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245587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrosnik | Astrosnik | Astrosniks (also known as Sniks) are fictional characters created in 1975 by the German company Bullyland to market collectible toys, especially plastic figurines. Their design has a retro-futuristic look.
History
Astroniks were released as several sets of figurines in Germany in the 1970s, and were then licensed to about 50 manufacturers to produce memorabilia in 1983 and 1984. One prominent outlet for Astrosnik figurines during this era was McDonald's, which included them in a long-running Happy Meal promotion. The toys were usually offered as consolation prizes on the game show Starcade.
The Snik figurines were reissued in 1999.
Characters
In the plot accompanying the toys, the Sniks originate on a mobile planetoid called Snikeria, which is close in size to Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta (between 469 and 950 km in diameter), and has been hidden from Earth behind Mars for millions of years. When Snikeria became overpopulated, the Sniks moved to Mars, and developed a subterranean system of paths and supply lines.
Sniks are about 5 to 6 cm (2" to 2.5") high, possesses enormous strength and intelligence, and are racially diverse. A subspecies of Astrosniks, Marsmen Sniks (also known as Walkman Sniks), do not have any arms or visible noses.
List of Astrosniks
Airport, Astralia (female), Astro, Baby, Banner, Baseball, Bob, CB, Commander, Copter, Diogene, Drill, Frigo (snowman), Galaxo, Golf, Hockey, Jet, Jockey, Jog, Junior, Kick, Mechanic, Perfido, Potamus (dragon), Pyramido, Quick, Racing, Robo (gold robot), Scout, Ski, Snuk, Space, Starla, Surf, Tennis and more
Books
Astrosniks - El Heroe Snik
Astrosniks - SNIK Contra SNIK
Astrosniks - El Circo Snik
Astrosniks - El Tesoro Snik
Astrosniks in Snikville Coloring Book
Astrosniks in Space Coloring Book
Astrosniks Stamp Fun
Junior's Day in Space: An Astrosnik Adventure by Luke, Melinda
Quasar Caper, The: An Astrosnik Adventure by Luke, Melinda
Bully Reference Book - pictures and describes all Sniks and their history, as well as all Bully figures made up to 1998.
Cassette
Die Sniks: Abenteuer auf einem fremden Stern - Ein Hörspiel von Wolf Orloff - Fontana Records #7252 206
References
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245593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARX%20%28operating%20system%29 | ARX (operating system) | ARX was an unreleased Mach-like operating system written in Modula-2+ developed by Acorn Computers Ltd in the Acorn Research Centre (ARC) United Kingdom (UK) and later by Olivetti - which purchased Acorn - for Acorn's new Archimedes personal computers based on the ARM architecture reduced instruction set computer (RISC) central processing unit (CPUs).
Overview
According to the project Application Manager Richard Cownie, during the project, while Acorn was developing the kernel, it used the C and Acorn Modula Execution Library (CAMEL) in the Acorn Extended Modula-2 (AEM2) compiler (ported from Modula-2 ETH Zurich (ETH) using Econet hardware). Though never released externally, CAMEL was ported to use on Sun Microsystems Unix computers. In an effort to port Sun's workstations Sun NeWS to the Archimedes, David Chase developed a compiler based on AEM2 for the programming language Modula-3.
ARX was a preemptive multitasking, multithreading, multi-user operating system. Much of the OS ran in user mode and as a result suffered performance problems due to switches into kernel mode to perform mutexes, which led to the introduction of the SWP instruction to the instruction set of the ARM3 version of the ARM processor. It had support of a file system for optical (write once read many (WORM)) disks and featured a window system, a window toolkit (and a direct manipulation user interface (UI) editor) and an Interscript-based text editor, for enriched documents written in Interpress (a HTML precursor). The OS had to be fitted in a 512 KB read-only memory (ROM) ROM image. This suggests that ARX had a microkernel-type design.
It was not finished in time to be used in the Acorn Archimedes range of computers, which shipped in 1987 with an operating system named Arthur, later renamed RISC OS, derived from the earlier Machine Operating System (MOS) from Acorn's earlier 8-bit BBC Micro range. Confusion persisted about the nature of ARX amongst the wider public and press, with some believing that ARX was Acorn's own Unix variant, with this view being refined in time to accommodate ARX as Acorn's own attempt to deliver a "UNIX look-alike" whose development had been abandoned in favour of a traditional Unix version for the Archimedes, which ultimately emerged as RISC iX.
The Acorn Research Centre was acquired by Olivetti.
See also
RISC iX
References
External links
ARX features
History of the addition of the SWP instruction to the ARM3 instruction set
Acorn operating systems
ARM operating systems
Discontinued operating systems
Microkernel-based operating systems
Microkernels | [
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245595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20of%20John%20Alan%20West | Murder of John Alan West | The murder of John Alan West on 7 April 1964 was the crime which led to the last death sentences being carried out in the United Kingdom. West, a 53-year-old van driver for a laundry, was beaten and stabbed to death by Gwynne Evans and Peter Allen, who had gone to rob him at his home in Seaton, Cumberland. Both murderers were unemployed, had a history of petty crime and were arrested and charged within two days of the crime. At trial, each blamed the other, but the jury found both men guilty, and both were sentenced to death.
The use of capital punishment in the United Kingdom had been declining at the time, and public opinion was turning against the practice. As a result, the decision not to reprieve the two condemned came as a surprise. Both were executed at 8:00 am on 13 August 1964, in prisons in Manchester and Liverpool. Capital punishment for murder was abolished in the United Kingdom 15 months later.
Gwynne Evans
Gwynne Owen Evans (born John Robson Walby, 1 April 1940 - 13 August 1964) was born in Maryport, Cumberland, the third and eldest surviving child of Thomas and Hannah Walby. While attending a secondary modern school in Maryport, he occasionally attended Dovenby Hall Mental Colony in Cockermouth. On leaving school at 15 he worked as a page boy at a hotel in Carlisle and an engine cleaner for British Railways, in between periods of unemployment. He was given a supervision order in 1957 and sent to a hostel in Bristol; later that year he enlisted in the Border Regiment but was discharged in March 1958 as "unfit under existing standards". He enlisted again in the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers in November 1958 and was discharged in February 1959 for the same reason.
He then took to using the name Owen Evans and worked briefly for British Railways before again trying the armed forces. The Royal Air Force accepted him in July 1959, but discharged him after four months as "physically unfit for Air Force service". It was during a series of short-term jobs around Workington from September 1960 that Evans briefly worked for the Lakeland Laundry and came to know Jack West. He soon left and moved to Birmingham in October 1961 and there worked as a kitchen porter, driver and lift attendant. On 5 April 1963 as Gwyn Evans he was convicted by Carlisle magistrates of larceny of 5s cash, and obtaining 16s cash and a railway ticket by false pretences. He was fined £5 with four days' detention in default; he chose to serve the four days. He had stolen two half crowns from a friend while he was distracted, and he obtained a 16s loan from a police station by claiming to have lost his wallet at his mother's funeral. In the following month Evans was given three months' imprisonment at Dudley for driving a motor vehicle without a licence, and using a driving licence with intent to deceive. Evans enlisted again, this time into the Lancastrian Brigade, in October 1963 but was discharged on 14 November 1963 when his criminal convictions and failure to disclose them came to light.
Evans then moved to Preston, where he lodged with Peter Allen and his wife. He worked for an agricultural trading society for about a month. On 21 January 1964 Evans committed his first crime with Allen, removing the lead flashing from an empty house. On 28 January the two broke open a cigarette machine and stole the contents; they stole a car and a van and used them in burglaries of several other premises. An incompetent attempt to cover up the van's registration number led to their arrest and to fines of £10. From 5 March, Evans was employed by a dairy. On 17 March, having worked only two days, he was dismissed for absenteeism. The robbery of West was intended to provide enough money to pay the fines.
When he appeared in court, Evans spoke with a Welsh accent. He claimed that he had adopted the name Evans on finding out that his parents were German and that he had been born at Innsbruck.
Peter Allen
Peter Anthony Allen (4 April 1943 - 13 August 1964) was born at Wallasey, Cheshire, the second son of Richard Thomas Allen. After attending a secondary modern school in Wallasey, he too left at age 15. He obtained but lost two jobs within a month, dismissed for carelessness, but later found employment as a pipe-cleaner for three months. On 10 July 1958 he enlisted as a junior gunner in the Junior Leaders Regiment of the Royal Artillery, serving for 11 months before being discharged on 13 June 1959 as "no longer required"; he was given a good reference. For two years after leaving the army, Allen worked for two trucking companies; he was dismissed by the second in October 1961 when he was given a promotion and was unable to handle the responsibility. While he was working as a lorry driver, Allen received his first criminal conviction, for aiding and abetting the taking of a car in August 1960; he was given a conditional discharge.
On 11 November 1961, Allen married Mary, a cinema usherette; the couple had a Catholic wedding, and moved to Manchester. Later that month he found employment at a scrap-dealer, being dismissed in April 1962 for poor timekeeping. Six months' work in a dairy was followed by six months in a steel works, Allen having moved to Preston in April 1963. He found a job as a labourer with an agricultural trading society, but after two months he injured his back and was unable to work; he was not dismissed until January 1964. Later that month, he committed the various robbery offences with Evans. In February 1964 he was taken on by a Preston dairy but was dismissed for absenteeism after a month.
Crime and arrest
John West, known to his friends as Jack, was a bachelor who lived alone at 28 Kings Avenue, Seaton, Cumberland. Aged 53, he had worked for 34 years as a van driver for the Lakeland Laundry in Workington. After a normal working day, West had returned to his home just before 6.00 pm on Monday 6 April 1964. At about 3:00 am the following morning his next-door neighbour was awoken by a noise in West's house and, looking out of the window, observed a car disappearing down the street. The neighbour called the police, who found West dead from severe head injuries and a stab wound to the chest. In his house the police found a raincoat in the pockets of which was a medallion and Army Memo Form. The medallion was inscribed "G.O. Evans, July, 1961", and the memo form had the name "Miss Norma O'Brian" on it, together with a Liverpool address. Liverpool Police traced a Norma O'Brien at the address; she was a 17-year-old Liverpool factory worker who told the police that in the autumn of 1963, while staying with her sister and brother-in-law in Preston, she had met a man called "Ginger Owen Evans". She also confirmed that she had seen Evans wearing the medallion. She was driven up to Kendal, Westmorland, and identified the medallion.
Evans and Allen had stolen a car (a black 1959 Ford Prefect, registration NXC 771) to go to West's house, and later abandoned it in a builders' yard in Ormskirk, Lancashire. Evans had asked a neighbour whether he could leave it there, and the neighbour thought his behaviour suspicious; she reported it to the police on the evening of Tuesday 7 April. The police found that the car had been stolen and matched the descriptions given in Seaton; with descriptions of the car and pictures of Evans, they traced its route back to Lancashire. The police also traced Evans, through his parents, as well as criminal and army records, to Allen's address in Preston. At 1.00pm, on Wednesday, 8 April, less than 36 hours after West's murder, the police turned up (in search of Evans) at Allen's home in Clarendon Road, Preston. Allen agreed to go to the police station in Preston, and was then driven up to Kendal and then to Workington (where the murder squad were based). In questioning Allen claimed to have been home with his wife and "Sandy Evans" on the night of the murder.
He said his wife was visiting her mother in Manchester, and gave the address. A Bolton police officer went to the address to find only the mother there; he left telling her he would wait outside for Allen's wife to return, and a few hours later she did return and went out immediately to the police car to tell the officer where to find Evans. Evans was soon found on a street corner at Phillips Park Road in Miles Platting and a search revealed West's watch. Taken initially to the police station in Middleton, when told he was being arrested on suspicion of murder Evans admitted that he, together with Allen, Allen's wife and two children, had gone to borrow money from West. Evans accused Allen of being solely responsibility for the murder. He and Mrs Allen were then driven up to Workington.
Interrogation
Allen initially stood by his claim not to have done anything on the Monday night but changed his mind when he was told that his wife and Evans were in custody. He explained that Evans had suggested robbing West and had initially gone into West's house on his own. Evans had then let Allen in, hoping that West would not notice, but West had come downstairs and so Allen had fought him. He said that Evans had given him an iron bar which he used to hit West. Allen then made a statement along these lines.
Evans claimed West had told him that he should see him if ever he was in Workington and needed money, so he had gone to ask for a loan. However, he said that Allen had forced his way into West's house intent on robbery, and that Allen had been the only one to attack West. During questioning, Evans spontaneously mentioned that he knew nothing about a knife and did not have one. Until that point, the police had not revealed that West had been stabbed. Evans admitted to stealing West's watch.
Mrs Allen's statement supported her husband's account that Evans had come out to invite him in. She reported that she had asked the two men what had happened in the house, and that Evans had said both had attacked West. At 1.15 am on Thursday 9 April, less than 48 hours after the murder, both Evans and Allen were charged.
Trial
Allen and Evans were committed for trial by Workington Magistrates after a two-day hearing. The trial was initially put down for Lancaster Assizes, but on application by the defence was transferred to Manchester Assizes. The joint trial before Mr Justice Ashworth began on 23 June; Joseph Cantley QC led the prosecution, with Allen defended by F. J. Nance and R. G. Hamilton, and Evans defended by Griffith Guthrie Jones QC. The indictment was for capital murder under the Homicide Act 1957, because West had been killed in the course of a theft (there was an additional charge of robbery with aggravation of two bank pass books and a gold watch). Allen claimed to have struck West only a few blows, and that Evans used the knife. Evans' defence was that the robbery had been suggested by Allen (if West refused a loan), and he had gone along with it only provided there was no violence.
The most important witness at the trial was Mrs Allen, who was called in her husband's defence. She stuck to her statement that Evans had let Allen into West's house, and that both men had been responsible for attacking West. She also testified that Evans had thrown the knife used to murder West out of the window of the car at Windermere, Westmorland, and that Evans had made an incriminatory remark apparently referring to stabbing West. In cross-examination she accepted that Evans had been more than a lodger to her; Evans' counsel then produced affectionate letters which she had written to Evans in Durham Prison while he was awaiting trial. The affectionate tone had suddenly ended when she heard Evans' account of the murder at the Magistrates' Court, and she had then written of her "deep and bitter hatred" of him. The judge later directed the jury to treat her evidence with caution; however the prosecution obtained permission to introduce her first statement which showed that her story had remained consistent.
In summing up, the judge asked the jury to decide whether the murder had been committed by one of the two men alone; in the latter case the other would be found guilty only of non-capital murder at the most. After considering the case for three hours the jury found both men equally guilty, and both were sentenced to "suffer death in the manner authorised by law".
Hangings
Both men appealed, with the appeal heard by the Lord Chief Justice Lord Parker of Waddington, Mr Justice Winn and Mr Justice Widgery on 20 July. Judgment was given the following day dismissing the appeal. The date for the execution of the death sentence was set at 13 August. Under the law, the Home Secretary had to decide whether to advise the Queen to exercise the prerogative of mercy and commute the death sentence to life imprisonment; of 48 death sentences passed since the 1957 Act, 19 people had been reprieved. Only two executions had taken place in England in 1963 (those of Russell Pascoe and Dennis Whitty), and none so far in 1964. According to author Elwyn Jones, the police in the North-West expected a reprieve.
A recent reprieve for a notably-brutal murderer from Lancashire may have led opinion in Preston to believe that a reprieve was likely for Allen and Evans, and a petition calling for both men to be executed was started (there was also a smaller petition calling for a reprieve). On 10 August, the Home Office sent out letters announcing that the Secretary of State had "failed to discover any sufficient ground to justify him in advising Her Majesty to interfere with the due course of law" in both cases.
Gwynne Owen Evans was hanged by the executioner Harry Allen at Manchester's Strangeways Prison at 8:00 am on 13 August 1964, assisted by Royston Rickard. At the same time, Peter Allen was hanged at Liverpool's Walton Prison by Robert Leslie Stewart, assisted by Harry Robinson. Those were the last two judicial executions of death sentences in Britain.
Aftermath
Mary Allen later married Billy Price, who had been one of her husband's close friends. He adopted Allen's sons Mark and Richard. Mary Allen died in 1980 aged 37.
According to medical reports released to the National Archives in the summer of 2017, Gwynne Evans had 'serious psychological problems', which, had his defence team entered a plea of diminished responsibility at his trial, could have led to him escaping being hanged.
See also
Capital punishment in the United Kingdom
James Smith (murderer)
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Daily Express article from August 2011
Liverpool Echo article from August 2014
Lancashire Evening Post article from August 2014
Daily Telegraph article from August 2014
1964 in England
1964 murders in the United Kingdom
20th century in Cumberland
Crime in Cumbria
Male murder victims | [
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245597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily%20Smyslov | Vasily Smyslov | Vasily Vasilyevich Smyslov (; 24 March 1921 – 27 March 2010) was a Soviet and Russian chess grandmaster, who was World Chess Champion from 1957 to 1958. He was a Candidate for the World Chess Championship on eight occasions (1948, 1950, 1953, 1956, 1959, 1965, 1983, and 1985). Smyslov twice tied for first place at the Soviet Championships (1949, 1955), and his total of 17 Chess Olympiad medals won is an all-time record. In five European Team Championships, Smyslov won ten gold medals.
Smyslov remained active and successful in competitive chess well after the age of sixty. Despite failing eyesight, he remained active in the occasional composition of chess problems and studies until shortly before his death in 2010. Besides chess, he was an accomplished baritone singer.
Early years
Smyslov first became interested in chess at the age of six. His father, Vasily Osipovich Smyslov, worked as an engineering technician and had represented the St. Petersburg Technical Institute in intercollegiate chess competitions. Smyslov's father had also studied chess for a time under the tutelage of Mikhail Chigorin and the senior Smyslov became the boy's first teacher. The elder Smyslov gave his son a copy of Alexander Alekhine's book My Best Games of Chess 1908–1923 and the future world champion would later write that this book became his constant reference. He would also write that "...I was later to read everything that my father had in his library: Dufresne's handbook, separate numbers of the Soviet chess magazines Chess and Chess Sheet, the text-books of Lasker and Capablanca, and the collections of games of Soviet and international tournaments. The games of the great Russian chess master M. I. Chigorin made an indelible impression on me; it was with interest that I read the various declarations on questions of strategy by A. I. Nimzovitch; I studied attentively the genius of prominent Soviet masters."
Smyslov's competitive chess experiences began at the age of 14, when he started taking part in classification tournaments. In 1938, at age 17, Smyslov won the USSR Junior Championship. That same year, he tied for 1st–2nd places in the Moscow City Championship, with 12½/17. However, Smyslov's first attempt at adult competition outside his own city fell short; he placed 12th–13th in the Leningrad–Moscow International tournament of 1939 with 8/17 in an exceptionally strong field. In the Moscow Championship of 1939–40 Smyslov placed 2nd–3rd with 9/13.
War years
In his first Soviet final, the 1940 USSR Chess Championship (Moscow, URS-ch12), he performed exceptionally well for 3rd place with 13/19, finishing ahead of the reigning champion Mikhail Botvinnik. This tournament was the strongest Soviet final up to that time, as it included several players, such as Paul Keres and Vladas Mikėnas, from countries annexed by the USSR, as part of the Nazi–Soviet Pact of 1939.
The Soviet Federation held a further tournament of the top six from the 1940 event, and this was called the 1941 Absolute Championship of the USSR, one of the strongest tournaments ever organized. The format saw each player meet his opponents four times. The players were Botvinnik, Keres, Smyslov, Isaac Boleslavsky, Igor Bondarevsky, and Andor Lilienthal. Smyslov scored 10/20 for third place, behind Botvinnik and Keres. This proved that Smyslov was of genuine world-class Grandmaster strength at age 20, a very rare achievement at that time.
World War II forced a halt to most international chess, but several tournaments involving Soviet players only were still organized. Smyslov was exempted from military service due to being severely nearsighted, and he won the 1942 Moscow Championship outright with a powerful 12/15. At Kuibyshev 1942, he placed second with 8/11. In a strong field at Sverdlovsk 1943, Smyslov tied for 3rd–4th places with 8/14. In the 1943–44 Moscow Championship, Smyslov tied for 3rd–4th with 11½/16. He finished second in the 1944 USSR Championship at Moscow (URS-ch13) with 10½/16. He emerged as champion from the 1944–45 Moscow Championship with 13/16. By this juncture, Smyslov had advanced into the group of the top three Soviet players, along with Botvinnik and Keres, who were playing in Nazi-occupied Europe during the war.
As the war ended, organized chess picked up again. But Smyslov's form hit a serious slump in the immediate post-war period. In the 1945 USSR Championship at Moscow (URS-ch14), Smyslov was in the middle of the very powerful field with 8½/17; the winner was Botvinnik, with Boleslavsky and the new star David Bronstein occupying second and third places. At Tallinn 1945, Smyslov had the worst result of his career, scoring just 6½/15 in a not especially strong field. It was little better in the Moscow Championship of 1945–46, as he could only score 7½/15 for a tie of 7th–11th places, as Bronstein won. Then in the Moscow Championship of 1946, Smyslov scored just 8½/15, for a tie of 3rd–6th places, as Bronstein won again. During this period he scored just 31/62 in those four tournaments, for 50%.
Nevertheless, Smyslov's earlier strong results secured him one of the five Soviet places in the first really strong post-war international tournament, at Groningen, Netherlands, in August 1946. This event, the Howard Staunton Memorial, was won by Botvinnik with 14½/19, half a point ahead of former World Champion Max Euwe. Smyslov finished third with 12½/19, and this confirmed his status as one of the world's top players.
Smyslov found it tough going for the next while, however, once he was back playing in Soviet events. In the next Soviet Championship (URS-ch15, Leningrad 1947), he tied for 3rd–4th places with 12/19, as Keres won. At Pärnu 1947, Smyslov scored 8/13 for a tied 4th–6th places, as Keres won again. At Warsaw 1947, Smyslov scored 6/9 to tie for 2nd–5th places; the winner was Svetozar Gligorić. In the Mikhail Chigorin Memorial tournament, Moscow 1947, Smyslov tied for 3rd–4th places, with 10/15, as Botvinnik won.
His results showed a consistent pattern of high finishes against strong company, but with virtually no tournament championships. Smyslov had never actually won an adult tournament (other than the Moscow City Championship) before he played in the 1948 World Championship Tournament.
World title challenger
Smyslov was one of the five players selected to compete for the 1948 World Chess Championship tournament to determine who should succeed the late Alexander Alekhine as champion. His selection was questioned in some quarters, but this criticism was amply rebutted when he finished second behind Mikhail Botvinnik, with a score of 11/20.
With his second-place finish from the 1948 World Championship, Smyslov was admitted directly into the 1950 Budapest Candidates' tournament without needing to play in qualifying events. Smyslov scored 10/18 for third place, behind Bronstein and Boleslavsky, who tied for first place. Smyslov's third place automatically qualified him into the next Candidates' tournament. He was awarded the International Grandmaster title in 1950 by FIDE on its inaugural list.
After winning the Candidates Tournament in Zürich 1953, with 18/28, two points ahead of Keres, Bronstein, and Samuel Reshevsky, Smyslov played a match with Botvinnik for the title the following year. Sited at Moscow, the match ended in a draw, after 24 games (seven wins each and ten draws), meaning that Botvinnik retained his title.
