such as additional percussion instruments or keyboard instruments), but this is typically done only in concert settings.
Pipe bands started in Scottish Regiments of the British Army, in the nineteenth century. The tradition then spread to former British colonies such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, as well as constituents of the Commonwealth of Nations. In addition, a number of other countries have adopted the tradition, notably in areas with Celtic roots: Ireland (circa 1900), Brittany in Northwestern France (1940s), and the regions of Galicia, Asturias and Cantabria in Northern Spain.
History
The pipe band's origins are in the military, but are obscure as contemporary historical regimental records had no direct interest in piping, giving only hints at details. The Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association maintains that the origin of military pipe bands are traced back to the early 1800s as soldiers tasked with keeping pace and morale on long marches with their respective regiments. The global spread of piping can also be directly attributed with British colonial expansion. Pipers and drummers in the employ of the British Army and Scottish emigrants brought with them traditional music and the culture surrounding the practice.
It is known that pipers served in regiments from the earliest times; the Royal Scots have records referring to pipers dating back to the early seventeenth century.
During this time, soldiers specially employed as pipers were employed by the officers of the regiments as private pipers, although countless others were certainly trained in piping while serving.
This situation continued until the 1840s, when Queen Victoria's enthusiasm for all things Highland was instrumental in the War Office's decision that each battalion of the Highland regiments be allowed five pipers and a Pipe Major, which continues to be all that the British Army provides funds for to this day. Any additional pipers in the battalion pipe band were and are equipped today by funds from the Officers' Mess Fund of the battalion.
By this time, pipers were already playing together with drummers, probably modelling themselves on the fife and drum bands which had existed in Switzerland since the 15th century. Drumming itself is as ancient as the concept of formed military units, and their original purpose on the battlefield was to signal tactical movements and keep cadence on the march.
By the time World War I broke out, the pipe band represented a popular image of Scotland, both internally and externally. Military pipers were killed and injured in significant numbers in the Great War, before the practice of playing in the trenches was banned. The ban was often not observed; Canadian piper James Richardson was awarded the Victoria Cross for playing in action in 1916. Pipes have occasionally played into battle, notably at El Alamein, Dieppe, the Normandy beaches, and the crossing of the Rhine. The Calgary Highlanders went into action for the first time at Hill 67 in Normandy with company pipers playing; it was the only time the Regiment did so.
Military pipers have also served in both Gulf Wars.
Military pipes and drums
Pipe bands have long been part of military tradition, most notably in the United Kingdom and its former colonies. Many of the same standard tunes are found in both the military and civilian pipe band repertoires, and many similarities exist in terms of musical style, historical and musical influences, and dress and deportment.
Musicians in British Army bands are normally required to take on a secondary role in the battlefield as medics. However, in most cases the pipes and drums in a Scottish or Irish infantry regiment constitute a machine gun or mortar platoon (as the Corps of Drums does in an English or Welsh infantry regiment). As a result, in addition to being musicians, members of the pipes and drums must also be qualified fighting soldiers. Unlike musicians, who belong to the Royal Corps of Army Music, the pipers and drummers belong to the regiment in which they serve and are soldiers first and foremost.
In other parts of the world, military pipe bands are generally part of reserve regiments, and also draw civilian members into their ranks.
The British Army runs its own pipes and drums training facility, the Army School of Bagpipe Music and Highland Drumming, in Edinburgh, Scotland. To be qualified as a pipe major or drum major in the pipes and drums of a regiment of the British Army, candidates must successfully pass a series of courses at the school.
Music
The music played by pipe bands generally consists of music from the Scottish tradition, the Irish tradition and the Breton tradition, either in the form of traditional folk tunes and dances or popular music that has been adapted for pipes. Examples of typical pipe bands forms include marches, slow airs, jigs and reels, and strathspeys. In recent years there has been a great deal of emphasis placed on new forms, especially the suite. A good example of a suite for pipe band is Don Thompson's composition Journey to Skye (1987).
In conventional pipe band music, each section of instruments has a different role in the music. Generally speaking, the pipers deliver the melodic and harmonic material, while the side drummers provide a rhythmically interactive accompaniment part. The tenor drummers provide rhythmic pulses and the bass drummer anchors the rhythms, providing a strong and steady beat.
Pipe section
The bagpipers are responsible for providing all melodic material in the music. Generally speaking, all of the pipers play a unison melody on their chanters, with their drones providing the harmonic support and filling out the sound.
When harmony is written within the pipe section, it is usually a two-part harmony, and is usually scored in a 2:1 ratio (with two-thirds of the players on the melody and one third of the players on the harmony part). Because of the limited range of the chanter, the harmonic possibilities are somewhat limited, but well-written harmony in a pipe band setting can be extremely effective. Pipe band harmony is sometimes referred to as 'seconds', although this simply refers to a second part and not to the interval of a second. In fact, intervals of a second are rarely found in pipe band harmony parts, except in passing. Instead, it is the consonant intervals which are stressed, such as perfect fourths and fifths, and even more commonly, parallel thirds and sixths.
In contemporary arrangements, a merge between harmony and melody known as 'counter-melody' has been aired. A counter-melody is similar to a harmony part, but is distinguished because it has a melodic line of its own. Counter-melody can take a completely different thematic approach and can dramatically change the flow and atmosphere of the melodic unison. This technique is relatively new in the pipe band circuit, and in most cases require skill and timing to achieve in full unison.
Drum corps
The drum corps of a pipe band consists of a section of drummers playing highland snare drums and the bass section. In the early days of pipe bands, rope tension snare drums were common, but as bagpipe tuning pitches became higher, a brighter tone was demanded from the drum corps. Pipe band drummers now play on drums with very tight, knitted kevlar heads, designed for maximum tension to create a very crisp and strident sound. Since today's drum is so facile as a result of its design, players are often able to execute extremely complicated and technically demanding rudimentary patterns.
The pipe band drum corps is responsible for both supporting the piping with a solid rhythmic foundation and sense of pulse, often creating an interesting contrapuntal line unto itself. The line played by the drum corps (referred to as the 'drum score') is usually based on rudimentary patterns and can often be quite involved, with solo, unison and contrapuntal passages throughout. A popular pattern in many scores is for the lead drummer to play a phrase, and the section to play in response. This technique is known as seconds (sometimes referred to as chips, or forte).
While standard practice in pipe bands is for the pipe section to perform the traditional or standard arrangements of the melodies, including gracenotes, drum scores are very often composed by the lead drummer of the band.
Bass section
The bass section (also referred to as a midsection) consists of a section of tenor drummers and a bass drummer. Their role is to provide rhythmic support to the entire ensemble. In this respect, the bass section allows the drum corps to delegate their timekeeping responsibilities and allows more freedom in the drum scores.
Generally, the bass drum provides a steady pulse, playing on the downbeat and on the strong beats of the bar, and the tenors support that pulse, often adding supporting beats, accents and dynamic interest.
Tenor drums in their modern form are a relatively new addition to the pipe band. While pipe bands of the past would often include tenor drummers, they would usually be "swinging tenors", players who would swing their sticks for elaborate visual effect but who would rarely play. They are more known as flourishing tenors. Today's tenor drummers play pitched drums, and careful thought is given as to which pitches to use and at which times. The pitches help provide melodic or harmonic accompaniment to the bagpipes; creating a more dynamic flow between the drum corps and the pipe corps. In some cases, five or six tenor drummers have been used, providing a palette of individual pitches for use in a variety of musical situations. The swinging also known as flourishing has developed somewhat into an art form, with drummers playing and swinging in unison or sequential flows. Tenor drums are also still commonly played on a soft harness, or sling, instead of the typical marching harness used by the snare drums, but shoulder harness tenors are now used by several pipe bands.
Uniform
Pipe band uniforms vary from band to band. However, the typical uniform consists of a glengarry (cap), shirt, tie, waistcoat (vest), jacket, kilt, hose and ghillie brogues. Many pipe bands wear a tartan that may reflect the area the band originated from or the history of the band. Jackets and waistcoats are usually black, and shirts are often short-sleeved for comfort. Each band also has its own tie, which can match the kilt tartan, or is sometimes merely a block colour. In competition, appearing smart in uniform is essential; some competitions have dress codes, for instance certain types of jackets only, ties must be knotted at the collar and so on.
Pipe bands often vary the uniform worn, depending on the formality of the occasion. Very formal occasions require jackets to be worn, whereas less formal occasions do not, and only the waistcoat is worn. On semi-formal occasions, the jacket is not worn, but a long-sleeved shirt is worn under the waistcoat. This increases the formality of the outfit, but decreases the comfort. On occasion, no waistcoat is worn, in which case the shirt sleeve must be of long length.
Pipe Major uniforms are usually different, to distinguish them from the other members of the band. More traditional highland dress may be worn, sometimes with a feather bonnet.
Competition
Competition is a primary focus for many pipe bands throughout the world. Every year, mainly in the period from spring to autumn, pipe bands around the world compete against each other at various venues, often at Highland festivals. For many, this usually culminates in the World Pipe Band Championships, held on the 2nd weekend of August. A typical season for many competing pipe bands might include ten or more of these competitions. Europe (especially the UK and Ireland), North America, Australia, and New Zealand have active competitive pipe band communities, but there are competing bands from throughout the world.
Since 1930, when the Scottish band association (today known as the Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association) was formed, there has been a World Pipe Band Championship competition, known as 'The Worlds' held annually in Glasgow during August. For competitive bands, the title of World Champion is highly coveted, and this event is seen as the culmination of a year's worth of preparation, rehearsal and practice.
The entirety of the World Championships takes place on one day in August, on Glasgow Green. Typically, several hundred bands attend, traveling from all over the world. Bands arrive early and, in most grades, are required to perform in a qualifying round which takes place in the morning. The top bands at the end of the qualifying round play in a second event in the afternoon to determine an aggregate winner.
To win, Grade One bands must perform in two events, a March, Strathspey & Reel event (known as a "set" or "MSR") which consists of three pre-arranged tunes, and a Medley event, which consists of a short selection of music chosen and arranged by the band. The rules for the medley contest are very open, requiring only a minimum and maximum time frame (between 5:30 and 7 minutes) and a minimum of different time signatures that must be played as well as two 3 pace rolls played at the beginning of the tune (also known as an attack).
In addition to performing at 'The Worlds', most internationally competitive bands participate in a season of events that are generally held during Scotland's summer months. While events of this type are usually held at Highland Games, band competitions in Scotland, Ireland and Northern Ireland are often large enough to be held as events unto themselves. The grading and organization of these events is generally consistent with the World Championships and the events are typically administered by the governing Pipe Band Association.
Grading system
Prizes at the Worlds are awarded in the following nine categories:
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3A
Grade 3B
Juvenile
Grade 4A
Grade 4B
Novice Juvenile A
Novice Juvenile B
In the Novice Juvenile and Juvenile categories, band members must be under the age of eighteen, with the exception of one "adult" player, often an instructor, who may serve as the Pipe Major or Pipe Sergeant. The remaining categories have no age restriction, and are instead based on proficiency. Grading and eligibility are overseen by the National Council and Music Board of the RSPBA, and bands can be downgraded or upgraded at the annual regrading, which takes place at the end of the competition season. A band can apply for downgrading, but will have to compete in two further contests in their existing grade.
Because of time constraints, the RSPBA uses "A" and "B" designations in Grade 3, 4, and Novice Juvenile for major competitions. In doing so, bands are grouped based on prior-years' performances, and can receive promotions within their respective grade. These vary slightly throughout the world. For example, in the Republic of Ireland and North America, Grade 4B is known as Grade 5, and in Australia and New Zealand there is no Novice grade at all.
Non-competitive piping
Many pipe bands perform in parades and other public events as a primary activity. These bands are sometimes referred to as "street bands" or "parade bands". Some military bands fall into this category as well, playing for regimental functions in lieu of, or supplemented by, competitions and/or concerts.
In recent times, concert performances have become increasingly popular. The purely musical nature of these venues enable the exploration of non-traditional repertoire, and serves as another means by which piping and drumming can present itself to the public in a modern fashion.
Bagad
A lesser-known type of pipe band that has already expanded the pipe band genre is the bagad, a Breton cultural phenomenon. Bagads began in the thirties to counter the widespread decay of the living Breton folk tradition.
A modern-day bagad consists of a biniou braz (Breton bagpipes), a bombarde section, a drum corps, and any additional musical instruments the band wishes to add.
Common additions are clarinets, brass instruments (often trumpets or saxophones), guitars, and other forms of binious.
See also
List of pipe bands and associations
References
External links
The Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association
Bagpiping
Highland games
Scottish music
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246331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20smallpipes | Scottish smallpipes | The Scottish smallpipe is a bellows-blown bagpipe re-developed by Colin Ross and many others, adapted from an earlier design of the instrument. There are surviving bellows-blown examples of similar historical instruments as well as the mouth-blown Montgomery smallpipes, dated 1757, which are held in the National Museum of Scotland. Some instruments are being built as direct copies of historical examples, but few modern instruments are directly modelled on older examples; the modern instrument is typically larger and lower-pitched. The innovations leading to the modern instrument, in particular the design of the reeds, were largely taken from the Northumbrian smallpipes.
Although there is evidence of small pipes dating back to 15th century, in its current form it is perhaps the youngest bagpipe with widespread popularity, having only existed in this form since the early 1980s.
Characteristics
Scottish smallpipes are distinguished from the Northumbrian smallpipes by having an open ended chanter, and usually by the lack of keys. This means that the sound of the chanter is continuous, rather than staccato, and that its range is only nine notes, rather than the octave and a sixth range of the later 18th/early 19th century Northumbrian pipes.
The instrument has a cylindrically bored chanter, most commonly pitched in A, although any key is feasible; D, C, B flat, and G are also common keys. Being cylindrically bored, the chanter sounds an octave lower than a conical-bored chanter of the same size, such as that of the Border pipes.The basic scale of the Scottish smallpipe is identical to the Mixolydian scale of the Highland and Border bagpipes: the 7th (leading) note on the scale is flattened, meaning in the case of an A chanter, the low and high G notes are natural, rather than sharp (as they would be in the scale of A major.)
Scottish smallpipes are most commonly tuned to be played with the same fingering system as Highland bagpipes (sometimes called 'half-covered'), however they can also be tuned to accept a 'covered' fingering system (very similar to that of the 'closed' system used for Northumbrian smallpipes), where only one finger is lifted from the chanter to play each note, the only difference to the Northumbrian system being that bottom finger hole on the chanter is left uncovered (except for when playing the low leading note.)
Scottish smallpipes are normally bellows-blown like the Northumbrian smallpipes and Border pipes. Mouth-blown versions are also reasonably common, but the advantages of bellows-blown pipes, such as greater stability of tuning due to less variability in the humidity and temperature of air across the reeds, and the possibility to sing or talk whilst playing, make them far less popular.
The chanter is most commonly unkeyed, but occasionally high B, G sharp, F natural, and C natural keys are added, to give a greater range and accidental notes. A second thumb hole may also be added to the back of the chanter to play C natural. Though it would in principle be possible to add as many keys as seen on modern Northumbrian smallpipes, very few pipers use a set with more than 3 keys. Most music written for the instrument uses only the nine notes of its unkeyed range.
The drones, typically three in number, are set in a common stock and are usually tuned in one of two patterns. For pipes in A, the tenor drone is tuned to the low "A" of the chanter, usually the tonic note, and the bass drone to the "A" an octave below this. There is also sometimes a dominant drone - this can be either a baritone, tuned a fifth above the bass, or else an alto drone, tuned a fifth above the tenor. For tunes in the key of D, the dominant drone can be either shut off or retuned to the fourth on the chanter. Most makers prefer a baritone drone, rather than an alto, though some use only the bass and tenor. Some makers have developed drones compatible with both A and D chanters, so that one instrument can be used with either chanter. These sets include both A and D drones. One example is the "ADAD" style, with bass, baritone, tenor, and alto, as seen here: With longer tuning slides or the addition of tuning beads (used widely on Northumbrian smallpipe drones), drones can easily be retuned to a pitch one or two tones higher. This allows for increased drone tuning options, meaning tunes can be played in the nominal keys of A Mixolydian, D major, and by tuning the tonic drones down by a tone, in G.
History
Originally one of the first documented bagpipes in Scotland, along with the Border pipes, smallpipes were popular in the Lowland areas of Scotland as far north as Aberdeen. Evidence shows them to have existed since the 15th century (Highland pipes can only be documented from the 15th Century in a form definably separate from Irish "warpipes"), when they were used for dancing and entertainment in court and castle, later they became popular amongst burgh pipers, and town minstrels until the early 19th Century, when the demise of the town pipers led to their disappearing from the record. Being bellows-blown this made them suitable for playing for long periods. Bellows-blown smallpipes are believed to have entered Scotland via England, and the continent of Europe, examples are preserved in many drawings, carvings, and paintings from 15th century onwards, and in Europe from the 12th century onwards. There is some discussion of the historical Scottish smallpipes in Collinson's history of the bagpipes. More reliable research and information can be obtained in Hugh Cheape's "Bagpipes: A National Collection."
Since there was a break in the continuous playing tradition of the smallpipes, and Border pipes, no absolute, definitive playing style can be ascribed to them. However, according to the evidence provided by surviving manuscript collections of music written for these pipes (particular those of Dixon, Peacock, and Riddell), their style was built around variations, runs, and arpeggios, as opposed to the surviving Highland music which is dominated by stylised gracenote techniques.
Smallpipes are extremely popular with Highland pipers, many of whom use them, or a set of Border pipes, as a second instrument better suited to indoor playing, and play them according to the Highland tradition. Though it has somewhat supplanted the musically unsatisfactory Highland practice chanter as a relatively quiet rehearsal instrument for Highland pipers, it has gained wide currency as a session instrument, playing both the Highland and lowland (border) repertoires.
The Scottish smallpipes were the first widely available instrument which allowed Highland pipers to participate in musical sessions with fiddlers, flautists and other instruments, as well as to accompany singers. Leading players include Hamish Moore, Gordon Mooney, Iain MacInnes, Allan MacDonald, Gary West, Fred Morrison, Fin Moore, Brìghde Chaimbeul, Michael Roddy, Callum Armstrong, Ross Ainslie, David Barnes, EJ Jones and Barry Shears, as well as the late Martyn Bennett.
See also
Bagpipe
LBPS list of smallpipe and border pipe makers
List of Smallpipe makers
References
External links
The Lowland and Border Pipers' Society
Bagpipe society - Scottish smallpipes
Bagpipes
Scottish musical instruments | [
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246333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayfly | Mayfly | Mayflies (also known as shadflies or fishflies in Canada and the upper Midwestern U.S.; also up-winged flies in the United Kingdom) are aquatic insects belonging to the order Ephemeroptera. This order is part of an ancient group of insects termed the Palaeoptera, which also contains dragonflies and damselflies. Over 3,000 species of mayfly are known worldwide, grouped into over 400 genera in 42 families.
Mayflies exhibit a number of ancestral traits that were probably present in the first flying insects, such as long tails and wings that do not fold flat over the abdomen. Their immature stages are aquatic fresh water forms (called "naiads" or "nymphs"), whose presence indicates a clean, unpolluted and highly oxygenated aquatic environment. They are unique among insect orders in having a fully winged terrestrial preadult stage, the subimago, which moults into a sexually mature adult, the imago.
Mayflies "hatch" (emerge as adults) from spring to autumn, not necessarily in May, in enormous numbers. Some hatches attract tourists. Fly fishermen make use of mayfly hatches by choosing artificial fishing flies that resemble them. One of the most famous English mayflies is Rhithrogena germanica, the fisherman's "March brown mayfly".
The brief lives of mayfly adults have been noted by naturalists and encyclopaedists since Aristotle and Pliny the Elder in classical times. The German engraver Albrecht Dürer included a mayfly in his 1495 engraving The Holy Family with the Mayfly to suggest a link between heaven and earth. The English poet George Crabbe compared the brief life of a daily newspaper with that of a mayfly in the satirical poem "The Newspaper" (1785), both being known as "ephemera".
Description
Nymph
Immature mayflies are aquatic and are referred to as nymphs or naiads. In contrast to their short lives as adults, they may live for several years in the water. They have an elongated, cylindrical or somewhat flattened body that passes through a number of instars (stages), molting and increasing in size each time. When ready to emerge from the water, nymphs vary in length, depending on species, from . The head has a tough outer covering of sclerotin, often with various hard ridges and projections; it points either forwards or downwards, with the mouth at the front. There are two large compound eyes, three ocelli (simple eyes) and a pair of antennae of variable lengths, set between or in front of the eyes. The mouthparts are designed for chewing and consist of a flap-like labrum, a pair of strong mandibles, a pair of maxillae, a membranous hypopharynx and a labium.
The thorax consists of three segments – the hindmost two, the mesothorax and metathorax, being fused. Each segment bears a pair of legs which usually terminate in a single claw. The legs are robust and often clad in bristles, hairs or spines. Wing pads develop on the mesothorax, and in some species, hindwing pads develop on the metathorax.
The abdomen consists of ten segments, some of which may be obscured by a large pair of operculate gills, a thoracic shield (expanded part of the prothorax) or the developing wing pads. In most taxa up to seven pairs of gills arise from the top or sides of the abdomen, but in some species they are under the abdomen, and in a very few species the gills are instead located on the coxae of the legs, or the bases of the maxillae. The abdomen terminates in a pair of, or three, slender thread-like projections.
Subimago
The final moult of the nymph is not to the full adult form, but to a winged stage called a subimago that physically resembles the adult, but which is usually sexually immature and duller in colour. The subimago, or dun, often has partially cloudy wings fringed with minute hairs known as microtrichia; its eyes, legs and genitalia are not fully developed. Females of some mayflies (subfamily Palingeniinae) do not moult from a subimago state into an adult stage and are sexually mature while appearing like a subimago with microtrichia on the wing membrance. Oligoneuriine mayflies form another exception in retaining microtrichia on their wings but not on their bodies. Subimagos are generally poor fliers, have shorter appendages, and typically lack the colour patterns used to attract mates. In males of Ephoron leukon, the subimagos have forelegs that are short and compressed, with accordion like folds, and expands to more than double its length after moulting. After a period, usually lasting one or two days but in some species only a few minutes, the subimago moults to the full adult form, making mayflies the only insects where a winged form undergoes a further moult.
Imago
Adult mayflies, or imagos, are relatively primitive in structure, exhibiting traits that were probably present in the first flying insects. These include long tails and wings that do not fold flat over the abdomen. Mayflies are delicate-looking insects with one or two pairs of membranous, triangular wings, which are extensively covered with veins. At rest, the wings are held upright, like those of a butterfly. The hind wings are much smaller than the forewings and may be vestigial or absent. The second segment of the thorax, which bears the forewings, is enlarged to hold the main flight muscles. Adults have short, flexible antennae, large compound eyes, three ocelli and non-functional mouthparts. In most species, the males' eyes are large and the front legs unusually long, for use in locating and grasping females during the mid-air mating. In the males of some families, there are two large cylindrical "turban" eyes (also known as turbanate or turbinate eyes) that face upwards in addition to the lateral eyes. They are capable of detecting ultraviolet light and are thought to be used during courtship to detect females flying above them. In some species all the legs are functionless, apart from the front pair in males. The abdomen is long and roughly cylindrical, with ten segments and two or three long cerci (tail-like appendages) at the tip. Uniquely among insects, mayflies possess paired genitalia, with the male having two aedeagi (penis-like organs) and the female two gonopores (sexual openings).
Biology
Reproduction and life cycle
Mayflies are hemimetabolous (they have "incomplete metamorphosis"). They are unique among insects in that they moult one more time after acquiring functional wings; this last-but-one winged (alate) instar usually lives a very short time and is known as a subimago, or to fly fishermen as a dun. Mayflies at the subimago stage are a favourite food of many fish, and many fishing flies are modelled to resemble them. The subimago stage does not survive for long, rarely for more than 24 hours. In some species, it may last for just a few minutes, while the mayflies in the family Palingeniidae have sexually mature subimagos and no true adult form at all.
Often, all the mayflies in a population mature at once (a hatch), and for a day or two in the spring or autumn, mayflies are everywhere, dancing around each other in large groups, or resting on every available surface. In many species the emergence is synchronised with dawn or dusk, and light intensity seems to be an important cue for emergence, but other factors may also be involved. Baetis intercalaris, for example, usually emerges just after sunset in July and August, but in one year, a large hatch was observed at midday in June. The soft-bodied subimagos are very attractive to predators. Synchronous emergence is probably an adaptive strategy that reduces the individual's risk of being eaten. The lifespan of an adult mayfly is very short, varying with the species. The primary function of the adult is reproduction; adults do not feed and have only vestigial mouthparts, while their digestive systems are filled with air. Dolania americana has the shortest adult lifespan of any mayfly: the adult females of the species live for less than five minutes.
Male adults may patrol individually, but most congregate in swarms a few metres above water with clear open sky above it, and perform a nuptial or courtship dance. Each insect has a characteristic up-and-down pattern of movement; strong wingbeats propel it upwards and forwards with the tail sloping down; when it stops moving its wings, it falls passively with the abdomen tilted upwards. Females fly into these swarms, and mating takes place in the air. A rising male clasps the thorax of a female from below using his front legs bent upwards, and inseminates her. Copulation may last just a few seconds, but occasionally a pair remains in tandem and flutters to the ground. Males may spend the night in vegetation and return to their dance the following day. Although they do not feed, some briefly touch the surface to drink a little water before flying off.
Females typically lay between four hundred and three thousand eggs. The eggs are often dropped onto the surface of the water; sometimes the female deposits them by dipping the tip of her abdomen into the water during flight, releasing a small batch of eggs each time, or deposits them in bulk while standing next to the water. In a few species, the female submerges and places the eggs among plants or in crevices underwater, but in general, they sink to the bottom. The incubation time is variable, depending at least in part on temperature, and may be anything from a few days to nearly a year. Eggs can go into a quiet dormant phase or diapause. The larval growth rate is also temperature-dependent, as is the number of moults. At anywhere between ten and fifty, these post-embryonic moults are more numerous in mayflies than in most other insect orders. The nymphal stage of mayflies may last from several months to several years, depending on species and environmental conditions.
Many species breed in moving water, where there is a tendency for the eggs and nymphs to get washed downstream. To counteract this, females may fly upriver before depositing their eggs. For example, the female Tisza mayfly, the largest European species with a length of , flies up to upstream before depositing eggs on the water surface. These sink to the bottom and hatch after 45 days, the nymphs burrowing their way into the sediment where they spend two or three years before hatching into subimagos.
When ready to emerge, several different strategies are used. In some species, the transformation of the nymph occurs underwater and the subimago swims to the surface and launches itself into the air. In other species, the nymph rises to the surface, bursts out of its skin, remains quiescent for a minute or two resting on the exuviae (cast skin) and then flies upwards, and in some, the nymph climbs out of the water before transforming.
Ecology
Nymphs live primarily in streams under rocks, in decaying vegetation or in sediments. Few species live in lakes, but they are among the most prolific. For example, the emergence of one species of Hexagenia was recorded on Doppler weather radar by the shoreline of Lake Erie in 2003. In the nymphs of most mayfly species, the paddle-like gills do not function as respiratory surfaces because sufficient oxygen is absorbed through the integument, instead serving to create a respiratory current. However, in low-oxygen environments such as the mud at the bottom of ponds in which Ephemera vulgata burrows, the filamentous gills act as true accessory respiratory organs and are used in gaseous exchange.
In most species, the nymphs are herbivores or detritivores, feeding on algae, diatoms or detritus, but in a few species, they are predators of chironomid and other small insect larvae and nymphs. Nymphs of Povilla burrow into submerged wood and can be a problem for boat owners in Asia. Some are able to shift from one feeding group to another as they grow, thus enabling them to utilise a variety of food resources. They process a great quantity of organic matter as nymphs and transfer a lot of phosphates and nitrates to terrestrial environments when they emerge from the water, thus helping to remove pollutants from aqueous systems. Along with caddisfly larvae and gastropod molluscs, the grazing of mayfly nymphs has a significant impact on the primary producers, the plants and algae, on the bed of streams and rivers.
The nymphs are eaten by a wide range of predators and form an important part of the aquatic food chain. Fish are among the main predators, picking nymphs off the bottom or ingesting them in the water column, and feeding on emerging nymphs and adults on the water surface. Carnivorous stonefly, caddisfly, alderfly and dragonfly larvae feed on bottom-dwelling mayfly nymphs, as do aquatic beetles, leeches, crayfish and amphibians. Besides the direct mortality caused by these predators, the behaviour of their potential prey is also affected, with the nymphs' growth rate being slowed by the need to hide rather than feed. The nymphs are highly susceptible to pollution and can be useful in the biomonitoring of water bodies. Once they have emerged, large numbers are preyed on by birds, bats and by other insects, such as Rhamphomyia longicauda.
Mayfly nymphs may serve as hosts for parasites such as nematodes and trematodes. Some of these affect the nymphs' behaviour in such a way that they become more likely to be predated. Other nematodes turn adult male mayflies into quasi-females which haunt the edges of streams, enabling the parasites to break their way out into the aqueous environment they need to complete their life cycles. The nymphs can also serve as intermediate hosts for the horsehair worm Paragordius varius, which causes its definitive host, a grasshopper, to jump into water and drown.
Effects on ecosystem functioning
Mayflies are involved in both primary production and bioturbation. A study in laboratory simulated streams revealed that the mayfly genus Centroptilum increased the export of periphyton, thus indirectly affecting primary production positively, which is an essential process for ecosystems. The mayfly can also reallocate and alter the nutrient availability in aquatic habitats through the process of bioturbation. By burrowing in the bottom of lakes and redistributing nutrients, mayflies indirectly regulate phytoplankton and epibenthic primary production. Once burrowing to the bottom of the lake, mayfly nymphs begin to billow their respiratory gills. This motion creates current that carries food particles through the burrow and allows the nymph to filter feed. Other mayfly nymphs possess elaborate filter feeding mechanisms like that of the genus Isonychia. The nymph have forelegs that contain long bristle-like structures that have two rows of hairs. Interlocking hairs form the filter by which the insect traps food particles. The action of filter feeding has a small impact on water purification but an even larger impact on the convergence of small particulate matter into matter of a more complex form that goes on to benefit consumers later in the food chain.
Distribution
Mayflies are distributed all over the world in clean freshwater habitats, though absent from Antarctica. They tend to be absent from oceanic islands or represented by one or two species that have dispersed from nearby mainland. Female mayflies may be dispersed by wind, and eggs may be transferred by adhesion to the legs of waterbirds. The greatest generic diversity is found in the Neotropical realm, while the Holarctic has a smaller number of genera but a high degree of speciation. Some thirteen families are restricted to a single bioregion. The main families have some general habitat preferences: the Baetidae favour warm water; the Heptageniidae live under stones and prefer fast-flowing water; and the relatively large Ephemeridae make burrows in sandy lake or river beds.
Conservation
The nymph is the dominant life history stage of the mayfly. Different insect species vary in their tolerance to water pollution, but in general, the larval stages of mayflies, stoneflies (Plecoptera) and caddis flies (Trichoptera) are susceptible to a number of pollutants including sewage, pesticides and industrial effluent. In general, mayflies are particularly sensitive to acidification, but tolerances vary, and certain species are exceptionally tolerant to heavy metal contamination and to low pH levels. Ephemerellidae are among the most tolerant groups and Siphlonuridae and Caenidae the least. The adverse effects on the insects of pollution may be either lethal or sub-lethal, in the latter case resulting in altered enzyme function, poor growth, changed behaviour or lack of reproductive success. As important parts of the food chain, pollution can cause knock-on effects to other organisms; a dearth of herbivorous nymphs can cause overgrowth of algae, and a scarcity of predacious nymphs can result in an over-abundance of their prey species. Fish that feed on mayfly nymphs that have bioaccumulated heavy metals are themselves at risk. Adult female mayflies find water by detecting the polarization of reflected light. They are easily fooled by other polished surfaces which can act as traps for swarming mayflies.
The threat to mayflies applies also to their eggs. "Modest levels" of pollution in rivers in England are sufficient to kill 80% of mayfly eggs, which are as vulnerable to pollutants as other life-cycle stages; numbers of the blue-winged olive mayfly (Baetis) have fallen dramatically, almost to none in some rivers. The major pollutants thought to be responsible are fine sediment and phosphate from agriculture and sewage.
The status of many species of mayflies is unknown because they are known from only the original collection data. Four North American species are believed to be extinct. Among these, Pentagenia robusta was originally collected from the Ohio River near Cincinnati, but this species has not been seen since its original collection in the 1800s. Ephemera compar is known from a single specimen, collected from the "foothills of Colorado" in 1873, but despite intensive surveys of the Colorado mayflies reported in 1984, it has not been rediscovered.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list of threatened species includes one mayfly: Tasmanophlebi lacuscoerulei, the large blue lake mayfly, which is a native of Australia and is listed as endangered because its alpine habitat is vulnerable to climate change.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
As of 2012, over 3,000 species of mayfly in 42 families and over 400 genera are known worldwide, including about 630 species in North America. Mayflies are an ancient group of winged (pterygote) insects. Putative fossil stem group representatives (e.g. Syntonopteroidea-like Lithoneura lameerrei) are already known from the late Carboniferous. The largest mayfly of all times may have been Bojophlebia prokopi from the Upper Carboniferous of Moravia with a wingspan of . The name Ephemeroptera is from the Greek ἐφήμερος, "short-lived" (literally "lasting a day", cf. English "ephemeral"), and πτερόν, , "wing", referring to the brief lifespan of adults. The English common name is for the insect's emergence in or around the month of May in the UK. The name shadfly is from the Atlantic fish the shad, which runs up American East Coast rivers at the same time as many mayflies emerge.
From the Permian, numerous stem group representatives of mayflies are known, which are often lumped into a separate taxon Permoplectoptera (e.g. including Protereisma permianum in the Protereismatidae, and Misthodotidae). The larvae of Permoplectoptera still had 9 pairs of abdominal gills, and the adults still had long hindwings. Maybe the fossil family Cretereismatidae from the Lower Cretaceous Crato Formation of Brazil also belongs as the last offshoot to Permoplectoptera. The Crato outcrops otherwise yielded fossil specimens of modern mayfly families or the extinct (but modern) family Hexagenitidae. However, from the same locality the strange larvae and adults of the extinct family Mickoleitiidae (order Coxoplectoptera) have been described, which represents the fossil sister group of modern mayflies, even though they had very peculiar adaptations such as raptorial forelegs.
The oldest mayfly inclusion in amber is Cretoneta zherichini (Leptophlebiidae) from the Lower Cretaceous of Siberia. In the much younger Baltic amber numerous inclusions of several modern families of mayflies have been found (Ephemeridae, Potamanthidae, Leptophlebiidae, Ametropodidae, Siphlonuridae, Isonychiidae, Heptageniidae, and Ephemerellidae). The modern genus Neoephemera is represented in the fossil record by the Ypresian species N. antiqua from Washington state.
Grimaldi and Engel, reviewing the phylogeny in 2005, commented that many cladistic studies had been made with no stability in Ephemeroptera suborders and infraorders; the traditional division into Schistonota and Pannota was wrong because Pannota is derived from the Schistonota.
The phylogeny of the Ephemeroptera was first studied using molecular analysis by Ogden and Whiting in 2005. They recovered the Baetidae as sister to the other clades.
Mayfly phylogeny was further studied using morphological and molecular analyses by Ogden and others in 2009. They found that the Asian genus Siphluriscus was sister to all other mayflies. Some existing lineages such as Ephemeroidea, and families such as Ameletopsidae, were found not to be monophyletic, through convergence among nymphal features.
The following traditional classification is based on Peters and Campbell (1991), in Insects of Australia.
Suborder Pannota
Superfamily Ephemerelloidea
Ephemerellidae
Leptohyphidae
Tricorythidae
Superfamily Caenoidea
Neoephemeridae
Baetiscidae
Caenidae
Prosopistomatidae
Suborder Schistonota
Superfamily Baetoidea
Siphlonuridae
Baetidae
Oniscigastridae
Ameletopsidae
Ametropodidae
Superfamily Heptagenioidea
Coloburiscidae
Oligoneuriidae
Isonychiidae
Heptageniidae
Superfamily Leptophlebioidea
Leptophlebiidae
Superfamily Ephemeroidea
Behningiidae
Potamanthidae
Euthyplociidae
Polymitarcyidae
Ephemeridae
Palingeniidae
In human culture
In art
The Dutch Golden Age author Augerius Clutius (Outgert Cluyt) illustrated some mayflies in his 1634 De Hemerobio ("On the Mayfly"), the earliest book written on the group. Maerten de Vos similarly illustrated a mayfly in his 1587 depiction of the fifth day of creation, amongst an assortment of fish and water birds.
In 1495 Albrecht Dürer included a mayfly in his engraving The Holy Family with the Mayfly. The critics Larry Silver and Pamela H. Smith argue that the image provides "an explicit link between heaven and earth ... to suggest a cosmic resonance between sacred and profane, celestial and terrestrial, macrocosm and microcosm."
In literature
The Ancient Greek biologist and philosopher Aristotle wrote in his History of Animals that
The Ancient Roman encyclopaedist Pliny the Elder described the mayfly as the "hemerobius" in his Natural History:
In his 1789 book The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, Gilbert White described in the entry for "June 10th, 1771" how
The mayfly has come to symbolise the transitoriness and brevity of life. The English poet George Crabbe, known to have been interested in insects, compared the brief life of a newspaper with that of mayflies, both being known as "Ephemera", things that live for a day:
The theme of brief life is echoed in the artist Douglas Florian's 1998 poem, "The Mayfly". The American Poet Laureate Richard Wilbur's 2005 poem "Mayflies" includes the lines "I saw from unseen pools a mist of flies, In their quadrillions rise, And animate a ragged patch of glow, With sudden glittering".
Another literary reference to mayflies is seen in The Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest surviving great works of literature. The briefness of Gilgamesh's life is compared to that of the adult mayfly. In Szeged, Hungary, mayflies are celebrated in a monument near the Belvárosi bridge, the work of local sculptor Pal Farkas, depicting the courtship dance of mayflies. The American playwright David Ives wrote a short comedic play, Time Flies, in 2001, as to what two mayflies might discuss during their one day of existence.
In fly fishing
Mayflies are the primary source of models for artificial flies, hooks tied with coloured materials such as threads and feathers, used in fly fishing. These are based on different life-cycle stages of mayflies. For example, the flies known as "emergers" in North America are designed by fly fishermen to resemble subimago mayflies, and are intended to lure freshwater trout. In 1983, Patrick McCafferty recorded that artificial flies had been based on 36 genera of North American mayfly, from a total of 63 western species and 103 eastern/central species. A large number of these species have common names among fly fishermen, who need to develop a substantial knowledge of mayfly "habitat, distribution, seasonality, morphology and behavior" in order to match precisely the look and movements of the insects that the local trout are expecting.
Izaak Walton describes the use of mayflies for catching trout in his 1653 book The Compleat Angler; for example, he names the "Green-drake" for use as a natural fly, and "duns" (mayfly subimagos) as artificial flies. These include for example the "Great Dun" and the "Great Blue Dun" in February; the "Whitish Dun" in March; the "Whirling Dun" and the "Yellow Dun" in April; the "Green-drake", the "Little Yellow May-Fly" and the "Grey-Drake" in May; and the "Black-Blue Dun" in July. Nymph or "wet fly" fishing was restored to popularity on the chalk streams of England by G. E. M. Skues with his 1910 book Minor Tactics of the Chalk Stream. In the book, Skues discusses the use of duns to catch trout. The March brown is "probably the most famous of all British mayflies", having been copied by anglers to catch trout for over 500 years.
Some English public houses beside trout streams such as the River Test in Hampshire are named "The Mayfly".
As a spectacle
The hatch of the giant mayfly Palingenia longicauda on the Tisza and Maros Rivers in Hungary and Serbia, known as "Tisza blooming", is a tourist attraction. The 2014 hatch of the large black-brown mayfly Hexagenia bilineata on the Mississippi River in the US was imaged on weather radar; the swarm flew up to 760 m (2500 feet) above the ground near La Crosse, Wisconsin, creating a radar signature that resembled a "significant rain storm", and the mass of dead insects covering roads, cars and buildings caused a "slimy mess".
During the weekend of 13–14 June 2015, a large swarm of mayflies caused several vehicular accidents on the Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge, carrying Pennsylvania Route 462 across the Susquehanna River between Columbia and Wrightsville, Pennsylvania. The bridge had to be closed to traffic twice during that period due to impaired visibility and obstructions posed by piles of dead insects.
As food
Mayflies are consumed in several cultures and are estimated to contain the most raw protein content of any edible insect by dry weight. In Malawi, kungu, a paste of mayflies (Caenis kungu) and mosquitoes is made into a cake for eating. Adult mayflies are collected and eaten in many parts of China and Japan. Near Lake Victoria, Povilla mayflies are collected, dried and preserved for use in food preparations.
As a name for ships and aircraft
"Mayfly" was the crew's nickname for His Majesty's Airship No. 1, an aerial scout airship built by Vickers but wrecked by strong winds in 1911 before her trial flights.
Two vessels of the Royal Navy were named : a torpedo boat launched in January 1907, and a Fly-class river gunboat constructed in sections at Yarrow in 1915.
The Seddon Mayfly, which was constructed in 1908, was an aircraft that was unsuccessful in early flight. The first aircraft designed by a woman, Lillian Bland, was titled the Bland Mayfly.
Other human uses
In pre-1950s France, "chute de manne" was obtained by pressing mayflies into cakes and using them as bird food and fishbait. From an economic standpoint, mayflies also provide fisheries with an excellent diet for fish. Mayflies could find uses in the biomedical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Their exoskeleton contains chitin, which has applications in these industries.
Research on genome expression in the mayfly Cloeon dipterum, has provided ideas on the evolution of the insect wing and giving support to the so-called gill theory which suggests that the ancestral insect wing may have evolved from larval gills of aquatic insects like mayflies.
Mayfly larvae do not survive in polluted aquatic habitats and, thus, have been chosen as bioindicators, markers of water quality in ecological assessments.
In marketing, Nike produced a line of running shoes in 2003 titled "Mayfly". The shoes were designed with a wing venation pattern like the mayfly and were also said to have a finite lifetime. The telecommunication company Vodafone featured mayflies in a 2006 branding campaign, telling consumers to "make the most of now".
Notes
References
External links
Info about Ephemeroptera on Tree of Life
Mayfly Central hosted by Purdue University
Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances
Featured articles
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246335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit | Pit | Pit or PIT may refer to:
Structure
Ball pit, a recreation structure
Casino pit, the part of a casino which holds gaming tables
Trapping pit, pits used for hunting
Pit (motor racing), an area of a racetrack where pit stops are conducted
Trading pit, a part of a trading floor where open outcry takes place
Pit cave, a natural cave containing a vertical shaft
Mine (mining)
Open-pit mine, surface extraction of rock or minerals
Coal mine or pit
Science and technology
Pit, an excavation on metallic surface caused by pitting corrosion
Pit, one of many indentations used to store data on a compact disc
Pit, a seed inside a fruit; for example a cherry pit
Pit (nuclear weapon), the core of an implosion weapon
Powered industrial truck, a US legal term
Programmable interval timer, a computing device
Pulsed inductive thruster, a device used in spacecraft propulsion
Pit (botany), a part of plant cell walls which allows the exchange of fluids
Pyrena, the hard seed-bearing kernel inside drupe fruits such as peaches and olives
Probability integral transform, a theorem in probability and statistics
Boolean prime ideal theorem, which guarantees the existence of certain types of subsets in a given abstract algebra
Pit bull, a breed of dog
2-Propanoyl-3-(4-isopropylphenyl)-tropane, a cocaine analog
As a file extension, .pit stands for Partition Information Table
Arts and entertainment
Games
Pit (game), a Parker Brothers card game simulating a commodities exchange
Pit (Kid Icarus), the main character in the video game series Kid Icarus
Pits (card game), a card game similar to whist and rummy
Music
Front ensemble, the stationary percussion section in a marching band or drum corps
Mosh pit, an area for dancing at a concert
Orchestra pit, the area in a theater, between the stage and audience, in which musicians perform
Places
United States
Pit River, a watershed in California
Peoples Improv Theater, a venue in New York City
Pittsburgh (abbreviation), a city in Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh International Airport (IATA code)
PIT Solutions, an Indian IT company
Other uses
Party of Independence and Labour, a Senegalese political party
PIT maneuver, a ramming tactic used by law enforcement in vehicle pursuits
Pit Martin (1943–2008), Canadian National Hockey League player
See also
Bolshoy Pit, a tributary of the Yenisei, Russia
Pituitary-specific positive transcription factor 1 (PIT-1), a gene
The Pit (disambiguation)
Pitt (disambiguation)
Pitts (disambiguation)
Bottomless pit (disambiguation)
Cockpit
Hole (disambiguation)
Fossa (disambiguation), (Latin for pit) | [
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246337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binio%C3%B9%20kozh | Binioù kozh | The Binioù is a type of bagpipe. The word "Biniou" means bagpipe in the Breton language.
There are two bagpipes called binioù in Brittany: the traditional binioù kozh or biniou-bihan (kozh means "old" in Breton, bihan means "small") and the binioù bras (bras means "big"), which was brought into Brittany from Scotland in the late 19th century. The oldest native bagpipe in Brittany is the veuze, from which the binioù kozh is thought to be derived.
The binioù bras is essentially the same as the Scottish Great Highland Bagpipe; sets are manufactured by Breton makers or imported from Scotland or elsewhere.
The binioù kozh has a one octave scale, and is very high-pitched with a soprano sound; it is tuned to play one octave higher than the bombard which it accompanies. More traditional forms have a single drone, while modern instruments sometimes have two. In the old days the leather used for the bag was usually from a dog's skin, but this is nowadays replaced by synthetic materials or other leathers which are easier to procure, like cow or sheep.
Traditionally it is played in duet with the bombard, a double reed instrument which sounds an octave below the binioù chanter, for Breton folk dancing. The binioù bras is typically used as part of a bagad band, although it is sometimes also paired with a bombard.
Films
Of Pipers and Wrens (1997). Produced and directed by Gei Zantzinger, in collaboration with Dastum. Lois V. Kuter, ethnomusicological consultant. Devault, Pennsylvania: Constant Spring Productions.
Further reading
Breton musical instruments
Bagpipes | [
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246338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Slovenes | List of Slovenes | This is a list of Slovenes and people from Slovenia that are notable.
Artists including performing arts
Zvest Apollonio (1935–2009) – painter and graphic artist
Stanislava Brezovar (1937–2003) – ballerina
Franz Caucig (1755–1828) – Neoclassical painter
Anton Cebej (1722–1774) – Baroque painter
Avgust Černigoj (1898–1985) – painter
Jože Ciuha (1924–2015) – painter, graphic artist and illustrator
Ivan Grohar (1867–1911) – painter
Anton Gvajc (1865–1935) – painter
Herman Gvardjančič (born 1943) – painter
Stane Jagodič (born 1943) – painter, graphic artist, montager and illustrator
Božidar Jakac (1899–1989) – painter, graphic artist and illustrator
Rihard Jakopič (1869–1943) – painter
Matija Jama (1872–1947) – impressionist painter
Laurenz Janscha (1749–1812) – landscape painter and engraver
Anton Karinger (1829–1870) – painter and poet
Ivana Kobilca (1861–1926) – realist painter
Lojze Logar (1944–2014) – painter and graphic artist
Adriana Maraž (1931–2015) – painter and graphic artist
Pino Mlakar (1907–2006) – ballet dancer and choreographer
Marko Mušič (born 1941) – architect
Zoran Mušič (1909–2005) – painter
Miki Muster (1925–2018) – illustrator
Veno Pilon (1896–1970) – painter
Jože Plečnik (1872–1957) – architect
Marjetica Potrč (born 1953) – artist
Jakob Savinšek (1922–1961) – sculptor
Matej Sternen (1870–1949) – painter
Mihael Stroj (1803–1871) – painter
Vladimir Šubic (1894–1946) – architect
Jožef Tominc (1790–1866) – painter
Joseph Urbania (1877–1943) – sculptor
Ivan Vurnik (1884–1971) – architect and town planner
Authors
Louis Adamic (1898–1951) – author and translator
Anton Aškerc (1856–1912) – poet and Roman Catholic priest
Frederic Baraga (1797–1868) – bishop, author
Vladimir Bartol (1903–1967) – author
France Bevk (1890–1970) – author
Franjo Bučar – writer of Slovenian descent
Ivan Cankar (1876–1918) – author, poet, storyteller, playwright, and essayist
Matija Čop (1797–1835) – author
Mate Dolenc (born 1945) – author
Fran Saleški Finžgar (1871–1963) – author and priest
France Forstnerič (1933–2007) – author, poet and journalist
Alojz Gradnik (1882–1967) – poet and translator
Simon Gregorčič (1844–1906) – poet and Roman Catholic priest
Peter Handke (born 1942) – author (Slovenian mother; born and raised in Austria and has never lived in Slovenia)
Janez Jalen (1891–1966) – author
Drago Jančar (born 1948) – author and dramatist
Simon Jenko (1835–1869) – poet, lyricist, writer
Jože Javoršek (1920–1990) – author
Branka Jurca (1914–1999) – author
Josip Jurčič (1844–1881) – author
János Kardos (1801–1875) – writer, teacher and priest
Alma Karlin (1889–1950) – writer and poet
Dragotin Kette (1876–1899) – poet
Edvard Kocbek (1904–1981) – poet and writer
Srečko Kosovel (1904–1926) – poet
József Kossics (1788–1867) – writer, poet, historian, priest
Tomo Križnar (born 1954) – world traveller, humanitarian, author
Lovro Kuhar (1893–1950) – author
Miklós Küzmics (1737–1804) – writer and translator
Feri Lainšček (born 1959) – writer, poet
Fran Levstik (1831–1887) – author
Anton Tomaž Linhart (1756–1795) – playwright and historian
Cvetka Lipuš (born 1959) – author
Florjan Lipuš (born 1937) – author
Franko Luin (1941–2005) – author, editor, typographer
Rudolf Maister (1874–1934) – poet, military officer
Mira Mihelič (1912–1985) – author
Frane Milčinski (1914–1988) – poet, satirist, humorist
Miha Mazzini (born 1961) – author
Boris Pahor (born 1913) – author
Ivan Potrč (1913–1993) – author
Sebastijan Pregelj (born 1970) – author
France Prešeren (1800–1849) – poet
Benka Pulko (born 1967) – author and Guinness World Record setting world traveler
Miha Remec (born 1928) – author
Anton Martin Slomšek (1800–1862) – bishop, author, poet and national awakener
Tomaž Šalamun (1941–2014) – poet
Damijan Šinigoj (born 1964) – author and translator
Josip Stritar (1836–1923) – poet, author, and editor
Ivan Tavčar (1851–1923) – author, lawyer and politician
Janez Trdina (1830–1905) – author
Primož Trubar (1508–1586) – Protestant reformer and author
Josipina Urbančič (1508–1586) – poet, writer
Josip Vidmar (1895–1992) – essayist and literary critic
Vitomil Zupan (1914–1987) – writer
Inventors
Ivo Boscarol (born 1956) – light aircraft designer and manufacturer
Joseph Fuisz (born 1970) – filed thirty-five patents relating to drug delivery and computer fields
Richard Fuisz (born 1939) – pharmaceutical inventor of controlled release drug beads, quick dissolve tablet systems, thin film drug delivery systems as well as various medical devices, diagnostic devices and electronic mail patents
Japec Jakopin (born 1951) – yacht designer
Alojz Knafelc (1859–1937) – creator of Slovenian trail blaze
Herman Potočnik (a.k.a. Noordung, 1892–1929), one of the founders of astronautics
Johann Puch (Slovene: Janez Puh) (1862–1914) – inventor, innovator, industrial designer and manufacturer
Johann Pucher (Slovene: Janez Auguštin Puhar) (1814–1864) – priest, photographer, painter and poet – invented a photography on the glass in 1842.
Edvard Rusjan (1886–1911) – pilot and aeronautic pioneer
Military personnel
Karel Destovnik Kajuh (1922–1944) – poet and Yugoslav people's hero
Alenka Ermenc (born 1963) – officer in the Slovenian Armed Forces and NATO's Chief of defence
Karl Novak (1905–1975) – commander of the Slovene Chetniks during World War II
Odilo Globočnik (1904–1945) – prominent Nazi and later an SS leader
Anton Haus (1851–1917) – Grand Admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy
Pepca Kardelj (1914–1990) – partisan and political activist
Johann Katzianer (1491–1539) – aristocrat and Imperial Army commander
Dušan Kveder (1915–1966) – soldier, military commander and diplomat
Rudolf Maister (1874–1934) – general and poet
Franjo Malgaj (1894–1919) – Austro-Hungarian military leader
Johann Mickl (1893–1945) – Austrian-born Generalleutnant of Slovenian descent
Leon Rupnik (1880–1946) – Yugoslav general, Inspector-General of the Slovenian Home Guard
Franc Rozman (1911–1944) – Partisan general and Yugoslav people's hero
Film, radio and television
Vinci Vogue Anžlovar (born 1963) – film director
Valentin Areh (born 1971) – war correspondent and TV journalist
Miha Baloh (born 1928) – actor
Matija Barl (1940–2018) – actor
Polde Bibič (1933–2012) – actor
Demeter Bitenc (1922–2018) – actor
David Boreanaz (born 1971) – actor, father of remote Slovenian descent
František Čap (1913–1972) – film director
George Dolenz (1908–1963) – (born Jure Dolenc) movie/TV actor, father of actor/musician Micky Dolenz and grandfather of actress Ami Dolenz
Micky Dolenz (born 1945) – actor and musician, son of George Dolenz
Rudi Dolezal (born 1958) – Austrian film producer and film director
Mira Furlan (1955–2021) – actress, father of Slovenian descent
Karpo Godina (born 1943) – film director, cameraman and montage editor
Melissa Joan Hart (born 1976) – actress, mother of Slovenian descent
Andrej Hieng (1925–2000) – storyteller, dramatist, film director and stage editor
Boštjan Hladnik (1929–2006) – film director, scenarist and montage editor
Željko Ivanek – Hollywood actor
Anthony Jeselnik (born 1978) – comedian of Slovenian descent
Polona Juh (born 1971) – actress
Damjan Kozole (born 1964) – film director and scenarist
Janez Lapajne (born 1967) – film director
Jože Pogačnik (1932–2016) – film director and scenarist
Igor Pretnar (1924–1977) – film and theatre director
Janko Ravnik (1891–1982) – film director, pianist, composer, pedagogue, and photographer
Tanja Ribič (born 1968) – actress and singer
Ita Rina (1907–1979) – actress
Franci Slak (1953–2007) – film and TV director and scenarist
Danijel Sraka (born 1975) – film director
France Štiglic (1919–1993) – film director
Zlatko Šugman (1932–2008) – actor
Alice Tumler (born 1978) – TV presenter, father of Slovenian–Italian descent
Christoph Waltz (born 1956) – actor, mother of Slovenian descent
Jonas Žnidaršič (born 1962) – actor and TV journalist
Musicians and composers
Bojan Adamič (1912–1995) – composer and conductor
Blaž Arnič (1901–1970) – composer
Slavko Avsenik (1929–2015) – composer and musician
Helena Blagne Zaman (born 1963) – singer
Lojze Bratuž (1902–1937) – composer, choirmaster
Ciril Cvetko (1920–1999) – composer, conductor, pedagogue, and journalist
Micky Dolenz (born 1945) – drummer of The Monkees (Slovenian father; born and raised in the United States and has never lived in Slovenia)
Jakob Gallus Petelin (1550–1591) – composer and conductor
Jani Golob (born 1948) – composer and violinist
Alenka Gotar (born 1979) – soprano singer
Senida Hajdarpašić (known as Senidah) (born 1985) – singer and composer
Karen Kamensek (born 1970) – conductor of Slovenian descent
Božidar Kantušer (1921–1999) – composer
Herbert von Karajan (1908–1989) – composer
Maja Keuc – singer
Marjan Kozina (1907–1966) – composer
Zala Kralj (born 1999) – singer
Lina Kuduzović (born 2002) – singer
Marijan Lipovšek (1910–1995) – composer, pianist, pedagogue, musical essayist
Marjana Lipovšek (born 1946) – opera singer, mezzo-soprano
Magnifico (born 1965) – composer and singer
Joey Miskulin (born 1949) – accordionist of Slovenian descent
Omar Naber – singer-songwriter, guitarist
Mr. Doctor – vocalist and composer of the Devil Doll
Tito in ekšn – punk rock band of the 1990s
Tomaž Pengov – composer, musician and singer
Zoran Predin (born 1958) – composer and singer
Oto Pestner – composer, musician and singer
Jože Privšek (1937–1998) – composer and musician
Raay (Maraaya) (born 1984) – composer
Anja Rupel (born 1966) – singer and radio announcer
Gašper Šantl (born 1996) – singer and composer
Nina Šenk (born 1982) – classical composer
Majda Sepe – singer
Lojze Slak (1932–2011) – composer and musician
Adi Smolar – composer, musician and singer
Ana Soklič – singer-songwriter
Karmen Stavec (born 1973) – musician and singer
Dubravka Tomšič Srebotnjak (born 1940) – pianist and musical pedagogue
Audrey Totter (1917–2013) – actress (Slovenian father; born and lived in the United States; never lived in Slovenia)
Marjetka Vovk (Maraaya) (born 1984) – singer and composer
Hugo Wolf (1860–1903) – composer
"Weird Al" Yankovic (born 1959) – singer and musician of Slovenian descent
Frankie Yankovic (1915–1998) – Grammy-award winning accordion player and polka musician of Slovenian descent
Philosophers
Mladen Dolar (born 1951) – philosopher, cofounder of the Ljubljana school of psychoanalysis
Herman of Carinthia (1105/1110 – after 1154) – philosopher, astronomer, astrologer, mathematician
Tine Hribar (born 1941) – philosopher
Milan Komar (1921–2006) – philosopher
Josip Križan (1841–1921) – mathematician, physicist, philosopher, astronomer
Leonid Pitamic (1885–1971) – philosopher of law
Avguštin Stegenšek (1875–1920) – philosopher, theologian, art historian
Anton Strle (1915–2003) – theologian
Ivo Urbančič (born 1930) – philosopher
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) – philosopher, in part of Slovenian descent
Slavoj Žižek (born 1949) – sociologist, philosopher, and cultural critic
Alenka Zupančič (born 1966) – philosopher and cultural critic
Politicians
Andrej Bajuk (1943–2011) – third prime minister of independent Slovenia
John Blatnik (1911–1991) – U.S. Congressman (Slovenian parents; born and raised in the United States, and never lived in Slovenia)
Leonard J. Bodack (1932–2015) – former Pennsylvania State Senator (Slovenian ancestry; born and raised in the United States, and never lived in Slovenia)
Jože Brilej (1910–1981) – Yugoslav politician, diplomat and ambassador, President of the United Nations Security Council (1956)
Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980) – president of the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia between 1945 and 1980 (son of a Slovenian mother, Marija Javeršek and of a Croat father, Franjo Broz)
Leo von Caprivi (1831–1899) – German major general and statesman who served as German Chancellor from March 1890 to October 1894 (His family (complete surname: von Caprivi de Caprera de Montecuccoli) was of Italian and disputed Slovenian origin; born and raised in Germany, and never lived in Slovenia)
Janez Drnovšek (1950–2008) – second prime minister of independent Slovenia, third president of Slovenia, 2003–2008
Tom Harkin – U.S. Senator (Slovenian mother; born and raised in the United States and never lived in Slovenia)
Janez Janša (born 1958) – fifth prime minister of independent Slovenia
Edvard Kardelj (1910–1979) – prewar communist, politician, statesman, and journalist
Boris Kidrič (1912–1953) – communist, politician, statesman and economist
Amy Jean Klobuchar (born 1960) – U.S. Senator from Minnesota (Father's grandparents came from Slovenia; born and raised in United States, has never lived in Slovenia)
Anton Korošec (1872–1940) – prominent Yugoslav politician
Milan Kučan (born 1941) – first president of independent Slovenia, 1991–2002
Frank Lausche (1895–1990) – former U.S. Senator, Governor of Ohio & Mayor of Cleveland (Parents of Slovenian origin; born and raised in the United States and never lived in Slovenia)
Vladko Maček (1879–1964) – Croatian politician of Slovene origin from the first half of the 20th century. He led the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS)
James Oberstar (1934–2014) – U.S. Representative from Minnesota (Partial Slovenian ancestry; born and raised in the United States and never lived in Slovenia)
Lojze Peterle (born 1948) – first prime minister of independent Slovenia
Wolfgang Petritsch (born 1947) – Austrian diplomat of Slovene ethnicity (former OHR)
Tanya Plibersek – Australian politician – House of Representatives
Anton Rop (born 1960) – fourth prime minister of independent Slovenia
Gregorij Rožman (1883–1959) – Bishop of Ljubljana (1930–1945), collaborator with Italian and German occupying forces during the Second World War
Marjan Šarec (born 1977) – Slovene prime minister
Kurt Schuschnigg (1897–1977) – Chancellor of Austria, of Slovenian descent
Danilo Türk (born 1952) – President elect of Slovenia
Walter Veltroni (born 1955) – Mayor of Rome (Slovenian mother)
George Voinovich – U.S. Senator, former Governor of Ohio and Mayor of Cleveland, (Slovenian mother; born and raised in the United States, never lived in Slovenia)
Anton Vratuša (1915–2017) – politician and diplomat, who was the Prime Minister of Slovenia from 1978–80 and of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, also its ambassador to the United Nations
Scientists and scholars
Robert Blinc (1933–2011) – physicist
Ivan Bratko (born 1946) – computer scientist
Srečko Brodar (1893–1987) – palaeontologist
Andrej Čadež (born 1942) – astrophysicist
Avrelija Cencič (1964–2012) – biochemist
Lavo Čermelj (1889–1980) – physicist
Dragotin Cvetko (1911–1993) – musicologist
Davorin Dolar (1921–2005) – chemist
Josip Globevnik (born 1945) – mathematician
Pavel Grošelj (1883–1940) – biologist and belletrist
Jovan Hadži (1884–1972) – biologist
Anton Janežič (1828–1869) – Slavic specialist and grammarian
Jernej Kopitar (1780–1844) – philologist
Peter Kosler (1824–1879) – lawyer, geographer, cartographer, politician, and manufacturer
Ivo Lah (1896–1979) – mathematician
Tine Logar (1916–2002) – philologist and dialectologist
Thomas Luckmann (1927–2016) – sociologist
Anton Melik (1890–1966) – geographer
Franz Miklosich (1813–1891) – philologist
Avgust Pavel (1886–1946) – ethnologist
Anton Peterlin (1908–1993) – physicist
Josip Plemelj (1873–1967) – mathematician
Herman Potočnik (a.k.a. Noordung, 1892–1929) – pioneer of astronautics and cosmonautics, and rocket engineer
Fritz Pregl (1869–1930) – chemist, Nobel prize for chemistry 1923
Janko Prunk (born 1942) – historian
Fran Ramovš (1890–1952) – philologist and dialectologist
Zoran Rant (1904–1972) – mechanical engineer
Simon Rutar (1851–1903) – historian, geographer, archaeologist and geologist
Ljubo Sirc (1920–2016) – economist
Boris Sket (born 1936) – zoologist
Branko Stanovnik (born 1938) – chemist
Jožef Stefan (1835–1893) – physicist and mathematician
Janez Strnad (1934–2015) – physicist and populariser of natural science
Jože Toporišič (1926–2014) – philologist
Denis Trček (born 1963) – computer scientist
Anton Trstenjak (1906–1996) – psychologist and theologian
Johann Weikhard von Valvasor (1641–1693) – nobleman and polymath
Jurij Bartolomej Vega (1754–1802) – mathematician, physicist and artillery officer
Ivan Vidav (1918–2015) – mathematician
Milan Vidmar (1885–1962) – electrical engineer, chess player, and chess theorist
Valentin Vodnik (1758–1819) – poet, journalist, philologist
Egon Zakrajšek (1941–2002) – mathematician and computer scientist
Miroslav Zei (1914–2006) – marine biologist
Athletes
Vili Ameršek – football player
Alenka Bikar – sprinter, Olympic athlete
Valter Birsa (born 1986) – footballer
Jaka Blažič (born 1990) – basketball player
Fredi Bobic (born 1971) – footballer of Slovenian descent
Vinko Bogataj – ski jumper, featured in the Wide World of Sports Agony of Defeat video
Nataša Bokal (born 1967) – skier
Borut Božič – cyclist
Janez Brajkovič – cyclist
Primož Brezec (born 1979) – basketball player (NBA)
Brigita Brezovac (born 1979) – IFBB professional bodybuilder
Brigita Bukovec (born 1970) – athlete, Olympic athlete
Anja Čarman – swimmer
Jolanda Čeplak (born 1976) – Olympic athlete
Miroslav Cerar (born 1939) – gymnast, Olympic athlete
Iztok Čop (born 1972) – rower, Olympic athlete
Alenka Cuderman (born 1961) – handball player, Olympic athlete
Rudolf Cvetko (1880–1977) – fencer, Olympic athlete
Ivo Daneu – basketball player
Matjaž Debelak (born 1965) – ski jumper, Olympic athlete
Rajmond Debevec (born 1963) – shooter, Olympic athlete
Luka Dončić – basketball player, No. 3 overall pick in the 2018 NBA Draft, NBA player for the Dallas Mavericks
Polona Dornik – basketball player, Olympic athlete
Alenka Dovžan – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Goran Dragić – basketball player (NBA), Serbian father and Slovene mother
Zoran Dragić – basketball player (NBA), Serbian father and Slovene mother
Ana Drev (born 1985) – alpine skier
Vital Eiselt (born 1941) – basketball player
Vesna Fabjan – cross-country skier
Saša Farič – freestyle skier
Maruša Ferk – alpine skier
Jure Franko – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Damjan Fras – ski jumper, Olympic athlete
Tim Gajser (born 1996) – motocross racer (MXGP)
Janja Garnbret (born 1999) – rock climber
Meta Hrovat (born 1998) – alpine skier
Urška Hrovat – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Sait Idrizi (born 1990) – football player
Sara Isaković (born 1988) – swimmer
Milan Janša (born 1965) – rower
Mima Jaušovec (born 1956) – female tennis player
Simon Jecl (born 1986) – freestyle skier
Andrej Jerman – alpine skier
Marjan Kandus (born 1932) – basketball player
Davo Karničar (born 1962) – alpine and extreme skier
Srečko Katanec (born 1963) – football player and selector, Olympic athlete
Peter Kauzer (born 1983) – slalom canoeist, Olympic athlete
Jani Klemenčič (born 1971) – rower
Anže Kopitar – NHL hockey player, Olympic athlete
Jure Košir – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Žan Košir – snowboarder
Katja Koren – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Primož Kozmus – hammer thrower, Olympic athlete
Robert Kranjec – alpine ski jumper
Žan Kranjec – alpine skier
Rene Krhin (born 1990) – football player
Bojan Križaj (born 1957) – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Miha Lokar (born 1935) – basketball player
Petra Majdič – cross country skier, Olympic athlete
Andreja Mali (born 1977) – biathlete
Tina Maze – alpine skier
Ariel McDonald – basketball player
Miha Mevlja – football player
Marko Milič – basketball player
Sašo Mirjanič (1968–1994) – rower
Matej Mohorič – cyclist
Radoslav Nesterovič – basketball player (NBA)
Bogdan Norčič – alpine ski jumper
Branko Oblak (born 1947) – football player
Jan Oblak – football player
Bruno Parma (born 1941) – chess player
Franci Petek – ski jumper, Olympic athlete
Primož Peterka (born 1979) – ski jumper, Olympic athlete
Borut Petrič (born 1961) – swimmer
Darjan Petrič (born 1964) – swimmer
Rok Petrovič (1966–1993) – alpine skier
Vasja Pirc (1907–1980) – chess player
Tadej Pogačar – cyclist
Lucija Polavder (born 1984) – judoka, Olympic athlete
Klemen Prepelič (born 1992) – basketball player
Špela Pretnar – alpine skier
Peter Prevc (born 1992) – ski jumper
Josip Primožič (1900–1985) – gymnast, Olympic athlete
Iztok Puc – handball player
Alenka Cuderman (born 1961) – handball player, Olympic athlete
Jure Robič (1965–2010) – marathon cyclist
Primož Roglič – cyclist
Mladen Rudonja – football player
Benjamin Savšek – slalom canoeist, Olympic athlete
Uroš Slokar – basketball player (NBA)
Luka Špik (born 1979) – rower, Olympic athlete
Andraž Šporar (born 1994) – football player
Katarina Srebotnik – tennis player
Elvis Stojko – figure skater
Boris Strel – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Martin Strel (born 1954) – ultra marathon swimmer
Ilka Štuhec (born 1990) – alpine skier
Leon Štukelj (1898–1999) – gymnast, Olympic athlete
Mateja Svet (born 1968) – alpine skier, Olympic athlete
Miran Tepeš – ski jumper, Olympic athlete
Tina Trstenjak – judoka, Olympic athlete
Beno Udrih – basketball player (NBA)
Primož Ulaga – ski jumper, Olympic athlete
Tadej Valjavec – cyclist
Andraž Vehovar – slalom canoeist, Olympic athlete
Anamari Velenšek – judoka
Benjamin Verbič – football player
Peter Vilfan – basketball player
Sasha Vujačić – basketball player (NBA), Serbian father and Slovene mother
Zlatko Zahovič (born 1971) – football player
Miha Zajc (born 1994) – football player
Vasilij Žbogar (born 1975) – sailor, Olympic athlete
Jure Zdovc – basketball player, Olympic athlete
Tamara Zidanšek – tennis player
Urška Žolnir (born 1981) – judoka, Olympic athlete
Peter Žonta – alpine ski jumper
Aljoša Žorga – basketball player
Matjaž Zupan – alpine ski jumper, Olympic athlete
Denis Žvegelj – rower, Olympic athlete
Other people
Danilo Dolci (1924–1997) – sociologist and political activist (Slovenian mother)
Aleš Hlad – supermoto racer and 2005 European Champion
Ivan Kramberger (1936–1992) – philanthropist
Shenphen Rinpoche (born 1969) – abbot of first Buddhist Congregation in Slovenia
Walter Wolf (born 1939) – businessman
Melania Trump (born Melanija Knavs, later changed to Knauss, 1970) – model, spouse of U.S. President Donald Trump, First Lady of the United States of America
See also
List of people by nationality
List of Slovene writers and poets in Hungary
List of Slovenian artists
List of Slovenian computer scientists
List of Slovenian playwrights
List of Slovenian mathematicians
List of Slovenian physicists
Slovenian Americans
Slovenian Canadians
References
External links
https://archive.today/20130104154830/http://www.randburg.com/si/general/slo8.html | [
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246341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinkaku-ji | Kinkaku-ji | , officially named , is a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan. It is one of the most popular buildings in Kyoto, attracting many visitors annually. It is designated as a National Special Historic Site, a National Special Landscape and is one of 17 locations making up the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto which are World Heritage Sites.
History
The site of Kinkaku-ji was originally a villa called Kitayama-dai (北山第), belonging to a powerful statesman, Saionji Kintsune. Kinkaku-ji's history dates to 1397, when the villa was purchased from the Saionji family by shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and transformed into the Kinkaku-ji complex. When Yoshimitsu died the building was converted into a Zen temple by his son, according to his wishes.
During the Ōnin war (1467–1477), all of the buildings in the complex aside from the pavilion were burned down.
On 2 July 1950, at 2:30 am, the pavilion was burned down by a 22-year-old novice monk, Hayashi Yoken, who then attempted suicide on the Daimon-ji hill behind the building. He survived, and was subsequently taken into custody. The monk was sentenced to seven years in prison, but was released because of mental illnesses (persecution complex and schizophrenia) on 29 September 1955; he died of tuberculosis in March 1956. During the fire, the original statue of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was lost to the flames (now restored). A fictionalized version of these events is at the center of Yukio Mishima's 1956 book The Temple of the Golden Pavilion, and another in the ballet RAkU.
The present pavilion structure dates from 1955, when it was rebuilt. The pavilion is three stories high, in height. The reconstruction is said to be a copy close to the original, although some doubt such an extensive gold-leaf coating was used on the original structure. In 1984 the coating of Japanese lacquer was found to be a little decayed and a new coating, as well as gilding with gold-leaf, much thicker than the original coatings (0.5 µm instead of 0.1 µm), was completed in 1987. Additionally, the interior of the building, including the paintings and Yoshimitsu's statue, were also restored. Finally, the roof was restored in 2003. The name Kinkaku is derived from the gold leaf that the pavilion is covered in. Gold was an important addition to the pavilion because of its underlying meaning. The gold employed was intended to mitigate and purify any pollution or negative thoughts and feelings towards death. Other than the symbolic meaning behind the gold leaf, the Muromachi period heavily relied on visual excesses. With the focus on the Golden Pavilion, the way that the structure is mainly covered in that material creates an impression that stands out because of the sunlight reflecting and the effect the reflection creates on the pond.
Design details
The is a three-story building on the grounds of the Rokuon-ji temple complex. The top two stories of the pavilion are covered with pure gold leaf. The pavilion functions as a shariden (舎利殿), housing relics of the Buddha (Buddha's Ashes). The building was an important model for Ginkaku-ji (Silver Pavilion Temple) and Shōkoku-ji, which are also located in Kyoto. When these buildings were constructed, Ashikaga Yoshimasa employed the styles used at Kinkaku-ji and even borrowed the names of its second and third floors.
Architectural design
The pavilion successfully incorporates three distinct styles of architecture, which are shinden, samurai and zen, specifically on each floor. Each floor of the Kinkaku uses a different architectural style.
The first floor, called The Chamber of Dharma Waters (法水院, Hō-sui-in), is rendered in shinden-zukuri style, reminiscent of the residential style of the 11th century Heian imperial aristocracy. It is evocative of the Shinden palace style. It is designed as an open space with adjacent verandas and uses natural, unpainted wood and white plaster. This helps to emphasize the surrounding landscape. The walls and fenestration also affect the views from inside the pavilion. Most of the walls are made of shutters that can vary the amount of light and air into the pavilion and change the view by controlling the shutters' heights. The second floor, called The Tower of Sound Waves (潮音洞, Chō-on-dō ), is built in the style of warrior aristocrats, or buke-zukuri. On this floor, sliding wood doors and latticed windows create a feeling of impermanence. The second floor also contains a Buddha Hall and a shrine dedicated to the goddess of mercy, Kannon. The third floor is built in traditional Chinese chán (Jpn. zen) style, also known as zenshū-butsuden-zukuri. It is called the Cupola of the Ultimate (究竟頂, Kukkyō-chō). The zen typology depicts a more religious ambiance in the pavilion, as was popular during the Muromachi period.
The roof is in a thatched pyramid with shingles. The building is topped with a bronze hōō (phoenix) ornament. From the outside, viewers can see gold plating added to the upper stories of the pavilion. The gold leaf covering the upper stories hints at what is housed inside: the shrines. The outside is a reflection of the inside. The elements of nature, death, religion, are formed together to create this connection between the pavilion and outside intrusions.
Garden design
The Golden Pavilion is set in a Japanese . The location implements the idea of borrowing of scenery ("shakkei") that integrates the outside and the inside, creating an extension of the views surrounding the pavilion and connecting it with the outside world. The pavilion extends over a pond, called , that reflects the building. The pond contains 10 smaller islands. The zen typology is seen through the rock composition; the bridges and plants are arranged in a specific way to represent famous places in Chinese and Japanese literature. Vantage points and focal points were established because of the strategic placement of the pavilion to view the gardens surrounding the pavilion. A small or roofed deck is attached to the rear of the pavilion building, allowing a small boat to be moored under it. The pavilion grounds were built according to descriptions of the Western Paradise of the Buddha Amida, intending to illustrate a harmony between heaven and earth. The largest islet in the pond represents the Japanese islands. The four stones forming a straight line in the pond near the pavilion are intended to represent sailboats anchored at night, bound for the Isle of Eternal Life in Chinese mythology.
The garden complex is an excellent example of Muromachi period garden design. The Muromachi period is considered to be a classical age of Japanese garden design. The correlation between buildings and its settings were greatly emphasized during this period. It was a way to integrate the structure within the landscape in an artistic way. The garden designs were characterized by a reduction in scale, a more central purpose and a distinct setting. A minimalistic approach was brought to the garden design, by recreating larger landscapes in a smaller scale around a structure.
Gallery
See also
The Temple of the Golden Pavilion by Yukio Mishima, a novel loosely based on the 1950 destruction of Kinkaku-ji
Buntenkaku in Nagoya, modeled after the Golden Pavilion
Ginkaku-ji
Shōkoku-ji
Chūson-ji with golden Konjiki-dō
Golden Tea Room
List of Special Places of Scenic Beauty, Special Historic Sites and Special Natural Monuments
Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (Kyoto, Uji and Otsu Cities)
Notes
References
Boults, Elizabeth, and Chip Sullivan. Illustrated History of Landscape Design. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
Gerhart, Karen M. The Material Culture of Death in Medieval Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009.
Pregil, Philip, and Nancy Volkman. Landscapes in History: Design and Planning in the Eastern and Western Tradition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 1992.
Young, David, and Michiko Young. The Art of Japanese Architecture. North Claredon, VT: Tuttle Publishing, 2007.
Young, David, Michiko Young, and Tan Hong. Introduction to Japanese Architecture. North Claredon, VT: Periplus, 2005.
Further reading
Schirokauer, Conrad; Lurie, David; Gay, Suzanne (2005). A Brief History of Japanese Civilization. Wadsworth Publishing. . OCLC 144227752.
External links
Official site of Kinkaku-ji
Live camera feed of Kinkaku-ji (Japanese language)
Oriental Architecture – Kinkakuji Temple
Omamori Charms Amulets of Kinkaku-ji Temple
14th-century Buddhist temples
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1955
20th-century Buddhist temples
Buddhist temples in Kyoto
World Heritage Sites in Japan
Myoshin-ji temples
Special Places of Scenic Beauty
Special Historic Sites
Religious buildings and structures destroyed by arson
Important Cultural Properties of Japan
Rebuilt buildings and structures in Japan
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246345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border%20pipes | Border pipes | The border pipes are a type of bagpipe related to the Scottish Great Highland Bagpipe. It is perhaps confusable with the Scottish smallpipe, although it is a quite different and much older instrument. Although most modern Border pipes are closely modelled on similar historic instruments, the modern Scottish smallpipes are a modern reinvention, inspired by historic instruments but largely based on Northumbrian smallpipes in their construction.
The name, which is modern, refers to the Anglo-Scottish Border region, where the instrument was once common, so much so that many towns there used to maintain a piper. The instrument was found much more widely than this, however; it was noted as far north as Aberdeenshire, south of the Border in Northumberland and elsewhere in the north of England. Indeed, some late 17th-century paintings, such as a tavern scene by Egbert van Heemskerck, probably from south-eastern England, show musicians playing such instruments. Other names have been used for the instrument: Lowland pipes and reel pipes in Scotland, and half-long pipes in Northumberland and Durham. However, the term reel pipes historically refers to instruments similar to Highland pipes, but primarily intended for indoor use.
While the instrument had been widespread in the 18th century, by the late 19th century it was no longer played. There was an attempted revival in north-east England in the 1920s and new instruments were created for Newcastle Royal Grammar School, Durham University OTC, and Northumberland Boy Scouts, the term half-long pipes is now used to refer specifically to surviving Northumbrian examples from this period; these were in part modelled on an 18th century set which had belonged to Muckle Jock Milburn, and is now in the Morpeth Chantry Bagpipe Museum; however, they were given a different drone configuration.
Description
The instrument consists of a chanter which plays the melody, drones which play a constant unchanging harmony, a bag which holds the air to blow drones and chanter, and a set of bellows to supply air to the bag.
An early photograph from Northumberland, c. 1859, shows the instrument well.
Chanter
The instrument has a conical-bored chanter, in contrast to the cylindrically-bored Scottish smallpipe. The modern instruments are louder than the Scottish smallpipe, though not as loud as the Great Highland Bagpipe; they blend well with stringed instruments.
The chanter has a thumb hole and seven finger-holes. The compass of the chanter is nine notes, from G to a, though a few higher notes, typically b, c',and c#', are obtainable on some chanters by 'pinching' and overblowing. As with the Highland pipes, the basic scale is a mixolydian scale on A. Some chanters can play chromatic notes however, and some old tunes, for instance Bold Wilkinson or Wat ye what I got late yestreen, suggest a dorian scale may also sometimes have been used, requiring a minor third instead of the major third of the mixolydian scale. This could be achieved by cross-fingering or half-holing. Pete Stewart has further argued that the existence of some G major tunes with a nine-note compass from G to a suggests that Border pipes formerly sounded a c natural, rather than c sharp; cross-fingering would then have been needed to sound a c sharp.
Some instruments are made in other pitches, typically B flat or G, rather than A.
Drones
The instrument has three cylindrically bored drones inserted into the pipebag by a common stock, typically tuned A, a, e', or A, a, a. In contrast, the Great Highland Bagpipe has each drone in a separate stock. The drone tuning A, e, a was used in half-long pipes in the early 20th century, and though still rare, sets are now beginning to be made with this drone tuning again.
Bag and bellows
The bag is not filled with breath from the player's mouth, but instead is supplied with dry air, from a set of bellows strapped under the player's right arm. This keeps the reeds drier, which helps keep the instrument in tune, as well as greatly extending the life of a reed.
Border pipe repertoire
There is a distinct body of music for the instrument – many of these tunes survived in the fiddle and Northumbrian smallpipes repertoire after the playing of Border pipes died out in the mid-19th century. Others survive in manuscript sources from the 18th and 19th century.
Sources
Most notably, the William Dixon manuscript, dated 1733, from Stamfordham in Northumberland, was identified as Border pipe music by Matt Seattle in 1995, and published by him with extensive notes.
The book contains forty tunes, almost all with extensive variation sets. Some of these are limited to a single octave, and many of this group correspond closely to tunes for Northumbrian smallpipes known from early 19th-century sources – "Apprentice Lads of Alnwick" is one of these; others are melodically and harmonically richer – using the full nine-note compass and the G major subtonic chord – a fine example of this group is Dorrington. Another very early, though limited, source is George Skene's manuscript fiddle book of 1715, from Aberdeenshire. Besides settings for fiddle, some playable on the pipes, it contains four pieces explicitly stated to be in bagpipe style, all variation sets on Lowland tunes.
Another limited early 18th-century source, is Thomas Marsden's 1705 collection of Lancashire Hornpipes, for fiddle; one clear example of a pipe tune here is "Mr Preston's Hornpipe", with a characteristic nine-note compass. Significantly, this tune is in the Dorian mode on A, with C natural throughout, rather than the Mixolydian mode of the Dixon tunes.
Several Border pipe tunes, including "The English Black and the Grey", "Bold Wilkinson" and "Galloping over the Cowhill", were copied in the 19th century by John Stokoe from the mid-18th century John Smith MS, from Northumberland, dated 1753. This manuscript was, from 1881, the property of Lewis Proudlock, who showed it to Stokoe, but it has since been lost. Some tunes in James Oswald's Caledonian Pocket Companion, also from the mid-18th century, ostensibly for flute or violin, are identifiable as Border pipe tunes. Another important source is the Vickers fiddle manuscript from Northumberland – many tunes in this have the characteristic nine-note compass of pipe tunes.
A later Scottish source, from the early 19th century, is Robert Riddell's Collection of Scotch, Galwegian and Border Tunes – besides some tunes for fiddle and some for smallpipes, others, such as "Torphichen's Rant", clearly have the range and the idiom of Border pipe tunes. The smallpipe manuscript of Robert Bewick of Gateshead, besides many smallpipe tunes and transcribed fiddle tunes, contains several nine-note tunes, now identified as Border pipe music. Some of the smallpipe tunes in Peacock's book, from the early 19th century, are in the Lydian mode, with a tonic of c, but with one sharp in the key signature; these – "Bobby Shaftoe" is one – make more musical sense in the major mode with an f natural, viewed as adaptations from originals for Border pipes. The Peacock, John Smith and some of the Bewick tunes are reproduced in the FARNE archive.
Stylistic features
These tunes display several features distinguishing them from music for fiddle, Northumbrian pipes and Highland pipes. The nine-note modal scale, usually mixolydian, with a compass from the subtonic up to the high tonic, separates them clearly from most fiddle and smallpipe tunes. In particular, the interval of an augmented fourth, difficult on the fiddle, is much commoner in these tunes. The compass of fiddle tunes is generally wider, while the older smallpipe tunes have an eight-note range from the tonic up to an octave higher. One complication is the long tradition in Scotland of writing tunes to be played on the fiddle, but 'in bagpipe style', often with the strings retuned to imitate drones; 18th century examples of these can fit well on Border pipes, and may well have been intended as imitations of this instrument.
Further, an important difference between the music of the Border pipes and of the Great Highland bagpipe is that many melodic figures in older Border pipe music typically move stepwise or in thirds rather than by wide intervals, and lack the multiple repeated notes found in many Highland pipe tunes. This suggests that in contrast to the Highland pipes, Border pipe music neither needed, nor greatly used, the complex graces which are so characteristic of Highland pipe music. The four specifically named pipe tunes from Skene's manuscript contain complex written-out gracings, and many more repeated notes than the Dixon tunes, so it is reasonable to conclude that playing styles in the 18th century varied from place to place. Modern attempts to reconstruct a musically valid playing style for Border music such as the Dixon tunes have been very successful, and several respected pipers play in such styles.
These are characterised by simple gracings, used sparingly, mostly either for rhythmic emphasis or to separate repeated notes.
Border pipes outside of Border music
The Border pipes have been taken up by many groups of pipers who were looking for a suitable instrument with which to play their music. This has not just been by musicians who play the music of the Scottish borders. For example, in Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, the instrument is used by highland pipers to play along with fiddles and other softer instruments. As the modern instrument is still fairly newly revived, ideas on playing styles are still evolving and naturally depend on the kind of music being played.
Musical societies
The Lowland and Border Pipers' Society was formed in 1982 and has played a large part in the revival of the instrument and its music.
In the North East, the Northumbrian Pipers' Society has played a similar role for both Border pipes and Northumbrian smallpipes.
The instrument is now once again widely played, and the original Border repertoire for the instrument, particularly the Dixon tunes, is becoming better known.
Notable players
Gillian Chalmers of Bodega
Paul Dunmall
Hamish Moore
Finlay MacDonald
Fred Morrison
James Duncan MacKenzie of Breabach and Skara Ceilidh Band
See also
Bagpipes
List of pipe makers
List of bagpipes
Music of Northumbria
References
External links
The Lowland and Border Pipers' Society
The Northumbrian Pipers' Society
Bagpipes In The Scottish Borders - An Emerging Jigsaw
Bagpipes
Scottish musical instruments
Northumbrian music
English musical instruments | [
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246346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galician%20gaita | Galician gaita | The Galician gaita (, , ) is the traditional instrument of Galicia and northern Portugal.
The word is used across northern Spain as a generic term for "bagpipe", although in the south of Spain and Portugal it denotes a variety of horn, flute or oboe like instruments according to region.
Etymology
There are many suggestions as to the origin of the name . It has been compared to the names of eastern European bagpipes, such as gaida, gajda, and gajdy. The linguist Joan Coromines has suggested that the word most likely derived from a Gothic word or , meaning "goat"; as the bag of a gaita is made from a whole, case-skinned goat hide. Gothic was spoken in Hispania from the fifth century to the eighth century when the country was ruled by the Visigoths. The Visigoths originated in north-eastern Europe.
The instrument
The Galician gaita has a conical chanter and a bass drone () with a second octave. It may have one or two additional drones playing the tonic and dominant notes. Three keys are traditional: D (, lit. "cricket bagpipe"), C (), and B♭ (). Galician pipe bands playing these instruments have become popular in recent years.
The playing of close harmony (thirds and sixths) with two gaitas of the same key is a typical Galician gaita style.
The bagpipe or gaita is known to have been popular in the Middle Ages, as early as the 9th century, but suffered a decline in popularity from the 16th century until a 19th-century revival. It saw another decline in the middle of the 20th century when the Francoist dictatorship tried to use it for propaganda purposes. Then, beginning in about the 1970s, a roots revival heralded another rebirth. The folk revival may have peaked in the late 1990s, with the release of acclaimed albums by Galician Carlos Núñez (A Irmandade Das Estrelas).
The gaita began to gain popularity with the massive immigration of Galicians to the United States and Latin America. The foundations of Galician Centers (Centro Galego / Casa Galicia) in key cities and capitals, from New York City to Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Traditional use include both solo performances or with a snare-drum known as tamboril (a wooden natural-skinned drum with gut snares), and the bombo, a bass drum.
Galician bagpipes come in three main varieties, though there are exceptions and unique instruments. These include the tumbal (B-flat), grileira (D) and redonda (C).
Description
The player inflates the bag using his mouth through a tube fitted with a non-return valve. Air is driven into the chanter () with the left arm controlling the pressure inside the bag. The chanter has a double reed similar to a shawm or oboe, and a conical bore with seven finger-holes on the front. The bass drone (ronco or roncón) is situated on the player's left shoulder and is pitched two octaves below the key note of the chanter; it has a single reed. Some bagpipes have up to two more drones, including the ronquillo or ronquilla, which sticks out from the bag and plays an octave above the ronco, or the smaller chillón. These two extra drones are located next to the right arm of the player.
The finger-holes include three for the left hand and four for the right, as well as one at the back for the left thumb. The chanter's tonic is played with the top six holes and the thumb hole covered by fingers. Starting at the bottom and (in the Galician fingering pattern) progressively opening holes creates the diatonic scale. Using techniques like cross-fingering and half-holing, the chromatic scale can be created. With extra pressure on the bag, the reed can be played in a second octave, thus giving range of an octave and a half from tonic to top note. It is also possible to close the tone hole with the little finger of the right hand, thus creating a semitone below the tonic.
Songs
Tunes using the gaita are usually songs, with the voice either accompanying the instrumentation or taking turns with it.
The most common type is the muiñeira, a sprightly 6/8 rhythm. Other 6/8 Galician tunes use different steps; they include the carballesa, ribeirana, redonda, chouteira and contrapaso.
Alborada, usually-instrumental tune, most often in 2/4, though sometimes 3/4, and is characterized by a series of descending turning phrases. It is used to begin a day's celebrations, and is played at sunrise.
The foliada is a joyful 3/4 jota-type song, often played at romarías (community gatherings at a local shrine).
Famous gaita players
Galicia
Avelino Cachafeiro
Perfecto Feijoo
Os Campaneiros
Moxenas
Os Rosales
Carlos Núñez
Anxo Lorenzo
Xosé Manuel Budiño
Cristina Pato
Susana Seivane
Carlos Meiga
See also
List of bagpipes
Associação Gaita-de-fole
External links
GaitaForum.com, a discussion forum for gaitas
"Jota da Mahia" performed by Javier Celada (Heiligkreuzkirche Berlin, 2004)
Lark Camp (Gaita Summer Camp)
Gaita Maker, history of the instrument in Americas and Brazil, Gaita Maker
Spanish musical instruments
Galician musical instruments
Gaita
Bagpipes
Portuguese musical instruments
Galician symbols
de:Dudelsack
fr:Gaita
lb:Dudelsak
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246347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20Leyte | Southern Leyte | Southern Leyte (; ) is a province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region. Its capital is the city of Maasin. Southern Leyte comprised the third congressional district Leyte until it was made into an independent province in 1959. Southern Leyte includes Limasawa, an island to the south where the first Roman Catholic Mass in Philippine soil is believed to have taken place and thus considered to be the birthplace of Roman Catholicism in the Philippines.
The province ranks as the second least populated in the region. According to the , the province has a population of .
Southern Leyte's geological features created several issues in the province after the flooding of the Subangdaku River and the 2006 mudslide in Guinsaugon. Organizations warned the province it was susceptible to natural occurrences like landslides and floods.
Southern Leyte forms an important part of the inter-island transportation system of the country, with ferries transporting people and goods between Liloan and Surigao del Norte in Mindanao. The province is well known for its quality abaca products and is the country's major producer of abaca fiber.
In September 2017, Representative Roger Mercado authored House Bill 6408, proposing to change the name of the province to Leyte del Sur.
History
Precolonial history
The province, being part of Leyte island, is believed to be influenced by Datu Ete, ruler of the historic community of Mairete, meaning Land of Ete, which was centered in Tacloban. The area which is to be Southern Leyte is believed to have been occupied by animist Visayan ethnic groups from Bohol. There is no proof that the indigenous animist Warays of Samar, who at the time occupied northeast Leyte, ever occupied Southern Leyte.
Early settlement
As early as 1898 during the Spanish and American periods, there existed a "sub-province" consisting of the municipalities from Palompon to Hinunangan, with Maasin as the center. Some government offices had already been established in Maasin on the southwestern part of Leyte to govern the area.
Historically, the governing city was the depository of cedula tax collections from Palompon to Hinunangan. This was administered by the office of the Administrado de Hacienda, equivalent to the Provincial Treasurer, a position under the Secretario de Hacienda.
There was also established in Maasin a Court of First Instance, then known as the Promoter Fiscal, where all minor administrative and other cases from Palompon to Hinunangan were heard.
During the Spanish colonization, the province was sparsely populated. The continued raiding of Moro slaves discouraged the province from growing and developing. However, in the 19th century immigrants from adjacent provinces like Bohol and Cebu populated the area.
In 1942, Ruperto Kangleon held a conference in the town of Sogod, when the first meeting attempt in Malitbog, a town to the east, failed due to many leaders staying away. He was trying to unify all guerrillas helping the Philippine Commonwealth troops during World War II.
From 1944 to 1945, the Allied Philippine Commonwealth Army soldiers and Filipino guerrillas attacked the Japanese Imperial forces in an effort to liberate Southern Leyte, and American troops landed on Leyte on October 20, 1944.
Independent province
Due to a change of sovereign powers, all the offices in Maasin except the Fiscal's Office were abolished and reverted to Tacloban, the capital of Leyte. This created a major problem because of the dearth of transportation, the difficulty in managing the affairs of government in Tacloban and the language barrier between the Cebuano-speaking South-westerners and the Waray-speaking North-easterners. The difficulty of managing the entire island from the main city suggested a need to separate the island into two provinces.
At first there was a general movement for a Western Leyte and soon after, many prominent men and leaders rallied behind the movement. Six attempts to pass a law for the division of Leyte were made. On the sixth attempt, then Congressman Nicanor Yñiguez introduced into the House a division law similar in substance to that of the Kangleon Bill, but recognizing the impossibility of creating an East-West Division, he instead opted to make his own district a province.
Abandoning the first bill, Congressman Nicanor Yñiguez presented House Bill No. 1318 proposing a new province of Southern Leyte comprising Third Congressional District of Leyte to include sixteen municipalities, from Maasin to Silago in the mainland, and in the Panaon Island.
The bill became Republic Act 2227 otherwise known as an "Act Creating the Province of Southern Leyte" and was signed into Law by President Carlos P. Garcia on May 22, 1959. On July 1, 1960, Southern Leyte was inaugurated as a province with sixteen municipalities and Maasin as the capital town. Thus, the third District of Leyte became the Province of Southern Leyte and the Lone District of Southern Leyte.
Mudslides
In December 2003, a landslide in San Francisco, Southern Leyte destroyed most of the town, killing 200 people.
On February 17, 2006, several mudslides caused by heavy rains, amounting over , and a minor earthquake destroyed at least one town and many commercial and residential infrastructures, leaving hundreds dead. The municipality of Saint Bernard was one of the worst hit areas with 23 confirmed deaths, up to 200 estimated deaths and another 1,500 missing. Barangay Guinsaugon, a mountain village on the said municipality with 2,500 people, was almost completely destroyed, killing 1,800 of its 1,857 residents. Many rescuers from national and international responded to the incident. However, rescue efforts were greatly hampered by poor road conditions and lack of heavy equipment. Survivors reported also lack of coordination of rescue efforts. The few handful of Guinsaugon citizens which escaped the mudslide were put up in emergency shelters without adequate nutrition and care despite the National Government collecting millions of dollars worth of donations.
Geography
Southern Leyte occupies the southern quarter of the island of Leyte. It is bounded by the province of Leyte to the north, by Surigao Strait to the east, Bohol Sea to the south, and Canigao Channel, across from Bohol, to the west. Its total land area is . The central portion of the province is dominated by the Sogod Bay, a long bay that cuts deep into the island.
Topography
Southern Leyte is characterized by relatively flat lands along the coastal areas where population centers lie, but rugged mountains towards the interior.
The province has inland water features. Based on national data, the province has altogether 93 rivers, including 18 major ones, namely the Amparo River in Macrohon, the Canturing River in Maasin City, the Das-ay and Pondol Rivers in Hinunangan, the Divisoria River in Bontoc, the Hitungao and Lawigan Rivers in Saint Bernard, the Maag River in Silago, and the Subangdaku River in Sogod which is the biggest of all. The province has an inland lake called Lake Danao located in the mountains of San Juan and Anahawan, towns in the eastern region.
Subangdaku, the province's largest river, created an issue over the area. It can be considered a braided river composed of several channels from near areas that divide and reunite forming an alluvial fan with a very wide floodplain. As such, the river usually became hazardous during typhoons after heavy rains. The river has overflowed, spilling its waters on the low-lying towns of Liloan and San Vicente and destroyed an ongoing flood control project worth millions of pesos. The river meanders along its course, ever changing its way over time. During the time it floods, it destroys every side of its course. In 2001, portions of the road and banks in Barangay San Miguel along the river were destroyed, including part of the Philippine National Road. Local officials blamed the rechannelization and uncontrolled quarrying of gravel and sand at the side of river as the cause of the flood. At a meeting on March 18, 2002, one of the representatives of a government agency alleged that the reason of the incidents of flood and other environmental problems in the river was due to the "Philippine Fault" which caused rocks to rumble down. However, the reason was contended because the fault is a geological feature and environmental problems in the province just occurred that time.
Along with other mountain forms in the province, Mount Nacolod in Hinunangan town has the highest peak with an elevation of above sea level. Young volcanic rocks are discovered in the terrain areas, which cover the top of the southern mountain ranges of Mount Cabalian in the Pacific Area and Mount Nelangcapan in Panaon Area.
The province lies within the Philippine Fault System. The major fault lines traverse the municipalities of Sogod, Libagon, Saint Bernard and San Juan to Panaon Island. Based on Mines and Geosciences Bureau Region 8 data, these areas had experienced strong earthquakes in 1907 and 1948 with a magnitude of 6.9 and on July 5, 1984, with a 6.4 scale. The Mines and Geosciences Bureau warned that Southern Leyte's natural and geological features make it susceptible to landslides and floodings. The affiliated group stated that there are four contributory reasons: unusually heavy rains; numerous faults and badly broken rocks; steep slopes; and absence of effective vegetative cover.
The province has numerous types of soil. Soil types within the Maasin Clay, Guimbalaon Clay, Himay-angan Clay, Bolinao Clay, Quingua Clay and Malitbog Clay series serve as raw materials for ceramics and pottery made by local residents.
Climate
Southern Leyte has two types of climate according to the Coronas Classification. These are Type II and Type IV.
Type II is characterized by the absence of dry season with a very pronounced maximum rain period occurring from November to January. This type prevails in the eastern half of the province that includes the municipality of Sogod, Libagon, Liloan, San Francisco, Pintuyan, San Ricardo, Saint Bernard, San Juan, Anahawan, Hinundayan, Hinunangan and Silago. On the other hand, Type IV has a rainfall that is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year. This type prevails in the western part of the province that includes the City of Maasin and the municipalities of Macrohon, Padre Burgos, Limasawa, Malitbog, Tomas Oppus, Bontoc and little part of Sogod.
In 2004, the province recorded a maximum temperature of and a minimum temperature of . In addition, mean minimum temperature was . The province has 163 rainy days per year and total rainfall of .
Vegetation and biodiversity
Inhabitants of the province plant rice, white corn, bananas, root crops, sugar cane, coconut and abacá. They also plant various types of vegetables.
A three-year project was established in Sogod Bay conducted by the Southern Leyte Coral Reef Conservation Project (SLCRCP) to surveyed coral reefs in the area. The undertaking was to provide local residents educational opportunities to have knowledge on protecting the province's biodiversity as well as to have a long-term sustainability.
Administrative divisions
Southern Leyte is subdivided into 18 municipalities and 1 city, all encompassed by a double legislative districts and further subdivided into 500 barangays.
The province originally comprised 16 municipalities and 349 barangays, with four islands: Panaon Island, Limasawa Island, San Pedro Island and San Pablo Island. After the inauguration of the province, three more municipalities were subsequently created: San Ricardo from Pintuyan, Tomas Oppus from Malitbog and Limasawa from Padre Burgos.
In 2000, Maasin was converted into a city as capital of Southern Leyte. The remaining component municipality classes ranges from 2nd to 5th level in the province. From 2nd class belongs Sogod municipality which is the center of trade, commerce and industry among municipalities within the Sogod Bay. Hinunangan, which holds the distinction as the "Rice Granary of the Province" for its vast plain land that is entirely planted with rice, Liloan, Malitbog, Saint Bernard, and Macrohon, are in the 4th level. The remaining municipalities—Anahawan, Hinundayan, Libagon, Padre Burgos, Pintuyan, San Francisco, San Juan (formerly Cabalian), San Ricardo, Silago, Tomas Oppus and Limasawa, a component island to the south—are under 5th level.
Demographics
The population of Southern Leyte in the was people, with a density of .
The 1980 national census recorded the province of Southern Leyte with a population of 296,294 from the historic record in 1903 of 72,369. In 1990, the population of the province increased to 321,940 which was caused by in-migration and increasing rate of birth over death. In 2000, population increased to 360,160 with a rate of 2.73 from the negative growth rate recorded in 1995 period with 317,565. The sudden decrease of the 1995 records was due to the late census in the province. While regular censuses were done in May where most of the students were at their respective places of residence, in 1995 the census on population was done in September where the students were out for schooling in nearby provinces. The decrease in population was also, theoretically, attributed to out-migration of the rural population to cities to seek better employment and livelihood opportunities. A corresponding increase on the number of households was also recorded at 72,894 households higher by 7,327 households over the 1995 figure. Southern Leyte ranked fifth in terms of population among the six provinces in Eastern Visayas with 9.98 percent of the 3.6 million persons of the region. On the contrary, it was the fastest-growing province in the region. At the national level, the province contributed 0.47 percent to the total population of the Philippines with 76.5 million.
Ethnicity
According to the 2000 census survey, of the total provincial population of 359,738, about were Bisaya, Boholano, Cebuano, Tagalogs, and Waray.
In Panaon, an island situated in the southernmost part of the province, a certain aboriginal folk are found locally known as kongking or variously called mamanwa which means "mountain people". They were believed to be migrants from Mindanao, inhabiting the portions of Agusan, after their migration from the island to evade militarization and the logging/mining corporations’ intrusion to their ancestral domains in the early 1980s. They have a dark complexion and curly hair, and they are short in stature. Hunting and gathering, mat weaving and rattan craft are among the main economic activities of the Mamanwas, so they prefer to inhabit the forested areas in the newfound Southern Leyte mountains. However, they were again displaced by the recent landslides in the province.
Language
The native language is a Boholano dialect variant of Cebuano. Waray is sometimes spoken (concentrated in some barrios near Waray speaking towns such as Abuyog and Mahaplag), while Tagalog and English are used as second languages. Kinabalian, a type of "rare, unique language", is spoken alongside Cebuano in the towns of San Juan and Anahawan.
Religion
Limasawa, an island municipality to the south, is believed to be the site of the first Christian mass in Philippine soil and the birthplace of Christianity in the Philippines, when Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator and explorer landed on March 28, 1521. The first Holy Sacrifice of the Mass was held on March 31, 1521, led by Friar Pedro de Valderrama, the chaplain of Ferdinand Magellan during the expedition. The mass marked the start of Christian propagation.
Culture
Beliefs
Although most people are Christians, a very few who live in remote villages of the province hold on to pre-Hispanic influences and make offerings and sacrifices before planting their crops. Farmers ritually sacrifice chickens and pigs to ensure that the spirits or elementals which they believe to be the cause of good harvest will grant them one.
Religious events
Fiesta, a Spanish term meaning "festivity", is celebrated in the province with prayer, food, drinking, dance and music. Every barangay of every town in the province has its own celebration date. For instance, Hinunangan celebrates a town fiesta on the 29 June with the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Fluvial boat parade the day before. The kuratsa – a courtship dance-drama – highlights every occasion.
The province also holds its own festivals. "Sinulog sa malitbog" is an annual religious street pageant in Malitbog to pay homage to the Holy Child Jesus (Santo Niño), the town's patron saint. Similarly, the historic and religious coming of the Spaniards is commemorated every 31 March in Limasawa with a cultural presentation and anniversary program dubbed "Sinugdan", meaning "beginning." Other festivals held in the province to highlight events are the Pagkamugna Festival and Pabulhon Festival in Maasin City, Karomata Festival in Beunavista, Pintuyan, Tangka-tangka Festival in Tangkaan, Padre Burgos and Manhaon Festival in Macrohon.
Economy
Farming
Coconut
Most of the people in Southern Leyte go into coconut planting, a widely distributed industry, especially in mountainous and even plain regions. The GIZ of the German Development Cooperation has embarked on a value chain study on one of the most important products in Region 8 – the coconut, particularly in Leyte and Southern Leyte.
In the year 2004, a beetle pest threatened the Philippine coconut industry including Visayas. Brontispa longissima causes great damage to seedlings and mature coconut trees and ornamental palms, killing the young spears and eventually the entire trees.
Abaca
People in Southern Leyte also go into abaca planting. The province is one of the major producer of abaca fiber in the country along with Catanduanes, Leyte, Davao Oriental, Northern Samar, Sorsogon, Sulu, Davao del Sur, and Surigao del Sur. The fibers from Leyte and the province are recognized as having the best quality. On the year 1990 to 1999, Southern Leyte produced abaca with a rate of 17 percent.
In 2003, Abaca bunchy top virus threatened the abaca industry in the province. Almost all of the abaca-producing municipalities in the area namely Maasin City, Padre Burgos, Malitbog, Tomas Oppus, Bontoc, Sogod, St. Bernard, San Juan, Hinunangan and Silago were greatly affected by the deadly virus except from the municipalities at Panaon Island. Eighty percent of the province's abaca, particularly in Sogod town, was greatly affected while Maasin City was estimated to suffer about 30 percent in damages.
Tourism
Some 200,000 tourists visit Southern Leyte each year.
Domestic tourism is mostly those wishing to enjoy the sandy beaches, hotels and resorts along the coastline. Significant numbers also visit for religious festivals such as Sinulog and Limasawa
Most international travellers visit Southern Leyte for reef diving and snorkeling, from just outside Maasin City, all the way around Sogod Bay via Padre Burgos. There are also an increasing number of non-divers who come to see the whale sharks between October and April.
In recent years there has been a drive to promote tourism in the region. There is a new Zoo and Wildlife Park in Barangay Danao in Maasin City. Not far from Sogod is a zip line over the tallest bridge in the Philippines.
With this increase in numbers, there are a selection of new hotels along the coast.
Parks
Napantao Marine Sanctuary
Puting Buhangin Island
Banahaw Cold Spring
Beaches
Santa Sofia Beach
Bituon Beach
Silago Beach
Tangkaan Beach
Landmarks
Monte Cueva Shrine
Agas-Agas Bridge
Our Lady of the Assumption
Maasin Cathedral
Industries
Abaca fiber helps livelihood in the province. Women in the selected areas go into abaca-based handicrafts, which is widely known in the area as tagak or spooled abaca fiber. Natives usually called it as tinagak or continuous spooled abaca fiber. The half-finished product is then made into sinamay or hand woven clothe out of tinagak ready to be made into other sinamaybased products. Products are being exported by Leyte to Japan. Because of a wide distribution of an industry called tagak, provincial sectors taught farmers on how to cultivate a suitable variety locally called laylay.
In Bontoc, a project was successfully established with a mudcrab hatchery with eleven hatchery tanks at the RKKMAFTI Compound. Initially, 25 spawners are being worked-on by the project.
Aside from abaca-based products, ceramics and handicraft items made from coconut and bamboo are also the province's industry. Among the province's economic activities are fishing, livestock and poultry raising.
Generally, rice is the staple food of the province, and corn is also used. Mountainliving folks, however, prefer root crops, which are abundant. Native delicacies of the province include tres marias, bocarillo, 'salvaro, bibingka, and starhoy. They also have their own kinilaw.
Communication
Postal communication is the main mode of communication in the province. There are five telephone exchange companies operating in the province and two radio stations. These two radio stations (Radio Natin and DYSL) are located in Sogod.
Transportation
The road network of Southern Leyte consists of major arterial highways that link the province to Leyte, passing through two major outlets. On the western part is the and the central part by the MahaplagSogod road via the Maharlika Highway. On the eastern part of the province, the opening of the new AbuyogSilago Roads provides fast and convenient travel to the eastern towns of Southern Leyte. Maharlika road contributes to the development of the province.
There are six designated bus terminals in Southern Leyte: Maasin, Liloan, Sogod, San Juan, Hinunangan and Silago. However, these terminals are open spaces used by buses as parking areas and are therefore not equipped with buildings and other facilities.
The province has only one existing airport that is located in Pananawan in Maasin.
Southern Leyte has a total of 11 seaports, two of which are declared as national ports, the Maasin and Liloan ports, and the 10 are municipal ports. Of these 10 ports, five are operational: Maasin, Liloan, Saint Bernard, San Juan and Sogod. By sea, travel to Cebu from Maasin port takes an average of six hours and a maximum of two hours. A ferryboat from Liloan to Surigao takes three hours.
Southern Leyte has one existing airport, Panan-awan Airport located in Maasin City. At present, however, the airport does not service any commercial flight. It has no terminal and can only accommodate aircraft for general aviation weighing and below at daytime. It is considered a feeder airport with a total runway length of and width of .
Colleges and universities
College of Maasin – Maasin
Maasin City College – Maasin
Saint James College – Padre Burgos
Saint Joseph College – Maasin
Saint Thomas Aquinas College – Sogod
Southern Leyte Business College – Maasin
Southern Leyte State University – Bontoc Campus
Southern Leyte State University – Hinunangan Campus
Southern Leyte State University – San Juan Campus
Southern Leyte State University – Sogod (main campus)
Southern Leyte State University – Tomas Oppus Campus
STI College – Maasin
Maasin Christian Academy - Maasin
References
External links
Provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1959
1959 establishments in the Philippines | [
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246350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities%20of%20the%20Philippines | Cities of the Philippines | A city () is one of the units of local government in the Philippines. All Philippine cities are chartered cities (), whose existence as corporate and administrative entities is governed by their own specific municipal charters in addition to the Local Government Code of 1991, which specifies their administrative structure and powers. As of September 7, 2019, there are 146 cities.
A city is entitled to at least one representative in the House of Representatives if its population reaches 250,000. Cities are allowed to use a common seal. As corporate entities, cities have the power to take, purchase, receive, hold, lease, convey, and dispose of real and personal property for its general interests, condemn private property for public use (eminent domain), contract and be contracted with, sue and exercise all the powers conferred to it by Congress. Only an Act of Congress can create or amend a city charter, and with this city charter Congress confers on a city certain powers that regular municipalities or even other cities may not have.
Despite the differences in the powers accorded to each city, all cities regardless of status are given a bigger share of the Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) compared to regular municipalities, as well as being generally more autonomous than regular municipalities.
Government
A city's local government is headed by a mayor elected by popular vote. The vice mayor serves as the presiding officer of the Sangguniang Panlungsod (city council), which serves as the city's legislative body. Upon receiving their charters, cities also receive a full complement of executive departments to better serve their constituents. Some departments are established on a case-by-case basis, depending on the needs of the city.
Offices and officials common to all cities
Source: Local Government Code of 1991.
Subdivisions
Cities, like municipalities, are composed of barangays (Brgy), which can range from urban neighborhoods (such as Barangay 9, Santa Angela in Laoag), to rural communities (such as Barangay Iwahig in Puerto Princesa). Barangays are sometimes grouped into officially defined administrative (geographical) districts. Examples of such are the cities of Manila (16 districts), Davao (11 districts), Iloilo (seven districts), and Samal (three districts: Babak, Kaputian and Peñaplata). Some cities such as Caloocan, Manila and Pasay even have an intermediate level between the district and barangay levels, called a zone. However, geographic districts and zones are not political units; there are no elected city government officials in these city-specific administrative levels. Rather they only serve to make city planning, statistics-gathering and other administrative tasks easier and more convenient.
Classification
Income classification
Cities are classified according to average annual income of the city based on the previous four calendar years. Effective July 28, 2008, the thresholds for the income classes for cities are:
Legal classification
The Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act No. 7160) classifies all cities into one of three legal categories:
Highly urbanized cities (HUC): Cities with a minimum population of two hundred thousand (200,000) inhabitants, as certified by the Philippine Statistics Authority, and with the latest annual income of at least fifty million pesos (50,000,000 or USD 1,000,000) based on 1991 constant prices, as certified by the city treasurer.
There are currently 33 highly urbanized cities in the Philippines, 16 of which are located in Metro Manila.
Independent component cities (ICC): Cities of this type have charters that explicitly prohibit their residents from voting for provincial officials. All five of them are considered independent from the province in which they are geographically located: Cotabato, Dagupan, Naga (Camarines Sur), Ormoc, and Santiago.
Component cities (CC): Cities which do not meet the preceding requirements are deemed part of the province in which they are geographically located. If a component city is located along the boundaries of two or more provinces, it shall be considered part of the province of which it used to be a municipality.
All but five of the remaining cities are considered component cities.
Independent cities
There are 38 independent cities in the Philippines, all of which are classified as either "Highly urbanized" or "Independent component" cities. A city classified as such:
does not have its Sangguniang Panlungsod legislation subject to review by any province's Sangguniang Panlalawigan;
does not share tax revenue with any province; and
is directly supervised by the President of the Philippines through the city government (given that the provincial government no longer exercises supervision over city officials), as stated in Section 29 of the Local Government Code.
Currently, there are only four independent cities in two classes that can still participate in the election of provincial officials (governor, vice governor, and Sangguniang Panlalawigan members):
Cities declared highly urbanized between 1987 and 1992, whose charters (as amended) explicitly permitted residents to both vote and run for elective positions in the provincial government, and therefore allowed by Section 452-c of the Local Government Code to maintain these rights: Lucena (Quezon), Mandaue (Cebu);
Independent component cities whose charters (as amended) only explicitly allow residents to run for provincial offices: Dagupan (Pangasinan) and Naga (Camarines Sur)
Registered voters of the cities of Cotabato, Ormoc, Santiago, as well as all other highly urbanized cities, including those to be converted or created in the future, cannot participate in provincial elections.
In addition to the eligibility of some independent cities to vote in provincial elections, a few other situations become sources of confusion regarding the complete autonomy of independent cities from provinces:
Some independent cities still serve as the seat of government for the province in which they are geographically located: Bacolod (Negros Occidental), Cagayan de Oro (Misamis Oriental), Cebu City (Cebu), Iloilo City (Iloilo), Lucena (Quezon), Puerto Princesa (Palawan) and Tacloban (Leyte). In such cases, the provincial government, apart from already financing the maintenance of its properties such as provincial government buildings and offices, may also provide the government of the independent city with an annual budget (determined by the province at its discretion) to aid in relieving incidental costs incurred by the city such as road maintenance due to increased vehicular traffic in the vicinity of the provincial government complex.
Some independent cities are still grouped with their former provinces for the purposes of representation in Congress. While 24 independent cities have their own representative(s) in Congress, some remain part of the congressional representation of the province to which they formerly belonged: Butuan, for example, is still part of the 1st Congressional District of Agusan del Norte. In cases like this, independent cities that do not vote for provincial officials are excluded from Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial council) districts, and the allotment of SP members is adjusted accordingly by COMELEC with proper consideration of population. For example, Agusan del Norte (being a third income-class province) is entitled to elect eight members to its Sangguniang Panlalawigan, and belongs to two congressional districts. The seats of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan are not evenly distributed (4–4) between the province's first and second congressional districts because its 1st Congressional district contains Butuan, an independent city which does not vote for provincial officials. Rather, the seats are distributed 1–7 to account for the small population of the province's 1st Sangguniang Panlalawigan district (consisting only of Las Nieves) and the bulk of the province's population being in the second district. On the other hand, the city of Lucena, which is eligible to vote for provincial officials, still forms part of the province of Quezon's 2nd Sangguniang Panlalawigan district, which is coterminous with the 2nd congressional district of Quezon.
General lack of distinction for independent cities, for practical purposes: Many government agencies, as well as Philippine society in general, still continue to classify many independent cities outside Metro Manila as part of provinces due to historical and cultural ties, especially if these cities were once or currently socio-economic and cultural capitals of the provinces to which they once belonged. Furthermore, most maps of the Philippines showing provincial boundaries almost never separate independent cities from the provinces in which they are geographically located, for cartographic convenience. Despite being first-level administrative divisions (i.e., on the same level as provinces, as stated in Section 25 of the LGC), independent cities are still treated by many to be on the same level as municipalities and component cities (second-level administrative divisions) for educational convenience and simplicity.
A component city, while enjoying relative autonomy on some matters compared to a regular municipality, is still considered part of a province. However, there are several sources of confusion:
Some component cities form their own congressional representation, separate from their province. The representation of a city in the House of Representatives (or lack thereof) is not a criterion for independence from a province, as Congress is the national legislative body and is part of the national (central) government. Despite Antipolo, Biñan and San Jose del Monte having their own representatives in Congress, they are still component cities of Rizal, Laguna, and Bulacan, respectively, as their respective charters specifically converted them into component cities and have no provision stating a severance in relations with their respective provincial governments.
Being part of an administrative region different from the province: Isabela City functions as a component city of Basilan: its tax revenues are shared with the provincial government, its residents are eligible to both vote and run for provincial offices, and it is served by the provincial government and the Sangguniang Panlalawigan of Basilan with regard to provincially devolved services. However, by opting out of joining the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM), Isabela City's residents are ineligible to vote and run for regional offices of the Bangsamoro Parliament, unlike the rest of Basilan. Regional services provided to Isabela City come from offices in Region IX based in Pagadian; the rest of Basilan is serviced by the BARMM based in Cotabato City. Isabela City, while not independent from its province, is this outside the jurisdiction of the BARMM, the region to which the rest of Basilan belongs. Regions are not the primary subnational administrative divisions of the Philippines, but rather the provinces.
Creation of cities
Congress is the lone legislative entity that can incorporate cities. Provincial and municipal councils can pass resolutions indicating a desire to have a certain area (usually an already-existing municipality or a cluster of barangays) declared a city after the requirements for becoming a city are met. As per Republic Act No. 9009, these requirements include:
locally generated income of at least 100 million (based on constant prices in the year 2000) for the last two consecutive years, as certified by the Department of Finance, AND
a population of at least 150,000, as certified by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA); OR a contiguous territory of 100 square kilometers, as certified by the Land Management Bureau, with contiguity not being a requisite for areas that are on two or more islands.
Members of Congress (usually the involving representative of the congressional district to which the proposed city belongs) then draft the legislation that will convert or create the city. After the bill passes through both the House of Representatives and the Senate and becomes an Act of Congress, the President signs the Act into law. If the Act goes unsigned after 30 days it still becomes law despite the absence of the President's signature.
The creation of cities before 1983 was solely at the discretion of the national legislature; there were no requirements for achieving 'city' status other than an approved city charter. No income, population or land area requirements had to be met in order to incorporate cities before Batas Pambansa Bilang 337 (Local Government Code of 1983) became law. This is what made it possible for several current cities such as Tangub or Canlaon to be conferred such a status despite their small population and locally generated income, which do not meet current standards. The relatively low income standard between 1992 and 2001 (which was 20 million) also allowed several municipalities, such as Sipalay and Muñoz, to become cities despite not being able to meet the current 100 million local income standard.
Before 1987, many cities were created without any plebiscites conducted for the residents to ratify the city charter, most notable of which were cities that were incorporated during the early American colonial period (Manila and Baguio), and during the Commonwealth Era (1935–1946) such as Cavite City, Dansalan (now Marawi), Iloilo City, Bacolod, San Pablo and Zamboanga City. Only since 1987 has it been mandated under the Constitution that any change to the legal status of any local government unit requires the ratification by the residents that would be affected by such changes. Therefore, all cities created after 1987 – after meeting the requirements for cityhood as laid out in the Local Government Code of 1991 and Republic Act No. 9009 of 2001 – only acquired their corporate status after the majority of their voting residents approved their respective charters.
Motivations for cityhood
Although some early cities were given charters because of their advantageous (Baguio, Tagaytay) or strategic (Angeles City and Olongapo, Cotabato, Zamboanga) locations or in order to especially establish new government centers in otherwise sparsely populated areas (Palayan, Trece Martires, Quezon City), most Philippine cities were originally incorporated to provide a form of localized civil government to an area that is primarily urban, which, due to its compact nature and different demography and local economy, cannot be necessarily handled more efficiently by more rural-oriented provincial and municipal governments. However, not all cities are purely areas of dense urban settlement. To date there are still cities with huge expanses of rural or wilderness areas and considerable non-urban populations, such as Calbayog, Davao, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga as they were deliberately incorporated with increased future resource needs and urban expansion, as well as strategic considerations, in mind.
With the enactment of the 1991 Local Government Code, municipalities and cities have both become more empowered to deal with local issues. Regular municipalities now share many of the same powers and responsibilities as chartered cities, but its citizens and/or leaders may feel that it might be to their best interest to get a larger share of internal revenue allotment (IRA) and acquire additional powers by becoming a city, especially if the population has greatly increased and local economy has become more robust. On the other hand, due to the higher property taxes that would be imposed after cityhood, many citizens have become wary of their town's conversion into a city, even if the municipality had already achieved a high degree of urbanization and has an annual income that already exceeds that of many existing lower-income cities. This has been among the cases made against the cityhood bids of many high-income and populous municipalities surrounding Metro Manila, most notably Bacoor and Dasmariñas (which finally became cities in June 2012 and November 2009 respectively), which for many years have been more qualified to become cities than others.
In response to the rapid increase in the number of municipalities being converted into cities since the enactment of the Local Government Code in 1991, Senator Aquilino Pimentel authored what became Republic Act No. 9009 in June 2001 which sought to establish a more appropriate benchmark by which municipalities that wished to become cities were to be measured. The income requirement was increased sharply from 20 million to 100 million in a bid to curb the spate of conversions into cities of municipalities that were perceived to have not become urbanized or economically developed enough to be able to properly function as a city.
Despite the passage of RA 9009, 16 municipalities not meeting the required locally generated income were converted into cities in 2007 by seeking exemption from the income requirement. This led to vocal opposition from the League of Cities of the Philippines against the cityhood of these municipalities, with the League arguing that by letting these municipalities become cities, Congress will set "a dangerous precedent" that would not prevent others from seeking the same "special treatment". More importantly, the LCP argued that with the recent surge in the conversion of towns that did not meet the requirements set by RA 9009 for becoming cities, the allocation received by existing cities would only drastically decrease because more cities will have to share the amount allotted by the national government, which is equal to 23% of the IRA, which in turn is 40% of all the revenues collected by the Bureau of Internal Revenue. The resulting legal battles resulted in the nullification of the city charters of the 16 municipalities by the Supreme Court in August 2010. (See #"League of 16" and legal battles)
Changing city status
Throughout the years there have been instances of changes to the city's status with regard to eligibility for provincial elections, as a result of the passage of laws, both of general effectivity and specific to a city.
Before 1979
Prior to 1979, all cities were just considered chartered cities, without any official category differentiating them aside from income levels. Though chartered cities were considered autonomous from the provinces from which they were created, the eligibility of their residents to vote for provincial officials was determined by their respective charters.
Regarding participation in provincial affairs, there were three types of city charters:
those which explicitly allowed their respective residents to elect provincial officials,
those which explicitly prohibited participation in provincial elections,
and those which are silent regarding voter participation in provincial elections.
The 1951 Supreme Court decision on Teves, et al. v. Commission on Elections finally resolved the ambiguity surrounding the third category of cities, by confirming that the residents of cities with such charters (such as Dumaguete and Davao City) are ineligible to participate in provincial elections.
Altering the right of city residents to participate in provincial elections was a power solely determined by the national legislature. Before 1979, this power was exercised in seven cases, affecting a total of six cities:
Five Acts of the National Assembly or Congress in which the residents of an existing city were restored the right to vote for officials of the mother province:
August 22, 1940: Section 7 of the revised charter of the city of Iloilo (Commonwealth Act No. 158) was amended in 1940 by Commonwealth Act No. 604 to explicitly state: "The voters of said City of Iloilo shall take part in the election of the provincial officers of Iloilo, but the latter shall have no jurisdiction over the City of Iloilo and the officers thereof."
June 10, 1950: The original city charter of Dagupan (Republic Act No. 170) was originally silent on the matter of the eligibility of city residents to participate in provincial election, therefore implying that residents were ineligible to participate in provincial elections. Three years later Republic Act No. 448 amended the charter to explicitly empower the city's voters to participate in the election of the governor and provincial board members of Pangasinan.
June 14, 1956: The city of Cabanatuan was originally explicitly excluded from electing and being elected into positions in the provincial government of Nueva Ecija until its original city charter (Republic Act No. 526) was amended by Republic Act No. 1445 in 1956, which enabled the city's residents to once more vote for provincial officials.
June 16, 1956: The original city charter of Dansalan (Commonwealth Act No. 592) was originally silent on the matter of the eligibility of city residents to participate in provincial election, therefore implying that residents were ineligible to participate in provincial elections. Sixteen years later Republic Act No. 1552, in addition to renaming the city to Marawi, also amended the city charter to explicitly empower the city's voters to participate in the election of Lanao Province officials.
June 10, 1964: Cebu City's old charter (Commonwealth Act No. 58) was repealed, and replaced with Republic Act No. 3857 in 1964. The law allowed the city's residents to once more become eligible to vote for officials in the provincial government of Cebu.
June 21, 1969: Following the Supreme Court decision on Teves, et al. v. Commission on Elections which upheld Dumaguete's independence from Negros Oriental, Republic Act No. 5797 was enacted on June 21, 1969, by Congress to revise the city's original charter (Republic Act No. 327) to explicitly allow the city's residents to once again vote for provincial officials.
One Act of Congress in which the residents of existing cities whose residents were previously explicitly granted the right to participate in provincial elections were deprived such a right:
June 19, 1959: By virtue of Section 2 of Republic Act No. 2259, the voters of the cities of Dagupan and Iloilo were deprived of the right to participate in provincial elections.
1979–1983
Batas Pambansa Bilang 51, approved on December 22, 1979, introduced two legal categories of cities: highly urbanized cities (HUCs) and component cities. COMELEC Resolution No. 1421, which was issued to implement the provisions of BP 51 prior to the January 30, 1980 local elections, stated that a total of 20 cities were not allowed to participate in the election of provincial officials: seven of these were "highly urbanized," while the remaining 13 were "component" cities.
When Batas Pambansa Bilang 51 came into effect for the January 30, 1980 elections, all cities whose incomes at the time were 40 million or higher were considered highly urbanized cities. Cities that met this income requirement at the time were: Caloocan, Cebu, Davao, Manila, Pasay and Quezon City. Regardless of whether their respective charters allowed them to vote for provincial officials or not, highly urbanized cities were no longer allowed to vote for provincial officials. Among the aforementioned, only the voters of Cebu City lost the right to participate in provincial elections in this manner; the voters of the other five cities have not participated in any provincial election since their respective incorporation as cities. In addition, Section 3 of BP 51 also made Baguio a highly urbanized city irrespective of its income, due to its importance as the host to the official summer residences of the President and the Supreme Court. A Supreme Court case decided two days before election day upheld the legality of BP 51 in depriving the voters of Cebu City the power to elect officials for the province of Cebu.
Per Section 3 of BP 51, all other cities were considered "component cities" of the provinces in which they are geographically located, or the provinces of which they were originally a part. Despite considering all other cities as part of their respective provinces, under BP 51 the eligibility of voters to participate in provincial elections were still determined by their cities' respective charters (as amended). The voters of a total of thirteen "component cities" continued to be ineligible to vote for provincial officials for the local elections of 1980. Nine of these were cities with charters (as amended) that expressly prohibited participation in provincial elections: Dagupan, General Santos, Iloilo, Mandaue, Naga, Ormoc, Oroquieta, San Carlos (Pangasinan) and Zamboanga. The remaining four — Bais, Canlaon, Cotabato and Ozamiz — were cities whose charters were silent on participation in provincial elections; BP 51 upheld the 1951 Supreme Court decision on Teves, et al. v. Commission on Elections by barring their residents from participating in the election of provincial officials.
1983–1987
Batas Pambansa Bilang 337 (Local Government Code of 1983), approved on February 10, 1983, further refined the criteria by which cities can be classified as highly urbanized cities. Under BP 337 a city that had at least 150,000 inhabitants and an income of at least 30 million was to be declared highly urbanized by the Minister of Local Government within thirty days of the city having met the requirement. The cities of Angeles (October 13, 1986), Bacolod (September 27, 1984), Butuan (February 7, 1985), Cagayan de Oro (November 22, 1983), Iligan (November 22, 1983), Olongapo (December 7, 1983), and Zamboanga (November 22, 1983) became HUCs in this manner. The residents in most of these cities lost their right to participate in provincial elections for the first time. The two exceptions are: Iloilo City, which had already been deprived of the right to vote for provincial officials in 1959 by virtue of Section 2 of RA 2259, and Zamboanga City, which had been autonomously governed since its creation by virtue of Section 47 of its city charter (Commonwealth Act No. 39).
By virtue of Section 30 of Batas Pambansa Bilang 881 (Omnibus Election Code of the Philippines), approved on December 3, 1985, provided that: "unless their respective charters provide otherwise, the electorate of component cities shall be entitled to vote in the election for provincial officials of the province of which it is a part." This provision therefore overrides the 1951 Supreme Court decision on Teves, et al. v. Commission on Elections by providing voters in component cities whose charters are silent on the matter of electing provincial officials the right to again participate in provincial elections. BP 881 therefore again enfranchised voters in the cities of Bais and Canlaon (Negros Oriental), and Ozamiz (Misamis Occidental). Despite the charter of the city of Cotabato being silent on the matter of electing provincial officials, the city was not legislated to be part of any of the successor provinces of the old undivided Cotabato province. Voters of the city therefore were still not eligible to vote in the provincial elections of either Maguindanao or North Cotabato and therefore remained independent from any province.
1987–1991
The period between ratification of the new Constitution (February 1987) and the effectivity of the Local Government Code of 1991 (January 1992) was one of transition. During this time, BP 51, BP 337 and BP 881 were still in force: the only legal classes of cities during this period were still "highly urbanized" and "component" cities.
Altering the right of city residents to participate in provincial elections was once again exercised by the newly restored Congress in this period. A total of three cities were affected: Republic Acts No. 6641 (in 1987), 6726 (in 1989) and 6843 (in 1990), once again allowed the residents of Mandaue, Oroquieta and San Carlos to vote for provincial officials of Cebu, Misamis Occidental and Pangasinan respectively. Since BP 51—which only considered cities as being either "highly urbanized" or "component"—was still in force at the time, the changes were not considered as switching between legal categories, but rather a simple change within the "component city" classification that did not require a plebiscite. Note that the "independent component city" legal classification was only introduced through the Local Government Code in 1992.
Under the same criteria set in BP 337 (Local Government Code of 1983), a total of three cities became highly urbanized: General Santos (September 5, 1988), Lucena (July 1, 1991) and Mandaue (February 15, 1991). Lucena and Mandaue were special cases, in that because their re-classification into HUC status took place after the ratification of the Constitution (February 11, 1987) but before the effectivity of the Local Government Code of 1991 (January 1, 1992), their residents were allowed to continue to participate in the election of provincial officials as per their respective charters (as amended), by virtue of Sec. 452-c of the LGC. Residents of General Santos were already excluded from voting for provincial officials of South Cotabato since achieving cityhood in 1968; they were therefore unaffected by this exemption.
1992–present
The Local Government Code of 1991 came into effect on January 1, 1992, and has remained in force ever since, though some amendments have been made. New requirements for creating cities, and upgrading cities to highly urbanized status, were instituted under this Act. The LGC of 1991 was also the first time the independent component city (ICC) category was introduced. These cities are those non-highly urbanized cities whose charters explicitly prohibited city residents to vote in provincial elections. They were finally made completely independent of the province from fiscal, administrative and legal standpoints.
Upgrading
Independent municipality to highly urbanized city
The municipalities of Metro Manila, having been severed from the provinces of Bulacan and Rizal and made independent units in 1975, were converted to highly urbanized cities, beginning in 1994 with Mandaluyong. The most recent, Navotas, became an HUC in 2007. Only Pateros, which does not currently meet the population requirement of 200,000 inhabitants, remains the only independent municipality in Metro Manila.
Component city to independent component city
All that is needed is a congressional amendment to a component city's charter, prohibiting city residents to vote for provincial officials. There is a movement (Independent Calbayog City Movement) in Calbayog City that pushes this and the draft bill is ready to be filed by the representative of the 1st District of Samar, Edgar Mary Sarmiento.
Component/independent component city to highly urbanized city
Since 1992, once a city reaches a population of 200,000 persons as certified by the Philippine Statistics Authority and an income of 50 million (based on 1991 constant prices) as certified by the city treasurer, the city government can submit a request to the President to have their city declared as highly urbanized within 30 days. Upon the President's declaration, a plebiscite will be held within a specific timeframe to ratify this conversion. There are no limits as to the number of times a component city can attempt to become a highly urbanized city, should previous tries be unsuccessful.
Since 1992 three component cities have been successfully converted into HUCs:
Puerto Princesa (2007): Proclamation No. 1264 signed on March 26, 2007, declared the capital city of Palawan an HUC. Majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held on July 21, 2007, approved the conversion.
Lapu-Lapu (2007): Proclamation No. 1222 signed on January 23, 2007, declared the component city of Lapu-Lapu an HUC. Majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held on July 21, 2007, approved the conversion.
Tacloban (2008): Proclamation No. 1637 signed on October 4, 2008, declared the capital city of Leyte an HUC. Majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held on December 18, 2008, approved the conversion.
The following component cities failed to become HUCs, for various reasons:
Cabanatuan (1997): Proclamation No. 969 signed on February 13, 1997, declared the former capital of the province of Nueva Ecija an HUC. Majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held simultaneously with the barangay elections on May 12, 1997 did not approve the conversion.
Tarlac City (2005): Proclamation No. 940 signed on October 27, 2005, declared the capital city of the province of Tarlac an HUC. Majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held on February 11, 2006, did not approve the conversion.
Antipolo (2011): Proclamation No. 124 signed on March 14, 2011, declared the capital city of the province of Rizal an HUC. On April 4, 2011, Antipolo's city mayor announced that the planned June 18, 2011 plebiscite is indefinitely postponed, effectively suspending the bid to convert the city into an HUC.
Cabanatuan (2012): Proclamation No. 418 signed on July 4, 2012, once again declared the former capital of the province of Nueva Ecija an HUC. The plebiscite was originally set for December 1, 2012, but, due to preparations for the upcoming 2013 national, ARMM and local elections, was rescheduled by COMELEC for January 25, 2014. A week before the rescheduled plebiscite, the Supreme Court issued a temporary restraining order, which postponed the vote until the case brought by Nueva Ecija governor Aurelio Umali was decided. On April 22, 2014, the Supreme Court ordered COMELEC to include the rest of Nueva Ecija in the plebiscite, given that the province's income will be significantly affected once Cabanatuan attains autonomy as an HUC. COMELEC subsequently rescheduled the expanded plebiscite for November 8, 2014. However, on October 21 COMELEC issued Minute Resolution No. 14-0732, which suspended the voting until the city government of Cabanatuan provides the 101 million needed to administer the expanded plebiscite.
Downgrading
Highly urbanized city to component city
Reclassifying an HUC as a component city likely involves not only amending the concerned city's charter, but also the Local Government Code, as currently there is no provision in the LGC that allows this, nor are there any precedents. Some Cebu City politicians have previously indicated that they wish to bring back the city under the province's control, in order to bring in more votes against the Sugbuak, the proposed partition of Cebu Province.
Independent component city to component city
A congressional amendment to the city charter enabling city residents to vote for provincial officials is required, followed by a plebiscite. Santiago's status as an independent component city was briefly in question after the enactment of Republic Act No. 8528 on February 14, 1998, which sought to make it a regular component city. The Supreme Court on September 16, 1999, however ruled in favor of the city's mayor who contended that such a change in the status of the city required a plebiscite just like any other merger, division, abolition or alteration in boundaries of any political unit. And due to the lack of a plebiscite to affirm such a change, RA 8528 was therefore unconstitutional.
League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP)
The League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP) is a non-profit organization and is not a government agency and was founded in 1988. As of September 7, 2019, the league has a membership of 146 cities. The organization was formed to help coordinate efforts to improve governance and local autonomy and to tackle issues such as preserving the environment and improving public works.
List of cities
, there are 146 cities in the Philippines. Santo Tomas in Batangas is the newest city, after the plebiscite held resulted in approval of ratification on September 7, 2019.
Largest cities
Metropolitan areas
City facts
By population (2020 census figures)
Smallest: Palayan (45,383)
Largest: Quezon City (2,960,048)
By population density (calculated using 2020 census figures):
Most densely populated: Manila, with 41,515 people per square kilometer
Most sparsely populated: Puerto Princesa, with 130 people per square kilometer
By land area:
Smallest: San Juan, with an area of
Largest: Davao City, with an area of . However, some sources claim that Puerto Princesa covers an area of more than , its officially recognized land area figure (according to IRA share calculation data) is . Contrary to popular belief within the Philippines, Davao City does not hold the record of being the world's largest city in terms of land area.
By elevation:
Lowest: Most Philippine cities are located on sea level. However, some parts of Navotas, South Caloocan and Malabon are below sea level, and continue to experience subsidence.
Highest: much of Baguio is situated more than above sea level. However, the peak of Mount Apo, the tallest mountain in the Philippines, forms part of Davao City's boundary with the municipality of Bansalan, Davao del Sur; the city of Digos encompasses a section of the Mount Apo Natural Park as well.
Most extreme points:
Northernmost: Laoag
Southernmost: General Santos
Easternmost: Bislig
Westernmost: Puerto Princesa
Defunct/dissolved cities
Legazpi City (1948–1954): Legazpi's cityhood was approved on June 18, 1948. Under Republic Act No. 306, Legazpi became a city after the President of the Philippines proclaimed its cityhood. Comprising the present-day territories of Legazpi City and Daraga, the city was dissolved on June 8, 1954 when Legazpi and Daraga were made into separate municipalities. Legazpi eventually became a city on its own on June 12, 1959.
Basilan City (1948–1973): Formerly part of the city of Zamboanga until it was made a city on its own in 1948 through Republic Act No. 288. Delimited to only the downtown area of what is now Isabela City upon the creation of the province of Basilan in 1973 through Presidential Decree No. 356 by President Ferdinand Marcos. Finally abolished and its territory annexed to the municipality of Isabela on November 7, 1975, through Presidential Decree No. 840.
Rajah Buayan City (1966): Under Republic Act No. 4413, the then-municipality of General Santos in what was then the unified province of Cotabato was to be formally converted into a city named after a historical ruler in Mindanao on January 1, 1966, provided that majority of qualified voters in the municipality vote in favor of cityhood in a plebiscite. In December 1965 the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) proclaimed the cityhood of Rajah Buayan, with 4,422 people voting for and 3,066 voting against. However, two residents of the new city challenged this by arguing in the courts that the number of people who voted in favor of cityhood did not form a majority in light of the fact that there were 15,727 voters in the city. The court issued an injunction on January 4, 1966, restraining city officers from performing any acts authorized by or pursuant to provisions in RA 4413. The Supreme Court unanimously upheld this decision on October 29, 1966, and declared that the city charter was not accepted by majority of voters, thus rendering RA 4413 null and void. The municipality of General Santos would later be converted into a city under the same name in 1968.
"League of 16" and legal battles
The Supreme Court of the Philippines, by a highly divided vote of 6–5, on November 18, 2008, subsequently upheld with finality on May 6, 2009, declared unconstitutional cityhood laws converting 16 municipalities into cities. The 24-page judgment of Justice Antonio T. Carpio, adjudged that the following Cityhood Laws violate secs. 6 and 10, Article X of the Constitution of the Philippines:
RA # 9389 (Baybay in Leyte)
RA # 9390 (Bogo in Cebu)
RA # 9391 (Catbalogan in Samar)
RA # 9392 (Tandag in Surigao del Sur)
RA # 9393 (Lamitan in Basilan)
RA # 9394 (Borongan in Eastern Samar)
RA # 9398 (Tayabas in Quezon)
RA # 9404 (Tabuk in Kalinga)
RA # 9405 (Bayugan in Agusan del Sur)
RA # 9407 (Batac in Ilocos Norte)
RA # 9408 (Mati in Davao Oriental)
RA # 9409 (Guihulngan in Negros Oriental)
RA # 9434 (Cabadbaran in Agusan del Norte)
RA # 9435 (El Salvador in Misamis Oriental)
RA # 9436 (Carcar in Cebu)
RA # 9491 (Naga in Cebu)
The Court held that the foregoing Cityhood Laws, all enacted after RA 9009'''s effectivity, "explicitly exempt respondent municipalities from the increased income requirement from 20 million to 100 million in Sec. 450 of the Local Government Code (LGC), as amended by RA 9009. Such exemption clearly violates Section 10, Article X of the Constitution and is thus patently unconstitutional. To be valid, such exemption must be written in the Local Government Code and not in any other law, including the Cityhood Laws."
However, more than a year later, on December 22, 2009, acting on the appeal of the so-called League of 16 Cities (an informal group consisting of the sixteen local government units whose cityhood status had been reversed), the Supreme Court reversed its earlier ruling as it ruled that "at the end of the day, the passage of the amendatory law (regarding the criteria for cityhood as set by Congress) is no different from the enactment of a law, i.e., the cityhood laws specifically exempting a particular political subdivision from the criteria earlier mentioned. Congress, in enacting the exempting law/s, effectively decreased the already codified indicators." As such, the cityhood status of the said 16 LGUs was effectively restored.
On August 24, 2010, in a 16-page resolution, the Supreme Court reinstated its November 18, 2008, decision striking down the cityhood laws, reducing once more the sixteen LGUs to the status of regular municipalities.
The most recent development in the legal battles surrounding the League of 16 came on February 15, 2011. Voting 7–6, the Supreme Court (SC) ruled that 16 towns that became cities in 2007 can stay as cities. This was the fourth time the SC has ruled on the case, and the third reversal. It said the conversion of the 16 towns into cities met all legal requirements.
Rejected cityhood
Batangas (1965): A majority of the votes cast in the then-municipality of Batangas rejected cityhood in a plebiscite conducted on the same day as the 1965 Philippine general elections, as mandated by Republic Act No. 4586. The city would have been named Laurel City in honor of Jose P. Laurel, the president of the Japanese-sponsored Second Republic. The municipality of Batangas would later be converted into a city under the same name in 1969.
Tarlac (1969): The city charter of Tarlac (Republic Act No. 5907) was approved on June 21, 1969. Cityhood was rejected in a plebiscite held on November 11, 1969, by a majority of the ballots cast. Tarlac became a city 29 years after, in 1998.
Ilagan (1999): Republic Act No. 8474, which converted Ilagan to a component city of Isabela, was approved on February 2, 1998. However, majority of votes cast in the plebiscite held on March 14, 1999, rejected cityhood. Ilagan finally became a city after majority of votes cast in the August 11, 2012 plebiscite approved.
Novaliches (1999): On February 23, 1998, the controversial City Charter of Novaliches (Republic Act No. 8535) was approved, which sought to create a new city out of the 15 northern barangays of Quezon City. Historically a separate town, Novaliches was distributed between Quezon City and northern Caloocan in 1948. In a plebiscite held on October 23, 1999, the majority of ballots cast (which included all voters of Quezon City and not just the 15 barangays) rejected the cityhood of Novaliches.
Meycauayan (2001): Cityhood was rejected by majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held on March 30, 2001, to ratify Republic Act No. 9021. Meycauayan became a city five years later with the enactment of Republic Act No. 9356 and its ratification through a plebiscite on December 10, 2006.
Proposed cities under the 18th Congress
Talavera, Nueva Ecija: House Bill No. 194 and Senate Bill No. 2040
Daraga, Albay: House Bill No. 1528
Balamban, Cebu: House Bill No. 1574
Alabel, Sarangani: House Bill No. 3494
Ubay, Bohol: House Bill No. 4854
Liloan, Cebu: House Bill No. 5031 and Senate Bill No. 2007
Calaca, Batangas: House Bill Nos. 5077 and 6598 and Senate Bill No. 1825 (passed by the House, passed by the Senate, Transmitted to the President) Established as a city via Republic Act No. 11544 signed May 26, 2021.
Echague, Isabela: House Bill No. 5970 and Senate Bill No. 2067
Naval, Biliran: House Bill No. 6230
Bataraza, Palawan: House Bill No. 6278
La Trinidad, Benguet: House Bill No. 6367
Polomolok, South Cotabato: House Bill No. 6432
Baliwag, Bulacan: House Bill No. 7362 And Senate Bill No. 2462
Capas, Tarlac: House Bill No. 7861
Capas, Tarlac: House Bill No. 8219
Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon: House Bill No. 8283 and Senate Bill No. 2038
Solano, Nueva Vizcaya: House Bill No. 8727
Bayambang, Pangasinan: House Bill No. 8826
Malay, Aklan: House Bill No. 9282
Former names
Cagayan de Oro: The municipality of Cagayan de Misamis was converted to the city of Cagayan de Oro in 1950 through Republic Act No. 521.
Lapu-Lapu: The municipality of Opon was converted to a city named after Lapulapu, hero of the Battle of Mactan in 1961 through Republic Act No. 3134.
Marawi: Inaugurated as the City of Dansalan in 1950, renamed to Marawi on June 16, 1956, through Republic Act No. 1552.
Ozamiz: The municipality of Misamis was converted to a city named after José Ozámiz, the first governor of Misamis Occidental, in 1948 through Republic Act No. 321.
Pasay: Inaugurated as Rizal City in 1947, reverted to Pasay on June 7, 1950, through Republic Act No. 437.
Roxas: In 1951, the municipality of Capiz was converted to a city named after Manuel Roxas, the first president of the Third Philippine Republic and town native through Republic Act No. 603''.
See also
Sangguniang Panlungsod
List of cities in the Philippines
List of metropolitan areas in the Philippines
List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines
List of renamed cities and municipalities in the Philippines
References
External links
League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP)
Philippine Clean Cities Project
CityMayors.com article
Philippines 3
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246351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Martin%20%28ice%20hockey%29 | Jacques Martin (ice hockey) | Jacques Martin (born October 1, 1952) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey coach and executive, and former assistant coach for the New York Rangers. He was most recently an assistant coach of the New York Rangers. In the National Hockey League (NHL), he has been the head coach of the St. Louis Blues, Ottawa Senators, Montreal Canadiens and the Florida Panthers. Martin was also the general manager with the Panthers, and has served as an assistant coach with the Canadian men's national ice hockey team. Martin is a Franco-Ontarian, and a two-time Stanley Cup champion.
Personal
Martin was born in Rockland, Ontario and raised in Saint-Pascal-Baylon, Ontario. He left the family farm at the age of 13 and moved to Ottawa to pursue his high school education. Martin attended post-secondary education at St. Lawrence University in New York State and at the University of Ottawa. While at St. Lawrence, Martin played goaltender for the college team, appearing in 28 games.
Martin taught at the Department of Physical Education at Algonquin College for seven years, during which time he coached the Rockland Nats and the Hawkesbury Hawks junior hockey teams. Martin was a high school French teacher at Peterborough Collegiate and Vocational Institute in Peterborough, Ontario just prior to being called on to coach hockey in the NHL (1984/1985). Every summer for over 20 years Martin, along with his daughter Angela, has run the Jacques Martin Hockey School for children age 7 – 17 in Rigaud, Quebec. His other daughter Nathalee works for cheesemaker Saint-Albert.
Coaching career
Peterborough Petes (1983–85)
Martin served as an assistant coach with the Peterborough Petes of the OHL in 1983–84, working under head coach Dick Todd. In his first season with the Petes, the team finished with a 43–23–4 record, finishing in third place in the Leyden Division. In the playoffs, the Petes swept the Cornwall Royals in the first round, before losing to the Toronto Marlboros in the second round.
Martin returned to the Petes in 1984–85 season, as the team finished with the best record in the Leyden Division with a 42–20–4 record. In the post-season, Peterborough made it to the J. Ross Robertson Cup finals, however, they lost to the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in six games.
After the season, Martin left Peterborough and became the head coach of the Guelph Platers.
Guelph Platers (1985–86)
Martin became the head coach of the Guelph Platers of the OHL in 1985–86, as he took over the rebuilding club, who missed the playoffs the previous season. Under Martin, the Platers finished second in the Emms Division with a 41–23–2 record, earning 84 points, which was a 37-point improvement for the team. In the playoffs, the Platers would win the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Belleville Bulls in the final round, to advance to the 1986 Memorial Cup, held in Portland, Oregon. In the Memorial Cup, the Platers earned a 2–1 record in the round-robin, and advanced straight to the finals. In the final game of the tournament, Guelph defeated the Hull Olympiques by a score of 6–2 to capture the Memorial Cup. Martin won the Matt Leyden Trophy awarded to the best coach in the OHL.
Following the season, Martin left the Platers and became the head coach of the St. Louis Blues.
St. Louis Blues (1986–88)
Martin took over as the head coach of the St. Louis Blues in 1986–87. On October 9, 1986, Martin coached and won his first career NHL game, defeating the Los Angeles Kings 4–3. Despite the team finishing the season with an under .500 record of 32–33–15, the Blues had the best record in the Norris Division. In the first round of the playoffs, the Blues were upset by the Toronto Maple Leafs, losing in six games.
The Blues had another mediocre regular season in 1987–88, as the club finished with a 34–38–8 record, finishing in second place in the Norris Division. In the post-season, the Blues defeated the Chicago Blackhawks in five games in the Norris Division semi-finals, however, St. Louis lost to the Detroit Red Wings in five games in the division final. After the season, the Blues fired Martin.
Chicago Blackhawks (1988–90)
Martin became an assistant coach under newly hired Chicago Blackhawks head coach Mike Keenan in 1988–89. In his first season with the Hawks, the club finished in the fourth and final playoff position in the Norris Division with a 27–41–12 record. In the post-season, the Blackhawks upset the division-winning Detroit Red Wings in the first round, defeating them in six games. In the Norris Division finals against Martin's former club, the St. Louis Blues, the Blackhawks continued their Cinderella run, defeating the favoured Blues in five games, advancing to the Campbell Conference final, against the Calgary Flames. The Blackhawks would lose to the Flames in five games, who went on to win the Stanley Cup.
The Blackhawks improved in the regular season in 1989–90, having the best record in the Norris Division with a 41–33–6, 88-point season. In the post-season, the Blackhawks defeated the Minnesota North Stars and St. Louis Blues to advance to the Campbell Conference finals for the second straight season. The Blackhawks run would end, as the Edmonton Oilers defeated Chicago in six games.
After the season, Martin left the Blackhawks and joined the Quebec Nordiques as an assistant coach.
Quebec Nordiques/Colorado Avalanche (1990–96)
Martin joined the Quebec Nordiques as an associate coach, working under newly hired head coach Dave Chambers, in 1990–91. The rebuilding Nordiques had a tough season, going 16–50–14, missing the post-season.
Quebec saw some improvement in the 1991–92 season, as the club had a 20–48–12 record, however, the team once again finished in last place in the Adams Division, missing the playoffs. Head coach Dave Chambers was fired early in the season, and was replaced with Pierre Page, as Martin was retained as the associate coach.
The Nordiques saw great improvement in 1992–93, as the club finished with a 47–27–10 record, earning 104 points, and second place in the Adams Division, qualifying for the post-season. In the first round, Quebec lost a thrilling series to the Montreal Canadiens in six games.
Martin was assigned to the Nordiques AHL affiliate, the Cornwall Aces, as head coach for the 1993–94 season. The Aces finished the year with a 33–36–11 record, third in the Southern Division, and a berth into the post-season. In the playoffs, the Aces defeated the Hamilton Canucks in the first round, followed by defeating the favoured Hershey Bears in seven games in the second round. The Aces then lost to the Moncton Hawks in the third round.
Martin returned to the Nordiques as an assistant coach under Marc Crawford in 1994–95. Quebec finished the season with the best record in the Eastern Conference, going 30–13–5 in the lockout shortened season. In the playoffs, the Nordiques were upset by the eighth seeded New York Rangers in six games. After the season, the Nordiques franchise relocated to Denver, Colorado and became the Colorado Avalanche.
Martin moved with the team to Colorado in 1995–96, however, he left the Avalanche on January 24, 1996, to become head coach of the Ottawa Senators.