World Champion
Smyslov again won the Candidates' Tournament at Amsterdam in 1956, which led to another world championship match against Botvinnik in 1957. Assisted by trainers Vladimir Makogonov and Vladimir Simagin, Smyslov won with the score 12½–9½. The following year, Botvinnik exercised his right to a rematch, and won the title back with a final score of 12½–10½. Smyslov later said his health suffered during the return match, as he came down with pneumonia, but he also acknowledged that Botvinnik had prepared very thoroughly. Over the course of the three World Championship matches, Smyslov had won 18 games to Botvinnik's 17 (with 34 draws), and yet he was only champion for a year. Nonetheless Smyslov wrote in his autobiographical games collection Smyslov's Best Games, "I have no reason to complain of my fate. I fulfilled my dream and became the seventh world champion in the history of chess."
Later World Championships
Smyslov did not qualify for another World Championship, but continued to play in World Championship qualifying events. In 1959, he was a Candidate, but finished fourth in the qualifying tournament held in Yugoslavia, which was won by the rising superstar Mikhail Tal. He missed out in 1962, but was back in 1964, following a first-place tie at the Amsterdam Interzonal, with 17/23. However he lost his first-round match to Efim Geller.
In 1983, at the age of 62, he went through to the Candidates' Final (the match to determine who plays the champion, in that case Anatoly Karpov), losing 8½–4½ at Vilnius 1984 to Garry Kasparov, who was 21 at the time, and who went on to beat Karpov to become world champion in 1985. He had beaten Zoltán Ribli 6½–4½ in the semifinal, but drew his quarter-final match against Robert Hübner 7–7, with the advancing player (Smyslov) determined only by the spin of a roulette wheel. His final Candidates' appearance was the Montpellier 1985 tournament, where he did not advance.
Soviet Championships
Smyslov was a frequent competitor at the Soviet Championships and enjoyed some notable successes. In 1940, while still a teenager, he finished third behind Bondarevsky and Lilienthal. At the 13th Championship in 1944, he placed second behind Botvinnik and in 1947, shared third with Bondarevsky, after Keres and Boleslavsky.
He was a joint winner of the contest in 1949 and again in 1955 (with Bronstein and Geller respectively). Whilst the 1949 title was shared, the 1955 title was awarded to Geller after a play-off.
Much later in his career he showed that he could still mount a credible challenge; he took a share of third place in 1969 (behind Petrosian and Polugaevsky) and in 1971, was joint runner-up with Tal, after Savon. He was ranked by FIDE as one of the top 15 players in the world from the late 1940s into the early 1980s, a stretch of almost 40 years.
Post-war tournament record
Smyslov maintained an active tournament schedule throughout the 1950s, 60s and 70s, registering many top three finishes in some of the most prestigious tournaments of the period.
In 1950, he was second behind Kotov at Venice and in 1951, won the Chigorin Memorial, held in Leningrad. He shared third place with Botvinnik at Budapest (Maróczy Memorial) in 1952, after Keres and Geller. In 1953, he won a training tournament in Gagra and finished third at Bucharest, behind Tolush and Petrosian. At the 1954–55 edition of the Hastings Congress, he shared first place with Keres. At Zagreb 1955, he was sole winner, two clear points ahead of the field. He continued his winning streak at Moscow's Alekhine Memorial in 1956, a victory shared with his constant rival, Botvinnik. During this period, there were several triumphs in his city of birth, when he shared first place with Bronstein and Spassky at the inaugural edition of the Moscow Central Chess Club international tournament series (sometimes also referred as an Alekhine Memorial) in 1959, was a joint winner in both 1960 (with Kholmov) and 1961 (with Vasiukov), and won outright in 1963.
His good form continued throughout the 1960s. There were shares of second place at Dortmund 1961 (after Taimanov) and at Mar del Plata 1962 (after Polugaevsky). He traveled again to Hastings at the end of 1962 and registered third place behind Gligoric and Kotov. In 1963, he was second at Sochi (Chigorin Memorial) after Polugaevsky. His visit to Havana's Capablanca Memorial in 1964 resulted in a share of first with the East German, Uhlmann. He took outright first at the same tournament the following year. In 1966, there were victories at Mar del Plata and at the Rubinstein Memorial in Polanica Zdroj. In 1967, he was second to Fischer at Monte Carlo, won at Moscow and took second after Stein at the city's Alekhine Memorial tournament. He placed third the same year at the Capablanca Memorial in Havana (after Larsen and Taimanov) and finished third again at Palma de Mallorca 1967 and Monte Carlo 1968, the latter two events both being headed by Larsen and Botvinnik. This was also the year he repeated his previous success at Polanica Zdroj, taking outright first. His next trip to Hastings also ended in triumph, as he took clear first at the 1968–69 edition. The 1960s drew to a close with victory at Monte Carlo 1969 (shared with Portisch) and a share of third place at Skopje 1969 (with Uhlmann and Kholmov, after Hort and Matulović).
While less prolific than in previous decades, Smyslov played many strong tournaments in the 1970s and even into the 1980s and beyond. He was joint runner-up with Hort, Gligoric and Korchnoi at Rovinj/Zagreb 1970, after Fischer. A winner at Amsterdam in 1971, he came third at the Alekhine Memorial (Moscow) the same year, after Karpov and Stein. At Las Palmas 1972, he was second equal with Larsen, behind Portisch and in 1973, topped the Capablanca Memorial in Cienfuegos. First place followed at Reykjavík in 1974 and at the Venice tournament of the same year, he finished second behind Liberzon. Then followed a second place at the Alexander Memorial (Teesside) in 1975 (after Geller), a first place at Szolnok (also 1975), and a multi-way share of second at the large Lone Pine Open of 1976 (Petrosian won). He finished third behind Romanishin and Tal at Leningrad in 1977, when all three eclipsed the efforts of then world champion Anatoly Karpov. In 1978, he won at São Paulo and finished with a share of second at Buenos Aires, after Andersson. As the seventies ended, he took first place at Berlin 1979, this time shared with Csom.
Notable outcomes for 1980 included joint first places at San Miguel (with Browne, Panno, Jaime Emma) and at Copenhagen (the Politiken Cup, with Mikhalchishin). The same year, he finished second at Bar, after Petrosian and second at Baguio, after Torre. At Moscow 1981, he joined Kasparov and Polugaevsky in second place, behind Karpov. A further Hastings visit in 1981–82 resulted in a share of second place, with Speelman, after Kupreichik. He was first at Graz in 1984 and first equal at Copenhagen (Politiken Cup) 1986 with Chernin, Pigusov and Cserna. He played at Reggio Emilia over the New Year of 1986–87 and shared second spot with Hort, Chernin and Spassky, after Ribli. At Hastings in 1988–89, he took a share of third with Gulko and Speelman, behind Short and Korchnoi.
Smyslov remained on FIDE's top 100 list until he was 70 years old. His tournament appearances were fewer in the 1990s, but results included a share of first place at Buenos Aires 1990 and a share of second at Malmö (Sigeman) in 1997, after Hellers.
Team competition
Smyslov represented the Soviet Union a total of nine times at chess Olympiads, from 1952 to 1972 inclusive, excepting only 1962 and 1966. He contributed strongly to team gold medal wins on each occasion he played, winning a total of eight individual medals. His total of 17 Olympiad medals won, including team and individual medals, is an all-time Olympiad record, according to olimpbase.org.
At Helsinki 1952, he played second board, and won the individual gold medal with 10½/13. At Amsterdam 1954, he was again on second board, scored 9/12, and took the individual bronze medal. At Moscow 1956, he scored 8½/13 on second board, but failed to win a medal. At Munich 1958, he made 9½/13 on second board, good for the silver individual medal. At Leipzig 1960, he was dropped to first reserve, and made a great score of 11½/13, which won the gold medal.
After missing out on selection in 1962, he returned for Tel Aviv 1964, on third board, and won the gold medal with 11/13. He missed selection in 1966, but returned with a vengeance for Lugano 1968, and made a phenomenal 11/12 for another gold medal as second reserve. At Siegen 1970, he was first reserve, and scored 8/11 for the bronze medal. His final Olympiad was Skopje 1972, where at age 51 he played third board and scored 11/14, good for the silver medal.
His overall Olympiad score is an imposing 90 points in 113 games (+69−2=42), for 79.6%. This performance is the fifth all-time best for players participating in at least four Olympiads. Smyslov also represented the USSR in five European Team Championships, and emerged with a perfect medals' record: he won five team gold medals and five board gold medals. His total score in these events was (+19−1=15), for 75.7%. From olimpbase.org, here is his European teams' data.
Vienna 1957: board 1, 3½/6 (+2−1=3), board and team gold medals;
Oberhausen 1961: board 5, 8/9 (+7−0=2), board and team gold medals;
Hamburg 1965: board 4, 6/9 (+3−0=6), board and team gold medals;
Kapfenberg 1970: board 5, 5/6 (+4−0=2), board and team gold medals;
Bath, Somerset 1973: board 6, 4/5 (+3−0=2), board and team gold medals.
Smyslov played for the USSR in both the 1970 and 1984 matches against teams representing the Rest of the World. He was on board six at Belgrade in 1970, and on board four at London in 1984, with the Soviets winning both matches.
Final years
In 1991, Smyslov won the inaugural World Senior Chess Championship. With a FIDE rating still around 2400 as of the year 2000, the 80-year old grandmaster participated in what was to be his final tournament, the Klompendans Veterans Vs. Ladies Tournament in Amsterdam. The highlight of the match was his rout of Zsofia Polgar, leaving the all-time record between the two as 5–1=3. Some of the matches were adjourned early as draws due to his failing eyesight, and Smyslov officially retired from competitive play after this tournament. His Elo rating after this event was 2494.
Smyslov died of congestive heart failure in a Moscow hospital on the morning of 27 March 2010, three days after his 89th birthday. Reports circulated that his final years were lived in near-poverty and that he could not afford badly-needed eye surgery. It was also reported that Smyslov and his wife Nadezhda mostly lived off of income from renting their apartment out and that there was nobody around to check up on or care for them.
Legacy
Smyslov was known for his positional style, and, in particular, his precise handling of the endgame, but many of his games featured spectacular tactical shots as well. His opening repertoire was conventional for the 1950s–60s era, featuring mainly the Ruy Lopez and English Opening as White, and the Sicilian Defense and Nimzo-Indian Defense as Black. He made enormous contributions to chess opening theory in many openings, including the English Opening, Grünfeld Defence, and the Sicilian Defence. He has a variation of the Closed Ruy Lopez named after him: the line runs 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0 9.h3 h6. In the Grünfeld Defence, the continuation 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 d5 4.Nf3 Bg7 5.Qb3 dxc4 6.Qxc4 0-0 7.e4 Bg4 8.Be3 Nfd7 is known as the Smyslov Variation and remains a major variation. Smyslov also successfully revived the Fianchetto Defence to the Ruy Lopez (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 g6) in the 1970s. In the Slav Defence, the sideline 1.d4 d5 2.c4 c6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.Nf3 dxc4 5.a4 Na6 is named the Smyslov Variation. Finally, a variation of the King's Indian Defense is named after him which proceeds with the moves 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 Bg7 4.Nf3 0-0 5.Bg5 d6 6.e3.
Stanley Kubrick named a character after him in his film 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Opera singer
Smyslov was a baritone singer, and only positively decided upon a chess career after a failed audition with the Bolshoi Theatre in 1950. He occasionally gave recitals during chess tournaments, often accompanied by fellow Grandmaster and concert pianist Mark Taimanov. Smyslov once wrote that he tried to achieve harmony on the chess board, with each piece assisting the others. Smyslov recorded several arias during his life.
Personal life
For more than 50 years Smyslov was married to Nadezhda Smyslova, a woman three years his elder whose first husband was executed during the Stalin's purges in the early 1940s. They met in 1948. Nadezhda had a son from the first marriage, an aspiring chess player who competed at the World Junior Championships. Vasily and Nadezhda had no further children. Nadezhda often accompanied her husband at major tournaments, providing moral support.
Books by Smyslov
Vasily Smyslov (2003) Smyslov's Best Games, Volume 1: 1935–1957 (Moravian Chess Publishing House)
Vasily Smyslov (2003) Smyslov's Best Games, Volume 2: 1958–1995 (Moravian Chess Publishing House)
Vasily Smyslov (1997) Endgame Virtuoso (Cadogan)
Vasily Smyslov (1995) Smyslov's 125 Selected Games (modern edition published by Everyman Chess)
Grigory Levenfish and Vasily Smyslov (1971) Rook Endings (Batsford Edition)
Notable games
Tigran Petrosian vs Vasily Smyslov, USSR Championship, Moscow 1949, Sicilian Defence, Scheveningen Variation (B84), 0–1 The first meeting of two future World Champions goes to Smyslov in a precise positional performance.
Vasily Smyslov vs Efim Geller, USSR Championship, Moscow 1951, Sicilian Defence, Closed Variation (B26), 1–0 Smyslov used the Closed Sicilian periodically throughout his life, and made many important improvements.
Paul Keres vs Vasily Smyslov, Zurich Candidates' Tournament 1953, English Opening: Anglo-Indian Defense. Hedgehog System (A17) 0–1 In a vital late-tournament encounter, Smyslov fights off Keres' very dangerous attack, to put himself in the driver's seat towards winning the tournament.
Vasily Smyslov vs Mikhail Botvinnik, World Championship Match, Moscow 1954, game 9, French Defence, Winawer Variation (C17), 1–0 Smyslov blows up one of the World Champion's favourite variations with a queen sacrifice to score a stunning win.
Mikhail Botvinnik vs Vasily Smyslov, World Championship Match, Moscow 1954, game 14, King's Indian Defence, Fianchetto Variation (E68), 0–1 With one of the deepest pre-game home preparations ever seen, Smyslov unleashes a chain of tactical wizardry, including a queen sacrifice, to record a beautiful win which fundamentally changed the theory in this variation.
Vasily Smyslov vs David Bronstein, Candidates' Tournament, Amsterdam 1956, English Opening (A34), 1–0 The two players were fighting for the right to qualify, late in the tournament, and Smyslov finds a way to come out on top.
Vasily Smyslov vs Mikhail Tal, Candidates' Tournament, Yugoslavia 1959, Sicilian Defence, Najdorf / Opecensky Variation (B92), 1–0 It was their first-ever meeting, and the young star Tal gets a sharp lesson from the veteran.
Robert Fischer vs Vasily Smyslov, Candidates' Tournament, Yugoslavia 1959, Sicilian Defence, Fischer / Sozin Variation (B86), 0–1 The 16-year-old Fischer had honed this opening line into a formidable weapon, but here Smyslov shows him a few new wrinkles.
Vasily Smyslov vs Boris Spassky, Moscow vs Leningrad team match 1960, Alekhine's Defence (B05), 1–0 Spassky tries the unusual Alekhine's Defence and is beaten in fairly short order.
Vasily Smyslov vs Anatoly Karpov, USSR Championship, Leningrad 1971, English Opening / Queen's Gambit (A34), 1–0 Karpov was the young rising star, but here he lasts for only 29 moves against Smyslov, who is 30 years older.
Vasily Smyslov vs Zoltan Ribli, World Championship Candidates Semi-final, London 1983, Queens Gambit, Semi-Tarrasch Defence (), 1-0 The finest game of Smyslov's semi-final win, featuring several sacrifices.
References
Further reading
External links
“Vassily Smyslov (1921-2010)” by Edward Winter
Interview with Vassily Smyslov
Vasily Smyslov – Daily Telegraph obituary
Smyslov's Chess Record
Visa with photo 1962
1921 births
2010 deaths
Burevestnik (sports society) athletes
Chess grandmasters
Chess Olympiad competitors
Chess composers
Chess theoreticians
Sportspeople from Moscow
Russian chess players
Russian chess writers
Russian operatic baritones
Soviet chess players
World chess champions
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245600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao%20Zhi | Cao Zhi | Cao Zhi (; ; 192 – 27 December 232), courtesy name Zijian (), self-proclaimed King Chen (陈王), was a prince of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China, and an accomplished poet in his time. His style of poetry, greatly revered during the Jin dynasty and Southern and Northern Dynasties, came to be known as the Jian'an style.
Cao Zhi was a son of Cao Cao, a warlord who rose to power towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty and laid the foundation for the state of Cao Wei. As Cao Zhi once engaged his elder brother Cao Pi in a power struggle to succeed their father, he was ostracised by his victorious brother after the latter became the emperor and established the Cao Wei state. In his later life, Cao Zhi was not allowed to meddle in politics, despite his many petitions to seek office.
Early life
Born in 192, Cao Zhi was the third son of the warlord Cao Cao and Lady Bian. According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), Cao Zhi could recite the Shi Jing, Analects and more than ten thousand verses worth of poems before he even turned 20. His literary talent made him a favorite son of Cao Cao in the early stage of his life.
Character and failure
However, Cao Zhi was an impetuous man with little self-discipline. He was also a heavy drinker. On the other hand, his elder brother Cao Pi knew how to act at the right times. Cao Pi also enjoyed a much closer relationship to the servants and subjects around Cao Cao, and they spoke well of him. In 217, Cao Cao eventually picked Cao Pi to succeed himself. This further aggravated Cao Zhi's already eccentric behaviour. He once rode his chariot along the road reserved for the emperor and through the front gate of the palace. This infuriated his father, who had the chariot driver executed.
Having chosen a successor, Cao Cao took measures to undermine other contestants. He did this by executing Yang Xiu, a chief adviser to Cao Zhi. This greatly unsettled Cao Zhi, but failed to jolt him back to his senses. On the contrary, he sank further into his drunken habits. In 219, Cao Cao's cousin and leading general Cao Ren was besieged at the fortress at Fancheng (樊城; present-day Fancheng District, Hubei) by Guan Yu. Cao Cao named Cao Zhi to lead a relief force to the rescue, in the hope that the task would instil into the latter a sense of responsibility. However, Cao Zhi was so drunk that he could not come forth to take the order. Cao Cao then gave up on this son.
Within months, Cao Cao died. One of the first things Cao Pi did was to do away with Ding Yi (丁儀) and Ding Yì (丁廙), two firm supporters of Cao Zhi. He also sent Cao Zhi, along with the other brothers, away from the capital to a country estate exiling them into the countryside, and prohibited them from taking part in central political issues.
Continued rejection
Prospects for Cao Zhi did not improve after Cao Pi died in 226. He wrote to the second Wei emperor Cao Rui many times, seeking a position to apply his talents. In 232, he even sought a private meeting with Cao Rui to discuss politics. However, Cao Rui probably still considered him a threat to the throne and declined all the offers.
Death
Severely depressed by the setbacks, Cao Zhi soon developed a fatal illness. Aged 41, he quickly died leaving behind instructions for a simple burial. His tomb in Yushan (魚山) of Dong'e county was excavated in 1951, during which 28 bones were recovered. However, the whereabouts of these bones are currently unknown.
Poetry
Despite his failure in politics, Cao Zhi was hailed as one of the representatives of the poetic style of his time, together with his father Cao Cao, his elder brother Cao Pi and several other poets. Their poems formed the backbone of what was to be known as the Jian'an poetry style (建安風骨). The civil strife towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty gave the Jian'an poems their characteristic solemn yet heart-stirring tone, while lament over the ephemerality of life was also a central theme of works from this period. In terms of the history of Chinese literature, the Jian'an poems were a transition from the early folk songs into scholarly poetry.
Although Jian'an refers to the era name between 196 and 220, Cao Zhi's poems could in fact be categorised into two periods, with the year 220 as the watershed. The earlier period consisted of poems that expressed his ambitions. These poems were optimistic and romantic in nature. On the other hand, his setbacks in political pursuits after the death of his father in 220 gave rise to the grievous tone of his later works.
More than 90 poems by Cao Zhi remain today, more than 60 of which are five-character poems (五言詩). These are held in high esteem for their significant influence over the development of five-character poetry in later ages. The most complete collection of Cao Zhi's poems and other literary works is Chen Si Wang Ji (陳思王集, Collection of Works by King Si of Chen), compiled during the Ming dynasty. One of Cao Zhi's most celebrated poems is On the White Horse. Written in the early years of his life, the poem portrayed a young warrior who answered fearlessly to the need of his country and reflected Cao Zhi's own aspiration to contribute to his times.
Cao Zhi's most famous poem was the Seven Steps Verse, often translated as The Quatrain of Seven Steps. However, his authorship of this poem is disputed since the poem comes from the Shishuo Xinyu, a collection of ahistorical anecdotes.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a 14th-century historical novel, was a romanticisation of the events that occurred during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period. Exploiting the complicated relationship among the Cao Cao's sons, especially Cao Pi and Cao Zhi, Luo Guanzhong was able to create a scenario where the elder brother, having succeeded his father, tried to do away with his younger brother.
After the death of Cao Cao, Cao Zhi failed to turn up for the funeral. Men sent by Cao Pi found Cao Zhi drunk in his own house. Cao Zhi was then bound and brought to Cao Pi. When Empress Bian, their common birth mother, heard of this, she went to Cao Pi and pleaded for the life of her younger son. Cao Pi agreed. However, Hua Xin then convinced Cao Pi to put Cao Zhi's literary talent to a test. If Cao Zhi failed the test, it would be excuse enough to put him to death, Hua Xin suggested.
Cao Pi agreed and held audience with Cao Zhi, who in great trepidation bowed low and confessed his faults. On the wall there was a painting of two oxen fighting, one of which was falling into a well. Cao Pi told his brother to make a poem based on the painting after walking seven paces. However, the poem was not to contain explicit reference to the subjects of the drawing.
Cao Zhi took seven paces as instructed, and the poem was already formulated in his heart. He then recited:
Two butcher's victims lowing walked along,
Each head bore curving bones, a sturdy pair.
兩肉齊道行，頭上帶凸骨。
They met just by a hillock, both were strong,
Each would avoid a pit newly-dug there.
相遇塊山下，欻起相搪突。
They fought unequal battle, for at length
One lay below a gory mess, inert.
二敵不俱剛，一肉臥土窟。
'Twas not that they were of unequal strength
Though wrathful both, one did not strength exert.
非是力不如，盛氣不泄畢。
However, Cao Pi was not satisfied. He then bade Cao Zhi make another poem on the spot based on their fraternal relationship, without using the word "brother". Not taking a second to think, Cao Zhi recited:
Cooking beans on a fire of beanstalks,
煮豆燃豆萁，
The beans weep in the pot.
豆在釜中泣。
Born of the same roots,
本是同根生，
Why the eagerness to destroy one another?
相煎何太急?
Having heard this, Cao Pi was moved to tears. He then let his brother go after merely degrading the peerage of the latter as a punishment.
Family
Modern references
In 2002, Hong Kong's TVB produced the television drama, Where the Legend Begins, featuring Cao Zhi as the intelligent and compassionate protagonist. Steven Ma played the role of Cao Zhi in the series. There is also a 2013 Chinese television series Legend of Goddess Luo produced by Huace Film and TV, starring Yang Yang as Cao Zhi.
Cao Zhi (Ts'ao Chih) may be the titular figure of Ezra Pound's poem Ts'ai Chi'h, included in Des Imagistes (1914).
See also
Han poetry
Jian'an poetry
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
List of Chinese language poets
The Quatrain of Seven Steps
Notes
References
Further reading
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian.