Ottawa Senators (1995–2004)
Martin joined the Ottawa Senators midway through the 1995–96 season, taking over a club which had a record of 8–35–1. Martin coached his first game as the Senators' head coach on January 24, 1996, losing 4–3 to the Pittsburgh Penguins. After going winless in his first three games, he earned his first win with Ottawa on January 29, 1996, defeating his former team, the St. Louis Blues 4–2. The club improved slightly under Martin, as he led the team to a 10–24–4 record over their final 38 games, as Ottawa missed the playoffs. A highlight for the team was on April 13, 1996, the Senators defeated the defending Stanley Cup champions, the New Jersey Devils 5–2, eliminating the Devils from the post-season, who needed a victory to make the playoffs.
The Senators improved greatly in 1996–97, as Ottawa finished the year with a 31–36–15 record, making the post-season for the first time in team history. In the post-season, the Senators took the heavily favoured Buffalo Sabres to overtime in game seven, before losing the game 1–0, and the series.
Ottawa continued to improve in 1997–98, as the team finished with a winning record for the first time, going 34–33–15, and making the post-season once again. In the playoffs, the eighth seeded Senators stunned the New Jersey Devils in the first round, defeating them in six games. In the second round, Ottawa lost to the Washington Capitals in five games.
The Senators had the best record in the Northeast Division in 1998–99, going 44–23–15, earning 103 points. Martin was awarded the Jack Adams Award as the best head coach in the NHL. In the playoffs, the Senators were swept by the Buffalo Sabres, quickly ending their season.
Ottawa had another strong regular season in 1999–2000, going 41–28–11–2, finishing second in the Northeast Division. The Senators faced their provincial rivals, the Toronto Maple Leafs, in the first round of the playoffs, as the underdog Leafs defeated the Senators in six games.
The club had a very strong season in 2000–01, as Ottawa finished with their second Northeast Division title in three years, going 48–21–9–4, earning 109 points, and second in the Eastern Conference. In the first round of the playoffs, the Senators faced the Toronto Maple Leafs for the second consecutive season, and once again, the Maple Leafs pulled off the upset, sweeping the heavily favoured Senators in four games.
The Senators struggled at times during the 2001–02, as the club dealt away top player Alexei Yashin to the New York Islanders during the off-season. Martin coached the Senators for their first 80 games, going 38–26–9–7. Martin stepped aside for the final two games, allowing assistant coach Roger Neilson to head coach the team, so Neilson could get to 1000 games as a head coach. Martin returned to the Senators bench in the playoffs, as Ottawa faced the Philadelphia Flyers in the opening round of the playoffs. The Senators defeated the Flyers in five games, setting up a third straight meeting with the Toronto Maple Leafs in the second round. Ottawa took Toronto to a seventh game, however, the team once again lost to their provincial rivals.
Ottawa finished the 2002–03 with the best record in the league, winning the President's Trophy for the first time in team history, with a 52–21–8–1 record, earning 113 points. In the post-season, the Senators defeated the New York Islanders in five games in the first round, followed by a six-game series win over the Philadelphia Flyers, as the team reached the Eastern Conference finals for the first time in club history. In the series against the New Jersey Devils, Ottawa fell behind three games to one, however, the Senators rallied to tie the series, setting up a seventh and deciding game. In the seventh game, the Senators lost the game, and series, on a late third period goal.
Heading into the 2003–04 season, the Senators were heavy favourites to win the Stanley Cup. The team had a very good regular season, going 43–23–10–6, earning 102 points, and fifth place in the Eastern Conference. In the first round of the playoffs, Ottawa faced the Toronto Maple Leafs for their fourth playoff meeting in five years. The Leafs managed to defeat the Senators again, winning the series in seven games.
On April 22, 2004, the Senators fired Martin.
Florida Panthers (2004–09)
Martin was hired as head coach of the Florida Panthers on May 26, 2004. Due to the 2004-05 NHL lockout, the season was cancelled. Martin coached his first game with the Panthers on October 5, 2005, as the team defeated the Atlanta Thrashers 2–0. In his first year with the club in 2005–06, the Panthers went 37–34–11. However, the team failed to make the playoffs.
On September 3, 2006, the Panthers general manager, Mike Keenan, resigned from the position, and Martin took over the job, while remaining the head coach. Florida once again missed the playoffs in 2006–07, as the club went 35–31–16. The Panthers continued to struggle in 2007–08, as Florida posted a 38–35–9 record, failing to make the playoffs for the third consecutive season under Martin. On April 11, 2008, the Panthers fired Martin as head coach, but he remained the general manager. Martin hired Peter DeBoer to become the head coach of the Panthers. As the general manager in 2008–09, the Panthers improved to a 41–30–11 record, earning 93 points, however, Florida once again failed to make the playoffs. On May 16, 2009, Martin resigned from his position.
Montreal Canadiens (2009–12)
On June 1, 2009, Martin signed with the Montreal Canadiens to become their head coach, taking over the position from interim head coach Bob Gainey. Martin coached his first game with the Canadiens on October 1, 2009, defeating the Toronto Maple Leafs 4–3 in overtime. The team finished the 2009–10 season with a 39–33–10 record, making the playoffs as the eighth and final seed in the Eastern Conference. In the post-season, the Canadiens upset the top seeded Washington Capitals in seven games in the first round. Montreal continued their playoff run by defeating the favoured Pittsburgh Penguins in seven games in the second round, reaching the Eastern Conference finals against the Philadelphia Flyers. The Canadiens struggled against Philadelphia, as they were shutout in three of their four losses, as the club lost in five games.
The Canadiens had a solid regular season in 2010–11 season, going 44–30–8, earning 96 points, an eight-point improvement over the previous season. In the playoffs, the Canadiens lost to their archrivals, the Boston Bruins in the first round, losing game seven in overtime to be eliminated.
Montreal struggled to begin the 2011–12 season, as the team had a 13–12–9 record in their first 34 games. On December 17, 2011, the Canadiens fired Martin, and replaced him with assistant coach Randy Cunneyworth, who was once Martin's captain on the Ottawa Senators, on an interim basis.
Pittsburgh Penguins (2013–20)
Martin joined the Pittsburgh Penguins as an assistant coach under Dan Bylsma for the 2013–14 season, as he was hired for the position on August 9, 2013. In his first season with the club, the Penguins recorded a 51–24–7 record, earning 109 points, finishing in first place in the Metropolitan Division. The Penguins defeated the Columbus Blue Jackets in six games in the first round, however, they lost to the New York Rangers in seven games in the second round. On July 23, 2014, the Penguins announced that Martin was promoted to senior advisor of hockey operations. On December 12, 2015, he was named assistant coach after head coach Mike Johnston and Gary Agnew were fired. On June 12, 2016, he won his first Stanley Cup in a 4–2 series win against the San Jose Sharks (and nearly dropped it during the on-ice celebration). On June 11, 2017, Martin won the Cup for the second time as the Penguins defeated the Nashville Predators in a 4–2 series win.
On August 12, 2020, the Penguins announced that Martin's contract would not be renewed, ending his tenure with the team.
New York Rangers (2020-21)
On August 31, 2020, the New York Rangers named Martin as an assistant coach. In the 2020-21 season, the Rangers finished with a 27-23-6 record, earning 60 points and fifth place in the East Division, missing the post-season.
On May 12, 2021, the club fired Martin after one season with the team.
Coaching record
NHL
OHL
References
"A big part of the `process': Jacques Martin has delivered the Senators to the next level." Roy MacGregor. The Ottawa Citizen. Ottawa, Ont.: Apr 30, 1998. pg. E.1.FRO
"New Senators coach has the touch." Allen Panzeri. The Ottawa Citizen. Ottawa, Ont.: Jan 31, 1996. pg. C.1
External links
1952 births
Canadian ice hockey coaches
Chicago Blackhawks coaches
Colorado Avalanche coaches
Florida Panthers coaches
Florida Panthers general managers
Franco-Ontarian people
Guelph Platers coaches
Jack Adams Award winners
Living people
Memorial Cup winners
Montreal Canadiens coaches
National Hockey League general managers
Ottawa Senators coaches
People from Clarence-Rockland
Pittsburgh Penguins coaches
Pittsburgh Penguins people
Quebec Nordiques coaches
St. Lawrence Saints men's ice hockey players
St. Louis Blues coaches
Stanley Cup champions | [
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246354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Fox | Star Fox | is a spaceship shooter and third person action-adventure video game series created by Nintendo. The games follow a combat team of anthropomorphic animals called Star Fox, led by chief protagonist Fox McCloud. Gameplay involves adventures around the Lylat planetary system in the futuristic "Arwing" fighter aircraft, in other vehicles and on foot. The original Star Fox (1993) was a forward-scrolling 3D rail shooter, though later titles added more directional freedom.
The first game in the series, developed by Nintendo EAD and programmed by Argonaut Software, used the Super FX Chip to create the first accelerated 3D gaming experience on a home console. The Super FX Chip was an additional math co-processor that was built into the cartridge and helped the Super NES better render the game's graphics. The Super FX Chip has been used in other Super NES games as well, some with increased processing speed. Its reboot, Star Fox 64, further revolutionized the video game industry by being the first Nintendo 64 game to feature Rumble Pak support.
Due to perceived issues with the German company StarVox, Star Fox and Star Fox 64 were released in PAL region territories as Starwing and Lylat Wars respectively. However, as of Star Fox Adventures, Nintendo went back on this decision so future releases could use the same name globally.
Games
Main series
Star Fox
The first game, Star Fox, known as Starwing in Europe and Australia, was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1993. Developed by Nintendo EAD and programmed by Argonaut Software, it used the Super FX chip to simulate 3D graphics during a period of predominately 2D games. Fox McCloud and his team, Slippy Toad, Peppy Hare, and Falco Lombardi, take on Andross, who threatens to overthrow the Lylat system. The game's concept was inspired by a shrine to the fox deity Inari Ōkami, which Shigeru Miyamoto visited regularly. The shrine was accessible through a series of arches, influencing the gameplay. Several boss battles from the game are included as mini-games in the Wii title WarioWare: Smooth Moves, using the Wii Remote to fly the ship.
Star Fox 64
Star Fox 64, known as Lylat Wars in Europe and Australia, introduced fully spoken dialogue, off-the-rails movement, new vehicles and characters, multiplayer, and rudimentary on-foot gameplay through an unlockable multiplayer mode. The game was released in 1997 for the Nintendo 64 and came bundled with the Rumble Pak, a force feedback attachment. Star Fox 64 retells the main story of the original Star Fox canon, with new characters and gameplay elements. New multiplayer modes include: free-for-all, battle royale and a time trial.
The overall plot is expanded with relatively small core changes. This game is also famous for quotes that have become Internet memes: "Do a barrel roll!" and "Use bombs wisely" by Peppy Hare and "Can't let you do that, Star Fox!" by Wolf O'Donnell.
Star Fox 64 3D
Star Fox 64 3D is a remake of Star Fox 64 for the Nintendo 3DS, released in 2011, being the second Star Fox title on a handheld console. Its existence debuted in a conceptual trailer for the Nintendo 3DS revealed at E3 2010, when objects from the Nintendo universe flew out of the 3DS screen. One of the many objects was a flying Arwing, hinting the next Star Fox game. The game was officially announced later on. Screenshots, footage, and some information were revealed over the then-upcoming Star Fox 64 3D game at 3DS conferences on 29 September 2010, and 19 January 2011.
With a few exceptions, the gameplay in Star Fox 64 3D is very similar to that of the original version. The player controls Fox's Arwing fighter using the circle pad to steer, the shoulder buttons to bank left and right, and the four right-hand buttons to fire lasers and bombs, boost and brake. The D-Pad allows the player to perform somersaults and u-turns, which can also be performed with combinations of other controls, and to zoom in and out from the Arwing in "All-Range Mode". The player can also enable "Gyro Controls", using the 3DS' internal gyroscope sensor to control the Arwing. Character dialogue, messages and control information are displayed on the touch screen.
Star Fox 64 3D also features a new multiplayer "Battle Mode", which allows players to play up to 4-player LAN multiplayer (via Download Play), or to battle against CPU opponents. During battles, each player's face appears on opponents' screens in a live reaction feed from the console's internal camera.
Star Fox Adventures
Star Fox Adventures, was released in 2002 for GameCube. Developed by Rare, the game is predominately an action-adventure game in which Fox is armed with a mystical staff; traditional space shooting is limited to small segments between chapters. Its roots can be traced to Dinosaur Planet, a game Rare was developing late in the life cycle of the Nintendo 64, but cancelled at the behest of Nintendo and converted into a Star Fox game. Adventures introduced new characters, including, most notably, Prince Tricky and Krystal. Taking place eight years after the events of Star Fox 64, the main antagonist is an army of dinosaurs called the Sharp Claws, led by General Scales. Fox and Krystal fall in love soon before the final boss fight when Fox saves her life. Krystal then becomes the Star Fox team's newest member. The gameplay of Adventures resembles that seen in most 3D The Legend of Zelda games.
Star Fox: Assault
Developed by Namco, Star Fox: Assault was released in 2005 for the GameCube. The emphasis returned to Arwing-based gameplay, but also had portions of on-foot missions. Assault takes place one year after Adventures, with the Aparoids becoming a new threat to the Lylat system. The Star Fox team is tasked with stopping them. Along with ROB, Peppy now pilots the Great Fox, while Krystal replaces Peppy's role as one of the team's pilots.
Star Fox Command
Star Fox Command was developed by Q-Games for the Nintendo DS, and was released in 2006. It is the first Star Fox game for a handheld console and the first to offer online multiplayer. Like the original Star Fox, gameplay is completely aircraft-based, and uses chatter much like the SNES game instead of the voice acting of later installments. Command utilizes a new system of gameplay, incorporating strategy and abandoning its "fly-by-rail" roots. Players plot flight paths and engage enemies in an open arena-style flying mode using the Nintendo DS's touch screen. Each character has a unique ship with different abilities. For example, Slippy's ship has no lock-on feature and shorter boosts, but has stronger lasers and shielding; Fox McCloud pilots the redesigned Arwing II. Command takes place two to three years after the events of Star Fox: Assault and features possible nine endings, determined by the player's story progression choices.
Star Fox Zero
Star Fox Zero was developed by Nintendo and PlatinumGames for the Wii U and released in April 2016. The first Star Fox game on a home game console in over 10 years, the game is controlled using the Wii U GamePad's gyroscope feature. Star Fox Zero also came packaged with a retail version of Star Fox Guard, a tower defense spin-off game.
Star Fox 2
Star Fox 2 was originally cancelled even though it was completely finished. Many of its new ideas were implemented for the then-forthcoming Star Fox 64, such as the rival team Star Wolf, all-range mode, charge shot, and a multiplayer mode (though Star Fox 2s multiplayer mode was no longer featured in the final beta). Other elements such as choosing characters, map pointing, and multiple ship variations were later implemented in Star Fox Command. A beta version of the Landmaster tank (the Walker) also makes an appearance as an Arwing with leglike attachments. A patch for the final beta was released by a third-party team of hackers to make the game complete, removing the debug mode menus, making an English translation, and removing subroutines for a buggy third vehicle not used in the game.
The game was officially released as part of the Super NES Classic Edition.
Canceled games
Virtual Boy game
This game was a tech demo of what would have been a Star Fox game had the Virtual Boy adopted the series. The closest game to it is Red Alarm. Cinematic camera angles were a key element, as they are in Star Fox 2. At both E3 1995 and at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show 1995, the demo showed an Arwing doing various spins and motions. One observer called it "An intriguing technical demo featuring a Star Fox-like spacecraft doing a lot of spinning and zooming in 3D. It is made of filled polygons and looks much better than the unfilled Red Alarm vehicles." Attendees to these two events were given 3D glasses to watch the demos and tech videos that were played on screens at the show floors, and from these videos.
Arcade game
Originally planned as a companion game for Star Fox: Assault, an arcade game was abandoned and never released. It was supposed to be released in 2004–2005, but was not for reasons unknown.
Spin-off games
Star Fox (Nelsonic Game Watch)
Shortly after the release of the first Star Fox game, in June 1993, Nintendo teamed up with Kellogg's and Nelsonic to develop and release a promotional LCD-based Star Fox Game Watch to those who bought a box of Corn Flakes and sent the order form to Kellogg's to receive the Star Fox game watch for free. In the game watch, there are four levels and the object is to fly towards the Attack Carrier and destroy it while dodging plasma balls and falling structures. The game watch also included a pair of earphones and a headphone jack for listening to the game without disturbing anyone nearby due to the game watch missing a volume control. Nelsonic later released it in stores in a different watch appearance.
Star Fox Guard
Star Fox Guard was first shown at E3 2014 under the name of Project Guard, and was announced under a final name in a March 2016 Nintendo Direct. Guard was released for the Wii U in April 2016, coinciding with the release of Star Fox Zero. Developed by Nintendo and PlatinumGames, Guard is a tower defense game where the objective is to switch between different views on security cameras and protect the player's base by shooting enemy robots. A physical version of the game came bundled alongside the physical version of Star Fox Zero, and is also available separately as a digital download on the Wii U eShop.
Related games
Super Smash Bros. series
Various Star Fox characters and elements have appeared in the Super Smash Bros. franchise of fighting games. Fox McCloud has appeared in all five as a playable character, while Falco Lombardi was featured in all titles since Super Smash Bros. Melee as an unlockable character. Wolf O'Donnell appears as an unlockable fighter in Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate as well. All three characters have virtually the same Final Smash in Brawl in which each calls down a Landmaster to run over and shoot enemies with, with minor differences between each; this was changed to an Arwing or Wolfen strike in Ultimate. They also share similar moves, like the Blaster, Reflector, Fox Illusion/Falco Phantasm/Wolf Flash, and Fire Fox/Fire Bird/Fire Wolf. Peppy Hare and Slippy Toad make brief cameos in Melee and Brawl, with Krystal, Leon Powalski and Panther Caroso appearing alongside them in the latter.
All five released entries in the series feature Star Fox related stages: Sector Z, Corneria, Venom, Lylat Cruise and Orbital Gate Assault. Sector Z (N64) and Corneria (Melee, Brawl, 3DS and Ultimate) are played atop the length of the mothership "Great Fox". Venom is played along the width of the "Great Fox", with the fighters doing battle atop the wings. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, the Corneria stage from Melee returns, as well as a new stage called "Lylat Cruise" which is set atop an all-new ship known as the "Pleiades" that warps between various areas within the Lylat system. In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, three Star Fox stages appear between both versions, with the Corneria stage from Melee returning once more for the 3DS version, while the Wii U version features the return of the Lylat Cruise stage from Brawl and a new stage based on the Orbital Gate Assault mission from Star Fox Assault. Super Smash Bros. Ultimate features the return of the Corneria, Venom, and Lylat Cruise stages. Andross also appears in his form from the original Star Fox as an assist trophy, sucking in air and then spewing projectiles at combatants, Krystal similarly appears as an assist trophy in Ultimate, using her staff to attack opponents. The item "Smart Bomb" is also featured. When used, it creates an explosion that slowly grows; however, sometimes the Smart Bomb is a dud and has a delayed explosion.
WarioWare series
In WarioWare: Smooth Moves for Wii, there is a Star Fox minigame in the style of the SNES title with three stages. Using the Wii Remote, the player pilots the Arwing through Corneria, Sector X, and Titania. At the end of each level, the player fights R.O.B. (not ROB 64 from the Star Fox series, but rather the R.O.B. attachment for the NES), who is armed with a large NES Zapper. In WarioWare Gold for Nintendo 3DS, another SNES-styled Star Fox microgame appears, this time challenging players to not crash into anything when their ship is on the verge of being destroyed.
Super Mario Maker
Fox, Falco, Peppy, and Slippy, along with the Arwing Walker from Star Fox Zero, appear as Mystery Mushroom costumes in Super Mario Maker.
Starlink: Battle for Atlas
The Nintendo Switch version of Ubisoft's action-adventure game Starlink: Battle for Atlas features exclusive missions featuring Star Fox characters and ships. As part of the game's toys-to-life features, the Nintendo Switch starter pack includes figures of Fox McCloud and his Arwing that can be used in-game.
Other media
Nintendo Power comics
A monthly Star Fox comic strip, illustrated by , was printed in issues 45 to 55 of Nintendo Power in 1993. It is an adaptation of the events of the original Star Fox, with some exclusive characters not seen in any of the games to date. One such character is Fara Phoenix, a vixen who becomes the fifth member of Star Fox after they saved her from Venomian forces, who forms a close relationship with Fox. The story follows the Star Fox team as they went from outlaws on Papetoon, to an elite Arwing fighter squadron. Fox, Falco, and Andross were the only 3 characters whose backgrounds were fully explained in the story. A sequel set after the events of the game was produced in Nintendo Power by the same team which continued the story, featuring Andross's DNA being split between two clones. The clones then begin an invasion of the Lylat system, laying waste to everything in their path. The Star Fox team springs back into action, while Fara— dressed in clothing once worn by Fox's deceased mother, as the team had been enjoying some down time when the invasion begins— manages to provide an accidental, yet significant, distraction to one of the Andross clones when he spots her on a monitor due to a revelation that the original Andross was in love with Fox's mother and accidentally murdered her with a bomb intended for Fox's father, which the clone says over a loudspeaker, as the clone believes he is speaking to the deceased vixen, rather than Fara. Enraged by this new knowledge, Fox battles his way through the forces of Andross's clones, one of whom slays the other as he considers the feelings of the one who believes Fara to be Fox's mother is a weakness that is unneeded, and destroys the survivor. The story ends with the Lylat system celebrating the ultimate defeat of Andross as what remains of his forces flee from the forces of Corneria and the surviving fighters of the other worlds in the system.
Lylat Wars Comic
The official Club Nintendo magazine in Germany released a Star Fox 64 comic drawn manga-style to retell the game's storyline. The comic shows some scenes that were not present in the game—for instance, Wolf kicking Andrew and Pigma out of Star Wolf because they acted against his orders (and thus saving Star Fox from the plot of the two). The comic ends with a robotic Andross being defeated.
Japanese comics
A one-issue Star Fox comic by Kazumi Sakamoto (坂本かずみ) was printed in the Comic Bonbon 1993 Spring Vacation Jumbo Edition (春休みジャンボ増刊号), published in April of that month.
A one-issue Star Fox comic by was printed in the 1993 Spring Break Edition (増刊号 ９３年春休み増刊) of Corocoro Comic.
A Star Fox 64 comic by Takahiro Yamashita is within the April and June 1997 issues of Bessatsu Corocoro Comic. Takahiro Yamashita seen in April 1997 issue, p. 96, and June 1997 issue, p. 121.--> Star Fox 64 (スターフォックス64). In: Bessatsu Corocoro Comic (別冊コロコロ). 28 April 1997 (28 April 1997 ). p. 94-119. and Bessatsu Corocoro Comic (別冊コロコロ). 30 June 1997 (30 June 1997 ). p. 121-145.</ref>
Star Fox: Farewell, Beloved Falco
is a Japanese manga created by Nintendo, and part of the main Star Fox series. The manga was released on the official Star Fox Adventures Japanese website, and it chronicles the events between Star Fox 64 and Star Fox Adventures. It gives the backstory as to why Falco left the Star Fox team. It also introduces a new antagonist, Captain Shears. Captain Shears runs a base on the sand-dune planet Titania, but unbeknownst to Star Fox, Shears is actually taking part in an experiment to resurrect Andross. In the beginning, Katt Monroe returns from Star Fox 64 along with a rag-tag team of roughnecks with apparently an inside lead on the fact that Shears is evil. Fox doesn't believe them, which ends up in a sparring match between him and Falco, thus adding more emphasis into Falco's intentions of leaving Star Fox. Eventually, it is revealed to Star Fox that Shears is indeed evil, and Fox storms in to stop the resurrection plan once and for all.
The manga ends with the Star Fox team seeing Dinosaur Planet broken apart and deciding it is worth checking out. Star Fox Adventures opens with General Pepper ordering them to go there and save it, stating that their payment has been approved if they succeed.
Star Fox Zero – The Battle Begins
A 14-minute web video of Star Fox Zero produced by Shigeru Miyamoto, Production IG, and Wit Studio, features the Star Fox team in an anime-styled battle of the first level in Star Fox Zero: Corneria. The short was later released via the Wii U eShop as part of the Star Fox Zero: The Battle Begins + Training demo.
Cancelled TV series
In an interview with The Serf Times, comedian and television host, Adam Conover revealed that back in 2015, him and other members of CollegeHumor were working along with Shigeru Miyamoto to produce a clay-animated show of the series. However, the project was cancelled a month later by Nintendo after plans for a series based on Legend of Zelda were leaked by Netflix.
Recurring elements
Arwing
The Arwing is the principal craft of the Star Fox team, and has appeared in all Star Fox games to date.
The Arwing has had considerable changes, though all versions of it retain a basic shape: a central fuselage, two crested streamlined pods attached at the sides, known as Gravity Diffusers, or G Diffusers, and wings mounted on the side pods. From Star Fox 64 onwards, the two side pods are a distinctive blue color.
The Arwings make an appearance in the Super Smash Bros. series, in Super Smash Bros. Melee and Brawl, they appear as trophies. In this series, Arwings are used by Fox and Falco as their on-screen introduction, in addition to being used as a stage obstacle on Fox's Level, Sector Z. The Arwings on this stage would occasionally fly through and shoot lasers at the players. In the Corneria, Venom, and Lylat Cruise stages they are seen flying in the background. The Arwing is also an easter egg in The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time but can only be accessed by a gameshark code. It appears in Kokiri forest as an enemy who can be defeated by Link with either a boomerang, fairy bow, or fairy slingshot. Once defeated, they fall to the ground, explode and its blast may inadvertently kill Link. The Arwing also appears as a piece of furniture in Animal Crossing: Wild World and Animal Crossing: City Folk. When touched by the game character, the Arwing will briefly play the Star Fox theme music. It also appears over a box in Super Mario RPG, Hinopio's Market, but it's just a decor. In Bayonetta 2, miniature Arwings replace Bayonetta's guns when she is wearing the game's unlockable Star Fox costume. In addition, the plane in the final level is also replaced with an Arwing.
Miyamoto explains that the craft is called Arwing "because it was like one big wing shaped like an A."
Landmaster
The Landmaster M1 tank first appeared in Star Fox 64 (1997, Nintendo 64) as a tracked light tank in two of the game's missions and one of the game's multiplayer maps.
It appeared again in Star Fox: Assault (2005, GameCube), though with some changes, including the substitution of tank treads with tires. The Assault version of the Landmaster also handled somewhat differently and was used for all-range style combat rather than the on-rails type of missions featured in Star Fox 64.
The Landmaster tank makes its most recent appearance in Super Smash Bros. Brawl (2008, Wii) as Fox's Final Smash. The same design – in alternate color schemes – is also used as the Final Smash for Falco Lombardi and Wolf O'Donnell. All three Landmasters have slightly different properties. The Landmaster that Fox and Falco use is the traditional white and blue color scheme, while Wolf's Landmaster is a black and red color scheme. Falco's Landmaster can fly higher and longer than Fox's but its firepower has reduced knockback. In addition, Wolf's Landmaster has greater firepower and knockback ability than the one Fox and Falco use, but it remains on the stage for a much shorter time.
Other than a shared name, Nintendo's Landmaster tank is unrelated to the Landmaster vehicle from the film Damnation Alley.
Wolfen
The Wolfen is piloted by Wolf O'Donnell. This ship would have first appeared in Star Fox 2, but was instead first seen in Star Fox 64 on the planet Fichina (mistranslated as Fortuna in Star Fox 64, Fixed in 64 3D) – or alternatively – Bolse. Additionally, taking the hard path to Venom enables the player to battle the Wolfen II, which outperforms the Arwing. In Star Fox: Assault, Team Star Wolf piloted the original versions of the Wolfen against the Star Fox team, and they are playable in the game's multiplayer mode. The Wolfen has also appeared in Super Smash Bros. Melee and Brawl as interactive elements of the Corneria, Venom, and Lylat Cruise stages. They can also be found in the original Super Smash Bros. on the Sector Z stage, seen flying in the background.
Reception
The Star Fox series has seen mostly positive reviews, the most acclaimed being Star Fox 64, while Star Fox Zero received the most mixed reviews. Star Fox took the No. 115 spot on EGM's "The Greatest 200 Videogames of Their Time", and 82nd best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Powers Top 200 Games list. It also received a 34 out of 40 from Famitsu magazine, and a 4.125 out of 5 from Nintendo Power Magazine. Next Gen Magazine pointed out Star Fox as helping pioneer the use of 3-D video game graphics. The game has been used as an example of how, even with a fully polygon design, the game was still very similar to older games in that there was a set path to travel through each level.
As Star Fox Adventures took a different approach to the franchise, many fans complained it was too much like a role-playing adventure game, such as The Legend of Zelda. Regardless, it was critically praised. In an IGN poll for voting from a list of ten Nintendo characters for favorite Nintendo character of all time, Fox came in fourth, behind Link, Mario, and Samus respectively.
In October 2009, Shigeru Miyamoto said that he felt disappointed that sales of the Star Fox series in Japan had decreased during the preceding period.
Because of the popularity of the series, Google introduced an easter egg in which, if one types "do a barrel roll" or "Z or R twice" into the search bar, and has a system compatible with HTML 5 or higher, the screen rotates 360°.
Notes
References
Nintendo franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1993 | [
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246355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manos%3A%20The%20Hands%20of%20Fate | Manos: The Hands of Fate | Manos: The Hands of Fate is a 1966 American low-budget horror film written, directed and produced by Harold P. Warren, who also starred in the film. The film's plot revolves primarily around a vacationing family who lose their way on a road trip. After a long drive in the Texas desert, the family find themselves trapped at a lodge maintained by a polygynous pagan cult led by a man known only as The Master, and they attempt to escape as the cult members decide what to do with them.
Warren was an insurance and fertilizer salesman from El Paso, Texas, who produced the film as the result of a bet with screenwriter Stirling Silliphant. He also starred in it, alongside El Paso theatre actors Tom Neyman and John Reynolds. Manos was made by a crew with little or no background or experience in filmmaking and a very limited budget at its disposal. Upon its theatrical debut, the film was poorly received, playing only at the Capri Theater in El Paso and some drive-ins around West Texas and New Mexico.
Manos remained obscure until 1993, when the television series Mystery Science Theater 3000, a show based on the premise of comedically mocking B movies, featured the film in an episode, helping it develop a cult reputation as one of the worst films ever made. The film is notable for its technical deficiencies, especially its editing and continuity flaws, poorly-synchronized soundtrack and visuals, tedious pacing, abysmal acting, and several scenes that are seemingly inexplicable or disconnected from the overall plot, such as a nameless couple making out in a car and The Master's wives inexplicably breaking into catfights. Its MST3K appearance resulted in several DVD releases of the original film and three separate DVDs featuring the MST episode of the film. The original 16 mm workprint was discovered in California in 2011, from which a new copy of the film, of vastly superior visual quality, was released on Blu-ray by Synapse Films on October 13, 2015.
The film was followed by a prequel, Manos: The Rise of Torgo, and a sequel, Manos Returns (both 2018).
Plot
While on vacation near El Paso, Texas, Michael, Margaret, their young daughter Debbie and their dog, Peppy, drive through the desert in search of a hotel called "Valley Lodge". Margaret insists they are lost, and Michael claims they are not. They are then pulled over by a local deputy for a broken taillight, but they are let go after Michael asks him for mercy since they are on their "first vacation". After long shots of driving through farmland and the desert, intercut with scenes of two teenagers making out in a car and being caught by the deputies, the family finally reach a house, tended by the bizarre, satyr-like Torgo, who says he takes care of the place "while The Master is away". The house seemed to appear out of nowhere, and Torgo acts very strange. Apprehensive, Michael and Margaret ask Torgo for directions to the Valley Lodge; Torgo denies having knowledge of such a place. Frustrated, Michael asks Torgo to let him and his family stay the night, despite objections from both Torgo and Margaret.
Inside the house, Michael and Margaret find a disturbing painting of a dark, malevolent-looking man and a black dog with glowing eyes; Torgo says the man it depicts is The Master. Margaret becomes frightened upon hearing an ominous howl; Peppy breaks away from Debbie and runs outside after the howl. Michael investigates, retrieving a flashlight and revolver from his car, and he finds Peppy lying dead on the ground. Michael buries the dog in the desert and goes back to the house. Meanwhile, Torgo reveals his sudden attraction to Margaret and tells her that although The Master wants her to become his bride, he intends to keep her for himself. Torgo then spends the next few minutes trying to grope her shoulder. Margaret threatens to tell Michael of Torgo's advances, but Torgo convinces her not to say anything by promising to protect her. Michael returns and is unable to start the car. Torgo tells them there is no phone in the house, so the family reluctantly decides to stay the night.
After another scene of Torgo peeping in on Margaret changing clothes, Michael and Margaret find Debbie is gone and go to look for her. Debbie returns, holding the leash of a big black dog, the same dog from the painting. Following Debbie, Michael and Margaret stumble upon The Master and his wives, sleeping around a blazing fire. The wives are dressed in diaphanous nightgowns, The Master in a robe with two red hands on it. Margaret and Debbie run back to the house to get their things and escape. As Michael runs behind them, Torgo appears and uses a stick to knock him out and then ties him to a pole. The Master awakens and summons his wives, telling them that Michael must be sacrificed to the deity Manos, and Margaret and Debbie will become his new wives. He then leaves.
The other wives argue among each other about whether Debbie should become a wife or be sacrificed as well. This turns into a catfight, where the wives tumble around in the dirt. The Master returns and breaks up the fight, and he decides to sacrifice Torgo and his first wife instead. Meanwhile, Michael wakes up and unties himself, going back to the house to collect Margaret and Debbie. The family leaves the house and runs off into the desert to escape. The Master summons Torgo and hypnotizes him, ordering the wives to kill him. Two of the wives attempt to kill Torgo by slapping and lightly shaking him, until he falls to the ground, apparently dead. However, he then regains consciousness and stands up; the Master then severs and burns Torgo's left hand. Torgo runs off into the darkness with his stump of a wrist in flames, and The Master then sacrifices his first wife.
As Michael, Margaret and Debbie run through the desert, Margaret falls and says she can't go any farther. A rattlesnake is shown to appear in front of them and Michael shoots it, the noise attracting the attention of the deputies, who think the noises come from Mexico and leave it at that. Margaret convinces Michael to return to the house, as the cult would never think to look for them there. They go back and find The Master and his dog waiting for them. The Master initially steps slowly towards them, but is somehow not in the shot when Michael pointlessly fires his remaining bullets into the wall.
The film then cuts to another pair of travelers, two women starting their vacation. They drive through a rainstorm, searching for a place to stay. After more driving they end up at The Master's house. An entranced Michael greets them, telling them "I take care of the place while The Master is away." The ending scene shows Margaret and Debbie have become wives of The Master, and all are asleep.
Cast
Harold P. Warren as Michael
Diane Mahree as Margaret
Jackey Neyman as Debbie
John Reynolds as Torgo
Tom Neyman as The Master
Stephanie Nielson, Sherry Proctor, Robin Redd, Jay Hall, Bettie Burns, and Lelaine Hansard as the Master's wives
Bernie Rosenblum as Teenage boy
Joyce Molleur as Teenage girl
William Bryan Jennings and George Cavender as Cops
Pat Coburn as Girl in convertible
Production
Warren was very active in the theater scene in El Paso, Texas, and he once appeared as a walk-on for the television series Route 66, where he met screenwriter Stirling Silliphant. While chatting with Silliphant in a local coffee shop, Warren claimed that it was not difficult to make a horror film, and he bet Silliphant that he could make an entire film on his own. After placing the bet, Warren began the first outline of his script on a napkin, right inside the coffee shop. To finance the film, Warren accumulated a substantial but insufficient amount of cash, $19,000 (), and hired a group of actors from a local theater, many of whom he had worked with before, as well as a modeling agency. Because he was unable to pay the cast and crew any wages, Warren promised them a share in the film's profits.
Under both working titles The Lodge of Sins and Fingers of Fate, the movie was filmed in mid-1966. Filming mainly took place on the ranch of Colbert Coldwell, a lawyer who shared an office floor with Warren and who later became a judge in El Paso County. Most of the equipment used for production was rented, so Warren had to rush through as many shots as possible to complete filming before the deadline for returning the equipment. Footage was shot with a 16 mm Bell & Howell camera that had to be wound by hand and thus could only take 32 seconds of footage at a time, resulting in the many editing problems present in the final cut. Rather than using double-system recording, all sound effects and dialogue were dubbed later in post-production, done by only a handful of people, including Warren, Tom Neyman, Reynolds, Jennings and Warren's wife, Norma. Later during production, Warren renamed the film Manos: The Hands of Fate. Warren's small crew became so bemused by his amateurishness and irascibility that they derisively called the film Mangos: The Cans of Fruit behind his back.
During filming, Warren knew that presenting Diane Mahree as the Texas Beauty Queen would generate good publicity for his movie. He signed Mahree up for a regional West Texas beauty pageant that would lead to Miss Texas and then to the Miss America pageant, but he neglected to tell her about it until she was accepted as an entrant. She went along with it and soon found herself onstage as one of the finalists. Mahree later asserted that Warren urged her to remove her top for filming the window-peeping scene where Torgo observes her before declaring his love but, when she refused, he quickly backpedaled by claiming the suggestion was a test.
Warren contracted with a modeling agency to provide the actresses who would play the Master's wives, including Joyce Molleur. Molleur broke her foot early in production, so, to keep her in the film, Warren rewrote the script to include a young couple making out in a car on the side of the road who are seemingly completely incidental to the film's plot.
Warren decided to shoot night-for-night scenes, because many of the cast and crew also held day jobs. In many of the night scenes, the camera and lights attracted swarms of moths, which can be seen in the film's final production. In the scene in which the cops "investigate" Mike's gunfire, they could walk only a few feet forward, because there was not enough light to illuminate the scenery for a panning shot.
Post-production efforts were minimal, despite promises made to Warren by crew members that any problems in the film would be fixed in later editing. One of the more visible examples of this is a brief moment at the beginning of the film in which the clapperboard is visible after a cut to the "make-out couple." The entire nine-minute opening sequence, which consists of the main characters driving around looking for their hotel with minimal dialogue or effect on the plot, was the result of such neglect: Warren had likely intended to include opening credits over these shots, but he either forgot to add them or did not have the post-production budget to do so.
John Reynolds, the actor who played Torgo, committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a shotgun on October 16, 1966, a month before the film was to premiere. Reynolds was just 25 and Manos was his only film appearance.
Reception and legacy
The film premiered at the Capri Theater in Warren's hometown of El Paso, Texas on November 15, 1966, as a benefit for the local cerebral palsy fund. Warren arranged for a searchlight to be used at the cinema, and for the cast to be brought to the premiere by a limousine, to enhance the Hollywood feel of the event. Warren could afford only a single limousine, however, so the driver had to drop off one group, then drive around the block and pick up another. Jackey Neyman-Jones, who played Debbie and was seven years old at the time, remembered weeping in disappointment at the premiere, particularly when another woman's (dubbed) voice came out of her mouth onscreen. Mahree later reported that she laughed throughout the screening at the film's ridiculousness. The following day, a review of the film was featured in the El Paso Herald-Post, which described the film as a "brave experiment." It criticized some elements, such as the attempted murder of Torgo by being "massaged to death" by The Master's wives and Margaret's claim of "It's getting dark" while she stands in front of a bright midday sun. The review nonetheless noted Reynolds' screen presence by crediting him as the film's "hero".
Following the premiere, Warren claimed that he felt Manos was the worst film ever made, even though he was proud of it, and he suggested that it might make a passable comedy if it were to be re-dubbed. The film was briefly distributed by Emerson Film Enterprises. Following its debut, the film had a brief theatrical run at the Capri Theater, as well as a few screenings at various drive-in theaters in West Texas and New Mexico towns, including Las Cruces. Reports that the only crew members who were compensated for their work in the film were Jackey Neyman and her family's dog, who received a bicycle and a large quantity of dog food, respectively, would seem to indicate that even with its extremely low budget, the film failed to break even financially. Official box office figures for the film are unknown, if indeed they ever existed. Although the film received poor reception, Warren did win his bet against Stirling Silliphant, proving that he was capable of creating an entire film on his own.
The majority of the cast and crew never appeared in another film following Manos, though Mahree had a successful modelling career as Diane Adelson. Warren attempted to pitch another script he had written called Wild Desert Bikers but, with the failure of Manos, no one he approached showed any interest in producing it. Attempts to turn the screenplay into a novel were equally unsuccessful.
Obscurity
Following these few local screenings, Manos was almost entirely forgotten. When Jackey Neyman attended the University of California, Berkeley, her friends unsuccessfully made an effort to track down a copy of the film. A 1981 newspaper article by cinematographer Bob Guidry's ex-wife Pat Ellis Taylor reports the film may have appeared on a local television station and that it was "listed at the bottom of a page in a film catalogue for rent for $20." The film re-surfaced through a 16 mm print, presumably from this television package, which was introduced into the home video collecting market by a number of public domain film suppliers. One of these suppliers was ultimately the one that offered the film to Comedy Central, after which it found its way into a box of films sent to Frank Conniff in 1992, when he chose Manos as one of the films to be shown on Mystery Science Theater 3000.
Mystery Science Theater 3000 and RiffTrax
On January 30, 1993, the film was featured on the fourth season finale of the Comedy Central series Mystery Science Theater 3000, the premise of which involves a human protagonist (at that point in the series, Joel Hodgson) and his two robot companions being held captive in outer space and forced by two mad scientists to watch bad movies. The poor quality of Manos relative even to the usual fare of the series was immediately apparent within the episode; the "bots" (Tom Servo and Crow) used the long uneventful drive at the beginning of the film to sarcastically repeat its title numerous times, as there was yet to be any action to heckle. During the host segment breaks, Joel and the bots mocked the film's opening sequence, debated whether Torgo should be considered a monster, and impersonated "The Master" and his dog. At one point during the host segments, both bots broke down sobbing due to the poor quality of the movie, which was beyond even their attempts at making it interesting. Both of the mad scientists, Dr. Clayton Forrester and TV's Frank, even apologized for showing the film, which they admitted was abysmal and went beyond even their acceptable limits for torturing Joel and the bots. After the film had finished, the slow-moving Torgo, played by Mike Nelson, appeared at the lair of Dr. Forrester and Frank to deliver a pizza two hours after it was ordered. Torgo was also featured in the later episodes Operation Double 007 (where he finally brings the Mr. Pibb that Dr. Forrester and Frank had ordered in the Manos episode the previous season), Village of the Giants, Danger!! Death Ray, and Samson vs. The Vampire Women, when he appeared as "Torgo the White" to bring Frank to "Second Banana Heaven".
Selection of Manos for the show is credited to Frank Conniff, who also played TV's Frank; Conniff was generally in charge of pre-screening and selecting films sent to them by Comedy Central, the show's network at the time, and Manos was a random tape that he had pulled from a recent batch they had been sent. He felt the movie "seemed like it was maybe a crime against humanity, but you couldn’t be sure" and "has an atmosphere, a vibe" that made it appropriate for the show. The Manos episode has been described as one of the best of the MST3K series by Entertainment Weekly and CraveOnline, and the MST3K episode is credited with bringing to light the otherwise obscure film, even though it led to the film being considered one of the worst films made at user polls at the Internet Movie Database. Kevin Murphy later declared, "I hate this movie. I think I hate this movie more than any other film we ever did at RiffTrax or Mystery Science Theater. Even more than the Coleman Francis movies. There's something about this movie that just makes my skin crawl." During a Q&A session at the 2008 San Diego Comic-Con International, a question was put to the cast and writers of MST3K about any film they passed on that was worse than Manos, and many cited the film Child Bride.
Manos has also been riffed on by RiffTrax, a later project of MST3K alumni Mike Nelson, Kevin Murphy and Bill Corbett, during a live show on August 16, 2012, a live event that was simulcast in film theaters across the United States. While Nelson and Murphy were part of the cast when MST3K riffed on Manos, neither their fellow RiffTrax star Bill Corbett nor their writers were involved in the original episode; the riffing was all new jokes, using a cleaner print of the original Manos, allowing them to joke about things not obvious in the original television episode.
Popularity as a cult film
The MST3K episode featuring the film was released on DVD on its own, in 2001, and in the Mystery Science Theater 3000 Essentials collection in 2004.
A DVD of the original version of Manos has also been made available through Alpha Video, which also released original versions of other "MST-ed" films such as Teenagers from Outer Space and Eegah. In attempting to explain the film's appeal, the Los Angeles Times hypothesized, "After screening Manos for probably the 10th time, I've concluded it has to do with intimacy. Because it is such a pure slice of Warren's brain – he wrote, directed, produced and starred, and brooked no collaboration – Manos amounts to the man's cinematically transfigured subconscious." Manos buff Bobby Thompson put it more succinctly: "It's like a train wreck; you just can't take your eyes off it." Shout! Factory released a special edition of the film which includes both the MST3K and uncut versions called Manos y Manos .
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 0% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 2.56/10. The book Hollywood's Most Wanted lists Manos as the #2 in the list of "The Worst Movies Ever Made", following Plan 9 from Outer Space. Entertainment Weekly proclaimed Manos "The Worst Movie Ever Made." The scene in which the seven-year-old Debbie is dressed as one of the Master's wives (the Master was played by the actress's real-life father) was included in a list of "The Most Disgusting Things We've Ever Seen" by the Mystery Science Theater 3000 crew.
Four comedy stage adaptations of the film have been made. The first, by Last Rites Productions, was given in Portland, Oregon in early 2006. The second, a musical titled Manos: Rock Opera of Fate by the New Millennium Theatre Company, was launched in Chicago in October 2007. The third, a puppet musical titled Manos – The Hands of Felt, was performed by Puppet This in Seattle in April 2011. After raising funds with a Kickstarter campaign in May 2013, Manos – The Hands of Felt was performed again in Seattle by Vox Fabuli Puppets in August 2013 and filmed for DVD release. The fourth, by Capital I Productions, took place in Portland, Oregon in April 2013.
In March 2015, the murderers on the Elementary episode "T-Bone And The Iceman" used the physical features of Torgo (portrayed by John Reynolds) to compose a fake facial composite to get the NYPD off their trail. It worked for a while before they were caught, due to the character of Dr. Joan Watson having recognized Torgo's features from the film. The film's editor, James Sullivan, was the namesake of one of the characters in the episode.
For several years, the film was the lowest rated movie on IMDb. As of January 2022, it ranks as the 4th worst movie of all time on the site.
Restoration
In 2011, the original 16mm workprint of Manos: The Hands of Fate was discovered by Ben Solovey, a Florida State film school graduate, in a collection of 16 mm films. Solovey announced his intention to preserve and restore Manos for a Blu-ray release. Solovey financed the restoration via crowd funding website Kickstarter, raising $48,000 (nearly five times the initial goal). A 90% finished print was premiered at the El Paso Plaza Theatre, not far from where the original premiere was held in 1966. The new restoration premiered on Blu-ray on October 13, 2015 with an unrestored version ("Grindhouse") as one of the bonus features.
Copyright dispute
In general, any work first published in the United States before March 1989 required a copyright notice, or the work was not copyrighted. Manos: The Hands of Fate is in the public domain because director Harold Warren failed to include a copyright notice in the film. When news broke of Solovey's restoration, the son of Harold Warren, Joe Warren, started exploring the possibility that the film was in fact not in the public domain, seeking to avoid others from profiting from his father's work. Warren discovered in 2013 that the script had been copyrighted and registered in the Library of Congress, and he believes that this copyright also applies to the film. No precedent exists for this case so the legal status of the film is uncertain. Solovey applied copyright on his restored version, an action that Warren believes is unenforceable, though at this point has not sought any legal action against Solovey. Warren was able to obtain pending publication of a trademark on the phrase Manos: The Hands of Fate, which could have impacted the various fanworks if the United States Patent and Trademark Office finalized approval on it. However, the trademark filing has since been abandoned as of December 6, 2018 for a "failure to respond or late response".
Sequels
Manos: The Search for Valley Lodge
In 2010, writer/director Rupert Talbot Munch, Sr. began work on Manos: The Search for Valley Lodge. Tom Neyman (in a cameo reprising his role as The Master), his daughter Jackey Neyman-Jones (reprising her role as Debbie), Diane Mahree (reprising the role of Margaret), and Bernie Rosenblum (who played a teenage boy in the original film) were involved in initial filming. Others engaged to appear included World Wrestling Entertainment star Gene Snitsky, former WWE diva and Playboy centerfold Maria Kanellis, and UFC fighter Ryan "Big Deal" Jimmo. Munch himself was to play the role of Torgo.
In 2013, Neyman-Jones left the project after disagreements with Munch, and by the end of 2014, the project was reported to have been scrapped.
Manos: The Rise of Torgo
In 2013, a project to produce a prequel entitled Manos: The Rise of Torgo was undertaken. David Roy (producer of the 2014 film Cheeseballs) was announced as the writer and director, and cast members were to include Neyman-Jones (playing Manos, the evil deity). It was released on Amazon Prime streaming in 2018.
Manos Returns
Jackey Neyman-Jones, who played Debbie in the original film, launched a Kickstarter campaign in February 2016 to make a sequel to Manos, titled Manos Returns. According to Neyman-Jones, the sequel was not to be a recreation of Manos but instead a "tongue-in-cheek" film that is set within the Manos storyline; Neyman-Jones described the planned product as being both funny and scary, along the lines of Cabin in the Woods or Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein.
The Kickstarter goal of $24,000 was reached on February 24, 2016, and filming began thereafter. The film stars Neyman-Jones, reprising her role as Debbie, her father Tom Neyman, reprising his role of The Master and Diane Mahree reprising her role as Margaret. Neyman-Jones and director Tonjia Atomic shot the film in western Oregon in the summer of 2016. The film had its world premiere screening at Crypticon Seattle on May 4, 2018. Manos Returns became available on Amazon Prime in May 2020.
Video game adaptation
A video game based on the film for iOS systems was released in 2012. A Microsoft Windows port and an Android port were later released.
See also
List of American films of 1966
List of films considered the worst
Z movie
References
External links
Jackey Neyman-Jones' blog, in which she shares some of her stories about the making of the film
The complete official soundtrack on Bandcamp
1966 films
1966 horror films
American films
American supernatural horror films
American independent films
Culture of El Paso, Texas
1960s English-language films
Films set in Texas
Films shot in El Paso, Texas
Religious horror films
Polygamy in fiction
Films about pedophilia
Folk horror films
Articles containing video clips
Films about neopaganism
Films about cults
1966 directorial debut films
1966 independent films
1960s rediscovered films
Rediscovered American films
American exploitation films | [
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246356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian%20Alps | Julian Alps | The Julian Alps (, , , ) are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps that stretch from northeastern Italy to Slovenia, where they rise to 2,864 m at Mount Triglav, the highest peak in Slovenia and of the former Yugoslavia. A large part of the Julian Alps is included in Triglav National Park. The second highest peak of the range, the 2,755 m high Jôf di Montasio, lies in Italy.
The Julian Alps cover an estimated 4,400 km2 (of which 1,542 km2 lies in Italy). They are located between the Sava Valley and Canale Valley. They are divided into the Eastern and Western Julian Alps.
Name
The Julian Alps were known in antiquity as Alpe Iulia, and also attested as Alpes Juliana AD 670, Alpis Julia 734, and Alpes Iulias in 1090. Like the municipium of Forum Julii (now Cividale del Friuli) at the foot of the mountains, the range was named after Julius Caesar of the Julian clan, perhaps due to a road built by Julius Caesar and completed by Augustus.
Eastern Julian Alps
There are many peaks in the Eastern Julian Alps over 2,000 m high, and they are mainly parts of ridges. The most prominent peaks are visible by their height and size. There are high plains on the eastern border like Pokljuka, Mežakla and Jelovica.
The main peaks by height are the following:
Triglav – the highest mountain and on the coat of arms of Slovenia
Škrlatica
Mangart
Jalovec
Razor
Kanjavec
Prisojnik
Rjavina
Prestreljenik
Špik
Tosc
Krn
Western Julian Alps
The Western Julian Alps cover a much smaller area, and are located mainly in Italy. Only the Kanin group lies in part in Slovenia.
The main peaks by height are:
Jôf di Montasio ()
Jôf Fuart ()
High Mount Kanin ()
Passes
Important passes of the Julian Alps are:
The Vršič Pass, 1,611 m (5,826 feet), links the Sava and Soča valleys. It is the highest mountain road pass in Slovenia.
The Predil Pass (links Villach via Tarvisio and Bovec to Gorizia), paved road 1,156 m (3,792 feet)
The Pontebba Pass (links Villach via Tarvisio and Pontebba to Udine), railway, paved road, 797 m (2,615 feet)
Gallery
See also
Italian Julian Alps
Triglav Lakes Valley
List of mountains in Slovenia
Slovenian Mountain Hiking Trail
References
External links
Julian Alps on Hiking Trail
Julian Alps on SummitPost
https://www.julijske-alpe.com/english/
Julian Alps in Slovenia (All information about it)
Mountain ranges of the Alps
Mountain ranges of Italy
Mountain ranges of Slovenia
Southern Limestone Alps
Landforms of Upper Carniola
Biosphere reserves of Slovenia
Natura 2000 in Slovenia | [
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246359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottokar%20I%20of%20Bohemia | Ottokar I of Bohemia | Ottokar I (; c. 1155 – 1230) was Duke of Bohemia periodically beginning in 1192, then acquired the title King of Bohemia, first in 1198 from Philip of Swabia, later in 1203 from Otto IV of Brunswick and in 1212 from Frederick II. He was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty.
Early years
Ottokar's parents were Vladislaus II, Duke of Bohemia, and Judith of Thuringia. His early years were passed amid the anarchy that prevailed everywhere in the country. After several military struggles, he was recognized as ruler of Bohemia by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI in 1192. He was, however, soon overthrown for joining a conspiracy of German princes to bring down the Hohenstaufen dynasty. In 1197, Ottokar forced his brother, Duke Vladislaus III Henry, to abandon Bohemia to him and to content himself with Moravia.
Taking advantage of the civil war in Germany between the Hohenstaufen claimant Philip of Swabia and the Welf candidate Otto IV, Ottokar declared himself King of Bohemia in 1198, being crowned in Mainz. This title was supported by Philip of Swabia, who needed Czech military support against Otto.
In 1199, Ottokar divorced his wife Adelheid of Meissen, a member of the Wettin dynasty, to marry Constance of Hungary, the young daughter of Hungarian King Béla III.
In 1200, with Otto IV in the ascendancy, Ottokar abandoned his pact with Philip of Swabia and declared for the Welf faction. Otto IV and later Pope Innocent III subsequently accepted Ottokar as the hereditary King of Bohemia.
Golden Bull of Sicily
Ottokar was quickly forced back into Philip's camp by the imperial declaration of a new duke of Bohemia, Děpolt III. Subject to his recognition as duke, Ottokar had to allow his divorced wife to return to Bohemia. Having been completed this condition, he again ranged himself among Philip's partisans and still later was among the supporters of the young King Frederick II. In 1212 Frederick granted the Golden Bull of Sicily to Bohemia. This document recognised Ottokar and his heirs as Kings of Bohemia. The king was no longer subject to appointment by the emperor and was only required to attend Diets close to the Bohemian border. Although a subject of the Holy Roman Empire, the Bohemian king was to be the leading electoral prince of the Holy Roman Empire and to furnish all subsequent emperors with a bodyguard of 300 knights when they went to Rome for their coronation.
Ottokar's reign was also notable for the start of German immigration into Bohemia and the growth of towns in what had until that point been forest lands. In 1226, Ottokar went to war against Duke Leopold VI of Austria after the latter wrecked a deal that would have seen Ottokar's daughter (Saint Agnes of Bohemia) married to Frederick II's son Henry II of Sicily. Ottokar then planned for the same daughter to marry Henry III of England, but this was vetoed by the emperor, who knew Henry to be an opponent of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. The widowed emperor himself wanted to marry Agnes, but by then she did not want to play a role in an arranged marriage. With the help of the pope, she entered a convent.
Family
Ottokar was married first in 1178 to Adelheid of Meissen (after 1160 - 2 February 1211), who gave birth to the following children:
Vratislav of Bohemia (d. bef. 1225).
Dagmar of Bohemia (d. 24 May 1212), married to King Valdemar II of Denmark.
Božislava of Bohemia (d. 6 Feb bef. 1238), married to Count Henry I of Ortenberg.
Hedvika of Bohemia, became a nun in Gernrode.
In 1199, he married secondly to Constance of Hungary (1181 – 6 December 1240), who gave birth to the following children:
Vratislav of Bohemia (c. 1200 – bef. 1209).
Judith of Bohemia (Judita) (- 2 June 1230), married to Bernhard von Spanheim, Duke of Carinthia.
Anne of Bohemia (Anna Lehnická) (1204 - 23 June 1265), married to Henry II the Pious, High Duke of Poland.
Anežka of Bohemia, died young.
Wenceslaus I of Bohemia (Václav I.) (c. 1205 - 23 September 1253), became King of Bohemia.
Vladislaus of Bohemia (Vladislav) (1207 - 18 February 1227), Margrave of Moravia.
Přemyslid (Přemysl) of Bohemia (1209 - 16 October 1239), Margrave of Moravia, married to Margaret of Merania, daughter of Otto I, Duke of Merania.
Wilhelmina of Bohemia (Vilemína Česká, Guglielmina Boema) (1210 - 24 October 1281)
Saint Agnes of Bohemia (Anežka Česká) (20 January 1211 – 6 March 1282)
References
Sources
External links
|-
1230 deaths
Medieval kings of Bohemia
Dukes of Bohemia
Burials at St. Vitus Cathedral
Czech military leaders | [
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246363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminator%20%28franchise%29 | Terminator (franchise) | Terminator is an American media franchise created by James Cameron and Gale Anne Hurd. The franchise encompasses a series of science fiction action films, comics, novels, and additional media, concerning a total war between Skynet's synthetic intelligence – a self-aware military machine network – and John Connor's Resistance forces comprising the survivors of the human race. Skynet's most famous products in its genocidal goals are the various terminator models, such as the T-800, who was portrayed by Arnold Schwarzenegger from the original Terminator film in 1984. By 2010, the franchise had generated $3 billion in revenue.
Setting
The central theme of the franchise is the battle for survival between the nearly-extinct human race and the world-spanning synthetic intelligence that is Skynet. Skynet is positioned in the first film, The Terminator (1984), as a U.S. strategic "Global Digital Defense Network" computer system by Cyberdyne Systems which becomes self-aware. Shortly after activation, Skynet perceives all humans as a threat to its existence and formulates a plan to systematically wipe out humanity itself. The system initiates a nuclear first strike against Russia, thereby ensuring a devastating second strike and a nuclear holocaust which wipes out much of humanity in the resulting nuclear war. In the post-apocalyptic aftermath, Skynet later builds up its own autonomous machine-based military capability which includes the Terminators used against individual human targets and therefore proceeds to wage a persistent total war against the surviving elements of humanity, some of whom have militarily organized themselves into a Resistance. At some point in this future, Skynet develops the ability of time travel, and both it and the Resistance seek to use this technology in order to win the war; either by altering or accelerating past events, or by preventing the apocalyptic timeline.
Judgment Day
In the franchise, Judgment Day (a reference to the biblical Day of Judgment) is the date on which Skynet becomes self-aware and its creators panic and attempt to deactivate the network. As a result, Skynet perceives humanity as a threat and chooses to exterminate them. Skynet launches an all-out nuclear attack on Russia in order to provoke a nuclear counter-strike against the United States, knowing this will eliminate its human enemies. Due to time travel and the consequent ability to change the future, several differing dates are given for Judgment Day. In Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), Sarah Connor states that Judgment Day will occur on August 29, 1997. However, this date is delayed following the attack on Cyberdyne Systems in the second film.
Judgment Day has various different dates in different timelines of the subsequent films, as well as the television series, creating a multiverse of temporal phenomena. In Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003) and Terminator Salvation (2009), Judgment Day was postponed to July 2003. In Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (2008–2009), the attack on Cyberdyne Systems in the second film delayed Judgment Day to April 21, 2011. In Terminator Genisys (2015), the fifth film in the franchise, Judgment Day was postponed to an unspecified day in October 2017, attributed to altered events in both the future and the past. Sarah and Kyle Reese travel through time to the year 2017 and seemingly defeat Skynet but the system core, contained inside a subterranean blast shelter, survives unknown to them, thus further delaying, rather than preventing, Judgment Day. In Terminator: Dark Fate (2019), the direct sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day, a date is not given for the new Judgment Day though it is named as such by Grace. As Grace is a ten–year old in 2020 and shown as a teenager in the post-Judgment Day world in flash-forwards throughout the movie, Judgment Day occurs sometime in the early 2020s in this timeline.
Franchise rights
Before the first film was created, director James Cameron sold the rights for $1 to Gale Anne Hurd, who produced the film. Hemdale Film Corporation also became a 50-percent owner of the franchise rights, until its share was sold in 1990 to Carolco Pictures, a company founded by Andrew G. Vajna and Mario Kassar. Terminator 2: Judgment Day was released a year later. Carolco filed for bankruptcy in 1995, and the rights to future Terminator films were ultimately put up for auction. By that time, Cameron had become interested in making a Terminator 3 film. However, the rights were ultimately auctioned to Vajna in 1997, for $8 million. Vajna and Kassar spent another $8 million to purchase Hurd's half of the rights in 1998, becoming the full owners of the franchise. Hurd was initially opposed to the sale of the rights, while Cameron had lost interest in the franchise and a third film.
After the 2003 release of Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, the franchise rights were sold in 2007 for about $25 million to The Halcyon Company, which produced Terminator Salvation in 2009. Later that year, the company faced legal issues and filed for bankruptcy, putting the franchise rights up for sale. The rights were valued at about $70 million. In 2010, the rights were sold for $29.5 million to Pacificor, a hedge fund that was Halcyon's largest creditor. In 2012, the rights were sold to Megan Ellison for less than $20 million, a lower price than what was previously offered. The low price was due to the possibility of Cameron regaining the rights in 2019, as a result of new North American copyright laws. David Ellison and Skydance Productions produced Terminator Genisys in 2015.
Cameron worked together with David Ellison to produce the 2019 film Terminator: Dark Fate. As the film neared its release, Hurd filed to terminate a copyright grant made 35 years earlier. Under this move, Hurd would again become a 50-percent owner of the rights with Cameron, and Skydance could lose the rights to make any additional Terminator films beginning in November 2020, unless a new deal is worked out. Skydance responded that it had a deal in place with Cameron and that it "controls the rights to the Terminator franchise for the foreseeable future".
Films
The Terminator (1984)
The Terminator is a 1984 science fiction action film released by Orion Pictures, co-written and directed by James Cameron and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, Linda Hamilton and Michael Biehn. It is the first work in the Terminator franchise. In the film, robots take over the world in the near future, directed by the artificial intelligence Skynet. With its sole mission to completely annihilate humanity, it develops android assassins called Terminators that outwardly appear human. A man named John Connor starts the Tech-Com resistance to fight the machines, defeat Skynet and free humanity. With a human victory imminent, the machines' only choice is to send a Terminator back in time to kill John's mother, Sarah Connor, and prevent the boy's birth, thereby handicapping the resistance from ever being founded in the first place. With the fate of humanity at stake, John sends soldier Kyle Reese back to protect Sarah Connor, and thus ensure his own existence. It was released on October 26, 1984 and grossed $78.4 million worldwide.
Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)
Terminator 2: Judgment Day is the 1991 sequel to the original Terminator film and was released by TriStar Pictures. It was co-written, directed, and produced by James Cameron and stars Arnold Schwarzenegger, Linda Hamilton, Edward Furlong, Robert Patrick, and Joe Morton. After robots fail to prevent John Connor from being born, they try again in 1995, this time attempting to terminate him as a child by using a more advanced Terminator, the T-1000. As before, John sends back a protector for his younger self, a reprogrammed Terminator, who is a doppelgänger to the one from 1984. After years of preparing for the future war, Sarah decides to use the same tactics the robots used on her: preventing Skynet from being invented by destroying Cyberdyne Systems before they create it. It was released on July 3, 1991, to critical acclaim and grossed $523.7 million worldwide. It also won several Academy Awards, one most notably for its then-cutting-edge computer animation. The film was remastered for 3D and re-released in August 2017.
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003)
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, released by Warner Bros. Pictures in North America and Columbia TriStar Film Distributors internationally, is the 2003 sequel to Terminator 2 and is written by John Brancato, Michael Ferris, directed by Jonathan Mostow and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, Nick Stahl, Claire Danes and Kristanna Loken. As a result of the destruction of Cyberdyne, the Skynet takeover has been postponed, not averted. In an attempt to ensure a victory by the robots, a new Terminator, the T-X, is sent back to terminate the lives of as many of John Connor's future lieutenants as is possible, including his future wife Kate Brewster, and also John himself. Kate's father, General Robert Brewster (David Andrews), who is supervising Skynet's development, is also targeted for termination by the T-X. After Connor's future self is terminated by a doppelgänger of his previous protector, Kate reprograms him and sends him back to save them both from the T-X. It was released on July 2, 2003 to generally favorable reviews and grossed $433.4 million worldwide.
Terminator Salvation (2009)
Terminator Salvation is the fourth installment of the Terminator film series, and was made by The Halcyon Company and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures and Columbia Pictures. It was released on May 21, 2009 to mixed reviews and grossed $371.4 million. It was written by John Brancato and Michael Ferris, directed by McG, and stars Christian Bale as John Connor and Sam Worthington (who was personally recommended by James Cameron) as Marcus Wright. Following the events of Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, after Skynet has destroyed much of humanity in a nuclear holocaust, John struggles to become the leader of humanity to which he is destined, while Marcus Wright finds his place in an unfamiliar post-apocalyptic world. In this future, altered by the events of the second film, the T-800 Terminators (Roland Kickinger with CG-rendered facial likeness of Arnold Schwarzenegger) are coming online sooner than expected. The film also stars Anton Yelchin as Kyle Reese, Bryce Dallas Howard, Moon Bloodgood, Common, Michael Ironside and Helena Bonham Carter.
Terminator Genisys (2015)
Terminator Genisys is the fifth installment of the franchise, and, in addition, serves as a reboot that features the main characters from the first two films created by James Cameron, Gale Anne Hurd and William Wisher, Jr., portrayed by a new cast with the exception of Arnold Schwarzenegger reprising his role as the eponymous character. Additionally, J. K. Simmons joined the cast as Detective O'Brien, serving as an ally for the film's protagonists. The film was written by Laeta Kalogridis and Patrick Lussier, and directed by Alan Taylor. It was made by Skydance Productions and distributed by Paramount Pictures. The story takes place in an alternate reality resulting from a chain of events related to Skynet's (Matt Smith) actions throughout a previous timeline. Prior to this alteration, on the verge of winning the war against Skynet, John Connor (Jason Clarke) sends his trusted right-hand officer Kyle Reese (Jai Courtney) back through time to save his mother's life and ensure his own existence. However, Kyle arrives at an alternate timeline where Skynet had never launched its initial attack in 1997, and Sarah Connor (Emilia Clarke) was brought up by a reprogrammed Terminator (Schwarzenegger), sent by an unknown party to be her guardian ever since childhood. Now Sarah, Kyle and the Guardian need to escape the T-800 Model 101 (Brett Azar with CG-rendered likeness of Schwarzenegger from the first film), the T-1000 (Lee Byung-hun) and Skynet's T-3000, in an attempt to stop Judgment Day from ever happening; while trying to uncover the secrets behind Cyberdyne Systems' new application software: Genisys. Assisting the trio is Detective O'Brien (Simmons), whose investigation into time travelers (especially Terminators) leads him to learn about Skynet, and helps the protagonists in their mission to avert Judgment Day. The film was released in the U.S. on July 1, 2015 and grossed $440.6 million worldwide.
Terminator: Dark Fate (2019)
Terminator: Dark Fate is the sixth installment of the franchise and a direct sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day. It is directed by Tim Miller and was released in the U.S. on November 1, 2019. It stars Linda Hamilton and Arnold Schwarzenegger, reprising their roles as Sarah Connor and the Terminator, respectively. The film also stars Mackenzie Davis, Natalia Reyes, and Gabriel Luna. Jude Collie and Brett Azar were also cast as a young John Connor and a younger T-800, respectively.
The previous film, Terminator Genisys, had been intended as the first in a new stand-alone film trilogy, but the planned sequels were canceled following the film's disappointing box-office performance. The producer of that film, David Ellison, recruited James Cameron to produce a new film with him, which would become Terminator: Dark Fate.
In the film, the machines send a Terminator, Rev-9 (Luna), back in time to eliminate Dani Ramos (Reyes), whose destiny is linked to the Human Resistance's war against them. The Resistance sends one of their soldiers Grace (Davis) back to protect her, and a chain of events lead Grace and Dani to join forces with Sarah Connor and the T-800.
The writers' room included Josh Friedman, creator of the television series Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles. Other writers included David S. Goyer, Justin Rhodes and Billy Ray. The creative team stated that the new film would feature a young 18- to 21-year-old, who could potentially lead the franchise should the first film be successful. Miller made mention of creating a theme park attraction akin to T2 3-D: Battle Across Time should the film prove successful. Because the series deals with time-travel, the film ignores the premise of the last three films and the TV series and is not titled Terminator 6, as it is also a direct sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Filming began in Isleta del Moro, Almería on June 4, 2018, shooting for a month there, before shooting the rest in the United States.
This film was intended as the first in a new trilogy of Terminator films, but these plans were canceled due to mixed audience reactions and the film's underperforming box office record.
Television
Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (2008–2009)
Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles follows Sarah (Lena Headey) and John Connor (Thomas Dekker) as they try to "live under the radar" after destroying Cyberdyne in Terminator 2. Summer Glau plays a Terminator named Cameron and Brian Austin Green plays Derek Reese, the brother of Kyle Reese, both sent back in time to protect the Connors and prevent another Judgment Day.
Future
In February 2021, Netflix announced plans to develop a Terminator anime series with Skydance, Mattson Tomlin, and Production I.G.
Web series
Terminator Salvation: The Machinima Series (2009)
Set in 2016, years after Judgment Day, Blair Williams (voiced by Moon Bloodgood) is fighting the war against the machines in downtown Los Angeles, while tracking down the computer hacker named Laz Howard (voiced by Cam Clarke) and trying to persuade him to join sides with the resistance.
Terminator Genisys: The YouTube Chronicles (2015)
Terminator Genisys: The YouTube Chronicles was released in three parts on June 22, 2015 to promote the fifth film, produced by Heresy. The web series was directed by Charles Paek and written by Jay Bushman. It features several popular YouTube stars appearing with Arnold Schwarzenegger as the T-800, as they stand together against the T-360 (played by fellow YouTube personality, Toby Turner).
Cast and crew
Principal cast
Additional crew
Reception
Box office performance
Critical and public response
Cultural impact
The Terminator franchise, most notably James Cameron's original films, The Terminator and Terminator 2: Judgment Day, has had a significant impact on popular culture. The film franchise placed #17 on the top 25 greatest film franchises by IGN and is also in the top 30 highest-grossing franchises. According to Rotten Tomatoes, the Terminator franchise is the sixth highest rated franchise on the site behind the Toy Story franchise, the Dollars Trilogy, The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, the Mad Max franchise, and the original Star Wars trilogy, but in front of the Indiana Jones franchise.
In 2008, The Terminator was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "Culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." The American Film Institute (AFI) has also recognized both films on a number of occasions: the line "I'll be back" from The Terminator placed as the 37th-best movie quote, while "Hasta la vista, baby" from Terminator 2 ranked 76th on the same list. The Terminator character from The Terminator was voted the 22nd-greatest villain; meanwhile, the T-800 (of the same likeness) in Terminator 2: Judgment Day was voted the 48th-greatest hero; this is the only time the same character has appeared on the two opposing lists. In the 100 Years...100 series list, the Terminator franchise was voted the 42nd most thrilling. In addition, Terminator 2: Judgment Day ranked 8th on AFI's top 10 list in the science fiction genre.
Both films are the source of numerous pop culture references, such as the use of "I'll be back" in countless other media, including different variations of the phrase by Arnold himself in many of his subsequent films, and in cameo appearances by Robert Patrick as the T-1000, in Last Action Hero and Wayne's World. The Simpsons have also spoofed both films, and the T-1000 in particular, on a number of occasions.
The references are also made when Schwarzenegger was elected as California governor during the recall election, which a newspaper headline said "Davis Terminated." Schwarzenegger was nicknamed "the governator", a portmanteau of governor and Terminator.
Terminator 2 is the only film in the series to garner attention at the Academy Awards, with six nominations and four wins and is rated highly among critics. In 2006 the readers of Total Film rated The Terminator as cinema's 72nd best film, and Terminator 2: Judgment Day the 33rd.
The first five Terminator films have had very respectable box office gross, though after James Cameron left the series it saw diminishing returns in subsequent films. The Terminator made $78 million worldwide, far surpassing its $6 million budget and becoming a major sleeper hit. Terminator 2: Judgment Day grossed approximately $520 million globally, becoming a major blockbuster and the top-grossing film of 1991. Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines earning $433 million, making it the seventh highest-grossing film of 2003. Terminator Salvation grossed an estimated $371 million worldwide, a figure below industry expectations. Terminator Genisys grossed $440 million. Terminator: Dark Fate raised approximately $261 million worldwide with an estimated loss of $130 million, becoming both the least successful film in the franchise and a box office bomb in its own right.
Music
Soundtracks
Other media
Video games
Various video games have been released since 1991.
Novels
A series of novels were released from 2001 to 2004, under the name T2.
Comics
The Terminator spin-off comics
In 1988, NOW Comics published an ongoing series with John Connor as the main character in 2031, after sending Kyle Reese back to 1984 to protect his mother. The Terminators in this canon had more human-like endoskeletons, and some issues would deal with subordinates of Connor's in the ruins of certain geographic areas. The seventeen issue series was followed by two limited series.
Dark Horse Comics acquired the rights in 1990 . In The Terminator (with Tempest added in trade paperbacks to distinguish itself from other comics), a group of human soldiers and four Terminators come to the present, to stop Skynet in differing ways. In the sequel, Secondary Objectives, the surviving Terminator is reprogrammed to destroy another Terminator sent to aid him and kill Sarah Connor. In its sequel, The Enemy Within, a team of human assassins attempt to return to the past and kill a Skynet developer. The 1992 Endgame concludes this arc. Human colonel Mary Randall protects Sarah Connor as she goes into labor.
Dark Horse published a 1992 one-shot written by James Dale Robinson and drawn by Matt Wagner. Here, a female Terminator and a resistance fighter battle for the life of a woman named Sarah Connor, but not the correct one. The comic book had the unusual feature of a physical "pop-up" in one scene.
A 1993 limited series Hunters and Killers, set during the war, has special Terminators created to impersonate leaders in the Russian resistance. Another limited series, published in 1998, follows the misadventures of two malfunctioning Terminators in Death Valley. This set up the following year's comic The Dark Years, set in 2030. In The Dark Years, a Terminator is sent to eliminate John Connor and his mother in 1999. In 2013, Dark Horse released a sequel comic based on the 2009 film Terminator Salvation, entitled Terminator Salvation: The Final Battle.
Malibu Comics published twin series in 1995. One was a sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day, in which Sarah and John encounter two Terminators. The other was, a prequel, explains the scenario. The conclusions to the series were published in one issue.
Beckett Comics published three series to promote Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, each consisting of two issues.
Terminator 2: Infinity (later simply Terminator Infinity (2007) comic book series by Dynamite Entertainment, was set in 2033. It was, for two issues, tied into another one of Dynamite's publications, called Painkiller Jane.
Dynamite's continuation, Terminator: Revolution, and IDW Publishing's Salvation tie-in comic book were legally possible as the former was specifically based on the Terminator 2 license.
Crossover comics
Terminators have crossed over with RoboCop, Superman, and Alien vs. Predator. In RoboCop versus The Terminator (1992) and Superman vs. The Terminator: Death to the Future (2000), the heroes must prevent the war-ravaged future.
In 2000's Alien versus Predator versus The Terminator from Dark Horse, where Skynet, has reactivated farther in the future, and is creating an Alien-Terminator hybrid. Ellen Ripley's clone (from Alien Resurrection) and the Predators join forces to stop Skynet.
In 2020, Dark Horse and IDW Publishing published Transformers vs. The Terminator, in which the Autobots and the Decepticons are antagonised by the T-800 as Skynet sends the Terminator back through time to destroy the Cybertronians and restore the future timeline.
Collectible card game
The Terminator Collectible Card Game was released in 2000 by Precedence.
Theme park attractions
T2-3D: Battle Across Time, a film ride based on the franchise, opened at Universal Studios Florida in 1996.
The ride is presented as an alternate sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day and features Arnold Schwarzenegger, Linda Hamilton, Edward Furlong and Robert Patrick reprising their roles as The Terminator, Sarah Connor, John Connor and The T-1000 respectively. James Cameron is one of three directors involved with the attraction and would be the final time he would have any strict involvement in anything with the Terminator name until Terminator: Dark Fate.
Terminator X: A Laser Battle for Salvation operated at various locations beginning in 2009. Terminator Salvation: The Ride operated at California's Six Flags Magic Mountain from 2009 to 2010.
Canceled projects
Terminator Salvation trilogy
In May 2007, the production rights to the Terminator series had passed from the feuding of Andrew G. Vajna and Mario Kassar to The Halcyon Company. The producers of the company hoped to start a new trilogy based on the franchise. However, due to the box office failure of the fourth film and legal troubles, the Salvation trilogy was ultimately cancelled. William Wisher, who co-wrote the first two films, had written material for a potential Terminator 5 and Terminator 6 that would follow on from the events of Terminator Salvation. The two-part story would involve an element of time travel that brings back the deceased character of Sarah Connor, allowing her to interact with Kyle Reese beyond their initial meeting in the first film. Schwarzenegger would also reprise his role for the sixth film. The films would also include new Terminator villains from Skynet. Wisher had written a 24-page film treatment for Terminator 5 and a four-page concept outline for Terminator 6.
Terminator Genisys trilogy
By December 2013, there were plans for Terminator Genisys to be the start of a new trilogy of films. In September 2014, Paramount announced release dates for the two Genisys sequels: May 19, 2017 and June 29, 2018. Terminator Genisys producer David Ellison described the film and its intended trilogy as standalone projects based on Cameron's original Terminator films. Ellison said Terminator Genisys is neither a sequel or a prequel to the previous films, saying "For us this is Terminator 1, this is not Terminator 5". The sequels to Genisys were tentatively known as Terminator 2 and Terminator 3. The two sequels were to be filmed back to back during nine months of continuous shooting.
The storylines for the two sequels were devised by Genisys writers Kalogridis and Lussier. The trilogy was being planned out before Terminator Genisys began filming, as producers David Ellison and Dana Goldberg wanted the full storyline finished ahead of time rather than having to "figure it out as you go along," stating, "We spent a lot of time breaking that down, and we do know what the last line of the third movie is, should we be lucky enough to get to make it." Production on the sequels was contingent on whether Terminator Genisys would be successful; development of the trilogy stalled in 2015 after the film's disappointing box-office performance. The planned sequels were ultimately cancelled, with Terminator 2 being removed from Paramount's release schedule in January 2016.
The new trilogy would have explained who sent Pops back in time to protect Sarah Connor. In February 2015, Schwarzenegger said he would reprise his role as Pops for the second film in the trilogy, with filming set to begin in 2016. Jai Courtney and Matt Smith would also reprise their respective roles as Kyle Reese and Skynet. J. K. Simmons would have had further involvement in the new trilogy, and Dayo Okeniyi would have a significant role reprising his character Danny Dyson in the second film, which would have focused on John Connor's life after becoming part machine. Jason Clarke said about the cancelled Genisys sequel:
Terminator Genisys-connected television series
By December 2013, Skydance Productions and Annapurna Pictures were developing a new Terminator television series. Ashley Miller and Zack Stentz, who had worked together previously on Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles, were named as writers and executive producers. The series was said to deviate from the franchise's history at a critical moment in 1984's The Terminator, and would also integrate with the then-projected film series' direct sequels to Terminator Genisys.
Terminator: Dark Fate trilogy
Plans for a new Terminator film trilogy were announced in July 2017. While working on the story for Terminator: Dark Fate that year, Cameron and the writers envisioned the film as the first in the new trilogy. They also worked out the basic storylines for each planned film.
In October 2019, Cameron said that sequels to Terminator: Dark Fate would further explore the relationship between humans and artificial intelligence, while stating that a resolution between the two feuding sides would be the ultimate outcome. That month, Schwarzenegger said that Cameron would write the Terminator: Dark Fate sequels, and that Cameron would begin work on the next film in early 2020, for release in 2022.
Although the events of Terminator: Dark Fate erase Schwarzenegger's T-800 character from existence, Cameron did not rule out the possibility of Schwarzenegger reprising the character: "Look, if we make a shit ton of money with this film [Terminator: Dark Fate] and the cards say that they like Arnold, I think Arnold can come back. I'm a writer. I can think of scenarios. We don't have a plan for that right now, let me put it that way." Natalia Reyes was to reprise her role for a sequel. Hamilton said in October 2019 that she would probably reprise her role as well, although she joked that she would fake her own death to avoid appearing in it, saying that making Terminator: Dark Fate "really was hard" because of the physical training she had to undergo. Hamilton later said that she would be happy not to star in another Terminator film, but she kept the possibility open, with a potential exception being that a sequel be done on a smaller scale and budget.
Dark Fate director Tim Miller said in November 2019 that he did not expect to return for a sequel. Production of a sequel was contingent on whether Dark Fate was a box-office success. Following the underwhelming performance of Dark Fate at the box-office (with an estimated loss of at least $120 million), sources close to Skydance told The Hollywood Reporter that there are no plans for further films, effectively cancelling the planned Dark Fate trilogy.
See also
Grandfather paradox
Time travel in fiction
List of the highest-grossing media franchises
Notes
References
External links
Action film franchises
American film series
Apocalyptic fiction
Post-apocalyptic fiction
Artificial intelligence in fiction
Malware in fiction
Cyborgs in fiction
Fiction about robots
Biorobotics in fiction
Genetic engineering in fiction
Nanotechnology in fiction
Fiction about assassinations
Fiction about time travel
Science fiction film franchises
Mass media franchises introduced in 1984
Temporal war fiction
Film series introduced in 1984
Dystopian fiction
Post-apocalyptic literature | [
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246367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipper%20%28programming%20language%29 | Clipper (programming language) | Clipper is an xBase compiler that implements a variant of the xBase computer programming language. It is used to create
or extend software programs that originally operated primarily under MS-DOS. Although it is a powerful general-purpose programming
language, it was primarily used to create database/business programs.
One major dBase feature not implemented in Clipper is the dot-prompt (. prompt) interactive command set, which was an important part of the original dBase implementation.
Clipper, from Nantucket Corp and later Computer Associates, started out as a native code compiler for dBase III databases, and later evolved.
History
Clipper was created by Nantucket Corporation, a company that was started in 1984 by Barry ReBell (management) and Brian Russell (technical);
Larry Heimendinger was Nantucket's president. In 1992, the company was sold to Computer Associates for 190 million dollars and the product was renamed to CA-Clipper.
Clipper was created as a replacement programming language for Ashton Tate's dBASE III, a very popular database language at the time. The advantage of Clipper over dBASE was that it could be compiled and executed under MS-DOS as a standalone application. In the years between 1985 and 1992, millions of Clipper applications were built, typically for small businesses dealing with databases concerning many aspects of client management and inventory management. For many smaller businesses, having a Clipper application designed to their specific needs was their first experience with software development. Also a lot of applications for banking and insurance companies were developed, here especially in those cases where the application was considered too small to be developed and run on traditional mainframes. In these environments Clipper also served as a front end for existing mainframe applications.
As the product matured, it remained a DOS tool for many years, but added elements of the C programming language and Pascal programming language, as well as OOP, and the code-block data-type (hybridizing the concepts of dBase macros, or string-evaluation, and function pointers), to become far more powerful than the original. Nantucket's Aspen project later matured into the Windows native-code CA-Visual Objects compiler.
Market penetration
Nantucket sold well in Western markets. Also, in November 1991, the New York Times reported the company's success in "painstakingly convincing Soviet software developers that buying is preferable to pirating". According to the article, Clipper had sold 2,000 copies in the Soviet Union (compared to 250,000 worldwide).
Decline
In the early 1990s, under new ownership, Clipper failed to transition from MS-DOS to Microsoft Windows. As a result, almost no new commercial applications were written in Clipper after 1995.
By then, the "classically trained programmer" commonly used strong typing, in contrast to the original dBASE language.
An evolution of Clipper, named VO, added strong typing but made it optional, in order to remain compatible with existing code.
Four of the more important languages that took over from Clipper were Visual Basic, Microsoft Access, Delphi, and Powerbuilder.
They all provided strong typing.
Another factor in Clipper's decline was that, under Clipper 5.0, some applications crashed frequently and unpredictably. Nantucket didn't address the issue and seemed reluctant to even acknowledge it. Some developers moved to other products. The problem (a memory leak?) was later fixed by Computer Associates.
Some existing Clipper applications remained in active use for ten or fifteen years, requiring regular maintenance.
Around 2015, the number of Clipper applications that still saw daily commercial use was very small.
Revival by third-parties
The Clipper language is being actively implemented and extended by multiple organizations/vendors, like XBase++ from Alaska Software and FlagShip, as well as free (GPL-licensed) projects like Harbour and xHarbour.
Many of the current implementations are portable (DOS, Windows, Linux (32- and 64-bit), Unix (32- and 64-bit), and macOS), supporting many language extensions, and have greatly extended runtime libraries, as well as various Replaceable Database Drivers (RDD) supporting many popular database formats, like DBF, DBTNTX, DBFCDX (FoxPro, Apollo, Comix, and Advantage Database Server), MachSix (SIx Driver and Apollo), SQL, and more. These newer implementations all strive for full compatibility with the standard dBase/xBase syntax, while also offering OOP approaches and target-based syntax such as SQLExecute().
Usenet
The Clipper Usenet newsgroups are comp.lang.clipper and comp.lang.clipper.visual-objects.
Programming in Clipper
A simple hello world - application:
? "Hello World!"
A simple data base input mask:
USE Customer SHARED NEW
clear
@ 1, 0 SAY "CustNum" GET Customer->CustNum PICT "999999" VALID Customer->CustNum > 0
@ 3, 0 SAY "Contact" GET Customer->Contact VALID !empty(Customer->Contact)
@ 4, 0 SAY "Address" GET Customer->Address
READ
Version history
The various versions of Clipper were
From Nantucket Corporation; the "seasonal versions", billed as "dBase compilers"
Nantucket Clipper Winter'84 - released May 25, 1985
Nantucket Clipper Summer'85 - released 1985
Nantucket Clipper Winter'85 - released January 29, 1986
Nantucket Clipper Autumn'86 - released October 31, 1986
Nantucket Clipper Summer'87 - released December 21, 1987
From Nantucket Corporation; Clipper 5
Nantucket Clipper 5.00 - released 1990
Nantucket Clipper 5.01 - released April 15, 1991
Nantucket Clipper 5.01 Rev.129 - released March 31, 1992
and from Computer Associates; CA-Clipper 5
CA Clipper 5.01a -
CA Clipper 5.20 - released February 15, 1993
CA-Clipper 5.2a - released March 15, 1993
CA Clipper 5.2b - released June 25, 1993
CA-Clipper 5.2c - released August 6, 1993
CA Clipper 5.2d - released March 25, 1994
CA-Clipper 5.2e - released February 7, 1995
CA Clipper 5.30 - released June 26, 1995
CA Clipper 5.3a - released May 20, 1996
CA Clipper 5.3b - released May 20, 1997
Clipper tools
In addition to the standard clipper library, a library named "Clipper Tools" was developed by CA after purchasing Nantucket. Three versions of this library were released, alongside Clipper versions. This library became a de facto standard amongst Clipper clones, such as xHarbour. It was also cloned by several of Clipper's clones.
References
External links
Free Open Source Graphic,GUI & Form Designer for CA-Clipper
mini Clipper FAQ
Print from Clipper to newest Windows printers article
The Oasis is the largest file archive for CA-Clipper and xBase on the web
Harbour Project A 32/64 bit multiplatform Clipper compiler
1985 software
Fourth-generation programming languages
DOS software
Dynamic programming languages
Dynamically typed programming languages
High-level programming languages
Programming languages
Programming languages created in 1985
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246372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20War%20I%20in%20literature | World War I in literature | Literature about World War I is generally thought to include poems, novels and drama; diaries, letters, and memoirs are often included in this category as well. Although the canon continues to be challenged, the texts most frequently taught in schools and universities are lyrics by Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen; poems by Ivor Gurney, Edward Thomas, Charles Sorley, David Jones and Isaac Rosenberg are also widely anthologised. Many of the works during and about the war were written by men because of the war's intense demand on the young men of that generation; however, a number of women (especially in the British tradition) created literature about the war, often observing the effects of the war on soldiers, domestic spaces, and the homefront more generally.
General
The spread of education in Britain in the decades leading up to World War I meant that British soldiers and the British public of all classes were literate. Professional and amateur authors were prolific during and after the war and found a market for their works.
Literature was produced throughout the war - with women, as well as men, feeling the 'need to record their experiences' - but it was in the late 1920s and early 1930s that Britain had a boom in publication of war literature. The next boom period was in the 1960s, when there was renewed interest in World War I during the fiftieth anniversaries and after two decades focused on World War II.
Poetry
Published poets wrote over two thousand poems about and during the war. However, only a small fraction still is known today, and several poets that were popular with contemporary readers are now obscure. An orthodox selection of poets and poems emerged during the 1960s, which often remains the standard in modern collections and distorts the impression of World War I poetry. This selection tends to emphasise the horror of war, suffering, tragedy and anger against those that wage war.
In the early weeks of the war, British poets responded with an outpouring of literary production. Rudyard Kipling's For all we have and are was syndicated extensively by newspapers in English speaking countries. Robert Bridges contributed a poem Wake Up, England! at the outbreak of war that he later wished suppressed., John Masefield, who later succeeded Bridges as poet laureate, wrote August, 1914, a poem that was admired widely.
Wilfred Owen was killed in battle; but his poems created at the front did achieve popular attention after the war's end,.e.g., Dulce Et Decorum Est, Insensibility, Anthem for Doomed Youth, Futility and Strange Meeting. In preparing for the publication of his collected poems, Owen tried to explain:
Epic poem In Parenthesis by David Jones (artist-poet) has also been widely hailed as a masterpiece.
The poem In Flanders Fields by John McCrae continues to be one of the more popular wartime poems in Canada, and has achieved a status where it is recognized as one of the country's most notable unofficial symbols.
The expressionist poet August Stramm wrote some of Germany's important poems about the war.
From the war itself until the late 1970s, the genre of war poetry was almost exclusively reserved for male poets. This was based on an idea of an exclusive authenticity limited to the works of those who had fought and died in the war. It excluded other forms of experience in the war, such as mourning, nursing and the home front, which were more likely to be experienced by other demographics such as women. There were over 500 women writing and publishing poetry during World War I. Examples of poems by female poets include Teresa Hooley's A War Film, Jessie Pope's War Girls, and Mary H.J. Henderson's An Incident. In addition to giving women greater access to work, the war also gave women greater artistic freedom and space to express their identities as artists.
Novels
A common subject for fiction in the 1920s and 1930s was the effect of the war, including shell shock and the huge social changes caused by the war. From the latter half of the 20th century onwards, World War I continued to be a popular subject for fiction, mainly novels.
Contemporary
Alfred Noyes is often portrayed by hostile critics as a militarist and jingoist despite being a pacifist in life. In 1913, when it seemed that war might yet be avoided, he published a long anti-war poem called The Wine Press. During World War I, Noyes was debarred by defective eyesight from serving at the front. Instead, from 1916, he did his military service on attachment to the Foreign Office, where he worked with John Buchan on propaganda. This included work as a literary figure, writing morale-boosting short stories and exhortatory odes and lyrics recalling England's military past and asserting the morality of her cause. These works are forgotten today apart from two ghost stories, "The Lusitania Waits" and "The Log of the Evening Star", which are still occasionally reprinted in collections of tales of the uncanny.
Im Westen nichts Neues ("All Quiet on the Western Front"), Erich Maria Remarque's best-selling book about World War I, was translated into 28 languages with world sales nearly reaching 4 million in 1930. The work of fiction, and the award-winning film adaptation have had a greater influence in shaping public views of the war than the work of any historian. John Galsworthy's perspective was quite different in 1915 when he wrote
Those of us who are able to look back from thirty years hence on this tornado of death — will conclude with a dreadful laugh that if it had never come, the state of the world would be very much the same. It is not the intention of these words to deny the desperate importance of this conflict now that it has been joined ...
Remarque's book was partly based on Henri Barbusse's 1916 novel Under Fire. Barbusse was a French journalist who served as a stretcher-bearer on the front lines, and his book was very influential in its own right at the time. By the end of the war, it had sold almost 250,000 copies and read by servicemen of many nations.
British novelist Mary Augusta Ward wrote generally pro-war novels, some at the request of United States President Theodore Roosevelt, which nevertheless raised questions about the war. These include England's Effort (1916), Towards the Goal (1917), Missing (1917), The War and Elizabeth (1917) and Fields of Victory (1919).
Some pre-existing popular literary characters were placed by their authors in World War I-related adventures during or directly after the war. These include Tom Swift (Tom Swift and His Aerial Warship in 1915 and Tom Swift and His Air Scout in 1919), Sherlock Holmes (His Last Bow, 1917) and Tarzan (Tarzan the Untamed, 1920).
Post-war
A.P. Herbert was one of the first combatants to publish a novel about the war, The Secret Battle (1919). This was followed in subsequent years by others, including Through the Wheat (1923) by Thomas Alexander Boyd, the "Spanish Farm Trilogy"—Sixty-Four (1925), Ninety-Four (1925) and The Crime at Vanderlynden's (1926)—by Ralph Hale Mottram, Death of a Hero (1929) by Richard Aldington, The Middle Parts of Fortune (1929) by Frederic Manning, The Patriot's Progress (1930) by Henry Williamson, Generals Die in Bed by Charles Yale Harrison (1930) and Winged Victory (1934) by Victor Maslin Yeates.
Parade's End by Ford Madox Ford was a highly acclaimed tetralogy of novels, published between 1924 and 1927, that covers the events of World War I and the years around it from the viewpoint of a government statistician who becomes an officer in the British Army during the war. The novels were based on Ford's own experience in the war after he had enlisted at age 41.
Willa Cather wrote One of Ours in 1922, and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1923 for her novel that tells the story of Claude Wheeler, a Nebraska farmer who escapes a loveless marriage to fight in the War. Critics like H.L. Mencken and Sinclair Lewis panned the book, mostly because it romanticized war. Cather based Claude Wheeler on her cousin G.P. Cather, who was killed in 1918 at the Battle of Cantigny in France.
May Sinclair volunteered with the Munro Ambulance Corps in 1914 and published her account of the front in Belgium as A Journal of Impressions in Belgium (1915). She followed this with three novels about the war, Tasker Jevons (1916), The Tree of Heaven (1917) and The Romantic (1920). Journalist Evadne Price wrote a semi-biographical novel Not So Quiet: Stepdaughters of War (1930) about ambulance drivers based on women she had interviewed.
W. Somerset Maugham's Ashenden: Or the British Agent (1928), a collection of short stories, was based on the author's experience with British Intelligence during the war. It was loosely adapted into the film Secret Agent (1936), directed by Alfred Hitchcock, and a 1991 BBC TV series.
German author Hans Herbert Grimm wrote a novel Schlump in 1928 which was published anonymously due to its satirical and anti-war tone, loosely based on the author's own experiences as a military policeman in German-occupied France during WW1. The novel was banned by the Nazis in 1933 and Grimm was not credited as the author until 2013.
British novelist W.F. Morris wrote two mystery novels set in the Great War- Bretherton (1929) and Behind the Lines (1930). Morris served in the British army during the war.
A Farewell to Arms is a novel by Ernest Hemingway set during the Italian campaign of World War I. The book, published in 1929, is a first-person account of American Frederic Henry, serving as a lieutenant ("Tenente") in the ambulance corps of the Italian Army. The novel is about a love affair between the expatriate American Henry and Catherine Barkley against the backdrop of World War I, cynical soldiers, fighting and the displacement of populations. The publication of A Farewell to Arms cemented Hemingway's stature as a modern American writer, became his first best-seller, and is described by biographer Michael Reynolds as "the premier American war novel from that debacle World War I."
The popular literary characters Biggles and Bulldog Drummond were created by veterans of the war, W.E. Johns and H.C. McNeile respectively. Both characters served in the war and shared some their creators' history. The Bulldog Drummond books were popular among veterans after the war. Writers like Paul Fussell and Janet S.K. Watson have questioned '[w]hat role [...] memory play[s] in historical reconstruction’ - arguing that retrospective accounts are often disillusioned.
French writer and former infantryman on the Western Front Gabriel Chevallier wrote a novel Fear in 1930, based on his own experiences in the Great War. The novel was not published in English until 2011.
Although most famous for his popular Hornblower series of Napoleonic War adventure novels, C.S. Forester also wrote three novels set in the First World War. Of the three, only one- The General (1936) was set on the Western Front, the others The African Queen (1935), which was famously filmed in 1951, was set in German East Africa and Brown on Resolution (1929), was a naval adventure set in the Central Pacific. According to one source, Adolf Hitler admired the novel The General in the late 1930s and recommended it to his generals due to its depiction of the British military mindset.
Writer William March, who fought with the U.S. Marines in France during World War I, wrote a novel Company K in 1933, loosely based on his own experiences. Another American writer Dalton Trumbo wrote a bitterly anti-war novel Johnny Got His Gun in 1938 which won a National Book Award the following year and was made into a film in 1971. New Zealander John A Lee, who fought as an infantryman in World War I and who lost an arm, produced a novel Citizen into Soldier (1937) inspired by his own experiences.
Late 20th-century and beyond
Novels concerning World War I continued to appear in the latter half of the 20th century, albeit less frequently.
The novel Return to the Wood (1955) by James Lansdale Hodson depicted the court-martial of a British soldier accused of desertion, and the book was adapted as the play Hamp in 1964 by John Wilson and filmed as King and Country by Joseph Losey in the same year.
The novel Covenant with Death (1961) by John Harris portrays a Sheffield Pals Battalion on the first day of the Battle of the Somme in 1916 and Christopher Hitchens later referred to it as a 'neglected masterpiece'. In the mid-1960s, there was a resurgence of fiction depicting the aerial campaigns of World War I, including The Blue Max (1964) by Jack D. Hunter, which became a major film in 1966 along with A Killing for the Hawks (1966) by Frederick E. Smith and In the Company of Eagles (1966) by Ernest K. Gann.
How Young They Died (1968) by Stuart Cloete was possibly the last novel written by an actual veteran. Elleston Trevor had made his name in the 1950s through episonage and WW2-themed novels but he turned to World War I with his novel Bury Him Among Kings (1970).
The novel Goshawk Squadron (1971) by Derek Robinson depicts a British air-force unit in the closing months of World War I, was shortlisted for the Booker Prize and was later followed by two 'prequels' set earlier in the conflict, War Story (1987) and Hornet's Sting (1999). Three Cheers for Me (1962) and its sequel That's Me in the Middle (1973) by Donald Jack, are narrated by fictional Canadian air ace Bart Bandy; both won the Leacock Medal. Canadian novelist Timothy Findley's novel of the conflict The Wars was published in 1977 and it received his country's top award for literature.
War Horse (1982) by Michael Morpurgo is set in World War I and won the Whitbread Book Award for 1982. It has been adapted into a play and film. U.S. writer Mark Helprin's A Soldier of the Great War and French novelist Sebastien Japrisot's A Very Long Engagement both appeared in 1991. The novel Birdsong (1993) by Sebastian Faulks received much praise.
Of similar acclaim is Pat Barker's Regeneration Trilogy; the third novel from the series The Ghost Road, received the most prestigious award in British fiction: The Booker Prize in 1995 (though the nomination implied the award was for the whole series). In 2014, during the centenary of the World War I, the Indian author Akhil Katyal published the poem 'Some letters of Indian soldiers at World War One' marking the contribution of more than a million Indian soldiers to the war.
To the Last Man: A Novel of the First World War (2004) is a novel written by Jeff Shaara that uses perspectives from the generals and the doughboys and from the Allies and the Germans.
The 2011 novel The Absolutist was written by John Boyne, the story featuring two teenage friends who enlist in the British army together and experience the war on the Western Front. The 2016 novel No Man's Land by Simon Tolkien (grandson of J. R. R. Tolkien) portrays a working-class boy who has been adopted by a wealthy family and who interrupts his Oxford studies to serve in the trenches.
The 2017 novel Kings of Broken Things by Theodore Wheeler follows the Miihlstein family as they are displaced by fighting in Galicia during World War I and relocate to Omaha, Nebraska. The novel depicts the struggles of displaced people to build a new life during the war and dramatizes the lynching of Will Brown in Omaha during the Red Summer that followed the war.
Memoirs
Captain John Hay Beith's The First Hundred Thousand, a best-selling account of life in the army, was published in 1915 and became one of the more popular books of the period. It was translated into French as Les Premiers Cent Mille. Due to its popularity in the United States, which was neutral at the time, Beith was transferred to the British War Mission in Washington, D.C.
The memoirs of several famous aerial 'aces' were published during the war, including Winged Warfare (1918) by Canadian William Bishop, Flying Fury (1918) by English ace James McCudden and The Red Fighter Pilot (1917) by Manfred von Richthofen (the latter two men were killed in action after their books were written).
After the war many participants published their memoirs and diaries. One of the first was Storm of Steel (1920) by German writer Ernst Jünger, an account of his experiences as an officer on the Western Front (it was first published in English in 1930). The first memoirs of Allied combatants were published in 1922, not long after the armistice: A Tank Driver's Experiences by Arthur Jenkins and Disenchantment by Charles Edward Montague. These were shortly joined with Undertones of War (1928) by Edmund Blunden, Good-Bye to All That (1929) by Robert Graves, A Subaltern's War (1929) by Charles Edmund Carrington, A Passionate Prodigality (1933) by Guy Chapman and Blasting and Bombardiering (1937) by Percy Wyndham Lewis. Memoirs of airmen included Wind in the Wires (1933) by Duncan Grinnell-Milne, Wings of War (1933) by Rudolf Stark and Sagittarius Rising (1936) by Cecil Arthur Lewis. Nurses also published memoirs of their wartime experiences, such as A Diary without Dates (1918) by Enid Bagnold, Forbidden Zone (1929) by Mary Borden, Testament of Youth (1933) by Vera Brittain and We That Were Young (1932) by Irene Rathbone.
Some Great War memoirs were not published until late in the 20th century or beyond, sometimes because the author did not write them until later in life or because they had been unable to, or had chosen not to, have them published at the time of writing (as a result, some manuscripts were published posthumously). One example was Poilu by French writer, barrel-maker and political activist Louis Barthas, a memoir written shortly after the war but not published until 1978 (the author died in 1952).The book described the author's experiences as a corporal in the French army on the Western Front.
British WW1 veteran George Coppard published his memoir With a Machine-Gun to Cambrai in 1968 while former airman Arthur Gould Lee produced his own memoir No Parachute the same year.
The memoir Somme Mud was written in the 1920s but not published until 2006, over two decades after the author's death. The author, Australian Edward Francis Lynch, fought with the AIF in France in 1916–1918.
The Burning of the World, first published in 2014, was a memoir of the Great War on the Eastern Front by Hungarian writer & painter Bela Zombory-Moldovan who enlisted in the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1914 at age 29.
Theatre
Plays about World War I include:
Journey's End (1928), by R. C. Sherriff
The Silver Tassie (1928), by Sean O'Casey
Post-Mortem (1930), by Noël Coward
For Services Rendered (1932), by Somerset Maugham
The One Day of the Year (1958), by Alan Seymour
Oh, What a Lovely War! (1963), by Joan Littlewood
The Accrington Pals (1982), by Peter Whelan
Not About Heroes (1982), by Stephen MacDonald
Once on Chunuk Bair (1982), by Maurice Shadbolt
Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme (1985), by Frank McGuinness
[[My Boy Jack (play)|My Boy Jack]] (1997), by David Haig
An August Bank Holiday Lark (2014), by Deborah McAndrew
Anzac Eve (2017), by Dave Armstrong
French literature on WWI
Novels inspired by the author's experiences
Le Feu : journal d'une escouade / Henri Barbusse
La Percée : roman d'un fantassin (1914-1915) / Jean Bernier
L'Appel du sol / Adrien Bertrand
Voyage au bout de la nuit / Louis Ferdinand Céline
La Peur / Gabriel Chevallier
Les Poilus / Joseph Delteil
Les Croix de Bois / Roland Dorgelès
Ceux de 14 / Maurice Genevoix
Solitude de la Pitié / Jean Giono
Le Grand troupeau / Jean Giono
Les Silences du colonel Bramble ; suivi des Discours et nouveaux discours du Docteur O'Grady / André Maurois
Capitaine Conan / Roger Vercel
Clavel soldat / Léon Werth
Other French novels
La Sentinelle tranquille sous la lune / Soazig Aaron
Les Beaux quartiers / Louis Aragon
La Maison rose / Pierre Bergounioux
Comme le temps passe / Robert Brasillach
Les Ames grises / Philippe Claudel
Meuse l'oubli / Philippe Claudel
Les Roses de Verdun / Bernard Clavel
Thomas l'imposteur / Jean Cocteau
Le Der des ders / Didier Daeninckx
La Comédie de Charleroi / Pierre Drieu la Rochelle
La Chambre des officiers / Marc Dugain
Le Monument : roman vrai / Claude Duneton
14 / Jean Echenoz
Dans la guerre / Alice Ferney
Partita / Roger Grenier
Le Palais d'hiver / Roger Grenier
Le Sang noir / Louis Guilloux
Derrière la colline / Xavier Hanotte
De secrètes injustices / Xavier Hanotte
Les Lieux communs / Xavier Hanotte
Un Long dimanche de fiançailles / Sébastien Japrisot
Waltenberg / Hédi Kaddour
L'Equipage / Joseph Kessel
Le Chercheur d'or / Jean-Marie-Gustave Le Clézio
Au revoir là-haut / Pierre Lemaître
Les Thibault (n°1-2-3) / Roger Martin du Gard
Le Bruit du vent / Hubert Mingarelli
Quatre soldats / Hubert Mingarelli
Les Enfants de la patrie (n° 1-2-3-4) / Pierre Miquel
La Poudrière d'Orient (n° 1-2-3-4) / Pierre Miquel
La Liberté guidait leurs pas (n° 1-2-3-4) / Pierre Miquel
Le Diable au corps / Raymond Radiguet
Les Hommes de bonne volonté (n° 1-2-3-4) / Jules Romains
Les Champs d'honneur / Jean Rouaud
Le Collier rouge / Jean-Christophe Rufin
L'Acacia / Claude Simon
Quatre soldats français (n° 1-2-3-4) / Jean Vautrin
Alexis ou le traité du vain combat ; suivi de Le Coup de Grâce / Marguerite Yourcenar
German literature on WWI
War / Ludwig Renn
See also
British women's literature of World War I
Fiction based on World War I
World War I in popular culture
World War II in popular culture
References
Further reading
Johnson, George M. (2015) Mourning and Mysticism in First World War Literature and Beyond: Grappling with Ghosts. Palgrave Macmillan.
Keene, Jennifer D. "Remembering the 'Forgotten War': American Historiography on World War I." Historian 78.3 (2016): 439-468, covers fiction and nonfiction
External links
Budgen, David: Literature , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
De Schaepdrijver, Sophie: Literature (Belgium) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Hüppauf, Bernd: Literature (Germany) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Todero, Fabio: Literature (Italy) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Whalan, Mark: Literature (USA) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Potter, Jane: Literature (Great Britain and Ireland) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Beaupré, Nicolas: Literature (France) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Szczepaniak, Monika: Literature (Austria-Hungary) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Billeter, Nicole: Literature (Switzerland) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Critical Study: The Scarlet Critique: A Critical Anthology of War Poetry by Pinaki Roy, New Delhi: Sarup Book Publishers, 2010,
The Pities of War: A Brief Overview of the First World War British Poets and Poetry by Pinaki Roy, in The Atlantic Critical Review Quarterly (International), Vol. 9, No. 1, January–March 2010, pp. 40–56 (, )
Critical study of Wilfred Owen's oeuvre and his life: Wilfred Owen: The Man, the Soldier, the Poet (Kolkata: Books Way, 2013) by Pinaki Roy ()
"Schriften des zum Scheitern Verurteilt: First World War German Poetry" by Pinaki Roy, in Journal of Higher Education and Research Society (ISSN 2349-0209), 3.1 (April 2015): 249–59.
"The English Trench-writers of 1014-18: A very brief Review" by Pinaki Roy, in Labyrinth (ISSN 0976-0814), 8.2 (July 2017): 83–95.
"The History of War-plays: A Brief International Exploration" by Pinaki Roy, in Theatre International'' (ISSN 2278-2036 TI), XII (January 2020): 90–99.
An A-level study site
A sixth from perspective-including literature and the technology of war
See the original editions of some of the books listed here and many other works of Great War Literature
The Dutch Publishing House Dulce et Decorum concentrates on publishing translations of World War I literature.
The First World War Poetry Digital Archive (an online repository of over 4000 items of text, images, audio, and video for teaching, learning, and research.)
World War I
de:Liste literarischer Werke zum Ersten Weltkrieg | [
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246375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Nigeria | Music of Nigeria | The music of Nigeria includes many kinds of folk and popular music, styles of folk music are related to the multitudes of ethnic groups in the country, each with their own techniques, instruments, and songs. Little is known about the country's music history prior to European contact, although bronze carvings dating back to the 16th and 17th centuries have been found depicting musicians and their instruments. The country's most internationally renowned genres are Indigenous, Apala, Fuji, Jùjú, Afrobeat, Afrobeats, Afro-juju, Waka, Igbo rap, Yo-pop, Gospel. The largest ethnic groups are the Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba. Traditional music from Nigeria and throughout Africa is almost always functional; in other words, it is performed to mark a ritual such as a wedding or funeral and not to achieve artistic goals. Although some Nigerians, especially children and the elderly, play instruments for their own amusement, solo performance is otherwise rare. Music is closely linked to agriculture, and there are restrictions on, for example, which instruments can be played during different parts of the growing season.
Work songs are a common type of traditional Nigerian music. They help to keep the rhythm of workers in fields, river canoes and other fields. Women use complex rhythms in housekeeping tasks, such as pounding yams to highly ornamented music. In the northern regions, farmers work together on each other's farms and the host is expected to supply musicians for his neighbours.
The issue of musical composition is also highly variable. The Hwana, for example, believe that all songs are taught by the peoples' ancestors, while the Tiv give credit to named composers for almost all songs, and the Efik name individual composers only for secular songs. In many parts of Nigeria, musicians are allowed to say things in their lyrics that would otherwise be perceived as offensive.
The most common format for music in Nigeria is the call-and-response choir, in which a lead singer and a chorus interchange verses, sometimes accompanied by instruments that either shadow the lead text or repeat and ostinato vocal phrase. The southern area features complex rhythms and solo players using melody instruments, while the north more typically features polyphonic wind ensembles. The extreme north region is associated with monodic (i.e., single-line) music with an emphasis on drums, and tends to be more influenced by Islamic music.
Traditional music
Hausa
The people of the North are known for complex percussion instrument music, the one-stringed goje, and a strong praise song vocal tradition. Under Muslim influence since the 14th century, Hausa music uses free-rhythmic improvisation and the Pentatonic scale, similar to other Muslim Sahelian tribes throughout West Africa, such as the Bambara, Kanuri, Fulani and Songhai. Traditional Hausa music is used to celebrate births, marriages, circumcisions, and other important life events. Hausa ceremonial music is well known in the area and is dominated by families of praise singers. The Hausa play percussion instruments such as the tambora drum and the talking drum. The most impressive of the Hausa state instruments, however, is the elongated state trumpet called Kakaki, which was originally used by the Songhai cavalry and was taken by the rising Hausa states as a symbol of military power. Kakaki trumpets can be more than two metres long, and can be easily broken down into three portable parts for easy transportation.
Igbo
The Igbo people live in the south-east of Nigeria, and play a wide variety of folk instruments. They are known for their ready adoption of foreign styles, and were an important part of Nigerian highlife. The most widespread instrument is the 13-stringed zither, called an obo. The Igbo also play slit drums, xylophones, flutes, lyres, udus and lutes, and more recently, imported European brass instruments.
Courtly music is played among the more traditional Igbo, maintaining their royal traditions. The ufie (slit drum) is used to wake the chief and communicate meal times and other important information to him. Bell and drum ensembles are used to announce when the chief departs and returns to his village. Meal times may include pie, and other dessert foods for the holidays.
Yoruba
The Yoruba have a drumming tradition, with a characteristic use of the dundun hourglass tension drums. Ensembles using the dundun play a type of music that is also called dundun. These ensembles consist of various sizes of tension drums, along with kettledrums (gudugudu). The leader of a dundun ensemble is the iyalu, who uses the drum to "talk" by imitating the tonality of Yoruba Much of Yoruba music is spiritual in nature, and is devoted to their God.
Yoruba music has become the most important component of modern Nigerian popular music, as a result of its early influence from European, Islamic and Brazilian forms. These influences stemmed from the importation of brass instruments, sheet music, Islamic percussion and styles brought by Brazilian merchants. In both the Nigeria's most populous city, Lagos, and the largest city of Ibadan, these multicultural traditions were brought together and became the root of Nigerian popular music. Modern styles such as Ayinde Barrister's fuji, Salawa Abeni's waka and Yusuf Olatunji's sakara are derived primarily from Yoruba traditional music.Yoruba music have now come of age and the new generation of Nigerian music now sing in their native language. 9ice is one of many that broke into the industry with Gongo Aso and many more artist followed. UK based saxophonist Tunday Akintan created yorubeat based on Yorùbá rhythms. Listening to Timi Korus Babe mi Jowo and Flosha denotes artist home and abroad now rap and sing in yoruba and not forgetting their heritage.
Theatrical music
Nigerian theatre makes extensive use of music. Often, this is simply traditional music used in a theatrical production without adaptation. However, there are also distinct styles of music used in Nigerian opera. Here, music is used to convey an impression of the dramatic action to the audience. Music is also used in literary drama, although its musical accompaniment is more sparingly used than in opera; again, music communicates the mood or tone of events to the audience. An example is John Pepper Clark's The Ozidi Saga, a play about murder and revenge, featuring both human and non-human actors. Each character in the play is associated with a personal theme song, which accompanies battles in which the character is involved.
Traditional Nigerian theatre includes puppet shows in Borno State and among the Ogoni and Tiv, and the ancient Yoruba Aláàrìnjó tradition, which may be descended from the Egúngún masquerade. With the influx of road-building colonial powers, these theatre groups spread across the country and their productions grew ever more elaborate. They now typically use European instruments, film extracts and recorded music.
In the past, both Hubert Ogunde and Ade Love, of blessed memories, produced soundtracks of their movies using very rich Yoruba language. Modern day Yoruba film and theater music composers among whom Tope Alabi is the flagbearer have variously accompanied dramatic actions with original music.
Television and Film Scoring
Since the introduction of television in 1959, the growing television and film industries have sourced a large amount of their artists and musical structure from Nigeria’s extensive indigenous theater, which, in turn, evolved from festivals and religious ceremonies. Early television dramas in this era utilized folklore and songs from popular indigenous genres like Nigerian highlife as well as indigenous languages like Igbo, Yoruba, and so on. With the advent of Nigeria’s film industry, controversially referred to as Nollywood, in the early 1990s, many of these TV producers simultaneously worked in film production, spreading this technique of indigenous sourcing to film scoring. Following an era defined by influences from European and North American art, the Nigerian film industry evolved a unique method of film scoring called prefiguring.
Prefiguring, popularized by the famous Nigerian soundtrack producer Stanley Okorie, utilizes motifs and repetitive tunes to foreshadow dialogue and major plot events before they happen on screen. This novel film scoring technique unique to the Nigerian film industry draws upon the art of storytelling in indigenous communities of Nigeria, displaying qualities of the communities’ languages, songs, dances, and dramas.
Children's music
Children in Nigeria have many of their own traditions, usually singing games. These are most often call-and-response type songs, using archaic language. There are other songs, such as among the Tarok people that are sexually explicit and obscene, and are only performed far away from the home. Children also use instruments like un-pitched raft zithers (made from cornstalks) and drums made from tin cans, a pipe made from a pawpaw stem and a jaw harp made from a sorghum stalk. Among the Hausa, children play a unique instrument in which they beat rhythms on the inflated stomach of a live, irritated pufferfish.
Traditional instruments
Although percussion instruments are omnipresent, Nigeria's traditional music uses a number of diverse instruments. Many, such as the xylophone, are an integral part of music across West Africa, while others are imports from the Muslims of the Maghreb, or from Southern or East Africa; other instruments have arrived from Europe or the Americas. Brass instruments and woodwinds were early imports that played a vital role in the development of Nigerian music, while the later importation of electric guitars spurred the popularisation of jùjú music.
Percussion
The xylophone is a tuned idiophone, common throughout west and central Africa. In Nigeria, they are most common in the southern part of the country, and are of the central African model. Several people sometimes simultaneously play a single xylophone. The instruments are usually made of loose wood placed across banana logs. Pit- and box-resonated xylophones are also found. Ensembles of clay pots beaten with a soft pad are common; they are sometimes filled with water. Although normally tuned, untuned examples are sometimes used to produce a bass rhythm. Hollow logs are also used, split lengthways, with resonator holes at the end of the slit. They were traditionally used to communicate over great distances.
Various bells are a common part of royal regalia, and were used in secret societies. They are usually made of iron, or in Islamic orchestras of the north, of bronze. Struck gourds, placed on a cloth and struck with sticks, are a part of women's music, as well as the bòòríí cult dances. Sometimes, especially in the north, gourds are placed upside-down in water, with the pitch adjusted by the amount of air underneath it. In the south-west, a number of tuned gourds are played while floating in a trough.
Scrapers are common throughout the south. One of the most common types is a notched stick, played by dragging a shell across the stick at various speeds. It is used both as a women's court instrument and by children in teasing games. Among the Yoruba, an iron rod may be used as a replacement for a stick. Rattles are common, made of gourds containing seeds or stones are common, as are net-rattles, in which a string network of beads or shells encloses a gourd. Rattles are typically played in ritual or religious context, predominantly by women.
Drums of many kinds are the most common type of percussion instrument in Nigeria. They are traditionally made from a single piece of wood or spherical calabashes, but have more recently been made from oil drums. The hourglass drum is the most common shape, although there are also double-headed barrel drums, single-headed drums and conical drums. Frame drums are also found in Nigeria, but may be an importation from Brazil. An unusual percussion instrument is the udu, a kind of vessel drum.
This instrument is very essential in most African countries.
String instruments
The musical bow is found in Nigeria as a mouth-resonated cord, either plucked or struck. It is most common in the central part of the country, and is associated with agricultural songs and those expressing social concerns. Cereal stalks bound together and strings supported by two bridges are used to make a kind of raft zither, played with the thumbs, typically for solo entertainment. The arched harp is found in the eastern part of the country, especially among the Tarok. It usually has five or six strings and pentatonic tuning. A bowl-resonated spike-fiddle with a lizard skin table is used in the northern region, and is similar to central Asian and Ethiopian forms. The Hausa and Kanuri peoples play a variety of spike-lutes.
Other instruments
A variety of brass and woodwind instruments are also found in Nigeria. These include long trumpets, frequently made of aluminium and played in pairs or ensembles of up to six, often accompanied by a shawm. Wooden trumpets, gourd trumpets, end-blown flutes, cruciform whistles, transverse clarinets and various kinds of horns are also found.
Popular music
Many African countries have seen turbulence and violence during their forced transition from a diverse region of folk cultures to a group of modern nation states. Nigeria has experienced more difficulty than most African countries in forging a popular cultural identity from the diverse peoples of the countryside. From its beginnings in the streets of Lagos, popular music in Nigeria has long been an integral part of the field of African pop, bringing in influences and instruments from many ethnic groups, most prominently including the Yoruba.
The earliest styles of Nigerian popular music were palm-wine music and highlife, which spread in the 1920s among Nigeria and nearby countries of Liberia, Sierra Leone and Ghana. In Nigeria, palm-wine became the primary basis for jùjú, a genre that dominated popular music for many years. During this time, a few other styles such as apala, derived from traditional Yoruba music, also found a more limited audience. By the 1960s, Cuban, American and other styles of imported music were enjoying a large following, and musicians started to incorporate these influences into jùjú. The result was a profusion of new styles in the last few decades of the 20th century, including waka music, Yo-pop and Afrobeat.
Palm-wine and the invention of jùjú
By the start of the 20th century, Yoruba music had incorporated brass instruments, written notation, Islamic percussion and new Brazilian techniques, resulting in the Lagos-born palm-wine style. The term palm-wine is also used to describe related genres in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Ghana. these varieties are better-known than Nigerian palm-wine. However, palm-wine originally referred to a diverse set of styles played with string instruments, characteristically, guitars or banjos) with shakers and hand drums accompanying This urban style was frequently played in bars to accompany drinking (hence the name, which is derived from the alcoholic palm wine beverage).
The first stars of palm-wine had emerged by the 1920s, the most famous of whom was Baba Tunde King. King probably coined the word jùjú — a style of music he helped to create — in reference to the sound of a Brazilian tambourine; alternatively, the term may have developed as an expression of disdain by the colonial leaders (any native tradition was apt to be dismissed as 'mere joujou, French for "nonsense"). By the early 1930s, British record labels such as His Master's Voice had started to record palm-wine, and more celebrities emerged, including Ojoge Daniel, Tunde Nightingale and Speedy Araba. These artists, along with Tunde King, established the core of the style which was called jùjú, and remained one of the most popular genres in Nigeria throughout the 20th century. Some Jùjú musicians were itinerant, including early pioneers Ojoge Daniel, Irewole Denge and the "blind minstrel" Kokoro.
Apala
Apala is a style of vocal and percussive Muslim Yoruba music. It emerged in the late 1930s as a means of rousing worshippers after the fasting of Ramadan. Under the influence of popular Afro-Cuban percussion, apala developed into a more polished style and attracted a large audience. The music required two or three talking drums (omele), a rattle (sekere), thumb piano (agidigbo) and a bell (agogo). Haruna Ishola was the most famous apala performer, and he later played an integral role in bringing apala to larger audiences as a part of fuji music.
The 1950s, '60s and '70s
Following World War II, Nigerian music started to take on new instruments and techniques, including electric instruments imported from the United States and Europe. Rock N' roll, soul, and later funk, became very popular in Nigeria, and elements of these genres were added to jùjú by artists such as IK Dairo. Meanwhile, highlife had been slowly gaining in popularity among the Igbo people, and their unique style soon found a national audience. At the same time, apala's Haruna Ishola was becoming one of the country's biggest stars. In the early to mid-1970s, three of the biggest names in Nigerian music history were at their peak: Fela Kuti, Ebenezer Obey and King Sunny Adé, while the end of that decade saw the start of Yo-pop and Nigerian reggae.
Although popular styles such as highlife and jùjú were at the top of the Nigerian charts in the '60s, traditional music remained widespread. Traditional stars included the Hausa Dan Maraya, who was so well known that he was brought to the battlefield during the 1967 Nigerian Civil War to lift the morale of the federal troops.
Modernisation of Jùjú
Following World War II, Tunde Nightingale's s'o wa mbe style made him one of the first jùjú stars, and he introduced more Westernised pop influences to the genre. During the 1950s, recording technology grew more advanced, and the gangan talking drum, electric guitar and accordion were incorporated into jùjú. Much of this innovation was the work of IK Dairo & the Morning Star Orchestra (later IK Dairo & the Blue Spots), which formed in 1957. these performers brought jùjú from the rural poor to the urban cities of Nigeria and beyond. Dairo became perhaps the biggest star of African music by the '60s, recording numerous hit songs that spread his fame to as far away as Japan. In 1963, he became the only African musician ever honoured by receiving membership of the Order of the British Empire, an order of chivalry in the United Kingdom.
Dispersion of highlife
Among the Igbo people, Ghanaian highlife became popular in the early 1950s, and other guitar-band styles from Cameroon and Zaire soon followed. The Ghanaian E. T. Mensah, easily the most popular highlife performer of the 1950s, toured Igbo-land frequently, drawing huge crowds of devoted fans. Bobby Benson & His Combo was the first Nigerian highlife band to find audiences across the country. Benson was followed by Jim Lawson & the Mayor's Dance Band, who achieved national fame in the mid-'70s, ending with Lawson's death in 1971. During the same period, other highlife performers were reaching their peak. These included Prince Nico Mbarga and his band Rocafil Jazz, whose "Sweet Mother" was a pan-African hit that sold more than 13 million copies, more than any other African single of any kind. Mbarga used English lyrics in a style that he dubbed panko, which incorporated "sophisticated rumba guitar-phrasing into the highlife idiom".
After the civil war in the 1960s, Igbo musicians were forced out of Lagos and returned to their homeland. The result was that highlife ceased to be a major part of mainstream Nigerian music, and was thought of as being something purely associated with the Igbos of the east. Highlife's popularity slowly dwindled among the Igbos, supplanted by jùjú and fuji. However, a few performers kept the style alive, such as Yoruba singer and trumpeter Victor Olaiya (the only Nigerian to ever earn a platinum record), Stephen Osita Osadebe, Oliver De Coque, Celestine Ukwu, Oriental Brothers, Sonny Okosun, Victor Uwaifo, and Orlando "Dr. Ganja" Owoh, whose distinctive toye style fused jùjú and highlife.
Birth of fuji
Apala, a traditional style from Ogun state, one of the yoruba states in Nigeria, became very popular in the 1960s, led by performers like Haruna Ishola, Sefiu Ayan, Kasumu Adio, and Ayinla Omowura. Ishola, who was one of Nigeria's most consistent hit makers between 1955 and his death in 1983, recorded apala songs, which alternated between slow and emotional, and swift and energetic. His lyrics were a mixture of improvised praise and passages from the Quran, as well as traditional proverbs. His work became a formative influence on the developing fuji style.
The late 1960s saw the appearance of the first fuji bands. Fuji was named after Mount Fuji in Japan, purely for the sound of the word, according to Ayinde Barrister. Fuji was a synthesis of apala with the "ornamented, free-rhythmic" vocals of ajisari devotional musicians and was accompanied by the sakara, a tambourine-drum, and Hawaiian guitar. Among the genre's earliest stars were Haruna Ishola and Ayinla Omowura; Ishola released numerous hits from the late '50s to the early '80s, becoming one of the country's most famous performers. Fuji grew steadily more popular between the 1960s and '70s, becoming closely associated with Islam in the process.
Fuji has been described as jùjú without guitars; ironically, Ebenezer Obey once described jùjú as mambo with guitars. However, at its roots, fuji is a mixture of Muslim traditional were music'ajisari songs with "aspects of apala percussion and vocal songs and brooding, philosophical sakara music"; of these elements, apala is the fundamental basis of fuji The first stars of fuji were the rival bandleaders Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister and Ayinla Kollington Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister started his fuji career in the early 1970s with the Golden Fuji Group although he had sung Muslim songs since he was 10 years old. He first changed his group's name to "Fuji Londoners" when he came back from a trip to London, England. After a very long time — with hits such as "Orilonise", "Fuji Disco/Iku Baba Obey", "Oke Agba", "Aye", and "Suuru" — he changed the group's name to "Supreme Fuji Commanders". Ayinde's rival was Ayinla Kollington, "Baba Alatika", known for fast tempo and dance-able brand of fuji, who also recorded hit albums like "ko bo simi lo'run mo e, in the 80s he released "ijo yoyo, Lakukulala and American megastar" to mention few of his successful albums. With all due respect Ayinla Kollington is a coherent social commentator. He was followed in the 1980s by burgeoning stars such as Wasiu Ayinde Marshall. Sunny Ade and Obey
Ebenezer Obey formed the International Brothers in 1964, and his band soon rivalled that of IK Dairo as the biggest Nigerian group. They played a form of bluesy, guitar-based and highlife-influenced jùjú that included complex talking drum-dominated percussion elements. Obey's lyrics addressed issues that appealed to urban listeners, and incorporated Yoruba traditions and his conservative Christian faith. His rival was King Sunny Adé, who emerged in the same period, forming the Green Spots in 1966 and then achieving some major hits with the African Beats after 1974's Esu Biri Ebo Mi. Ade and Obey raced to incorporate new influences into jùjú music and to gather new fans; Hawaiian slack-key, keyboards and background vocals were among the innovations added during this rapidly changing period. Ade added strong elements of Jamaican dub music, and introduced the practice of having the guitar play the rhythm and the drums play the melody. During this period, jùjú songs changed from short pop songs to long tracks, often over 20 minutes in length. Bands increased from four performers in the original ensembles, to 10 with IK Dairo and more than 30 with Obey and Ade.
1980s and '90s
In the early 1980s, both Obey and Ade found larger audiences outside of Nigeria. In 1982, Ade was signed to Island Records, who hoped to replicate Bob Marley's success, and released Juju Music, which sold far beyond expectations in Europe and the United States. Obey released Current Affairs in 1980 on Virgin Records and became a brief star in the UK, but was not able to sustain his international career as long as Ade. Ade led a brief period of international fame for jùjú, which ended in 1985 when he lost his record contract after the commercial failure of Aura (recorded with Stevie Wonder) and his band walked out in the middle of a huge Japanese tour. Ade's brush with international renown brought a lot of attention from mainstream record companies, and helped to inspire the burgeoning world music industry. By the end of the 1980s, jùjú had lost out to other styles, like Yo-pop, gospel and reggae. In the 1990s, however, fuji and jùjú remained popular, as did waka music and Nigerian reggae. At the very end of the decade, hip hop music spread to the country after being a major part of music in neighboring regions like Senegal.
Yo-pop and Afro-jùjú (1980s)
Two of the biggest stars of the '80s were Segun Adewale and Shina Peters, who started their careers performing in the mid-'70s with Prince Adekunle. They eventually left Adekunle and formed a brief partnership as Shina Adewale & the International Superstars before beginning solo careers. Adewale was the first of the two to gain success, when he became the most famous performer of Yo-pop.
The Yo-pop craze did not last for long, replaced by Shina Peters' Afro-juju style, which broke into the mainstream after the release of Afro-Juju Series 1 (1989). Afro-juju was a combination of Afrobeat and fuji, and it ignited such fervor among Shina's fans that the phenomenon was dubbed "Shinamania". Though he was awarded Juju Musician of the Year in 1990, Shina's follow-up, Shinamania sold respectively but was panned by critics. His success opened up the field to newcomers, however, leading to the success of Fabulous Olu Fajemirokun and Adewale Ayuba. The same period saw the rise of new styles like the funky juju pioneered by Dele Taiwo.
Afrobeat
Afrobeat is a style most closely associated with Nigeria, though practitioners and fans are found throughout West Africa, and Afrobeat recordings are a prominent part of the world music category found throughout the developed world. It is music with elements of highlife, and other styles of West African music. The most popular and well-known performer, indeed the most famous Nigerian musician in history, is undoubtedly Fela Kuti.
Fela Kuti began performing in 1961, but did not start playing in his distinctive Afrobeat style until his exposure to Sierra Leonean Afro-soul singer Geraldo Pino in 1963. Although Kuti is often credited as the only pioneer of Afrobeat, other musicians such as Orlando Julius Ekemode were also prominent in the early Afrobeat scene, where they combined highlife, jazz and funk. A brief period in the United States saw him exposed to the Black Power movement and the Black Panthers, an influence that he would come to express in his lyrics. After living in London briefly, he moved back to Lagos and opened a club, The Shrine, which was one of the most popular music spots in the city. He started recording with Africa '70, a huge band featuring drummer Tony Allen, who has since gone on to become a well-known musician in his own right. With Africa 70, Kuti recorded a series of hits, earning the ire of the government as he tackled such diverse issues as poverty, traffic and skin-bleaching. In 1985, Kuti was jailed for five years, but was released after only two years after international outcry and massive domestic protests. Upon release, Kuti continued to criticise the government in his songs, and became known for eccentric behaviour, such as suddenly divorcing all twenty-eight wives because "no man has the right to own a woman's vagina". His death from AIDS in 1997 sparked a period of national mourning that was unprecedented in documented Nigerian history.
In the 1980s, Afrobeat became affiliated with the burgeoning genre of world music. In Europe and North America, so-called "world music" acts came from all over the world and played in a multitude of styles. Fela Kuti and his Afrobeat followers were among the most famous of the musicians considered world music.
By the end of the '80s and early '90s, Afrobeat had diversified by taking in new influences from jazz and rock and roll. The ever-masked and enigmatic Lágbájá became one of the standard-bearers of the new wave of Afrobeat, especially after his 1996 LP C'est Une African Thing. Following a surprise appearance in place of his father, Fela, Femi Kuti garnered a large fan base that enabled him to tour across Europe.
Waka
The popular songstress Salawa Abeni had become nationally renowned after the release of Late General Murtala Ramat Mohammed in 1976, which was the first Nigerian recording by a woman to sell more than a million copies. In the 1980s, she remained one of the nation's best-selling artists, creating her own unique variety of music called waka; she was so closely associated with the genre that a royal figure, the Alaafin of Oyo, Oba Lamidi Adeyemi, crowned her the "Queen of Waka Music" in 1992. Waka was a fusion of jùjú, fuji and traditional Yoruba music.
Reggae and hip hop
When talking about reggae music in Nigeria, this brand of music was started by a musician simply called "Terakota". By the 80s, Nigerian reggae stars included Daniel Wilson, The Mandators, Ras Kimono, Majek Fashek, whose 1988 cover of Bob Marley's "Redemption Song", became an unprecedented success for reggae in Nigeria. Like many later Nigerian reggae stars, Fashek was a part of the long-running band The Mandators, who toured and recorded incessantly during the mid to late 1980s and early '90s. Later prominent reggae musicians included Jerri Jheto and Daddy Showkey.
The African Caribbean fusion is one that has been popular and growing over the years, especially in the 21st century. In this genre of music African musicians incorporate Jamaican patois into their lyrics and beats. Although, very popular in Jamaica, this genre well blended genre became well known in the African region around the 19th century because of the Nigerian Reggae musician Majek Fashek who attracted international attention to this fusion. This genre of music is gaining far more presence in Nigeria with recent 21st century artists like Duncan Mighty, Timaya, Slim Burna, Orezi, Burna Boy and Patoranking who are attracting a younger audience.
Hip hop music was brought to Nigeria in the late 1980s, and grew steadily popular throughout the first part of the 1990s. The first acts included Sound on Sound, Emphasis, Ruff Rugged & Raw, SWAT ROOT, De Weez and Black Masquradaz. Moreover, mainstream success grew later in the decade, with attention brought by early hits like The Trybesmen's "Trybal Marks" (1999) and the trio The Remedies' "Judile" and "Sakoma". One of The Remedies, Tony Tetuila, went on to work with the Plantashun Boiz to great commercial acclaim. The 1999 founding of Paybacktyme Records by Solomon Dare, popularly known as Solodee, Kennis Music by Kenny Ogungbe, Dove Records by Nelson Brown, and Trybe Records by eLDee helped redefined and establish a Nigerian hip hop scene. Also, the general rapid growth of the entertainment scene with support from the media helped popularise Hiphop music in Nigeria. Television Programmes like Videowheels, HipTV, Music Africa, the MTN Y'ello show, Music Africa, Nigezie, and Soundcity played a major role. Other prominent Nigerian hip-hop musicians include Tuface idibia, Vector, Reminisce, Ice Prince, M.I Abaga, Ruggedman, Eedris Abdulkareem, Erigga, Weird MC, Naeto C, Twin-X, and P-Square
Around the close of 2012 hip-hop movement began to lose it popularity in Nigeria. Afrobeats artists began to rule the game notable acts such as
Wizkid, Davido, Olamide, Burna Boy, CKay, Fireboy DML, Kiss Daniel, Tekno, Mc Galaxy, Adekunle Gold, Dammy Krane Lil Kesh have over the years gotten great attention for their songs.
Women in music
In the Nigerian music industry the female artists stand out and are widely recognized for their talents and achievements. Over the years most Nigerian female artists stuck to the contemporary African music, but in the 21st century several female artists began to diversify into other genres like Rap, Hip-hop and Afrobeats. Notable female Nigerian rappers include Weird Mc, Sasha P, Mo'Cheddah and Eva Alordiah. While in terms of Afrobeats there are so many female artists but only a few have been constant over the years like Aṣa Omawumi Megbele, Yinka Davies, Goldie, Seyi Shay, Niniola, Tiwa Savage, Teni, Yemi Alade and Simi.
Music at festivals and holidays
Durbar festivals are held in many parts of North-west Nigeria; durbar is meant to honour the Emir during the culmination of the Islamic festivals Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, and Sallah for the well-known Katsina durbar, and is sometimes also used to honour visiting dignitaries IslamOnline. Although the principal attraction of the durbar festivals is displays of traditional horsemanship, performances by drummers, trumpeters and praise-singers are an important part of the celebration Africa Travel. Other holidays in which music plays an important role include drumming and dances performed at Christmas, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday. 9ice is also one of the top artistes (he is known for his powerful use of the Yoruba language in his music as well as his proverbial lyrics and unique style of delivery) Gongoaso is one of his top singles, launched him to superstardom. He has since earned recognition and acclaim in Nigeria, Africa and beyond.
Classical music
In the 20th century, Nigeria produced a number of classical composers; these include Lazarus Ekwueme, Fela Sowande, Joshua Uzoigwe, Ayo Bankole, and Akin Euba. Sowande was one of the first and most famous African composers in the Western classical tradition, and founder of the Nigerian art music tradition. Sowande was also an organist and jazz musician, incorporating these and elements of Nigerian folk music into his work. Echezonachukwu Nduka is poet and pianist, specializing in piano music by African and African-descent composers.
See also
Country music in Nigeria
Notes
References
"Nigerian Top 9 Female Music Artists" Award9ja Media. Archived from the Original source, on November 5, 2020.
, specifically the sections "Fuji Music of Nigeria" and "Traditional Hausa Music of Nigeria"
Further reading
Omojola, Bode. Popular Music in Western Nigeria: Theme, Style and Patronage. Ibadan: Institut Français de Recherche en Afrique (IFRA), University of Ibadan(revised edition), 2014.
Omojola, Bode. Yorùbá Music in the Twentieth Century: Identity, Agency and Performance Practice. Rochester: University of Rochester Press (Eastman/Rochester Studies in Ethnomusicology), 2012.
Omojola, Bode. The Music of Fela Sowande: Encounters, African Identity and Creative Ethnomusicology. Point Richmond, CA: Music Research Institute Press, 2009.
Omojola, Bode. Multiple Interpretations of Dynamics of Creativity and Knowledge in African Music Traditions: A Festschrift in Honor of Akin Euba (co-edited with George Dor).Point Richmond, CA: Music Research Institute Press, 2005.
Omojola, Bode. Nigerian Art Music. Ibadan: Institut Français de Recherche en Afrique (IFRA), University of Ibadan, 1995.
Sadoh, Godwin. Thomas Ekundayo Phillips: The Doyen of Nigerian Church Music. Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse Publishing, 2009.
_. Samuel Akpabot: The Odyssey of a Nigerian Composer-Ethnomusicologist. Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse Publishing, 2008.
_. The Organ Works of Fela Sowande: Cultural Perspectives. New York: iUniverse Publishing, 2007.
_. Intercultural Dimensions in Ayo Bankole's Music. New York: iUniverse Publishing, 2007.
_. Joshua Uzoigwe: Memoirs of a Nigerian Composer-Ethnomusicologist.'' New York: iUniverse Publishing, 2007. | [
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246380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Kenya | Music of Kenya | The music of Kenya is very diverse, with multiple types of folk music based on the variety over 50 regional languages.
Zanzibaran taarab music has also become popular, as has hip hop, reggae music, soul, soukous, zouk, rock and roll, funk and Europop. Additionally, there is a growing western classical music scene and Kenya is home to a number of music colleges and schools.
Popular music
The guitar is the most dominant instrument in Kenyan popular music. Guitar rhythms are very complex and include both native beats and imported ones, especially the Congolese cavacha rhythm; music usually involves the interplay of multiple parts and, more recently, showy guitar solos.
Lyrics are most often in Swahili or native languages, like Kalenjin though radio will generally not play music in one of the ethnic languages.
Benga music has been popular since the late 1960s, especially around Lake Victoria. The word benga is occasionally used to refer to any kind of pop music: bass, guitar and percussion are the usual instruments.
Partially from 1994 and wholly from 2003 Kenyan popular music has been recognised through the Kisima Music Awards. A number of styles predominate in Kenya including Benga and Reggae have separate categories, and a multitude of Kenyan artists are awarded each year.
Early 20th century
The guitar was popular in Kenya even before the 19th century, well before it penetrated other African countries. Fundi Konde was the best-known early guitarist, alongside Paul Mwachupa and Lukas Tututu the middle of the 1920s, dance clubs had appeared in Mombasa, playing music for Christians to dance in a European style.
During World War II, Kenyan and Ugandan musicians were drafted as entertainers in the King's African Rifles and continued after the war as the Rhino Band, the first extremely popular band across Kenya. In 1948, the group split, with many of the members forming the Kiko Kids or other bands.
By the 1950s, radio and recording technology had advanced across Kenya. Fundi Konde, the prominent guitarist, was an early broadcaster and influential in the fledgling recording industry.
Congolese finger-style and the development of benga
Beginning in about 1952, recordings from legendary Congolese guitarists like Edouard Massengo and Jean-Bosco Mwenda were available in Kenya. Bosco's technique of picking with the thumb and forefinger (finger-style) became popular. Finger-style music is swift and usually based around small groups, in which the second guitar follows the first with syncopated bass rhythms. This style of music became extremely popular later in the decade.
Swahili and Congolese pop
The two biggest genres of pop music played by Kenyan bands are called the swahili sound or the Congolese sound. Both are based on soukous (rumba) from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Swahili music can be distinguished by a much slower rhythm, though the styles have had a tendency to merge in recent decades. The genres are not distinguished by language, though Swahili pop is usually in Swahili or the related Taiti language. Both are sometimes in Lingala or one of the native languages of Kenya.
Congolese musicians were the most popular performers in Kenya during the 1970s and 1980s, only losing their mainstream acceptance in the early 1990s. Orchestre Virunga was perhaps the most popular and long-running of the Congolese bands. During this period, Swahili musicians (many from Tanzania) were mostly based around the Wanyika bands. This group of often rival bands began in 1971 when a Tanzanian group named Arusha Jazz came to Kenya, eventually becoming the Simba Wanyika Band. The band first split in 1978, when many of the group members formed Les Wanyika. Other notable Congolese groups in Kenya included Super Mazembe and Les Mangelepa. Tanzania's Moro Band and Remmy Ongala also became quite popular in Kenya back in the 1980s. It was hard to differentiate them from the native Kenyan singers.
Hotel pop
Tourist-oriented pop covers are popular, and employ more live bands than more authentic Kenyan folk and pop genres. Them Mushrooms, who began playing the Nairobi hotel circuit in 1987, are among these bands. Lately, hotel bands like Them Mushrooms and Safari Sound Band have begun playing reggae.
Regional pop
The Luo people, one of Kenya's largest ethnic groups, live in the Western part of Kenya and their pop music is what epitomizes the original Benga style. Contemporary variations of Benga and Luo traditional music has produced the Ohangla style that is popular with young Luo. The Luo of Kenya have long played an eight-string lyre called nyatiti, and guitarists from the area sought to imitate the instrument's syncopated melodies. In benga, the electric bass guitar is played in a style reminiscent of the nyatiti. As late as the turn of the twentieth century, this bass in nyatiti supported the rhythm essential in transmitting knowledge about the society through music. Opondo Owenga of Gem Yala, the grandfather of Odhiambo Siangla, was known in employing music as a means of teaching history of the Luo. The fathers of the Luo Benga genre are George Ramogi (Omogi wuod Weta) and CK Jazz. He helped the Benga enthusiasts by recording their Benga music in different labels in the capital city Nairobi. Dr. Mengo of Victoria Jazz was a protege of George Ramogi.
In 1967, the first major benga band, Shirati Jazz, was formed by Daniel Owino Misiani. The group launched a string of hits that were East Africa's biggest songs throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Shirati Jazz's biggest rival was Victoria Jazz, formed in 1972 by Ochieng Nelly Mengo and Collela Mazee. Despite many personnel changes, Victoria Jazz remained popular throughout the 1970s, when the Voice of Kenya radio station pushed an onslaught of East African pop. Victoria C Band of Awino Lawi was one of the splinter group of Victoria Jazz.
1997 saw the death of three prominent Luo Benga artist, Okatch Biggy of Heka Heka Band, George Ramogi and Prince Jully. The Jolly Boys Band of Prince Jully was taken over by his wife Princess Jully and she has since been a leading female Benga musician.[1]
Another famous benga band Migori Super Stars was formed in the mid 1970s and was led by Musa Olwete which later split to form another popular benga band Migori Super Stars C with musicians such as Joseph Ochola (Kasongo Polo Menyo), Onyango Jamba, Ochieng' Denge denge and others.
More modern benga artists include Akothee Kapere Jazz Band and the rootsy Ogwang Lelo Okoth. The new millennium has seen emergence of Dola Kabarry and Musa Juma. The latter saw his career cut short as he died in 2011.MJ,as he was popularly known to his fans, developed a kind of benga that infused elements of rumba. he was able to mold other musicians such as John Junior, Ogonji, Madanji, and his late brother Omondi Tonny.[2] More recently, the compositions of the trumpeter Christine Kamau combine jazz with benga and rhumba.
There are also Benga artists are based in countries other than Kenya, such as American/Kenyan group Extra Golden.
The Kamba people live to the south and east of Nairobi. Their pop music is closely related to benga, but includes a second guitar that plays a melodious counterpoint to the primary guitar. The most popular Kamba pop bands arose in the middle of the 1970s and include Les Kilimambogo Brothers Band led by Kakai Kilonzo, Kalambya Boys & Kalambya Sisters led by Onesmus Musyoki and Joseph Mutaiti and Peter Mwambi & His Kyanganga Boys. Other groups also include Lower Mbooni Boys Band, Muthetheni Boys Band and Ukia Boys Band.
Other Akamba Pop Bands were formed in the 1980s and included Kakuku Boys Band vocalled by John Mutua Muteti whose lyrics consisted of religious, domestic, and court humour, Ngoleni Brothers which was formed by Dick Mutuku Mulwa after he left Kalambya Boys & Kalambya Sisters. It can also be noted that Kalambya Boys original members were Onesmus Musyoki (vocals), Joseph Mutaiti (vocals), Dick Mutuku Mulwa (rhythm guitar), James Maisha Muli(Drums) and Peter Kisaa (solo guitar). Kalambya Boys split and Joseph Mutaiti formed Super Kaiti and Onesmus Musyoki went gospel to form Emali Town Choir.
Leading Luhya musicians include Sukuma Bin Ongaro, and Shem Tube with his group Abana Ba Nasery.
It raised up to a certain level and came an instrument with eight strings called "litungu" played popularly in Bungoma by a group of people called bukusu in a band e.g Sinani Band led by Wanjala Mandari,there after improved and developed in 2020 by Wabwile wa Mbakalo with a love message to educate and fablish the community in luhya/Bukusu dialect Wabwile Wa Mbakalo has become popular in Bungoma region with his sweet voice and recruited other young stars in the region.
Hip hop
Hip hop is a hugely popular style of music in Kenya. Artists rap in English, Swahili, the local Sheng slang or even in vernacular language like kikuyu (G.rongi), Kisii (Smallz Lethal) or dhaluo (Gidi Gidi Maji Maji). One of its many popular genres is Genge which is showcased through artists such as Jua Cali, Nonini and Jimwat. There is also Kapuka rap, which is found with artists like Nameless. Female rappers like Needah of Grosspool Music and Xtatic, who got signed to Sony Music are taking the industry to another level. Others like Wangechi and Femi One are also doing the genre some justice.
The country also boasts a large following of hardcore rap which is characterised by swift freestyle battlers and lyricists like Mc Mike G of 237 cypher, Bamboo, G.rongi,Jay Fourz, SDL, Abass Doobiez and Chiwawa.
The genre also boasts only two live performers; Juliani (formerly of Ukoo Flani) and Jemedari, a fresh rapper who draws his roots from Coastal influences
Camp Mulla, an alternative hip hop group, has had more success than any other Kenyan artist in history. As of 28 September 2012, they have won two CHAT Awards and have been nominated for prestigious awards such as the BET Awards, the MTV Europe Music Awards and the MOBO Awards.
Reggae
Reggae is one of the most popular genres of music in Kenya. Reggae elements are often mixed with local hip hop and pop music, yet there have not been many mainstream reggae musicians in Kenya. One of the best known local reggae musicians is the late Mighty King Kong. Upcoming reggae artist "priest fari" is the artist to watch out for. With two albums "warrior" and "Pressure" under his belt, Priest fari is arguably the next big thing on the Kenyan reggae scene. His touch remains the original Jamaican roots reggae.
Others include Jahkey Malle and Prince Otach. Reggae Ras Naya, is one of the best reggae artists from Kenya and abroad, based in Paris. His last album "Shine" was recorded in Orange Street, Kingston, Jamaica, in 2012. The other albums are called "Freedom", "Mau Mau" and " Black and White". A new album called "Mama" is coming in 2013. Ras Naya represents Kenyan reggae in Europe and the rest of the world.
Other Reggae icons in Kenya who have risen in the recent past include the talented Wyre and Red San. Other artists with notable success include Osmarne, Esizo SDL, Versatile and chronic. The massive love for reggae in Kenya has led to the inception of other talents including Reggae music Deejays. The most remarkable Dj who shines in the hearts of all Kenyan Reggae music lovers is Dj Stano. Dj Stano has grown to be Kenya's biggest reggae music DJ. His talent and love for music has developed to major parts of Kenya and beyond.
Dj Stano's career was catapulted to great heights on one of the largest radio shows in Kenya with millions of listeners live and online. As co-host and DJ on Riddim Base, a daily show on the pioneer reggae station Metro FM, Dj Stano's expertise gained him huge support from reggae music lovers. He also hosted Club Metro, a weekly show on the all reggae station ' Metro Fm'. Dj Stano has taken his talents worldwide with a variety of live shows in places like the
UK and Dubai. Currently, he hosts a weekly show "The Rave" on Venus FM. Dj Stano is also part
of the Music Unit at the State Broadcaster (KBC).
Rock
Rock music has found a home to a growing fan base and with a number of locally established as well as emerging rock bands (there are over twelve active local rock bands in Nairobi alone) further cementing this genre by engaging in different as well as mutually organised rock themed events. Foreign international rock bands (Jars of Clay, Casting Crowns, 38th Parallel, Zebra & Giraffe) have also graced the local scene, which reflects on the growing influence and acceptance of this genre.
Organized member bodies such as Wiyathi (now defunct) and Roffeke (Rock 'n' Roll Film Festival Kenya) were fundamental in initially marketing local rock bands in the country by hosting regular shows and helped to establish a vibrant rock community. Recently, the bands also by social event groups like Kenya Rock Fans, have widely assisted the bands to gain popularity and increase their fan base, subsequently the founding of a governing body, the Rock Society of Kenya, which serves to promote the interests of member bands. The society spearheads numerous rock related events like the Battle of the Bands and live rock club shows that has spurred constructive level of activity for bands.
Over the past few years many entertainment spots have also independently incorporated rock music onto their programs further indicating a genuine interest from the public. In addition there are radio stations that play rock music: 98.4 Capital FM and 105.5 X FM, the latter being a 24-hour rock station. In 2019, 105.5 X FM was shut down by the parent company Radio Africa. KTN (Str8up), STV (The Rumble) and K24 (The Rumble) also play regular weekly rock shows. Popular prominent local rock bands include acts such as Parking Lot Grass, Last Year's Tragedy(LYT)- Whose song "March From the Underground" is said to have foreseen the recent attacks on a Kenyan University, Murfy's fLaw, Dove Slimme, M20, Rock of Ages, Seismic, The Itch, The Beathogs, Crystal Axis, DEOWA, Rash, Bedslum and kick ass metal band Mortal Soul.
Kalpop
Kalpop is a music genre that originated in the Klassikan royal communities under Klassik Nation record label. Kalpop is a genre of Klassikan, African, lingual (multicultural), and popular music that originated in its modern form during the mid-1990s in Kenya and later spread to the United States and the United Kingdom. Kalpop music has found a home to a growing fan base and with a number of locally established as well as emerging Kalpop bands (there are over thirteen active local Kalpop bands in Nairobi alone) further cementing this genre by engaging in different as well as mutually organised Kalpop themed events.