External links
192 births
232 deaths
Han dynasty poets
Cao Wei poets
Family of Cao Cao
Cao Wei imperial princes
3rd-century Chinese poets
Poets from Shandong | [
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245601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrofuturism | Retrofuturism | Retrofuturism (adjective retrofuturistic or retrofuture) is a movement in the creative arts showing the influence of depictions of the future produced in an earlier era. If futurism is sometimes called a "science" bent on anticipating what will come, retrofuturism is the remembering of that anticipation. Characterized by a blend of old-fashioned "retro styles" with futuristic technology, retrofuturism explores the themes of tension between past and future, and between the alienating and empowering effects of technology. Primarily reflected in artistic creations and modified technologies that realize the imagined artifacts of its parallel reality, retrofuturism can be seen as "an animating perspective on the world".
Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the term appears in a Bloomingdales advertisement in a 1983 issue of The New York Times. The ad talks of jewellery that is "silverized steel and sleek grey linked for a retro-futuristic look". In an example more related to retrofuturism as an exploration of past visions of the future, the term appears in the form of “retro-futurist” in a 1984 review of the film Brazil in The New Yorker. Critic Pauline Kael writes, "[Terry Gilliam] presents a retro-futurist fantasy."
Several websites have referenced a supposed 1967 book published by Pelican Books called Retro-Futurism by T. R. Hinchliffe as the origin of the term, but this account is unverified. There exist no records of this book or author.
Historiography
Retrofuturism builds on ideas of futurism, but the latter term functions differently in several different contexts. In avant-garde artistic, literary and design circles, futurism is a long-standing and well established term. But in its more popular form, futurism (sometimes referred to as futurology) is "an early optimism that focused on the past and was rooted in the nineteenth century, an early-twentieth-century 'golden age' that continued long into the 1960s' Space Age".
Retrofuturism is first and foremost based on modern but changing notions of "the future". As Guffey notes, retrofuturism is "a recent neologism", but it "builds on futurists' fevered visions of space colonies with flying cars, robotic servants, and interstellar travel on display there; where futurists took their promise for granted, retro-futurism emerged as a more skeptical reaction to these dreams". It took its current shape in the 1970s, a time when technology was rapidly changing. From the advent of the personal computer to the birth of the first test tube baby, this period was characterized by intense and rapid technological change. But many in the general public began to question whether applied science would achieve its earlier promise—that life would inevitably improve through technological progress. In the wake of the Vietnam War, environmental depredations, and the energy crisis, many commentators began to question the benefits of applied science. But they also wondered, sometimes in awe, sometimes in confusion, at the scientific positivism evinced by earlier generations. Retrofuturism "seeped into academic and popular culture in the 1960s and 1970s", inflecting George Lucas's Star Wars and the paintings of pop artist Kenny Scharf alike". Surveying the optimistic futurism of the early twentieth century, the historians Joe Corn and Brian Horrigan remind us that retrofuturism is "a history of an idea, or a system of ideas—an ideology. The future, or course, does not exist except as an act of belief or imagination."
Characteristics
Retrofuturism incorporates two overlapping trends which may be summarized as the future as seen from the past and the past as seen from the future.
The first trend, retrofuturism proper, is directly inspired by the imagined future which existed in the minds of writers, artists, and filmmakers in the pre-1960 period who attempted to predict the future, either in serious projections of existing technology (e.g. in magazines like Science and Invention) or in science fiction novels and stories. Such futuristic visions are refurbished and updated for the present, and offer a nostalgic, counterfactual image of what the future might have been, but is not.
The second trend is the inverse of the first: futuristic retro. It starts with the retro appeal of old styles of art, clothing, mores, and then grafts modern or futuristic technologies onto it, creating a mélange of past, present, and future elements. Steampunk, a term applying both to the retrojection of futuristic technology into an alternative Victorian age, and the application of neo-Victorian styles to modern technology, is a highly successful version of this second trend. In the movie Space Station 76 (2014), mankind has reached the stars, but clothes, technology, furnitures and above all social taboos are purposely highly reminiscent of the mid-1970s.
In practice, the two trends cannot be sharply distinguished, as they mutually contribute to similar visions. Retrofuturism of the first type is inevitably influenced by the scientific, technological, and social awareness of the present, and modern retrofuturistic creations are never simply copies of their pre-1960 inspirations; rather, they are given a new (often wry or ironic) twist by being seen from a modern perspective.
In the same way, futuristic retro owes much of its flavor to early science fiction (e.g. the works of Jules Verne and H. G. Wells), and in a quest for stylistic authenticity may continue to draw on writers and artists of the desired period.
Both retrofuturistic trends in themselves refer to no specific time. When a time period is supplied for a story, it might be a counterfactual present with unique technology; a fantastic version of the future; or an alternate past in which the imagined (fictitious or projected) inventions of the past were indeed real.
The import of retrofuturism has, in recent years, come under considerable discussion. Some, like the German architecture critic Niklas Maak, see retrofuturism as "nothing more than an aesthetic feedback loop recalling a lost belief in progress, the old images of the once radically new". Bruce McCall calls retrofuturism a "faux nostalgia"—the nostalgia for a future that never happened.
Themes
Although retrofuturism, due to the varying time-periods and futuristic visions to which it alludes, does not provide a unified thematic purpose or experience, a common thread is dissatisfaction or discomfort with the present, to which retrofuturism provides a nostalgic contrast.
A similar theme is dissatisfaction with the modern world itself. A world of high-speed air transport, computers, and space stations is (by any past standard) "futuristic"; yet the search for alternative and perhaps more promising futures suggests a feeling that the desired or expected future has failed to materialize. Retrofuturism suggests an alternative path, and in addition to pure nostalgia, may act as a reminder of older but now forgotten ideals. This dissatisfaction also manifests as political commentary in Retrofuturistic literature, in which visionary nostalgia is paradoxically linked to a utopian future modelled after conservative values as seen in the example of Fox News' use of BioShock's aesthetic in a 2014 broadcast.
Retrofuturism also implies a reevaluation of technology. Unlike the total rejection of post-medieval technology found in most fantasy genres, or the embrace of any and all possible technologies found in some science-fiction, retrofuturism calls for a human-scale, largely comprehensible technology, amenable to tinkering and less opaque than modern black-box technology.
Retrofuturism is not universally optimistic, and when its points of reference touch on gloomy periods like World War II, or the paranoia of the Cold War, it may itself become bleak and dystopian. In such cases, the alternative reality inspires fear, not hope, though it may still be coupled with nostalgia for a world of greater moral as well as mechanical transparency.
Genres
Genres of retrofuturism include cyberpunk, steampunk, dieselpunk, atompunk, and Raygun Gothic, each referring to a technology from a specific time period.
The first of these to be named and recognized as its own genre was cyberpunk, originating in the early to mid-1980s in literature with the works of Bruce Bethke, William Gibson, Bruce Sterling, and Pat Cadigan. Its setting is almost always a dystopian future, with a strong emphasis either upon outlaws hacking the futuristic world's machinery (often computers and computer networks), or even upon post-apocalyptic settings. The post-apocalyptic variant is the one usually associated with retrofuturism, where characters will rely upon a mixture of old and new technologies. Furthermore, synthwave and vaporwave are nostalgic, humorous and often retrofuturistic revivals of early cyberpunk aesthetic.
The second to be named and recognized was steampunk, in the late 1980s. It is generally more optimistic and brighter than cyberpunk, set within an alternate history closely resembling our Long 19th century from circa the Regency era onwards and up to circa 1914, only that 20th-century or even futuristic technologies are based upon steam power. The genre themes also often involve references to electricity as a yet-as-of-now mysterious force that is considered the utopian power source of the future and sometimes even regarded as possessing mystical healing powers (much as with nuclear energy around the middle of the 20th century). The genre often strongly resembles the original scientific romances and utopic novels of genre predecessors H. G. Wells and Jules Verne, and began in its modern form with literature such as Mervyn Peake's Titus Alone (1959), Ronald W. Clark's Queen Victoria's Bomb (1967), Michael Moorcock's A Nomad of the Time Streams series (1971–1981), K. W. Jeter's Morlock Night (1979), and William Gibson & Bruce Sterling's The Difference Engine (1990), and with films such as The Time Machine (1960) or Castle in the Sky (1986). A notable early example of steampunk in comics is the Franco-Belgian graphic novel series Les Cités obscures, started by its creators François Schuiten and Benoît Peeters in the early 1980s. At times, steampunk as a genre crosses into that of Weird West.
The most recently named and recognized retrofuturistic genre is dieselpunk aka decodence (the term dieselpunk is often associated with a more pulpish form and decodence, named after the contemporary art movement of Art Deco, with a more sophisticated form), set in alternate versions of an era located circa in the period of the 1920s–1950s. Early examples include the 1970s concept albums, their designs and marketing materials of the German band Kraftwerk (see below), the comic-book character Rocketeer (first appearing in his own series in 1982), the Fallout series of video games, and films such as Brazil (1985), Batman (1989), The Rocketeer (1991), Batman Returns (1992), The Hudsucker Proxy (1994), The City of Lost Children (1995), and Dark City (1998). Especially the lower end of the genre strongly mimic the pulp literature of the era (such as the 2004 film Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow), and films of the genre often reference the cinematic styles of film noir and German Expressionism. At times, the genre overlaps with the alternate history genre of a different World War II, such as with an Axis victory.
Design and arts
Although loosely affiliated with early-twentieth century Futurism, retrofuturism draws from a wider range of sources. To be sure, retrofuturist art and literature often draws from the factories, buildings, cities, and transportation systems of the machine age. But it might be said that 20th century futuristic vision found its ultimate expression in the development of Googie or Populuxe design. As applied to fiction, this brand of retrofuturistic visual style began to take shape in William Gibson's short story "The Gernsback Continuum". Here and elsewhere it is referred to as Raygun Gothic, a catchall term for a visual style that incorporates various aspects of the Googie, Streamline Moderne, and Art Deco architectural styles when applied to retrofuturistic science fiction environments.
Although Raygun Gothic is most similar to the Googie or Populuxe style and sometimes synonymous with it, the name is primarily applied to images of science fiction. The style is also still a popular choice for retro sci-fi in film and video games. Raygun Gothic's primary influences include the set designs of Kenneth Strickfaden and Fritz Lang. The term was coined by William Gibson in his story "The Gernsback Continuum": "Cohen introduced us and explained that Dialta [a noted pop-art historian] was the prime mover behind the latest Barris-Watford project, an illustrated history of what she called 'American Streamlined Modern'. Cohen called it 'raygun Gothic'. Their working title was The Airstream Futuropolis: The Tomorrow That Never Was."
Aspects of this form of retrofuturism can also be associated with the late 1970s and early 1980s the neo-Constructivist revival that emerged in art and design circles. Designers like David King in the UK and Paula Scher in the US imitated the cool, futuristic look of the Russian avant-garde in the years following the Russian Revolution.
With three of their 1970s albums, German band Kraftwerk tapped into a larger retrofuturist vision, by combining their futuristic pioneering electronic music with nostalgic visuals. Kraftwerk's retro-futurism in their 1970s visual language has been referred to by German literary critic Uwe Schütte, a reader at Aston University, Birmingham, as "clear retro-style", and in the 2008 three-hour documentary Kraftwerk and the Electronic Revolution, Irish-British music scholar Mark J. Prendergast refers to Kraftwerk's peculiar "nostalgia for the future" clearly referencing "an interwar [progressive] Germany that never was but could've been, and now [due to their influence as a band] hopefully could happen again". Design historian Elizabeth Guffey has written that if Kraftwerk's machine imagery was lifted from Russian design motifs that were once considered futuristic, they also presented a "compelling, if somewhat chilling, vision of the world in which musical ecstasy is rendered cool, mechanical and precise." Kraftwerk's three retrofuturist albums are:
Kraftwerk's 1975 album Radio-Activity showed a contemporary 1930s radio on the cover, its inlay (which for its later CD re-release was widely expanded as a booklet illustrated in the same nostalgic style) showed the band photographed in black and white with old-fashioned suits and hairdos, and the music in its instrumentation as well as its ambiguous lyrics were (besides the other obvious theme of nuclear decay and nuclear power referenced by the album's titular pun) in hommage to the "Radio Stars", that is the pioneers of electronic music of the first half of the 20th century, such as Guglielmo Marconi, Léon Theremin, Pierre Schaeffer, and Karlheinz Stockhausen (due to whom the band referred to themselves as but the "second generation" of electronic music).
The European version of the band's 1977 album Trans-Europe Express had a similar 1930s-style black and white photo of the band members on the cover (the U.S. version even had a cover of a vintage-style colored photograph in the style of Golden Age Hollywood stars), the style of the sleeve design as well as the design of promotional material tying in with the album were influenced by Bauhaus, Art Deco, and Streamline Moderne, the record came with a large, hand-tinted black and white poster of the band members in early-1930s style suits (where band member Karl Bartos later said in Kraftwerk and the Electronic Revolution that their intention was to visually resemble "an interwar string orchestra electrified" and that the background was meant to be a pictorial Switzerland where the band was making a resting stop in-between two legs of their European tour on the eponymous Trans-Europe Express), the song lyrics referenced the "elegance and decadence" of an urban interwar Europe, and in the promo clip made for the album's title song (shot in black and white on purpose) and other promotional material, the eponymous Trans-Europe Express was portrayed by the Schienenzeppelin first employed by the Deutsche Reichsbahn in 1931 (footage of the large original was used in outdoor shots, and a miniature model of it was used for shots where the TEE moved through a futuristic cityscape strongly reminiscent of Fritz Lang's 1927 film Metropolis).
The cover and sleeve design of the 1978 album The Man-Machine exhibits an obvious stylistic nod to the Constructivism of 1920s artists such as El Lissitzky, Alexander Rodchenko, and László Moholy-Nagy (due to which band members have also referred to it as "the Russian album"), and one song references the film Metropolis again. From this album on, Kraftwerk would also use their "show-room dummies" aka robot lookalikes on stage and in promotional material and increase the use of slightly campish make-up on band members that also resembled 1920s' expressionist make-up that to a lesser degree had already appeared in the promotional material for their 1977 album Trans-Europe Express.
From their 1981 album Computer World onwards, Kraftwerk have largely abandoned their retro notions and appear mainly futuristic only. The only references to their earlier retro style today appear in excerpts from their 1970s' promo clips that are projected in between more modern segments in their stage shows during the performance of these old song.
Fashion
Retrofuturistic clothing is a particular imagined vision of the clothing that might be worn in the distant future, typically found in science fiction and science fiction films of the 1940s onwards, but also in journalism and other popular culture. The garments envisioned have most commonly been either one-piece garments, skin-tight garments, or both, typically ending up looking like either overalls or leotards, often worn together with plastic boots. In many cases, there is an assumption that the clothing of the future will be highly uniform.
The cliché of futuristic clothing has now become part of the idea of retrofuturism. Futuristic fashion plays on these now-hackneyed stereotypes, and recycles them as elements into the creation of real-world clothing fashions.
"We've actually seen this look creeping up on the runway as early as 1995, though it hasn't been widely popular or acceptable street wear even through 2008," said Brooke Kelley, fashion editor and Glamour magazine writer. "For the last 20 years, fashion has reviewed the times of past, decade by decade, and what we are seeing now is a combination of different eras into one complete look. Future fashion is a style beyond anything we've yet dared to wear, and it's going to be a trend setter's paradise."
Architecture
Retrofuturism has appeared in some examples of postmodern architecture. To critics such as Niklas Maak, the term suggests that the "future style" is "a mere quotation of its own iconographic tradition" and retrofuturism is little more than "an aesthetic feedback loop" In the example seen at right, the upper portion of the building is not intended to be integrated with the building but rather to appear as a separate object—a huge flying saucer-like space ship only incidentally attached to a conventional building. This appears intended not to evoke an even remotely possible future, but rather a past imagination of that future, or a reembracing of the futuristic vision of Googie architecture.
The once-futuristic Los Angeles International Airport Theme Building was built in 1961 as an expression of the then new jet and space ages, incorporating what later came to be known as Googie and Populuxe design elements. Plans unveiled in 2008 for LAX's expansion featured retrofuturist flying-saucer/spaceship themes in proposals for new terminals and concourses.
Video games
Retrofuturism has been also applied to video games, such as the following:
Atomic Heart
Alien: Isolation
Assassin's Creed III
BioShock
Call of Duty: Black Ops II
Command & Conquer: Red Alert
Crimson Skies
Cyberpunk 2077
Cloudpunk
Damnation
Deathloop
Dishonored
Dishonored 2
Dishonored: Death of the Outsider
Fallout
Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon
God of War: Chains of Olympus
Grim Fandango
Grand Theft Auto 2
Infamous Second Son
Jazzpunk
Metal Gear
Observer
Prey
Resident Evil 4
Resistance
Stubbs the Zombie in Rebel Without a Pulse The Outer Worlds TimeShift Wasteland 2 We Happy Few Wolfenstein X-Com: Apocalypse X-Men: Destiny Yu-Gi-Oh! Worldwide Edition: Stairway to the Destined DuelMusic
Modern electro style, influenced by Detroit-based artist in the early 80s (such as Drexciya, Aux 88, Cybotron). This style blend old analog gear (Roland Tr-808 and synths) and sampling methods from the 80's with modern approach of electro. The records labels involved in this journey are AMZS Recording, Gosu, Osman, Traffic Records and many others.
Canadian band Alvvays's music video, "Dreams Tonite", which includes archival footage of Montreal's Expo 67 was described by the band as "fetishizing retro-futurism".
English band Electric Light Orchestra released their concept album "Time" in 1981. This album follows a man who wakes up in the year 2095 and how he reacts to this sudden change as well as his longing to be back in 1981. There are multiple descriptions of life and what technology is like in 2095.
Film
Back To The Future II presents many scenes that revolve around the characters interacting in 2015, being shown in a retrofuturistic way due to the movie being produced in 1989.
Director Brad Bird describes his 2004 Pixar film The Incredibles as "looking like what we thought the future would turn out like in the 1960s."
British filmmaker Richard Ayoade noted his film The Double from 2013 was designed with the intention of looking like "the future imagined by someone in the past who got it wrong."
The 2015 Disney film Tomorrowland'', which is based on Disneyland's attraction by the same name and also was directed by Brad Bird clearly has retrofuturistic aesthetic.
See also
Cyberpunk and cyberpunk derivatives
Hauntology
List of stories set in a future now past
Raygun Gothic
References
Informational notes
Citations
Further reading
External links
The wonder city you may live to see – 1950 as seen in 1925
retro-futurismus.de – A German site showing numerous illustrations (click the names)
/r/RetroFuturism – A Subreddit on the topic
Architectural styles
Science fiction themes
Retro style
Prequels
Retro-style automobiles | [
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245603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20China%20%28disambiguation%29 | Economy of China (disambiguation) | The economy of China refers to the economy of the People's Republic of China (mainland China).
Economy of China may also refer to:
Economic history of China
Economic history of China (1912–1949) (Republic of China on the mainland)
Economic history of China (1949–present) (People's Republic of China)
Economic of the Special Administrative Regions of China
Economy of Hong Kong
Economy of Macau
Economy of Taiwan (Republic of China on Taiwan after 1949) | [
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245611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifteenth%20Amendment | Fifteenth Amendment | The Fifteenth Amendment may refer to the:
Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guaranteed men the right to vote regardless of race
Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, which allowed divorce to be legalized in Ireland.
Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, which sought to impose Sharia Law but was not passed.
Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa repealed some of the provisions inserted into the Constitution by the Eighth and Tenth Amendments which allowed for floor-crossing, that is, allowed members of legislative bodies to move from one political party to another without losing their seats. | [
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245614 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin%20Pan%20Alley | Tin Pan Alley | Tin Pan Alley was a collection of music publishers and songwriters in New York City which dominated the popular music of the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It originally referred to a specific place: West 28th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues in the Flower District of Manhattan; a plaque (see below) on the sidewalk on 28th Street between Broadway and Sixth commemorates it. In 2019, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission took up the question of preserving five buildings on the north side of the street as a Tin Pan Alley Historic District. The agency designated five buildings (47–55 West 28th Street) individual landmarks on December 10, 2019, after a concerted effort by the "Save Tin Pan Alley" initiative of the 29th Street Neighborhood Association. Following successful protection of these landmarks, project director George Calderaro and other proponents formed the Tin Pan Alley American Popular Music Project to continue and commemorate the legacy of Tin Pan Alley with various advocacy and educational activities.
The start of Tin Pan Alley is usually dated to about 1885, when a number of music publishers set up shop in the same district of Manhattan. The end of Tin Pan Alley is less clear cut. Some date it to the start of the Great Depression in the 1930s when the phonograph, radio, and motion pictures supplanted sheet music as the driving force of American popular music, while others consider Tin Pan Alley to have continued into the 1950s when earlier styles of music were upstaged by the rise of rock & roll, which was centered on the Brill Building. Brill Building songwriter Neil Sedaka described his employer as being a natural outgrowth of Tin Pan Alley, in that the older songwriters were still employed in Tin Pan Alley firms while younger songwriters such as Sedaka found work at the Brill Building.
Origin of the name
Various explanations have been advanced to account for the origins of the term "Tin Pan Alley". The most popular account holds that it was originally a derogatory reference by Monroe H. Rosenfeld in the New York Herald to the collective sound made by many "cheap upright pianos" all playing different tunes being reminiscent of the banging of tin pans in an alleyway. However, no article by Rosenfeld that uses the term has been found.
Simon Napier-Bell quotes an account of the origin of the name published in a 1930 book about the music business. In this version, popular songwriter Harry von Tilzer was being interviewed about the area around 28th Street and Fifth Avenue, where many music publishers had offices. Von Tilzer had modified his expensive Kindler & Collins piano by placing strips of paper down the strings to give the instrument a more percussive sound. The journalist told von Tilzer, "Your Kindler & Collins sounds exactly like a tin can. I'll call the article 'Tin Pan Alley'." In any case, the name was firmly attached by the fall of 1908, when The Hampton Magazine published an article titled "Tin Pan Alley" about 28th Street.
According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, "tin pan" was slang for "a decrepit piano" (1882), and the term came to mean a "hit song writing business" by 1907.
With time, the nickname came to describe the American music publishing industry in general. The term then spread to the United Kingdom, where "Tin Pan Alley" is also used to describe Denmark Street in London's West End. In the 1920s the street became known as "Britain's Tin Pan Alley" because of its large number of music shops.
Origin of song publishing in New York City
In the mid-19th century, copyright control of melodies was not as strict, and publishers would often print their own versions of the songs popular at the time. With stronger copyright protection laws late in the century, songwriters, composers, lyricists, and publishers started working together for their mutual financial benefit. Songwriters would literally bang on the doors of Tin Pan Alley businesses to get new material.
The commercial center of the popular music publishing industry changed during the course of the 19th century, starting in Boston and moving to Philadelphia, Chicago and Cincinnati before settling in New York City under the influence of new and vigorous publishers which concentrated on vocal music. The two most enterprising New York publishers were Willis Woodard and T.B. Harms, the first companies to specialize in popular songs rather than hymns or classical music. Naturally, these firms were located in the entertainment district, which, at the time, was centered on Union Square. Witmark was the first publishing house to move to West 28th Street as the entertainment district gradually shifted uptown, and by the late 1890s most publishers had followed their lead.
The biggest music houses established themselves in New York City, but small local publishers – often connected with commercial printers or music stores – continued to flourish throughout the country, and there were important regional music publishing centers in Chicago, New Orleans, St. Louis, and Boston. When a tune became a significant local hit, rights to it were usually purchased from the local publisher by one of the big New York firms.
In its prime
The song publishers who created Tin Pan Alley frequently had backgrounds as salesmen. Isadore Witmark previously sold water filters and Leo Feist had sold corsets. Joe Stern and Edward B. Marks had sold neckties and buttons, respectively. The music houses in lower Manhattan were lively places, with a steady stream of songwriters, vaudeville and Broadway performers, musicians, and "song pluggers" coming and going.
Aspiring songwriters came to demonstrate tunes they hoped to sell. When tunes were purchased from unknowns with no previous hits, the name of someone with the firm was often added as co-composer (in order to keep a higher percentage of royalties within the firm), or all rights to the song were purchased outright for a flat fee (including rights to put someone else's name on the sheet music as the composer). An extraordinary number of Jewish East European immigrants became the music publishers and songwriters on Tin Pan Alley – the most famous being Irving Berlin. Songwriters who became established producers of successful songs were hired to be on the staff of the music houses.
"Song pluggers" were pianists and singers who represented the music publishers, making their living demonstrating songs to promote sales of sheet music. Most music stores had song pluggers on staff. Other pluggers were employed by the publishers to travel and familiarize the public with their new publications. Among the ranks of song pluggers were George Gershwin, Harry Warren, Vincent Youmans and Al Sherman. A more aggressive form of song plugging was known as "booming": it meant buying dozens of tickets for shows, infiltrating the audience and then singing the song to be plugged. At Shapiro Bernstein, Louis Bernstein recalled taking his plugging crew to cycle races at Madison Square Garden: "They had 20,000 people there, we had a pianist and a singer with a large horn. We'd sing a song to them thirty times a night. They'd cheer and yell, and we kept pounding away at them. When people walked out, they'd be singing the song. They couldn't help it."
When vaudeville performers played New York City, they would often visit various Tin Pan Alley firms to find new songs for their acts. Second- and third-rate performers often paid for rights to use a new song, while famous stars were given free copies of publisher's new numbers or were paid to perform them, the publishers knowing this was valuable advertising.
Initially Tin Pan Alley specialized in melodramatic ballads and comic novelty songs, but it embraced the newly popular styles of the cakewalk and ragtime music. Later, jazz and blues were incorporated, although less completely, as Tin Pan Alley was oriented towards producing songs that amateur singers or small town bands could perform from printed music. In the 1910s and 1920s Tin Pan Alley published pop songs and dance numbers created in newly popular jazz and blues styles.
Influence on law and business
A group of Tin Pan Alley music houses formed the Music Publishers Association of the United States on June 11, 1895, and unsuccessfully lobbied the federal government in favor of the Treloar Copyright Bill, which would have changed the term of copyright for published music from 24 to 40 years, renewable for an additional 20 instead of 14 years. The bill, if enacted, would also have included music among the subject matter covered by the Manufacturing clause of the International Copyright Act of 1891.
The American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) was founded in 1914 to aid and protect the interests of established publishers and composers. New members were only admitted with sponsorship of existing members.
The term and established business methodologies associated with Tin Pan Alley persisted into the 1960s when innovative artists like Bob Dylan helped establish new norms. Referring to the dominant conventions of music publishers of the early 20th century, "Tin Pan Alley is gone," Bob Dylan proclaimed in 1985, "I put an end to it. People can record their own songs now."
Contributions to World War II
During the Second World War, Tin Pan Alley and the federal government teamed up to produce a war song that would inspire the American public to support the fight against the Axis, something they both "seemed to believe ... was vital to the war effort". The Office of War Information was in charge of this project, and believed that Tin Pan Alley contained "a reservoir of talent and competence capable of influencing people's feelings and opinions" that it "might be capable of even greater influence during wartime than that of George M. Cohan's 'Over There' during World War I." In the United States, the song "Over There" has been said to be the most popular and resonant patriotic song associated with World War I. Due to the large fan base of Tin Pan Alley, the government believed that this sector of the music business would be far-reaching in spreading patriotic sentiments.
In the United States Congress, congressmen quarreled over a proposal to exempt musicians and other entertainers from the draft in order to remain in the country to boost morale. Stateside, these artists and performers were continuously using available media to promote the war effort and to demonstrate a commitment to victory. However, the proposal was contested by those who strongly believed that only those who provided more substantial contributions to the war effort should benefit from any draft legislation.
As the war progressed, those in charge of writing the would-be national war song began to understand that the interest of the public lay elsewhere. Since the music would take up such a large amount of airtime, it was imperative that the writing be consistent with the war message that the radio was carrying throughout the nation. In her book, God Bless America: Tin Pan Alley Goes to War, Kathleen E. R. Smith writes that "escapism seemed to be a high priority for music listeners", leading "the composers of Tin Pan Alley [to struggle] to write a war song that would appeal both to civilians and the armed forces". By the end of the war, no such song had been produced that could rival hits like "Over There" from World War I.
Whether or not the number of songs circulated from Tin Pan Alley between 1939 and 1945 was greater than during the First World War is still debated. In his book The Songs That Fought the War: Popular Music and the Home Front, John Bush Jones cites Jeffrey C. Livingstone as claiming that Tin Pan Alley released more songs during World War I than it did in World War II. Jones, on the other hand, argues that "there is also strong documentary evidence that the output of American war-related songs during World War II was most probably unsurpassed in any other war".
Composers and lyricists
Leading Tin Pan Alley composers and lyricists include:
Milton Ager
Thomas S. Allen
Harold Arlen
Ernest Ball
Irving Berlin
Bernard Bierman
George Botsford
Shelton Brooks
Lew Brown
Nacio Herb Brown
Irving Caesar
Sammy Cahn
Hoagy Carmichael
George M. Cohan
Con Conrad
J. Fred Coots
Gussie Lord Davis
Buddy DeSylva
Walter Donaldson
Paul Dresser
Dave Dreyer
Al Dubin
Vernon Duke
Dorothy Fields
Ted Fio Rito
Max Freedman
Cliff Friend
George Gershwin
Ira Gershwin
Oscar Hammerstein II
E. Y. "Yip" Harburg
Charles K. Harris
Lorenz Hart
Ray Henderson
James P. Johnson
Isham Jones
Scott Joplin
Gus Kahn
Bert Kalmar
Jerome Kern
Al Lewis
Sam M. Lewis
Frank Loesser
Jimmy McHugh
F. W. Meacham
Johnny Mercer
Halsey K. Mohr
Theodora Morse
Ethelbert Nevin
Mitchell Parish
Bernice Petkere
Maceo Pinkard
Lew Pollack
Cole Porter
Andy Razaf
Richard Rodgers
Harry Ruby
Al Sherman
Lou Singer
Sunny Skylar
Ted Snyder
Kay Swift
Edward Teschemacher
Albert Von Tilzer
Harry Von Tilzer
Fats Waller
Harry Warren
Richard A. Whiting
Harry M. Woods
Allie Wrubel
Jack Yellen
Vincent Youmans
Joe Young
Hy Zaret
Notable hit songs
Tin Pan Alley's biggest hits included:
"A Bird in a Gilded Cage" (Harry Von Tilzer, 1900)
"After the Ball" (Charles K. Harris, 1892)
"Ain't She Sweet" (Jack Yellen and Milton Ager, 1927)
"Alabama Jubilee" (Jack Yellen and George L. Cobb, 1915)
"Alexander's Ragtime Band" (Irving Berlin, 1911)
"All Alone" (Irving Berlin, 1924)
"At a Georgia Campmeeting" (Kerry Mills, 1897)
"Baby Face" (Benny Davis and Harry Akst, 1926)
"Bill Bailey, Won't You Please Come Home" (Huey Cannon, 1902)
"By the Light of the Silvery Moon" (Gus Edwards and Edward Madden, 1909)
"Carolina in the Morning" (Gus Kahn and Walter Donaldson, 1922)
"Come Josephine in My Flying Machine" (Fred Fisher and Alfred Bryan, 1910)
"Down by the Old Mill Stream" (Tell Taylor, 1910)
"Everybody Loves My Baby" (Spencer Williams, 1924)
"For Sentimental Reasons" (Al Sherman, Abner Silver and Edward Heyman, 1936)
"Give My Regards to Broadway" (George M. Cohan, 1904)
"God Bless America" (Irving Berlin, 1918; revised 1938)
"Happy Days Are Here Again" (Jack Yellen and Milton Ager, 1930)
"Hearts and Flowers" (Theodore Moses Tobani, 1899)
"Hello Ma Baby (Hello Ma Ragtime Gal)" (Emerson, Howard, and Sterling, 1899)
"I Cried for You" (Arthur Freed and Nacio Herb Brown, 1923)
"I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles" (John Kellette, 1919)
"In the Baggage Coach Ahead" (Gussie L. Davis, 1896)
"In the Good Old Summer Time" (Ren Shields and George Evans, 1902)
"In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree" (Harry Williams and Egbert van Alstyne, 1905)
"K-K-K-Katy" (Geoffrey O'Hara, 1918)
"Let Me Call You Sweetheart" (Beth Slater Whitson and Leo Friedman, 1910)
"Lindbergh (The Eagle of the U.S.A.)" (Al Sherman and Howard Johnson, 1927)
"Lovesick Blues" (Cliff Friend and Irving Mills, 1922)
"Mighty Lak' a Rose" (Ethelbert Nevin & Frank L. Stanton, 1901)
"Mister Johnson, Turn Me Loose" (Ben Harney, 1896)
"My Blue Heaven" (Walter Donaldson and George Whiting, 1927)
"Now's the Time to Fall in Love" (Al Sherman and Al Lewis, 1931)
"Oh, Donna Clara" (Irving Caesar, 1928)
"Oh by Jingo!" (Albert Von Tilzer, 1919)
"On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away" (Paul Dresser 1897)
"Over There" (George M. Cohan, 1917)
"Peg o' My Heart" (Fred Fisher and Alfred Bryan, 1913)
"Shine Little Glow Worm" (Paul Lincke and Lilla Cayley Robinson, 1907)
"Shine on Harvest Moon" (Nora Bayes and Jack Norworth, 1908)
"Some of These Days" (Shelton Brooks, 1911)
"Stardust" (Hoagy Carmichael and Mitchell Parish, 1927)
"Swanee" (George Gershwin, 1919)
"Sweet Georgia Brown" (Maceo Pinkard, 1925)
"Take Me Out to the Ball Game" (Albert Von Tilzer, 1908)
"The Band Played On" (Charles B. Ward and John F. Palmer, 1895)
"The Darktown Strutters' Ball" (Shelton Brooks, 1917)
"The Little Lost Child" (Marks and Stern, 1894)
"The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo" (Charles Coborn, 1892)
"The Sidewalks of New York" (Lawlor and Blake, 1894)
"The Japanese Sandman" (1920)
"There'll Be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight" (Joe Hayden and Theodore Mertz, 1896)
"Warmest Baby in the Bunch" (George M. Cohan, 1896)
"Way Down Yonder in New Orleans" (Creamer and Turner Layton, 1922)
"Whispering" (1920)
"Yes, We Have No Bananas" (Frank Silver and Irving Cohn, 1923)
"You Gotta Be a Football Hero" (Al Sherman, Buddy Fields and Al Lewis, 1933)
In popular culture
In the 1959–1960 television season, NBC aired a sitcom Love and Marriage, based on the fictitious William Harris Music Publishing Company set in Tin Pan Alley. William Demarest, Stubby Kaye, Jeanne Bal, and Murray Hamilton co-starred in the series, which aired 18 episodes.
In the song "Bob Dylan's Blues" from Bob Dylan's 1963 album The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan, he introduces the song, saying, "Unlike most of the songs nowadays that have been written up town in Tin Pan Alley, that's where most of the folk songs come from nowadays, this, this is a song, this wasn't written up there, this was written down somewhere in the United States."
In the song "Bitter Fingers" from the 1975 autobiographical concept album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy, Elton John refers to himself and his longtime songwriting partner, lyricist Bernie Taupin, as the "Tin Pan Alley Twins".
Neil Diamond's liner notes ("... tin pan alley died hard, but there was always the music to keep you going ...") indicate that the album Beautiful Noise (1976) was intended as a tribute to his days there.
Tin Pan Alley is mentioned in the song "It Never Rains" (1982) by Dire Straits.
The Bob Geddins blues song "Tin Pan Alley (aka The Roughest Place in Town)", recorded by Jimmy Wilson, was a top 10 hit on the R&B chart in 1953 and became a popular song among West Coast blues performers. The song was also covered by Stevie Ray Vaughan.
The song "Tin Pan Alley" by The Apples in Stereo.
Tin Pan Alley of the 1960s was discussed by Robbie Robertson of The Band in the Martin Scorsese film of The Band's final concert in 1976, The Last Waltz.
In the 1970s to early 1980s, a Times Square bar named Tin Pan Alley, its owners, Steve d'Agroso and Maggie Smith, and many of its patrons were the real-life inspiration for the HBO series The Deuce. The bar was renamed The Hi-Hat in the series.
The song "Who Are You" by The Who has the stanza "I stretched back and I hiccupped / And looked back on my busy day / Eleven hours in the Tin Pan / God, there's got to be another way", which references a long legal meeting with music publisher Allen Klein.
In Soul Music by Terry Pratchett, in which rock and roll music is introduced to the magical, medieval Discworld, Tin Lid Alley in Ankh-Morpork is the location of the Guild of Musicians which effectively operates as a protection racket, charging new members $75 for admission and brutally clamping down on unlicensed musicians.
See also
Music Row
Printer's Alley
Radio Row
The Tin Pan Alley Rag
References
Notes
Bibliography
Bloom, Ken. The American Songbook: The Singers, the Songwriters, and the Songs. New York: Black Dog and Leventhal, 2005.
Charlton, Katherine (2011). Rock music style: a history. New York: McGraw Hill.
Forte, Allen. Listening to Classic American Popular Songs. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.
.
.
Goldberg, Isaac. Tin Pan Alley, A Chronicle of American Music. New York: Frederick Ungar, [1930], 1961.
Hajduk, John C. "Tin Pan Alley on the March: Popular Music, World War II, and the Quest for a Great War Song." Popular Music and Society 26.4 (2003): 497–512.
Hamm, Charles. Music in the New World. New York: Norton, 1983.
Jasen, David A. Tin Pan Alley: The Composers, the Songs, the Performers and Their Times. New York: Donald I. Fine, Primus, 1988.
Jasen, David A., and Gene Jones. Spreadin’ Rhythm Around: Black Popular Songwriters, 1880–1930. New York: Schirmer Books, 1998.
Marks, Edward B., as told to Abbott J. Liebling. They All Sang: From Tony Pastor to Rudy Vallée. New York: Viking Press, 1934.
Morath, Max. The NPR Curious Listener’s Guide to Popular Standards. New York: Penguin Putnam, Berkley Publishing, a Perigree Book, 2002.
Sanjek, Russell. American Popular Music and Its Business: The First Four Hundred Years, Volume III, From 1900 to 1984. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Sanjek, Russell. From Print to Plastic: Publishing and Promoting America’s Popular Music, 1900–1980. I.S.A.M. Monographs: Number 20. Brooklyn: Institute for Studies in American Music, Conservatory of Music, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, 1983.
Smith, Kathleen E. R. God Bless America: Tin Pan Alley Goes to War. Lexington, Ky: University Press of Kentucky, 2003.
Tawa, Nicholas E. The Way to Tin Pan Alley: American Popular Song, 1866–1910. New York: Schirmer Books, 1990.
Whitcomb, Ian After the Ball: Pop Music from Rag to Rock. New York: Proscenium Publishers, 1986, reprint of Penguin Press, 1972.
Wilder, Alec. American Popular Song: The Great Innovators, 1900–1950. London: Oxford University Press, 1972.
Zinsser, William. Easy to Remember: The Great American Songwriters and Their Songs. Jaffrey, NH: David R. Godine, 2000.
Further reading
Scheurer, Timothy E., American Popular Music: The nineteenth century and Tin Pan Alley, Bowling Green State University, Popular Press, 1989 (Volume I)
Scheurer, Timothy E., ''American Popular Music: The age of rock", Bowling Green State University, Popular Press, 1989 (Volume II)
External links
Tin Pan Alley American Popular Music Project
Parlor Songs: History of Tin Pan Alley
American styles of music
Music organizations based in the United States
Music of New York City
Cultural history of New York City
Popular music
Vaudeville tropes
20th century in New York City | [
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245620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20Z%C3%BCrich | Canton of Zürich | The canton of Zürich ( ; ) is a Swiss canton in the northeastern part of the country. With a population of (as of ), it is the most populous canton in the country. Its capital is the city of Zürich. The official language is German. The local Swiss German dialect, called Züritüütsch, is commonly spoken.
History
Early history
The prehistoric pile dwellings around Zürichsee comprise 11 of total 56 prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps in Switzerland, that are located around Lake Zürich in the cantons of Schwyz, St. Gallen and Zürich. Located on the shore of Lake Zürich, there are Freienbach–Hurden Rosshorn, Freienbach–Hurden Seefeld, Rapperswil-Jona/Hombrechtikon–Feldbach, Rapperswil-Jona–Technikum, Erlenbach–Winkel, Meilen–Rorenhaab, Wädenswil–Vorder Au, Zürich–Enge Alpenquai, Grosser Hafner and Kleiner Hafner. Because the lake has grown in size over time, the original piles are now around to under the water level of . Also on the small area of about around Zürichsee, there also the settlements Greifensee–Storen/Wildsberg on Greifensee and Wetzikon–Robenhausen on Pfäffikersee lakeshore. As well as being part of the 56 Swiss sites of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, each of these 11 prehistoric pile dwellings is also listed as a Class object in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance.
Zurihgauuia (Zürichgau) was a subdivision of Turgowe (Thurgau) in the Duchy of Alamannia, consisting roughly of the territory between Reuss and Töss.
From the 740s, substantial portions of Zürichgau were owned by the Abbey of St. Gall.
In c. 760, an administrative re-organisation under counts Ruthard and Warin exempted the castle town of Zürich from comital rule. A county of Zürichgau was established under Louis the Pious, for a count Ruadker, in 820. Zürichgau (Zurichgeuue) remained a nominally separate territory in the later 9th century but was often ruled by the same count as Thurgau. In 915, Zürichgau together with Thurgau fell to the Bucharding dukes of Swabia. In the late 10th century, the county of Zürich was ruled by the Nellenburger, and during 1077–1172 by the Lenzburger.
By the 13th century, Zürichgau was divided between the Habsburgs and the Kyburger, who held the territory west and east of Lake Zürich, respectively.
City state
The territory of the canton of Zürich corresponds to the lands acquired by the city of Zürich after it became reichsfrei in 1218. Zürich pursued a policy of aggressive territorial expansion especially during the century following the revolution of the guilds in 1336.
Zürich joined the Swiss Confederacy in 1351.
Zürich claimed and lost the Toggenburg in the Old Zürich War of the 1440s. The northern parts up to the river Rhine came to the canton after the city of Zürich purchased Winterthur from the Habsburgs in 1468.
In 1651, Zürich purchased Rafzerfeld from the counts of Sulz. At this point, almost all of the territory of the modern canton (as well as some territories beyond its modern borders) was owned by Zürich; exceptions include Wülflingen (acquired 1760), Buch (acquired 1761),
Dietikon, which was a condominium, and Rheinau (owned by Rheinau Abbey).
In the 18th century, the "inner bailiwicks" (Innere Vogteien) were under direct administration of city officials, while the "outer bailiwicks" (Äussere Vogteien) were ruled by the reeves of Kyburg, Grüningen, Greifensee, Eglisau, Regensberg, Andelfingen, Wädenswil, and Knonau. The city of Winterthur was nominally subject to Zürich but retained far-reaching autonomy.
Zürichgau, the name of the medieval pagus, was in use for the territories of the city of Zürich during the 15th and 16th century; the term canton (Kanton) gradually entered use in the 16th century, but Zürichgau remained widely used well into the 19th century (becoming obsolescent after the formation of the modern canton in 1831).
Under the short-lived Helvetic Republic (1798–1803), the canton of Zürich became a purely administrative division. In 1803, some former possessions of Zürich to the west gained independence as part of the Canton of Aargau.
In 1804 the Kantonspolizei Zürich was established as Landjäger-Corps des Kantons Zürich.
Modern canton
A cantonal constitution was drawn up in 1814 and replaced in 1831 by a radical-liberal constitution.
The Züriputsch, an armed uprising of the conservative rural population against the radical-liberal order, led to the dissolution of the cantonal government, and a provisional conservative government was installed by colonel Paul Carl Eduard Ziegler.
Under the threat of intervention of the other radical-liberal cantons of the Confederacy, the provisional government declared that the 1831 constitution would remain in effect. In a tumultuous session on 9 September 1839, the cantonal parliament declared its dissolution
In the so-called Septemberregime, the newly elected cantonal government replaced all cantonal officials with conservatives, but it was again ousted by a radical-liberal election victory in 1844.
Alfred Escher was a member of the new cantonal parliament of 1844; he was elected to the cantonal government in 1848 and later in the same year into the first National Council under the new federal constitution.
The radical-liberal era of 1844–1868 was dominated by the so-called System Escher, a network of liberal politicians and industrialists built by Alfred Escher. Escher governed the canton almost in monarchical fashion, and was popularly dubbed Alfred I. or Tsar of All Zürich. Escher controlled all cantonal institutions, at first with very little political opposition, expunging all trace of the conservative takeover of 1839. Under Escher, the city of Zürich rose to the status of economic and financial center it still retains.
Opposition against the dominance of Sytstem Escher increased after 1863. The cantonal government was accused to continue the system of aristocratic rule liberalism had claimed to abolish. The oppositional Democratic Movement was centered in Winterthur, led by mayor Johann Jakob Sulzer and publicist Salomon Bleuler. They succeeded in imposing the introduction of the direct democratic instrument of the popular initiative in 1865, which precipitated a revision of the cantonal constitution.
In April 1869, a new cantonal constitution was adopted by popular vote, introducing additional direct democratic elements and the popular election of both the cantonal government and the cantonal representatives in the federal Council of States.
The new constitution also abolished the death penalty (the last execution by hanging in Zürich took place in 1810, the last public execution by guillotine in 1865), guaranteed freedom of religion and freedom of association and introduced progressive taxes.
In 1877, the Cantonal Laboratory Zurich was founded in order to regulate the quality of food and drinking water. The first cantonal chemist was Dr Haruthiun Abeljanz, who was instrumental in setting up the new laboratory, moving it from an unpromising start in converted storage rooms to Lintheschergasse 10, which was located just behind the Pestalozziwiese, a memorial to Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.
The Cantonal Bank was established in 1870 to regulate cantonal loans at fixed interest rates to farms and businesses.
A law of proportional representation was passed in 1916, favouring the rise of the Social Democrats.
A proposal for the introduction of female suffrage was rejected in 1920; female suffrage was introduced on the municipal level in 1969 and on the cantonal level in 1970, shortly before its imposition by federal law, passed in 1971.
Economic growth continued in the 20th century. A first airport was built at Dübendorf in 1910, replaced by the international airport at Kloten in 1948. Rapid urbanisation expanded throughout the canton and beyond in the final decades of the 20th century, further accelerated by the S-Bahn from 1990, with only a few municipalities in Weinland, Knonaueramt and Oberland remaining out of easy commuting distance to the city.