DON SANTO, Badman Killa, Blessed Paul, Cash B, Jay Nuclear, Rekless, G-Youts (Washu B and Nicki Mulla), Sleek Whizz, Chizei, are among the many artists playing Kalpop music in Kenya.
Other genres
There is a growing interest in other genres of music such as house, Trap Music, and drum and bass. Acts like Just A Band Skilz have also dabbled in numerous alternative genres. The growth of Kenyan Trap Music has been recently popularized by artist like Ekko Dydda & artists from Janeson Recordings. Neo-soul music has also gained a huge audience with recurrent events such as Blankets and Wine promoting upcoming Neo-soul bands and artistes such as Sage, Antoneosol, Sarah Mitaru Sauti Sol and Dela the neo-soul music scene in Kenya is slowly growing. Genres such as Genge with artists such as Jua Cali and Nonini acting as ambassadors of this genre. In 2019, a new music genre emerged in Nairobi referred to as Gengeton. Gengeton was a huge success. However, due to the quarantine in 2020 as a result of COVID 19 pandemic, Gengetone musicians such as Boondocks Gang were unable to perform, affecting the earlier success.
Genres such as Kapuka also have an audience with acts such as Nameless, the late Esir, and the late K-rupt sampling from these genres. The Kenyan music scene regards itself as diverse, but some in the scene do launch criticism at what they perceive as a lack of musical originality.
Of late a massive resurgence has occurred in the industry with musical groups such as Sauti Sol receiving global acclaim.
Traditional music
Kenya's diverse ethnic groups each have their own folk music traditions, though most have declined in popularity in recent years as gospel music became more popular. The Turkana people of the north, the Bajuni, Akamba, Borana, Chuka, Gusii, Kikuyu, Luhya and Lu, the Maasai and the related Samburu and the Mijikenda ("nine tribes") of the eastern coast are all found within the borders of Kenya.
Music Business in Kenya
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246383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado%20Mammoth | Colorado Mammoth | The Colorado Mammoth are a box lacrosse team playing in the National Lacrosse League. The Mammoth have played at Ball Arena in Denver, Colorado, since the 2003 season. They are owned by Stan Kroenke, who is also the owner of the Colorado Avalanche, Denver Nuggets and the Colorado Rapids of the MLS.
The Mammoth franchise previously played as the Baltimore Thunder from 1987 to 1999, the Pittsburgh CrosseFire in 2000, and the Washington Power from 2001 to 2002. Up until the joining of the expansion team San Diego Seals, Colorado was the only non-Canadian team in the Western Division from 2014 to 2018. They have only missed the playoffs once since moving to Colorado.
In 2004 and from 2006 to 2008, the Mammoth lead the league in attendance. 2006 was the first year in the 20-year history of the NLL that the league had an attendance of more than one million fans in one season. The Mammoth had the honor of hosting fan number one million. In 2008, the Mammoth average attendance per game was higher than Pepsi Center's other teams, the Colorado Avalanche (NHL) and the Denver Nuggets (NBA).
2006 champions
In the 2006 season, the Mammoth went to the playoffs in the #2 seed in the Western Division. Round one was hosted in Colorado against rivals Calgary. The Mammoth won 18–17 in overtime. Brian Langtry scored the overtime goal. Round two (Western Division finals) was also hosted at Pepsi Center against the Arizona Sting. Rookie Dan Carey scored the winning goal as the Mammoth defeated the Sting 13–12. The championship game was held at HSBC Arena in Buffalo against the Bandits who held the league's best record and the incumbent league MVP, goaltender Steve Dietrich . The Mammoth won the Champion's Cup by a score of 16–9, with Gavin Prout being named Game MVP.
Notable players
Gary Gait, who retired after the 2005 NLL season as the NLL's all-time scoring leader with 596 goals and 495 assists in 174 games (a record since surpassed by John Tavares). Gait also won the 2003 NLL MVP Award while with the Mammoth. On November 12, 2005, Gait was inducted into the NLL Hall of Fame, and on December 30, 2005, his number 22 jersey banner was hung from Pepsi Center rafters — the first NLL number ever to be retired and hung from any arena. Gait was the Mammoth head coach for the 2006 and 2007 seasons before stepping down in August 2007 to pursue other interests.
Brian Langtry, who won the NLL Rookie of the Year Award in 2003, is well known for his all-out goal scoring attempts. Langtry retired after the 2011 season.
Gord "Gee" Nash, who was the 2004 Goaltender of the Year.
Gavin Prout, a crowd favorite who consistently puts up high numbers. In 2006, Prout was named team captain. On October 31, 2009, to the outrage of many fans, Prout was traded to the Rochester Knighthawks, who in turn traded him to the Edmonton Rush on November 10. After a season and a half in Edmonton, Prout was traded back to the Mammoth in March 2011.
John Grant Jr., who was the 2012 NLL MVP. Retired in 2017.
Joey Cupido, three time fan favorite award winner who was the 2015 and 2018 Transition Player of the Year.
Awards and honors
NLL Hall of Fame members
Pat Coyle (Class of 2014)
Dan Stroup (Class of 2010)
Gary Gait (Class of 2006)
Paul Gait (Class of 2006)
Current roster
All-time record
Playoff results
Head coaching history
See also
Colorado Mammoth seasons
References
External links
Official Site
Colorado Mammoth news
Sports teams in Denver
Lacrosse clubs established in 2002
Lacrosse teams in Colorado
National Lacrosse League teams
2003 establishments in Colorado
Kroenke Sports & Entertainment | [
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246384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Morocco | Music of Morocco | Moroccan music varies greatly between geographic regions and social groups. It is influenced by musical styles including Amazigh, Andalusi, Arab, Mediterranean, Saharan, West African, and others.
Musical styles vary by geography. Andalusi music and malhun are associated with urban centers in the north, chaabi and aita are associated with the Atlantic coastal plains, reggada is associated with the Beni-Znassen region ( Oujda, Berkane..), gnawa with Essaouira and Marrakesh, ahidus with the Middle Atlas, ahwash with the Sous region, and guedra in the Sahara.
Particularly since the 20th century, musicians have been synthesizing Moroccan musical traditions with influences from around the world, such as blues, rock, metal, reggae, rap, etc. Each genre and musical style is made up of regional subgroups, and is further divided between 'modern' and 'traditional' music.
Traditional music styles
Aita
Aita ( "call, cry or lament") is a popular Bedouin musical style that originates from the countryside of Morocco, especially the Atlantic plains—areas such as Doukkala-Abda, Chaouia-Ouardigha, and Rehamna.
Amazigh folk music
There are many varieties of Berber folk music and dance, such as Rif, Kabyle, Atlas, Chawia, and Canaria.
Ahwash
Ahwash (, ) is a collective musical form associated with Amazigh communities in southern Morocco, particularly around Ouarzazate, the Dra'a Valley, and Sous. Ahwash involves dance, singing, poetry, and percussion.
Ahidus
Ahidus (, ) is a style of collective dance and song of the Amazigh tribes in Middle and Eastern High Atlas.
Guedra
Guedra is a music and dance style associated with the Tuareg "blue people" of the Moroccan sahara. The name comes from an earthen cookingware over which a hide is stretched to form a drum.
In 2021, the anthology of the art of "Rrways - a journey into the realm of Amazigh wandering poet- singers", presenting a booklet and ten compact discs with current recordings received the ' Prix Coups de Cœur - Musiques du Monde' of the Académie Charles Cross in France.
Andalusi classical music
For the music of Andalusia, Spain, see main article: Music of Andalusia
Andalusi classical music ( transliterated ṭarab andalusi or Musiqa al-Ala, Spanish: música andalusí) is a major genre of Arabic music found in different local substyles across the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya in the form of the Ma'luf style). It originated in the music of Al-Andalus (Muslim Iberia) between the 9th and 15th centuries.
Some of its lyrics are based on poetic works written by authors from Al-Andalus, such as Al-Shushtari, Ibn al-Khatib and Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad. Andalusi music is considered part of the longest traditions of art and music in the world. Andalusi music was greatly influenced by Ziryab, a freed Persian slave and musical pioneer, in the early 9th century. After Ziryab's death, two new styles of Arabic poetry were introduced in Al-Andalus: Muwashshahat and Zajal.
Chaabi "popular" folk music
Chaabi (, meaning popular in English) is a music consisting of numerous varieties which descend from the multifarious forms of Moroccan folk music. Chaabi was originally performed in markets, but is now found at any celebration or meeting.
Raï Music
Morocco has produced its own stars like Cheb Mimoun and Hanino. Rai music originated from Algeria, but is just as effective and popular in Morocco. This style of music was created during a period of political turmoil, and served a purpose of social and political commentary. Rai music has gained massive support over the years from the urban populace for its purpose of addressing taboo topics. It was also greatly known for code switching between French and Arabic. Rai artists use this method to add to the rhetorical and aesthetic effect of the lyrics, as well as a method of opening the lyrics to a wider range of an audience.
Gnawa music
Gnawa music is a mystical form of music and incantation of West African origin. It was initially brought to Morocco by Sub-Saharan Africans and gradually became part of the Moroccan musical tradition. The gnawa musicians are respected for their spiritual performances. Through oral traditions, they have handed down a specific cultural ceremony, called derdeba or lila, which consists of song, dance, the burning of incense and of specific costumes and colours. The instruments used are large drums called “” or “” and metal double castanets called “”. The main instrument is a three-stringed bass lute, called the “gimbri” accompanied by the chanting of the singers.
Classical Malhun
Classical Malhun is peaceful music associated with urban centers such as Meknes, Fes, Salé, Tetouan, and Oujda. It has been played around in the streets of Morocco for over a thousand years. It is very common music to hear in Morocco.
Classical Sufi music
Sufi brotherhoods (tariqas) are common in Morocco, and music is an integral part of their spiritual tradition. This music is an attempt at reaching a trance state which inspires mystical ecstasy.
Recent styles
Funk
Attarazat Addahabia was one of the pioneers of funk music in Morocco. Jil Jilala was also influential in this genre.
Rock
Nass El Ghiwane, led by Larbi Batma, was an icon of Moroccan music in the late 20th century.
Hoba Hoba Spirit is a rock band that draws influence from traditional Moroccan styles such as gnawa, as well as styles from abroad such as reggae.
Bab L' Bluz combine Gnawa music with various influences such as blues and psychedelia to embody the "Nayda" movement among young people in Morocco.
Hip-hop
Notable Moroccan hip-hop musicians include El Grande Toto, Don Big, 7liwa, and others. Among the younger generation there are Issam and Manal Benchlikha.
Music education
See also
Culture of Morocco
Moroccan literature
Ahmed El Bidaoui
References
Notes
Muddyman, Dave. "A Basic Expression of Life". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 567–578. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Bibliography
Chants et Danses Berbères (Moyen Atlas - Foire au Mouton de Timhadit) par Alexis Chottin 16 juin 1935 in Revue de musicologie, T. 17e, No. 58e (1936), pp. 65–69
Olsen, Myriam; Lortat-Jacob, Bernard, pref. Musiques de l’Atlas, Arles : Actes Sud : Cité de la musique, 1997 .
Guettat, Mahmoud, La musique classique du Maghreb, Paris : Sindbad, 1980 . (La bibliothèque arabe).
Aydoun, Ahmed, Musiques du Maroc, Casablanca : Editions EDDIF, 1994.
Mohamed Belghazi (dir.), Instruments des musiques populaires et de confréries du Maroc. Fragments de musées, Aix-en-Provence : Edisud, La croisée des chemins, 1998.
Catherine Homo-Lechner et Christian Rault, Instruments de musique du Maroc et d'al-Andalus, Fondation Royaumont / CERIMM, 1999.
External links
Morocco Travel - Morocco Music
Musique marocaine by Nature et Culture - GFDL
Music of Morocco: The Paul Bowles Recordings (1959-1962)
Arabic music
Music scenes
Berber music | [
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246389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaheim%20Storm | Anaheim Storm | The Anaheim Storm was a member of the National Lacrosse League. They played at the Arrowhead Pond, now the Honda Center, in Anaheim, California. They were the New Jersey Storm from the 2002 season to 2003. Starting for the 2004 season the team relocated to Anaheim, California. After the 2005 season, the Storm suspended operations due to low attendance.
The franchise was owned by NBA star Jayson Williams. Notable stars include Mark Shepherd, Casey and Ryan Powell.
All-time record
References
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
Lacrosse clubs established in 2004
Sports clubs disestablished in 2005
Lacrosse teams in California
2004 establishments in California
2005 disestablishments in California
Sports in Anaheim, California | [
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246391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia%20Wings%20%281987%E2%80%932014%29 | Philadelphia Wings (1987–2014) | The Philadelphia Wings were a member of the National Lacrosse League, a professional box lacrosse league in North America starting in 1987. They played at the Spectrum (1987–96) and then at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
The Wings were one of the four original teams in the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League that began play in 1987 and the only team to reclaim its identity from the original 1974–75 National Lacrosse League and also retained the first Philadelphia Wings logo.
The Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League was renamed the Major Indoor Lacrosse League in 1989, and again to the National Lacrosse League in 1998. They are the only franchise to have played all 24 seasons in the same city. The Wings have the most titles in the combined league history with six total: four North American Cups in the MILL era and two Champion's Cup since the formation of the NLL.
On July 11, 2014, it was announced on the team's website that the Wings would be relocating after 28 years in Philadelphia. On September 19, 2014, it was announced that the team will be known as the New England Black Wolves and will play at the Mohegan Sun Arena.
In September 2017 the National Lacrosse League announced that Comcast-Spectacor would be the owners of an expansion franchise for the 2018–19 season. On November 29, 2017, it was announced the new franchise would use the "Wings" name.
History
Early years
The Philadelphia Wings were one of the original four franchises in the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League, joining the New Jersey Saints, Washington Wave, and Baltimore Thunder in the premiere season. While the Wings were not an immediate success on the floor, going 3–3 and 3–5 in the first two regular seasons with two playoff losses, they were the biggest draw in the league. They drew an average of almost 12,000 fans to their three 1987 regular season games, and slightly over 12,000 fans for their four games in 1988.
Their first on-field success came in 1989 with a first place 6–2 campaign, ending with their first of a league record 6 titles with an 11–10 win over New York at the Spectrum. The Wings became the first team to repeat with another 6–2 regular season followed by a championship win in Worcester over the New England Blazers. A 5–5 season in 1991 left the Wings in third place in the American Division, 1 game behind the division winners Baltimore and out of the playoffs for the first time in their history, denying them the opportunity for a "threepeat."
Some of the early stars of those teams included Mike French, Hall of Fame college player at Cornell and a current team executive; John Grant Sr., father of current NLL star John Grant Jr. and member of the Philadelphia Wings (1974–1975) ; Syracuse Hall of Famer Brad Kotz; long time Wings coach, Tony Resch; and long time NLL player and coach John Tucker.
Wings vs. Bandits
In 1992, the MILL expanded to Western New York with the Buffalo Bandits. The Bandits were primarily Canadian players from Ontario, while the Wings were still mostly American based, like the rest of the league at the time. The rivalry was instant, as the teams would play each other in 4 of the next 5 title games, interrupted only by the Wings triumph over Rochester in the 1995 season. The Wings struggled in the regular season of 1992, but turned it on in the playoffs to defeat Baltimore and New York and host the Bandits in the championship game. John Tavares would end the Wings quest for their 3rd title with an overtime winner, however.
1993 saw the Wings have a 7–1 season, only to be topped by the Bandits perfect 8–0 season. Both teams dispatched their semifinal opponents, and the rematch was on. The Bandits once again ended the Wings hopes, this time winning a one-goal contest in regulation 13–12.
1994 saw both teams top their respective divisions with 6–2 marks, and again both teams dominated the semifinal game to meet for a 3rd consecutive time for the North American Cup. An incredible run by Philadelphia in the middle of the game buried the Bandits hopes of their own threepeat, giving the Wings a 26–15 win and their third title.
The Wings were their same dominating selves in 1995, going 7–1 to finish atop the single table (a structure the league changed back to before the season), while the Bandits uncharacteristically struggled, finishing just 4th in a 6 team league at 3–5. This meant the Wings faced the Bandits in the semifinals, and due to the MILL's "attendance rule" that gave postseason home field advantage to the team with better attendance, the game was played in Buffalo. The Wings proved to be the better team with a 19–16 win on their way to a league high 4th title.
1996 saw the Bandits return to their prior form, while both teams finishing 8–2 and tied atop the league standings. Once again, the teams found themselves in the final, and the Bandits returned the favor of stopping a threepeat with a dominating 15–10 performance.
1997 saw that Wings move from the Spectrum to the new CoreStates Center (now the Wells Fargo Center). It would also be the first time that the Wings and Bandits would not meet in the playoffs since the Bandits had been introduced in 1992. The Wings won another regular season title with a 7–1 record, but were upset in the semifinals by the eventual champion Rochester Knighthawks.
NLL era
The league name changed for 1998, but the Wings success did not. Despite the loss of Gary Gait to the Baltimore Thunder, the Wings still claimed their 4th regular season title in 5 years at 9–3. Once again, the Wings were paired up with their arch-rival Bandits in the semifinal round, and the Wings dispatched the Bandits just as they had in the previous semifinal matchup. The Wings advanced to play the Thunder and Gary Gait in the final round, which was a best 2 of 3 series for the one and only time in league history. The Wings opened the series with a 16–12 victory at home, before sweeping the series with a dominating 17–12 road victory in Baltimore Arena. Wings goaltender Dallas Eliuk was named Championship Series MVP.
1999 saw the end of the heated Wings-Bandits rivalry, as the Bandits started to rebuild and fell to a 4–8 mark, missing the postseason. The Wings also had regular season struggles, finishing at just 5–7 and squeaking into the playoffs as the fourth seed. Wings fans probably wish the team had missed the postseason, as the team was pummeled in a record breaking 13–2 loss to the eventual champion Toronto Rock. 2000 saw the team improve slightly to 7–5 during the season, but it ended the same way, with a semifinal loss in Toronto by a more respectable 14–10 score.
That set up the 2001 season, with the Wings once again seeing their league dominance challenged by a newcomer to the league. The Rock and the Wings did not disappoint, with the Rock going 11–3 and the Wings 10–4 in the regular season, and winning their semifinal games to set up a third straight postseason matchup in Toronto, this time with the title on the line. Unlike the previous two games, the Wings dictated the style of play, combined with the stellar goaltending of 2001 Championship Game MVP Dallas Eliuk, built a 9–4 lead, and never looked back. The Rock made a late-game rally but it proved too little, too late, and the Wings claimed their 6th title with a 9–8 upset victory, silencing the 19,409 Toronto Fans in attendance.
The 2002 season was clearly a transition year for the franchise, as they muddled through a difficult season to finish at 8–8 before falling in a quarterfinal game against the Washington Power. Until the 2008 season, it would prove to be the last playoff appearance for the proud franchise.
Rebuilding
The 2003 season saw the Wings start off strongly, but collapse down the stretch as they finished 8–8, and lost the division title to the Colorado Mammoth, missing the postseason for the first time since 1991. It would continue to get worse for the Wings, as the next two years ended with a last-place 7–9 2004 season and a 6–10 2005 season. The rebuilding of the Wings began in earnest in the offseason, with Perennial All-Pro Goaltender Dallas Eliuk being granted a trade request to be closer to home (due to his father's failing health), the Wings would have three first round draft picks before the 2006 season, adding Sean Greenhalgh, Luke Wiles, and Chad Thompson. Wiles and Thompson were later dealt for Mike Regan, and Greenhalgh was moved to Buffalo after the 2007 season. Despite the added firepower, the Wings saw some improvement, going 8–8 in 2006 but missing the postseason on tiebreakers.
The 2006 draft was again fertile ground for the Wings, adding Geoff Snider, Ian Llord, and Athan Iannucci in the first round, and adding Kyle Wailes, another first round pick, through a trade with Calgary. However, the 2007 season again would leave fans wondering about the future, when the Wings collapsed down the stretch with 4 losses in the last 5 games to crash to a 6–10 record and miss the playoffs for a fifth consecutive season. The entire coaching staff was fired after the season ended, though Lindsay Sanderson kept the role of GM.
Dave Huntley returns
On June 8, 2007, the Wings announced that the team's original general manager Dave Huntley would be their head coach for the 2008 season. The personnel changes would continue as Sean Greenhalgh was moved to Buffalo and Ian Llord moved to Calgary in a deal that brought the Wings Jason Crosbie on offense and former Defenseman of the Year Taylor Wray on defense. The Wings added goaltender Rob Blasdell in the dispersal draft that occurred for the one-year suspension of the Arizona Sting, and he was named the starting goaltender for the 2008 season. On March 5, 2008, the Wings continued to restructure the team, even when leading the league with a 6–1 record at the halfway point. The Wings were involved in trades with the Chicago Shamrox, Minnesota Swarm, and Edmonton Rush leading to the acquisition of A.J. Shannon and Brandon Miller, while sending Matt Roik, Dan Marohl, Keith Cromwell, and Brad Self elsewhere.
All the changes paid off, as the Wings compiled a 10–6 record, good for a four-way tie for the Eastern Division championship. Due to tiebreakers, they finished with the 4th seed in the East, and travelled to Buffalo for an Eastern Division semifinal game on May 2, 2008. The Wings return to the postseason was short-lived, however, as the Wings dropped a 14–12 decision to the Bandits.
The 2008 season saw the emergence of two new Wings superstars, second year players Athan Iannucci and Geoff Snider. Iannucci scored 71 goals on the season, breaking Gary Gait's single-season scoring record of 61, and Snider set new records for loose balls (242), penalty minutes (103), and faceoffs won (318). Both made the All-Star team and All-Pro teams, and Iannucci was named Player of the Month three times as well as league MVP.
The 2009 season was marred by an offseason injury to star Athan Iannucci, who was only able to appear in 10 games, and compiled just 36 points after his record-breaking haul the season before. Needing to re-establish an offense without the focal point, the Wings struggled to a 2–5 start, but were able to rally to win 4 of the next 6 and get back to a 7–8 record heading into the season finale in Rochester with a playoff spot on the line. Back to back playoff berths were not to be, however, as the Wings fell to the Knighthawks 11–8 to finish the season 5th in the East.
2011 and beyond
In 2011, after 2 miserable seasons with Dave Huntley as coach, the Wings appointed former Wings player John Tucker to the head coaching position. After winning two championships with the Wings while they were in the Major Indoor Lacrosse League in 1989 and 1990, Tucker had success in coaching the now defunct Baltimore Thunder and Pittsburgh Crossefire.
2011 started out well for Tucker and the Wings. After a slow start at home against Boston and Buffalo, Philadelphia ended January on a 3-game winning streak, taking two games from Colorado, and blowing out Boston on the road. Strong play from Max Seibald and goaltender Brandon Miller highlighted these wins, and put the Wings half a game out of first place. Shortly thereafter, the Wings season began to crumble. After an up and down February, which saw Philadelphia split with Buffalo, and lose in Rochester, the season bottomed out, with the Wings losing 7 out of their last 8 games, and finishing with a 5–11 record, 5 and a half games out of first place and tied with Dave Huntley in 2010 for the worst season record of all time. In June 2011, Tucker announced he was stepping down from the head coaching position to focus on his position as the Wings new director of United States collegiate scouting efforts.
On July 25, current Wings General Manager Johnny Mouradian became the team's new head coach. Mouradian had previously served as president, General Manager, and Advisor to the 2010 NLL Champs, the Washington Stealth. Mouradian wasted little time in shaping the 2012 season by trading Athan Ianucci to the Edmonton Rush with teammates Alex Turner and Brodie McDonald, along with Philadelphia's first round draft picks in 2012, 2013 and 2014. In exchange, the Wings acquired Edmonton transition player Brodie Merrill, Rush forwards Dean Hill, Mike McLellan, and Edmonton's 41st selection in the 2011 entry draft, and the 4th round selection in 2013.
Relocation
On July 11, 2014, the Philadelphia Wings announced through their home page that the franchise was looking to relocate for the 2015 season. Citing the increasing saturation of the Philadelphia sports marketplace, “My love for the Wings and my connection with the city has made this move all the more difficult,” said Wings Owner and Team President Michael French. “I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all of our Philadelphia supporters over the past 28 years.
“The financial model in a market with so many sport and entertainment alternatives has proven to be unsustainable,” added French. “Finding a new venue with new strategic partners was the only way to ensure financial stability.”
Despite being one of the oldest and most historic franchises in the league, attendance had begun to falter in the years before the Wings demise. Their attendance dropped 5% from 2011 to 2012 and then another 6% from 2012 to 2013. In February 2013 the Wings hosted a weekday game at 11 am, drawing the smallest attendance (5,139) in franchise history.
On August 4, 2014, it was reported that the Mohegan tribe would be purchasing an NLL team to play at the Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville, Connecticut. Two days later it was made official that French had sold half of the franchise to the Mohegans, and that the Wings would be relocating to Uncasville. The franchise would be renamed the New England Black Wolves.
Resurrection
In September 2017 the National Lacrosse League announced that Comcast-Spectacor would be the owners of an expansion franchise for the 2018–19 season. On November 29, 2017, it was announced the team would resume operations using the Wings name.
Awards and honors
NLL Hall of Fame members
Scott Montgomery, Chris Fritz, Gary Gait, Paul Gait (Class of 2006)
Mike French, Tom Marechek (Class of 2007)
Tony Resch (Class of 2008)
Dallas Eliuk (Class of 2009)
Terry Sanderson (Class of 2015)
NLL records held
Single Season Goal Scoring Record - Athan Iannucci (71 goals, 2008)
Single Season Loose Balls Record - Geoff Snider (244 LB, 2008)
Single Season Faceoff Wins Record - Peter Jacobs (318 FW, 2005) and Geoff Snider (318 FW, 2008)
Single Season PIM Record - Geoff Snider (103 PIM, 2008)
Most Goals in a Single Game - Paul Gait (10 goals, 26 March 1994)
Fan support and traditions
Philadelphia fans were known for their passionate support of their team, and the less-than-hospitable treatment of opposing players. In a poll of the players, over 62% stated that Wings fans had screamed the filthiest and nastiest things at them in the league.
Of the fans, goaltender Rob Blasdell said "They truly are the best fans in the league. They're probably the most knowledgeable fans in the league. It would kind of be the same as playing for the Leafs in Toronto. They're very, very passionate." Philadelphia fans enjoy the physical aspect of the game, leading Geoff Snider to comment: "The Philly fans are great. They are very loyal and they get behind it. I got a standing ovation once for a roughing penalty. I'd never seen anything like that before."
Fans traditions started from the national anthem, when fans could be heard making a 'tsch' sound at the end of each line, mocking a recording that was used by the Wings in the early years where the only audible portion of the song was the cymbal crashes. During the introductions of the opposing team, each player's name was followed by a call of "sucks", a tradition that has been extended to the opposing coaches, trainers, and the game officials. The local shot clock operator had escaped the jeering, and was instead cheered.
During the game, the opposing goalie was often the target of fans' heckling. The most common chant was to remind the goalies "It's all your fault" after every goal they allow.
One of the more notable traditions was the dueling "W-I-N-G-S" cheers. The side of the arena with the penalty boxes had long been led by "Chopper", a Wings superfan with face paint and a hard hat, well known around the league making opposing players who find their way to the penalty box regret their time there. The bench side went through many leaders, from "Big Gabe" and the little gabesters (consisting of Matt Denker, Joshua Gross, Jordan Elsas, Adam David and Eli Goldstein) (father of Scott Gabrielson, a Wings captain in the 1990s) to "Big E" to Chasmo, and now "The Captain" and "Morpheus" or as he made himself known as during the second half of the game on February 29, 2008, "Doctor Lacrosse". The "kick butt baby" (Eric Kulb Martinez) was the biggest little fan even though he could barely talk. While the leader of the chants aren't always the same from year to year, the "W-I-N-G-S WINGS!" cheer did not die out at all, and is still present following the team's revival.
Roster
All time record
Playoff results
Head coaching history
Notes and references
See also
Philadelphia Wings seasons
1974-75 Philadelphia Wings team
Lacrosse in Pennsylvania
External links
Wingzone Web Site
Wings All Access on NLL Radio
Sports in Philadelphia
Lacrosse clubs established in 1987
Lacrosse teams in Pennsylvania
Major Indoor Lacrosse League teams
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
1987 establishments in Pennsylvania
Sports clubs disestablished in 2014
2014 disestablishments in Pennsylvania | [
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246393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona%20Sting | Arizona Sting | The Arizona Sting was a member of the National Lacrosse League from 2004 to 2007. They played at Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio, from 2001 to 2003 as the Columbus Landsharks. On August 28, 2003, it was announced that the team was relocating to Glendale, Arizona. The team adopted the name Sting in November 2003 and began playing in the Glendale Arena.
In 2005, the Sting defeated the 2004 NLL champion Calgary Roughnecks to win the franchise's first-ever West Division title. The Sting fell 19-13 to the East Division champion Toronto Rock in the league championships.
On October 16, 2007, the NLL announced that the 2008 season had been cancelled due to the failure of the league and the Professional Lacrosse Players' Association to reach a new collective bargaining agreement. However, the negotiations continued and, on October 25, the league announced that a new seven-year agreement had been reached, and that the season would be played. A new schedule was announced on November 2, 2007, but only included 12 of the expected 14 teams; the Sting and Boston Blazers had been removed. According to a news article posted on the Sting website,
Prior to the 2009 NLL season, the Arizona Sting ceased operations and its players were put in a dispersal draft.
All time record
Playoff results
* the Arizona Sting hosted the Champion's Cup Finals at Jobing.com Arena. The Knighthawks had the overall top seed in the playoffs, but were unable to host the Championship game due to a scheduling conflict at the Blue Cross Arena.
References
See also
Arizona Sting seasons
Arizona Sting players
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
Sports in Phoenix, Arizona
Sports in Glendale, Arizona
Lacrosse clubs established in 2003
Lacrosse clubs disestablished in 2009
Lacrosse teams in Arizona
2003 establishments in Arizona
2009 disestablishments in Arizona | [
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246394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Zimbabwe | Music of Zimbabwe | Zimbabwean music is heavily reliant on the use of instruments such as the mbira, Ngoma drums and hosho. Their music symbolizes much more than a simple rhythm, as the folk and pop style styled music was used as a symbol of hope for Zimbabweans looking to gain independence from Rhodesia. Music has played a significant role in the history of Zimbabwe, from a vital role in the traditional Bira ceremony used to call on ancestral spirits, to protest songs during the struggle for independence. The community in Zimbabwe used music to voice their resistance to their oppression, as one of the only weapons they had available to fight back with. In the eighties, the Music of Zimbabwe was at the center of the African Music scene thanks to genres such as Sungura and Jit. However, several performers were banned by state TV and radio leading to the closing of several music venues.
Musical Genres
Sungura
Sungura is the most popular musical genre in Zimbabwe. It emerged in 1953, in a time when regional identity was in formation. This is the local genre of the Zimbabwe music industry. Sungura music became popular in the early 1980s, pioneered by frontman Ephraim Joe and his band Sungura Boys which counted many notable future hit makers as members. Their roll included John Chibadura (guitar)
Simon Chimbetu (guitar and vocals) Naison Chimbetu, Ronnie Chataika, Michael Jambo (drums), Ephraim Joe (guitar), Moses Marasha (bass), Never Moyo (lead guitar), Bata Sinfirio (rhythm guitar), System Tazvida (guitar and vocals, Peter Moyo (guitar and vocals).
The Khiama Boys emerged as natural successors to the Sungura Boys after their demise during the mid-eighties. Members would include System Tazvida (Rhythm guitar), Nicholas Zacharia (Lead guitar), Alick Macheso (Bass), Silas Chakanyuka (Drums) and Zacharia Zakaria (Sub Rhythm guitar). A great number of these artistes have gone on to forge successful careers with their own bands whilst Nicholas Zacharia has remained as the leader of the band and is still active as of 2008.
James Chimombe, whose romantic ballads and the influential sungura guitar melody (consisting of lead, rhythm and bass), made him a favorite in the late 80s.
The 90s was dominated by musicians include Leonard Dembo, the effervescent Khiama Boys, veteran Simon Chimbetu and upcoming artistes Alick Macheso, Tongai Moyo and Somandla Ndebele. The star of the decade was Leonard Zhakata, whose musical project was a spinoff of the double play Maungwe Brothers, an act fronted by Zhakata and his cousin Thomas Makion. The decade 2000 till present has been characterised by a wrangle for the crown for the kingship of Sungura between the two most Sungura musicians of the decade, Alick Macheso and Tongai Moyo. Having dominated sales, tour and concert attendances, the heckling and counter-heckling by the artists at shows and in some recorded material is strong proof that the current feud is far from over.
Other artists to come through this decade include Joseph Garakara, Gift Amuli, Howard Pinjisi and Daiton Somanje. And of late, Alick Macheso has become popular with his dance zoraaa butter.
System Tazvida, Simon Chimbetu, John Chibadura, Leonard Dembo, and Thomas Makion have all died.
Imbube
Imbubwe was created by Zimbabweans while they were still technically a part of Rhodesian culture. This genre consisted of male singers in an a cappella style, which differed from most of the typically music at the time that was formed around unique instruments. During this time period, many of the Zimbabwe men worked in mines for long hours. They formed Imbubwe by singing along together as a mean of passing the time. The vocals coming from the caves echoed to produce better quality, and encouraged the men to continue singing these happy tunes. Occasionally the miners would sing songs of social justice, but a majority were generally happy and used as entertainment.
Jit
Jit, also known as Harare beat, is a generic term for electric guitar-driven pop, and includes popular groups like the New Black Eagles and the Four Brothers (a band UK radio DJ John Peel described as "the best live band in the world"). Internationally, The Bhundu Boys are by far the best-known jit performers, and have worked with numerous American and British musicians. Notable recent bands to come up with the Jit sound are Nehoreka who fuse the traditional Jit with funk sounds, there is also Mokoomba and Q Montana. The 1990 film Jit was named for this style.
Afro jazz (Zimbabwean jazz)
Zimbabwean jazz, also known as Afro Jazz, is Zimbabwean music influenced by a style of township rhythm that evolved in a Southern part of Africa over the last century. One can also trace similarities from Kwela, a pennywhistle-based, street music from the southern part of Africa with jazzy underpinnings and a distinctive, skiffle-like beat. It is also closely related to Marabi which was the name given to a keyboard style (often using cheap pedal organs) that had a musical link to American jazz, ragtime and blues, with roots deep in the African tradition. Early marabi musicians were part of an underground musical culture and were typically not recorded. An example of such an artist in the early 1940s is August Musarurwa of the Skokiaan fame. It has continued to develop and traits of this music can be seen in the works of his grandson, Prince Kudakwashe Musarurwa.
The Pakara Paye Centre has worked for spreading Zimbabwean Jazz to young musicians since 2004, founded by Afro-Jazz musician Oliver Mtukudzi.
Chimurenga music
Chimurenga music is a genre developed by Thomas Mapfumo named for the Shona language word for struggle. Mapfumo and his band, the Blacks Unlimited developed a style of music based on traditional mbira music, but played with modern electric instrumentation, with lyrics characterized by social and political commentary. Mapfumo's music was a "tool of the liberation war" criticizing the Rhodesian government of Ian Smith, but shifted after independence to speaking out about perceived corruption and mismanagement of the Zimbabwean government of Robert Mugabe.
Tuku Music
Tuku Mtukudzi was a prolific recorder who also appeared in films like Jit. He played in a plethora of styles, and was known for penetrating lyrics; for example, he wrote a second song about AIDS in Zimbabwe after Paul Matavire's hit song "Yakauya AIDS iriko".
Zimdancehall
Zimdancehall is Zimbabwean music influenced by Jamaican dancehall music. There is frequent debate around the origin Zimdancehall within Zimbabwe.
Rumba
African Rumba, or 'Soukos' is mostly associated with the Democratic Republic of the Congo but its popularity has inspired Zimbabwe's own brand of rumba in musicians such as Simon Chimbetu and Leonard Karikoga Zhakata. Soukos has been an influence on other artists such as The R.U.N.N. family.
Gospel
Gospel music became popular in Zimbabwe in the late 1980s. Jonathan Wutawunashe has been described as "Zimbabwe's first real gospel star". Other population musicians in this genre include Jordan Chataika, Freedom Sengwayo, Mechanic Manyeruke, and Brian Sibalo.
The early nineties saw the rising of new gospel stars in the mold of Ivy Kombo - Moyo and Carol Mujokoro of the EGEA gospel Train whose debut album Mufudzi Wangu was released in 1993 and contains tracks such as "Be Thou My Vision", "Ndotarisa Kumakomo" and "Utiziro" among others. The two went on to pursue successful solo musical careers and released "Ndaidziwanepi Nyasha" and "Ropa RaJesu" as their debut solo albums respectively.
Gospel artists who emerged from the mid nineties include Lawrence Haisa, Brother Sam with his hits "Makanaka Jesu" and "Cherechedza", Elias Musakwa, Rita Shonhiwa, The Gospel Trumpet of the "Rose Of Sharon" fame and Shingisai Suluma who only became popular in the early 21st century with the hit song "Mirira Mangwanani"; though she first recorded in the nineties.
In the late-nineties, Charles Charamba, a rising artist, grew in popularity, and currently holds gospel sales records. His music became popular into the first decade of the 21st century, most likely due to his Sungura-based contemporary style.
In the early 21st century, a lot of gospel artists also recorded, though a few really rose to stardom. These include Fungisai Zvakavapano - Mashavave who has risen to become the most dominant female gospel musician in the current era, Stanley Gwanzura (Pastor Gee), Kudzai Nyakudya and gospel a cappella outfits like Vabati VaJehovah and Shower Power.
Instruments
Mbira
The mbira is an integral part of Zimbabwean music. Classified by musicologists as a lamellaphone, part of the plucked idiophone family, it is created from things found in nature such as a wooden board (often fitted with a resonator) and tines. It is frequently played in a deze (calabash resonator) which amplifies the sound and augments using shells or bottle caps placed around the edges. Often accompanied by the hosho, a percussion instrument, the mbira is often an important instrument that people play at religious ceremonies, weddings, and other social gatherings. The mbira plays a central role in the traditional Bira ceremony used to call on ancestral spirits.
The instrument is a central piece in their religious rituals. The most important function of mbira is the idea of it being a "telephone to the spirits" during ceremonies. It is the sole way of communication between the living and deceased ancestors, ancient tribal guardians, or guardian spirits. The mbira is required to ask these spirits to bring rain during drought, stop rain during floods, accept their offerings, ask for forgiveness, and bring clouds when crops are damaged by the sun. These instruments were made from resources from the land which connected them further connects the indigenous people to their land and this deep connection has helped communities in Zimbabwe to continue their tradition of mbira music despite the development of colonialism.
The sound made by this instrument closely imitates the noises made by rain or running water with rich and vibrant tones "like bells". The sound has a special presence; one that feel the music as much as one hears it. Penetrating and warming at the same time, immediately capturing the involvement of the listeners and drawing them into its mood. The pieces of music played vary by the artist but there is no specific way to play this instrument. The music performed is all about elaboration and variation supporting creative expression of the performer.
Though musicologist Hugh Tracey believed the mbira to be nearing extinction in the 1930s, the instrument has been revived since the 60s and 70s, and has gained an international following through the world music scene. Some renowned mbira players include Dumisani Maraire, Ephat Mujuru, Stella Chiweshe, Chartwell Dutiro, Mbuya Dyoko, Cosmas Magaya, Tute Chigamba, Forward Kwenda, and Chiwoniso Maraire.
There is also pop music in Zimbabwe and around the world that incorporates Zimbabwean indigenous instruments. For example, mbira player Chris Berry with his band Panjea have reached platinum record sales in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, playing a style of music based on traditional mbira rhythms and melodies, but incorporating various other instruments and styles (like hip-hop and dancehall). Thomas Mapfumo is widely credited with popularizing his genre of Chimurenga music, which includes guitar, drums, Western-style vocals, and mbira in the same band. Mapfumo is also famous for his arrangement of traditional mbira lines to be played on the electric guitar. Mbira is incorporated into the music of critically acclaimed American hip-hop duo Shabazz Palaces by Tendai Maraire (son of traditional mbira player Dumisani Maraire).
Marimba
The marimba was introduced in Zimbabwean Music during the early 1960s when the Kwanongoma College of African Music in Bulawayo adopted it. Founders of the college considered that marimba could boost the musical development of the country, and design a model that it's now known as Kwanongoma marimba. Zimbabwean marimba or Kwanongoma marimba is now considered part of the Zimbabwean culture.
The first Zimbabwean marimba was built by Nelson Jones in 1962. However, the wood used was too soft. The next year, Josiah Siyembe Mathe started using a Lozi instrument called Selimba, common in the southwest of Zambia. The original Selimba was an 11-key instrument. Mathe built later a soprano, a tenor, and a bass. using Mukwa wood for the keys.
Michael Bhule built the first set of Kwanongoma marimba. Alport Mhlanga composed the first repertoire for the instrument.
Bulawayo
The Ndebele-dominated region of the southwest of Zimbabwe, including the city Bulawayo, has been instrumental in the development of Zimbabwean music. Seminal 1950s guitarist George Sibanda had a following across Africa and was the writer for the hit song Guabi Guabi which is sung all over the world, and Dorothy Masuka was a major player on the South African jazz scene, for example. Among the most popular performers of the region within Zimbabwe, however, was 1980s Ndebele pop sensation Lovemore Majaivana. Ndebele musicians who are active are Black Umfolosi, Insingizi Majahawodwa Ndlovu, Sandra Ndebele, Lwazi Tshabangu, Kuxxman, Go Boyz, Achuzi, Beate Mangethe, Vusa Mkhaya, Afrika Revenge and Ramadu. The marginalisation of Bulawayo artists in Zimbabwe saw the influence of South African music dominating hence the emergence of kwaito music in Bulawayo pioneered by Go-Boyz in 1996 and more groups like GTI, Achuzi, Amagangsters, artists like Cal Vin etc., emerged. A brand of Jazz was created in Bulawayo, in the 1940s and 1950s, and was made popular by August Musarurwa with his African Dance Band of the Cold Storage Commission of Southern Rhodesia. He recorded the legendary song Sikokiana which went on to be recorded in USA by Louis Armstrong and many others.
Lyrics
Zimbabwean musicians' lyrics mostly contain encouragement of upholding good social values in the family and society as whole. Such lyrics can be seen in songs by artists like Oliver Mtukudzi, Simon Chimbetu, the Harare 10-piece Afro-fusion band Nehoreka, Louis Mhlanga, John Chibadura, Steve Makoni, and Bhundu Boys. However, the lyrics of Thomas Mapfumo are political, praising just leadership and encouraging rising up against bad governance. Many of his albums are named after a word meaning uprising or war of liberation: Chimurenga. His music earned him the wrath of the ZANU-PF government resulting in the banning of most of his music on state owned radio and TV. Another musician with striking lyrics is the late System Tazvida of the Chazezesa Challengers. His lyrics were mostly centered on love and relationships, with songs like Anodyiwa Haataure, Ukarambwa Usachema, Vanotipedzera Mashoko and Dai Hanzvadzi Yairoorwa, with which he achieved popularity.
With the emergence of the Urban Grooves-style, the content of lyrics shifted to more closely resemble that of American RnB, Hip Hop and Pop music. These have garnered a following among a younger generation of Zimbabweans. One artist, Maskiri, is known for imitating Eminem's style of controversial lyrics.
Urban Grooves
Coming on the music scene in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Urban Grooves takes in American Rap, Hip Hop, R&B, Soul and other international music genres, often melded with traditional Zimbabwean music.
Artists such as Sanii Makhalima, Alexio Kawara, Roy and Royce, David Chifunyise, Leonard Mapfumo, Roki, Stach, Betty Makaya, Extra Large, Maskiri, Kactus and Nehoreka laid the groundwork for the new genre, which gained increasing popularity among the youth. The style was helped by the 100% local content policy in effect at the time, which required all radio stations to play only music by Zimbabwean artists.
A second generation of artists such as Trevor Dongo, Drum Dada, Q Montana, Mokoomba and Nehoreka have come to prominence more recently.
See also
Paul Berliner
International Library of African Music
Makwayera
Zimbabwean Marimba
Mbira
Shona music
Hugh Tracey
List of Zimbabwean musicians
References
Further reading
Kendall, Judy and Banning Eyre. "Jit, Mbira and Chimurenga: Play It Loud!". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp. 706–716. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
External links
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Zimbabwe 1988. (Sony Radio Award-winning program) Accessed November 25, 2010.
Dandemutande A non-profit resource for Zimbabwean music & culture
MbiraMagic.Com : Mbira Education Website by Forward Kwenda and Andy Fowler
Mbira.Online : the world's largest mbira masters video and notation Archive
Mbira.org Erica Azim's site, based in Berkeley, CA
Zambuko Solomon Murungu's Shona Music Site
Zimbabwean Music Festival, an annual performance and workshop festival in North America
Africa Beats: Zimbabwe's Mokoomba - Tonga Music
Zimvibes Music Station | [
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246399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandery%20%28China%29 | Commandery (China) | A jùn (郡) was a historical administrative division of China from the Eastern Zhou (c. 7th century BCE) until the early Tang dynasty (c. 7th century CE). It is usually translated as a commandery.
Countries around China have adopted administrative divisions based on or named after the jùn.
History and development
China
Eastern Zhou
During the Eastern Zhou's Spring and Autumn period from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE, the larger and more powerful of the Zhou's vassal states—including Qin, Jin and Wei—began annexing their smaller rivals. These new lands were not part of their original fiefs and were instead organized into counties (xiàn). Eventually, jun were developed as marchlands between the major realms. Despite having smaller populations and ranking lower on the official hierarchies, the jun were larger and boasted greater military strength than the counties.
As each state's territory gradually took shape in the 5th- to 3rd-century BCE Warring States period, the jun at the borders flourished. This gave rise to a two-tier administrative system with counties subordinate to jun. Each of the states' territories was by now comparatively larger, hence there was no need for the military might of a jun in the inner regions where counties were established. The border jun's military and strategic significance became more important than those of counties.
Qin dynasty
Following the unification of China in 221 BCE under the Qin Empire, the Qin government still had to engage in military activity because there were rebels from among the six former states who were unwilling to submit to Qin rule. As a result, the First Emperor set up 36 jun in the Qin Empire, each subdivided into counties. This established the first two-tier administrative system known to exist in China.
Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period
When the Han dynasty triumphed over Chu in 206 BCE, the Zhou feudal system was initially reinstated, with Emperor Gao recognizing nearly independent kings and granting large territories to his relatives. These two sets of kingdoms were placed under hereditary rulers assisted by a chancellor (xiàng). Parallel to these, some Qin jun were continued, placed under a governor appointed directly by the central government.
By the Eastern Han dynasty, the jun were subordinated to a new division, the province (zhōu). — establishing a three-tier system composed of provinces (zhou), commanderies (jun), and counties (xian). Based upon legendary accounts of the Yellow Emperor's Nine Provinces which were geographic rather than formal political areas, there were initially 13 zhōu and roughly 100 jun.
Jin dynasty and the Southern and Northern Dynasties
China was greatly divided during the following five centuries, during the Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties period. The number of administrative units drastically increased due to intense warfare, fluid political boundaries, forced migrations, widespread population loss, and the loss of central government control in many areas particularly during the Sixteen Kingdoms. Although the legacy three-tier system was still in formal effect, rulers of various kingdoms had defined and re-defined provinces until they became increasingly sub-divided, blurring the distinction between provinces (zhou) and commanderies (jun) and reflecting the chaos of China at the time.
Sui and Tang dynasties
China was finally re-united by Emperor Wen of the Sui (581–618) in 589. As there were already over 100 provinces, the province and commandery levels of the administration were merged into one level, typically rendered in English as prefecture, marking the end of the commandery. Some Emperors preferred "jun" to refer to this level of administration, but most used "zhou" and the political function was the same, regardless. By the end of the Tang Dynasty the term jun saw no more use in China (and a new higher tier of administrative unit, the circuit (dao) had been introduced, bringing back a three-tier system).
Taiwan (1920–1945)
During 1920–1945, when Taiwan was under Japanese rule, there were divisions called 郡 (Mandarin: jùn, Japanese: gun). They are based on the Districts of Japan (郡 gun), which in turn were based on ancient Chinese jùn. Their officers were known as 郡守 (Mandarin: jùnshǒu, Japanese: gunshu). This was the title of ancient administrators of the Chinese jun (see below), and had never existed in Japan. By the end of 1945, there were 51 jun/kun in Taiwan.
Administrative hierarchy
In the Warring States period, the chief administrative officers of the areas were known as jun administrators (, , literally "defender of the jun"). In the Han dynasty, the position of junshou was renamed grand administrator (, . "Grand Defender"). Both terms are also translated as "governor". A grand administrator drew an annual salary of 2,000 dan () of grain according to the pinzhi (, pǐnzhì) system of administrative rank. Many former grand administrators were promoted to the posts of the Three Ducal Ministers or Nine Ministers later in their careers.
Other uses
In contemporary Chinese language, the word is also used to translate the administrative division Shire in English language. The counties of the United Kingdom and the United States are also translated as jùn.
See also
Zhou, also translated as prefecture, and often poetically referred to as jun after Tang dynasty, alluding to its historical equivalents
Fu, also translated as prefecture, and often poetically referred to as jun in the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty
Government of the Han dynasty
, for administrative divisions in other countries that are also called . All of them were based on or inspired by the ancient Chinese jun, but their nature have become quite different from the original concept.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian (Shi Ji).
01
Administrative divisions of ancient China
Former administrative divisions of China
History of Imperial China | [
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246400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%20Rock | Toronto Rock | The Toronto Rock are a professional box lacrosse franchise based in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. They are members of the North Division of the National Lacrosse League (NLL). The team was the first Canadian franchise in the NLL. Oakville resident Jamie Dawick is the current owner of the Rock, purchasing the team after the 2009 season. Since 2014, Dawick has also served as their general manager. The Rock play their home games at FirstOntario Centre which they currently share with both the Hamilton Bulldogs of the OHL and the Hamilton Honey Badgers of the CEBL.
The franchise was founded in 1998 as the Ontario Raiders in Hamilton. The Raiders played at Copps Coliseum before being sold to a group of investors led by then Toronto Maple Leafs Assistant GM Bill Watters, who relocated the franchise to Toronto. They were subsequently renamed the "Toronto Rock", and began play at Maple Leaf Gardens in the 1999 season. The Toronto Rock won their 6th league championship on May 15, 2011. They hold a tie for the most championships in league history with the Philadelphia Wings. In the 2001 season, the Rock moved from the Maple Leaf Gardens to Scotiabank Arena (then known as Air Canada Centre) where they played for 20 seasons. On May 11, 2021, the team announced the relocation from Scotiabank Arena in Toronto to FirstOntario Centre in Hamilton, beginning with the 2021–22 NLL season in December. The team continues to represent Toronto while playing home games in Hamilton.
History
The franchise was founded as an NLL expansion team in Hamilton, Ontario and began play in the 1998 season. They were known as the Ontario Raiders, and played their home games at Copps Coliseum. Former Buffalo Bandits coach Les Bartley was hired to coach the new team, and he lured former Bandit Jim Veltman to join him, becoming the Raiders' captain. The team finished a respectable 6–6 in their inaugural season, but missed the playoffs on a tie-breaker. Following the season, losses of $250,000 forced owner Chris Fritz to look for partners. Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment considered purchasing the team, but ultimately a group which included Bill Watters, the then Assistant General Manager of the Toronto Maple Leafs, Paul Beeston, former president of the Toronto Blue Jays, Tie Domi, player for the Maple Leafs, and Bobby Orr, former NHL player, bought it for $250,000 and promptly relocated the team to Toronto's Maple Leaf Gardens where they rebranded it the Toronto Rock.
Championships/Dynasty era (1999–2005)
In 1999, their first year in Toronto, the Rock won their first NLL Championship, defeating the Rochester Knighthawks 13–10 in Toronto. The next year, the Rock became the first team since the 1994-95 Wings to win back-to-back championships, once again defeating the Knighthawks. That game featured Kaleb Toth's dramatic game-winning goal with a second left on the clock, in the last-ever professional sporting event held at Maple Leaf Gardens.
2001 saw the Rock follow the Leafs to the Air Canada Centre, where they advanced to the championship game once again. But the visiting Philadelphia Wings held the Rock to just eight goals, and won their sixth championship. The next season, the Rock recovered from the championship game loss by finishing first overall for the fourth straight year. They advanced to the championship game once again, but for the first time as the visiting team. The Rock defeated the Albany Attack in Albany 13–12. 2002 was also one of the most productive years for the Rock in terms of awards; in addition to winning the Champion's Cup, three players were honoured by the league. Blaine Manning was named Rookie of the Year, Pat Coyle was named Defensive Player of the Year, and captain Jim Veltman was given the Sportsmanship Award.
In 2003, Toronto advanced to the championship game for the fifth straight year, once again as the visitors. The game was held in Rochester, where Rock had never won a game, but they prevailed in the lowest-scoring championship game in NLL history, winning 8–6.
Shortly before the 2004 season began, head coach and GM Les Bartley announced that he was fighting colon cancer, and was stepping down. Assistant coaches Ed Comeau and Derek Keenan were named interim coach and interim GM respectively. After a 2–4 start to the season, Comeau and Keenan were fired, and the Rock hired Terry Sanderson to try to turn the team around. The Rock went 8-2 the rest of the season, earning a first round bye after clinching the East Division regular season crown. However, the Buffalo Bandits came to town and upset the Rock 19–10, sending the Bandits to the first NLL championship game not featuring the Rock since they joined the league. Jim Veltman was honoured by the league by being named league MVP. This was the first year in the 10-year history of the award that it did not go to Gary Gait, Paul Gait, or John Tavares and the first Toronto Rock player to be named league MVP.
In 2005, the Rock defeated the Rochester Knighthawks in the East Division Final by a score of 12–10 in front of approximately 17,200 fans at the Air Canada Centre. The Rock went on to defeat the Arizona Sting with a 19–13 win in front of an NLL record crowd of 19,432, becoming NLL champions for the fifth time in seven years and solidifying their distinction as an NLL dynasty. Colin Doyle was named league MVP, the second straight year that the award was won by a Rock player.
Despite the championship, the season ended on a sad note for the Rock franchise, as Les Bartley died of cancer at the age of 51 the day after the championship game. Bartley is remembered as an exceptional coach, having led the Toronto Rock to NLL Championships in 1999, 2000, 2002, and 2003.
In 2004, the NLL Coach of the Year Award was renamed the Les Bartley Award in honour of Bartley.
Kloepfer era (2006–2009)
From 1999 to 2005, the Rock finished either first overall or first in their division every year, winning five championships. The next few years, however, would bring the franchise back down to Earth. The Rock struggled during the early part of the 2006 season; however, their record balanced out to 8–8 at season's end. They made the playoffs, only to be defeated by the first place Knighthawks at Blue Cross Arena in Rochester by a score of 16–8. Head coach and GM Terry Sanderson was fired after the season, and was replaced by new Director of Lacrosse Operations Mike Kloepfer and new head coach Glenn Clark. Clark had played eight seasons with the Rock and had just finished an All-Star season as a member of the Philadelphia Wings, but retired from playing to take the head coaching job with his old club.
Kloepfer made his mark on the team quickly, trading perennial All-Star, former Rookie of the Year and league MVP Colin Doyle to the San Jose Stealth along with Darren Halls and a draft pick for first overall draft pick Ryan Benesch, Kevin Fines, Chad Thompson and two draft picks. Benesch had a very good rookie year, scoring 33 goals and winning the Rookie of the Year award, but the Rock under rookie coach Clark struggled to a worst-ever 6–10 record, barely making the playoffs. They lost the division semifinal against Rochester, who would go on to win their first championship since 1997.
In 2007, the Toronto Rock established an award also called the Les Bartley Award, given to "the Rock player that best exemplifies Les' emphasis on the importance of character and commitment to the team". The first winner of this award was team captain Jim Veltman.
Toronto's struggles continued in 2008, as the Rock lost their last five games of the season. They finished below .500 for the second straight year, and for the first time since their move to Toronto in 1999, the Rock finished out of the playoffs. Despite the losing season, goaltender Bob Watson was named Goaltender of the Year. 2008 also featured the final season of the only captain the Rock franchise had ever had, Jim Veltman. Veltman retired after fifteen seasons in the NLL, winning seven championships (two with the Bandits and five with the Rock). Chris Driscoll was named the new Rock captain.
After starting the 2009 season with a 1–2 record, the Rock relieved Clark and assistant coach Veltman and Terry Bullen of their coaching duties, and hired former Chicago and Colorado coach Jamie Batley as the new Rock head coach. Clark and Bullen were fired, and Veltman was retained in an advisory position. The coaching change was not enough to propel the Rock back into the playoffs, however. They finished last in the East and out of the playoffs for the second straight year. Director of Lacrosse Operations Mike Kloepfer resigned shortly after the season ended.
Jamie Dawick era (2009–present)
On June 10, 2009, the Rock announced that former GM and coach Terry Sanderson had been brought back as the new GM. Jamie Batley was also told by the Rock that he would not be returning as head coach. At the end of the month, the team announced that the Rock had been sold to Oakville-based businessman James Dawick, with Waters saying the price was "in the seven figures." Two weeks later, former Calgary Roughnecks head coach Troy Cordingley was named as the new coach, giving the Rock an entirely new staff from ownership on down.
Sanderson wasted no time in the rebuilding efforts, most notably re-acquiring Colin Doyle from Washington in exchange for Lewis Ratcliff, Tyler Codron and Joel Dalgarno.
He also traded Luke Wiles to Washington and Bill McGlone to Philadelphia, and re-acquiring former Rock defender Sandy Chapman from Rochester. He then traded team captain Chris Driscoll to the Buffalo Bandits for another former Rock defender Phil Sanderson, and acquired Mike Hominuck from Edmonton and Pat McCready from Buffalo, both for draft picks.
The moves paid off immediately, as the Rock began the 2010 season 6-1 en route to a 9–7 record. This was good for second place in the East and the Rock's first playoff berth in four years. In the playoffs, the Rock defeated Buffalo and Orlando on their way to their seventh Championship game, and first since 2005. The Washington Stealth, in their first season in Everett, Washington, proved too strong for the Rock and won the Championship 15–11.
In 2011, the Rock found themselves in the Championship game for the second straight year against the Washington Stealth, this time winning 8–7.
In August 2011, Dawick broke ground on constructing the new $20 million-dollar, privately financed Toronto Rock Athletic Centre (TRAC) in Oakville. The lacrosse facility, which opened in 2012, features two pads, one of which seats 500 fans, and serves as the Rock's practice facility as well as the team's offices. The arena has played host to exhibition NLL games, the NLL Entry Draft and the NLL Combine.
On May 11, 2021, Dawick announced that the Rock would relocate from Scotiabank Arena in Toronto to FirstOntario Centre in Hamilton, Ontario with a five-year arena lease with an option to extend the agreement afterwards. Their relocation will commence in time for the beginning of the 2022 NLL season in December 2021. The team name will not be changed despite the relocation to Hamilton due their branding as a team that has "always represented the GTHA".
Awards and honours
Retired numbers
NLL Hall of Fame members
Les Bartley (Class of 2006)
Pat Coyle (Class of 2014)
Johnny Mouradian (Class of 2008)
Jim Veltman (Class of 2009)
Dan Stroup (Class of 2010)
Bob Watson (Class of 2011)
Steve Dietrich (Class of 2012)
Terry Sanderson (Class of 2015)
Current roster
All-time record
Notes
Playoff results
Head coaching history
† Bullen served as head coach during Clark's suspension.
See also
Toronto Rock seasons
Sports in Hamilton, Ontario
References
External links
National Lacrosse League teams
Sports teams in Hamilton, Ontario
Ro
1998 establishments in Ontario
Lacrosse clubs established in 1998 | [
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246401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%20Young%20Guitar%20Slinger | Hip Young Guitar Slinger | Hip Young Guitar Slinger is a compilation album of Jimmy Page's pre-Led Zeppelin studio sessions, recorded between 1962 and 1966. It was released on 4 September 2000.
It is not certain whether Page actually played on every track. For instance, the history section of the Lancastrians' official website specifically states that he did not play on "We'll Sing in the Sunshine" – although he did play on the B-side, "Was She Tall".
Likewise, officially Page has been credited with playing acoustic twelve string guitar on two tracks on The Kinks' debut album, specifically on "I'm a Lover Not a Fighter" and "I've Been Driving On Bald Mountain", and possibly on the B-side "I Gotta Move", but not on "Bald Headed Woman" or "Revenge". Page appeared on the album Kinky Music by the "Larry Page Orchestra" on which the track "Revenge" was covered Larry Page, being the Kinks' then manager and co-writer of "Revenge".
Many tracks of this collection (on disc 2) are from the 1968/69 Blues Anytime series.
Track listing
Disc 1
Carter-Lewis and the Southerners – "Who Told You?" (Barry White, Geoffrey Goddard)
Gregory Phillips – "Angie" (Jean Slater, Tom Springfield)
Gregory Phillips – "Please Believe Me" (Johnny Beveridge, Peter Oakman)
Carter-Lewis and the Southerners – "Somebody Told My Girl" (John Carter, Ken Lewis)
Carter-Lewis and the Southerners – "Skinny Minnie" (Arrett "Rusty" Keefer, Bill Haley, Catherine Cafra, Milton Gabler)
Wayne Gibson and Dynamic Sounds – "Kelly" (Del Shannon, Maron McKenzie)
Wayne Gibson and Dynamic Sounds – "See You Later, Alligator" (Robert Guidry)
The Kinks – "Revenge" (Larry Page, Ray Davies)
The Kinks – "Bald Headed Woman" (Traditional)
The First Gear – "A Certain Girl" (Naomi Neville)
The First Gear – "Leave My Kitten Alone" (James McDougal, Little Willie John, Titus Turner)
The Primitives – "Help Me" (Ralph Bass, Willie Dixon)
The Primitives – "Let Them Talk" (Jeffrey Farthing, John E. Soul)
The Lancastrians – "We'll Sing in the Sunshine" (Gale Garnett)
The Lancastrians – "Was She Tall" (Barry Langtree)
The Primitives – "You Said" (Geoff Tindell)
The Primitives – "How Do You Feel" (John E. Soul)
The First Gear – "The ‘In’ Crowd" (Jimmy Page)
The First Gear – "Gotta Make Their Future Bright" (Michael Purchell, Shel Talmy)
The Fifth Avenue – "The Bells of Rhymney" (Idris Davies, Pete Seeger)
The Fifth Avenue – "Just Like Anyone Would Do" (Jimmy Page)
Nico – "I'm Not Sayin'" (Gordon Lightfoot)
Nico – "The Last Mile" (Andrew Loog Oldham, Jimmy Page)
Gregory Phillips – "Down in the Boondocks" (Joe South)
Gregory Phillips – "That's the One" (Andrew Loog Oldham, Jimmy Page)
The Masterminds – "She Belongs to Me" (Bob Dylan)
The Masterminds – "Taken My Love" (Doug Meakin, George Cassidy)
Disc 2
John Mayall's Bluesbreakers – "I'm Your Witchdoctor" (John Mayall)
John Mayall's Bluesbreakers – "Telephone Blues" (John Mayall)
John Mayall and The Bluesbreakers With Eric Clapton – "On Top of the World" (John Mayall)
Les Fleur de Lys – "Moondreams" (Norman Petty)
Les Fleur de Lys – "Wait for Me" (Jimmy Page)
The Lancastrians – "The World Keeps Going Round" (Ray Davies)
The Lancastrians – "Not the Same Anymore" (Kevin Heywood)
The Factotums – "Can't Go Home Anymore My Love" (Denver Gerrard)
Les Fleur de Lys – "Circles" (Pete Townshend)
Les Fleur de Lys – "So, Come On" (Frank Smith, Phil Sawyer)
Twice as Much – "Sittin' on a Fence" (Mick Jagger, Keith Richards)
Twice as Much – "Step Out of Line" (Andrew Rose, David Skinner)
Chris Farlowe – "Moanin'" (Bobby Timmons, Jon Hendricks)
Eric Clapton and Jimmy Page – "Choker" (Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page)
Eric Clapton and Jimmy Page – "Freight Loader" (Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page)
Eric Clapton and Jimmy Page – "Miles Road" (Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page)
Eric Clapton and Jimmy Page – "Draggin' My Tail" (Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page)
All Stars Featuring Jimmy Page – "L.A. Breakdown" (Jimmy Page)
All Stars Featuring Jimmy Page – "Down in the Boots" (Jimmy Page)
Eric Clapton – "Snake Drive" (Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page)
Eric Clapton – "West Coast Idea" (Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page)
Eric Clapton – "Tribute to Elmore" (Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page)
The All Stars with Jeff Beck – "Chuckles" (Jimmy Page)
The All Stars with Jeff Beck – "Steelin'" (Jimmy Page)
The All Stars with Nicky Hopkins – "Piano Shuffle" (Jimmy Page)
Cyril Davies and The All Stars – "Not Fade Away" (Charles Hardin, Norman Petty)
References
Jimmy Page albums
2000 compilation albums
Sequel Records albums | [
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246403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal%20Express | Montreal Express | The Montreal Express was a member of the National Lacrosse League during the 2002 season. They played at the Molson Center in Montreal, Quebec. They were inactive during the 2003 and 2004 seasons. The team remained inactive and the franchise was returned to the NLL after the 2004 season. The NLL in turn sold the rights to the franchise to the Minnesota Swarm for the 2005 NLL season.
The first-ever Express game was a record-setting affair, with the Express defeating their expansion cousins the Calgary Roughnecks by a final score of 32-17. New NLL records for most goals by one team (32), most goals by two teams (49), and most penalty minutes by two teams (155) were all set in this game.
All time Record
2001–02 schedule
Exp
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
Lacrosse clubs established in 2002
Lacrosse clubs disestablished in 2004
2002 establishments in Quebec
2004 disestablishments in Quebec | [
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246407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bugaloos | The Bugaloos | The Bugaloos is an American children's television series, produced by brothers Sid and Marty Krofft, that aired on NBC on Saturday mornings from 1970 to 1972. Reruns of the show aired in daily syndication from 1978 to 1985 as part of the "Krofft Superstars" package with six other Krofft series. The show features a musical group composed of four British teenagers in insect-themed outfits, constantly beset by the evil machinations of the talent-challenged Benita Bizarre, played by comedian Martha Raye.
Premise
The show takes place in the fantasy setting of Tranquility Forest. The central characters are a popular band of teenage musicians named the Bugaloos, who wear insect-themed outfits with wings/antennae and can fly using their wings (although they are occasionally shown flying on surfboards). Though peace-loving and hippie-like, the Bugaloos are pursued by an ugly, evil, jealous old crone named Benita Bizarre, who lives in a gigantic jukebox and uses it to broadcast her own brand of blaring, obnoxious, unpleasant "music". A dreadful singer, Benita is furious at the popularity of the Bugaloos' more melodic, upbeat sound and she plots elaborate, unsuccessful schemes to either destroy or enslave them. She frequently makes use of a powerful ultrasonic weapon called the Stereo Zapper, which can render its victim unconscious in seconds. The Bugaloos are sometimes seen traveling around in their "Bugaloo Buggy", a colorful dune buggy custom made for the show by car builder George Barris.
Production and airing
Touted as the British version of The Monkees, The Bugaloos attracted more than 5,000 young actors and actresses to audition in spring 1970 for the show's four lead roles, each having to demonstrate aptitude in dance, singing and acting.
Among those auditioning were Elton John's future manager John Reid and Phil Collins, who joined the art rock band Genesis later that year. Reid and Collins were two of the three finalists for the role of "I.Q." given to Scottish musician John McIndoe. "If one of those guys had gotten it instead of me, rock-'n'-roll history might have changed," McIndoe later joked. "Whenever I see them, I say, 'Hey guys, you were lucky you didn't get the part'."
The show was taped in Los Angeles, California. Seventeen episodes of the series were produced. Like its predecessor, H. R. Pufnstuf (1969), The Bugaloos ran for only one season (1970–1971) on NBC, with reruns airing the following year (1971–1972). Following production of the first season, the Kroffts tried shooting for a second season and also had a movie deal in the works with Columbia Pictures. However, miscommunication with the actors resulted in their returning to the UK that December against the Kroffts' wishes. As a result, a potential second season was ultimately scrapped, along with plans for a movie which was shelved due to the bankruptcy of Columbia Pictures.
Although the show featured British actors, it was not screened in the U.K.
The Bugaloos was fitted with an adult laugh track, as was common practice at the time — the inclusion of which the Kroffts were initially against. Sid Krofft commented "We were sort of against that, but Si Rose — being in sitcoms — he felt that when the show was put together that the children would not know when to laugh." Marty Krofft added "the bottom line — it's sad — you gotta tell them when it's funny. And the laugh track, (Si) was right. It was necessary, as much as we were always looking to have a real laugh track, a real audience. In comedies, if you don't have them (laugh track), you're in big trouble, because if you don't hear a laugh track, it's not funny. And that's the way the audience (at home) was programmed to view these shows." When discussing the show's production techniques for the DVD commentary track in 2006, series stars Caroline Ellis and John Philpott addressed the laugh track. "I was never one for the American canned laughter, because sometimes it's too much," said Ellis. She added, however, that it does help in creating "the atmosphere for the reaction." Philpott added that, unlike their UK counterparts, US viewing audiences at the time had become accustomed to hearing laughter, saying, "I think you find yourself genuinely laughing more if you are prompted to laugh along with the canned laughter."
Characters
The Bugaloos
I.Q. (John McIndoe) – a grasshopper who plays the guitar and sings lead vocals.
Harmony (Wayne Laryea) – a bumblebee who plays the keyboard and sings backup vocals.
Courage (John Philpott) – a ladybug who plays the drums and sings backup vocals.
Joy (Caroline Ellis) – a butterfly who plays percussion and also sings lead and backup vocals.
Villains
Benita Bizarre (Martha Raye) – a jealous, untalented, unattractive, evil old crone. Raye also appeared the same year in the H.R. Pufnstuf movie as the Boss Witch, which led to her getting the role of Benita.
Woofer and Tweeter (performed by Joy Campbell and Van Snowden, voiced by Walker Edmiston and Joan Gerber) – two anthropomorphic stereo speakers who are Benita's two bumbling, sycophantic henchmen.
Funky Rat (performed by Sharon Baird, voiced by Walker Edmiston) – Benita's German-accented chauffeur and chief flunky. The Funky Rat costume was also used for essentially the same role as Boss Witch's Chauffeur Heinrich Rat in Pufnstuf.
Supporting characters
Sparky (performed by Billy Barty, voiced by Walker Edmiston impersonating Frank Fontaine) – a firefly whom the Bugaloos took in.
Nutty Bird – a local messenger who periodically delivers messages to and from the Bugaloos.
Peter Platter (voiced by Walker Edmiston) – a DJ for radio station KOOK in nearby Rock City.
Mike (voiced by Joan Gerber) – Peter Platters's smart-alecky talking microphone.
Magico The Magician (voiced by Walker Edmiston) – a frog magician and hypnotist extraordinaire.
Gina Lolawattage (voiced by Joan Gerber, impersonating Mae West) – a firefly singer and actress who becomes smitten with her #1 fan Sparky.
Bluebell Flower (voiced by Joan Gerber) – a giant talking flower who alerts the Bugaloos of impending danger, such as Benita's latest schemes, serving as their "alarm bell".
The Grapevine (voiced by Joan Gerber) – a bunch of talking grapes who aid Bluebell in giving the Bugaloos the latest bad news (a visual take on the hit Motown song "I Heard it Through the Grapevine").
Music
The show's music director was Hal Yoergler, who also wrote many of the show's songs and produced the Bugaloos album released in 1970. The title song's lyrics were written by Norman Gimbel, and its music was composed by Charles Fox. Gimbel and Fox were also the songwriters of "Killing Me Softly with His Song" and the theme songs to films and programs such as Last American Hero ("I Got A Name," sung by Jim Croce), Happy Days, Laverne and Shirley, and The New Adventures of Wonder Woman. A cover of the Bugaloos theme performed by Collective Soul is included on the 1995 tribute album Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for MCA Records.
The Bugaloos released an album in 1970 (Capitol Records ST-621), featuring studio-recorded versions of some of the songs performed on the show. The track list is as follows:
Side 1
"If You Become a Bugaloo"
"The Senses of Our World"
"For a Friend"
"Believe"
"It's New to You"
Side 2
"Fly Away With Us"
"Older Woman"
"Just the Memory Stays Around"
"Gna Gna Gna Gna Gna"
"Castles in the Air"
"The Bugaloos (Theme Song)"
One single was released in conjunction with the album: "For a Friend"/"The Senses of Our World" (Capitol 2946). "For a Friend" charted as a minor hit, appearing on Billboard the week of December 18, 1970, at No. 118.
The track "Just the Memory Stays Around" did not appear in any episode, and is available only on the LP. The LP was re-released on CD in January 2000 by Vivid Sound in Japan and in 2006 by Cherry Red Records of London.
The Bugaloos recorded 15 songs. In addition to the 11 that appear on the released album, four additional songs appeared on the television show, but remain unreleased:
"Sparky"
"I'm As Happy As Can Be"
"I Really Love You"
"Flicker Town"
List of episodes
Home video
The complete Bugaloos series was released on DVD in May 2006 by Rhino Entertainment. The set contained all 17 digitally remastered, original uncut broadcast episodes, with audio commentary on the pilot episode from creator Sid Krofft and director Tony Charmoli. Cast members John Philpott, Caroline Ellis and John McIndoe also provided audio commentary on some episodes and participated in interviews. Also included were a video jukebox with a selection of songs from the episodes, a photo gallery and a Bugaloos Interactive I. Q. Test hosted by McIndoe.
Revival
At Comic Con 2015, Sid and Marty Krofft revealed they were looking to create an updated version of The Bugaloos as a preschool television series. It was rumored Cyndi Lauper would portray Benita Bizarre. At 2017's Comic Con, they released a teaser trailer of the pilot produced for Nickelodeon with clips of the new series with Lise Simms as Benita Bizarre. However, during a May 2018 radio interview with creator Marty Krofft, Marty revealed that the pilot was not picked up by Nickelodeon and was scrapped. He said they were reshooting the pilot and that Randy Jackson will be involved with the music.
In popular culture
The Bugaloos are the binding childhood memory that the two main protagonists in the 2000 film The Tao of Steve discover as they begin to bond, as Syd (Greer Goodman) and Dex (Donal Logue) find out that they both had Bugaloos stickers on their respective childhood Josie and the Pussycats lunchboxes.
The Bugaloos' song "Senses of Our World" was sampled by The Chemical Brothers in their track "The Darkness That You Fear".
See also
The Monkees (1966–68)
Kidd Video (1984–85)
References
External links
World of Krofft, featuring "Krofft Kollectibles Museum"
bugaloos.net/
1970s American children's comedy television series
1970s American musical comedy television series
1970 American television series debuts
1972 American television series endings
Television series about insects
Television series about teenagers
Fictional musical groups
Musical groups established in 1970
NBC original programming
Television series about radio
Television series based on singers and musicians
Television series by Sid and Marty Krofft Television Productions
Television series by CBS Studios
American television shows featuring puppetry | [
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] |
246408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jose%20Stealth | San Jose Stealth | The San Jose Stealth were a member of the National Lacrosse League, the professional box lacrosse league of North America from 2004 until 2009. They played at the HP Pavilion at San Jose, which is also the home of the NHL's San Jose Sharks and the AFL's San Jose SaberCats. They relocated to San Jose, California in 2003, beginning play in the 2004 NLL season. They had previously been the Albany Attack from 2000 to 2003.
On June 17, 2009, the Stealth announced they were moving to Everett, Washington effective immediately, where they would be known as the Washington Stealth. In 2014 they moved to Vancouver and are currently playing as the Vancouver Warriors.
Awards and honors
All time record
Playoff results
See also
Lacrosse
National Lacrosse League
Box lacrosse
Albany Attack
Washington Stealth
Vancouver Stealth
References
San Jose team page at the Outsider's Guide to the NLL
See also
San Jose Stealth seasons
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
Lacrosse clubs established in 2004
Lacrosse clubs disestablished in 2009
Lacrosse teams in California
Sports teams in San Jose, California
2004 establishments in California
2009 disestablishments in California | [
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246410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary%20Roughnecks | Calgary Roughnecks | The Calgary Roughnecks are a professional box lacrosse team based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. They are members of the Western Division of the National Lacrosse League (NLL) and play their home games on WestJet Field at the Scotiabank Saddledome. The team name is derived from the roughnecks who work drilling rigs in Alberta's oil and gas industry. The team is affectionately known by fans as the Riggers.