The current constitution replaced the one of 1869 in January 2006.
The Antiquarische Gesellschaft in Zürich is an organization devoted to preserving the canton's history, the Staatsarchiv Zürich houses the state archives.
Geography
The canton of Zürich is situated in the eastern part of the Swiss plateau. It is entirely within the drainage basin of the High Rhine.
It is characterized by Glacial landform and traversed by a series of rivers generally flowing south-east to north-west, listed west to east: Reuss, Reppisch, Sihl, Linth-Limmat (forming Lake Zürich), Glatt, Töss and Thur. The main lakes are the Lake Zürich (Linth-Limmat, 88 km2), Greifensee (Glatt, 8.4 km2) and Pfäffikersee (Glatt, 3.3 km2).
Minor lakes include Türlersee (Limmat), Katzensee (Glatt), Hüttnersee (Sihl), Lützelsee (Limmat).
Its neighbouring cantons are Schaffhausen to the north, Aargau to the west, the cantons of Zug and Schwyz to the south and the cantons of Thurgau and St. Gallen to the east.
It also has an international border with the German district of Waldshut and though only for ) the district of Konstanz in Baden-Württemberg owing to its short border with Stemmer, an outlying hamlet belonging to the municipality which forms the small German enclave of Büsingen am Hochrhein.
The canton can be roughly divided into the city and lake, the Unterland in the northwest, the Oberland in the southeast, the Weinland and Winterthur in the northeast, and the Knonaueramt southwest of the Albis. The Greater Zürich Area extends beyond the cantonal borders.
The canton has an area, , of . Of this area, 43.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 30.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 20.1% is settled (buildings or roads) and 5.8% is unproductive land.
Most of the canton consists of shallow river valleys which drain towards the High Rhine to the north. Rafzerfeld is a territory north of the Rhine acquired by the canton in 1651.
In the northwest and southeast of the canton the territory rises towards the Jura and Alps, respectively. The valley of the Linth leads into the Lake Zürich and continues as the Limmat. This valley is the most significant valley of the canton of Zürich.
The valley of the Glatt originates in the Greifensee and is separated from the Limmat by ridges. The valley of the Töss is gorge-like. It is located in the east of the canton and is separated from the Toggenburg area in the canton of St. Gallen by a mountainous area.
The Hörnli (1133 m) is the highest elevation of this mountain ridge. The valley of the river Sihl is located in the west of the canton. In confluences with the Limmat in the city of Zürich. The Sihl is separated from the lake of Zürich by the Albis Range. The Albishorn () is the highest elevation of this range.
The Schnebelhorn is a mountain located near Fischenthal in the Töss Valley, between the cantons of Zürich (west) and St. Gallen (east). It is the highest summit () of the canton of Zürich.
The Uetliberg is part of the Albis Range. This mountain is popular with the population of the city of Zürich for recreation.
The vast majority of the canton lies to the south of the Rhine, the exceptions being Rafzerfeld as mentioned and a tiny portion of the village of Laufen-Uhwiesen called Nohl.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the coat of arms is Per bend azure and argent.
Government
Legislative power
The Cantonal Council (Kantonsrat) has 180 members elected every four years.
Executive power
The canton is governed by a seven-member council (Regierungsrat). On 24 March 2019, the following were elected for four years:
Jacqueline Fehr (SP)
Mario Fehr (SP)
Martin Neukom (Greens)
Natalie Rickli (SVP)
Silvia Steiner (CVP)
Ernst Stocker (SVP)
Carmen Walker Späh (FDP)
Political subdivisions
Districts
The canton is divided into 12 districts (German: Bezirke):
Zürich comprises the city of Zürich
Affoltern with capital Affoltern am Albis
Andelfingen with capital Andelfingen
Bülach with capital Bülach
Dielsdorf with capital Dielsdorf
Dietikon with capital Dietikon
Hinwil with capital Hinwil
Horgen with capital Horgen
Meilen with capital Meilen
Pfäffikon with capital Pfäffikon
Uster with capital Uster
Winterthur with capital Winterthur
Municipalities
There are, , 169 municipalities in the canton (Politische Gemeinden).
Merger of municipalities
There were no changes between 1934 and 2013, but the following occurred after 2013.
2014: Bertschikon bei Attikon and Wiesendangen → Wiesendangen
2015: Bauma and Sternenberg → Bauma
2016: Kyburg → Illnau-Effretikon.
Politics
In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 29.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP (19.3%), the FDP (11.6%) and the glp (11.5%).
The SVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (33.9% in 2007 vs 29.8% in 2011). The SPS retained about the same popularity (19.8% in 2007), as well as the FDP (13.2% in 2007), while the glp was the big winner of the election (7.0% in 2007).
Federal election results
FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009
"*" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
Part of a coalition with the POCH
Part of a coalition with the parties listed under Other
Party fragmented, part remained in a coalition with the FGA and the remainder joining the Green Party
Demographics
Zürich has a population () of . , 23.7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 12.7%. Migration accounted for 10.3%, while births and deaths accounted for 2.6%.
Most of the population () speaks German (1,040,168 or 83.4%) as their first language, Italian is the second most common (49,750 or 4.0%) and Serbo-Croatian is the third (21,334 or 1.7%). There are 17,685 people who speak French and 2,606 people who speak Romansh.
Of the population in the canton, 314,394 or about 25.2% were born in Zürich and lived there in 2000. There were 291,631 or 23.4% who were born in the same canton, while 284,461 or 22.8% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 310,532 or 24.9% were born outside of Switzerland.
, children and teenagers (0–17 years old) make up 20.5% of the population, while adults (18–64 years old) make up 64.4% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 15%. , there were 531,094 people who were single and never married in the canton. There were 566,636 married individuals, 66,012 widows or widowers and 84,164 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 567,573 private households in the canton, and an average of 2.1 persons per household. There were 223,869 households that consist of only one person and 27,935 households with five or more people. , the construction rate of new housing units was 5.3 new units per 1000 residents. the average price to rent an average apartment in the city of Zürich was 1288.84 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$1030, £580, €820 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for a one-room apartment was 733.01 CHF (US$590, £330, €470), a two-room apartment was about 1009.94 CHF (US$810, £450, €650), a three-room apartment was about 1192.66 CHF (US$950, £540, €760) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2550.35 CHF (US$2040, £1150, €1630). The average apartment price in the city of Zürich was 115.5% of the national average of 1116 CHF.
The vacancy rate for the canton, , was 0.63%.
Historical population
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Religion
In 1519, Huldrych Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zürich, and soon thereafter Zürich became a reformed or Protestant canton. Even though Zwingli died in battle in 1531, the canton remained a stronghold of the Swiss Reformed Church over the following centuries. While a plurality of the population is Protestant (43%), 31% of the population was Roman Catholic in 2004, a legacy of considerable immigration from Southern Europe.
From the , 497,986 or 39.9% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, while 380,440 or 30.5% were Roman Catholic. Of the rest of the population, there were 29,592 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.37% of the population), there were 1,435 individuals (or about 0.11% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 70,897 individuals (or about 5.68% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 6,461 individuals (or about 0.52% of the population) who were Jewish, and 66,520 (or about 5.33% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 5,878 individuals who were Buddhist, 6,024 individuals who were Hindu and 1,456 individuals who belonged to another church. 165,324 (or about 13.25% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 50,090 individuals (or about 4.01% of the population) did not answer the question.
Economy
Most of the land is cultivated, but the canton of Zürich is not considered as an agricultural area. The lands to the north and east are more agricultural, but in every part of the canton manufacturing predominates. The canton of Zürich is noted for machinery. Silk and cotton weaving were important in the past, but have now ceased to be of importance. There is a large paper industry. Small and middle sized companies are important contributors to the economy of the canton of Zürich. The city of Zürich is a major banking centre, and insurance is also of importance.
In 2014, about 1.2% of the workers in Zürich work in the primary sector (the total for all of Switzerland is 3.3%). In 2014 the secondary sector employed 145,744 or about 14.7% of the total, which is much lower than 21.8% for the entire country. Of those in the secondary sector, over a quarter of the workers worked in construction trades and 9.5% worked in general construction. Additionally, almost 9% of the workers manufactured electronics. The tertiary sector employed 836,410 or about 84.1% of the total, which is much higher than 74.9% nationwide. This number has increased by about 180,000 since 2010 while the population in the canton has only increased by 73,000 over the same time period. Of those in the tertiary sector, the fourth largest sub-sector (in 2008) was financial services with 6.2% of the tertiary total.
, Zürich had an unemployment rate of 3.9%. , there were 12,507 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 4,227 businesses involved in this sector. 143,231 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 11,383 businesses in this sector. 655,848 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 58,796 businesses in this sector.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 678,306. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 8,120, of which 7,771 were in agriculture, 320 were in forestry or lumber production and 29 were in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 133,723 of which 81,212 or (60.7%) were in manufacturing, 774 or (0.6%) were in mining and 47,014 (35.2%) were in construction.
The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 536,463. In the tertiary sector; 105,226 or 19.6% were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 38,005 or 7.1% were in the movement and storage of goods, 33,417 or 6.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 35,571 or 6.6% were in the information industry, 81,163 or 15.1% were the insurance or financial industry, 65,139 or 12.1% were technical professionals or scientists, 36,792 or 6.9% were in education and 63,800 or 11.9% were in health care.
Of the working population, 37.4% used public transportation to get to work, and 41.8% used a private car.
The cantonal, local and church tax rates in the canton is generally slightly lower than the average rate for the entire country.
Transport
Railways in standard gauge run through all major valleys in the canton. The centre for transport is Zürich, where a great number of local railways connect to national and international rail links. The railway station of the city of Zürich, Zürich Hauptbahnhof, is one of the busiest in Europe, counting the number of arriving and departing trains. Zürich is well connected to other European cities using rail links. The major trains ICE, TGV and Cisalpino connect to Zürich.
The first Swiss railway ran in the Limmat valley in 1847, connecting Zürich to Baden.
The major airport of Switzerland Zurich Airport is located in Kloten, a mere from the city centre of Zürich. It is home to Swiss International Air Lines.
The A1, A3 and A4 motorways run through the canton. Other motorways and expressways which also run through the canton include the A7, the A51, the A52 and the A53. Major hubs are Zürich and Winterthur.
Education
In Zürich about 493,209 or (39.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 212,154 or (17.0%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 212,154 who completed tertiary schooling, 55.8% were Swiss men, 25.5% were Swiss women, 11.6% were non-Swiss men and 7.1% were non-Swiss women.
Notes and references
External links
Official Statistics
Zürich Tourism
Cantons of Switzerland
Cantons of the Helvetic Republic
14th-century establishments in the Old Swiss Confederacy
1350s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1351 establishments in Europe | [
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] |
245630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielsdorf%20District | Dielsdorf District | Dielsdorf District is a district in the northwestern part of the Swiss canton of Zürich.
Since 1871 the administrative center of the district is located in Dielsdorf. Previously the district was named Bezirk Regensberg, and its capital was Regensdorf, the only city in the district.
Municipalities
See also
Municipalities of the canton of Zürich
References
Districts of the canton of Zürich | [
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245632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan | Clan | A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship
and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning that their members can marry one another. Clans preceded more centralized forms of community organization and government, and exist in every country. Members may identify with a coat of arms or other symbol to show that they are an . Kinship-based groups may also have a symbolic ancestor, whereby the clan shares a "stipulated" common ancestor who serves as a symbol of the clan's unity. When this "ancestor" is non-human - frequently an animal - it is referred to as a totem.
Etymology
The English word "clan" is derived from old Irish meaning "children", "offspring", "progeny" or "descendants"; it is not from the word for "family" or "clan" in either Irish or Scottish Gaelic. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word "clan" was introduced into English in around 1425, as a descriptive label for the organization of society in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.
None of the Irish and Scottish Gaelic terms for kinship groups is cognate to English clan; Scottish Gaelic means "descendants":
means (English) "clan"
means "family" in the sense of the nuclear family, or can include more distant relatives living in the same house
means either "family" in the sense of "household", or everyone who lives in the house, including non-relatives
means "family" in the broad sense of "kinsfolk"
Clans as political units
In different cultures and situations, a clan usually has different meaning than other kin-based groups, such as tribes and bands. Often, the distinguishing factor is that a clan is a smaller, integral part of a larger society such as a tribe, chiefdom, or a state. In some societies, clans may have an official leader such as a chief, matriarch or patriarch; or such leadership role is performed by elders. In others, leadership positions may have to be achieved.
Examples include Irish, Scottish, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese clans, which exist as distinct social groupings within their respective nations. Note, however, that tribes and bands can also be components of larger societies. The early Norse clans, the , are often translated as "house" or "line". The Biblical tribes of Israel were composed of many clans. Arab clans are sub-tribal groups within Arab society. Native American and First Nations peoples, often referred to as "tribes", also have clans. For instance, Ojibwa bands are smaller parts of the Ojibwa people or tribe in North America. The many Native American peoples are distinguished by language and culture, and most have clans and bands as the basic kinship organizations. In some cases tribes recognized each other's clans; for instance, both the Chickasaw and Choctaw tribes of the Southeast United States had fox and bear clans, who felt a kinship that reached beyond their respective tribes.
Apart from these different historical traditions of kinship, conceptual confusion arises from colloquial usages of the term. In post-Soviet countries, for example, it is quite common to speak of "clans" in reference to informal networks within the economic and political sphere. This usage reflects the assumption that their members act towards each other in a particularly close and mutually supportive way, approximating the solidarity among kinsmen. Similar usage of the term applies to specific groups of various cultures and nationalities involved in organized crime. Polish clans differ from most others as they are a collection of families who bear the same coat of arms, as opposed to claiming a common descent (see Polish heraldry). There are multiple closely related clans in the Indian subcontinent, especially South India.
Romani people have many clans which are called vitsa in Romani.
Clannism
Clannism (in Somali culture, qabiilism) is system of society based on clan affiliation.
The Islamic world, the Near East, North and East Africa in general, and Somali culture specifically, is patriarchal and traditionally centered on patrilineal clans or tribes.
Some forms of clannism have been described as having aspects of ancestor worship.
Clans by continent or region
See also
Clan (video gaming)
Endogamy
Extended family
Uradel
Gotra
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245633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talisman%20%28disambiguation%29 | Talisman (disambiguation) | A talisman is an object which is purported to possess certain magical properties.
Talisman may also refer to:
Art and entertainment
Fictional characters
Talisman (comics), a superhero from Marvel Comics who was a member of Alpha Flight
Talisman, the player character from Ace Combat 6: Fires of Liberation
Films
Talisman, the edited re-release title of the 1987 Italian film Cross of the Seven Jewels
The Talisman, also known as King Richard and the Crusaders, a 1954 adaptation of the Scott novel
Fine arts
The Talisman (painting), a painting by French artist Paul Sérusier
Gaming
Talisman (board game), a board game from Games Workshop currently published by Fantasy Flight Games
Talisman (video game), a 1985 video game based on the board game from Games Workshop
Literature
Talisman (book series), a 2005 series of children's novels by Allan Frewin Jones
Talisman: Sacred Cities, Secret Faith (2004), a non-fiction book by Graham Hancock and Robert Bauval
The Talisman (Scott novel), an 1825 historical novel by Sir Walter Scott
The Talisman (King and Straub novel), a 1984 fantasy novel by Stephen King and Peter Straub
The Talisman (comics), a comic book adaptation of the above novel
"The Talisman", a short story by South African author, Nadine Gordimer from the collection The Soft Voice of the Serpent (1952)
Stage works
, an 1840 play by Johann Nestroy
Der Talisman, an 1877 tragedy by Prince George of Prussia
Der Talisman, an 1892 fantasy play by German Ludwig Fulda
The Talisman (ballet), an 1889 opera
Der Talisman, a 1910 opera by British composer Adela Maddison
Music
Talisman (band), a Swedish rock band
Stanford Talisman, an American a cappella group from Stanford University
Talisman (Alastair Galbraith album), 1995
Talisman (Talisman album), 1990
Computing
Microsoft Talisman, 3-D graphics architecture from Microsoft
Talisman Desktop, a software desktop shell replacement for the Microsoft Windows operating system
Ships
Talisman (ship), several ships with the name
, the name of a number of British Royal Navy ships
Talisman UUV, a multi-role unmanned underwater vehicle manufactured by BAE Systems
Steamship Talisman, a 73-foot, 40-ton, upper-cabin sternwheel steamboat built in 1961, and put on display at Lincoln's New Salem on the Sangamon River near Petersburg, Illinois until the early 1990s.
Other uses
Talisman Energy, a Canadian oil-and-gas company
Talisman, Cadillac Sixty Special Fleetwood Brougham sedan, built from 1974 to 1976
Renault Talisman, a mid-size sedan built since 2015
Talismán metro station, a Mexico City Metro station
Talisman Centre, a Canadian multi-sports complex in Calgary, Alberta
See also
Talismán (disambiguation) | [
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245637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham%20Thunderbolts | Birmingham Thunderbolts | The Birmingham Thunderbolts were a short-lived springtime American football team based in Birmingham, Alabama. This team was part of the failed XFL begun by Vince McMahon of World Wrestling Entertainment and by NBC, a major television network in the United States.
Opening Season
The Thunderbolts played in the Eastern Division, with the Chicago Enforcers, Orlando Rage and the New York/New Jersey Hitmen. They finished the only year of XFL play – 2001 – in last place with the worst record in the league, at 2-8.
The Thunderbolts played their home games at Birmingham's legendary Legion Field. They were coached by Brooklyn-native Gerry DiNardo, a former star player at the University of Notre Dame, and previously head coach at Vanderbilt University and Louisiana State University. Following the collapse of the XFL, he went on to coach at Indiana University. One of DiNardo's assistants with the Thunderbolts was his predecessor at LSU, Curley Hallman.
The team's colors were purple, yellow, and white. Their logo was a stylized 'B' with six lightning bolts extending from it. On the teams helmets, the logo was placed at the front, instead of the customary position on each side, with only the upper three lightning bolts visible. The team was frequently referred to by fans and the media as simply the Bolts. Team merchandise almost always used the shortened Bolts moniker.
Allegedly, the league had originally planned to name the team the Blast; the XFL had named all of its teams with references to insanity and criminal activity, and the name "Birmingham Blast" likewise invoked images of the 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church and of Eric Rudolph's 1998 bombing of a local abortion clinic, two tragic events in Birmingham history. As the league soon realized that such a name would have been in extremely poor taste, at the last minute the league changed it to "Thunderbolts," or "Bolts" for short. The team's logo is said to be the same one originally designed for the Blast. The Thunderbolts were unusual in that their nickname was benign.
While XFL players were encouraged to use nicknames instead of their last names on the backs of their jerseys, DiNardo banned Thunderbolts players from doing so.
After losing the opening game to the Memphis Maniax, the Thunderbolts posted wins over the Chicago Enforcers and the New York/New Jersey Hitmen. These would ultimately become the only victories the Thunderbolts would ever see. The Bolts would finish with a 2-8 record.
Birmingham went through all 3 quarterbacks during the season. Former Florida State quarterback Casey Weldon was signed as the starter. Former University of Alabama quarterback Jay Barker was signed as the backup, despite the crowds (averaging only 17,000 fans a game, second-lowest in the league) chanting his name during the home games. Barker would become the starter after Weldon injured his shoulder. Barker suffered a concussion in Chicago when he collided with Enforcers' cornerback Ray Austin while attempting a bootleg run on a broken play. He was replaced by third string QB Graham Leigh.
NBC dropped the XFL after the first (2001) season due to dismal ratings, and the league was disbanded shortly thereafter.
Season-by-season
|-
|2001 || 2 || 8 || 0 || 4th Eastern || --
|}
Schedule
Regular season
Personnel
Staff
Standings
Birmingham Thunderbolts players
80 Stepfret (Step) Williams WR college (LA-Monroe) played three seasons in the NFL seeing time with the Dallas Cowboys and the Cincinnati Bengals before joining the XFL
33 James Bostic RB college (Auburn)
71 Mike Edwards Offensive Guard (Nevada). Edwards also played for the Atlanta Falcons and the Washington Football team, before playing in the XFL.
81 Kaipo Mc Guire WR college (Brigham Young University) Mc Guire played in NFL Europe in the summer of 1999 with the Barcelona Dragons before splitting the 2000 season playing for the NFL's Indianapolis Colts and the CFL's Montreal Alouettes
89 Damon Gourdine WR college (San Diego State), son of singer Little Anthony of Little Anthony and the Imperials; played for the San Diego Chargers in 2000 before joining the XFL
32 Curtis "Cool Curt" Alexander RB college (Alabama) Alexander was on the Denver Broncos practice squad for the 1999 season before joining the Miami Dolphins for the 2000 season. Alexander joined the Buffalo Bills after the XFL folded; despite leading the team in rushing yards during the preseason, Alexander was a roster cut.
82 Quincy Jackson WR college (Alabama) Jackson played in the Arena Football League in 2000 with the Albany Firebirds before joining the XFL
Post-XFL developments
After the league folded, head coach Gerry DiNardo joined the staff of Birmingham sports talk radio station WJOX 690, as did Jay Barker, who also did sports commentary on local CBS TV affiliate WIAT channel 42. Barker currently hosts "The Opening Drive" on WJOX 94.5 in Birmingham with Tony Kurre and former NFL kicker Al Del Greco.
DiNardo returned to his college football coaching roots in 2002 as the head coach of the Indiana Hoosiers football team. The team was sometimes jokingly nicknamed "The Fighting DiNardos" in his honor. He was fired at the end of the 2004 season. He is currently a studio analyst for the Big Ten Network.
Team leaders
Rushing yards: 539, James Bostic
Receiving yards: 827, Stepfret Williams (also led league)
Passing yards: 1238, Casey Weldon
References
XFL (2001) teams
2001 establishments in Alabama
2001 disestablishments in Alabama | [
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245639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20Enforcers | Chicago Enforcers | The Chicago Enforcers were a short-lived American football team based at Soldier Field in Chicago, Illinois. This team was part of the failed XFL begun by Vince McMahon of WWE and by NBC, a major television network in the United States. NBC dropped the XFL after the first season in 2001 due to dismal ratings, and the dissolution of the league was announced shortly afterwards.
The team name references mob enforcers, alluding to Chicago's history of mafia influence. Their fight song would later become famous as the entrance music for professional wrestler Brock Lesnar, who had signed a contract with WWE but was yet to debut.
The "Chicago Enforcers" name is currently used by the Chicago Police Department for their works team in the National Public Safety Football League.
2001 season
Originally, rumors swirled that former Chicago Bears defensive coordinator and Philadelphia Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan would be hired as the team's coach. Ultimately, Hall of Fame linebacker Dick Butkus was hired for the position. However, just before the season started, he resigned to take a position in the XFL office. He was replaced by Ron Meyer, a former NFL head coach from the 1980s who had not coached professional football since 1994 with the Las Vegas Posse.