The Roughnecks were founded in 2001, their first season was 2002, and they have qualified for the post-season every year from 2003 to 2016. They have won three division championships (2005, 2009, 2011) and have captured the NLL Cup as NLL champions three times. Calgary won all three titles on their home floor, defeating the Buffalo Bandits in 2004, the New York Titans in 2009, and the Bandits again in 2019.
History
Team beginnings
The National Lacrosse League announced on March 28, 2001, that it had awarded an expansion franchise to a group of four owners led by Brad Banister. The idea for the team was formed a year earlier during Calgary's famous Canada Day lacrosse tournament where it was suggested that professional lacrosse could work in Calgary. Within eight weeks of Banister contacting the league, Calgary was announced as the tenth franchise in the NLL at a cost of $500,000. The new team did not immediately announce its nickname, though Banister stated it would relate to the oilpatch. The name was later announced as the "Roughnecks", named after workers on an oil rig.
Kevin Melnyk was installed as the coach and general manager, but as the season approached, Banister felt that the team was in danger of not being prepared for the season, replaced Melnyk. He took over as general manager, and hired Chris Hall to be the coach. The pair sought to build a more veteran team that is typical for an expansion franchise, and traded their first draft pick, Blaine Manning, to the Toronto Rock for Calgary native Kaleb Toth, who was expected to be the team's marquee player.
The team made its debut on November 24, 2001, against the Montreal Express, a fellow expansion team. The Roughnecks lost the game 32–17 in front of 9,517 fans. The score shattered league records for total goals in a game with 49, and Montreal set a new mark for goals by one team. Another loss to the Express followed five days later before the Roughnecks earned their first win in franchise history on December 2 with a 17–11 defeat on the road versus the Ottawa Rebel. The Roughnecks then won three of their next four games, including their first home win on December 14, against the Columbus Landsharks. The team lost its last nine games, however, to finish with a 4–12 record.
First championship
In the 2002-2003 season, the Roughnecks enhanced their record to 9-7, with a very successful 6-2 record at home. Leading the team with 63 points was Tracey Kelusky. Close behind him was Kaleb Toth with 61 points. Before the season started Brad Banister promised the fans the playoffs and they were successful in achieving this goal. They travelled to Buffalo for the first playoff game in franchise history. The team lost 16-9 against the Buffalo Bandits to get knocked out of the playoffs.
The Roughnecks continued their improvement in the 2003-2004 season with a record of 10-6. Lewis Ratcliff lead the team with 71 points. Tracey Kelusky finished second with 69. Again Banister predicted a playoff entry and this time he predicted a home game to boot. Finishing third in the West the only way to get a home playoff game was to meet the third place team from the East. In the playoffs, the Roughnecks beat the San Jose Stealth 15-14 on the road to advance to the conference final. Again on the road, the Roughnecks beat the Colorado Mammoth with a final score of 13-11. On May 7, 2004, the Roughnecks hosted the championship game against the Buffalo Bandits, who had knocked them out of the playoff the previous year. Calgary won the Champion's Cup by beating the Bandits 14-11 in front of a home crowd of 19,289 in the Pengrowth Saddledome.
For the 2004-2005 season former Roughneck player and assistant coach Dave Bremner was hired as general manager.
The Roughnecks hosted the 2005 NLL All Star Game on February 26, 2005. This was the first NLL game televised nationally in the United States; it was broadcast on NBC. Roughnecks' captain Kelusky took home the Most Valuable Player award as the East beat the West in an 11-10 overtime win. The 2005 season saw the Roughnecks come in first place in the Western Conference for the first time in franchise history. This garnered them a bye in the first round of the playoffs. On April 30, they hosted the Arizona Sting for the conference title and lost with a score of 19-15.
Second championship
Prior to the 2005-2006 season the Roughnecks hired on former Buffalo GM Kurt Silcott to replace Dave Bremner and become the fourth GM in team history.
After beginning the 2007 NLL season 4-1, the Roughnecks lost three straight games, and Silcott fired the only head coach in Roughnecks history, Chris Hall. Silcott filled in as interim head coach for one game, and then hired former Roughnecks player Jeff Dowling as the second head coach in Roughnecks history on March 9, 2007. He was replaced as Head Coach for the 2008 season by Troy Cordingley, while former Toronto Rock Head Coach Terry Sanderson was added as Assistant Coach.
In 2008, Calgary finished 3rd in the West with a 7-9 record, beat Colorado in the division semi-final, but lost in the division final to the Portland LumberJax. Despite this relatively successful season, general manager Kurt Silcott was fired. Team President Brad Banister gave no reason for the firing other than to say that "the team and Silcott are heading into different directions, and this move would allow both parties to succeed to their full potential" and that he would take over as interim GM.
The 2009 season was the most successful in team history. After opening the year with a record five straight wins, the Roughnecks finished the season 12-4. This allowed Calgary to take first overall in the NLL for the first time ever. They would go on to defeat the Colorado Mammoth and San Jose Stealth in the playoffs and then triumph over the New York Titans 12-10 in the Champion's Cup final to win their first NLL championship since 2004.
Third championship
The 2019 season was up and down for the Roughnecks and they finished the season 10-8. However, they ended it on a winning streak and then upset the suddenly-slumping San Diego Seals in the opening round by a score of 12-11 in San Diego. They then faced the Colorado Mammoth, who had similarly upset the defending champion Saskatchewan Rush and defeated them 8-4 in the West Final in Calgary in one of the lowest-scoring playoff games in NLL history.
This set them up for a best-of-three series against the Buffalo Bandits, which the Roughnecks swept with a 10-7 victory in Game 1 in Buffalo on May 18, and a 14-13 victory in an overtime thriller in Game 2 in Calgary on May 25. Rhys Duch scored the overtime winning goal.
New ownership
Banister announced shortly before the 2011 season began that he had placed the team for sale. He had talks with the National Hockey League's (NHL) Calgary Flames, who indicated at the time they were not interested in the team. Midway through the season, Banister announced that he was late in meeting payroll and that the team was in danger of folding during the season. In a press release, he made an impassioned plea for the city's business community to step forward and save the team.
The announcement touched off several weeks of speculation about the team, its future, and the potential for the Flames to purchase the team. On the floor, the team shrugged off the team's instability, finishing with the best record in the NLL at 11–5. As they were set to face the Colorado Mammoth in the West semi-final, Banister put out another plea to the fans for support in the playoff game, threatening to turn the West final, which Calgary would have had the right to host, to their opponent for the game. The Roughnecks defeated the Mammoth, and played the West final at home, but were eliminated by the Washington Stealth in an upset by a 10–8 score.
The team's future was settled in the off-season, as Banister announced on June 14, 2011, that the Flames had purchased the team, becoming the third NHL franchise to operate an NLL team after the Mammoth and Bandits. As part of the deal, it was announced that Banister would assist in the team's transition period, and was replaced as general manager by former Calgary Herald writer and Flames employee Mike Board.
Mascot
Howie, the honey badger, is the team's official mascot. The Roughnecks introduced the new mascot at a media event on January 26, 2012, and later unveiled the name after holding a naming contest. The team's former mascot is Derrick, an oilpatch rigger.
Current roster
All-time record
Playoff results
Awards and honours
Head coaching history
Hall of Famers
Steve Dietrich (Class of 2012)
Chris Hall (Class of 2014)
Tracy Kelusky (Class of 2016)
Josh Sanderson (Class of 2016)
See also
Calgary Roughnecks seasons
References
External links
Roughnecks official website
Roughnecks, Calgary
National Lacrosse League teams
Lacrosse clubs established in 2001
Lacrosse teams in Alberta
2001 establishments in Alberta
Calgary Sports and Entertainment | [
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246411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20South%20Africa | Music of South Africa | The South African music scene includes both popular (jive) and folk forms like Zulu isicathamiya singing and harmonic mbaqanga. South Africa has a global music industry.
Pre-20th-century history
Early records of music in southern Africa indicate a fusion of cultural traditions: African, European and Asian.
Modern country's early musician Enoch Sontonga wrote the Southern African national anthem Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika in 1897. By the end of the nineteenth century, South African cities such as Cape Town were large enough to attract foreign musicians, especially American ragtime players. In the 1890s Orpheus McAdoo's Jubilee Singers popularised African-American spirituals.
Marabi
In the early-twentieth century governmental restrictions on black people increased, including a nightly curfew which kept the nightlife in Johannesburg relatively small for a city of its size (then the largest city south of the Sahara). Marabi, a style from the slums of Johannesburg, was the early "popular music" of the townships and urban centres of South Africa.
Practitioners played marabi on pianos with accompaniment from pebble-filled cans, often in shebeens, establishments that illegally served alcohol to black people. By the 1930s, however, marabi had incorporated new instruments - guitars, concertinas and banjos - and new styles of marabi had sprung up. These included a marabi/swing fusion called African jazz and jive, a generic term for any popular marabi style of music.
Pre war, in the 1930s, when Eric Gallo's Brunswick Gramophone House sent several South African musicians to London to record for Singer Records. Gallo went on to produce music in South Africa, beginning in 1933. His company, Gallo Record Company, remains the largest and most successful label in South Africa, having had acclaimed artists such as Solomon Linda, Ladysmith Black Mambazo, Miriam Makeba, Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens and many more pass through the recording studios.
Marabi, which happens to be a keyboard style of play traceable to the 1920s are mostly made up of Jazz with instruments like guitar and banjo.
Gospel
In the early twentieth century, Zionist Christian churches spread across South Africa. They incorporated African musical elements into their worship, thus inventing South African gospel music, which remains one of the most popular forms of music in the country today.
Classical and art music
Classical and art music in South Africa reached its zenith of popularity in the mid-20th century and was primarily composed by a triumvirate of Afrikaner composers known as the "fathers of South African art music." These composers were Arnold van Wyk, Hubert du Plessis, and Stefans Grové. All three composers were White South Africans, yet harbored very different views on Apartheid, which was state policy at the time. Stefans Grové was one of the first white composers to incorporate Black African music into his compositions, and openly rejected apartheid ideals in an effort to fuse his "Western art and his physical, African space." Arnold Van Wyk became known for his government-endorsed nationalistic compositions, though he himself was reluctant to support the apartheid administration. Hubert Du Plessis, on the other hand, was a very strong Afrikaner nationalist, and experienced a "growing consciousness" of his heritage which made him proud to compose such pieces. Du Plessis' works included chamber music, orchestral pieces, and many pieces for the piano.
Afrikaans music
Afrikaans music was primarily influenced by Dutch folk styles, along with French and German influences, in the early twentieth century. Zydeco-type string bands led by a concertina were popular, as were elements of American country music, especially Jim Reeves. The most prolific composers of "tiekie draai" Afrikaans music were lyricist Anton De Waal who wrote many hit songs with songwriters, pianist Charles Segal ("Hey Babariebab Se Ding Is Vim", "Kalkoenjie", "Sy Kom Van Kommetjie" and many others) and accordionist, Nico Carstens. Bushveld music based on the Zulu were reinterpreted by such singers as Marais and Miranda. Melodramatic and sentimental songs called trane trekkers (tearjerkers) were especially common. In 1973, a country music song won the coveted SARI Award (South African Music Industry) for the Song of the Year – "My Children, My Wife" was written by renowned South African composer Charles Segal and lyricist Arthur Roos. In 1979 the South African Music scene changed from the Tranetrekkers to more lively sounds and the introduction of new names in the market with the likes of Anton Goosen, David Kramer (singer), Koos du Plessis, Fanie de Jager, Flaming Victory and Laurika Rauch. Afrikaans music is currently one of the most popular and best selling industries on the South African music scene. Waptrendz is a big collection of the Afrikaans music.
After World War I, Afrikaner nationalism spread and such musicians as Jewish pianist and composer Charles Segal and accordionist Nico Carstens were popular.
The 1930s
A cappella
The 1930s saw the spread of Zulu a cappella singing from the Natal area to much of South Africa. The style's popularity, finally producing a major star in 1939 with Solomon Linda's Original Evening Birds, whose "Mbube" ("The Lion") was probably the first African recording to sell more than 100,000 copies. It also provided the basis for two further American pop hits, The Weavers' "Wimoweh" (1951) and The Tokens' "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (1961). Linda's music was in a style that came to be known as mbube. From the late 1940s to the 1960s, a harsh, strident form called isikhwela jo was popular, though national interest waned in the 1950s until Radio Zulu began broadcasting to Natal, Transvaal and the Orange Free State in 1962 (see 1950s: Bantu Radio and pennywhistle for more details).
Also formed in this era was the Stellenbosch University Choir, part of the University of Stellenbosch, the oldest running choir in the country and was formed in 1936 by William Morris, also the first conductor of the Choir. The current conductor is Andre van der Merwe. They specialise in a cappella music and consist of students from the University.
The 1950s
Bantu Radio and the music industry
By the 1950s, the music industry had diversified greatly, and included several major labels. Innovative musician and composer, Charles Segal was the first white musician to work with the indigenous African people, recording tribal performers and promoting African music overseas starting in the 1950s. Charles Segal was also the first white musician to write in the indigenous African style and to bring the African music genre into the commercial market. His single "Africa" was a hit amongst the diverse South African population in the 1960s and he continued to produce, record and teach his own unique style of African music, which was a mix of African and Jazz influences. These compositions include "Opus Africa", "African Fantasy", "Kootanda" and many more. In 1962, the South African government launched a development programme for Bantu Radio in order to foster separate development and encourage independence for the Bantustans. Though the government had expected Bantu Radio to play folk music, African music had developed into numerous pop genres, and the nascent recording studios used radio to push their pop stars. The new focus on radio led to a government crackdown on lyrics, censoring songs which were considered a "public hazard".
Pennywhistle jive
The first major style of South African popular music to emerge was pennywhistle jive (later known as kwela). Black cattle-herders had long played a three-holed reed flute, adopting a six-holed flute when they moved to the cities. Willard Cele is usually credited with creating pennywhistle by placing the six-holed flute between his teeth at an angle. Cele spawned a legion of imitators and fans, especially after appearing in the 1951 film The Magic Garden (film).
Groups of flautists played on the streets of South African cities in the 1950s, many of them in white areas, where police would arrest them for creating a public disturbance. Some young whites were attracted to the music, and came to be known as ducktails. The 1950s also saw 'coloured' bands develop the new genre of Quela, a hybrid of South African Squares and modern samba. Once again, we see the cross-over between white, Afrikaans music and the indigenous South Africa music in the compositions of pianist and composer, Charles Segal, with his penny whistle hits including "Kwela Kwela" and many others.
The 1960s
In the 1960s, a smooth form of mbube called cothoza mfana developed, led by the King Star Brothers, who invented isicathamiya style by the end of the decade.
By the 1960s, the saxophone was commonplace in jive music, the performance of which continued to be restricted to townships. The genre was called sax jive and later mbaqanga. Mbaqanga literally means dumpling but implies home-made and was coined by Michael Xaba, a jazz saxophonist who did not like the new style.
The early 1960s also saw performers such as bassist Joseph Makwela and guitarist Marks Mankwane add electric instruments and marabi and kwela influences to the mbaqanga style, leading to a funkier and more African sound.
Mbaqanga developed vocal harmonies during the very early 1960s when groups including The Skylarks and the Manhattan Brothers began copying American vocal bands, mostly doo wop. Rather than African-American four-part harmonies, however, South African bands used five parts. The Dark City Sisters were the most popular vocal group in the early 1960s, known for their sweet style. Aaron Jack Lerole of Black Mambazo added groaning male vocals to the female harmonies, later being replaced by Simon 'Mahlathini' Nkabinde, who has become perhaps the most influential and well-known South African "groaner" of the twentieth century. Marks Mankwane and Joseph Makwela's mbaqanga innovations evolved into the more danceable mgqashiyo sound when the two joined forces with Mahlathini and the new female group Mahotella Queens, in Mankwane's backing group Makhona Tsohle Band (also featuring Makwela along with saxophonist-turned-producer West Nkosi, rhythm guitarist Vivian Ngubane, and drummer Lucky Monama). The Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens/Makhona Tsohle outfit recorded as a studio unit for Gallo Record Company, to great national success, pioneering mgqashiyo music all over the country to equal success.
In 1967 Miriam Makeba released US hit "Pata Pata". 1967,Izintombi Zesi Manje Manje, an mgqashiyo female group that provided intense competition for Mahotella Queens. Both groups were massive competitors in the jive field, though the Queens usually came out on top.
Soul and jazz
The late 1960s saw the rise of soul music from the United States. Wilson Pickett and Percy Sledge were among singers who were especially popular and inspired South African performers to enter the field with an organ, a bass-and-drum rhythm section and an electric guitar.
In the 1960s jazz split into two fields. Dance bands like the Elite Swingsters were popular, while avant-garde jazz inspired by the work of John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk and Sonny Rollins was also common. The latter field of musicians included prominent activists and thinkers, including Hugh Masekela, Abdullah Ibrahim (formerly known as 'Dollar Brand'), Kippie Moeketsi, Sathima Bea Benjamin, Chris McGregor, Johnny Dyani and Jonas Gwangwa. In 1959, American pianist John Mehegan organised a recording session using many of the most prominent South African jazz musicians, resulting in the first two African jazz LPs. The following year saw the Cold Castle National Jazz Festival, which brought additional attention to South African jazz. Cold Castle became an annual event for a few years, and brought out more musicians, especially Dudu Pukwana, Gideon Nxumalo and Chris McGregor. The 1963 festival produced a LP called Jazz The African Sound, but government oppression soon ended the jazz scene. Again, many musicians emigrated or went into exile in the UK or other countries.
In 1968 Hugh Masekela got big hit "Grazing in the Grass", and it reached No.1 on Billboard pop chart. While the African jazz of the north of South Africa was being promoted in Johannesburg, musicians in Cape Town were awakening to their jazz heritage. Pianist Charles Segal, who had moved from Pretoria to Cape Town, brought an enthusiasm for jazz after several trips to the US, where he met and was influenced by the jazz pianist Oscar Peterson. The port city had a long history of musical interaction with seafaring players. The rise of the Coon Carnival and the visionary talent of Abdullah Ibrahim (Dollar Brand) and his sax players Basil Coetzee and Robbie Jansen led to Cape Jazz. It was an improvised version of their folk songs with musical reference to European and American jazz which would go on some 20 years later to be South Africa's most important jazz export.
The 1970s
Mgqashiyo and Isicathamiya
By the 1970s, only a few long-standing mgqashiyo groups were well-known, with the only new groups finding success with an all-male line-up. Abafana Baseqhudeni and Boyoyo Boys were perhaps the biggest new stars of this period. The Mahotella Queens' members began leaving the line-up around 1971 for rival groups. Gallo, by far the biggest record company in South Africa, began to create a new Mahotella Queens line-up, recording them with Abafana Baseqhudeni. Lead groaner Mahlathini had already moved to rival label EMI (in early 1972), where he had successful records with backing team Ndlondlo Bashise and new female group the Mahlathini Girls. The new Mahotella Queens line-up over at Gallo found just as much success as the original Queens, recording on-and-off with new male groaners such as Robert Mbazo Mkhize of Abafana Baseqhudeni.
Ladysmith Black Mambazo, headed by the sweet soprano of Joseph Shabalala, arose in the 1960s, and became perhaps the biggest isicathamiya stars in South Africa's history. Their first album was 1973's Amabutho, which was also the first gold record by black musicians; it sold over 25,000 copies. Ladysmith Black Mambazo remained popular throughout the next few decades, especially after 1986, when Paul Simon, an American musician, included Ladysmith Black Mambazo on his extremely popular Graceland album and its subsequent tour of 1987.
With progressive jazz hindered by governmental suppression, marabi-styled dance bands rose to more critical prominence in the jazz world. The music became more complex and retained popularity, while progressive jazz produced only occasional hits, such as Winston Ngozi's "Yakal Nkomo" and Abdullah Ibrahim's "Mannenberg".
Punk rock
During the punk rock boom of the late 1970s, UK and American punk music influenced South African bands, such as Wild Youth and Powerage and gained a cult following, focused in Durban and in and around Johannesburg. Bands such as Dog Detachment and The Radio Rats and Young Dumb & Violent had a similar following on the fringes of the music scene. Cape Town had a big following with Safari Suits, Housewife's Choice, The Lancaster Band, The News and Permanent Force (aka Private File after BOSS intervention), soon followed by The Rude Dementals, The Zero's, Fred Smith Band, Red Army, Riot Squad, Injury Time and The Vipers. In Cape Town many gigs took place at "Scratch" Club (run by Gerry Dixon and Henry Coombes), 1886, UCT, Off The Road, numerous town halls and other local venues. Some of the aforementioned bands passed through on tours. The "RIOT ROCK" tour of December 1979 being a culmination of the period.
Disco
In the middle of the 1970s, American disco was imported to South Africa, and disco beats were added to soul music, which helped bring a halt to popular mbaqanga bands such as the Mahotella Queens. In 1976, South African children rebelled en masse against apartheid and governmental authority, and a vibrant, youthful counterculture was created, with music as an integral part of its focus. Styles from before the 1970s fusion of disco and soul were not widely regarded, and were perceived as being sanctioned by the white oppressors. Few South African bands gained a lasting success during this period, however, with the exception of the Movers, who used marabi elements in their soul. The Movers were followed by the Soul Brothers, and the instrumental band The Cannibals, who soon began working with singer Jacob "Mpharanyana" Radebe. The coloured (not black) band The Flames also gained a following, and soon contributed two members (Blondie Chaplin and Ricky Fataar) to American band The Beach Boys. Harari arose in their place, eventually moving to an almost entirely rock and roll sound. One of Harare's members, Sipho 'Hotstix' Mabuse became a superstar in the 1980s.
Rock
There was a thriving, mostly white, rock music scene in Cape Town in the 1970s. The album McCully Workshop Inc. from the psychedelic rock band McCully Workshop is a good example the genre on Trutone Records. The Trutone label was owned by South African company Gallo (Africa) Limited an internationally recognised music producer.
The 1980s
Alternative rock and Afrikaans
The early 1980s brought popular attention on alternative rock bands such as The Usual and Scooter's Union. In and around Johannesburg the growth of the independent music scene led to not just a surge of bands ranging from big names (relatively speaking) Tribe After Tribe, The Dynamics, The Softies and the Spectres through to smaller hopefuls What Colours, Days Before and No Exit, but also to the growth of a vibrant DIY fanzine scene with "Palladium" and "One Page to Many" two titles of note.
South African alternative rock grew more mainstream with two leading bands, Asylum Kids from Johannesburg and Peach from Durban having chart success and releasing critically acclaimed albums. The burgeoning music scene around Johannesburg saw a surge of small bands, inspired and informed by the UK DIY punk ethic, form and start performing at a growing number of venues from clubs the likes of Metalbeat, Bluebeat, King of Clubs, DV8 and Dirtbox to student run venues such as GR Bozzoli Hall and later the Free People Concert on the University of the Witwatersrand campus.
One artist of specific note to come from this era was James Phillips who was involved with several influential and important bands including Corporal Punishment; Cherry Faced Lurchers; and his Afrikaans alter ego Bernoldus Niemand (roughly translates as Bernard Nobody). With his Bernoldus Niemand character, James managed to cross the language division and influence a whole range of Afrikaans speaking musicians to the same punk ethic that had inspired him, and an important Afrikaans alternative rock scene grew from this influence.
During this period, the only Afrikaners to achieve much mainstream fame were Anton Goosen, a rock singer-songwriter, and Bles Bridges, an imitator of American lounge singer Wayne Newton.
Gothic rock
In 1983, Dog Detachment was one of the earliest groups which combined Post-Punk music with elements of Gothic rock. South Africa's first Gothic rock band was No Friends of Harry, formed in the mid-1980s. Other notable bands from the second half of the 1980s are The Gathering (not to be confused with the Dutch Metal band), The Death Flowers of No-cypher, Lidice, The Attic Muse, The Autumn Ritual, The Elephant Celebes and Penguins in Bondage.
In 1995, The Awakening was formed by vocalist, guitarist and producer Ashton Nyte. The band is credited in major national press as "South Africa's most successful Gothic Rock act and one of the top bands in the far broader Alternative scene" and headlined major national festivals throughout South Africa, including the country's largest music festival Woodstock, in addition to Oppikoppi and RAMFest. With more than a dozen top ten national singles between 1998 and 2007, The Awakening were the first goth-styled act to have major success in South Africa.
Another notable goth artist was The Eternal Chapter, which had a hit with the cover "Here comes the man", originally by Boom Boom Room.
Pop
P J Powers won the 1986 Song for South Africa competition, the first one run by the SABC. It aimed to promote South African music. The winning song was Don Clarke's Sanbonani. The final round was televised on national TV, with P J Powers supported by her band, Hotline. Sanbonani featured on the P J Powers and Hotline Greatest Hits album in 1991.
International attention
The original Mahotella Queens line-up reunited with Mahlathini and the Makgona Tsohle Band in 1983, due to unexpected demand from mgqashiyo and mbaqanga fans. Ladysmith Black Mambazo took their first step into the international arena via Paul Simon on his Graceland album in 1986, where a series of reissue albums by US label Shanachie sold very well. Mambazo became world travellers, touring the world and collaborating with various Western musicians to massive success. "Graceland" won many awards including the Grammy Award for Best Album of the Year. A year later, Simon produced Black Mambazo's first U.S. release, Shaka Zulu, which won the Grammy Award, in 1988, for Best Traditional Folk Album. Since then, and in total, the group has received fifteen Grammy Award Nominations and three Grammy Award wins, including one in 2009. The Graceland album not only propelled Mambazo into the spotlight, but paved the way for other South African acts (including Mahlathini and the Queens, Amaswazi Emvelo, Moses Mchunu, Ray Phiri and Stimela, The Mighty Soul beat and others) to become known worldwide as well.
World in Union, the Ladysmith Black Mambazo record feat. P J Powers, became an international hit record in 1995. It charted in the UK (no 47 on the singles charts).
Johnny Clegg got his start in the 1970s playing Zulu-traditional music with Sipho Mchunu, and became prominent as the only major white musician playing traditional black music, achieving success in France as "Le Zoulou Blanc" (The White Zulu). The 1980s also saw a resurgence in rock and roll bands, among them The Helicopters, Petit Cheval, Sterling and Tellinger.
Mango Groove has racked up a host of achievements throughout the years, and has firmly established itself as one of South Africa’s most recognised and loved music icons. The group exploded into the national consciousness with the release of its 10 times Platinum debut album in 1989. Taking SA music to the world: Amongst other things, this included Mango Groove being the only South African act invited to perform at the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to China, being the only South African act featured on The Freddy Mercury Tribute concert (broadcast to over a billion people), appearing in front of 200 000 people at the SOS Racisme concert in Paris and receiving 3 encores at the Montrieux Jazz Festival.
Reggae
The most lasting change, however, may have been the importation of reggae from Jamaica. Following international superstar Bob Marley's concert celebrating Zimbabwe's independence in 1980, reggae took hold across Africa. Lucky Dube was the first major South African artists; his style was modelled most closely on that of Peter Tosh. Into the 1990s, Lucky Dube was one of the best-selling artists in South African history, especially his 1990 album Slave. The 1990s also saw Jamaican music move towards ragga, an electronic style that was more influential on kwaito (South African hip hop music) than reggae.
A group from the Free State called Oyaba also emerged during this period. Their best known hit songs are Tomorrow Nation, Paradise and Love Crazy. Reggae became quite popular and there was also a singer from KwaZulu-Natal, Sipho Johnson known as Jambo.
Bubblegum
Bubblegum was a form of pure South African pop music that arose in the middle of the 1980s, distinctively based on vocals with overlapping call-and-response vocals. Electronic keyboards and synthesisers were commonplace. Dan Tshanda of the band Splash was the first major bubblegum star, followed by Chicco Twala. Twala introduced some politically oriented lyrics, such as "We Miss You Manelo" (a coded tribute to Nelson Mandela) and "Papa Stop the War", a collaboration with Mzwakhe Mbuli.
In 1983 a major new South African star was born, Brenda Fassie. Her single, "Weekend Special", announced her as the pre-eminent female South African vocalist of her generation. She remained unmatched in popularity, talent until her untimely death in 2004.
The late 1980s saw the rise of Yvonne Chaka Chaka, beginning with her 1984 hit "I'm in Love With a DJ", which was the first major hit for bubblegum. Her popularity rose into the 1990s, especially across the rest of Africa and into Europe. Jabu Khanyile's Bayete and teen heart-throb Ringo have also become very popular.
The Voëlvry movement
Afrikaans-language music saw a resurgence in the 1980s as the Voëlvry ("free as a bird" or "outlawed") movement reflected a new Afrikaans artistic counter-culture largely hostile to the values of the National Party and conservative Afrikanerdom. Spearheaded by the singer-songwriter Johannes Kerkorrel and his Gereformeerde Blues Band, the movement (which was named after Kerkorrel's 1989 regional tour) also included musicians Bernoldus Niemand (aka James Phillips) and Koos Kombuis. Voëlvry tapped into a growing dissatisfaction with the Apartheid system amongst white Afrikaans speakers, and thus Voëlvry represents the musical branch of opposition that was paralleled by literature and the arts.
The 1990s
New rhythms
In 1994, South African media was liberalised and new musical styles arose. Prophets of Da City became known as a premier hip hop crew, though a South Africanised style of hip hop known as kwaito soon replaced actual hip hop groups. In kwaito, synthesisers and other electronic instruments are common, and slow jams adopted from Chicago house musicians like The Fingers, Tony Humphries and Robert Owen are also standard. Stars of kwaito include Trompies, Bongo Maffin, TKZee, Mandoza and Boom Shaka. The band Tree63 also emerged, first known for their hit single, "A Million Lights" and then further popularised by their version of Matt Redman's "Blessed Be Your Name".
Gospel
The biggest star of 1990s gospel was Rebecca Malope, whose 1995 album Shwele Baba was extremely popular. Malope continues to record, in addition to performers such as Lusanda Spiritual Group, Barorisi Ba Morena, Amadodana Ase Wesile, Vuyo Mokoena and International Pentacoastal Church Choir, Rayreed Soul Beat, Lundi, Joyous Celebration, and Scent From Above who have performed in Botswana occasionally. In 2000s Vuyo Mooena has emerged as the best selling Gospel artist. His albums have been audited to be in Top 5 selling in the country. In his album he sang in all South African languages like Venda, Shangaan, Sotho, Zulu and Xhosa. The industry has also been joined by the likes of Hlengiwe Mhlaba (whose Aphendule is popular) and Solly Moholo. Also we see the new singers like Oleseng Shuping become popular and he won the king of gospel award.
Afrikaans music
Prof Piet de Villiers was the front runner prior to 1994 with his compositions of Boerneef.
The period after 1994 saw a dramatic growth in the popularity of Afrikaans music. Numerous new young Afrikaans singers (soloists and groups) released CDs and DVDs and attracted large audiences at "kunstefeeste" (art festivals) such as the "Klein Karoo Nasionale Kunstefees – KKNK" in Oudtshoorn, "Aardklop" in Potchefstroom and "Innibos" in Nelspruit.
Apart from dozens of new songs being introduced into the Afrikaans music market, it became popular for modern young artists to sing old Afrikaans songs on a stage or in a pub, with crowds of young admirers singing along. The reason for the dramatic increase in the popularity of Afrikaans music can be speculated about. One theory is that the end of Apartheid in 1994 also meant the end of the privileged position that the Afrikaans culture had in South Africa. After losing the privileged protection and promotion of the language and the culture by the State, the Afrikaans-speaking community seems to have spontaneously started embracing and developing their language and culture. This was due to pop artists like Steve Hofmeyr, Nádine, Kurt Darren, and Nicolis Louw bringing a new fresh sound in Afrikaans Music. Many of the songs sung and/or written by these artists are similar in sound to Euro dance music. Critics would claim that all an Afrikaans pop artist needs for a song to be popular is a catchy tune and an easy beat. This is due to the massive popularity of a form of couples dancing called "langarm" or "sokkie". The dance halls where this takes place could be considered as night clubs but they play almost exclusively Afrikaans pop music. The Afrikaans pop music market therefore generates tremendous demand for new material.
Alternative
The 1990s could be seen as the genesis of a vibrant alternative music scene in South Africa. The Voëlvry movement was a major influence in establishing the scene, but subject material markedly shifted from protest to the more abstract and personal. Major festivals like Oppikoppi and Woodstock were started and grew steadily, firmly cementing the niche under predominantly white university students exploring a newfound intellectual independence after the fall of apartheid. The first band to reach any major recognition was Springbok Nude Girls established in 1994. Other notable acts established in this decade were The Outsiders (est. 1991), Nine (est. 1992), Fetish (est. 1996), Wonderboom (est. 1996), Boo! (est. 1997), The Awakening (est. 1996), Henry Ate, Just Jinger (est. 1996), Fuzigish and Battery 9.
Metal
In the early and mid-1980s there were bands like Black Rose, Stretch, Razor, Lynx, Pentagon, Montreaux, Unchained and Osiris. Then came the new breed of South African metal with a band called Ragnärok, South Africa's first thrash metal band, formed by Dean G Smith who were labelled as South Africa's Metallica and the only metal band at that time to have a cult following. They formed in South Johannesburg in 1986 playing covers for a short while and then moving on to original music only. Through the late 1980s and into the early 1990s, South Africa grew a well supported metal scene, marked by the release of Johannesburg-based Odysseys' self-titled album in 1991. There was a burgeoning crossover punk/metal scene in the major centres, particularly spurred on by Cape Towns' Voice of Destruction and Johannesburg based Urban Assault in the very late 1980s. Johannesburg developed an extreme metal scene in 1992 with rising grindcore/death metal act Retribution Denied, Boksburg based macabre/death metal act Debauchery followed by Pretoria doom metal band Funeral, Christian metal act Abhorrence and Insurrection, Metalmorphosis, Sacrifist and Agro, the latter two acts still perform today. The Cape Town metal scene was on a high in the mid-1990s, driven largely by Pothole and Sacraphyx. Pothole would release two critically acclaimed albums on South Africa's most successful punk/metal label, Way-Cool Records – their debut "Force-Fed Hatred" is still the top selling South African metal album to date. Whilst many of the acts failed to find commercial success in terms of CD sales, there was a devout following nationally and local metal bands soon opened the national touring circuit to a higher extent than most other genres. It also attracted international artists to tour the country almost immediately after the demise of apartheid, with some of the most respected international artists having seen fit to visit the country since.
Techno
The first South African live techno band was Kraftreaktor. Amoraim and Gareth Hinde are from Kraftreaktor and performed at several raves, playing mainly techno-trance music with guest musicians sometimes. Their music was influenced by themselves, but included a unique South African touch. They sometimes integrated African sounds and ethnomusicologist, Gavin Coppenhall.
The 2000s
Blues Rock
The Blues Rock scene has dramatically emerged in South Africa. Albert Frost, Dan Patlansky, The Black Cat Bones, Gerald Clark, Crimson House Blues, The Blues Broers and Boulevard Blues band are some of the most prominent blues acts in South-Africa. Figures like Piet Botha and Valiant Swart have largely contributed to the South-African Blues and Rock scene.
Kwaito
Kwaito is based on house music beats, but typically at a slower tempo and containing melodic and percussive African samples which are looped, deep bass-lines and often vocals, generally male, shouted or chanted rather than sung or rapped. Many consider it South Africa's unique implementation of hip hop.
Afrikaans
In a resurgence (an increase or revival after a period of little activity, popularity, or occurrence) that has been linked by some to freedom from Apartheid guilt, Afrikaans music saw a surge in new artists, album releases and sales after 2000. In 2004 an Afrikaans album (by balladeer Steve Hofmeyr) was named best-selling album of the year.
In 2007 an Afrikaans song about Boer War general Koos de la Rey by Bok van Blerk became a hit amid debates on whether it represented a call to arms for the reinstatement of Afrikaner rule or just expressed cultural nostalgia.
While the boom in the Afrikaans pop industry has continued from the previous decade through the popularity of arts festivals and dance halls, other Afrikaans music genres experienced a revival of sorts in the new millennium. Rock and alternative Afrikaans music had stagnated somewhat after the heady days of the "Voëlvry" tour and the alternative movement. Signs of a revival could be found in the arrival of Karen Zoid on the music scene due to her distinct alternative sound.
Shortly afterwards, a band of young rockers called "Fokofpolisiekar" became the first group to create alternative rock in Afrikaans. Their controversial name (translated as Fuckoffpolicecar), statements and behavior drew much public attention, making them a symbol of the Afrikaans Rock revival movement. Lead singer Francois Van Coke and songwriter Hunter Kennedy have gone on to explore other genres of music also not previously popular in Afrikaans and have ventured into more commercial routes.
Shortly after the arrival of this and other rock acts, the first Afrikaans television music channel (MK89) was opened which focused mainly on rock music. The Afrikaans (and English) rock and alternative music scene has been booming ever since. Bands like Battery9, Terminatrix, NuL, K.O.B.U.S. and Thys Nywerheid continue to reinvent alternative Afrikaans music, while Jack Parow has continued the Cape's development of Afrikaans rap from pioneers Brasse vannie Kaap, finding success as far afield as Holland with his 2009 single "Cooler as Ekke".
2009 Breakthrough Experimentalism
From 2009 into 2010, two unique and eclectic but thoroughly South African groups in particular received high acclaim from international music media, and both groups challenged traditional genre descriptions. They significantly increased global recognition of contemporary South African music culture.
BLK JKS' experimental Afro-rock took inspiration from The Mars Volta to blend their Zulu heritage and township origins with modern sounds and equipment and an approach to music-making that seems entirely devoid of boundaries, while maintaining the sweet melodies and rhythmic qualities of South Africa's traditional music. They received an important boost after performing in Opening Ceremony of 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Die Antwoord has challenged conventions of hip-hop through its blend of English, Afrikaans, and local slang, and sparse House-influenced production, reflecting the new 'Zef' counter-culture in its cheap-and-dirty values. The band achieved worldwide attention with their self-published debut thanks to two striking and humorous YouTube music videos released in 2010 that rapidly reached viral proportions. The highly polarised international response to their music helped them secure an album deal with Cherrytree Records, an imprint of Interscope. They also famously triggered a feud with American pop singer Lady Gaga, who offered them the chance to open for her on her Born This Way Tour, which they blatantly refused.
In 2016, singer Refentse Morake made waves for releasing his debut album solely in Afrikaans, becoming the first black singer to do so.
Drum and bass
The South African drum and bass scene began in the mid nineties. In 2000, events such as Homegrown became a prominent fixture in Cape Town and a launching platform for international and local artists such as Counterstrike, SFR, Niskerone, Tasha Baxter, Anti Alias and Rudeone. Other regular events include It Came From The Jungle in Cape Town and Science Friksun in Johannesburg.
A weekly Sublime drum and bass radio show is hosted by Hyphen on Bush Radio.
Psychedelic trance
South African psytrance is a form of darker psychedelic trance music that started and is produced mostly in South Africa. Unlike the Russian dark psytrance, South African psytrance is more rhythmic, melodic and danceable, yet keeps the 'nasty-like' attitude. Notable record labels include Timecode Records, Mind Manipulation Device and Nano Records.
Modern day
The South African music scene has continued to flourish in the 2000s. The decade has seen the rise of Xhosa singer Simphiwe Dana, whose success has seen her hailed as the "new Miriam Makeba", with her unique combination of jazz, pop, and traditional music. Another similar young singer is Thandiswa Mazwai, originally a kwaito singer with Bongo Maffin. Thandiswa combined local hip-hop rhythms with traditional Xhosa sounds, creating a rich textured style. 2006 saw the rise of Shwi Nomtekhala, a duo combining mbaqanga rhythms and maskandi sounds. The duo has become one of the most influential new acts on the music scene today, outselling even kwaito artists. Their third album Wangisiza Baba was a major hit in the country. Cape Town-based female artist Verity has been recognised internationally for innovation in the music industry for selling 2000 copies of her album Journey before it was actually recorded. Rap group "2 and a Half Secondz" has found recognition in Cape Town suburb, Delft since 2009. Cape Town based band Crimson House Blues has made waves throughout the live circuit being hailed as one of the greatest live acts in the country. In addition Willim Welsyn, part of the Afrikaans rock band Willim Welsyn en Sunrise Toffies was nominated and won multiple awards in the Afrikaans Alternative categories.
Nianell, the South African superstar, is also another internationally recognised artist in modern South African music, combing Folk, Classical, Pop, Country, and Celtic music that make her own unique sound. She has released seven albums with songs that switch back and forth between Afrikaans and English. Her first platinum hit that sold more than 2 million copies was "Who Painted The Moon" that was also covered by international superstar Hayley Westenra. In early 2011, she made her initial debut in the U.S. with her compilation album Who Painted The Moon.
Ladysmith Black Mambazo remain one of the world's most popular choral groups and still retain popularity in South Africa, with their latest offering being the highly praised Ilembe (2007/2008). The legendary group boasts three grammy wins. The Mahotella Queens also remain high-selling, and – with the death of long-time groaner Mahlathini in 1999 – have recorded several new albums, including their 2007 release Siyadumisa (Songs of Praise). 2008 has also seen the return of a former singer with the Mahotella Queens, Irene Mawela. Mawela appeared on thousands of mbaqanga and mgqashiyo recording sessions well throughout the 1960s and the 1970s, recording mainly for Gallo Record Company, often as part of the line-ups of the Mahotella Queens, the Mgababa Queens, Izintombi Zomgqashiyo, and also under her own name (though sometimes as Irene & The Sweet Melodians, or Irene & The Zebra Queens). In 1983 she left the company to record as a solo artist, with a successful Venda-traditional release Khanani Yanga. Mawela left the music business in the late 1980s, but returned in November 2007 with a brand-new album called Tlhokomela Sera, which combines modern contemporary sounds with pure gospel music, making what Mawela calls "gospel jive".
The music scene in South Africa is focused around four major areas, Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban and Bloemfontein. One of the characteristics of the scene is the strong sense of community which sees artist, promoters and venues all actively involved in developing the local talent. Bloemfontein's music focus is centred predominantly around the metal and Afrikaans genres. Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban are far more wide-ranging in the genres of music covered by bands and artists. Cape Town is a hotbed for the underground music scene, generally held to be more experimental than the music produced in the other centres. Potchefstroom seems to be the newest development ground for Afrikaans rock music, with various bands like Straatligkinders making their start here.
The introduction of the South African Music Awards (SAMA), intended to recognise accomplishment in the South African recording industry has raised the awareness of local artists and bands. The awards are given in various categories, including album of the year, best newcomer, best artists (male and female) and the best duo or group. South African Music Award winners include Karen Zoid, Freshlyground, Tasha Baxter and Seether.
Uniquely African music aside, the South African music scene has, to a large extent, been characterised by bands seeking to emulate popular genres abroad. However, recent years have seen South African music begin to develop a truly original sound.
South Africa has several annual music festivals including Woodstock South Africa, MotherFudd, Oppikoppi, Rocking the Daisies and Splashy Fen. The music festivals cater to different genres and styles of music. Motherfudd is an exclusively metal festival held early in the year. The 2008 Motherfudd festival had a line-up of 30 bands with 2 stages and took place near Hartebeespoort. The Oppikoppi festival started in 1994 and is held in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, near the mining town of Northam. Originally a rock festival, Oppikoppi has expanded to include other genres. Splashy Fen is an annual Easter festival held on a farm near Underberg in KwaZulu-Natal, with a focus on rock and reggae music. Since 2016, The Legend stage at Splashy, convened by Don Clarke and Dicky Roberts has brought well known local legends back to the festival, including P J Powers in 2019. Rocking the Daisies is an annual music festival which is held outside Cape Town in Darling on the Cloof wine estate. It was established in 2005 with a focus upon rock music and is a "green" festival for which it has garnered awards.
Skouspel is a very popular televised annual concert sponsored by the Afrikaans family-magazine Huisgenoot, hosted at the Sun City resort. Skouspel (translates as "spectacle") focuses primarily on Afrikaans music and regularly features some of the biggest names in the Afrikaans music scene along with new artists.
There is also a young movement of community rap called Tzaneen Rap, producing up-and-coming rappers that are already coming up and keeping up with the rap game. It is a good combination of vernacular Xitsonga, Sepedi, Xhosa, Zulu, Sesotho and English lyricism. It was formed in the 1990s and only became popular around 2015. There are vernacular rappers like DNP, Dj Snake and English lyrics from Ironic, Savanna and Gratitude Moruti. It all began in Limpopo, Tzaneen. South Africa has experienced a new wave of artists over the last few years, some artists include Nasty C, Timo ODV, AKA, YoungstaCPT, K.O, Anatii, and Maloon The Boom.
Although the local music scene has continued to grow exponentially since the 2000s, a lot of South Africans still consume foreign music contents over local contents.
Amapiano
In 2019, the South African music scene was introduced to a new genre of music called Amapiano, the genre is thought to be most dominant in the music industry.
The Amapiano genre has filled the void that was left by the disappearance of Kwaito in the 2000s. Amapiano is appealing to the Youth and is currently producing the most chart-topping songs in South Africa. The top 200 Shazam songs in South Africa is dominated by Amapiano tracks.
Amapiano has taken the international market by storm, with some of its top artists getting bookings from West Africa, the UK and other parts of the world. The international attention has created appropriation concerns among the local Amapiano fans, as noticed with the recent song by Jorja Smith.
Neo-traditional styles
Traditionally styled music is generally appellated as "Sotho-traditional" or "Zulu-traditional", and has been an important part of the South African music business since the 1930s. Vocal and concertina records were released with a call-and-response style and a concertina used as a counterpoint to the lead vocal. Following World War 1, cheap imported concertinas arrived in South Africa, especially the Italian brand bafstari.
Sotho-traditional
The Sotho musician Tshwatlano Makala was the first traditional musician to achieve widespread commercial success. He helped to set the stage for the subsequent rise of Letsema Mat'sela's band, Basotho Dihoba, which used styles from his native Lesotho to develop a genre called mohobelo.
By the 1970s, the concertina of Sotho-traditional music was replaced with an accordion and an electric backing band. This wave of neo-traditional performers was led by Tau Ea Mat'sekha.
Zulu
The Zulu people adopted the guitar following its introduction by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, and guitars were locally and cheaply made by the 1930s. John Bhengu was the first major Zulu guitarist, earning a reputation in 1950s Durban for his unique ukupika style of picking (as opposed to traditional strumming). Bhengu's song format, which includes an instrumental introduction (izihlabo), a melody and spoken praise (ukubonga) for a clan or family, was widely used for a long time in Zulu-traditional music. Bhengu, however, switched to the electric guitar in the late 1960s and began recording as "Phuzushukela" (Sugar Drinker). His popularity exploded, and Zulu-traditional music entered a boom.
Since the 1970s, the concertina has returned to Zulu-traditional music, while diverse influences from pop music and drum and bass were added. Vusi Ximba's Siyakudamisa (1992) was perhaps the most memorable Zulu-traditional album of the later twentieth century, and drew controversy for racy, comedic lyrics.
Tsonga-traditional
Tsonga traditional music was first recorded in the 1950s by Francisco Baloyi for Gallo, and showed a largely African style influenced by Latin rhythms. Mozambiquan musicians Fani Pfumo and Alexander Jafete became prominent studio performers in the 1950s and into the next decade. In 1975, however, Mozambique became independent and a radio station was opened by Radio Bantu, leading to the abandonment of Portuguese elements from this style.
More modern Tsonga bands, such as General MD Shirinda & the Gaza Sisters play a style called Tsonga disco, featuring a male lead vocalist backed by female singers, a guitar, keyboard or synth and disco rhythms. Thomas Chauke & the Shinyori Sisters (Tusk Records) have become probably the best-selling band of any neo-traditional style. George Maluleke na Van'wanati Sisters have also been instrumental in modernizing the music by experimenting with a faster tempo and native instruments. The most popular Tsonga musicians, however, has arguably been either Thomas Chauke, the pop singer Peta Teanet or the equally successful Penny Penny, Joe Shirimani. Paul Ndlovu is another artist who has contributed a lot in this genre, with his popular hits, Hi ta famba moyeni and Tsakane.
The modern sound of traditional Xitsonga music comprises more of the earlier native sounds that had initially been abandoned in favor of the Portuguese electronic guitars, namely the xylophone and bass marimba. Bands such as Thomas Chauke and the Xinyori Sisters and George Maluleke predominantly used guitars; however the modern sound replaces these with the xylophone or bass marimba. The Tsonga people's preference for the xylophone and marimba type of sound is inherited from the timbila music of the Chopi people, which has been entered into the UNESCO heritage archives as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Pedi-traditional
Pedi-traditional music is principally harepa and is based on the harp. The German autoharp arrived in South Africa in the nineteenth century, brought by Lutheran ministers proselytising among the Pedi. Harepa has not achieved much mainstream success in South Africa, though there was a brief boom in the 1970s, led by Johannes Mohlala and Sediya dipela Mokgwadi.
Venda-traditional
Venda-traditional music was also recorded when black music in South Africa was being recognised. The late 1960s (and, more significantly the late 1970s) saw a boom in Venda-speaking artists. This was mainly influenced by the launch of a Venda radio station.
Irene Mawela (who had been singing in the 1960s and 1970s with groups like Mahotella Queens, Sweet Sixteens and the Dark City Sisters) significantly impacted traditional and contemporary Venda music, despite vocal recordings in Zulu, Sotho and Xhosa languages. Mawela's 1983 release, Khanani Yanga, was one of the most successful Venda-traditional music albums of that year. After some lean years, Mawela returned to the South African music scene with Tlhokomela Sera, released in December 2007. Mawela's recent numbers like Mme Anga Khotsi Anga and Nnditsheni are very popular. Solomon Matase is known for his hits Ntshavheni and Vho i fara Phele.
Alpheus Ramavhea, Mundalamo, Eric Mukhese, and Adziambei Band are also famous for their contributions to Venda music. The latter band still continues to produce music with great success, including a recent album release, Mutula Gole, in February 2012. Colbert Mukwevho has been involved with Venda music for over 20 years, starting with 1980s hits like "Kha tambe na thanga dzawe," "i do nela rothe" and "saga-saga." In 2006 his comeback album Mulovha namusi na matshelo, included hit songs "Ndo takala hani" and "Zwa mutani wavho" which remain popular with Venda and Pedi's. He grew up in a family of music. His father Christopher Mukwevho, then leader of the popular band Thrilling Artist, used to feature him at young age.
Rudzani Shurflus Ragimana of shurflus was well known for known for venda reggae music together with Khakhathi and friends, Tshiganzha, Ntshenge. Reggae music is well played by a lot of artists for Tshivenda.
Other performers include: Makhadzi, Fizzy, Prifix, Bhamba, Komrade Li, SubZro, TAKZIT, Humbulani Ramagwedzha, Jahman Chiganja, Khakhathi and Friends, Maduvha Madima, Takalani Mudau, Rapson Mbilummbi Rambuwani, TMan Gavini, Clean-G, Mizo Phyll, Killah Gee, Jininka, Paul Mulaudzi, Malondo Ramulongo, Burning Doctor, Just ice, Lufuno Dagada and Tshidino Ndou.
Another singer making a name for himself in the South African music market is Tshidino Ndou, a reggae artist who is also owner of Vhadino Entertainment music company. Tshidino was born and bred in Tshakhuma, a rural village in South Africa in the Limpopo Province. So far he has two albums, Ndi do fa na inwi (2009) (Till death do us part) and Nne Ndi Nne (2010) (I am what I am). His song "Ni songo nyadza" (meaning "do not undermine other people's religions"), featuring a Venda reggae icon Humbulani Ramagwedzha of thivhulungiwi fame, is gaining extensive media exposure through Phalaphala FM, Soweto TV, Makhado FM and Univen radio.
Tshidino entered the music scene as a founder member of Vhadino House Grooves group which he established alongside his brother, Arthur Ndou in 2008. They released their debut hot album titled Ro Swika meaning we have arrived. The album contains a controversial song "Ri ya groova", widely known as "Ndo Fara Mudifho". He has released a single, "Ri khou phusha life", which has already made a mark on radios and newspapers. The full album was planned for release in 2012, featuring two other giants: Takalani Mudau of "baby fusheani" fame and the Burning Doctor of "A lu na mutwe" fame. Tshidino is not just a musician but also a prominent film producer who is more popular in the Vendawood film industry in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. He plays the character of Vho-Mulingo in Vho-Mulingo comedy. Other movies he produced include Mathaithai, , and .
Xhosa-traditional
Perhaps the best known neo-traditional South African music, internationally anyway, is the music of Amampondo and the solo work of their leader and founder, Dizu Plaatjies. He and his group took traditional Xhosa music from the hills of Pondoland and the Eastern Cape and put it on stage worldwide. The success of the genre was how the exponents combined their music with their stage performances and dance.
See also
List of Afrikaans singers
List of radio stations in South Africa
List of South African musicians
Music of Namibia
Recording Industry of South Africa
South African Music Awards
Music in the movement against apartheid
Botswana
Bibliography
Allingham, Rob. "Nation of Voice". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp. 638–657. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Mthembu-Salter, Gregory. "Spirit of Africa". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp. 658–659. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Allingham, Rob. "Hip Kings, Hip Queens". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp. 660–668. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
References
Further reading
Xulu, M.K., "The Re-emergence of Amahubo Songs, Styles and Ideas in Modern Zulu Musical Styles." PhD dissertation, University of Natal 1992.
External links
BBC Radio 3 Audio (120 minutes): South Africa 1995. (Sony Radio Award Winner, 1995.) Accessed 25 November 2010.
Field recordings of traditional and neo-traditional music mainly from KwaZulu-Natal, recorded by composer Kevin Volans
South African culture | [
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246413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa%20Rebel | Ottawa Rebel | The Ottawa Rebel was a team in the National Lacrosse League based in Ottawa, Ontario from 2001 until 2003. They initially played at the Corel Centre (now called the Canadian Tire Centre), but part-way through the 2002 season moved to the smaller, but centrally located, Ottawa Civic Centre. From 1997 until 2000 the team was located in Syracuse, New York and was called the Syracuse Smash.
The Rebel was owned by the Brad Watters group which also brought lacrosse to Toronto and Montreal.
In their first season in Ottawa the Rebel had one win and thirteen losses and finished last of nine teams. Their second season was slightly better, with four wins and twelve losses, but due to tie breakers they finished fourth in the Northern Division and thirteenth overall behind the Calgary Roughnecks, who also finished with a 4-12 record. In their third and final year in Ottawa they again had four wins and twelve losses, placing them fourth in the Northern Division again but tenth out of twelve in the overall league standings.
As the Syracuse Smash they were last overall all three years prompting the move to the Canadian capital.
The franchise became inactive after the 2003 season. In 2005, it was purchased by Bruce Urban and moved to Edmonton, Alberta, becoming the Edmonton Rush.
All time Record
2000-01 schedule
2001-02 schedule
2002-03 schedule
References
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
Reb
Lacrosse clubs established in 2001
Lacrosse clubs disestablished in 2003
2001 establishments in Ontario
2003 disestablishments in Ontario | [
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246415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard | Billboard | A billboard (also called a hoarding in the UK and many other parts of the world) is a large outdoor advertising structure (a billing board), typically found in high-traffic areas such as alongside busy roads. Billboards present large advertisements to passing pedestrians and drivers. Typically brands use billboards to build their brands or to push for their new products.
The largest ordinary-sized billboards are located primarily on major highways, expressways or principal arterials, and command high-density consumer exposure (mostly to vehicular traffic). These afford greatest visibility due not only to their size, but because they allow creative "customizing" through extensions and embellishments.
Posters are the other common form of billboard advertising, located mostly along primary and secondary arterial roads. Posters are a smaller format and are viewed principally by residents and commuter traffic, with some pedestrian exposure.
Advertising style
Billboard advertisements are designed to catch a person's attention and create a memorable impression very quickly, leaving the reader thinking about the advertisement after they have driven past it. They have to be readable in a very short time because they are usually read while being passed at high speeds. Thus there are usually only a few words, in large print, and a humorous or arresting image in brilliant color.
Some billboard designs spill outside the actual space given to them by the billboard, with parts of figures hanging off the billboard edges or jutting out of the billboard in three dimensions. An example is the United States around the turn of the 21st century was the Chick-fil-A billboards (a chicken sandwich fast food chain), which had three-dimensional cow figures in the act of painting the billboards with misspelled anti-beef slogans such as "frendz don't let frendz eat beef."
The first "scented billboard", an outdoor sign emitting the odors of black pepper and charcoal to suggest a grilled steak, was erected on NC 150 near Mooresville, North Carolina by the Bloom grocery chain. The sign depicted a giant cube of beef being pierced by a large fork that extended to the ground. The scents were emitted between 7–10 am and 4–7 pm from 28 May 2010 through 18 June 2010.
Painted billboards
Almost all these billboards were painted in large studios. The image was projected on the series of paper panels that made up the billboard. Line drawings were done, then traced with a pounce wheel that created perforated lines. The patterns were then "pounced" onto the board with a chalk filled pounce bag, marking the outlines of the figures or objects. Using oil paints, artists would use large brushes to paint the image. Once the panels were installed using hydraulic cranes, artists would go up on the installed billboard and touch up the edges between panels. These large, painted billboards were especially popular in Los Angeles where historic firms such as Foster & Kleiser and Pacific Outdoor Advertising dominated the industry. Eventually, these painted billboards gave way to graphic reproduction, but hand-painted billboards are still in use in some areas where only a single board or two is required. The "Sunset Strip" in Los Angeles is one area where hand-painted billboards can still be found, usually to advertise upcoming films or albums.
Digital billboards
A digital billboard shows varying imagery and text created from computer programs and software. Digital billboards can be designed to display running text, have several different displays from the same company, or provide several companies a certain time slot during the day. Flexible and real-time scheduling can decrease traditional upkeep and maintenance costs, and some billboards may measure audiences or serve dynamic content. Using digital billboards dynamically has come to be known as programmatic out-of-home advertising. Billboard posters can play audio using conductive ink; when touched, the posters begin to play sounds.
Mobile billboards
Outdoor Advertising, such as a mobile billboard, is effective because it is difficult to ignore. According to a UK national survey, it is also memorable. Capitol Communications Group found that 81.7% of those polled recalled images they saw on a moving multi-image sign. This is compared to a 19% retention rate for static signs.
Unlike a typical billboard, mobile billboards are able to go directly to their target audience. They can be placed wherever there is heavy foot traffic due to an event – including convention centers, train stations, airports and sports arenas. They can repeat routes, ensuring that an advertiser's message is not only noticed, but that information is retained through repetition.
Multi-purpose billboards
Billboards may be multi-purpose. An advertising sign can integrate its main purpose with telecommunications antenna or public lighting support. Usually the structure has a steel pole with a coupling flange on the above-fitted advertising billboard structure that can contain telecommunications antennas. The lighting, wiring, and any antennas are placed inside the structure.
Other types of billboards
Common along highways are free-standing two-sided as well as three-sided billboards. Other types of billboards include the billboard bicycle attached to the back of a bicycle or the mobile billboard, a special advertising trailer to hoist big banners. Mechanical billboards display three different messages, with three advertisements attached to a conveyor inside the billboard. There are also three-dimensional billboards, such as the ones at Piccadilly Circus, London. Traditional Billboards consist in a large format advertisement printed on a resistant material such as Vinyl; this is placed on a large metal structure, which makes it one of the media with the most visibility and high impact within the advertising field.
Placement of billboards
Some of the most prominent billboards are alongside highways; since passing drivers typically have little to occupy their attention, the impact of the billboard is greater. Billboards are often drivers' primary method of finding lodging, food, and fuel on unfamiliar highways. There were approximately 450,000 billboards on US highways in 1991. Somewhere between 5,000 and 15,000 are erected each year. Current numbers are put at 368,263, according to the OAAA (outdoor Advertising Association of America). In Europe billboards are a major component and source of income in urban street furniture concepts.
An interesting use of billboards unique to highways was the Burma-Shave advertisements between 1925 and 1963, which had 4- or 5-part messages on multiple signs, keeping the reader hooked by the promise of a punchline at the end. This example is in the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian Institution:
Shaving brushes
You'll soon see 'em
On a shelf
In some museum
Burma-ShaveThese sort of multi-sign advertisements are no longer common, though they are not extinct. One example, advertising for the NCAA, depicts a basketball player aiming a shot on one billboard; on the next one, 90 yards (82 meters) away, is the basket. Another example is the numerous billboards advertising the roadside attraction South of the Border near Dillon, SC, along I-95 in many states.
Many cities have high densities of billboards, especially where there is dense pedestrian traffic—Times Square in New York City is a good example. Because of the lack of space in cities, these billboards are placed on the sides of buildings and sometimes are free-standing billboards hanging above buildings. Billboards on the sides of buildings create different stylistic opportunities, with artwork that incorporates features of the building into the design, such as using windows as eyes, or for gigantic frescoes that adorn the entire building.
Visual and environmental concerns
Many groups such as Scenic America have complained that billboards on highways cause excessive clearing of trees and intrude on the surrounding landscape, with billboards' bright colors, lights and large fonts making it difficult to focus on anything else, making them a form of visual pollution - a state of affairs evoked pithily in Ogden Nash's parody of Joyce Kilmer's oft-quoted poem Trees:
I think that I shall never seeA billboard lovely as a tree
Indeed, unless the billboards fallI'll never see a tree at all.
Other groups believe that billboards and advertising contribute negatively to the mental climate of a culture by promoting products as providing feelings of completeness, wellness and popularity to motivate purchase. B.U.G.A. U.P. was a movement which commenced in Australia and took direct action against primarily tobacco and alcohol billboards. Another focal point for this sentiment would be the magazine AdBusters, which will often showcase politically motivated billboard and other advertising vandalism, called culture jamming. Billboards have been criticized as an example of attention theft.
In 2000, rooftops in Athens had grown so thick with billboards that it was difficult to see its famous architecture. In preparation for the 2004 Summer Olympics, the city embarked on a successful four-year project demolishing the majority of rooftop billboards to beautify the city, overcoming resistance from advertisers and building owners. Most of these billboards were illegal, but had been ignored until then.
In 2007, São Paulo, Brazil instituted a billboard ban because there were no viable regulations of the billboard industry. Today, São Paulo is working with outdoor companies to rebuild the outdoor infrastructure in a way that will reflect the vibrant business climate of the city while adopting good regulations to control growth.
Individuals and groups have vandalized billboards worldwide.
Road safety concerns
The most comprehensive review of the literature to date by the Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety-Queensland (CARRS-Q) found that crash risk increases by approximately 25-29% in the presence of digital roadside advertising signs compared to control areas. There is an emerging trend in the literature suggesting that roadside advertising signs can increase crash risk, particularly for those signs that have the capacity to frequently change (often referred to as digital billboards).
In the US, many cities enacted laws banning billboards as early as 1909 (California Supreme Court, Varney & Green vs. Williams) but the First Amendment has made this difficult. A San Diego law championed by Pete Wilson in 1971 cited traffic safety and driver distraction as the reason for the billboard ban, but was narrowly overturned by the Supreme Court in 1981, in part because it banned non-commercial as well as commercial billboards.
Billboards have long been accused of distracting drivers and causing accidents. This may not necessarily be true, as a study by researchers at the University of North Carolina showed. Released in June 2001, the researchers prepared a thorough report on driver distraction for the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. This study said: "The search appears to suggest that some items—such as CB radios, billboards, and temperature controls—are not significant distractions."
Traffic safety experts have studied the relationship between outdoor advertising and traffic accidents since the 1950s, finding no authoritative or scientific evidence that billboards are linked to traffic accidents. However, many of these studies were funded by the Outdoor Advertising Association of America, which has led to accusations of bias. The methodology used in certain studies is also questionable.
The US Department of Transportation, State Department of Transportation and property/casualty insurance companies statistics on fatal accidents indicate no correlation between billboards and traffic accidents. A broad sampling of law enforcement agencies across the country found no evidence to suggest that motor vehicle accidents were caused by billboards. Property and casualty insurance companies have conducted detailed studies of traffic accident records and conclude no correlation between billboards and traffic accidents.
However, studies based on correlations between traffic accidents and billboards face the problem of under-reporting: drivers are unwilling to admit responsibility for a crash, so will not admit to being distracted at a crucial moment. Even given this limitation, some studies have found higher crash rates in the vicinity of advertising using variable message signs or electronic billboards.
It is possible that advertising signs in rural areas reduce driver boredom, which many believe is a contribution to highway safety. On the other hand, drivers may fixate on a billboard which unexpectedly appears in a monotonous landscape, and drive straight into it (a phenomenon known as "highway hypnosis").
Surveys of road users show that the lighting provided by billboards provide security and visibility to many motorists. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) went on record (Federal Register, 5 March 1999) stating that the agency agrees that appropriately regulated billboards do not compromise highway safety. This statement was made before the release of the FHWA report Research review of potential safety effects of electronic billboards on driver attention and distraction'' in 2001. What level of regulation is appropriate for billboards in different areas is still under discussion by road safety experts around the world.
Laws limiting billboards
Billboards are largely absent in Australia's capital city, Canberra, due to a 1937 ordinance which prohibited unauthorized signs on Commonwealth land. In 2017, the Australian Capital Territory considered relaxing this law to allow more outdoor advertising. An Inquiry into billboards received a record 166 submissions, with only 6 respondents supporting allowing more advertising in the Territory. The other submissions supported the current laws, or pointed to shortcomings and loopholes of the current laws, such as the allowance of mobile billboards, bus wrap advertising and political campaign signs, as well a failure to enforce existing laws.
In 1964, the negative impact of the over-proliferation of signage was abundantly evident in Houston, Texas, USA, and it motivated Lady Bird Johnson to ask her husband to create a law. At the same time the outdoor advertising industry was becoming aware that excessive signs, some literally blocking another, was bad for business.
In 1965, the Highway Beautification Act was signed into law. The act applied only to "Federal Aid Primary" and "Defense" highways and limited billboards to commercial and industrial zones created by states and municipalities. It required each state to set standards based on "customary use" for the size, lighting and spacing of billboards, and prohibited city and state governments from removing billboards without paying compensation to the owner. The act requires states to maintain "effective control" of billboards or lose 10% of their federal highway dollars.
The act also required the screening of junk yards adjacent to regulated highways.
Around major holidays, volunteer groups erected highway signs offering free coffee at rest stops. These were specifically exempted in the act.
Currently, four states—Vermont, Alaska, Hawaii, and Maine—have prohibited billboards. Vermont's law went into effect in 1968, Hawaii's law went into effect in 1927, Maine's law went into effect in 1977, and Alaska's law went into effect upon its achievement of statehood in 1959.
In the UK, billboards are controlled as adverts as part of the planning system. To display an illegal advert (that is, without planning permission) is a criminal offence with a fine of up to £2500 per offence (per poster). All of the large UK outdoor advertisers such as CBS Outdoor, JCDecaux, Clear Channel, Titan and Primesight have numerous convictions for such crimes.
In São Paulo, a city of twelve million in Brazil, Billboards and advertising on vehicles have been banned since January 2007. It also restricted the dimensions of advertising on shop fronts.
In British Columbia, a province of Canada, billboards are restricted to 300m away from roadways, the government also retains the right to remove any billboard it deems an unsafe distraction.
In Toronto, a city of over 2 and a half million in Canada, a municipal tax on billboards was implemented in April 2010. A portion of the tax will help fund arts programs in the city.
In Sweden there is a general ban against billboards within the road area (typically the road plus ditch), except for standardized signs such as gas station, restaurant or hotel. But there is no ban against them outside the road, if the landowner approves. Many farmers along major routes earn some money from such signs.
Usages
Highway
Many signs advertise local restaurants and shops in the coming miles, and are crucial to drawing business in small towns. One example is Wall Drug, which in 1936 erected billboards advertising "free ice water". The town of Wall, South Dakota, was essentially built around the many thousands of customers per day those billboards brought in (20,000 in 1981). Some signs were placed at great distances, with slogans such as "only 827 miles to Wall Drug, with FREE ice water." In some areas the signs were so dense that one almost immediately followed the last. This situation changed after the Highway Beautification Act was passed; the proliferation of Wall Drug billboards is sometimes cited as one of the reasons the bill was passed. After the passage of the act, other states (such as Oregon) embarked on highway beautification efforts.
Railway
Billboard advertising in underground stations, especially, is perhaps a place where they find a greater degree of acceptability and may assist in maintaining a neat, vibrant and safe atmosphere if not too distracting. Museum Station, Sydney has mounted restored 1940s billboard panels along the platforms that are in keeping with its heritage listing.
Big name advertisers
Billboards are also used to advertise national or global brands, particularly in more densely populated urban areas. According to the Outdoor Advertising Association of America, the top billboard advertisers in the United States in 2017 were McDonald's, Apple and GEICO. A large number of wireless phone companies, movie companies, car manufacturers and banks are high on the list as well.
Tobacco advertising
Prior to 1999, billboards were a major venue of cigarette advertising; 10% of Michigan billboards advertise alcohol and tobacco, according to the Detroit Free Press. This is particularly true in countries where tobacco advertisements are not allowed in other media. For example, in the US, tobacco advertising was banned on radio and television in 1971, leaving billboards and magazines as some of the last places tobacco could be advertised. Billboards made the news in America when, in the tobacco settlement of 1999, all cigarette billboards were replaced with anti-smoking messages. In a parody of the Marlboro Man, some billboards depicted cowboys riding on ranches with slogans like "Bob, I miss my lung."
Likely the best-known of the tobacco advertising boards were those for "Mail Pouch" chewing tobacco in the United States during the first half of the 20th century (pictured at left). The company agreed to paint two or three sides of a farmer's barn any color he chose in exchange for painting their advertisement on one or two sides of the structure facing the road. The company has long since abandoned this form of advertising, and none of these advertisements have been painted in many years, but some remain visible on rural highways.
Non-commercial use
Not all billboards are used for advertising products and services—non-profit groups and government agencies use them to communicate with the public. In 1999 an anonymous person created the God Speaks billboard campaign in Florida "to get people thinking about God", with witty statements signed by God. "Don't make me come down there", "We need to talk" and "Tell the children that I love them" were parts of the campaign, which was picked up by the Outdoor Advertising Association of America and continues today on billboards across the country.
South of Olympia, Washington is the privately owned Uncle Sam billboard. It features conservative, sometimes inflammatory messages, changed on a regular basis. Chehalis farmer Al Hamilton first started the board during the Johnson era, when the government was trying to make him remove his billboards along Interstate 5. He had erected the signs after he lost a legal battle to prevent the building of the freeway across his land. Numerous legal and illegal attempts to remove the Uncle Sam billboard have failed, and it is now in its third location. One message, attacking a nearby liberal arts college, was photographed, made into a postcard and is sold in the College Bookstore.
Governance
The Traffic Audit Bureau for Media Measurement Inc. (TAB) was established in 1933 as a non-profit organization whose historical mission has been to audit the circulation of out-of-home media in the United States. TAB's role has expanded to lead and support other major out of home industry research initiatives. Governed by a tripartite board composed of advertisers, agencies and media companies, the TAB acts as an independent auditor for traffic circulation in accordance with guidelines established by its board of directors.
Similarly, in Canada, the Canadian Outdoor Measurement Bureau (COMB) was formed in 1965 as a non-profit organization independently operated by representatives composed of advertisers, advertising agencies and members of the Canadian out-of-home advertising industry. COMB is charged with the verification of traffic circulation for the benefit of the industry and its users.
History
Early billboards were basically large posters on the sides of buildings, with limited but still appreciable commercial value. As roads and highways multiplied, the billboard business thrived.
Late 15th century – Flyposting was widely practiced throughout Europe.
1796 – Lithography was invented, making real posters possible.
1835 – Jared Bell was making 9 × 6 posters for the circus in the U.S.
1867 – Earliest known billboard rentals
1871 – Fredrick Walker designed one of the first art posters.
1872 – International Bill Posters Association of North America was established (now known as the Outdoor Advertising Association of America) as a billboard lobbying group.
1889 – The world's first 24-sheet billboard was displayed at the Paris Exposition and later at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The format was quickly adopted for various types of advertising, especially for circuses, traveling shows, and movies.
Early 1900s – Poster art schools were established in England, Austria and Germany.
1908 – The Model T automobile was introduced in the U.S., increasing the number of people using highways and therefore the reach of roadside billboards.
1919 – Japanese candy company Glico introduced its building-spanning billboard, the Glico Man.
1925 – Burma-Shave made billboards lining the highways.
1936 – The Wall Drug billboards started to go up nationwide.
1960 – The mechanized Kani Doraku billboard was built in Dotonbori, Osaka.
1965 – The Highway Beautification Act was passed after much campaigning by Lady Bird Johnson.
1971 – The Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act banned cigarette ads in television and radio, moving that business into billboards.
1981 – The Supreme Court overturned a San Diego billboard ban, but left room open for other cities to ban commercial billboards.
1986 – Non-television advertising became restricted – as now, non-television adverts could not show people smoking. This meant that Benson & Hedges and Silk Cut, amongst other brands, advertised their cigarettes through increasingly indirect and obscure campaigns to a point where they became recognizable.
1998 – The four major U.S. tobacco companies signed the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, which eliminated billboard advertising of cigarettes in 46 states.
2007 – The industry adopted one-sheet plastic poster replacement for paper poster billboards and began the phase-out of PVC flexible vinyl, replacing it with eco-plastics such as polyethylene.
2010 – The first "scented billboard", emitting odors similar to charcoal and black pepper to suggest a steak grilling, was erected in Mooresville, North Carolina by the Bloom grocery chain to promote the sale of beef.
2010 – Augmented billboards were introduced in the Transmediale Festival 2010 in Berlin using Artvertiser.
Notable billboards
Hollywood Sign
The Citgo Sign, Kenmore Square, Boston
Coca-Cola billboard in Kings Cross, Sydney, Australia
Coca-Cola sign
Monarch advertising sign
Osborne bull figures in Spain
Paddy Power Cleeve Hill Sign
Piccadilly Circus illuminated signs
Valdivieso advertising sign
Pepsi Super Bowl sponsorship
See also
Advertising board
Advertising column
Billboard bicycle
Billboard hacking
Digital billboard
Ghost sign
Human billboard
Marquee (sign)
Mediascape
Neon sign
Out-of-home advertising
Poster
Publicity
Rotulo
Sales promotion
Street furniture
Truckside advertisement
Visual pollution
References
Advertising
Advertising by medium
Billboards
Street furniture
Promotion and marketing communications | [
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246416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20the%20Democratic%20Republic%20of%20the%20Congo | Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo | Congolese music is one of the most influential music of the African continent since the 1930s. Congolese musicians had a huge impact on the African musical scene and outside.Many contemporary genre of music were created or heavily influenced by Congolese music.As the genre of music in Kenya Benga or in Colombia Champeta. Democratic republic of Congo and (Republic of Congo ) are contemporary hub music in Africa since the 1930s /50s. Congolese rumba joined in 2021, other living traditions such as Jamaican reggae music and Cuban rumba on Unesco's "intangible cultural heritage of humanity" list.
Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo varies in its different forms. Outside Africa, most music from the Democratic Republic of Congo is called Soukous, which most accurately refers instead to a dance popular in the late 1960s. The term rumba or rock-rumba is also used generically to refer to Congolese music, though neither is precise nor accurately descriptive.
People from the Congo have no single term for their own music per se, although muziki na biso ("our music") was used until the late 1970s, and now the most common name is ndule, which simply means music in the Lingala language; most songs from the Democratic Republic of the Congo are sung in Lingala.
History
Colonial times (pre-1960)
Since the colonial era, Kinshasa, Congo's capital, has been one of the great centers of musical innovation. The country, however, was carved out from territories controlled by many different ethnic groups, many of which had little in common with each other. Each maintained (and continue to do so) their own folk music traditions, and there was little in the way of a pan-Congolese musical identity until the 1940s.
Like much of Africa, Congo was dominated during the World War II-era by rumba. Congolese musicians appropriated rumba and adapted its characteristics for their instruments and tastes. In the 1950s, record labels began appearing, including CEFA, Ngoma, Loningisa and Opika, each issuing many 78 rpm records; Radio Congo Belge also began broadcasting during this period. Bill Alexandre, a Belgian working for CEFA, brought electric guitars to the Congo.
Popular early musicians include Feruzi, who is said to have popularized rumba during the 1930s and guitarists like Zachery Elenga, Antoine Wendo Kolosoy and, most influentially, Jean Bosco Mwenda. Alongside rumba, other imported genres like American swing, French cabaret and Ghanaian highlife were also popular.