Among their players was former NFL running back LeShon Johnson, who had played for the Green Bay Packers, Arizona Cardinals and the New York Giants. He was starting tailback for the Cardinals for most of 1996. He led the Enforcers with 6 rushing touchdowns, which was second in the league. They also had former NFL running back John Avery who played for the Miami Dolphins. Their wide receiver/kick returner Roell Preston (who previously played for the Atlanta Falcons, Green Bay Packers, Miami Dolphins, San Francisco 49ers, and Tennessee Titans) held the distinction of being the only former Pro Bowler (1998 as a Packer) to play in the XFL. The team's starting right guard, Bennie Anderson, went on to be a starter for the Baltimore Ravens and Buffalo Bills, and last played professional football in 2006 for the Miami Dolphins.
The Enforcers got off to a slow start, losing their first four games with Tim Lester; at the time, Lester was working as a math teacher and assistant football coach at Wheaton Warrenville South High School in the suburbs of Chicago and played for the Enforcers effectively as a semi-professional player. In week 5, the team replaced Lester with the former Notre Dame Quatrerback Kevin McDougal, cut Lester, and brought in Craig Whelihan (an established NFL backup who had been third string on the Memphis Maniax at the time) to serve as McDougal's backup. The team went 5-1 in the rest of the season (winning their last four in a row), coming from behind to make the XFL playoffs at 2nd place in the Eastern Division. In addition to their potent rushing attack led by league leading running back John Avery, they were also known for their hard hitting defense. They lost to eventual XFL champion Los Angeles Xtreme in the crossover semifinals.
The Enforcers were part of the Eastern Division with the Orlando Rage, New York/New Jersey Hitmen and the Birmingham Thunderbolts. Their radio flagship station was WMVP, ESPN Radio 1000.
Poor attendance and the pending renovation of Soldier Field would have meant that, even if the league had continued, the Enforcers would have not; the league was exploring relocating the team to Milwaukee at the time of the league's closure.
Season-by-season
|-
|2001 || 5 || 5 || 0 || 2nd Eastern || Lost Semifinals (Los Angeles)
|-
!Totals || 5 || 6 || 0
|colspan="2"| (including playoffs)
Schedule
Regular season
Post-season
Standings
Roster
Team leaders
Rushing yards: 800 John Avery (league leader)
Receiving yards: 546 Aaron Bailey
Passing yards: 1168 Kevin McDougal
Passing touchdowns: 5 Kevin McDougal
References
XFL (2001) teams
Sports clubs established in 2001
Sports clubs disestablished in 2001
Enforcers
2001 establishments in Illinois
2001 disestablishments in Illinois
Soldier Field
Chicago Enforcers
American football teams in Illinois | [
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245642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis%20Maniax | Memphis Maniax | The Memphis Maniax was an American football team based in Memphis, Tennessee. The team was part of the XFL begun by Vince McMahon of World Wrestling Entertainment and by NBC, a major television network in the United States. Home games were played at Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium.
History
The team's name and logo were designed to lead the team's fans into calling the team "The Ax", a shortened form of the word "maniacs".
The Maniax Director of Player Personnel was Steve Ortmayer, who had become respected in the pro football world for helping to build the Super Bowl XVIII-champion Los Angeles Raiders. Steve Ehrhart, who had managed both the Memphis Showboats and Memphis Mad Dogs, returned as general manager for the Maniax. The head coach was Kippy Brown.
At slightly over 20,000 fans per game, the Maniax were in the lower half of league average attendance; this figure was higher than the Mad Dogs had drawn, and comparable to that of the NFL's Tennessee Oilers during their lone season in Memphis, but lower than the Showboats.
They were in the Western Division with the Los Angeles Xtreme, San Francisco Demons, and Las Vegas Outlaws. They finished tied for second place at 5-5 with the Demons, but did not make the playoffs as the Demons had the better division record during the season. The Maniax were one of two teams to beat the eventual league champion Xtreme, and the only team to beat them twice, going 2-0 vs. their divisional rivals in the regular season; not coincidentally, they, along with the Xtreme and Demons, were the only three XFL teams to maintain the same starting quarterback through the entire season.
NBC officials wanted to move the XFL games to afternoons after the first season (2001) due to dismal ratings, and when, somewhat to McMahon's surprise and disappointment the United Paramount Network (UPN) wanted to follow suit, the league was then folded and the team disbanded.
Ehrhart would later claim that he was originally approached by the XFL to sell the intellectual property rights of the United States Football League to them, but that he owned the rights to the league, received royalties from them, and refused to sell. (Ehrhart's claims are somewhat dubious as he never held any ownership stake in the league, the original XFL had an Attitude Era aesthetic which did not match the brands the USFL had, and the United States Patent and Trademark Office has never recognized any claims from any vestige of the USFL, which dissolved in 1990, regarding the league's intellectual properties and has allowed other organizations to register the trademarks.)
Season by season
|-
|2001 || 5 || 5 || 0 || 3rd Western || --
|}
Schedule
Regular season
Standings
Team leaders
Rushing yards: 528 – Rashaan Salaam
(1994 Heisman Trophy winner)
Receiving yards: 823 – Charles Jordan
Passing yards: 1,499 – Jim Druckenmiller
all-XFL has the complete team stats
References
XFL (2001) teams
2001 establishments in Tennessee
2001 disestablishments in Tennessee
American football teams in Tennessee
American football teams established in 2001
American football teams disestablished in 2001 | [
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245646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando%20Rage | Orlando Rage | The Orlando Rage was an American football team based in Orlando, Florida as part of the XFL, begun by Vince McMahon of the World Wrestling Federation and by NBC, a major television network in the United States.
History
The team's colors were scarlet, yellow, navy blue and white with jersey numbers in a unique jagged font. They played their home games at Orlando's Florida Citrus Bowl, which was configured so that the upper deck was closed off and all fans were seated in the lower bowl to give a better appearance for television (a move that was effective, as the Rage had one of the stronger fan bases in the league, with average attendance at over two-thirds of the lower bowl's capacity; the team sold out all 36,000 lower bowl seats for its home opener). The team's General Manager was Tom Veit a former Major League Soccer Vice President and were coached by former Florida Gators head coach Galen Hall. They were in the XFL's Eastern Division with the NY/NJ Hitmen, Chicago Enforcers and Birmingham Thunderbolts.
The Rage were one of the two teams who opted not to don nicknames on the back of their jerseys. In the Rage's case, the decision was made by a majority vote of the players (despite the objections of starting quarterback Jeff Brohm, who openly embraced the XFL's approach to sports entertainment and wanted to wear "J Bro" on his jersey).
Jeff Brohm, at the time also under contract to the Cleveland Browns, was the quarterback of the Rage for most of the regular season, amassing a 6–0 record as starter during his first time at the helm. The team looked to be the league's powerhouse franchise under Brohm and was on pace for a perfect season (coincidentally, Orlando's next professional football team, the Florida Tuskers, would also win their first six games in a row before losing the seventh). He showed his toughness after he suffered an injury from a devastating hit by at the hands of Memphis Maniax defensive end Shante Carver in Week 5. Despite suffering a concussion in the hit and doctors' advice not to play, Brohm came back a week later against Las Vegas, giving a rousing speech stating that he was returning because it was the XFL and he still had a pulse. The following week he suffered a shoulder injury against the Los Angeles Xtreme and his season (and playing career) was done for good. It led to him being replaced by Brian Kuklick after six games. While Kuklick filled in the role of quarterback acceptably, the team lost a valuable leader on offense. The team went 2–2 in Kuklick's care; Kuklick, despite only starting four games, led the league in interceptions with 10.
The team finished their only regular season with an 8–2 record, the best in the league, but were upset in the first round of the playoffs by the 5–5 San Francisco Demons. Orlando had an early 16–0 advantage but allowed San Francisco to pull ahead and take a 26–16 lead by the fourth quarter. Using the XFL's newly introduced three-point conversion rule on a subsequent touchdown, the Rage got within one point but the Demons successfully ran out the clock and won 26–25. San Francisco would go on to lose the XFL Championship Game versus Los Angeles 38–6. Many in the league were disappointed, hoping for a match-up against the two division champions. NBC dropped the XFL after the first season (2001) due to dismal ratings, and the league folded soon afterward.
XFL returns to Florida
In December 2018, the revival of the XFL announced that it would return to Florida. Because the Alliance of American Football's Orlando Apollos already laid claim to the Orlando market, the XFL opted to place the new team in Tampa, Florida, southwest of Orlando and connected to that city by way of Interstate 4. The league was exploring relocating the Vipers to Orlando shortly before the league suspended operations and went bankrupt in April 2020.
Season-by-season
|-
|2001 || 8 || 2 || 0 || 1st Eastern || Lost Semifinals (San Francisco)
|-
!Totals || 8 || 3 || 0
|colspan="2"| (including playoffs)
Schedule
Regular season
Post-season
Personnel
Staff
Source:
Roster
Standings
Source:
Statistical leaders
Rushing yards: 387, Derrick Clark
Receiving yards: 659, Dialleo Burks
Passing yards: 998, Brian Kuklick
Awards and honors
Awards
Honors
References
XFL (2001) teams
2001 establishments in Florida
2001 disestablishments in Florida | [
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245650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caodaism | Caodaism | Caodaism (, Chữ Nôm: 道高臺) is a monotheistic syncretic new religious movement officially established in the city of Tây Ninh in southern Vietnam in 1926. The full name of the religion is Đại Đạo Tam Kỳ Phổ Độ (The Great Faith [for the] Third Universal Redemption).
Adherents engage in practices such as prayer, veneration of ancestors, nonviolence, and vegetarianism with the goal of union with God and freedom from saṃsāra. Estimates of the number of Caodaists in Vietnam vary; government figures estimate 4.4 million Caodaists affiliated to the Cao Đài Tây Ninh Holy See, with numbers rising up to 6 million if other branches are added. However estimates vary. The United Nations found about 2.5 million Cao Dai followers in Vietnam as of January 2015. An additional number of adherents in the tens of thousands, primarily ethnic Vietnamese, live in North America, Cambodia, Europe and Australia as part of the Cao Dai diaspora.
History
Ngô Văn Chiêu, a district head of the French administration in Cochinchina, was the first to worship and receive messages from Cao Đài in 1921. He received a vision of the Divine Eye which is now the symbol for Cao Đài as well as the focus for worship on all Cao Đài altars.
Adherents maintain that on Christmas Eve 1925, God identified Himself to the first group of Cao Đài mediums, which included Phạm Công Tắc, Cao Quỳnh Cư and Cao Hoài Sang. These three figures were to play an essential role in the growing religion as the three founding spirit mediums of the Hiệp Thiên Đài or "Palace Uniting Heaven and Earth". Phạm Công Tắc was the head spirit medium or Hộ Pháp ("Defender of the Dharma), while Cao Quỳnh Cư was the Thượng Phẩm (his Sacred Assistant) and Cao Hoài Sang was the Thượng Sanh (his Secular Assistant).
On 7 October 1926, Lê Văn Trung (a former elected official of the Colonial Council of Cochinchina and a member of the Conseil de Gouvernement de l'Indochine), and a leading group of 27 Caodaists, the first disciples of Cao Đài, signed the "Declaration of the Founding of the Cao Đài Religion" and presented it to the French Governor of Cochinchina. The Cao Đài faith brought together a number of once underground sects into a new national religion.
Officially called the "Great Way of the Third Time of Redemption" (Đại Đạo Tam Kỳ Phổ Độ), it became popular in its first few decades, gathering over a million members and converting a fifth to a fourth of the population of Cochinchina by 1940.
Ngô Văn Chiêu, who had never intended Cao Dai to become a mass organization, left the movement and eventually established in 1932 an independent, esoteric branch known as Chiếu Minh, headquartered in Vĩnh Long, which still exists and only admits a limited number of committed adepts.
In the 1930s, the leader criticized the French colonial regime, though he also emphasized dialogue with the French. This stance was controversial, and contrasted with the liturgy of dozens of "dissident" branches of Caodaism that followed a more Taoist model.
During the First and Second Indochina Wars, members of Cao Đài (along with several other Vietnamese sects, such as Hòa Hảo) were active in political and military struggles against both French colonial forces and South Vietnamese Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm.
Their criticism of the communist forces until 1975 was a factor in their repression after the fall of Saigon in 1975, when the incoming communist government banned the practice of Caodaism. In 1997, Caodaism was granted legal recognition and unrestricted practice once again.
Religious mission
The official name of the Cao Đài religion (or Caodaism) is Đại Đạo Tam Kỳ Phổ Độ. Translated directly it means: The Third Great Universal Religious Amnesty. (Đại Đạo – "Great Faith", Tam Kỳ – "Third Period", Phổ – "to announce" and Độ – "to save").
According to Cao Đài's dogma, this Third Period will be of intense religious activity which will unite God and humanity in ways not yet imagined. Cao Đài also states that the Third Amnesty will establish a new great faith for the salvation of living beings before the universal destruction. The primary objective of the Third Amnesty is the unity of all religions, which will bring mankind together in a universal family for universal peace.
Caodaism teaches that, throughout human history, God the Father has revealed his truth many times through the mouths of many prophets, but these messages were always either ignored or forgotten due to humanity's susceptibility to secular desires. Adherents believe that the age has now come when God speaks to humanity directly.
In the nineteenth century, Spiritism became established in Europe. The likes of Madam Blavatsky, Allan Kardec and Victor Hugo championed new religious possibilities. In Vietnam, the age-old traditions of Asian divination and mediumship began to mix with the new traditions of European Spiritism.
To highlight this objective of unity, there is a representation of the Divine Covenant of The Third Amnesty (The Third Alliance) inside every Cao Đài Temple. This Covenant between Heaven and Earth is written and presented to humanity by the Venerable Saints – Victor Hugo, Sun Yat Sen and Trạng Trình Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm. Their mission is said to guide humanity into the way of the Third Amnesty. The Covenant is written in French: "Dieu et Humanité Amour et Justice; and in Chinese: 天上天下 博愛公平. This translates into English as: "God and Humanity [for] Love and Justice."
Theology and Theosophy
God
"Cao Đài" refers to God the Father (the Supreme Being, the Creator, the Ultimate Reality of the Universe, also identified as the Jade Emperor). Cao Đài Tiên Ông Đại Bồ Tát Ma Ha Tát, as God's full title, indicates a combination of the three main religions – Confucianism, Taoism, and Mahayana Buddhism.
Cao Đài literally means "High Tower/Palace", that is, the place where God reigns over the universe. These words represent Confucianism.
Tiên Ông is the largest rank in Taoism.
Đại Bồ Tát Ma Ha Tát literally means Great Bodhisattva the Great Being (Mahasattva) in Buddhism.
Together, they represent not only the unification of the three main religions but also the humility of God who presents himself as the lowest rank of Divinity.
Cosmology
Caodaists adopt the traditional Chinese idea of âm (yin) and dương (yang) duality constituting the harmonious balance of the universe. Before the creation of the universe there was the "dao", the infinite, nameless, formless, unchanging, eternal source. The negative and positive principles of the universe are the components of the eternal nature.
There are two main Gods, the Cao Đài ("Highest Lord") and the Diêu Trì Kim Mẫu or Đức Phật Mẫu ("Holy Buddha Mother"). They represent respectively the yang and yin forces. Cao Đài is viewed as the heart of the universe, the common Father of all beings. He imparts part of Him into each living being, including even rocks, in the form of consciousness. Đức Phật Mẫu is venerated as the Mother of the universe, responsible for giving visible forms, consciousness and emotions to all life. Ultimately, She has to follow the orders of "Đức Cao Đài", who is revered as the Supreme Being of both Heaven and Earth.
All other Divine Beings are to obey the orders of these two Creators during the course of evolution of the universe. Each of them carries a specific role as designated by their Father and Mother. Any being who falls out against them is considered devils in nature. These devils are led by the most powerful being, named Kim Quang Sứ (Satan).
In terms of the cosmos, faithful Caodaists believe there are heaven and hell, which are the main destinations for souls after death. Heaven consists of thirty six planes and many heavenly realms upon each of them, e.g. the Realm of Saints, the Realm of the Holy Mother, the Realm of the Perfect Beings, the Divine Court Realm, The Paradise of Extreme Joy, Nirvana, etc. Meanwhile, hell has ten key realms to carry out punishments in accordance with sins of souls.
In order to go to heaven, souls are required to cultivate their virtues and/or devote themselves to spiritual causes. Without merit from the latter, they cannot escape the cycle of birth and death, but can improve their virtues and merit gradually to reach better places in the universe, including the 72 planets (ours is the 68th), the 3,000 worlds, the four great cosmic regions, and the thirty six heavenly planes. True liberation can only be attained when souls reach Nirvana, i.e. the realm of Divine Beings with the most virtues, merits, and wisdom.
Three-fold revelation
The father of the universe, Cao Đài, is believed to have communed with men since the beginning of times, revealing his will. According to Cao Đài doctrine, history is divided into three times (tam kỳ) of revelation. In the first two periods, there were teachings of Dipankara Buddha, sages, Phục Hy/Fu Xi, Gautama Buddha, Laozi, Confucius and Jesus, who received the will of the Highest Power, and founded their respective religions to serve and/ or educate humanity. But due to the frailty of the messengers and the common men, the will of the Highest Power was misled into corrupted forms. Caodaists also believe that former revelations were culture-bound, being applicable only for certain ethnicities, and primarily intended for specific ages. The third and final form of revelation is disclosed through the teachings of the Cao Đài faith.
Twelve-fold hierarchy
Caodaists believe that there are various ranks of divine spirits: Thần ("angels"), Thánh ("saints"), Tiên ("Immortals"), and Phật ("Buddhas"). Each of these ranks can be further divided in the three grades of Thiên (Heavenly), Nhân (Human) and Địa (Earthly), forming a twelve-fold hierarchy that reflects the twelve-fold earthly hierarchy of the Caodaist church. Below those ranks are the spirits of matters, plants, animals and humans. All spirits may evolve to attain higher rank based on present deeds. Disembodied spirits fulfill a number of roles: they are benefactors of mankind, messengers and instructors of the truth. Quan Âm is regarded as the exemplary goddess of the Buddhas, Lý Bạch (Li Bai) of the Immortals, and Quan Vũ (Guan Yu) of the Saints.
The Cao Đài pantheon counts three main prophets, as illustrated on a plaque at the entrance of the Tay Ninh Temple: Victor Hugo (to please the French), since he gave many teachings and also the text of a number of important prayers. He himself practiced spiritism on the island of Jersey from 1852 to 1855, and predicted that he would become the prophet of a new religion to merge European and Asian mysticism. Sun Yat-sen (for the Chinese) and Trang Trinh, the Vietnamese Nostradamus (for the Vietnamese). The Cao Đài pantheon also has many other well-known figures such as Joan of Arc, seen as having guided the Faith at its inception and promoted full equality for women (via séances). Muhammad, Moses, Louis Pasteur, Shakespeare, and Lenin. Reports that Winston Churchill and Charlie Chaplin were also "saints" are based on an inaccurate 1956 Time magazine article, since both of them were still alive at the time.
Fundamental rules and values
The doctrines of the Cao Đài faith tends not only to reconcile all religious views, but also to adapt itself to all degrees of spiritual evolution. A basic principle of Caodaism is "All Religions are One". Cao Đài has been described from five different points of view:
From a moral point of view, Cao Đài Religion reminds people of their duties towards themselves, their family, their society (a broader family), then toward humanity (the universal family).
From a philosophical point of view, Cao Đài Religion preaches renunciation of honors, riches and luxury, in other words, deliverance from servitude to materialism in the attainment of full spiritual quietude of soul.
From the point of view of worship, Cao Đài Religion prescribes the adoration of God, the veneration of Divine Beings and the worship of ancestors.
From a spiritual point of view, Cao Đài Religion confirms, in harmony with other religions, the existence of the spirits and the soul, their survival beyond the physical body, and their evolution by successive reincarnations, according to the Karmic Law.
From the initiates' point of view, Cao Đài Religion communicates to worthy adherents and reveals teachings that enable them, by a process of spiritual evolution, to reach the ecstasies of happiness.
Worship rituals
Believers worship God the Father, Holy Mother, and the Divine Beings with all their heart. They also venerate the Great Religious Prophets of history and honour the ancestors.
There are four daily ceremonies, that is, at 06:00, Midday, 18:00, and midnight, either at the temple or in front of the home altar. Monthly rituals take place at midnight on the 1st and 15th days of the lunar month. There is also a special anniversary ceremony once a year for God the Father, the Holy Mother, the five founders of the world's major religions, and the founders of the Cao Dai religion.
The rituals differ between places, depending on who they pray to.
At the Holy See: Prayers include incense offering, ceremony opening, prayer to the Jade Emperor (God the Father), prayer to Dipankara Buddha (Buddhism), prayer to Thái Thượng Lão Quân or Taishang Laojun (Taoism), prayer to Confucius (Confucianism), one of the three jewel offering prayers (flower, wine, and tea), and the five pledges.
At the Holy Mother temple: Prayers include incense offering, ceremony opening, prayer describing the role of the Holy Mother, prayer to express gratitude to the Holy Mother, one of the three jewel offering prayers (flower, wine, and tea), and the five pledges.
There are also differences between monthly rituals, and anniversary ones.
Ceremonial prescriptions such as actions, dress and music were organized in detail by God the Father. These include ceremonies for initiations, marriages and funerals. Particular attention is paid to death, and it has been revealed to the religion how the soul journeys towards heaven and how, on earth, co-religionists can pray for souls to help them on their way.
Symbols
Cao Đài temples and religious buildings host a rich array of symbols, all of which are instructed by either God the Father or Divine Beings. No symbol is redundant, and none is meaningless. They each tell a different story that reveals the beliefs, values, cosmic secrets, prophecies, etc. When combined, they lay out the journey of the Tao throughout the history of mankind and the universe, as well as its way forward.
The Divine Eye
In spirit and in pictorial representation, the Eye serves to remind Cao Đài believers that the God witnesses everything, everywhere, constantly. At the Holy See, there are in total 50 Divine Eyes of five different shapes; each carrying a different meaning related to various spiritual aspects. The One on the globe shows the Supreme Being above the North Star in the Ursa Minor constellation. The One on the façade of the Holy See has 35 rays of light which represent the three major religions and five main religious doctrines of the world. At the local Cao Đài Temples, the Divine Eye has 16 rays of light emanating from it. Nine radiate upward representing the nine levels of heaven, and seven radiating downward representing the seven emotions, which believers must control.
The religious banner and emblem
In accordance with the religious mission, the three colors of Cao Đài banner represent the three main non-Hinduistic Asian religions of the world; yellow stands for Buddhism, blue for Taoism, and red for Confucianism. Under the Divine Eye is the religious emblem which also represents the essence of the three religions; the bowl of charity for Buddhist compassion and asceticism, the feather duster for Taoist purification; the Spring and Autumn Annals for Confucianist virtue and love.
Holy scriptures
There are various Caodaist scriptures. Some of those belonging to the Holy See of Tây Ninh are: Kinh Thiên Đạo Và Thế Đạo ("Prayers of the Heavenly and the Earthly Way"), Pháp Chánh Truyền ("the Religious Constitution of Cao Đài Religion"), Tân Luật ("The Canonical Codes"), and Con Đường Thiêng Liêng Hằng Sống ("Divine Path to Eternal Life"). Other sects have additional scriptures.