In 1953, the Congolese music scene began to differentiate itself with the formation of African Jazz (led by Joseph "Le Grand Kallé" Kabasele), the first full-time orchestra to record and perform, and the debut of fifteen-year-old guitarist François Luambo Makiadi (aka Franco). Both would go on to be some of the earliest Congolese music stars. African Jazz, which included Kabasele, sometimes called the father of modern Congolese music, as well as legendary Cameroonian saxophonist and keyboardist Manu Dibango, has become one of the most well-known groups in Africa, largely due to 1960's "Indépendance Cha Cha", which celebrated Congo's independence and became an anthem for similar movements across the continent.
Big bands (c. 1950–70)
Into the 1950s, Kinshasa and Brazzaville became culturally linked, and many musicians moved back and forth between them, most importantly Nino Malapet and one of the founders of OK Jazz, Jean Serge Essous. Recording technology had evolved to allow for longer playing times, and the musicians focused on the seben, an instrumental percussion break with a swift tempo that was common in rumba. Both OK Jazz and African Jazz continued performing throughout the decade until African Jazz broke up in the mid-1960s, TPOK Jazz with Franco Luambo Makiadi at the helm dominated soukous music for the next 20 years.
Tabu Ley Rochereau and Dr. Nico then formed African Fiesta, which incorporated new innovations from throughout Africa as well as American and British soul, rock and country. African Fiesta, however, lasted only two years before disintegrating, and Tabu Ley formed Orchestre Afrisa International instead, but this new group was not able to rival OK Jazz in influence for very long.
Many of the most influential musicians of Congo's history emerged from one or more of these big bands, including the colossus Franco Luambo Makiadi usually referred to simply as "Franco", Sam Mangwana, Ndombe Opetum, Vicky Longomba, Dizzy Madjeku and Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta. Mangwana was the most popular of these solo performers, keeping a loyal fanbase even while switching from Vox Africa and Festival des Marquisards to Afrisa, followed by OK Jazz and a return to Africa before setting up a West African group called the African All Stars. Mose Fan Fan of OK Jazz also proved influential, bringing Congolese rumba to East Africa, especially Kenya, after moving there in 1974 with Somo Somo. Rumba also spread through the rest of Africa, with Brazzaville's Pamelo Mounk'a and Tchico Thicaya moving to Abidjan and Ryco Jazz taking the Congolese sound to the French Antilles.
In Congo, students at Gombe High School became entranced with American rock and funk, especially after James Brown visited the country in 1969. Los Nickelos and Thu Zahina emerged from Gombe High, with the former moving to Brussels and the latter, though existing only briefly, becoming legendary for their energetic stage shows that included frenetic, funky drums during the seben and an often psychedelic sound. This period in the late 60s is the soukous era, though the term soukous now has a much broader meaning, and refers to all of the subsequent developments in Congolese music as well.
Zaiko and post Zaiko (c. 1970–90)
Stukas and Zaiko Langa Langa were the two most influential bands to emerge from this era, with Zaiko Langa Langa being an important starting ground for musicians like Pepe Feli, Bozi Boziana, Evoloko Jocker and Papa Wemba. A smoother, mellower pop sound developed in the early 1970s, led by Bella Bella, Shama Shama and Lipua Lipua, while Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta promoted a rougher garage-like sound that launched the careers of Pepe Kalle and Kanda Bongo Man, among others.
By the beginning of the 1990s, the Congolese popular music scene had declined terribly. Many of the most popular musicians of the classic era had lost their edge or died, and President Mobutu's regime continued to repress indigenous music, reinforcing Paris' status as a
center for Congolese music. Pepe Kalle, Kanda Bongo Man and Rigo Starr were all Paris-based and were the most popular Congolese musicians. New genres like madiaba and Tshala Mwana's mutuashi achieved some popularity. Kinshasa still had popular
musicians, however, including Bimi Ombale and Dindo Yogo.
In 1993, many of the biggest individuals and bands in Congo's history were brought together for an event that helped to revitalize Congolese music, and also jumpstarted the careers of popular bands like Swede Swede. Another notable feature in Congo culture is its sui generis music. The DRC has blended its ethnic musical sources with rumba and merengue to give birth to Soukous.
Influential figures of Soukous and its offshoots (N'dombolo, Rumba Rock) are Franco Luambo, Tabu Ley, Simaro Lutumba, Papa Wemba, Koffi Olomide, Kanda Bongo Man, Ray Lema, Mpongo Love, Abeti Masikini, Reddy Amisi, Pepe Kalle, and Nyoka Longo. One of the most talented and respected pioneers of African rhumba - Tabu Ley Pascal Rochereau.
Congolese modern music is also influenced in part by its politics. Zaire, then in 1965, Mobutu Sese Seko took over, and despite massive corruption, desperate economic failure, and the attempted military uprising of 1991, he held on until the eve of his death in 1997, when the president, Laurent Kabila. Kabila inherited a nearly ungovernable shell of a nation. He renamed it the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Kabila could not erase the ruinous effects of the Belgian and Mobutu legacies, and the country is now in a state of chronic civil war. Mobutu instilled a deep fear of dissent and failed to develop his country's vast resources. But the walls he built around his people and his attempts to boost cultural and national pride certainly contributed to the environment that bred Africa's most influential pop music. Call it soukous, rumba, Zairois, Congo music, or kwassa-kwassa, the pop sound emanating from Congo's capital, Kinshasa has shaped modern African culture more profoundly than any other.
Africa produces music genres that are direct derivatives of Congolese Soukous. Some of the African bands sing in Lingala, the main language in the DRC. The same Congolese Soukous, under the guidance of "le sapeur" Papa Wemba, has set the tone for a generation of young guys who dress in expensive designer clothing. The numerous singers and instrumentalists who passed through Zaiko Langa Langa went on to rule Kinshasa's bustling music scene in the '80s with such bands as Choc Stars and Papa Wemba's Viva la Musica.
One erstwhile member of Viva la Musica, Koffi Olomidé, has been indisputably the biggest Zairean/Congolese star since the early '90s. His chief rivals are two veterans of the band Wenge Musica, J.B. Mpiana and Werrason. Mpiana and Werrason each claims to be the originator of ndombolo, a style that intersperses shouts with bursts of vocal melody and harmony over a frenetic din of electric guitars, synthesizers and drums. So pervasive is this style today that even Koffi Olomidé's current repertory is mostly ndombolo.
See also
Libanga
List of Soukous musicians
TP OK Jazz
Konono Nº1
Fally Ipupa
Ferre Gola
Makoma
Nathalie Makoma
References
Bibliography
External links
Rumba in the Jungle at The Economist
Audio clips - traditional music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. French National Library. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clips: Traditional music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010. | [
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] |
246417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver%20Ravens | Vancouver Ravens | The Vancouver Ravens were the original Vancouver National Lacrosse League (NLL) franchise from 2002 to 2004. The team played their home games at General Motors Place, now Rogers Arena, in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. At the conclusion of their three-year lease at GM Place, they were unable to secure an extension with GM Place nor able to negotiate with Pacific Coliseum. Combined with a lack of attendance due to unstable ownership, on December 14, 2004, the NLL announced that the Ravens would cease operations and not be playing in the 2005 NLL season.
On June 18, 2007, a bid was submitted to the NLL for the return of the Vancouver Ravens for the 2008 season. The bid that was submitted to the NLL was approved on the condition that an arena lease is obtained and 2,500 season tickets are sold.
On July 16, 2007, there was confirmation that the Vancouver Ravens could play in the 2008 season at GM Place. On July 19, 2007, contrary to earlier reports, the NLL announced that the Vancouver Ravens would not play in the 2008 season.
On August 26, 2008, retired Olympic Boxer and bronze medallist Dale Walters, along with Jeff Hughes, applied to return professional lacrosse back to Vancouver through the purchase and relocation of the Portland Lumberjax.
Since the folding of the Ravens franchise, the National Lacrosse League has returned to British Columbia. The Vancouver Stealth franchise, which relocated to BC in 2013 from Everett, Washington where they were known as the Washington Stealth.
Awards and honours
All time record
Playoff results
References
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
Rav
Lacrosse clubs established in 2002
Lacrosse clubs disestablished in 2004
2002 establishments in British Columbia
2004 disestablishments in British Columbia | [
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246421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Cameroon | Music of Cameroon | The music of the Cameroon includes diverse traditional and modern musical genres. The best-known contemporary genre is makossa, a popular style that has gained fans across Africa, and its related dance craze bikutsi.
The pirogue sailors of Douala are known for a kind of singing called ngoso which has evolved into a kind of modern music accompanied by zanza, balafon, and various percussion instruments.
Traditional music
The ethnicities of Cameroon include an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups in five regional-cultural divisions. An estimated 38% of the population are Western highlanders–Semi-Bantu or grassfielders including the Bamileke, Bamum, and many smaller Tikar groups in the northwest. 12% are coastal tropical forest peoples, including the Bassa, Duala, and many smaller groups in the southwest. The southern tropical forest peoples (18%) include the Beti-Pahuin and their sub-groups the Bulu and Fang, the Maka and Njem, as well as, the Baka pygmies. In the semi-arid northern regions (the Sahel) and central highlands the Fulani ( or ; ) form an estimated 14% of Cameroonians, while the Kirdi (unbelievers) are a general category, comprising 18% of the population, of various mainly Chadic and Adamawa speakers.
Beti
The Beti, or Ewondo, live in the area around Yaoundé and south into Equatorial Guinea. They are best known for bikutsi music, which has been popularized and become a rival for the more urban and accessible makossa of Douala. The name can be loosely translated as beating the ground continuously. Bikutsi, characterized by an intense 6/8 rhythm, is played at Beti gatherings including parties, funerals, and weddings.
Beti gatherings fall into two major categories:
Ekang phase: the time when imaginary, mythological, and spiritual issues are discussed
Bikutsi phase: when real-life issues are discussed
A double-sided harp with calabash amplification called the mvet is used during these ceremonies by Beti storytellers, who are viewed as using the mvet as an instrument of God to educate the people. The Ekang phase is intensely musical and usually lasts all night. There are poetic recitations accompanied by clapping and dancing, with interludes for improvised and sometimes obscene performances on the balafon (a type of xylophone). These interludes signal the shift to the bikutsi phase which is much less strictly structured than Ekang. During bikutsi, women dance and sing along with the balafon, and lyrics focus on real-life problems, as well as sexual fantasies. These female choruses are an integral part of bikutsi, and their intense dancing and screams are characteristic of the genre. Another type of ceremony is the mevungu, when women dance all night to abstain from sex during those hours for a period of nine days. The sso ritual is much-feared by Beti boys as it involves a series of tests to mark a boy's passage into manhood.
Modern popular music
The earliest recorded popular music from Cameroon comes from the 1930s, when the most popular styles were imported pop music and French-style chanson. In Douala, the most developed city in Cameroon, accordions and ambasse bey music were common, with performers like Lobe Lobe, Ebanda Manfred, and Nelle Eyoum finding a local audience. Ekambi Brillant and the first major Cameroonian hit, "N'Gon Abo," set the stage for the development of makossa. Post-independence in 1960, a local variant on palm wine music called assiko, was popular especially Jean Bikoko and Dikoume Bernard.
The urbanization of Cameroon has had a major influence on the country's music. Migration to the city of Yaoundé, for example, was a major cause for the popularization of bikutsi music. During the 1950s, bars sprang up across the city to accommodate the influx of new inhabitants and soon became a symbol for Cameroonian identity in the face of colonialism. Balafon orchestras, consisting of 3-5 balafons and various percussion instruments (including the balafon, which is both a harmonic and percussive instrument) became common in the bars. Some of these orchestras, such as Richard Band de Zoetele, became quite popular in spite of scorn from the European elite.
1950s and 60s
The middle of the 20th century saw the popularization of a native folk music called bikutsi. Bikutsi is based on a war rhythm played with various rattles and drums and xylophone. Sung by women, bikutsi featured sexually explicit lyrics and songs about everyday problems. In a popularized form, bikutsi gained mainstream success in the 1950s. Anne-Marie Nzié was perhaps the most important of the early innovators. The next bikutsi performer of legendary stature was Messi Me Nkonda Martin and his band, Los Camaroes, who added electric guitars and other new elements.
Balafon orchestras had remained popular throughout the 1950s in Yaoundé's bar scene, but the audience demanded modernity, and the popular style at the time was unable to cope. Messi Martin was a Cameroonian guitarist who had been inspired to learn the instrument by listening to Spanish language-broadcasts from neighboring Equatorial Guinea, as well as Cuban, and Zairean rumba. Messi changed the electric guitar by linking the strings together with pieces of paper, thus giving the instrument a damper tone which emitted a "thudding" sound similar to the balafon.
Messi's style was immediately popular, and his hits, like "Mengalla Maurice" and "Bekono Nga N'Konda," became radio favorites throughout the country beginning in the early 1960s. Further innovations followed, as Messi replaced the handclaps and sanza with a synthesizer and the foot-stamping 6/8 rhythm to drums.
1970s
Later in the 1960s, modern makossa developed and became the most popular genre in Cameroon. Makossa is a type of funky dance music, best known outside Africa for Manu Dibango, whose 1972 single "Soul Makossa" was an international hit. Outside of Africa, Dibango and makossa were only briefly popular, but the genre has produced several pan-African superstars through the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Following Dibango, a wave of musicians electrified makossa in an attempt at making it more accessible outside of Cameroon. Another pop singer in 1970s Cameroon was André-Marie Tala, a blind singer who had a pair of hits with "Sikati" and "Potaksima."
By the 1970s, bikutsi performers like Maurice Elanga, Les Veterans, and Mbarga Soukous, added brass instruments and found controversy over pornographic lyrics. Mama Ohandja also brought bikutsi to new audiences, especially in Europe. The following decade, however, saw Les Tetes Brulées surpass previous artists in international popularity though their reaction at home was mixed. Many listeners did not like their mellow, almost easy listening-styled bikutsi. Cameroonian audiences preferred more roots-based performers like Jimmy Mvondo Mvelé and Uta Bella, both from Yaoundé.
1980s
By the 1980s, makossa had moved to Paris and a new pop-makossa fused elements of Antillean zouk. Prominent musicians from this period included Moni Bilé, Douleur, Bébé Manga, , Petit-Pays, and Esa.
The 1980s also saw rapid development of Cameroon's media which saw a flourishing of both makossa and bikutsi. In 1980, L'Equipe Nationale de Makossa was formed, joining the biggest makossa stars of the period together, including, Grace Decca, Ndedi Eyango, Ben Decca, Guy Lobe, and Dina Bell. Makossa in the 1980s saw a wave of mainstream success across Africa and, to a lesser degree, abroad as Latin influences, Martinican zouk, and pop music changed its form. While makossa enjoyed international renown, bikutsi was often denigrated as the music of savages, and it did not appeal across ethnic lines and into urban areas. Musicians continued to add innovations, however, and improved recording techniques; Nkondo Si Tony, for example, added keyboards and synthesizers while Elanga Maurice added brass instruments. Les Veterans emerged as the most famous bikutsi group in the 1980s while other prominent performers included Titans de Sangmelima, Seba Georges, Ange Ebogo Emerent, Otheo and Mekongo President, who added complex harmonies and jazz influences.
In 1984, a new wave of bikutsi artists emerged, including Sala Bekono formerly of Los Camaroes, Atebass, a bassist, and Zanzibar, a guitarist who would eventually help form Les Têtes Brulées with Jean-Marie Ahanda. 1985 saw the formation of CRTV, a television network that did much to help popularize Cameroonian popular music across the country.
Jean-Marie Ahanda became the most influential bikutsi performer of the late 1980s, and he revolutionized the genre in 1987 after forming Les Têtes Brulées, whose success changed the Cameroonian music industry. The band played an extremely popular form of bikutsi that allowed for greater depth and diversity. Guitarist Zanzibar added foam rubber to the bridge of his guitar, which made the instrument sound more like a balafon than before, and was more aggressive and innovative than previous musicians. Les Têtes Brulées emerged as a reaction against pop-makossa, which was seen as abandoning its roots in favor of mainstream success. The band's image was part of its success, and they became known for their shaved heads and multi-colored body painting, done to represent traditional Beti scarification, as well as torn T-shirts that implied a common folkness in contrast to the well-styled pop-makossa performers of the period. They also wore backpacks on stage, a reference to Beti women's traditional method of carrying babies while they danced bikutsi.
It took only a few weeks for Les Têtes Brulées to knock makossa off the Cameroonian charts, and the band even toured France. While in France, Les Têtes Brulées recorded their first LP, Hot Heads, which was also the first bikutsi music recorded for the CD. Hot Heads expanded the lyrical format of the genre to include socio-political issues. Tours of Japan, Africa, Europe, and the United States followed, as well as Claire Denis' film Man No Run, which used footage from their European tour.
1990s
In the 1990s, both makossa and bikutsi declined in popularity as a new wave of genres entered mainstream audiences. These included Congolese-influenced new rumba and makossa-soukous, as well as more native forms like bantowbol, northern Cameroonian nganja (which had gained some popularity in the United Kingdom in the mid-1980s), and an urban street music called bend-skin.
Les Têtes Brulées remained the country's most well known musical export, especially after accompanying the Cameroonian soccer team to the World Cup in 1990 in Italy and 1994 in the United States. A new wave of bikutsi artists arose in the early 1990s, including Les Martiens (formed by Les Têtes Brulées bassist Atebass) and the sexually themed roots-singer Katino Ateba ("Ascenseur: le secret de l'homme") and Douala singer Sissi Dipoko ("Bikut-si Hit") as well as a resurgence of old performers like Sala Bekono. Bikutsi's international renown continued to grow, and the song "Proof" from Paul Simon's Rhythm of the Saints, released to mainstream promotion and success in 1990, gained yet more renown from international audiences. Vincent Nguini also contributed guitar arrangements and performance to Simon's Rhythm of the Saints, which became an influential world music album, introducing many North American listeners to the wide range of instrumentation and genres.
In 1993, the Pedalé movement was born as a reaction to the Cameroonian economic slump. Youthful artists like Gibraltar Drakuss, Zele le Bombardier, Eboue Chaleur, Pasto, Roger Bekono, Mbarga Soukous, and Saint-Desiré Atango was a return to the aggressive, earthy sound of bikutsi roots. Meanwhile, Henri Dikongué, whose music incorporated, amongst others, bikutsi and makossa, began to release albums which met international success. He went on to tour Europe and North America. The most recent form of Cameroonian popular music is a fusion of Congolese soukous and makossa, a scene which has produced Petit Pays, Marcel Bwanga, Kotto Bass, Papillon and Jean Pierre Essome. Other popular genres include Bend-skin, mangambeu, and makassi.
See also
List of musical instruments of Cameroon
References
Nkolo, Jean-Victor and Graeme Ewens. "Music of a Small Continent". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 440–447. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
External links
Audio clips: Traditional music of Cameroon. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010.
a history of bikutsi
Audio clip (60 minutes): Cameroon - The Baka Music House. BBC Radio 3. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clips - traditional music of Cameroon. French National Library. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Cameroonian music | [
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246425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Mozambique | Music of Mozambique | The native folk music of Mozambique has been highly influenced by Portuguese colonisation and local language forms. The most popular style of modern dance music is marrabenta. Mozambican music also influenced another Lusophone music in Brazil, like maxixe (its name derived from Maxixe in Mozambique), and mozambique style in Cuba and New York City.
Culture was an integral part of the struggle for independence, which began in 1964. Leaders of the independence movement used cultural solidarity to gain support from the common people, while the Portuguese colonialists promoted their own culture. By the time independence came in 1975, Mozambican bands had abandoned their previous attempts at European-style music, and began forging new forms based out of local folk styles and the new African popular music coming from Zaire, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Zambia and South Africa.
In 1978, the Ministry of Education and Culture organized a National Dance Festival that involved more than half a million people, and led to the creation of numerous organizations and festivals promoting Mozambican music.
Timbila
The Chopi people of the coastal Inhambane Province are known for a unique kind of xylophone called the mbila (pl: timbila) and the style of music played with it, which "is believed to be the most sophisticated method of composition yet found among preliterate peoples." Ensembles consist of around ten xylophones of four sizes and accompany ceremonial dances with long compositions called ngomi which consist of an overture and ten movements of different tempos and styles. The ensemble leader serves as poet, composer, conductor, and performer, creating a text, improvising a melody partially based on the features of the Chopi's tone language, and composing a second countrapunctal line. The musicians of the ensemble partially improvise their parts according to style, instrumental idiom, and the leader's indications. The composer then consults with the choreographer of the ceremony and adjustments are made. (Nettl 1956, p. 18-19)
Marrabenta
Marrabenta is the best-known form of music from Mozambique. It is urban in origin, and meant for dancing. Marrabenta was born as a fusion of imported European music played on improvised materials. The word marrabenta derives from the Portuguese rebentar (arrabentar in the local vernacular), meaning to break, a reference to cheap guitar strings that snapped quickly. Instruments were fashioned out of tin cans and pieces of wood. Lyrics were usually in local languages, and included songs of social criticism as well as love. Additionally, there are songs whose lyrics are in Portuguese, the official language of Mozambique, for nationwide and international promotion of the songs to other CPLP nations. The late 1970s saw tremendous innovation in marrabenta, as 1001 Music Productions recorded artists and staged large concerts. The compilation album Amanhecer was released, followed by more such LPs under the title Ngoma.
The most influential early marrabenta performer was Fany Pfumo, whose fame began after the success of "Loko ni kumbuka Jorgina". He recorded in South Africa on HMV and later incorporated South African kwela into his music. The group Orchestra Marrabenta Star de Moçambique formed in 1979, led by long-time performer Wazimbo. The group toured Europe and other parts of the world, and soon brought international recognition to marrabenta.
Many of the most popular musicians in modern Mozambique spent time with Orchestra Marrabenta Star de Moçambique, including Stewart Sukuma, Chico António, Mr. Bow, Neyma, José Mucavel and Mingas, while other popular bands include Ghorwane.
Pandza
Pandza is the newest and most-popular style of Mozambican music, its invention credited to N'Star, Ziqo and Dj Ardiles in Maputo. Pandza is especially popular amongst Mozambican youths and is a mix of marrabenta and ragga. The roots of Pandza originate from marrabenta but pandza has a faster tempo with major influences from ragga and some hip hop. Most pandza is sung in Portuguese and the Shangana language from Maputo and its lyrics most of the time, elaborate the daily lifestyles of young Mozambicans. The most notable pandza singers in Mozambique today include, Lizha James, Ziqo, Dj Ardiles, N'star, DH, Mr. Kuka, MC Roger, Denny Og, Dj Junior and Cízer Boss.
Hip hop
Mozambican hip hop is developing bit by bit and it is receiving a positive response. In the first decade of the 21st century, people who were uplifting hip hop were H2O, G-Pro and Danny OG. Modern hip hop artists include Bander Artista, Kins Ferna's, Dygo Boy Jurus, Ziqo, Same Blood and Laylizzy.
See also
International Library of African Music
Xylophone
Music of Africa
Shona music
Hugh Tracey
References
External links
Nettl, Bruno (1956). Music in Primitive Culture. Harvard University Press.
Paco, Celso. "A Luta Continua". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 579–584. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Tracey, Hugh. (1948, reprinted 1970). Chopi Musicians: their Music, Poetry, and Instruments. London: International African Institute and Oxford University Press. SBN 19 724182 4.
Hallis, Ron and Hallis, Ophera. (1987). Chopi Music of Mozambique. 28 minutes. 16 mm Video.
The 1973 Mgodo wa Mbanguzi A complete performance of traditional music and dance composed by a Chopi village in southern Mozambique. Produced by Gei Zantzinger and Andrew Tracey.
Center for Traditional Music and Dance
www.musica.co.mz.
Massukos
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Music for Timbila. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Tufo song and Ghorwane. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clips - traditional music of Mozambique. French National Library. Accessed November 25, 2010. | [
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246426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Saints | New York Saints | The New York Saints are a former member of the National Lacrosse League. They played at the Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York, from 1989 to 2003. They became an inactive team after the 2002–03 season and were officially defunct in 2006.
The Saints had played in the Major Indoor Lacrosse League from 1987 to 1988 in New Jersey (at Brendan Byrne Arena) as the New Jersey Saints. The Saints won the 1988 MILL championship.
Awards and honors
All-time record
Playoff results
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
Sports in Long Island
Lacrosse teams in New York (state)
Lacrosse clubs established in 1989
Lacrosse clubs disestablished in 2003
Major Indoor Lacrosse League teams
1999 establishments in New York (state)
2003 disestablishments in New York (state) | [
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246427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester%20Knighthawks%20%281995%E2%80%932019%29 | Rochester Knighthawks (1995–2019) | The Rochester Knighthawks (also known as the K-Hawks) were a professional box lacrosse team in the National Lacrosse League. They played in Rochester, New York at the Blue Cross Arena at the War Memorial. The Knighthawks were previously members of the Major Indoor Lacrosse League from 1995 to 1997. They were members of the NLL since the league's inaugural 1998 season.
The Knighthawks reached the playoffs in each of their first 13 seasons, from 1995 to 2007. This is a league record going back to the league's original creation, the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League. The previous record was 11 straight years, held by the Philadelphia Wings. They were also the first NLL team to win three consecutive championships (2012–14).
The new Knighthawks are owned by Pegula Sports and Entertainment who purchased the intellectual property of the team from former owner Curt Styres who moved the previous version of the team to Halifax, Nova Scotia as the Halifax Thunderbirds at the end of the 2018-2019 season. As an expansion team they are not a continuation of the previous Knighthawks. All records and championships were transferred to Halifax.
History
The Rochester Knighthawks found success throughout their history despite playing in a small market.
In their inaugural season they finished 3rd during the regular season and dispatched the Boston Blazers in the playoff semifinals to get to the finals as an expansion team. As they would do three times later on, they found themselves coming up just short in the championship game, falling in overtime to the Philadelphia Wings.
Just two seasons later, the Knighthawks would find their way to the top of the MILL heap, claiming the final North American Cup before the merger with the National Lacrosse League prior to the 1998 season. It would be ten years before the Knighthawks claimed their second title. They beat the Arizona Sting in the 2007 Championship by a score of 13-11. In 2012, the Knighthawks defeated the Edmonton Rush for the Championship by a score of 9-6. In 2013, the Knighthawks became the first team in the league to clinch back-to-back championship titles since the Toronto Rock in 2002 and 2003 by defeating the Washington Stealth 11-10. In 2014, the Knighthawks set a new league record by winning their third straight championship title.
2007 season
After starting the season with a record of 2-2, the Knighthawks beat the Toronto Rock 19-15 in Toronto, where they had only won twice before in team history. The Knighthawks followed this victory up with 11 more, finishing the season with a franchise-record 12 regular-season-game winning streak and a 14-2 record. The Knighthawks were a perfect 8-0 at home, becoming the first team since the 2003 Bandits to post a perfect record at home. The winning streak was extended to 13 games after they defeated the Rock 10-6 in the division semi-finals; and to 14 after beating the Bandits in overtime, 14-13, for the East Division title. After the season, head coach Ed Comeau was named the 2007 Les Bartley Award winner.
Despite having the best overall record, they could not host the championship game due to a scheduling conflict with the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus at the Blue Cross Arena. Playing the game instead in Arizona, the Knighthawks defeated the Arizona Sting 13-11 on May 12, 2007, to win their first NLL championship. John Grant, Jr., regular-season league MVP, was named MVP of the game.
The winning streak continued during the 2008 season, as the Knighthawks defeated the Buffalo Bandits in the opening game on January 11, 2008. However, the next night in Rochester, the streak was halted at 16 games as they were defeated by the Bandits 14-9.
Lease issue
During the 2007 season, a dispute over concession revenues between owner Steve Donner and the Sports Management Group, then operators of the Blue Cross Arena, jeopardized the continued play of the Knighthawks in Rochester. Donner claimed that the Knighthawks and the Rochester Americans of the American Hockey League had lost over $500,000 the previous two seasons, and without concession revenue sharing, he would be unable to continue to operate the teams in Rochester. An agreement was reached between the Amerks/Knighthawks SMG, and the City of Rochester on a one-year lease extension on May 11, 2007 that would allow for long-term negotiations to continue through both teams' 2008 season. Under the extension, the Amerks/Knighthawks agreed to an independent audit of their finances and the city agreed to forgo additional luxury suite revenue from the arena and to loan the Amerks an additional $100,000, added on to a $500,000 loan that is now past-due. On June 16, 2008 the Knighthawks and Americans announced a new five-year lease with the Blue Cross Arena.
Curt Styres era
On May 28, 2008 the National Lacrosse League's Board of Governors approved the sale of a majority stake of the Knighthawks to the President of Arrow Express Sports Curt Styres at a price of $5,575,000, the highest price paid for a team in league history. The league's approval was conditional upon whether or not the Knighthawks and Sports Management Group could secure a new lease for play at the Blue Cross Arena. Styres had also recently been approved by the American Hockey League to purchase the Americans. On June 16, 2008 the Knighthawks and Americans announced a new five-year lease with the Blue Cross Arena.
In June 2011, the Americans and Knighthawks were split up when Terrence Pegula purchased the Americans. The split was necessary at the time due to Pegula owning the Buffalo Bandits. This is a rule that would later be changed.
Original team relocation and replacement
On September 13, 2018, Styres announced that he would be accepting a new team in Halifax, Nova Scotia and would be relocating the Knighthawks to the city for the winter 2019–2020 season. The Knighthawks intellectual property was sold to Terry and Kim Pegula (the latter of whom was raised in the Rochester suburbs) along with an expansion franchise to ensure Rochester's uninterrupted presence in the league. The original name was used, but the color scheme and logo changed. The team logo, colors, and other officials were announced on May 29, 2019 in an event at Blue Cross Arena. The new franchise does not count as a continuation of the previous franchise. All championships and records were transferred to Halifax.
Awards and honors
NLL Hall of Fame members
Gary Gait, 2009–2011 (class of 2006)
Paul Gait, 1995–1997 (class of 2006)
Steve Dietrich, 1995–2001 (class of 2012)
Pat O'Toole 1999–2010 (class of 2013)
Final roster
All-time record
Playoff results
*The Knighthawks had the overall top seed in the playoffs, but were unable to host the Championship game due to a scheduling conflict at the Blue Cross Arena.
Head coaching history
Draft history
NLL Entry Draft
First Round Selections
1994: Cam Bomberry (1st overall)
1995: Derek Collins (5th overall)
1996: Cory Bomberry (3rd overall)
1997: None
1998: Casey Powell (1st overall) & Brad MacArthur (5th overall)
1999: John Grant (1st overall) & Ben Hunt (9th overall)
2000: Lindsay Plunkett (8th overall)
2001: Teddy Jenner (11th overall)
2002: Pete Benedict (11th overall)
2003: Scott Evans (5th overall)
2004: Mike Morrison (8th overall)
2005: Shawn Evans (2nd overall)
2006: Jack Reid (10th overall)
2007: Matt McLeod (8th overall) & Andrew Potter (14th overall)
2008: None
2009: Sid Smith (1st overall)
2010: Cody Jamieson (1st overall)
2011: Stephen Keogh (2nd overall), Johnny Powless (5th overall)
2012: Carson Michaud (56th overall)
2013: None
2014: Jeremy Noble (2nd overall)
2015: Graeme Hossack (2nd overall), Brad Gillies (9th overall)
NLL Dispersal Draft
2002 from Montreal Express: Steve Penny (10th overall); Declined to pick (22nd overall)
2003 from Ottawa Rebel: Mat Giles (10th overall); Shawn Zettel (21st overall); Declined to pick (32nd overall)
2004 from Vancouver Ravens: Chris McKay (5th overall); Peter Morgan (14th overall)
2005 from Anaheim Storm: Cam Bergman (8th overall)
2007 from Arizona Sting & Boston Blazers: Jack Reid, Boston (12th overall); Matt Lyons, Arizona (13th overall); Alex Smith, Arizona (36th overall)
2008 from Arizona Sting: Lindsay Plunkett (5th overall); Matt Brown (18th overall)
2008 from Chicago Shamrox: Mike Kirk (4th overall); Bobby McBride (16th overall); Craig Robertson (24th overall); Pat Saunders (25th overall); Brock Boyle (26th overall)
2009 from Arizona Sting: Dan Stroup (17th overall)
2010 from Orlando Titans: Jordan Hall (3rd overall); Dan Hardy (13th overall); Kenny Nims (23rd overall); Mike Evans (33rd overall); Bobby Horsey (40th overall)
2011 from Boston Blazers: Mike Kirk (5th overall), Casey Powell (14th overall), Jack Reid (23rd overall)
NLL Expansion Draft
1999 to Albany Attack: Josh Sanderson (2nd overall)
2001 to Calgary Roughnecks, New Jersey Storm, Vancouver Ravens & Columbus Landsharks: Randy Mearns, Calgary (8th overall); Marc Landriault, Calgary (14th overall); Lindsay Plunkett, Vancouver (16th overall); Kevin Howard, Calgary (30th overall)
2004 to Minnesota Swarm: Jon Harasym (N/A overall)
2005 to Portland Lumberjax & Edmonton Rush: Pat Campbell, Edmonton (8th overall); Mat Giles, Portland (9th overall)
2006 to Chicago Shamrox & New York Titans: Carter Livingstone, Chicago (17th overall); Ryan O'Connor, Chicago (19th overall)
2007 to Boston Blazers: Brian Croswell (13th overall)
2008 to Boston Blazers: Matt Lyons (3rd overall)
See also
Rochester Knighthawks seasons
References
Knighthawks
Lacrosse clubs established in 1995
Lacrosse clubs disestablished in 2019
Lacrosse teams in New York (state)
Major Indoor Lacrosse League teams
Defunct National Lacrosse League teams
1995 establishments in New York (state)
2019 disestablishments in New York (state) | [
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246429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beothuk | Beothuk | The Beothuk ( or ; also spelled Beothuck) were a group of indigenous people who lived on the island of Newfoundland.
Beginning around AD 1500, the Beothuk culture formed. This appeared to be the most recent cultural manifestation of peoples who first migrated from Labrador to present-day Newfoundland around AD 1. The ancestors of this group had three earlier cultural phases, each lasting approximately 500 years.
Description
The Beothuk lived throughout the island of Newfoundland, particularly in the Notre Dame and Bonavista Bay areas. Estimates vary as to the number of Beothuk at the time of contact with Europeans. Beothuk researcher Ingeborg Marshall has argued that a valid understanding of Beothuk history and culture is directly impacted by how and by whom historical records were created, pointing to the ethnocentric nature of European accounts as inherently unreliable. Scholars of the 19th and early 20th century estimated about 2,000 individuals at the time of European contact in the 15th century. There is purportedly good evidence that there may have been no more than 500 to 700 people. They lived in independent, self-sufficient, extended family groups of 30 to 55 people.
Like many other hunter-gatherers, they appear to have had band leaders but probably not more formal "chiefs". They lived in conical dwellings known as mamateeks, which were fortified for the winter season. These were constructed by arranging poles in a circle, tying them at the top, and covering them with birch bark. The floors were dug with hollows used for sleeping. A fireplace was made at the center.
During spring, the Beothuk used red ochre to paint not only their bodies but also their houses, canoes, weapons, household appliances, and musical instruments. This practice led Europeans to refer to them as "Red Indians". The use of ochre had great cultural significance. The decorating was done during an annual multi-day spring celebration. It designated tribal identity; for example, decorating newborn children was a way to welcome them into the tribe. Forbidding a person to wear ochre was a form of punishment.
Their main sources of food were caribou, salmon, and seals, augmented by harvesting other animal and plant species. The Beothuk followed the seasonal migratory habits of their principal quarry. In the fall, they set up deer fences, sometimes long, used to drive migrating caribou toward waiting hunters armed with bows and arrows.
The Beothuk are also known to have made a pudding out of tree sap and the dried yolk of the eggs of the great auk. They preserved surplus food for use during winter, trapped various fur-bearing animals, and worked their skins for warm clothing. The fur side was worn next to the skin, to trap air against a person's body.
Beothuk canoes were made of caribou or seal skin, and the bow of the canoe was stiffened with spruce bark. Canoes resembled kayaks and were said to be in length and in width with enough room to carry children, dogs and property.
The Beothuk followed elaborate burial practices. After wrapping the bodies in birch bark, they buried the dead in isolated locations. In one form, a shallow grave was covered with a rock pile. At other times they laid the body on a scaffold, or placed it in a burial box, with the knees folded. The survivors placed offerings at burial sites to accompany the dead, such as figurines, pendants, and replicas of tools.
European exploration
About 1000 AD, Norse explorers encountered natives in northern Newfoundland, who may have been ancestors of the later Beothuk, or Dorset inhabitants of Labrador and Newfoundland. The Norse called them skrælingjar ("skraelings"). Beginning in 1497, with the arrival of the Italian explorer John Cabot, sailing under the auspices of King Henry VII, waves of European explorers and settlers had more contacts.
Unlike some other native groups, the Beothuk tried to avoid contact with Europeans; they moved inland as European settlements grew. The Beothuk visited their former camps only to pick up metal objects. They would also collect any tools, shelters, and building materials left by the European fishermen who had dried and cured their catch before taking it to Europe at the end of the season. Contact between Europeans and the Beothuk was usually negative for one side, with a few exceptions like John Guy's party in 1612. Settlers and the Beothuk competed for natural resources such as salmon, seals, and birds. In the interior, fur trappers established traplines, disrupted the caribou hunts, and ransacked Beothuk stores, camps and supplies. The Beothuk would steal traps to reuse the metals, and steal from the homes and shelters of European settlers and sometimes ambush them. These encounters led to enmity and mutual violence. With superior arms technology, the settlers generally had the upper hand in hunting and warfare. (Unlike other indigenous peoples, the Beothuk appeared to have had no interest in adopting firearms.)
Intermittently, Europeans attempted to improve relations with the Beothuk. Examples included expeditions by naval lieutenants George Cartwright in 1768 and David Buchan in 1811. Cartwright's expedition was commissioned by Governor Hugh Palliser; he found no Beothuk, but brought back important cultural information.
Governor John Duckworth commissioned Buchan's expedition. Although undertaken for information gathering, this expedition ended in violence. Buchan's party encountered several Beothuk near Red Indian Lake. After an initially friendly reception, Buchan left two of his men behind with the Beothuk. The next day, he found them murdered and mutilated. According to the Beothuk Shanawdithit's later account, the marines were killed when one refused to give up his jacket and both ran away.
In 2010, a team of European researchers announced the discovery of a previously unknown mitochondrial DNA sequence in Iceland, which they further suggest may have New World origins. If the latter is true, one possible explanation for its appearance in modern Iceland would be intermarriage with a North American indigenous woman, possibly a Beothuk.
Causes of starvation
The Beothuks avoided Europeans in Newfoundland by moving inland from their traditional settlements. First, they emigrated to different coastal areas of Newfoundland, places the Europeans did not have fish-camps, but they were over-run. Then, they emigrated to inland Newfoundland. The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their emigration deprived them of two of these. This led to the over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation.
Extinction
Population estimates of Beothuks remaining at the end of the first decade of the 19th century vary widely, from about 150 up to 3,000. Information about the Beothuk was based on accounts by the woman Shanawdithit, who told about the people who "wintered on the Exploits River or at Red Indian Lake and resorted to the coast in Notre Dame Bay". References in records also noted some survivors on the Northern Peninsula in the early 19th century.
During the colonial period, the Beothuk people also endured territorial pressure from Native groups: Mi'kmaq migrants from Cape Breton Island, and Inuit from Labrador. "The Beothuk were unable to procure sufficient subsistence within the areas left to them." They entered into a cycle of violence with some of the newcomers. Beothuk numbers dwindled rapidly due to a combination of factors, including:
loss of access to important food sources, from the competition with Inuit and Mi'kmaq as well as European settlers;
infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, such as smallpox, introduced by European contact;
endemic tuberculosis (TB), which weakened tribal members; and
violent encounters with trappers, settlers, and other natives.
By 1829, with the death of Shanawdithit, the people were declared extinct.
Oral histories suggest a few Beothuk survived around the region of the Exploits River, Twillingate, Newfoundland; and Labrador; and formed unions with European colonists, Inuit and Mi'kmaq. Some families from Twillingate claim descent from the Beothuk people of the early 19th century.
In 1910, a 75-year-old Native woman named Santu Toney, claiming she was the daughter of a Mi'kmaq mother and a Beothuk father, recorded a song in the Beothuk language for the American anthropologist Frank Speck. He was doing field studies in the area. She said her father taught her the song.
Since Santu Toney was born about 1835, this may be evidence some Beothuk people survived beyond the death of Shanawdithit in 1829. Contemporary researchers tried to transcribe the song, as well as improve the recording by current methods. Native groups learned the song to use in celebrations of tradition.
Genocide
Historians sometimes disagree over what constitutes genocide, and their disagreements may be based on political agendas.
If a campaign of genocide occurred, it was explicitly without official sanction no later than 1769, any such action thereafter being in violation of Governor John Byron's proclamation criminalizing violence against the Beothuk, as well as the subsequent Proclamation issued by Governor John Holloway on July 30, 1807, which prohibited mistreatment of the Beothuk and offered a reward for any information on such mistreatment.
Notable Beothuk captives
Several Beothuk were captured by settlers from the Newfoundland Colony during the early 19th century.
Demasduit
Demasduit was a Beothuk woman, about 23 years old at the time she was captured by a party led by the fisherman John Peyton Sr. near Red Indian Lake in March 1819.
The governor of the Newfoundland Colony was seeking to encourage trade and end hostilities with the Beothuk. He approved an expedition, to be led by the Scottish explorer David Buchan, to recover a boat and other fishing gear foraged by the Beothuk. Buchan was accompanied by two soldiers; the Beothuk mistakenly thought Buchan had hostile intentions and killed and decapitated the soldiers accompanying him.
In 1819, an armed party led by Peyton Sr, totaling about nine men (including Peyton Jr.), came upon a Beothuk camp looking for stolen fishing gear. The Beothuk scattered, although Demasduit was unable to escape and begged for mercy, exposing her breasts to show she was a nursing mother with child. Her husband, Nonosbawsut, confronted Peyton Sr. and his party, attempting to negotiate for the release of his wife. Peyton Sr. refused and a scuffle broke out between him and Nonosbawsut, resulting in the death of the latter. Peyton Sr. and his party took Demasduit to Twillingate, with her baby dying before they reached the settlement.
The settlers at the Newfound Colony named Demasduit Mary March after the month she was taken. Government agents took her to St. John's, Newfoundland. The colonial government hoped to make Demasduit comfortable while she was living in the colony so she might be a bridge between them and the Beothuk. Demasduit learned some English, and taught the settlers about 200 words of the Beothuk language. In January 1820, Demasduit was released to rejoin her people, but she died of tuberculosis on the voyage to Notre Dame Bay.
Shanawdithit
Shanawdithit was Demasduit's niece and the last known full-blooded Beothuk. April 1823, she was in her early twenties. She, her mother, and sister sought food and help from a white trapper. They were starving. The three were taken to St. John's, but her mother and sister died of tuberculosis, an epidemic among the First Nations. Called Nancy April by the settlers, Shanawdithit lived for several years in the home of John Peyton, Jr. as a servant.
The explorer William Cormack founded the Beothuk Institute in 1827 to foster friendly dealings with the Beothuk and support their culture. His expeditions found Beothuk artifacts but he also learned the society was dying out. Learning of Shanawdithit, in the winter 1828–1829, Cormack brought her to his center so he could learn from her. He drew funds from his institute to pay for her support.
Shanawdithit made ten drawings for Cormack, some of which showed parts of the island, and others illustrated Beothuk implements and dwellings, along with tribal notions and myths. As she explained her drawings, she taught Cormack Beothuk vocabulary. She told him there were far fewer Beothuk than twenty years previously. To her knowledge, at the time she was taken, only a dozen Beothuk survived. Despite medical care from the doctor William Carson, Shanawdithit died of tuberculosis in St. John's on 6 June 1829. At the time, there was no European cure for the disease.
Archaeology
The area around eastern Notre Dame Bay, on the northeast coast of Newfoundland, contains numerous archeological sites containing material from indigenous cultures. One of them is the Boyd's Cove site. At the foot of a bay, it is protected by a maze of islands sheltering it from waves and winds. The site was found in 1981 during an archeological survey to locate Beothuk sites to study their artifacts for insight into Beothuk culture.
Records were too limited to answer questions about the people. Few record-keeping Europeans contacted the Beothuk, and information about them is limited. By contrast, peoples such as the Huron or the Mi'kmaq inter-acted with the French missionaries, who studied and taught them and had extensive trade with French, Dutch and English merchants, all of whom made records of their encounters.
References document a Beothuk presence in the region of Notre Dame Bay in the last half of the 18th and early part of the 19th century. Previous archaeological surveys and amateur finds indicate it was likely the Beothuk lived in the area prior to European encounter. Eastern Notre Dame Bay is rich in animal and fish life: seals, fish, and seabirds, and its hinterland supported large caribou herds.
Archaeologists found sixteen Aboriginal sites, ranging in age from the Maritime Archaic Indian era (7000 BC – modern) through the Palaeo-Eskimo period, down to the Recent Indian (including the Beothuk) occupation. Two of the sites are associated with the historical Beothuk. Boyd's Cove, the larger of the two, is 3000 sq. m. and is on top of a 6-m glacial moraine. The coarse sand, gravel, and boulders were left behind by glaciers.
The artifacts provide answers to an economic question: why did/do the Beothuk avoid Europeans? The interiors of four houses and their environs produced some 1,157 nails, the majority of which were forged by the Beothuk. The site's occupants manufactured some sixty-seven projectile points (most made from nails and bones). They modified nails to use as what are believed to be scrapers to remove fat from animal hides, they straightened fish hooks and adapted them as awls, they fashioned lead into ornaments, and so on. In summary, the Boyd's Cove Beothuk took debris from an early modern European fishery and fashioned materials.
Genetics
In 2007, DNA testing was conducted on material from the teeth of Demasduit and her husband Nonosabasut, two Beothuk individuals buried in the 1820s. The results assigned them to Haplogroup X (mtDNA) and Haplogroup C (mtDNA), respectively, which are also found in current Mi'kmaq populations in Newfoundland. DNA research indicates they were solely of First Nation indigenous maternal ancestry, unlike some earlier studies suggesting an indigenous/European hybrid. However, a 2011 analysis showed although the two Beothuk and living Mi'kmaq occur in the same haplogroups, SNP differences between Beothuk and Mi'kmaq individuals indicate they were dis-similar within those groups, and a 'close-relationship' theory was not supported.
Footnotes
References
Brown, Robert Craig, Reminiscences of James P. Howley: Selected Years. Toronto: Champlain Society Publications, 1997.
Hewson, John. "Beothuk and Algonkian: Evidence Old and New", International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 34, No. 2 (April 1968), pp. 85–93.
Holly, Donald H. Jr. "A Historiography of an Ahistoricity: On the Beothuk Indians", History and Anthropology, 2003, Vol. 14(2), pp. 127–140.
Holly, Donald H. Jr. "The Beothuk on the eve of their extinction", Arctic Anthropology, 2000, Vol. 37(1), pp. 79–95.
Howley, James P., The Beothucks or Red Indians, Cambridge University Press, 1918. Reprint: Prospero Books, Toronto. (2000). .
Pastore, Ralph T., Shanawdithit's People: The Archaeology of the Beothuks. Breakwater Books, St. John's, Newfoundland, 1992. .
Renouf, M. A. P. "Prehistory of Newfoundland hunter-gatherers: extinctions or adaptations?" World Archaeology, Vol. 30(3): pp. 403–420 Arctic Archaeology 1999.
Such, Peter, Vanished Peoples: The Archaic Dorset & Beothuk People of Newfoundland. NC Press, Toronto, 1978.
Tuck, James A., Ancient People of Port au Choix: The Excavation of an Archaic Indian Cemetery in Newfoundland. Institute of Social and Economic Research, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1994.
Winter, Keith John, Shananditti: The Last of the Beothuks. J.J. Douglas Ltd., North Vancouver, B.C., 1975. .
Assiniwi, Bernard, "La saga des Béothuks". Babel, LEMÉAC, 1996.
External links
The Beothuks, Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage.
Beothuk, Native Languages.
Ideas on CBC program about Demasduwit
Indigenous peoples in Atlantic Canada
Algonquian peoples
First Nations in Atlantic Canada
Culture of Newfoundland and Labrador
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
Extinct ethnic groups
Native American genocide
Extinct Native American peoples | [
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246430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo%20Bandits | Buffalo Bandits | The Buffalo Bandits are a professional box lacrosse team in the North Division of the National Lacrosse League (NLL). They play at the KeyBank Center in Buffalo, New York. The Bandits played in the Major Indoor Lacrosse League from 1992 to 1997, then in its successor the NLL since 1998.
The Bandits are owned by Hockey Western New York LLC, a division of Pegula Sports and Entertainment led by Terry Pegula who also owns the Buffalo Sabres and the Buffalo Bills.
History
The Bandits played their first season in 1992. They played home games at Buffalo Memorial Auditorium sharing with the Buffalo Sabres until its closure in 1996.
The Bandits became the first expansion franchise in MILL/NLL history to win a championship in its first season. The Bandits repeated as champions in their second season (compiling the league's only perfect season to date that year), lost the Championship game their third season and captured their third Championship in 1996, their fifth season. It was not until 1999, their eighth season, that the Bandits did not make the playoffs.
Since their 1996 Championship-winning season, the Bandits returned to the NLL Championship game on three separate occasions (1997, 2004, 2006) only to lose each time (including twice at home). It wouldn't be until 2008 that the Bandits would win their elusive fourth Championship, a 14-13 triumph over Portland.
As of 2018, Buffalo is the longest tenured team in the NLL, in terms of continuous years in their home city, at 27 seasons. (They are not the longest tenured franchise; the New England Black Wolves operate on the franchise of the Philadelphia Wings and the Colorado Mammoth were originally the Baltimore Thunder with previous stops as the Pittsburgh Crossefire in 2000 and Washington Power in 2001 & 2002.)
Awards and honors
NLL Hall of Fame members
Les Bartley, Head Coach, 2006
Darris Kilgour, Forward, 2007
John Mouradian, General Manager, 2008
Jim Veltman, Defense, 2009
Rich Kilgour, Transition, 2010
Steve Dietrich, Goaltender, 2012
Pat O'Toole, Goaltender, 2013
Tracey Kelusky, Forward, 2016
John Tavares, Forward, 2016
Pat McCready, Defense, 2021
Shawn Williams, Forward, 2021
NLL records
Single-game record holders
Most assists in a single game - Mark Steenhuis (13 assists, February 14, 2009)
Most points in a single game - Mark Steenhuis (17 points, February 14, 2009)
Season record holders
Most points in a single season - Dhane Smith (137 points, 2016)
Most goals in a single season - Dhane Smith (72 goals, 2016)
All-time record holders
Most goals in a career - John Tavares (724 goals, 1991–2015)
Most assists in a career - John Tavares (823 assists, 1991–2015)
Most points in a career - John Tavares (1,547 points, 1991–2015)
Most saves in a career - Matt Vinc (8,299 saves 2005–Present)
Most wins in a career - Matt Vinc (119 wins 2005–Present)
Most minutes played - Matt Vinc (12,627:54 2005–Present)
NLL All-Star Game
2005: Kyle Couling, Mark Steenhuis, John Tavares*, Dan Teat
2006: Steve Dietrich, Mark Steenhuis, John Tavares*
2007: Pat McCready, Mark Steenhuis, John Tavares*
2008: Mark Steenhuis*, John Tavares*, Chris White
2009: Ken Montour*, Mark Steenhuis*, John Tavares, Roger Vyse, Chris White*
2011: Chris White, Mark Steenhuis, John Tavares, Brett Bucktooth
2012: Billy Dee Smith, Scott Self, Chris White, John Tavares, Mike Thompson
* - voted as starter
Current roster
All-time record
All-time team-by-team records
(active NLL franchises only)
Playoff results
All-time team-by-team playoff records
(Active NLL franchises only)
Head coaching history
Draft history
NLL Entry Draft
First Round Selections
1991: Darris Kilgour (1st overall)
1992: Tom Marechek (6th overall)
1993: Gil Nieuwendyk (6th overall)
1994: Rodd Squire (5th overall)
1995: Jason Luke (3rd overall)
1996: Mike Murray (6th overall)
1997: Casey Zaph (7th overall) & Marty O'Brien (8th overall)
1998: Matt Disher (7th overall)
1999: None
2000: Ryan Powell (2nd overall)
2001: None
2002: Billy Dee Smith (3rd overall)
2003: A.J. Shannon (6th overall)
2004: Delby Powless (1st overall)
2005: Jeff Shattler (10th overall)
2006: Brett Bucktooth (3rd overall)
2007: None
2008: None
2009: Kyle Clancy (10th overall)
2010: Travis Irving (9th overall)
2011: None
2012: Dhane Smith (5th overall)
2013: None
2014: Brandon Goodwin (9th overall)
2015: None
2016: None
2017: Josh Byrne (1st overall)
2018: Matt Gilray (3rd overall) & Ian MacKay (4th overall)
2019: Brent Noseworthy (12th overall)
2020: Brad McCulley (9th overall)
2021: Tehoka Nanticoke (3rd overall) & Thomas Vaesen (14th Overall)
NLL Dispersal Draft
2002 from Montreal Express: Aime Caines (6th overall); Kelly Sullivan (18th overall)
2003 from Ottawa Rebel: Jason Clark (9th overall); Marc Landriault (20th overall); Mike Hamilton (31st overall)
2004 from Vancouver Ravens: Curt Malawsky (9th overall); Declined to pick (18th overall)
2005 from Anaheim Storm: Traded to Arizona (9th overall)
2007 from Arizona Sting & Boston Blazers: Craig Conn, Arizona (10th overall); Brian Croswell, Boston (15th overall); Joe Smith, Arizona (34th overall)
2008 from Arizona Sting: Greg Hinman (13th overall)
2008 from Chicago Shamrox: Cody Jacobs (12th overall); Cory Stringer (21st overall)
2009 from Portland LumberJax: Jamison Koesterer (9th overall)
2010 from Orlando Titians: Jesse Guerin (16th overall) & Matt Brown (26th overall)
2011 from Boston Blazers: Kevin Buchanan (6th overall) & Damon Edwards (15th overall)
NLL Expansion Draft
1999 to Albany Attack: Troy Cordingley (3rd overall)
2001 to Calgary Roughnecks, New Jersey Storm, Vancouver Ravens & Columbus Landsharks: Rich Catton, Vancouver (3rd overall); Phil Wetherup, Columbus (4th overall); Andy Duden, Columbus (10th overall); Peter Talmo, New Jersey (21st overall)
2004 to Minnesota Swarm: Jason Clark (N/A overall)
2005 to Portland Lumberjax & Edmonton Rush: Mike Hominuck, Portland (1st overall); Thomas Montour, Portland (13th overall)
2006 to Chicago Shamrox & New York Titans: Bryan Kazarian, Chicago (13th overall); Jon Harasym, Portland (15th overall)
2007 to Boston Blazers: Brendan Thenhaus (7th overall)
2008 to Boston Blazers: Kyle Laverty (4th overall)
2018 to San Diego Seals & Philadelphia Wings: Vaughn Harris (15th overall); Davide DiRuscio (17th overall)
2019 to Rochester Knighthawks & New York Riptide: Shawn Evans (1st overall); Jordan Durston (2nd overall)
2020 to Panther City Lacrosse Club: Liam Patten (8th overall)
Retired numbers
The Bandits have four retired numbers, three of which are represented at the Arena in the rafters with the Championship banners.
34 Thomas Gardner, western New York youth lacrosse organizer, March 20, 1999
43 Darris Kilgour, F, March 25, 2001
16 Rich Kilgour, D, April 16, 2011
11 John Tavares, F, March 11, 2016
Equipment Manager - John Craig, February 2, 2012 (retired by the Bandits and given a ceremony)
Game broadcasts
Buffalo Bandits games can be heard on Buffalo's Entercom stations, either WGR 550 AM or WWKB 1520 AM, with a simulcast on WGWE-FM 105.9, the Seneca nation's radio station in Little Valley. John Gurtler, former play-by-play man for the Buffalo Sabres, handles announcing duties, while former Bandit Randy Mearns handles color commentary. Home games are streamed live on NLL.com.
Footnotes and references
See also
Buffalo Bandits seasons
Buffalo Bandits all-time roster
External links
2017-2018 Media Guide
Sports in Buffalo, New York
Lacrosse clubs established in 1992
Lacrosse teams in New York (state)
Major Indoor Lacrosse League teams
Pegula Sports and Entertainment
National Lacrosse League teams
1992 establishments in New York (state) | [
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246431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma-Shave | Burma-Shave | Burma-Shave was an American brand of brushless shaving cream, famous for its advertising gimmick of posting humorous rhyming poems on small sequential highway roadside signs.
History
Burma-Shave was introduced in 1925 by the Burma-Vita company in Minneapolis owned by Clinton Odell. The company's original product was a liniment made of ingredients described as having come "from the Malay Peninsula and Burma" (hence its name). Sales were sparse, and the company sought to expand sales by introducing a product with wider appeal.
The result was the Burma-Shave brand of brushless shaving cream and its supporting advertising program. Sales increased. At its peak, Burma-Shave was the second-highest-selling brushless shaving cream in the US. Sales declined in the 1950s, and in 1963 the company was sold to Philip Morris. Its well known advertising signs were removed at that time. The brand decreased in visibility and eventually became the property of the American Safety Razor Company.
In 1997, the American Safety Razor Company reintroduced the Burma-Shave brand with a nostalgic shaving soap and brush kit, though the original Burma-Shave was a brushless shaving cream, and Burma-Shave's own roadside signs frequently ridiculed "Grandpa's old-fashioned shaving brush."
Roadside billboards
Burma-Shave sign series first appeared on U.S. Highway 65 near Lakeville, Minnesota, in 1926, and remained a major advertising component until 1963 in most of the contiguous United States. The first series read: Cheer up, face – the war is over! Burma-Shave. The exceptions were Nevada (deemed to have insufficient road traffic), and Massachusetts (eliminated due to that state's high land rentals and roadside foliage). Typically, six consecutive small signs would be posted along the edge of highways, spaced for sequential reading by passing motorists. The last sign was almost always the name of the product. The signs were originally produced in two color combinations: red-and-white and orange-and-black, though the latter was eliminated after a few years. A special white-on-blue set of signs was developed for South Dakota, which restricted the color red on roadside signs to official warning notices.
This use of a series of small signs, each of which bore part of a commercial message, was a successful approach to highway advertising during the early years of highway travel, drawing the attention of passing motorists who were curious to learn the punchline. As the Interstate system expanded in the late 1950s and vehicle speeds increased, it became more difficult to attract motorists' attention with small signs. When the company was acquired by Philip Morris, the signs were discontinued on advice of counsel.
Some of the signs featured safety messages about speeding instead of advertisements.
Examples of Burma-Shave advertisements are at The House on the Rock in Spring Green, Wisconsin. Re-creations of Burma-Shave sign sets also appear on Arizona State Highway 66, part of the original U.S. Route 66, between Ash Fork, Arizona, and Kingman, Arizona, (though they were not installed there by Burma-Shave during its original campaigns) and on Old U.S. Highway 30 near Ogden, Iowa. Other examples are displayed at The Henry Ford in Dearborn, Michigan, the Interstate 44 in Missouri rest area between Rolla and Springfield (which has old Route 66 building picnic structures), the Forney Transportation Museum in Denver, Colorado and the Virginia Museum of Transportation in Roanoke, Virginia.
Examples
The complete list of the 600 or so known sets of signs is listed in
Sunday Drives
and in the last part of
The Verse by the Side of the Road.
The content of the earliest signs is lost, but it is believed that the first recorded signs, for 1927 and soon after, are close to the originals. The first ones were prosaic advertisements. Generally the signs were printed with all capital letters. The style shown below is for readability:
Shave the modern way / No brush / No lather / No rub-in / Big tube 35 cents – Drug stores / Burma-Shave
As early as 1928, the writers were displaying a puckish sense of humor:
Takes the "H" out of shave / Makes it save / Saves complexion / Saves time and money / No brush – no lather / Burma-Shave
In 1929, the prosaic ads began to be replaced by actual verses on four signs, with the fifth sign merely a filler for the sixth:
Every shaver / Now can snore / Six more minutes / Than before / By using / Burma-Shave
Your shaving brush / Has had its day / So why not / Shave the modern way / With / Burma-Shave
Previously there were only two to four sets of signs per year. 1930 saw major growth in the company, and 19 sets of signs were produced. The writers recycled a previous joke. They continued to ridicule the "old" style of shaving. And they began to appeal to the wives as well:
Cheer up face / The war is past / The "H" is out / Of shave / At last / Burma-Shave
Shaving brushes / You'll soon see 'em / On the shelf / In some / Museum / Burma-Shave
Does your husband / Misbehave / Grunt and grumble / Rant and rave / Shoot the brute some / Burma-Shave
In 1931, the writers began to reveal a "cringe factor" side to their creativity, which would increase over time:
No matter / How you slice it / It's still your face / Be humane / Use / Burma-Shave
In 1932, the company recognized the popularity of the signs with a self-referencing gimmick:
Free / Illustrated / Jingle book / In every / Package / Burma-Shave
A shave / That's real / No cuts to heal / A soothing / Velvet after-feel / Burma-Shave
In 1935, the first known appearance of a road safety message appeared, combined with a punning sales pitch:
Train approaching / Whistle squealing / Stop / Avoid that run-down feeling / Burma-Shave
Keep well / To the right / Of the oncoming car / Get your close shaves / From the half pound jar / Burma-Shave
Safety messages began to increase in 1939, as these examples show. (The first of the four is a parody of "Paul Revere's Ride" by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.)
Hardly a driver / Is now alive / Who passed / On hills / At 75 / Burma-Shave
Past / Schoolhouses / Take it slow / Let the little / Shavers grow / Burma-Shave
If you dislike / Big traffic fines / Slow down / Till you / Can read these signs / Burma-Shave
Don't take / a curve / at 60 per. / We hate to lose / a customer / Burma-Shave
In 1939 and subsequent years, demise of the signs was foreshadowed, as busy roadways approaching larger cities featured shortened versions of the slogans on one, two, or three signs — the exact count is not recorded. The puns include a play on the Maxwell House Coffee slogan, standard puns, and yet another reference to the "H" joke:
Good to the last strop
Covers a multitude of chins
Takes the "H" out of shaving
The war years found the company recycling a lot of their old signs, with new ones mostly focusing on World War II propaganda:
Let's make Hitler / And Hirohito / Feel as bad / as Old Benito / Buy War Bonds / Burma-Shave
Slap / The Jap / With / Iron / Scrap / Burma-Shave
A 1944 advertisement in Life magazine ran:
TOUGH-WHISKERED YANKS / IN HEAVY TANKS
HAVE JAWS AS SMOOTH / AS GUYS IN BANKS
1963 was the last year for the signs, most of which were repeats, including the final slogan, which had first appeared in 1953:
Our fortune / Is your / Shaven face / It's our best / Advertising space / Burma-Shave
Special promotional messages
Free offer! Free offer! / Rip a fender off your car / mail it in / for a half-pound jar / Burma-Shave
A large number of fenders were received by the company, which made good on its promise.
Free – free / a trip to Mars / for 900 / empty jars / Burma-Shave
Arlyss French, owner of a Red Owl grocery store, did submit 900 empty jars; the company at first replied: "If a trip to Mars / you earn / remember, friend / there's no return." Then Burma-Shave, on the recommendation of Red Owl's publicity team, withdrew the one-way offer and instead sent Mr. and Mrs. French on vacation to the town of Moers (often pronounced "Mars" by foreigners) near Duisburg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
Cultural impact
A number of films and television shows set between the 1920s and 1950s have used the Burma-Shave roadside billboards to help set the scene. Examples include Bonnie and Clyde, A River Runs Through It, The World's Fastest Indian, Stand By Me, Tom and Jerry, M*A*S*H and the pilot episode ("Genesis") of Quantum Leap. The long-running series Hee Haw borrowed the style for program bumpers, transitioning from one show segment to the next or to commercials.
The final episode of the popular television series M*A*S*H featured a series of road signs in Korea "Hawk was gone, now he's here. Dance til dawn, give a cheer. Burma-Shave".
Roger Miller's song "Burma Shave" (the B-side to his 1961 single "Fair Swiss Maiden") has the singer musing that he's "seen a million rows of them little red poetic signs up and down the line", while reciting rhymes in the manner of the ads. Tom Waits' song "Burma-Shave" (from his 1977 album Foreign Affairs) uses the signs as an allegory for an unknown destination. ("I guess I'm headed that-a-way, Just as long as it's paved, I guess you'd say I'm on my way to Burma-Shave") Chuck Suchy's song "Burma Shave Boogie" (from his 2008 album Unraveling Heart) incorporates several of the Burma Shave rhymes into its lyrics.
The pedestrian passageway between the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal stations in the New York City Subway system contains a piece of public art inspired by the Burma-Shave ads; Norman B. Colp's The Commuter's Lament, or A Close Shave consists of a series of signs attached to the roof of the passageway, displaying the following text:
Overslept, / So tired. / If late, / Get fired. / Why bother? / Why the pain? / Just go home / Do it again.
Several highway departments in the United States use signs in the same style to dispense travel safety advice to motorists.
Several writers of doggerel and humorously bad poetry (such as David Burge) often use "Burma Shave" as the last line of their poems to indicate their non-serious nature.
The word "burmashaving" is used in Canada to describe politicians holding signs and waving to traffic by the side of the road, a common sight during election campaigns. One of the first to use the phrase was Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative premier John Buchanan, who would stand at the end of a long line of party signs and wave to morning traffic. A political example in the U.S. was a series of roadside signs held by proponents of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) in 1982 in a Florida senatorial district: "A Vote FOR ERA / Is a Vote AGAINST Sex Discrimination / Who Profits from Sex Discrimination? / Ask Senator Patrick Neal."
See also
List of defunct consumer brands
References
External links
The Burma-Shave rhymes
More Burma-Shave rhymes
Burma-Shave on Instagram
Burma Shave signs
Products introduced in 1925
Personal care brands
Hair removal
Defunct consumer brands
Shaving cream brands
Male grooming brands | [
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246432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Senegal | Music of Senegal | Senegal's music is best known abroad due to the popularity of mbalax, a development of Serer conservative njuup music and sabar drumming popularized internationally by Youssou N'Dour.
Senegalese Musical Instruments
List
Bomvola
Ilulam
Tuga Carat
ooga
Gahtim
Kghvawasi
Ghata
Sirom
Xylophone (Around Senegal Brazil China Sudan Ecuador)
Zazoli
bolbia
National music
During the colonial ages Senegal was colonized by France and many, though not all, Senegalese identified as French instead of any African ethnicity. Post-independence, the philosophy of negritude arose, which espoused the idea that the griot traditions of Senegal were as valid, classical and meaningful as French classical music. The first President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor (also a poet) was one of the primary exponents of this.
The national anthem of Senegal, "Pincez tous vos koras, frappez les balafons" ("Pluck all your koras, strike the balafons"), was adopted in 1960. Its lyrics, by president Senghor, refer to the Malian music tradition, while its music was composed by Herbert Pepper (fr).
Traditional music
Ethnically the population of Senegal is 41.3% Wolof, 17.8% Fula, 14.7% Serer, 14.0% Mandinka, 3.7% Jola and 1.1% Soninka, with 1% European and Lebanese and 6.4% classed as "other" Senegalese music has been influenced by that of the Malian Empire though it tends to be fast and lively whereas the sounds of Malian griots are sedate, classical.
Wolof),derives its from accompanying rhythms used in sabar music of the Serer people of the Kingdom of Sine and spread to the Kingdom of Saloum whence Wolof migrants brought it to the Wolof kingdoms. The Nder (lead drum), Sabar (rhythm drum), and Tama (talking drum) percussion section traces some of its technique to the ritual music of Njuup. The Serer people infuse their everyday language with complex overlapping cadences and their ritual with intense collaborative layerings of voice and rhythm."
The Njuup was also the progenitor of Tassu, used when chanting ancient religious verses. The griots of Senegambia still use it at marriages, naming ceremonies or when singing the praises of patrons. Most Senegalese and Gambian artists use it in their songs. Each motif has a purpose and is used for different occasions. Individual motifs may represent the history and genealogy of a particular family and are used during weddings, naming ceremonies, funerals etc.
Popular music after independence
1950s and 1960s
Prior to independence, Senegalese popular music consisted of nightclub dance bands (orchestres) that played European music, namely American and French songs. As independence approach and the country sought to move away from their colonial past, the popular music of Senegal began to be influenced by the Cuban music that was becoming popular throughout Africa. Ibra Kasse's Star Band was the most famous orchestre of the 1960s and 1970s and was a leader in the modernization of Senegalese music. Super Star de Dakar, led by Nigerian saxophonist, Dexter Johnson, spun off from the Star Band and was the other leading band in Dakar in the 1960s. Both played a style that was heavily influenced by Cuban music but had elements of traditional African music.
The south of Senegal, called Casamance, has a strong Mandinka minority, and began projfdvfdb-jhbrg masters of the kora in the late 1950s. The band Touré Kunda was the most popular group to arise from this scene, and they soon began playing large concerts across the world.
1970s and 1980s
The 1970s saw the increased influence of traditional Senegalese music. Traditional drums like the saber and the tama were introduced by leading orchestras and the music progressed over the decade from predominately Latin-influenced to the Senegalese style known as Mbalax. The Star Band and three of its off-shoots from the 1970s were important in the evolution of the music. In 1970, Orchestra Baobab broke away from the Star Band followed by No. One de Dakar in 1976. All three bands were notable for their integration of traditional musical styles into the common Latin dance styles of the Senegalese nightclub bands of the time. In the town of Thiès, Royal Band de Thiès and Dieuf Dieul de Thiès are also considered influential in the evolution of Senegalese popular music.
In 1977, the entire rhythm section and many other performers in the Star Band left to form Étoile de Dakar, who are often considered the first band to play Mbalax. They quickly eclipsed their compatriots, launching the careers of El Hadji Faye and Youssou N'Dour. Faye and N'Dour were Senegal's first pop stars, but the stress of fame soon drove the band apart. Faye and guitarist Badou N'diaye formed Étoile 2000, releasing a hit with "Boubou N'Gary", but soon disappearing after three similar-sounding albums.
N'Dour and other members of Étoile de Dakar became known as Super Étoile de Dakar and released four albums within a few months. Super Étoile de Dakar evolved into N'Dour's backing band. He was soon by far the most popular performer in the country, and perhaps in all of West Africa. He introduced more traditional elements to his Senegalized Cuban music, including traditional rapping (tassou), njuup, bakou music (a kind of trilling that accompanies Serer wrestling) and instruments like the sabar.
While N'Dour and others Africanized Cuban music, another influential band, Xalam, was doing the same with American funk and jazz. They formed in 1970, led then by drummer Prosper Niang, but their controversial lyrics and unfamiliar jazz sound led to a lack of popularity, and the group moved to Paris in 1973. There, they added Jean-Philippe Rykiel on keyboards. Xalam toured with groups such as Rolling Stones and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, finally achieving success in Senegal with 1988's Xarit.
In the latter part of the 1970s, the band Super Diamono formed, fusing mbalax rhythms and militant populism with jazz and reggae influences. Their 1982 Jigenu Ndakaru was especially popular. By the middle of the 1980s, Super Diamono was one of the top bands in Senegal, in close and fierce competition with Super Étoile de Dakar. The band's popularity declined, however, slowed somewhat by Omar Pene's reformation in 1991.
This mix is an example of mostly Senegalese music from the 1970s and 1980s but some other African countries are represented as well: https://soundcloud.com/trushmix/trushmix-85-kokk-n-roll
1990s to the present
Into the 1990s, Thione Seck, a griot descended from those of Lat Dior, the king of Kayor, arose to solo stardome from Orchestra Baobab, eventually forming his own band called Raam Daan (crawl slowly towards your goal). He used electric instruments on many popular releases, especially Diongoma and Demb. The same period saw the rise of Ismael Lô, a member of Super Diamono, who had major hits, including "Attaya", "Ceddo" and "Jele bi".
Baaba Maal is another popular Senegalese singer. He is from Podor and won a scholarship to study music in Paris. After returning, he studied traditional music with his blind guitarist and family griot, Mansour Seck, and began performing with the band Daande Lenol. His Djam Leelii, recorded in 1984, became a critical sensation in the United Kingdom after it was released there in 1989. Maal's fusions continued into the next decade, with his Firin' in Fouta (1994) album, which used ragga, salsa and Breton harp music to create a popular sound that launched the careers of Positive Black Soul, a group of rappers, and also led to the formation of the Afro-Celt Sound System. His fusion tendencies continued on 1998's Nomad Soul, which featured Brian Eno as one of seven producers.
Though female performers were achieving popular breakthroughs elsewhere in West Africa, especially Mali, Senegalese women had few opportunities before the 1990s. The first international release by a woman was "Cheikh Anta Mbacke" (1989) by Kiné Lam. The song's success led to a string of female performers, including Fatou Guewel, Madiodio Gning, Daro Mbaye and Khar Mbaye Madiaga. Lam, however, remained perhaps the most influential female musician of the 1990s, creating a modernized version of sabar ak xalam ensembles by adding bass guitar and synthesizer with 1993's Sunu Thiossane. The release of Fatou Guewel's CD entitled 'Fatou' in 1998 was significantly influential for Mbalax; this is also the case with her band 'Groupe Sope Noreyni'.
The new century has seen the rise of Viviane Ndour, who got her first break as a backing vocalist to Youssou Ndour with Super Etoile. She is well known in Senegal and the diaspora, collaborating with French rap star Mokobe and Zouk artist Philip Montiero and incorporating RnB, Hip-Hop and other elements into her own style of Mbalax.
Acoustic folk music has also left its mark on Senegal's music culture. Artists that have contributed to this genre include TAMA from Rufisque, Pape Armand Boye, les Freres Guisse, Pape et Cheikh, and Cheikh Lo.
The biggest trend in 1990s Senegal, however, was hip hop. Traditional culture includes rapping traditions, such as the formal tassou, performed by women of the Laobe woodworking class the morning after marriages. Modern Senegalese hip hop is mostly in Wolof, alongside some English and French. Positive Black Soul is the best-known group in the country, Daara j, Gokh-Bi System and Wageble too. Senegalese-French rapper MC Solaar is a very well known musician. Senegalese born Akon has risen to world fame.
In 2008 English musician Ramon Goose travelled to Dakar and collaborated with Senegalese griot Diabel Cissokho to record the album Mansana Blues which explores African blues & traditional West African styles, this led on to the formation of The West African Blues Project.
References
Sources
Hudson, Mark, Jenny Cathcart and Lucy Duran. "Senegambian Stars Are Here to Stay". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 617–633. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
External links
Audio clips: Traditional music of Senegal. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010.
The Griot Music Documentary about a griot musician Ablaye Cissoko
nationalgeographic.com - NGC's Senegal Music Page
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246435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panay | Panay | Panay is the sixth-largest and fourth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of and has a total population of 4,542,926 as of 2020 census. Panay comprises 4.4 percent of the entire population of the country. The City of Iloilo is its largest settlement with a total population of 457,626 inhabitants as of 2020 census.
Panay is a triangular island, located in the western part of the Visayas. It is about across. It is divided into four provinces: Aklan, Antique, Capiz and Iloilo, all in the Western Visayas Region. Just closely off the mid-southeastern coast lies the island-province of Guimaras. It is located southeast of the island of Mindoro and northwest of Negros across the Guimaras Strait. To the north and northeast is the Sibuyan Sea, Jintotolo Channel and the island-provinces of Romblon and Masbate; to the west and southwest is the Sulu Sea and the Palawan archipelago and to the south is Panay Gulf. Panay is the only main island in the Visayas whose provinces don't bear the name of their island.
Panay is bisected by the Central Panay Mountain Range, its longest mountain chain. The island has many rivers, the longest being the Panay River at a length of , followed by the Jalaur, Aklan, Sibalom, Iloilo and Bugang rivers. Standing at about , the dormant Mount Madja-as (situated in Culasi, Antique) is the highest point of the island, with Mount Nangtud (located between Barbaza, Antique and Jamindan, Capiz) following next at .
The island lent its name to several United States Navy vessels including the USS Panay (PR-5), sunk in 1937 by the Japanese in the Panay incident.
History
Etymology
Before 1212, Panay was called Simsiman. The community is located at the shores of the Ulian River and was linked by a creek. The creek provided salt to the Ati people as well as animals which lick the salt out of the salty water. Coming from the root word "simsim", "simsimin" means "to lick something to eat or to drink", thus the place was called Simsiman.
The native Ati called the island Aninipay from words "ani" to harvest and "nipay", a hairy grass abundant in the whole Panay.
Before the arrival of the Europeans
No pre-Hispanic written accounts of Iloilo and Panay island exist today. Oral traditions, in the form of recited epics like the Hinilawod, have survived to a small degree. A few recordings of these epic poems exist. The most notable are the works of noted Filipino anthropologist Felipe Jocano.
While no current archaeological evidence exists describing pre-Hispanic Panay, an original work by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro published in 1907 called Maragtas details the alleged accounts of the founding of the various pre-Hispanic polities on Panay Island. The book is based on oral and written accounts available to the author at the time. The author made no claim for the historical accuracy of the accounts.
According to Maragtas, the Kedatuan of Madja-as was founded after ten datus fled Borneo and landed on Panay Island. The book then goes on to detail their subsequent purchase of the coastal lands in which they settled from the native Ati people.
An old manuscript Margitas of uncertain date (discovered by the anthropologist H. Otley Beyer) gives interesting details about the laws, government, social customs, and religious beliefs of the early Visayans, who settled Panay within the first half of the thirteenth century. The term Visayan was first applied only to them and to their settlements eastward in the island of Negros, and northward in the smaller islands, which now compose the province of Romblon. In fact, even at the early part of Spanish colonialization of the Philippines, the Spaniards used the term Visayan only for these areas. While the people of Cebu, Bohol, and Leyte were for a long time known only as Pintados. The name Visayan was later extended to them because, as several of the early writers state, their languages are closely allied to the Visayan dialect of Panay.
Grabiel Ribera, captain of the Spanish royal infantry in the Philippine Islands, also distinguished Panay from the rest of the Pintados Islands. In his report (dated 20 March 1579) regarding a campaign to pacify the natives living along the rivers of Mindanao (a mission he received from Dr. Francisco de Sande, Governor and Captain-General of the Archipelago), Ribera mentioned that his aim was to make the inhabitants of that island "vassals of King Don Felipe… as are all the natives of the island of Panay, the Pintados Islands, and those of the island of Luzon…"
During the early part of the colonial period in the Archipelago, the Spaniards led by Miguel López de Legazpi transferred their camp from Cebu to Panay in 1569. On 5 June 1569, Guido de Lavezaris, the royal treasurer in the Archipelago, wrote to Philip II reporting about the Portuguese attack to Cebu in the preceding autumn. A letter from another official, Andres de Mirandaola (dated three days later, 8 June), also described briefly this encounter with the Portuguese. The danger of another attack led the Spaniards to remove their camp from Cebu to Panay, which they considered a safer place. Legazpi himself, in his report to the Viceroy in New Spain (dated 1 July 1569), mentioned the same reason for the relocation of Spaniards to Panay. It was in Panay that the conquest of Luzon was planned, and later launched on 8 May 1570.
The account of early Spanish explorers
During the early part of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, the Spanish Augustinian Friar Gaspar de San Agustín, O.S.A. described Panay as: "…very similar to that of Sicily in its triangular form, as well as in it fertility and abundance of provision. It is the most populated island after Manila and Mindanao, and one of the largest (with over a hundred leagues of coastline). In terms of fertility and abundance, it is the first. […] It is very beautiful, very pleasant, and full of coconut palms… Near the river Alaguer (Halaur), which empties into the sea two leagues from the town of Dumangas…, in the ancient times, there was a trading center and a court of the most illustrious nobility in the whole island." Padre Francisco Colin (1592–1660), an early Jesuit missionary and Provincial of his Order in the Philippines also records in the chronicles of the Society of Jesus (published later in 1663 as Labor euangelica) that Panay is the island which is most abundant and fertile.
The first Spanish settlement in Panay island and the second oldest Spanish settlement in the Philippines was established by the Miguel Lopez de Legazpi expedition in Panay, Capiz at the banks of the Panay River in northern Panay, the name of which was extended to the whole Panay island. Legazpi transferred the capital there from Cebu since it had abundant provisions and was better protected from Portuguese attacks before the capital was once again transferred to Manila.
Miguel de Luarca, who was among the first Spanish settlers in the Island, made one of the earliest account about Panay and its people according to a Westerner's point of view. In June 1582, while he was in Arevalo (Iloilo), he wrote in his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas the following observations:
The island is the most fertile and well-provisioned of all the islands discovered, except the island of Luzon: for it is exceedingly fertile, and abounds in rice, swine, fowls, wax, and honey; it produces also a great quantity of cotton and abacá fiber.
"The villages are very close together, and the people are peaceful and open to conversion. The land is healthful and well-provisioned, so that the Spaniards who are stricken in other islands go thither to recover their health."
"The natives are healthy and clean, and although the island of Cebu is also healthful and had a good climate, most of its inhabitants are always afflicted with the itch and buboes. In the island of Panay, the natives declare that no one of them had ever been afflicted with buboes until the people from Bohol – who, as we said above, abandoned Bohol on account of the people of Maluco – came to settle in Panay, and gave the disease to some of the natives. For these reasons the governor, Don Gonzalo Ronquillo, founded the town of Arevalo, on the south side of this island; for the island runs north and south, and on that side live the majority of the people, and the villages are near this town, and the land here is more fertile." This probably explains why there are reference of presence of Pintados in the Island.
"The island of Panay provides the city of Manila and other places with a large quantity of rice and meat…"... "As the island contains great abundance of timber and provisions, it has almost continuously had a shipyard on it, as is the case of the town of Arevalo, for galleys and fragatas. Here the ship 'Visaya' was launched."
Another Spanish chronicler in the early Spanish period, Dr. Antonio de Morga (Year 1609) is also responsible for recording other Visayan customs. Customs such as Visayans' affinity for singing among their warrior-castes as well as the playing of gongs and bells in naval battles.
Their customary method of trading was by bartering one thing for another, such as food, cloth, cattle, fowls, lands, houses, fields, slaves, fishing-grounds, and palm-trees (both nipa and wild). Sometimes a price intervened, which was paid in gold, as agreed upon, or in metal bells brought from China. These bells they regard as precious jewels; they resemble large pans and are very sonorous. They play upon these at their feasts, and carry them to the war in their boats instead of drums and other instruments.
The early Dutch fleet commander Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge called at Panay in 1607. He mentions a town named "Oton" on the island where there were "18 Spanish soldiers with a number of other Spanish inhabitants so that there may be 40 whites in all". He explained that "a lot of rice and meat is produced there, with which they [i.e. the Spanish] supply Manila."
According to Stephanie J. Mawson, using recruitment records found in Mexico, in addition to the 40 Caucasian Spaniards who then lived in Oton, there were an additional set of 66 Mexican soldiers of Mulatto, Mestizo or Native American descent sentried there during the year 1603. However, the Dutch visitor, Cornelis Matelieff de Jongedid, did not count them in since they were not pure whites like him.
Iloilo City in Panay was awarded by the Queen of Spain the title: "La Muy Leal y Noble Ciudad de Iloilo" (The Most Loyal and Noble City) for being the most loyal and noble city in the Spanish Empire since it clung on to Spain amidst the Philippine revolution the last nation to revolt against Spain in the Spanish Empire.
World War II
Panay was a target by the Japanese in order to secure the rest of Visayas and so on April 16, 1942, Imperial Japanese Army forces landed on San Jose de Buenavista, Capiz City (now the city of Roxas) and Iloilo City.
However, guerrilla forces under Col. Macario Peralta Jr. would later on liberate most of the island and eventually capturing the city of Capiz on December 20, 1944 and therefore the liberation of the entire Capiz Province before the Allied forces land on Iloilo City on March 18, 1945 where they mopped up the remaining Japanese forces in the island.
Geography
Panay island is the sixth largest island in the Philippines by area, with a total land area of . Mount Madja-as is the highest point in Panay with an elevation of above sea level, located in town of Culasi in the northern province of Antique. Central Panay Mountain Range is the longest and largest mountain range in the island with a total length of north-south. Panay River is the longest river in the island with a total length of located in the province of Capiz.Boracay island, with a white sand beach is located off the coast of northwest tip of Panay Island, it is part of Aklan province, is a popular tourist destination.
Topography
List of highest peaks by elevation in Panay Island:
Mount Madja-as
Mount Nangtud
EBJ Peak
Mount Baloy
Mount Balabag 5,630 ft (1,716 m)
Mount Madi-ac 5,630 ft (1,716 m)
Mount Nausang
Mount Inaman
Mount Agbalanti
Mount Kigas
Mount Sonogong
Mount Igbanig
Mount Sipanag
Mount Tiguran
Mount Igdalig
Mount Dalagsaan
Mount Tigatay
Mount Llorente
Mount Tiran
Mount Dumara
Mount Bucayan 4,310 ft (1,314 m)
Mount Agua Colonia
Mount Taripis
Mount Opao
Mount Sansanan
Mount Napulak
Mount Tiglayo
Mount Lingguhob
Mount Bantolinao
Mount Tigbayot
Mount Tibtib
Mount Tambara
Mount Igcalaya
Mount Balabag
Mount Parali
Mount Tulajon
Mount Anoy
Mount Usigan
Mount Congcong
Mount Tuyas
Mount Manlabog
Mount Igmatindog
Mount Angas
Mount Acotay
Mount Patag
Mount Igabon
Mount Toctocan
Mount Palaypay
Mount Igcalaya
Mount Dalangnan
Mount Tinayunga
Mount Igpanalan
Mount Amantara
Mount Igdu-ao
Mount Tuno
Mount Tigancal
Mount Balinsayaw
Mount Dalyang
Mount Punong
Mount Igtiring
Mount Agdulasan
Mount Igkobe
Mount Dararas
Mount Igsabu
Mount Katugpan
Mount Bonbon
Mount Agudo
Mount Tigmaosin
Mount Sio
Mt. Pulak-pulakan
Mt. Igmatongtong
Mount Tigbararing
Mount Tigdagano
Mount Tagbagan
Mount Aningalan
Mount Mutbud
Mount Igguiwig -
Mount Tungo
Mount Alapasco
Mount Tigmaola
Mount Bangtong
Mount Malondong
Mount Pinapoan
Mount Caniapasan
Mount Guiron
Mount Intigban
Mount Igcoron
Mount Dangulao
Mount Pasguala
Mount Culapnitan
Mount Taratara
Mount Yabangan
Mount Igcaratong
Mount Bacod
Mount Majanlud
Mount Mangarang
Mount Palulian
Mount Lamunong
Mount Bantayanan
Mount Banderahan
Mount Yiapo
Mount Bura-ay
Mount Patindog
Mount Igtangitang
Mount Maybato
Mount Dumangsal
River System
List of rivers in Panay island by length:
Panay River
Jalaur River
Aklan River
Mambusao River *
Sibalom River
Tigum River
Badbaran River *
Laglag River *
Suage River - *
Ma-ayon River *
Paliwan River
Kangaranan River
Aganan River *
Sibalom River
Guimbal River
Ibajay River
Madalag River *
Dalanas River
Tipulu-an River *
Dumalaylay River *
Kairawan River
Maninila River *
Tangyan River *
Balantian River
Patnongon River
Barotac Viejo River
Sara River
Tapaz River *
Tangalan River
Pres. Roxas River
Siuaragan River
Barotac Nuevo R.
Mali-aw River *
Tibiao River
Cadi-an River *
Banate River
Tiolas River
Tumagbok River
Kabay-ang River *
Maybunga River *
Malandog River
Oyungan River
Iloilo River
Kigas River *
Bacong River
Bayunan River
Mao-it River *
San Agustin River *
Carit-an River
Hamtic River
Casay River
Bucayan River *
Guinsang-an River
Iba River
Naulid River
Cansilayan River *
Bulanao River
Aras-Asan River
Bugasong River
Inyawan River
Mamara River *
Unidos River
Batiano River
Panganta River
Paningayan River
Binangbang River
Bugang River
Batiano River
Baluon River
Bajay River *
Ajuy River
Abiera River
Dao River
Igpasungaw River
Mablad River *
Nalusdan River *
Aguila River
Bitadnon River
Alo River
Igbarawan River
Laua-an River
Waterfalls
List of waterfalls in Panay Island.
Tarugan Falls, Igbaras
Nadsadjan Falls, Igbaras
Lagsacan Falls, Igbaras
Guiritsan Falls, Igbaras
Miagos Falls, Igbaras
Nasuraan Falls, Libacao
Kamalasag Falls, Sebaste
Igpasungaw Falls, Sebaste
Tigmalmos Falls, Tibiao
Ayu Falls, Igbaras
Pangitanan Falls, Libertad
Sigbungon Falls, Barbaza
Madangga Falls, Madalag
Bugtong Bato Falls, Tibiao
Macalbag Falls, Barbaza
Tarayan Falls, Laua-an
Sayay Falls, Barbaza
Cadiao Falls, Barbaza
Igkataw Falls, Sebaste
Yapo Falls, Barbaza
Lakes
List of lakes on Panay Island
Lake Alapasco, Batad
Lake Danao, San Remigio
Marugo Lake, Tapaz, Capiz
Tinagong Dagat, Lambunao
Tinagong Dagat, Miag-ao
Administrative divisions
The island is covered by 4 provinces, 1 highly urbanized city, 2 component cities, 92 municipalities (93 municipalities if the associated islands of Caluya are included), and 3,291 barangays, all under the jurisdiction of the Western Visayas region.
Transportation
Road
All the provinces in Panay are interconnected by major inter-provincial roads. Iloilo City is served mostly by passenger jeepneys, white metered taxis and tricycles within the city limits. The primary transportation vehicle used within Roxas City, Kalibo, San Jose de Buenavista and other cities and municipalities in Panay is the tricycle. Travel between cities and municipalities is typically by jeepney, vans and Ceres operated buses. In March 2019, the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board announced the opening of a new Premium Point-to-Point Bus Service in Iloilo City with express bus services to the airports in Cabatuan, Kalibo and Boracay (Caticlan).
Iloilo is one of the few cities in the Philippines that recently initiated to adopt the mini-bus like type modern PUJ or modern Jeepneys in contrast to the President Rodrigo Duterte's administration to phase out the old dilapidated jeepneys as the mode of mass public transportation in the Philippines.
The Iloilo-Capiz-Aklan Expressway is also being proposed, which might reduce travel time between provinces in Panay. It will connect Iloilo City and Malay, Aklan through Passi City, Roxas City and Kalibo, Aklan.
Airports
Panay Island is now served by seven airports (five on the mainland). The Iloilo International Airport, located in Cabatuan, Iloilo, serves the general area of Iloilo-Guimaras Metropolitan as well the whole province of Iloilo, and is also considered to be the primary gateway into the region. The Kalibo International Airport is one of the two airports serving Boracay, the other being Godofredo P. Ramos Airport (also known as Caticlan Airport) in the municipality of Malay. The Roxas Airport is a domestic airport serving the general are of Roxas City and the province of Capiz. The Evelio Javier Airport (Antique Airport) is the only airport serving the province of Antique located in San Jose. The other, Semirara Airport in Caluya is a municipal airport.
International
Iloilo International Airport
Kalibo International Airport
Domestic
Godofredo P. Ramos Airport (Caticlan Airport)
Roxas Airport
Evelio Javier Airport (Antique Airport)
Sicogon Island Airport (in Sicogon Island, Carles, Iloilo)
Semirara Airport (in Semirara Island, Caluya, Antique)
Demographics
The ethnic and linguistic boundaries within Panay do not correspond to its administrative divisions. Only the province of Antique is monolingual. The lingua franca of the island is Hiligaynon, native to the northeastern coastal strip lining the province of Iloilo.
See also
Macario Peralta, Jr.
Panay Railways
Church of Panay
References
External links
Landforms of the Sulu Sea
Islands of Aklan
Islands of Antique (province)
Islands of Capiz
Islands of Iloilo | [
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246437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Cape%20Verde | Music of Cape Verde | Cape Verde is known internationally for morna, a form of folk music usually sung in the Cape Verdean Creole, accompanied by clarinet, violin, guitar and cavaquinho. Funaná, Coladeira, Batuque and Cabo love are other musical forms.
Language
In the contrary of Cape Verdean literature, the music of Cape Verde is performed in Cape Verdean Creole and not in Portuguese. Therefore, the music, in Cape Verde, is considered to be creolophone and not lusophone. Songs composed in Portuguese do exist (for instance, “Mar eterno” from Eugénio Tavares, “Ponta do Sol” from António Caldeira Marques, “Separação” from Palmeirinho) but are extremely scarce.
History
Cape Verde is an island archipelago that was uninhabited until the Portuguese arrived in 1462. The sailors brought with them African slaves, and the islands' population became mixed with elements of both races. Climate conditions made the islands inhospitable, and the Portuguese governments mostly ignored the inhabitants and the frequent droughts and famines that wracked the islands periodically. As a result, there are now more Cape Verdeans abroad than at home, and sizable communities exist in New England, Portugal, Wales, Senegal, Italy, France and the Netherlands.
In 2011, it would be one of the most recent countries to have its own music award, the Cabo Verde Music Awards was established and awards the greatest songs of the year by Cape Vedean artists (and those of abroad). At the continental level, singers or artists from Cape Verde and Capeverdeans abroad are included on another award, the MTV Africa Music Awards at the continental level awarded each year by the music network MTV. From 2001-2011, Cape Verdeans and Capeverdeans abroad were awarded the KORA Awards, and only two singers were ever awarded including Cesária Évora and Suzanna Lubrano.
Folk music
Morna
Morna is by far the most popular genre of Cape Verdean music, and it has produced an international superstar in Cesária Évora. Morna is a national song-style, like Argentinian tango, beloved by Cape Verdeans across the many islands of the country. Lyrics are usually in Creole, and reflect highly-variable themes, including love and lust, patriotism and mourning.
Morna is believed to have originated on Boa Vista as a cheerful song-type. Eugénio Tavares was an influential songwriter of the period, and his songs are still extensively performed. Morna also spread to São Vicente, and composers like B. Leza and Manuel de Novas became popular. Solo vocalists are accompanied by a guitar, violin, bass guitar) and a piano. The cavaquinho (similar to a ukulele).
In the 1930s, Morna evolved in a swifter form of music called coladeira. It is a more light-hearted and humorous genre, with sensual rhythms. Performers include Codé di Dona, Manuel de Novas, Frank Cavaquim, Djosa Marques and Os Tubarões.
Aside from Évora, popular morna musicians include Ildo Lobo, Titina, Celina Pereira, Bana, Djosinha, B. Leza, Travadinha, Sãozinha, Maria Alice, Carmen Souza, Gardénia Benros, and Assol Garcia.
Funaná
Funaná is an accordion-based genre from Santiago. Prior to independence, funaná was denigrated by colonial authorities, who considered it African. Since independence, however, bands like Bulimundo adapted the music for pop audiences and Finaçon, who combined funaná and coladeira into a fusion called funacola. Other group includes Paris-based La MC Malcriado
Batuque
Batuque is also popular in Cape Verde. Originally a woman's folk music, batuque is an improvised music with strong satirical or critical lyrics. In the 80's, Orlando Pantera has created the "new batuco" (neo-batuku), but he died in 2001 before to achieve his creative work. Performers and songwriters are Orlando Pantera, Vadú, Tcheka, Mayra Andrade, Lura, Zeca di nha Reinalda.
Tabanka
Tabanka or Tabanca is a form of music in Cape Verde, also popular, it characterizes by having an allegro, a binary compass,[1] and traditionally being melodic only. Singers or artists and band include Os Tubarões, Zezé di Nha Reinalda, Finaçon, Orlando Pantera and Simentera.
Coladeira
Coladeira is a form of dance and music from Cape Verde. Singers and musicians includes Nancy Vieira, the band Simentera, Mité Costa, Bana, Manecas Matos, Cabral & Cabo Verde Show, Ildo Lobo, Djalunga, Paulino Vieira, Dudú Araújo, Beto Dias and Suzanna Lubrano
Colá
Colá is a form of music from Cape Verde. It is mainly sung during religious festivals in the islands of Santo Antão, São Vicente, São Nicolau, Boa Vista and Brava.
Popular music
Cola-zouk
In the 1980s, the cape verdean diaspora living in Europe and North America have influenced the traditional "Coladeira" with Compas / Kompa to create a version of Zouk called Cola-zouk, a similar Compas (Kompa) fusion to the French Antillean's Zouk" or "Zouk Love". Later, the new generation who grew up in Cape Verde featured a slow mixed version of electric pop music with Cape Verdean music styles, a light Compas called "Cabo Love" or "Cabo Zouk". The Cape Verdean Zouks are typically sung in Cape Verdean creole, it is often mistaken for the Angolan kizomba. This light Compas has become popular in Portuguese speaking countries of Africa, Brazil, and the rest of the world. Most of the songs are written in Portuguese/creole.
Cape Verdean Zouk singers and producers include Suzanna Lubrano, Nilton Ramalho, Johnny Ramos, Nelson Freitas, Mika Mendes, Manu Lima, Cedric Cavaco, Elji, Loony Johnson, Klasszik, Mark G, Tó Semedo, Beto Dias, Heavy H, Marcia, Gilyto, Kido Semedo, Ricky Boy, Klaudio Ramos, M&N Pro, Gilson, Gil, G-Amado, Philip Monteiro, Z-BeatZ Pro, Gama, Juceila Cardoso and Denis Graça.
Hip hop
Hip hop is also a growing trend in Cape Verdean music both inside Cape Verde and those abroad. The music genre started outside Cape Verde and has gained popularity inside Cape Verde, several of the artists are based outside Cape Verde and the Capeverdean communities abroad including Portugal, France, Angola and the Netherlands. Rappers include Boss AC, others including Jacky Brown and Stomy Bugsy from France, Angolan born Elizio Brandon Paulino as F.l .E.E. THE MAESTRO from Brooklyn and of the Netherlands Nelson Freitas.
Other music
Cape Verde has also symphonic music along with instrumental music, the most famous being Vasco Martins, he made Cape Verde's first symphonies, also it was one of westernmost Africa's first symphonists. He made eight symphonies including the fourth symphony titled Buddha Dharma, the sixth relating to Monte Verde, São Vicente's tallest point.
Most of the symphonies have African elements.
Other artists include Johnny Rodrigues, an immigrant to the Netherlands, he was the first Cape Verdean artist to have his single reaching number one in another country, it was a hit in both the Netherlands and Belgium's Flanders.
Other artists of Cape Verdean descent include those in São Tomé and Príncipe such as Camilo Domingos from the island of Príncipe which mainly has elements with other African music and those in the United States such as Horace Silver whose father was born in Cape Verde, some of his songs have Cape Verdean music genre, featured in some albums including The Cape Verdean Blues and Song for My Father, some have elements with other foreign music mainly of the Americas.
Other musical instruments
Several of its musical instruments are of African origin including bombolom, cimboa, correpi and dondom.
Influences
Cape Verdean music are also have been influenced with foreign artist, one of them was the Brazilian quintet Quinteto Violado who made an album Ilhas de Cabo Verde (1988) which has songs that relate to Cape Verde and its music.
See also
List of Cape Verdean musicians
References
Máximo, Susana and David Peterson. "Music of Sweet Sorrow". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 448–457. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Musical documentary Cape Verde: KONTINUASOM
Radio Kriola traditional and modern cape verdean music, African and creole music
Audio clip (60 minutes): Morna, Batuque and Eugenio Tavares. BBC Radio 3. Accessed November 26, 2010.
Audio clip (60 minutes): Cesaria Evora, Bau and Tito Paris. BBC Radio 3. Accessed November 26, 2010.
Further reading
Breves Apontamentos sobre as Formas Musicais existentes em Cabo Verde in Os Instrumentos Musicais em Cabo Verde [Musical Instruments of Cape Verde] (Brito, Margarida; Centro Cultural Português: Praia – Mindelo, 1998)
Aspectos evolutivos da música cabo-verdiana [Evolutive Aspects of Cape Verdean Music] (Tavares, Manuel de Jesus; Centro Cultural Português: Praia, 2005)
Kab Verd Band (Gonçalves, Carlos Filipe; Instituto do Arquivo Histórico Nacional: Praia, 2006)
External links
Cabo Verde Music Awards (CVMA)
Music and Cape Verdeans in Lisbon
Musical forms in Cape Verde (pdf)
All of Cape Verdean music
Palco Principal Cabo Verde - The Portal of Capeverdean music | [
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246438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Sierra%20Leone | Music of Sierra Leone | Sierra Leone's music is a mixture of native, French, British, West Indian and Creole musical genres.
Palm wine music is representative, played by an acoustic guitar with percussion in countries throughout coastal West Africa.
Sierra Leone, like much of West Africa is open to Rap, Reggae, Dancehall, R&B, and Grime (music).
Sierra Leone National music
The national anthem of Sierra Leone, "High We Exalt Thee, Realm of the Free", was composed by John Akar with lyrics by Clifford Nelson Fyle and arrangement by Logie E. K. Wright. It was adopted upon independence in 1961.
Traditional music
The largest ethnic group in Sierra Leone (2009) is that of the Mel-speaking Temne people, 35% of the population. Next, at 31%, the Mande, along with 2% Mandingo, have music traditions related to Mande populations in neighbouring countries. Other recorded populations were the Limba ( 8%), the Kono (5%), the Loko (2%) and the Sierra Leone Creole people (2%), while 15% were recorded as "others".
The wars and civil conflict throughout West Africa, have resulted in a decrease in the presence of traditional music artists.
Popular music
Palm-wine
Sierra Leonean palm wine music is known as maringa, and it was first popularized by Ebenezer Calendar & His Maringar Band, who used Caribbean styles, especially Trinidadian calypso. Calendar played the guitar, trumpet, mandolin and the cornet, while also penning some of the most oft-played songs in Sierra Leonean music in the 1950s and 60s. His most popular song was "Double-Decker Bus", commissioned by Decca to promote the launching of a double-decker bus line. He eventually moved towards socially and spiritually aware lyrics.
Gumbe
Gumbe (also goombay or gumbay), is a Creole musical genre and has also had a long presence in Sierra Leone. The gumbe, a square drum with legs, was an
important cultural symbol for the Jamaican maroon settlers who were to become part of the Sierra Leone Creole ethnic community. The drum had always been associated with the invocation of
their ancestors (Bilby 2007:15), and played an important role in their Maroon strongholds in Jamaica in the 18th century, in their
fight for freedom against the British. It was used for the communication of messages
and also to warn them of future attacks being planned by the British. The sound of these
drums provoked a trance from which these premonitions were made (Lewin 2000:160).
The gumbe is still used today by the descendants of the maroons in Jamaica and Sierra Leone. Currently
the gumbe enjoys a continuing presence in Creole culture in Sierra Leone. This drum is also
still used in Freetown to enter into a trance and predict the future in events such as baptisms
and weddings (Aranzadi 2010). Gumbe has also been influential on three of Sierra Leones’s 20th century
popular dance-music styles: namely Asiko or Ashiko, Maringa and Milo jazz (Collins: 2007:180). Dr. Oloh was the most widely acknowledged innovator of Sierra Leone gumbe and milo jazz music
Afropop
Beginning in the 1970s, rumba, Congolese music, funk and soul combined to form a popular kind of Afropop. Major bands of this era included Sabannoh 75, Orchestra Muyei, Super Combo and the Afro-National. Sierra Leoneans abroad have created their own styles, such as Seydu, Ansoumana Bangura, Abdul Tee-Jay, Bosca Banks, Daddy Rahmanu, Patricia Bakarr and Sidike Diabate and Mwana Musa's African Connexion.
Modern
The internet has encouraged the youth to new styles of music. Many songs have political and social themes, informing the populace and checking politicians. The independent film, Sweet Salone, displays many of these artists, fans, and their music.
Mwana Musa (Musa Kalamulah) and the band African Connexion married Sierra Leone, Congolese and jazz rhythms. Mwana Musa was an able composer who worked with musicians such as David Toop, Steve Beresford, Ray Carless, Ugo Delmirani, Robin Jones, Mongoley (Lipua Lipua) Safroman (GO Malebo)Len Jones one of Sierra Leones finest guitarists, Lindel Lewis, Ayo-Roy MAcauley leading guitarist from Sierra Leone, Kevin Robinson, Paapa Jay-Mensah etc. African Connexion was signed to Charlie Gillet's Oval Records and produced "C'est La Danse", "Moziki", "City Limits", "Midnight Pressure", "Dancing On The Sidewalk", a soca-tinged soukous, and "E Sidom Panam" - typical Sierra Leone dance music.
References
Sources
Aranzadi, Isabela de. 2010. “A Drums Trans-Atlantic Journey from Africa to the Americas and Back after the end of Slavery: Annobonese and Fernandino musical cultures”. African Sociological Review 14 (1) 2010, pp. 20–47.
Ashcroft, Ed and Richard Trillo. "Palm-Wine Sounds". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 634–637. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Stasik, Michael. 2012. DISCOnnections: Popular Music Audiences in Freetown, Sierra Leone. Bamenda & Leiden: Langaa & ASC Leiden. .
Sierra Leonean culture | [
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246439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canigao%20Channel | Canigao Channel | Canigao Channel is a strait in the Central Visayan and Eastern Visayan regions in the Philippines. This strait separates the islands of Bohol and Leyte, while the Cebu Strait separates Bohol and Cebu. Thus, the Camotes Sea is connected to the Bohol Sea both by the Canigao Channel (east of Bohol) and Cebu Strait (west of Bohol).
The Adam Reef, the Abel Reef, the Cain Reef, and the Eve Reef are coral reefs that can be found in this channel. The Tood Islets and Canigao Island can also be found in this channel.
Weather patterns
The Canigao Channel is subject to quick–changing weather patterns.
As a rule of thumb, the Philippines' Amihan weather pattern (a cool northeast wind) begins sometime in November or December and ends sometime in May or June. There may, however, be wide variations from year to year.
Throughout the rest of the year, the Philippines experiences the west or southwest wind; south west monsoon, which in turn is referred to as the Habagat. The Habagat season is characterized by hot and humid weather, frequent heavy rainfall, and a prevailing wind from the west.
The main indicator of the switch between the Amihan and Habagat seasonal patterns is the switch in wind direction. In most years this transition is abrupt and occurs overnight. In some years there is a period of perhaps a week or two where the wind will switch between Amihan and Habagat patterns several times before settling into the pattern for the new season.
See also
Camotes Sea — one of the inland seas of the Philippines.
Cebu Strait — separates Bohol and Cebu
Danajon Bank — the only double barrier reef of the Philippines.
Geography of the Visayas — the central island group of the Philippines.
References
External links
Canigao Channel {general info} @ Geoview [info about the various reefs, islands, & islets of this channel can be found here].
Straits of the Philippines
Bohol Sea
Landforms of Bohol
Landforms of Leyte (province) | [
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246441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powell%27s%20Books | Powell's Books | Powell's Books is a chain of bookstores in Portland, Oregon, and its surrounding metropolitan area. Powell's headquarters, dubbed Powell's City of Books, claims to be the largest independent new and used bookstore in the world. Powell's City of Books is located in the Pearl District on the edge of downtown and occupies a full city block between NW 10th and 11th Avenues and between W. Burnside and NW Couch Streets. It contains over , about 1.6 acres of retail floor space. CNN rates it one of the "coolest" bookstores in the world.
The City of Books has nine color-coded rooms and over 3,500 different sections.
The inventory for its retail and online sales is over four million new, used, rare, and out-of-print books. As of 2009, Powell's was buying around 3,000 used books a day.
History
20th century
Powell's was founded by Walter Powell in 1971. His son, Michael Powell, had started a bookstore in Chicago, Illinois, in 1970 which specialized in used, rare, and discounted books, primarily of an academic and scholarly nature. In 1979, Michael Powell joined his father in Portland, right after his father's store was not offered a lease renewal; within a year, they found the location that became its current headquarters. Michael bought the bookstore from his father in 1982.
In 1984, Powell's opened its first branch store, in a suburban shopping center named Loehmann's Plaza (later renamed Cascade Plaza), near Washington Square. The new branch was not a replica of its City of Books location; Powell was concerned that the "edgy" neighborhood of its headquarters location was limiting its customer base, so the new store was "fairly fancy" with white shelving, a tile floor, and banners over the aisles. It was also four times the size of the typical chain bookstore.
A travel bookstore was established in 1985 on Pioneer Courthouse Square, and other stores followed, one a year for the next few years. By the early 1990s, Powell's bookstores were part of the resurgence of the independent bookstore, which collectively made 32 percent of book sales in the U.S. The travel store closed in 2005.
Powell's established its Internet presence in 1993, beginning with email and FTP-based access to its technical bookstore; it has since expanded to incorporate fiction and other genres as a traditional ecommerce site. Their website was established in 1994, before Amazon.com, and has contributed substantially to the chain's recent growth.
The City of Books location grew to its current size after an expansion that opened in 1999; it included a new entrance facing the Pearl District which featured the "Pillar of Books", a Tenino sandstone carving depicting a stack of eight of the world's great books, on a base with the inscription "Buy the book, read the book, enjoy the book, sell the book" in Latin. For the year ending June 2000, Powell's revenue was $41.8 million.
21st century
In 2002, Powell's was cited by USA Today as one of America's 10 best bookstores.
In January 2008, Powell's announced plans to expand the downtown City of Books by adding as many as two floors to the store's southeast corner. The expansion was due to add at least of new retail space. Plans submitted to the Portland Design Commission in November 2008 called for a rooftop garden atop the new addition and an "art cube" over a redesigned main entrance.
In March 2010, Michael Powell confirmed plans to hand over management of the business to his daughter Emily as of July. That same month, Powell's announced it would close its technical bookstore on the North Park Blocks, moving its sections on math, science, computing, engineering, construction and transportation into "Powell’s Books Building 2" at the corner of 10th and Couch Street, near the main City of Books location; the consolidation was in response to a five-year decline in brick-and-mortar sales of technical books in favor of online sales.
In October 2010, Powell's announced it had bought 7,000 books from the library of author Anne Rice; Powell's offered these association copies on their website. The bookstore was revealed as a charter member of the Google eBooks service when the news was announced by Google on December 6, 2010.
In June 2011, Powell's participated in Google Offers during that service's first month of operation; according to TechCrunch—which characterized Powell's as a "Portland institution"—"5,000 Powell’s vouchers sold out in a matter of hours", making it "most popular deal in the month."
Starting in May 2012, Powell's began offering access to print on demand books via the Espresso Book Machine.
In early 2013, Emily Powell announced that Miriam Sontz, the company's chief operating officer, would take over as chief executive officer.
In late 2014 "Powell’s Books Building 2" was closed and the technical books at that location were moved into the main City of Books location.
CEO Miriam Sontz retired in January 2019. Emily Powell remains president and owner.
Labor relations
In 1991, following some post-holiday lay-offs, some of Powell's employees formed an organizing committee, seeking to become part of the Oregon Public Employees Union (OPEU). They got more than 35% of the employees to sign union cards but chose not to file for a union certification election because less than 65% had signed, a threshold suggested by the OPEU. In response to issues identified by the organizing employees, Powell's updated and expanded its employee handbook in April 1992 with changes that addressed processes for problem solving and grievances, the probation and termination procedure, and other employee assistance, among other changes.
In September 1998, email from Powell's managers announcing reductions in employee's wage increases prompted the creation of a new organizing committee of 26 employees. They chose the International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) because they could charter their own self-governing local union which would include about 350 employees serving in a variety of jobs in all stores and in the Internet, corporate, and shipping departments. By March 1999, they filed for a union certification election with the National Labor Relations Board. A month later, by a vote of 161–155, ILWU Local 5 became official.
In September 1999, ILWU Local 5 met for the first time with Powell's management, to begin the contract bargaining process. After some early successes, 2000 saw a slowdown in the discussions, followed by rallies, filings of unfair labor practices, an unsuccessful decertification campaign, a one-day shutdown of the shipping department (accompanied by the slashing of a van's tire), and federal mediation. A three-year contract was finally announced in August 2000.
In February 2011 Powell's announced the layoffs of 31 employees, over 7% of its unionized workforce, in “response to the unprecedented, rapidly changing nature of the book industry". It was the first round of layoffs since the store's workers formed a union. A union representative said that Powell's had reduced its workforce by about 40 in the prior year through attrition, but felt that layoffs were still necessary because of a decline in sales of new books and a rise in health care costs.
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Powell's announced the closing of its five locations and the termination of nearly all employees in mid-March 2020. The letter released by CEO Emily Powell on March 17, 2020, did not disclose the exact number of employees that were laid off. However, roughly 85% of the 400 members of the company's unionized workforce were terminated. More than 100 former staffers were then rehired to fulfill a large surge of online orders, but the union pointed out that only 49 were union-represented, and that the rest were managers who were now doing front-line work normally done by represented employees. In July 2020, Powell's announced that the store and kiosk in the Portland International Airport would remain closed permanently.
As Powell's gradually began re-hiring staff beginning in April 2021, former employees were forced to apply for open positions as new employees. Powell's claimed that their right to return to their old jobs had expired, and an agreement to extend those rights (and maintain previous pay levels) had not been reached between Powell's and the union. The majority of hired staff have been previous employees.
Politics
Powell's Books was a key opponent of Oregon's Measure 97, which would have raised corporate taxes to fund schools, healthcare and senior services. Michael Powell contributed $25,000 to the opposition campaign. Powell's Books was featured in television ads for the No campaign, and Emily Powell signed a statement opposing the measure in the voter's pamphlet.
List of locations
In addition to its "City of Books" location, Powell's Books also has several smaller stores:
a general bookstore with the "largest children's book section of any book store on the West Coast", located at Cedar Hills Crossing in Beaverton and opened in November 2006, replacing a 22-year-old location near Washington Square that was less than half the size.
another in Portland's Hawthorne District.
a store with cooking and gardening materials two spaces east of the Hawthorne store (it was announced in January 2016 that Powell's will be taking over the lease of the space between the general interest store and the home and garden store and combine the two stores into one, with larger children's books and authors' event sections).
See also
Cameron's Books and Magazines
References
External links
Powell's website, including a tour of the City of Books
1971 establishments in Oregon
American companies established in 1971
Antiquarian booksellers
Book selling websites
Bookstores established in the 20th century
Companies based in Portland, Oregon
E-book suppliers
Independent bookstores of the United States
Internet properties established in 1993
Online retailers of the United States
Pearl District, Portland, Oregon
Privately held companies based in Oregon
Retail companies established in 1971 | [
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246442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Mali | Music of Mali | The Music of Mali is, like that of most African nations, ethnically diverse, but one influence predominates; that of the ancient Mali Empire of the Mandinka (from c. 1230 to c. 1600). Mande people (Bambara, Mandinka or Malinke or Maninka, Soninke) make up 50% of the country's population, other ethnic groups include the Fula (17%), Gur-speakers 12%, Songhai people (6%), Tuareg and Moors (10%) and another 5%, including Europeans. Mali is divided into eight regions; Gao, Kayes, Koulikoro, Mopti, Ségou, Sikasso, Tombouctou and Bamako (the eighth region, Kidal, was created in 1991).
Salif Keita, a noble-born Malian who became a singer, brought Mande-based Afro-pop to the world, adopting traditional garb and styles. He says he sings to express himself, however, and not as a traditional jeli or praise-singer. The kora players Sidiki Diabaté and Toumani Diabaté have also achieved some international prominence as have the late Songhai/Fula guitarist Ali Farka Touré and his successors Afel Bocoum and Vieux Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, the duo Amadou et Mariam and Oumou Sangare. Mory Kanté saw major mainstream success with techno-influenced Mande music.
While internationally Malian popular music has been known more for its male artists, there are some exceptions: Fatoumata Diawara, prominent Malian singer and guitarist, has even been nominated to 2 Grammy Awards.
Domestically, since at least the 1980s, female singers such as Kandia Kouyaté are ubiquitous on radio and television, in markets and on street-corner stalls. Fans follow them for the moralizing nature of their lyrics, the perception that they embody tradition and their role as fashion trend-setters.
National music
The national anthem of Mali is "Le Mali". After independence under President Modibo Keita orchestras were state-sponsored and the government created regional orchestras for all seven then regions. From 1962 the orchestras competed in the annual "Semaines Nationale de la Jeunesse" ("National Youth Weeks") held in Bamako. Keita was ousted by a coup d'état in 1968 organized by General Moussa Traoré.
Most of Keita's support for the arts was cancelled, but the "Semaines Nationale de la Jeunesse" festival, renamed the "Biennale Artistique et Culturelle de la Jeunesse", was held every 2 years starting in 1970. Notable and influential bands from the period included the first electric dance band, Orchestre Nationale A, and the Ensemble Instrumental National du Mali, comprising 40 traditional musicians from around the country and still in operation today.
Mali's second president, Moussa Traoré, discouraged Cuban music in favor of Malian traditional music. The annual arts festivals were held biannually and were known as the Biennales. At the end of the 1980s public support for the Malian government declined and praise-singing's support for the status quo and its political leaders became unfashionable. The ethnomusicologist Ryan Skinner has done work on the relationship of music and politics in contemporary Mali.
Traditional music
The Malinké, Soninke - Sarakole, Dyula and Bambara peoples form the core of Malian culture, but the region of the Mali Empire has been extended far to the north in present-day Mali, where Tuareg and Maure peoples continue a largely nomadic desert culture. In the east Songhay, Bozo and Dogon people predominate, while the Fula people, formerly nomadic cattle-herders, have settled in patches across the nation and are now as often village and city dwelling, as they are over much of West Africa.
Historical interethnic relations were facilitated by the Niger River and the country's vast savannahs. The Bambara, Malinké, Sarakole, Dogon and Songhay are traditionally farmers, the Fula, Maur, and Tuareg herders and the Bozo are fishers. In recent years, this linkage has shifted considerably, as ethnic groups seek diverse, nontraditional sources of income.
Praise-singers
Mali's literary tradition is largely oral, mediated by jalis reciting or singing histories and stories from memory. Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life recording the oral traditions of his own Fula teachers as well as those of Bambara and other Mande neighbors. The jeliw (sing. jeli, fem. jelimusow, French griot) are a caste of professional musicians and orators, sponsored by noble patrons of the horon class and part of the same caste as craftsmen (nyamakala).
They recount genealogical information and family events, laud the deeds of their patron's ancestors and praise their patrons themselves, as well as exhorting them to behave morally to ensure the honour of the family name. They also act as dispute mediators. Their position is highly respected and they are often trusted by their patrons with privileged information since the caste system does not allow them to rival nobles. The jeli class is endogamous, so certain surnames are held only by jeliw: these include Kouyaté, Kamissoko, Sissokho, Soumano, Diabaté and Koné.
Their repertoire includes several ancient songs of which the oldest may be "Lambang", which praises music. Other songs praise ancient kings and heroes, especially Sunjata Keita ("Sunjata") and Tutu Jara ("Tut Jara"). Lyrics are composed of a scripted refrain (donkili) and an improvised section. Improvised lyrics praise ancestors, and are usually based around a surname. Each surname has an epithet used to glorify its ancient holders, and singers also praise recent and still-living family members. Proverbs are another major component of traditional songs.
These are typically accompanied by a full dance band The common instruments of the Maninka jeli ensemble are;
kora (21-24 string lute-harp, classified by the manner of playing as well as the bridge structure)
balafon (slat xylophone with small gourd resonators)
n'goni (4-7 string lute)
dununba (large mallet drum hung from one shoulder and played with a curved stick, accompanied by a bell played with the opposite hand)
n'taman (hourglass-shaped talking drum or tension drum, large and small variants)
tabale (tall conga-shaped drum played with long, thin flexible sticks)
Mande music
The Mande people, including the Mandinka, Maninka and Bamana, have produced a vibrant popular music scene alongside traditional folk music and that of professional performers called jeliw (sing. jeli, French griot) The Mande people all claim descent from the legendary warrior Sunjata Keita, who founded the Mande Empire. The language of the Mande is spoken with different dialects in Mali and in parts of surrounding Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Senegal and The Gambia.
Instruments
The kora is by far the most popular traditional instrument. It is similar to both a harp and a lute and can have between 21 and 25 strings. There are two styles of playing the kora; the western style is found mostly in Senegal and The Gambia, and is more rhythmically complex than the eastern tradition, which is more vocally dominated and found throughout Mali and Guinea. Ngoni (lutes) and balafon (xylophones) are also common.
Mande percussion instruments include the tama, djembe and dunun drums. Jeli Lamine Soumano states: "If you want to learn the bala go to Guinea or Mali. If you want to learn the kora go to Gambia or Mali. If you want to learn the n'goni you have only to go to Mali." Each area has developed a speciality instrument while still recognizing that the roots of the related forms come from Mali.
Djembe
The traditional djembe ensemble is most commonly attributed to the Maninka and Maraka: it basically consists of one small dunun (or konkoni) and one djembe soloist. A djembe accompanist who carries a steady pattern throughout the piece has since been added, as have the jeli dununba (also referred to as the kassonke dunun, names derived from the style of playing, not the physical instruments), and the n'tamani (small talking drum). Many ethnic groups, including the Kassonke, the Djokarame, the Kakalo, the Bobo, the Djoula, the Susu, and others, have historical connections with the djembe.
Most vocalists are female in everyday Mande culture, partially due to the fact that many traditional celebrations revolve around weddings and baptisms, mostly attended by women. Several male and female singers are world-renowned. Although it once was rare for women to play certain instruments, in the 21st century women have broadened their range.
Bamana
Bamana-speaking peoples live in central Mali: the language is the most common in Mali. Music is simple and unadorned, and pentatonic. Traditional Bamana music is based on fileh (half calabash hand drum), gita (calabash bowl with seeds or cowrie shells attached to sound when rotated),the karignyen (metal scraper), the bonkolo drum (played with one open hand and a thin bamboo stick), the kunanfa (large bowl drum with cowhide head, played with the open hands, also barra or chun), the gangan (small, mallet-struck dunun, essentially the same as the konkoni or kenkeni played in the djembe ensemble).
The melodic instruments of the Bamana are typically built around a pentatonic structure. The slat idiophone bala, the 6-string doson n'goni (hunter's lute-harp) and its popular version the 6-12 string kamel n'goni, the soku (gourd/lizard skin/horse hair violin adopted from the Songhai, soku literally means "horse tail"), and the modern guitar are all instruments commonly found in the Bamana repertoire. Bamana culture is centered around Segou, Sikasso, the Wassalou region and eastern Senegal near the border of Mali's Kayes region.
Well-known Bamana performers include Mali's first female musical celebrity, Fanta Damba. Damba and other Bamana (and Maninka) musicians in cities like Bamako are known throughout the country for a style of guitar music called Bajourou (named after an 18th-century song glorifying ancient king Tutu Jara). Bamana djembe ("djembe" is a French approximation of the Maninka word, with correct English phonetic approximation: jenbe) drumming has become popular since the mid-1990s throughout the world. It is a traditional instrument of the Bamana people from Mali (This is incorrect, the instrument is a Maninka/Maraka instrument adopted by the Bamana).
Mandinka
The Mandinka live in Mali, The Gambia and Senegal and their music is influenced by their neighbors, especially the Wolof and Jola, two of the largest ethnic groups in the Senegambian region. The kora is the most popular instrument.
Maninka
Maninka music is the most complex of the three Mande cultures. It is highly ornamented and heptatonic, dominated by female vocalists and dance-oriented rhythms. The ngoni lute is the most popular traditional instrument. Most of the best-known Maninka musicians are from eastern Guinea and play a type of guitar music that adapts balafon-playing (traditional xylophone) to the imported instrument.
Maninka music traces its legend back more than eight centuries to the time of Mansa Sunjata. In the time of Mali Empire and his semi-mythic rivalry with the great sorcerer-ruler Soumaoro Kante Mansa of the Susu people, Sunjata sent his jeli Diakouma Doua to learn the secrets of his rival. He finds a magical balafon, the "Soso Bala", the source of Soumaoro's power. When Soumaoro heard Diakouma Doua play on the bala he named him Bala Fasseke Kwate (Master of the bala). The Soso Bala still rests with the descendants of the Kouyate lineage in Niaggasola, Guinea, just across the modern border from Mali.
Tuareg music
Tinariwen is thought to be the first Tuareg electric band, active since 1982. They played at the Eden project stage of the Live8 concert in July 2005.
Fula music
The Fula use drums, the hoddu (same as the xalam, a plucked skin-covered lute similar to the banjo) and the riti or riiti (a one-string bowed instrument, in addition to vocal music. "Zaghareet" or ululation is a popular form of vocal music formed by rapidly moving the tongue sideways and making a sharp, high sound.
The Mansa Sunjata forced some Fulani to settle in various regions where the dominant ethnic groups were Maninka or Bamana. Thus, today, we see a number of people with Fula names (Diallo, Diakite, Sangare, Sidibe) who display Fula cultural characteristics, but only speak the language of the Maninka or Bamana.
Songhay music
The Songhay are not an ethnic or a linguistic group but one that traces its history to the Songhai Empire and inhabits the great bend of the mid River Niger. Vieux Farka Toure, son of Ali Farka Toure, has gained popularity after playing in front of an estimated 1 billion viewers worldwide at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. He has also been called, "the Hendrix of the Sahara", since his music explores the affinity between West African song and Afro-American blues guitar.
20th century popular music
After World War 2 the guitar became common throughout Africa, partially resulting from the mixing of African, American and British soldiers. Dance bands were popular in Mali, especially the town of Kita's orchestra led by Boureima Keita and Afro-Jazz de Ségou, the Rail Band and Pioneer Jazz. Imported dances were popular, especially rumbas, waltzes and Argentine-derived tangos. By the 1960s, however, the influence of Cuban music began to rise. After independence in 1960, Malians saw new opportunities for cultural expression in radio, television and recordings. Cuban music remained popular in Mali throughout the 1960s and remains popular today.
Old dance bands reformed under new names as part of the roots revival of Moussa Traoré. Especially influential bands included Tidiane Koné's Rail Band du Buffet Hôtel de la Gare, which launched the careers of future stars Salif Keita and Mory Kanté, and Super Biton de Ségou. Bajourou also became popular, beginning with Fanta Sacko's Fanta Sacko, the first bajourou LP. Fanta Sacko's success set the stage for future jelimusow stars which have been consistently popular in Mali; the mainstream acceptance of female singers is unusual in West Africa, and marks Malian music as unique. In 1975, Fanta Damba became the first jelimuso to tour Europe, as bajourou continued to become mainstream throughout Mali.
Not all bands took part in Traoré's roots revival. Les Ambassadeurs du Motel formed in 1971, playing popular songs imported from Senegal, Cuba and France. Les Ambassadeurs and Rail Band were the two biggest bands in the country, and a fierce rivalry developed. Salif Keita, perhaps the most popular singer of the time, defected to Les Ambassadeurs in 1972. This was followed by a major concert at which both bands performed as part of the Kibaru (literacy) program. The audience fell into a frenzy of excitement and unity, and the concert is still remembered as one of the defining moments in 1970s Malian music.
The mid-70s also saw the formation of National Badema, a band that played Cuban music and soon added Kasse Mady Diabaté who led a movement to incorporate Maninka praise-singing into Cuban-style music.
Exodus
Both the Rail Band and Les Ambassadeurs left for Abidjan at the end of the 1970s due to a poor economic climate in Mali. There, Les Ambassadeurs recorded Mandjou, an album which featured their most popular song, "Mandjou". The song helped make Salif Keita a solo star. Many of the biggest musicians of the period also emigrated—to Abidjan, Dakar, Paris (Salif Keita, Mory Kanté), London, New York or Chicago. Their recordings remained widely available, and these exiles helped bring international attention to Mande music.
1980s
Les Ambassadeurs and Rail Band continued recording and performing under a variety of names. In 1982 Salif Keita, who had recorded with Les Ambassadeurs' Kanté Manfila, left the band and recorded an influential fusion album, Soro, with Ibrahima Sylla and French keyboardist Jean-Philippe Rykiel. The album revolutionized Malian pop, eliminating all Cuban traces and incorporating influences from rock and pop. By the middle of the decade, Paris had become the new capital of Mande dance music. Mory Kanté saw major mainstream success with techno-influenced Mande music, becoming a #1 hit on several European charts.
Another roots revival began in the mid-1980s. Guinean singer and kora player Jali Musa Jawara's 1983 Yasimika is said to have begun this trend, followed by a series of acoustic releases from Kanté Manfila and Kasse Mady. Ali Farka Touré also gained international popularity during this period; his music is less in the jeli tradition and resembles American blues.
Wassoulou
The region of Wassoulou, south of Bamako, became the centre of a new wave of dance music also referred to as wassoulou. Wassoulou had been developing since at least the mid-70s. Jeliw had never played a large part in the music scene there, and music was more democratic.
The modern form of wassoulou is a combination of hunter's songs with sogoninkun, a type of elaborate masked dance, and the music is largely based on the kamalengoni harp invented in the late 1950s by Allata Brulaye Sidibí. Most singers are women. Oumou Sangaré was the first major wassoulou star; she achieved fame suddenly in 1989 with the release of Moussoulou, both within Mali and internationally. Wasulu region of southwest Mali. The soku is a traditional Wassoulou single string fiddle, corresponding to the Songhai n'diaraka or njarka, that doubles the vocal melody.
Since the 1990s, although the majority of Malian popular singers are still jelimusow, wassoulou's popularity has continued to grow. Wassoulou music is especially popular among youth. Although western audiences categorise wassoulou performers like Oumou Sangaré as feminists for criticizing practices like polygamy and arranged marriage, within Mali they are not viewed in that light because their messages, when they do not support the status quo of gender roles, are subtly expressed and ambiguously worded, thus keeping them open to a variety of interpretations and avoiding direct censure from Malian society.
The impact of the 2012 Coup d’état on Malian Music
Music was outlawed in August 2012 by MUJAO as a direct result of the Malian Coup d’état. Most musicians in the North fled the country alongside an estimated 500,000 fellow Malians. An announcement from MUJAO spokesman, Osama Ould Abdel Kaderjustified the ban stating that “We do not want Satan’s music. In its place there will be Quranic verse. Shari’a demands this”. Islam is a fundamental part of Malian society, which is intertwined with music. Music which was deemed “Un Islamic” has been at the centre of religious life in Mali which arguably connected national and religious identity. Music has been an effective means of socialisation and cohesion in Malian society. Due to the imposition of the Salafist doctrine by Ansar Dine, which was incongruous with traditional Malikite Sunni Islam which makes up most of the majority if the Islamic population in Mali. The doctrine of Mali questioned morality, religion, and everyday life for Malians. The more radical form of Salafism in Mali was seen on May 5, 2012, when Ansar al-Din attacked the tomb of Islamic saints in Timbuktu which was highly condemned by the government who issued a statement on national television describing the act as “unspeakable in the name of Islam”. Islamists proceeded to violently enforce the ban of music on Malian musicians. Ahmed Ag Kaedi, a famed Tuareg guitarist received a threat that he would lose his fingers if he ever played guitar again. Islamists further destroyed his guitars, microphones, and amps by dousing them in petrol and setting them alite.
As a result of the conflict, Malian artists gained widespread attention to its music scene with artists such as the Songhoy Blues, gaining recognition from Julian Casablancas and Iggy Pop. The band as a direct result of the Coup d’etat had to go into exile however they continued to create music. The band collaborated with Iggy pop on the song ‘Sahara’ which featured on their critically acclaimed album ‘Résistance’. Featured on their album “Optimisme’, the song ‘Barre’ provides optimistic lyrics such as ‘Youth! Let’s rise or this change!”. Songhoy Blues Guitarist Aliou Touré stated that the track was about change and how it must be implemented in Mali and that the older generation must give space to the new generation. The Songhoy blues affirmed that the bands’ goal was to spread Malian culture in the form of music and to promote peace and unity.
Referring to North Mali, Vieux Farka Touré, son of the critically acclaimed guitarist Ali Farka Touré, stated “There's no music up there anymore. You can't switch on a radio or a TV, even at home." Malian Guitarist Anansy Cissé’s album ‘Anoura’ reached number 1 for May 2021 at the World Music charts for 2021. The album includes issues such as poverty, righteous conduct, and an indirect commentary on Mali’s parlous political situation. Anansy’s music implements Malian culture with the use of traditional instruments such as the ‘ngoni’ and ‘calabash’. In 2018 Cissé was toplay at peace festival in his hometown of Diré, Timbuktu when he and his band were held captive and their musical instruments destroyed by an armed gang. The aftermath of 2012 is present in contemporary Malian music as musicians aim for artistic freedom and the promotion of peace and unity in Mali. Vieux Farka Touré has been quoted as saying that “Without music, Mali will cease to exist”. Musicians in Mali continue to create music even in the face of persecution and violence. Mali traditionally has been renowned for its musical roots especially by the “Desert blues” guitarist Ali Farka Touré. Post-2012, the musical prohibition of Mali has indirectly promoted Malian music by its exposure to western mainstream music.
References
Duran, Lucy. "West Africa's Musical Powerhouse". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 539–562. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Hoffman, Barbara G. Griots at War: Conflict, Conciliation and Caste in Mande. 2000. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
"The Mali connection", by Banning Eyre, from Boston Phoenix, September 2002
A discography of Malian music - http://www.radioafrica.com.au/Discographies/Malian.html
External links
10 Malian musicians you should know - Flavorwire
Audio clips: Traditional music of Mali. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clips - traditional music of Mali. French National Library. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (180 minutes): Music of Mali 1989. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (75 minutes): Festival in the Desert 2003. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (75 minutes): Mopti, Timbuktu and Bamako featuring Les Escrocs and Toumani Diabate. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Ali Farka Toure. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Mali Bambara Blues. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Oumou Sangare. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Neba Solo, Abdoulaye Diabate, Habib Koite. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Amadou and Mariam. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: N'goni. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Kora. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Sinbi. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Jenbe. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Yabaraw. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Kònkòni. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: N'tama (talking drum). National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Bala. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Kamalenkòni. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clip: Maninka Bala. National Museum of Mali. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Bamana
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246444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebu%20Strait | Cebu Strait | Cebu Strait (Tagalog: Kipot ng Cebú; also Bohol Strait) is a strait in the Central Visayas region in the Philippines.
Geography
The Cebu Strait (and its 3 channels, the Mactan, the Olango, & the Hilutangan) connects the western part of the Bohol Sea with the Camotes Sea, and separates the island provinces of Cebu and Bohol.
Transport
The strait is a major sea-lane connecting Cebu City on the strait's northern end with port cities in the south such as Dumaguete City in Negros Oriental and Cagayan de Oro City in Northern Mindanao.
Mactan Island, on the northern end of the strait, has Mactan International Airport, one of the major airports in the country.
See also
Canigao Channel - connects the eastern part of the Bohol Sea with the Camotes Sea
References
Straits of the Philippines
Bohol Sea
Landforms of Cebu
Landforms of Bohol
Maritime Southeast Asia | [
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246445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottokar%20II%20of%20Bohemia | Ottokar II of Bohemia | Ottokar II (; , in Městec Králové, Bohemia – 26 August 1278, in Dürnkrut, Lower Austria), the Iron and Golden King, was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty who reigned as King of Bohemia from 1253 until his death in 1278. He also held the titles of Margrave of Moravia from 1247, Duke of Austria from 1251, and Duke of Styria from 1260, as well as Duke of Carinthia and landgrave of Carniola from 1269.
With Ottokar's rule, the Přemyslids reached the peak of their power in the Holy Roman Empire. His expectations of the imperial crown, however, were never fulfilled.
Biography
Ottokar was the second son of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia (reigned 1230–1253). Through his mother, Kunigunde, daughter of Philip of Swabia, he was related to the Holy Roman Emperors of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, which became extinct in the male line upon the execution of King Conradin of Sicily in 1268.
Named after his grandfather King Přemysl Ottokar I, he was originally educated for the role of an ecclesiastical administrator, while his elder brother Vladislaus was designated heir of the Bohemian kingdom. He was possibly educated by the Bohemian chancellor Philip of Spanheim, who would later become a rival for the rule of the Duchy of Carinthia.
Rise to power
When his brother Vladislaus died in 1247, Ottokar suddenly became the heir to the Bohemian throne. According to popular oral tradition, he was profoundly shocked by his brother's death and did not involve himself in politics, becoming focused on hunting and drinking. His father appointed the new heir as Margrave of Moravia, and Ottokar took up residence in Brno, where he was occupied with the reconstruction of the Moravian lands devastated by Mongol raids of 1242.
In 1248, some discontented nobles enticed him into leading a rebellion against his father King Wenceslaus. During this rebellion he was elected "the younger King" (mladší král) on 31 July 1248 and temporarily expelled his father from Prague Castle. Přemysl Ottokar II held the title of King of Bohemia until November 1249. However, Pope Innocent IV excommunicated Ottokar, whereafter Wenceslaus finally managed to defeat the rebels and imprisoned his son at Přimda Castle.
Father and son eventually reconciled to assist the king's aim of acquiring the neighbouring Duchy of Austria, where the last Babenberg duke, Frederick II had been killed in the 1246 Battle of the Leitha River. King Wenceslaus had initially attempted to acquire Austria by marrying his heir, Vladislaus, to the last duke's niece Gertrude of Babenberg. That marriage came to an end after half a year with Vladislaus's death in January 1247, and in 1248 Gertrude married the Zähringen margrave Herman VI of Baden. Herman, rejected by the Austrian nobility, could not establish his rule. Wenceslaus used this as pretext to invade Austria when Herman died in 1250 — according to some sources, the estates called upon him to restore order.
Wenceslaus released Přemysl Ottokar very soon and in 1251 again made him Margrave of Moravia and installed him, with the approval of the Austrian nobles, as governor of Austria. The same year Ottokar entered Austria, where the estates acclaimed him as Duke. To legitimize his position, Přemysl Ottokar married the late Duke Frederick II's sister Margaret of Babenberg, who was his senior by 30 years and the widow of the Hohenstaufen king Henry (VII) of Germany. Their marriage took place on 11 February 1252 at Hainburg.
In 1253, King Wenceslaus died and Přemysl Ottokar succeeded his father as King of Bohemia. After the death of the German King Konrad IV in 1254 while his son Conradin was still a minor, Ottokar also hoped to obtain the Imperial dignity - as King of the Romans - for himself. However, his election bid was unsuccessful and Count William II of Holland, the German anti-king since 1247, was generally recognised.
Building an empire
Feeling threatened by Ottokar's growing regional power beyond the Leitha River, his cousin King Béla IV of Hungary challenged the young king. Béla formed a loose alliance with the Wittelsbach duke Otto II of Bavaria and tried to install his own son Stephen as Duke of Styria, which since 1192 had been ruled in personal union with Austria under the terms of the Georgenberg Pact of 1186. Papal mediation settled the conflict : the parties agreed that Ottokar would yield large parts of Styria to Béla in exchange for recognition of his right to the remainder of Austria.
Subsequently, King Ottokar II led the two crusade expeditions against the pagan Old Prussians (1254–1255 and 1268).
Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), founded in 1255 by the Teutonic Order, was named in his honour and later became the capital of the Duchy of Prussia.
After a few years of peace the conflict with Hungary resumed: Ottokar defeated the Hungarians in July 1260 at the Battle of Kressenbrunn, ending years of disputes over Styria with Béla IV. Béla now ceded Styria back to Ottokar, and his claim to those territories was formally recognized by Richard of Cornwall, then king of Germany and nominal ruler of all the German lands. This peace agreement was also sealed by a royal marriage. Ottokar ended his marriage to Margaret and married Béla's young granddaughter Kunigunda of Halych, who became the mother of his children. The youngest of them became his only legitimate son, Wenceslaus II.
During the Imperial Imperial interregnum of 1250 to 1273, Ottokar could increase his personal influence while Richard of Cornwall and Alfonso of Castile jostled to attain the Imperial dignity. In 1266 he occupied the Egerland in north-west Bohemia, and in 1268 he signed an inheritance treaty with the Sponheim duke Ulrich III of Carinthia, succeeding him in Carinthia, Carniola and the Windic March the next year. In 1272 he also acquired Friuli. His rule was once again contested by the Hungarians on the field of battle. After another victory, Ottokar became the most powerful king within the Empire.
The path to the final battle
After Richard of Cornwall died in April 1272 and Pope Gregory X rejected the claims raised by Alfonso of Castile, a new election for the Imperial German throne took place in 1273. However, the Bohemian king again failed to win the Imperial crown, as the electors voted for the "little count" Rudolf of Habsburg, Ottokar's last and finally victorious rival.
Přemysl Ottokar refused to acknowledge Rudolf's election, and urged the Pope to adopt a similar policy. At a convention of the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg in 1274, Rudolf decreed that all Imperial lands that had changed hands since the death of the last Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II must be returned to the crown. This would have deprived Ottokar not only of the Egerland, but also of the Austrian, Styrian, and Carinthian duchies. In 1275 Rudolf placed Ottokar under the Imperial ban and besieged his Hofburg residence in Vienna, while a rebellion led by the Vítkovci noble Zavis of Falkenstein disrupted the Bohemian lands. This compelled Přemysl Ottokar in November 1276 to sign a new treaty by which he gave up all claims to Austria and the neighboring duchies, retaining for himself only Bohemia and Moravia. Ottokar's son Wenceslaus became betrothed to Rudolf's daughter Judith. There followed an uneasy peace.
Two years later, the Bohemian king made a last attempt to recover his lost lands by force. Přemysl Ottokar again found allies in Bavaria, Brandenburg and Poland. He collected a large army to meet the forces of Rudolf and his ally King Ladislaus IV of Hungary in the Battle on the Marchfeld on 26 August 1278, where he was defeated and killed. Rudolf had his body laid out in state at the Minorites Church in Vienna. (In 1297 Ottokar's mortal remains were finally transferred to St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.) His 6-year-old son Wenceslaus II succeeded him as King of Bohemia.
Marriage and children
On 11 February 1252, Přemysl Ottokar II married Margaret of Austria. Margaret was 26 years older than he, and the couple's childless marriage ended with an annulment. On 25 October 1261, Ottokar married Kunigunda of Slavonia. They probably had four children:
Henry (1262–1263)
Kunigunde (January 1265 – 27 November 1321), married Boleslaus II of Masovia
Agnes (5 September 1269 – 17 May 1296), married Rudolf II, Duke of Austria
Wenceslaus II (17 September 1271 – 21 June 1305)
Ottokar also had two extramarital sons and daughters. The most important was his firstborn, Nicholas. He was never accepted as heir apparent to the Bohemian crown by the sitting pope, but was given the Duchy of Opava as fief in 1269. Other illegitimate children include John, provost of Vyšehrad Chapter.
Legacy
Přemysl Ottokar is considered one of the greatest kings of Bohemia, along with Charles IV. He was a founder of many new towns (about 30 — not only in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, but also in Austria and Styria) and incorporated many existing settlements through civic charters, giving them new privileges. He was a strong proponent of trade, law and order. Furthermore, he instituted open immigration policies through which skilled German-speaking immigrants settled in major cities throughout his domains. As noted, the historic East Prussian city of Königsberg (King's Mountain) was named in his honor as a tribute to his support of the Teutonic Knights in their war with the pagan Old Prussians.
As Czech traditional law was different from that of his other domains, many principles introduced during his reign formed core of the Czech law for the following centuries. From his time stems the oldest preserved source of Czech law, Zemské desky, and also the oldest written Czech communal law, recorded in the founding deeds of the respective towns. By supporting the city of Jihlava (German: Iglau) with its mines, he laid foundation of the silver wealth of later Bohemian kings. Privileges of civic charters usually excluded the towns from obedience to the traditional courts held by members of nobility. This can be seen as a step towards equality and a precursor of modern civil law.
In the country, Ottokar's introduction of the Law of Emphyteusis into the Czech law is sometimes interpreted as "Germanization". In fact it was creative, for it freed subjects from feudal obligations, except for rent — and tax, if such was levied. Free selling and leaving of estates could also be bought and soon became common. Thus, Ottokar can be reckoned an early Bohemian ruler who furthered Bohemian rights in medieval times. This change of legal environment in Bohemia was introduced by systematic founding of villages chartered under this law.
He issued also a general privilege to the Jews (1254), which established principles of integration of the Jews into the Czech society until 1848. The Jews were now eligible for various positions, such as servants of crown, thereby being somewhat less subject to discrimination. Instead of being able to claim only the support of individual lords, the Jews could from then on claim support of any royal officer.
Ottokar followed with a systematic policy of strengthening his domains by building fortifications. Besides supporting towns, he built many fortresses himself — Zvíkov Castle, Křivoklát Castle or Bezděz Castle in Bohemia, and the famed Hofburg Palace in Vienna — and also induced his vassals to build castles. A sign of rising strength of Bohemia, it was also a reaction to the Mongol raids of the 13th century (see Béla IV of Hungary). Conflict for the title of ownership to these fortified places built by members of nobility was probably the source of an uprising in 1276, which cost Ottokar the Austrian lands, and two years later (in an attempt for reconquest) his life.
Some of the fortresses built by Ottokar were for centuries the strongest in Bohemia. Ironically, Bezděz Castle served as a prison for his son Wenceslaus II of Bohemia for short time after Ottokar's death. The castle housed Bohemian legal records Zemské desky and many spiritual and temporal treasures during the destructive civil strife of the Hussite wars (1419–1434) in Bohemia. It was conquered in 1620, during the 30 Years' War, but by then it was long deserted, and in that state was defended by rebelling subjects against an Imperial army.
Before his conflict with Rudolf of Habsburg, Ottokar exacted influence over a number of relatives, allies and vassals in Germany, such as the Margraviate of Brandenburg — and spiritual principalities, including the Archbishopric of Salzburg and the Patriarchate of Aquileia. After the death of Konradin in 1268 he was an heir of the House of Hohenstaufen's claim to the imperial crown. However, he did not raise this claim, remaining content with informal influence in Germany. In 1267 he was appointed protector of the royal domains (of the Holy Roman Empire) east of the Rhine by the German king, Richard of Cornwall. He held this office till 1273.
Ottokar is a significant figure in history and legend. In the Divine Comedy by Dante, Ottokar is seen outside the gates of Purgatory, in amiable companionship with his imperial rival Rudolf. He is also the protagonist of a tragedy by the 19th-century Austrian playwright Franz Grillparzer, titled König Ottokars Glück und Ende.
There is a statue dedicated to him.
References
Sources
Further reading
1230s births
1278 deaths
13th-century dukes of Austria
Ottokar 2
Ottokar 2
Monarchs killed in action
Christians of the Prussian Crusade
People from Městec Králové
Ottokar 2
Ottokar 2
Margraviate of Moravia
Austria–Czech Republic relations
Czech Republic–Slovenia relations
Croatia–Czech Republic relations
Czech people of German descent
Burials at St. Vitus Cathedral
13th-century Bohemian people
13th-century monarchs in Europe
Czech military leaders | [
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246449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom%20of%20infinity | Axiom of infinity | In axiomatic set theory and the branches of mathematics and philosophy that use it, the axiom of infinity is one of the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. It guarantees the existence of at least one infinite set, namely a set containing the natural numbers. It was first published by Ernst Zermelo as part of his set theory in 1908.
Formal statement
In the formal language of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, the axiom reads:
In words, there is a set I (the set which is postulated to be infinite), such that the empty set is in I, and such that whenever any x is a member of I, the set formed by taking the union of x with its singleton {x} is also a member of I. Such a set is sometimes called an inductive set.
Interpretation and consequences
This axiom is closely related to the von Neumann construction of the natural numbers in set theory, in which the successor of x is defined as x ∪ {x}. If x is a set, then it follows from the other axioms of set theory that this successor is also a uniquely defined set. Successors are used to define the usual set-theoretic encoding of the natural numbers. In this encoding, zero is the empty set:
0 = {}.
The number 1 is the successor of 0:
1 = 0 ∪ {0} = {} ∪ {0} = {0} = {{}}.
Likewise, 2 is the successor of 1:
2 = 1 ∪ {1} = {0} ∪ {1} = {0,1} = { {}, {{}} },
and so on:
3 = {0,1,2} = { {}, {{}}, {{}, {{}}} };
4 = {0,1,2,3} = { {}, {{}}, { {}, {{}} }, { {}, {{}}, {{}, {{}}} } }.
A consequence of this definition is that every natural number is equal to the set of all preceding natural numbers. The count of elements in each set, at the top level, is the same as the represented natural number, and the nesting depth of the most deeply nested empty set {}, including its nesting in the set that represents the number of which it is a part, is also equal to the natural number that the set represents.
This construction forms the natural numbers. However, the other axioms are insufficient to prove the existence of the set of all natural numbers, . Therefore, its existence is taken as an axiom – the axiom of infinity. This axiom asserts that there is a set I that contains 0 and is closed under the operation of taking the successor; that is, for each element of I, the successor of that element is also in I.
Thus the essence of the axiom is:
There is a set, I, that includes all the natural numbers.
The axiom of infinity is also one of the von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel axioms.
Extracting the natural numbers from the infinite set
The infinite set I is a superset of the natural numbers. To show that the natural numbers themselves constitute a set, the axiom schema of specification can be applied to remove unwanted elements, leaving the set N of all natural numbers. This set is unique by the axiom of extensionality.
To extract the natural numbers, we need a definition of which sets are natural numbers. The natural numbers can be defined in a way which does not assume any axioms except the axiom of extensionality and the axiom of induction—a natural number is either zero or a successor and each of its elements is either zero or a successor of another of its elements. In formal language, the definition says:
Or, even more formally:
Alternative method
An alternative method is the following. Let be the formula that says "x is inductive"; i.e. . Informally, what we will do is take the intersection of all inductive sets. More formally, we wish to prove the existence of a unique set such that
(*)
For existence, we will use the Axiom of Infinity combined with the Axiom schema of specification. Let be an inductive set guaranteed by the Axiom of Infinity. Then we use the Axiom Schema of Specification to define our set - i.e. is the set of all elements of which happen also to be elements of every other inductive set. This clearly satisfies the hypothesis of (*), since if , then is in every inductive set, and if is in every inductive set, it is in particular in , so it must also be in .
For uniqueness, first note that any set which satisfies (*) is itself inductive, since 0 is in all inductive sets, and if an element is in all inductive sets, then by the inductive property so is its successor. Thus if there were another set which satisfied (*) we would have that since is inductive, and since is inductive. Thus . Let denote this unique element.
This definition is convenient because the principle of induction immediately follows: If is inductive, then also , so that .
Both these methods produce systems which satisfy the axioms of second-order arithmetic, since the axiom of power set allows us to quantify over the power set of , as in second-order logic. Thus they both completely determine isomorphic systems, and since they are isomorphic under the identity map, they must in fact be equal.
An apparently weaker version
Some old texts use an apparently weaker version of the axiom of infinity, to wit
This says that there is an element in x and for every element y of x there is another element of x which is a strict superset of y. This implies that x is an infinite set without saying much about its structure. However, with the help of the other axioms of ZF, we can show that this implies the existence of ω. First, if we take the powerset of any infinite set x, then that powerset will contain elements which are subsets of x of every finite cardinality (among other subsets of x). Proving the existence of those finite subsets may require either the axiom of separation or the axioms of pairing and union. Then we can apply the axiom of replacement to replace each element of that powerset of x by the initial ordinal number of the same cardinality (or zero, if there is no such ordinal). The result will be an infinite set of ordinals. Then we can apply the axiom of union to that to get an ordinal greater than or equal to ω.
Independence
The axiom of infinity cannot be proved from the other axioms of ZFC if they are consistent.
(To see why, note that ZFC Con(ZFC – Infinity) and use Gödel's Second incompleteness theorem.)
The negation of the axiom of infinity cannot be derived from the rest of the axioms of ZFC, if they are consistent. (This is tantamount to saying that ZFC is consistent, if the other axioms are consistent.) We believe this, but cannot prove it (if it is true).
Indeed, using the von Neumann universe, we can build a model of ZFC – Infinity + (¬Infinity). It is , the class of hereditarily finite sets, with the inherited membership relation. Note that if the axiom of the empty set is not taken as a part of this system (since it can be derived from ZF + Infinity), then the empty domain also satisfies ZFC – Infinity + ¬Infinity, as all of its axioms are universally quantified, and thus trivially satisfied if no set exists.
The cardinality of the set of natural numbers, aleph null (), has many of the properties of a large cardinal. Thus the axiom of infinity is sometimes regarded as the first large cardinal axiom, and conversely large cardinal axioms are sometimes called stronger axioms of infinity.
See also
Peano axioms
Finitism
References
Paul Halmos (1960) Naive Set Theory. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company. Reprinted 1974 by Springer-Verlag. .
Thomas Jech (2003) Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, Revised and Expanded. Springer-Verlag. .
Kenneth Kunen (1980) Set Theory: An Introduction to Independence Proofs. Elsevier. .
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246450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottokar%20II | Ottokar II | Ottokar II may refer to:
Ottokar II, Margrave of Styria (died 1122)
Ottokar II of Bohemia (c. 1230–1278), called The Iron and Golden King | [
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246451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottokar%20I | Ottokar I | Ottokar I may refer to:
Ottokar I of Bohemia - king of Bohemia (1198–1230)
Ottokar I of Styria | [
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