The Canonical Codes
This scripture sets out the rules and boundaries for different aspects of the religion, from a believer to the Pope, from education to marriage, etc. There are ten sections in the scripture with the following content:
Hierarchy of religious dignitaries
Initiation and ranks of believers
Establishment of a parish
The five interdictions
The four commandments
Education
Sanctions
Promulgation of laws and regulations
Secular rules
The house of meditation
The Religious Constitution
The Phap-Chanh-Truyen (The Religious Constitution of Caodaism) was delivered to the religion as a series of divine messages. These are the guiding texts of the religion's organisation, stipulating the authority, responsibility, limits, as well as religious vestment for each rank in the religion.
Organisational structure
The organisational structure of the Caodaist church has similarities with that of a state. There are similarities between the hierarchy of the Caodaist clergy and that of the Catholic Church. Besides the Pope, the Caodaist hierarchy has Cardinals, Bishops, Priests, and further ranks.
Caodaism stresses equality among men and women in society. However, in the spiritual domain, ordained women may not attain the two highest positions: the Legislative Cardinal and the Pope. The church claims this is ordered by the Highest Lord, who declared that because Dương (Yang) represents male and Âm (Yin) corresponds to female, Yin cannot dominate Yang spiritually or else chaos ensues.
The Religion is governed by two powers, the spiritual and earthly ones.
The spiritual power (Bát Quái Đài): This is the heavenly council, that is, the Spirit and Soul of the New Religion. The council directs all activities of the universe. The council is the invisible part, made up of the Divine Beings, and directed by Duc Cao Dai (God the Father). The Divine Beings represent different religions of the world, including:
Founders of ten religions: Shakyamuni (Buddhism), Lao Tze (Taoism), Confucius (Confucianism), Jesus Christ (Christianity), Jiang Ziya (Geniism), Muhammad (Islam), Benito Mussolini (Fascism), Karl Marx (Communism), Shiva (Hindu), Guru Nanak (Sikhism).
Founders and teachers of Caodaism, who represent the doctrines of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism: Guanyin (Buddhism), Li Bai (Taoism), Guan Yu (Confucianism).
The earthly power: To avoid dictatorship, God divided the earthly power into two bodies – an Executive Body (Cửu Trùng Đài) headed by the Pope, and a Legislative Body (Hiệp Thiên Đài) headed by the Hộ Pháp (Protector of Laws and Justice). The former takes charge of the administration of the Religion and its missionary activities, while the latter oversees legislation, jurisdiction and communication with God or Divine Beings. There is also the Charitable Body placed under the supervision of the Legislative Body, and a Lay Committee of selected professional specialists among worthy followers.
The Executive Body (Cửu Trùng Đài)
The Cửu Trùng Ðài is the Executive Body of Caodaism which takes charge of the administration of the Religion and missionary activities. Head of Cửu Trùng Ðài is Giáo-Tông (Pope).
There are nine ranks in its hierarchy:
One Pope
Three Censor Cardinals
Three Cardinals
Thirty six Archbishops
Seventy two Bishops
Three thousand Priests
Student Priest (no limit)
Subdignitaries (no limit)
Followers (no limit)
For male dignitaries of the Executive Body, from the rank of Censor Cardinal to that of Student Priest, each echelon is subdivided into three branches corresponding to the three principal religions:
Buddhist Branch: These dignitaries are dressed in yellow.
Taoist Branch: These dignitaries are dressed in azure.
Confucianist Branch: These dignitaties are dressed in red.
Dignitaries of the same echelon, either Confucianist, Taoist or Buddhist, have the same attributes.
At the Holy See, there are three governing councils:
The Popular Council: composed of Student Priests, Sub-dignitaries and representatives of adherents in the ratio of one delegate per 500 members. The Popular Council makes plans for the future.
The Sacerdotal Council: composed of Priests, Bishops, Archbishops and Principal Archbishops. The Sacerdotal Council examines the plans made by the Popular Council.
The High Council: composed of Cardinals, Legislative Body Cardinals and the Pope.
All plans made by the Popular Council and favoured by the Sacerdotal Council are submitted to High Council for approval.
In addition, there is also a Central Administration body chaired by three Cardinals. Each of them is assisted by three Principal Archbishops to oversee three religious ministries:
The Principal Archbishops of the Buddhist branch take care of finances, supply, and public works.
The Principal Archbishops of the Taoist branch take care of education, health, and agriculture.
The Principal Archbishops of the Confucianist branch take care of interior, rites, and justice.
The administrative network which functions throughout Vietnam consists of:
The Religious Region (Trấn Đạo) comprising several provinces, headed by a Bishop who is called the Regional Religious Chief/ Khâm Trấn Đạo.
The Religious Province (Châu Đạo) comprising several districts/delegations, headed by a Priest who is called Provincial Religious Chief/ Khâm Châu Đạo.
The Religious District (Họ Đạo) comprising several villages, headed by a Student Priest who is called the Religious Chief of Delegation (Đầu Tộc Đạo/ Đầu Họ Đạo/ Đầu Phận Đạo).
The Religious Village (Hương Đạo) headed by a Sub-dignitary who is called Village Religious Chief (Đầu Hương Đạo). He is assisted by one (or more) Phó Trị Sự (Deputy Chief for Administration of a religious village) representing the Executive Body and one (or more) Thông Sự representing the Legislative Body. The Religious Village is made up of Religious Hamlets (Ấp Đạo).
The Legislative Body (Hiệp Thiên Đài)
This Body has the duty of communicating with Divine Beings, to preserve the religious laws and listen to the complaints of the unhappy. It is headed by the Hộ Pháp (protector of laws and justice), and assisted by the Thượng Phẩm (Director of religious affairs) and Thượng Sanh (Director of secular affairs).
Hộ-Pháp (護法) (The head of Legislative Body Affairs), is the one who unveils the Mystery of the Invisible and is the Maintainer of the Rules and Laws of the New Religion. He is the one who pronounces judgments on the dignitaries and adepts, elevates the dignity of the fervent through their merit and brings sanctions against those who have committed faults. The Hộ-Pháp holds control over the Legislative Body Power both exoterically and esoterically. He watches over the positive progress of the disciples in the Way of God, and guides all evolved souls to Bát-Quái-Đài for the union with Angels, Saints, Immortals and Buddhas.
Thượng-Phẩm (上品) (The head of Religious Affairs), is the Representative of the Ho-Phap in the formation of virtuous souls of the Sacerdotal Council. He depends on the Hộ-Pháp in all his missions. In a word, the Thượng-Phẩm helps the Cửu Trùng Đài to live in an atmosphere of happiness; he reveals the Heavenly Voice to virtuous souls, and guides them to the Divine Phase of the Great Spirits, while closing behind them the door of regression. He considers the priestly laws to take up the defence of all office-bearers and adepts; he prevents all perversion of the Divine Rules, and helps all initiates to attain their aim. He is simultaneously the President of the Hall of Defence and protector of all disciples. The Thượng-Phẩm is "Leader of the Spiritual Power".
Thượng–Sanh (上生) (The head of Secular Affairs), has control of all the laws and rules which relate to the worldly life of all adepts to guide them out of the sea of sufferings. He may present a formal complaint before the religious Tribunal against all those who impede the faithful as they move along the Way of God. He is the President of the Hall of Accusation.
Four "zodiacal dignitaries" under each of these branches carry the four key responsibilities of conservation, renovation, reformation, and legislation. They are further assisted by twelve technical academicians, including Bảo Huyền Linh Quân (Theosophy), Bảo Tinh Quân (Astronomy), Bảo Cô Quân (Orphanage), Bảo Văn pháp quân (Culture), Bảo Học Quân (Education), Bảo Y Quân (Health), Bảo Vật Quân (Science and Industry, Bảo Sĩ Quân (Literature), Bảo Sanh Quân (Social work), Bảo Nông Quân (Agriculture), Bảo Công Quân (Public Works), Bảo Thương Quân (Economics).
Community structure
Any local area having more than 500 believers is authorized to establish a Parish (Họ Đạo/Tộc Đạo) with a Thánh-Thất (Temple, Church, Holy House) which is led by the authority of a dignitary.
Parish/Parishes can be established only with the permission and authority of the Giao-Tong/Pope.
Twice a month, the first and the fifteenth day of the lunar calendar, the believers must meet at the Thánh-Thất (Temple, Holy House) of the local area to attend the ceremony and listen to the teachings. Exception can be made for those with reasonable excuses.
The Holy See
Located north-west of Saigon in Tây-Ninh Province is the Caodaist Holy See. At the centre of this city stands the Great Divine Temple. This temple, like the religion, is a fusion of world influences. As well as being a major centre of pilgrimage, the Caodaist Holy See is also one of Vietnam's major tourist attractions.
Branches
“The period between 1934 and 1975 witnessed not only the robust development of the Cao Dai religion but also saw the separation of the Cao Dai religion into different independent sects, sometimes as many as 30" As of July 2014, "central and provincial authorities have granted legal recognition" to 11 Cao Dai sects.
These sects generally divide along geographic lines. The largest is based in Tây Ninh Province, where the religion was founded in 1926 and where the seat of the Caodaist authority is located.
The Caodaist Executive Council of Tây Ninh Province received official government recognition in 1997. Independent Caodaist groups allege that government interference has undermined the independence of the Tây Ninh group, and it no longer faithfully upholds Cao Đài'''s principles and traditions. Religious training takes place at individual temples rather than at centralized seminaries. Some Caodaist sects that have broken away from the Tây Ninh Holy See are Cầu Kho, Bến Tre, Minh Chơn Lý, Minh Chơn Đạo, Tiên Thiên, and Hội Thánh Truyền Giáo Trung Việt. Ngô Văn Chiêu founded Chiếu Minh when he left the original church structure, refusing his appointment as Caodaism's first pope.
See also
ama-gi
Hòa Hảo
Jade Emperor
Nguyễn Thành Phương
Queen Mother of the WestSlave Ship, a science-fiction novel which involves Cao Đài and its pope.
Taoism
Three teachings
Trình Minh Thế
Xiantiandao
Yiguandao
References
Sources
"Caodaism" Encyclopedia entry by Janet Alison Hoskins at World Religion and Spirituality website https://wrldrels.org/2017/08/10/caodaism/ (accessed 10 August 2017) 0037768610375520
Jammes, Jeremy (2014). Les Oracles du Cao Dai: Étude d'un mouvement religieux vietnamien et de ses réseaux. Paris: Les Indes Savantes.
Further reading
Blagov, Sergei (2012). Caodaism: Vietnamese Traditionalism and Its Leap Into Modernity. Nova Science Publishers.
Goossaert, Vincent; Palmer, David A. (2011). The Religious Question in Modern China. University of Chicago Press.
Jammes, Jeremy (2010). Divination and Politics in Southern Vietnam: Roots of Caodaism''. Social Compass 57(3), 357–371. DOI: 10.1177/
Werner, Jayne (1981). Peasant Politics and Religious Sectarianism: Peasant and Priest in the Cao Dai in Vietnam. New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies.
External links
Cao Dai Library in Sydney (Multilingual)
Cao Dai Library in English
Cao Dai Ebooks in PDF, Kindle, Nook formats
Official website of the Tay Ninh Holy See
Website of one of the overseas branches
Caodaist Overseas Missionary
Hội Văn Hóa Cao Đài – Caodaist Cultural Association, Australia
Caodaist French Resources
Sacerdotal Council of Caodaism
1926 establishments in Vietnam
Cultural depictions of Victor Hugo
Cultural depictions of Sun Yat-sen
Esoteric schools of thought
Monotheistic religions
Religion in Vietnam
Religious organizations established in 1926
Religious syncretism in Vietnam
Religions that require vegetarianism | [
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245651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Francisco%20Demons | San Francisco Demons | The San Francisco Demons (originally named San Jose Demons) were a short-lived springtime American football team based in San Francisco, California. This team was part of the failed XFL begun by Vince McMahon of World Wrestling Entertainment and by NBC, a major television network in the United States. Originally they were to be based in San Jose but prior to the start of the season they were moved to San Francisco. They were in the Western Division with the Los Angeles Xtreme, Las Vegas Outlaws and Memphis Maniax.
The team played in Pacific Bell Park in San Francisco; despite having the smallest stadium in the league, they also had the highest average attendance (34,954). The fans had a cheering section nicknamed "The Hellhole".
The team was coached by Jim Skipper, former running backs coach for the NY Giants.
History
In their only season of existence, the Demons went 5-5 to capture 2nd place in the regular season and qualified for post season play. In the first round, the Demons defeated the Orlando Rage, who had the best regular season record (8-2), by a score of 26-25. In the XFL's Million Dollar Game, which was the league championship game and last game in its history, the Demons were defeated by the Los Angeles Xtreme 38-6.
NBC dropped the XFL after the first season (2001) due to dismal ratings, and the league folded soon afterwards. The Demons played their home games in what was then Pacific Bell Park, now Oracle Park, the home of Major League Baseball's San Francisco Giants.
The most notable Demons players were Mike Pawlawski and Pat Barnes. Both played quarterback for the Demons in 2001. Pawlawski and Barnes both played for the California Golden Bears. Pawlawski was signed by the Demons after playing Arena Football for the Albany Firebirds. Barnes had been invited to training camp by the Oakland Raiders.
Season
|-
|2001 || 5 || 5 || 0 || 2nd Western || Won Semifinals (Orlando)Lost Million Dollar Game (Los Angeles)
|-
!Totals || 6 || 6 || 0
|colspan="2"| (including playoffs)
Schedule
Regular season
Post-season
Personnel
Staff
Standings
San Francisco Demons players
21 Wendell Davis CB college (Oklahoma) Davis played with the Dallas Cowboys for a little over three seasons. Davis played with Dallas for two full seasons (1996–97) before being sidelined for the 1998 season and part of 1999 season with the Cowboys.
18 Pat Barnes QB college (California) Barnes played two seasons in NFL Europe with the Frankfurt Galaxy. Barnes led the Galaxy to a World Bowl championship in 1999 and also saw a career highlight of 30 TD passes in his two years in NFL Europe. Barnes saw playing time in 1999 with the San Francisco 49ers. Barnes also pre-season action with the Kansas City Chiefs and later the Cleveland Browns after the XFL folded. Barnes was the Demons' second-string quarterback and saw spot duty through the season.
99 Eric England DE college (Texas A&M) England played three seasons in the NFL with the Arizona Cardinals (1994–1996) before embarking on a career in the CFL with the BC Lions in 1997–2000. In 2000 England was part of the Grey Cup champion BC Lions
84 Brian Roche TE college (San Jose State) Roche played nearly four season in the NFL. Roche played two years in San Diego with the Chargers 1996–97 before joining the Kansas City Chiefs for a season (1998) and a part of another (1999)
26 Juan Johnson RB college (Utah) Johnson played in the CFL with the BC Lions in 1999 and in five games with the NFL Europe's Amsterdam Admirals in 2000 before joining the XFL
89 Brian Roberson WR college (Fresno State) Roberson played in the Indoor Football League in 2000 with the Fargo Freeze before joining the XFL
Mike Pawlawski QB; Pawlawski, the longtime starting quarterback for the Arena Football League's Albany Firebirds, was the Demons' starting quarterback through the whole season. This would be Pawlawski's last time playing professional football; he retired from playing after the season and moved into broadcasting,
Team leaders
Rushing yards: 228, Kelvin Anderson
Receiving yards: 390, Jimmy Cunningham
Passing yards: 1484, Mike Pawlawski
Final team regular season stats available at all-XFL
References
XFL (2001) teams
Defunct American football teams in California
American football teams in San Francisco
2001 establishments in California
2001 disestablishments in California | [
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245653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper%20Maskelyne | Jasper Maskelyne | Jasper Maskelyne (29 September 1902 – 15 March 1973) was a British stage magician in the 1930s and 1940s. He was one of an established family of stage magicians, the son of Nevil Maskelyne and a grandson of John Nevil Maskelyne. He is most remembered for his accounts of his work for the British military during the Second World War, in which he claimed to have created large-scale ruses, deception, and camouflage in an effort to defeat the Nazis.
Early life
Maskelyne was born in Wandsworth, London, England in 1902, to magician Nevil Maskelyne and his wife Ada Mary Ardley.
Career
Stage magician
Maskelyne was a successful stage magician. His 1936 Maskelyne's Book of Magic describes a range of stage tricks, including sleight of hand, card and rope tricks, and illusions of "mind-reading".
In 1937, Maskelyne appeared in a Pathé film, The Famous Illusionist, in which he performed his well-known trick of appearing to swallow razor blades.
Wartime service
Maskelyne joined the Royal Engineers when the Second World War broke out, thinking that his skills could be used in camouflage. A story runs that he convinced skeptical officers by creating the illusion of a German warship on the Thames using mirrors and a model.
Maskelyne was trained at the Camouflage Development and Training Centre at Farnham Castle in 1940. He found the training boring, asserting in his book that "a lifetime of hiding things on the stage" had taught him more about camouflage "than rabbits and tigers will ever know". The camoufleur Julian Trevelyan commented that he "entertained us with his tricks in the evenings" at Farnham, but that Maskelyne was "rather unsuccessful" at actually camouflaging "concrete pill-boxes".
Brigadier Dudley Clarke, the head of the 'A' Force deception department, recruited Maskelyne to work for MI9 in Cairo. He created small devices intended to assist soldiers to escape if captured and lectured on escape techniques. These included tools hidden in cricket bats, saw blades inside combs, and small maps on objects such as playing cards.
Maskelyne was then briefly a member of Geoffrey Barkas's camouflage unit at Helwan, near Cairo, which was set up in November 1941. He was made head of the subsidiary "Camouflage Experimental Section" at Abbassia. By February 1942 it became clear that this command was not successful, and so he was "transferred to welfare"—in other words, to entertaining soldiers with magic tricks. Peter Forbes writes that the "flamboyant" magician's contribution was
His nature was "to perpetuate the myth of his own inventive genius, and perhaps he even believed it himself". However, Clarke had encouraged Maskelyne to take credit for two reasons: as cover for the true inventors of the dummy machinery and to encourage confidence in these techniques amongst Allied high command.
Maskelyne's book about his exploits, Magic: Top Secret, ghost-written, was published in 1949. Forbes describes it as lurid, with "extravagant claims of cities disappearing, armies re-locating, dummies proliferating (even submarines)—all as a result of his knowledge of the magic arts". Further, Forbes notes, the biography of Maskelyne by David Fisher was "clearly under the wizard's spell". In his book, Maskelyne claims his team produced
Doubts raised
A study by Richard Stokes argues that much of the story concerning the involvement of Maskelyne in counterintelligence operations as described in the book Magic: Top Secret was pure invention and that no unit called the "Magic Gang" ever existed. According to Stokes, Maskelyne's role in the war was marginal.
Christian House, reviewing Rick Stroud's book The Phantom Army of Alamein in The Independent, describes Maskelyne as "one of the more grandiose members" of the Second World War desert camouflage unit and "a chancer tasked with experimental developments, who fogged his own reputation as much as any desert convoy".
David Hambling, writing on Wired, critiques David Fisher's uncritical acceptance of Maskelyne's stories: "A very colourful account of Maskelyne's role is given in the book The War Magician—reading it you might think he won the war single-handed". Hambling denies Maskelyne's supposed concealment of the Suez Canal: "[I]n spite of the book's claims, the dazzle light[s] were never actually built (although a prototype was once tested)".
In the book on WW2 deception, Ghosts of the ETO, Jonathan Gawne argued that Maskelyne was not responsible for all the deception work he claimed and that Dudley Clarke deserved the lion's share of credit. In 2002 The Guardian wrote: "Maskelyne received no official recognition. For a vain man this was intolerable and he died an embittered drunk. It gives his story a poignancy without which it would be mere chest-beating".
Later life and death
After the war, Maskelyne resumed his magic career. In 1950, he moved to Africa, where he developed his show into a touring performance that traveled between South Africa and British possessions in East Africa. He eventually settled in Nairobi, where he founded a successful driving school. During the Mau Mau Uprising, Maskelyne led a mobile squad of police. In addition, he managed the Kenya National Theatre. Maskelyne died in Nairobi on 15 March 1973.
Family
On 24 June 1926 Maskelyne married Evelyn Enid Mary Home-Douglas (died 24 March 1947), who had worked as a magician's assistant in his stage show. They were the parents of two children, son Alistair (1927-2019) and daughter Jasmine (born 1928), who was known as "Bobbie". On 11 March 1948 Maskelyne married Evelyne Mary Scotcher, who was known as Mary.
Possible film adaptations
In 2003, director Peter Weir and actor Tom Cruise were working on a film based on The War Magician. When questions rose about how much of The War Magician was factual and how much was invented by the author, the project was dropped while still in pre-production.
In 2015 Benedict Cumberbatch was reported as signing on to play the lead role in a Maskelyne film. At the time, the project was pending the selection of a director.
In 2021, it was announced that Colin Trevorrow would direct War Magician, with Benedict Cumberbatch as the star.
Works
References
Sources
External links
Jasper Maskelyne, The War Magician. (Critique by Richard Stokes)
'Deceptionists at War', Jonathan Allen, Cabinet, issue 29, 2007
1902 births
1973 deaths
British magicians
British Army personnel of World War II
Royal Engineers officers
Camoufleurs
British emigrants to Kenya
People from Wandsworth
Deaths in Kenya | [
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245655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadi | Ramadi | Ramadi ( Ar-Ramādī; also formerly rendered as Rumadiyah or Rumadiya) is a city in central Iraq, about west of Baghdad and west of Fallujah. It is the capital of Al Anbar Governorate. The city extends along the Euphrates and is the largest city in Al-Anbar. Founded by the Ottoman Empire in 1879, by 2018 it had a population of about 223,500 people, near the entirety of whom are Sunni Arabs from the Dulaim tribal confederation. It lies within the Sunni Triangle of western Iraq.
Ramadi occupies a highly strategic location on the Euphrates and the road west into Syria and Jordan. This has made it a hub for trade and traffic, from which the city gained significant prosperity. Its position has meant that it has been fought over several times, during the two World Wars and again during the Iraq War and Iraqi insurgency. It was heavily damaged during the Iraq War, when it was a major focus for the insurgency against occupying United States forces. Following the withdrawal of US forces from Iraq in 2011, the city was contested by the Iraqi government and the extremist group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and fell to ISIL in May 2015. On 28 December 2015, the Iraqi government declared that it had re-taken Ramadi from ISIL, that government's first major military victory since the loss of Ramadi some seven months earlier.
Population and demography
Ramadi's population was reported by the World Food Programme to number 375,000 people in 2011, though the number is likely to have decreased since then given the impact of the Iraq war and insurgency. Its population grew rapidly during the last half of the 20th century, from 12,020 people in 1956 to 192,556 in 1987. The population is very homogeneous, over 90 per cent Sunni Arab. The vast majority of its population come from the Dulaim tribal confederation, which inhabits Syria and Jordan as well as Iraq and has over a thousand individual clans, each headed by a sheik selected by tribal elders.
History
Ramadi is located in a fertile, irrigated, alluvial plain, within Iraq's Sunni Triangle. A settlement already existed in the area when the British explorer Francis Rawdon Chesney passed through in 1836 on a steam-powered boat during an expedition to test the navigability of the Euphrates. He described it as a "pretty little town" and noted that the black tents of the Bedouin could be seen along both banks of the river all the way from Ramadi to Falujah. The modern city was founded in 1869 by Midhat Pasha, the Ottoman Wali (Governor) of Baghdad. The Ottomans sought to control the previously nomadic Dulaim tribe in the region as part of a programme of settling the Bedouin tribes of Iraq through the use of land grants, in the belief that this would bind them more closely to the state and make them easier to control.
Ramadi was described in 1892 as "the most wide awake town in the whole Euphrates valley. It has a telegraph office and large government barracks. The bazaars are very large and well filled." Sir John Bagot Glubb ("Glubb Pasha") was posted there in 1922 "to maintain a rickety floating bridge over the river [Euphrates], carried on boats made of reeds daubed with bitumen", as he put it. By this time the Dulaim were mostly settled, though they had not yet fully adopted an urbanised lifestyle. Glubb described them as "cultivators along the banks of the Euphrates, watering their wheat, barley and date palms by kerids, or water lifts worked by horses. Yet they had but recently settled, and still lived in black goat-hair tents." A British military handbook published during World War I noted that "some European travellers have found the inhabitants of Rumadiyah [Ramadi] inclined to fanaticism".
World Wars I and II
Ramadi was twice fought over during the Mesopotamian Campaign of World War I. It was held initially by the forces of the Ottoman Empire, which garrisoned it in March 1917 after losing control of Fallujah to the east. The British Army's Lieutenant General Frederick Stanley Maude sought to drive out the garrison in July 1917 but faced severe difficulties due to exceptional heat during both day and night. A force of around 600 British soldiers plus cavalry units faced 1,000 Turks with six artillery pieces. The attack was a costly failure and a combination of exhaustion, disorganisation, Turkish artillery fire and an unexpected sandstorm forced Maude to call off the attack with heavy losses. More than half of the 566 British casualties were caused by the heat.
Maude tried again during a cooler period in September 1917. This time the attacking force, led by Major General H.T. Brookings, was better organised and the British force was able to cope with the temperatures. The British mounted their attack from a direction that the Turks had not expected and managed to cut off their enemy's line of retreat. Many members of the Turkish garrison were killed or forced to surrender and the British were able to take control of Ramadi.
Ramadi was contested again during World War II following the 1941 Iraqi coup d'état. The coup leader, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani, initiated a siege of the British base at RAF Habbaniya near Ramadi. This prompted a British counter-attack to break the siege, sparking the brief Anglo-Iraqi War. An Iraqi brigade occupied Ramadi under the auspices of a training exercise. The British assembled an ad hoc relief force dubbed Habforce which advanced from the British Mandate of Palestine into Iraq. The force succeeded in relieving RAF Habbaniya and Iraqi resistance rapidly crumbled as their counter-attacks were defeated, allowing a British column to seize control of Ramadi.
Post-war
The Ramadi Barrage was built near the city in 1955 to feed water into Lake Habbaniyah to the southeast. The University of Anbar was founded there in 1987 and, together with Ramadi's trade and transport links, gave the city a more cosmopolitan, liberal and secular culture than others in the Sunni Triangle. Many high-ranking officials of the ruling Ba'ath Party came from Ramadi. Its local elites were also closely tied to the regime. The Anbar tribes in and around the city were largely co-opted to support the regime and Ramadi was the home base of the Iraqi Army's combat engineers, special forces and many active and retired senior officers.
Ramadi was the scene of large-scale demonstrations against Saddam Hussein in 1995. This made it virtually unique in Sunni Iraq, where support for Saddam was strongest. The demonstrations were prompted by Saddam's execution of a prominent member of the Dulaim tribe from Ramadi, Iraqi Air Force General Muhammad Madhlum al-Dulaimi, and three other Dulaimi officers. The four had criticized the regime and Saddam's notoriously violent and dissolute son Uday. After their execution, the bodies were sent back to Ramadi. The regime's security forces put down the demonstrations which ensued and Saddam subsequently viewed the Dulaimis with suspicion, though he was unable to purge them without risking a full-scale tribal revolt.
U.S. invasion and Iraqi insurgency
The policy of de-Ba'athification and the disbandment of the Iraqi Army, implemented by the United States following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, hit Ramadi particularly hard because of its links to the party and the army. Many senior officials and military figures in the city suddenly found themselves excluded from public life. This gave them both the motivation and the means, given their connections and technical expertise, to mount a campaign of violence against coalition forces. As a result, Ramadi became a hotbed of insurgency between 2003 and 2006 and was badly affected by the Iraq War.
ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and al-Sham)
Following the withdrawal of US and Coalition forces in 2011, Ramadi was contested by Iraq and the Islamic State in Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS) during the ongoing Iraqi insurgency. On 15 May 2015 Ramadi was captured by ISIS after an assault that included suicide car bombs, mortars, and rocket launchers. CNN reported that ISIS took over 50 high-level security personnel prisoners during the assault. The ISIS flag was also raised at the Ramadi government headquarters. By 17 May 2015 Ramadi had been completely captured by ISIS forces.
Since the ISIS occupation of Ramadi, efforts have been made to re-take the city. In November 2015, Iraqi government forces completed an encirclement of Ramadi. On 28 December, Iraqi forces advanced into the centre of the city of Ramadi and liberated it.
Iraq's recapture of the city
On 28 December 2015, Iraq's government claimed that it retook the city from the Islamic insurgency group ISIS. The operation started in early November. The city's recapture is seen as a major reversal for ISIS. ISIS occupied the city beginning in May 2015. The ISIS occupation of the city was a major defeat for the Iraqi government forces. The recapture of Ramadi was backed by US-led coalition air strikes, but made slow progress, mainly because the government chose not to use the powerful Shia-dominated paramilitary force that had previously helped it regain the mainly Sunni northern city of Tikrit, to avoid increasing sectarian tensions. The military said remaining ISIS militants have headed out to the north-east of Ramadi. The PM of Iraq declared that 30 December as celebrations of the recapture of Ramadi. However, Ramadi was highly damaged afterwards, with some estimates as high as 90%.
Transportation
Ramadi stands on an important trade route leading across the desert to Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea. The main Amman–Baghdad road passes through the city. A railway line also runs through the southern outskirts of Ramadi, heading east to Baghdad and west to Haditha and the Syrian border.
Geography
At the start of the 21st century, Ramadi stretched over an area of about east to west by north to south. The center of the city is densely built up, with numerous more spread-out residential suburbs surrounding it. The city center is bounded to the north by the Euphrates, to the east by suburbs, to the south by the railway line between Baghdad and Haditha, and to the west by the Habbaniyah Canal. More suburbs exist to the west and northwest of the canal and north of the Euphrates.
The city center is connected to the suburbs by two major bridges, one across the Euphrates and the other across the canal, while the western and northern suburbs are connected by a major highway that crosses the Euphrates north of the city. Various tribal groups live in separate districts within the suburbs, with dozens of sheikhs being responsible for maintaining the security and well-being of their particular grouping. The suburbs are extensively criss-crossed with canals that are used to irrigate the farmland around the city.
Ramadi's recent origins mean that it is dominated by modern concrete buildings, mostly flat-roofed two- or three-story structures but with a number of taller buildings in the city center. Its modern origins mean that it lacks features typical of older Iraqi cities, such as a kasbah. The Japanese-built city hospital, with seven stories, is the tallest building in Ramadi. The city was badly damaged during the Iraq war and insurgency. Many buildings were destroyed and many more were rendered uninhabitable.
Climate
Ramadi has a hot desert climate (BWh) in the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Ramadi is . About of precipitation falls annually. Sand storms often occur in the warmer months in this region.
See also
List of places in Iraq
Occupation of Iraq (2003–11)
Battle of Ramadi (2006)
Battle of Ramadi (2014–15)
References
External links
Iraq Image – Ramadi Satellite Observation
Quixote in Ramadi by MB Wilmot
1869 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
Cities in Iraq
District capitals of Iraq
Levant
Populated places along the Silk Road
Populated places in Al Anbar Governorate
Populated places on the Euphrates River | [
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245658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%20integral | Euler integral | In mathematics, there are two types of Euler integral:
The Euler integral of the first kind is the beta function
The Euler integral of the second kind is the gamma function
For positive integers and , the two integrals can be expressed in terms of factorials and binomial coefficients:
See also
Leonhard Euler
List of topics named after Leonhard Euler
References
External links and references
Wolfram MathWorld on the Euler Integral
NIST Digital Library of Mathematical Functions dlmf.nist.gov/5.2.1 relation 5.2.1 and dlmf.nist.gov/5.12 relation 5.12.1
Gamma and related functions | [
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245660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta%20function | Beta function | In mathematics, the beta function, also called the Euler integral of the first kind, is a special function that is closely related to the gamma function and to binomial coefficients. It is defined by the integral
for complex number inputs such that .
The beta function was studied by Euler and Legendre and was given its name by Jacques Binet; its symbol is a Greek capital beta.
Properties
The beta function is symmetric, meaning that
for all inputs and .
A key property of the beta function is its close relationship to the gamma function: one has that
(A proof is given below in .)
The beta function is also closely related to binomial coefficients. When (or , by symmetry) is a positive integer, it follows from the definition of the gamma function that
Relationship to the gamma function
A simple derivation of the relation can be found in Emil Artin's book The Gamma Function, page 18–19.
To derive this relation, write the product of two factorials as
Changing variables by and produces
Dividing both sides by gives the desired result.
The stated identity may be seen as a particular case of the identity for the integral of a convolution. Taking
one has:
Derivatives
We have
Approximation
Stirling's approximation gives the asymptotic formula
for large and large . If on the other hand is large and is fixed, then
Other identities and formulas
The integral defining the beta function may be rewritten in a variety of ways, including the following:
where in the last identity is any positive real number. (One may move from the first integral to the second one by substituting .)
The beta function can be written as an infinite sum
(where is the rising factorial)
and as an infinite product
The beta function satisfies several identities analogous to corresponding identities for binomial coefficients, including a version of Pascal's identity
and a simple recurrence on one coordinate:
For , the beta function may be written in terms of a convolution involving the truncated power function :
Evaluations at particular points may simplify significantly; for example,
and
By taking in this last formula, one may conclude in particular that .
One may also generalize the last formula into a bivariate identity for a product of beta functions:
Euler's integral for the beta function may be converted into an integral over the Pochhammer contour as
This Pochhammer contour integral converges for all values of and and so gives the analytic continuation of the beta function.
Just as the gamma function for integers describes factorials, the beta function can define a binomial coefficient after adjusting indices:
Moreover, for integer , can be factored to give a closed form interpolation function for continuous values of :
Reciprocal beta function
The reciprocal beta function is the function about the form
Interestingly, their integral representations closely relate as the definite integral of trigonometric functions with product of its power and multiple-angle:
Incomplete beta function
The incomplete beta function, a generalization of the beta function, is defined as
For , the incomplete beta function coincides with the complete beta function. The relationship between the two functions is like that between the gamma function and its generalization the incomplete gamma function.
The regularized incomplete beta function (or regularized beta function for short) is defined in terms of the incomplete beta function and the complete beta function:
The regularized incomplete beta function is the cumulative distribution function of the beta distribution, and is related to the cumulative distribution function of a random variable following a binomial distribution with probability of single success and number of Bernoulli trials :
Properties
Multivariate beta function
The beta function can be extended to a function with more than two arguments:
This multivariate beta function is used in the definition of the Dirichlet distribution. Its relationship to the beta function is analogous to the relationship between multinomial coefficients and binomial coefficients.
Applications
The beta function is useful in computing and representing the scattering amplitude for Regge trajectories. Furthermore, it was the first known scattering amplitude in string theory, first conjectured by Gabriele Veneziano. It also occurs in the theory of the preferential attachment process, a type of stochastic urn process. The beta function is also important in statistics, e.g. for the Beta distribution and Beta prime distribution. As briefly alluded to previously, the beta function is closely tied with the gamma function and plays an important role in calculus.
Software implementation
Even if unavailable directly, the complete and incomplete beta function values can be calculated using functions commonly included in spreadsheet or computer algebra systems. In Excel, for example, the complete beta value can be calculated from the GammaLn function:
Value = Exp(GammaLn(a) + GammaLn(b) − GammaLn(a + b))
An incomplete beta value can be calculated as:
Value = BetaDist(x, a, b) * Exp(GammaLn(a) + GammaLn(b) − GammaLn(a + b)).
These results follow from the properties listed above.
Similarly, betainc (incomplete beta function) in MATLAB and GNU Octave, pbeta (probability of beta distribution) in R, or special.betainc in Python's SciPy package compute the regularized incomplete beta function—which is, in fact, the cumulative beta distribution—and so, to get the actual incomplete beta function, one must multiply the result of betainc by the result returned by the corresponding beta function. In Mathematica, Beta[x, a, b] and BetaRegularized[x, a, b] give and , respectively.
See also
Beta distribution and Beta prime distribution, two probability distributions related to the beta function
Jacobi sum, the analogue of the beta function over finite fields.
Nörlund–Rice integral
Yule–Simon distribution
References
External links
Arbitrarily accurate values can be obtained from:
The Wolfram Functions Site: Evaluate Beta Regularized Incomplete beta
danielsoper.com: Incomplete Beta Function Calculator, Regularized Incomplete Beta Function Calculator
Gamma and related functions
Special hypergeometric functions | [
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245677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Oath%20%28Wiesel%20novel%29 | The Oath (Wiesel novel) | The Oath (original title, French: Le serment de Kolvillàg) is a novel by Elie Wiesel. It tells the story of Azriel, the only surviving Jewish member of the small (fictionally named) Hungarian town of Kolvillàg after a pogrom perpetrated by neighboring Christians. Azriel carries the secret of Kolvillàg's destruction within him, forbidden to share his experiences. However, when Azriel meets a young man on the brink of suicide fifty years later, he realizes that he must pass on his secret to save the young man's life - yet he is bound by his promise to the dead.
Le serment de Kolvillàg is a work told in fragments - the point of view changes from present-day Azriel, the Azriel of the past, the young man in the present, and the young man's past. It is unstructured to the point where it borders on Surrealism. Some of the themes of Le serment de Kolvillag include pogroms, death, old age, secrecy, silence, and modernity.
References
1973 French novels
Novels by Elie Wiesel
Novels set during World War II
Personal accounts of the Holocaust
Novels set in Hungary
Éditions du Seuil books | [
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245678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw%20Gomu%C5%82ka | Władysław Gomułka | Władysław Gomułka (; 6 February 1905 – 1 September 1982) was a Polish communist politician. He was the de facto leader of post-war Poland from 1947 until 1948. Following the Polish October he became leader again from 1956 to 1970. Gomułka was initially very popular for his reforms; his seeking a "Polish way to socialism"; and giving rise to the period known as "Polish thaw". During the 1960s, however, he became more rigid and authoritarian—afraid of destabilizing the system, he was not inclined to introduce or permit changes. In the 1960s he supported the persecution of the Catholic Church, intellectuals and the anti-communist opposition.
In 1967–68 Gomułka allowed outbursts of "anti-Zionist" political propaganda, which turned into an anti-Semitic campaign, pursued primarily by others in the Party, but utilized by Gomułka to retain power by shifting the attention from the stagnating economy. Many of the remaining Polish Jews left the country. At that time he was also responsible for persecuting protesting students and toughening censorship of the media. Gomułka supported Poland's participation in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968.
In the treaty with West Germany, signed in December 1970 at the end of Gomułka's period in office, West Germany recognized the post-World War II borders, which established a foundation for future peace, stability and cooperation in Central Europe. In the same month, economic difficulties led to price rises and subsequent bloody clashes with shipyard workers on the Baltic coast, in which several dozen workers were fatally shot. The tragic events forced Gomułka's resignation and retirement. In a generational replacement of the ruling elite, Edward Gierek took over the Party leadership and tensions eased.
Childhood and education
Władysław Gomułka was born on 6 February 1905 in Białobrzegi Franciszkańskie village on the outskirts of Krosno, into a worker's family living in the Austrian Partition (the Galicia region). His parents had met and married in the United States, where each had immigrated to in search of work in the late 19th century, but returned to occupied Poland in the early 20th century because Władysław's father Jan was unable to find gainful employment in America. Jan Gomułka then worked as a laborer in the Subcarpathian oil industry. Władysław's older sister Józefa, born in the US, returned there upon turning eighteen to join her extended family, most of whom had emigrated, and to preserve her US citizenship. Władysław and his two other siblings experienced a childhood of the proverbial Galician poverty: they lived in a dilapidated hut and ate mostly potatoes. Władysław received only rudimentary education before being employed in the oil industry of the region.
Gomułka attended schools in Krosno for six or seven years, until the age of thirteen when he had to start an apprenticeship in a metalworks shop. Throughout his life Gomułka was an avid reader and accomplished a great deal of self-education, but remained a subject of jokes because of his lack of formal education and demeanor. In 1922, Gomułka passed his apprenticeship exams and began working at a local refinery.
Early revolutionary activities
Involvement with labor unions and first imprisonment
The re-established Polish state of Gomułka's teen years was a scene of growing political polarization and radicalization. The young worker developed connections with the radical Left, joining the Siła (Power) youth organization in 1922 and the Independent Peasant Party in 1925. Gomułka was known for his activism in the metal workers and, from 1922, chemical industry unions. He was involved in union-organized strikes and in 1924, during a protest gathering in Krosno, participated in a polemical debate with Herman Lieberman. He published radical texts in leftist newspapers. In May 1926 the young Gomułka was for the first time arrested but soon released because of worker demands. The incident was the subject of a parliamentary intervention by the Peasant Party. In October 1926, Gomułka became a secretary of the managing council in the Chemical Industry Workers Union for the Drohobych District and remained involved with that communist-dominated union until 1930. He around this time learned on his own basic Ukrainian.
In late 1926, while in Drohobych, Gomułka became a member of the illegal-but-functioning Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski, KPP) and was arrested for political agitation. Technically, at this time he was a member of the Communist Party of Western Ukraine, which was an autonomous branch of the Communist Party of Poland. He was interested primarily in social issues, including the trade and labor movement, and concentrated on practical activities. In mid-1927, Gomułka was brought to Warsaw, where he remained active until drafted for military service at the end of the year. After several months, the military released him because of a health problem with his right leg. Gomułka returned to communist party work, organizing strike actions and speaking at gatherings of workers at all major industrial centers of Poland. During this period he was arrested several times and lived under police supervision.
Gomułka was an activist in the leftist labor unions from 1926 and in the Central Trade Department of the KPP Central Committee from 1931. In the summer of 1930, Gomułka illegally embarked on his first foreign trip with the intention of participating in the Red International of Labor Unions Fifth Congress held in Moscow from 15 to 30 July. Traveling from Upper Silesia to Berlin, he had to wait there for the issuance of Soviet documents and arrived in Moscow too late to participate in the deliberations of the Congress. He stayed in Moscow for a couple of weeks and then went to Leningrad, from where he took a ship to Hamburg, stayed in Berlin again and through Silesia returned to Poland.
In August 1932, he was arrested by the Sanation police while participating in a conference of textile worker delegates in Łódź. When he later tried to escape, Gomułka sustained a gunshot wound in the left thigh which ultimately left him with permanent walking impairment.
Journey to the Soviet Union and second imprisonment
Despite being sentenced to a four-year prison term on 1 June 1933, he was temporarily released for surgery on his injured leg in March 1934. Following his release, Gomułka requested that the KPP send him to the Soviet Union for medical treatment and further political training. He arrived in the Soviet Union in June and went to the Crimea for several weeks, where he underwent therapeutic baths. Gomułka then spent more than a year in Moscow, where he attended the Lenin School under the name Stefan Kowalski. The ideology-oriented classes were arranged separately for a small group of Polish students (one of them was Roman Romkowski (Natan Grünspan [Grinszpan]-Kikiel), who would later persecute Gomułka in Stalinist Poland) and included a military training course conducted by Karol Świerczewski. In a written opinion issued by the school Gomułka was characterized in highly positive terms, but his extended stay in the Soviet Union caused him to become disillusioned with the realities of Stalinist communism and highly critical of the agrarian collectivization practice. In November 1935 he illegally returned to Poland.
Gomułka resumed his communist and labor conspiratorial activities and kept advancing within the KPP organization until, as the secretary of the Party's Silesian branch, he was arrested in Chorzów in April 1936. He was then tried by the District Court in Katowice and sentenced to seven years in prison where he remained jailed until the beginning of World War II. Ironically, this internment most likely saved Gomułka's life, because the majority of the KPP leadership would be murdered in the Soviet Union in the late 1930s, caught up in the Great Purge under Joseph Stalin's orders.
Gomułka's experiences turned him into an extremely suspicious and distrustful person and contributed to his lifelong conviction that Sanation Poland was a fascist state, even if Polish prisons were the safest place for Polish Communists. He differentiated this belief from his positive feelings toward the country and its people, especially members of the working class.
World War II
Invasion of Poland
The outbreak of the war with Nazi Germany freed Gomułka from his prison confinement. On 7 September 1939, he arrived in Warsaw, where he stayed for a few weeks, working in the besieged capital on the construction of defensive fortifications. From there, like many other Polish communists, Gomułka fled to eastern Poland which was invaded by the Soviet Union on 17 September 1939. In Białystok he ran a home for former political prisoners arriving from other parts of Poland. To be reunited with his luckily found wife, at the end of 1939 Gomułka moved to Soviet-controlled Lviv.
Like other members of the dissolved Communist Party of Poland, Gomułka sought a membership in the Soviet All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The Soviet authorities allowed such membership transfers only from March 1941 and in April of that year Gomułka received his party card in Kiev.
The circumstances of the Polish communists' lives changed dramatically after 1941 German attack on the Soviet positions in eastern Poland. Reduced to penury in now German-occupied Lviv, the Gomułkas managed to join Władysław's family in Krosno by the end of 1941. However, a momentous development soon took place in the sphere of communist political activity: in January 1942, Joseph Stalin reestablished in Warsaw a Polish communist party under the name of the Polish Workers' Party (PPR).
In 1942, Gomułka participated in the reformation of a Polish communist party (the KPP was destroyed in Stalin's purges in the late 1930s) under the name Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza, PPR). Gomułka became involved in the creation of party structures in the Subcarpathian region and began using his wartime conspiratorial pseudonym "Wiesław". In July 1942, Paweł Finder brought Gomułka to occupied Warsaw. In August, the secretary of the PPR's regional Warsaw Committee was arrested by the Gestapo and "Wiesław" was entrusted with his job. In September Gomułka became a member of the PPR's Temporary Central Committee.
In late 1942 and early 1943, the PPR experienced a severe crisis because of the murder of its first secretary Marceli Nowotko. Gomułka participated in the party investigation directed against another member of the leadership, Bolesław Mołojec, that resulted in Mołojec's execution. Together with the promoted to secretary Finder and Franciszek Jóźwiak, "Wiesław" (Gomułka) was included in the Party's new inner leadership, established in January 1943. The Central Committee was enlarged in the following months to include Bolesław Bierut, among others.
In February 1943, Gomułka led the communist side in a series of important meetings in Warsaw between the PPR and the Government Delegation of the London-based Polish government-in-exile and the Home Army. The talks produced no results because of the divergent interests of the parties involved and a mutual lack of confidence. The Delegation officially discontinued the negotiations on April 28, three days after the Soviet government broke diplomatic relations with the Polish government. He became the Party's main ideologist. He wrote the "What do we fight for?" (O co walczymy?) publication dated 1 March 1943, and the much more comprehensive declaration that emerged under the same title in November. "Wiesław" supervised the Party's main editorial and publishing undertaking.
Gomułka made efforts, largely unsuccessful, to secure for the PPR cooperation of other political forces in occupied Poland. Bierut was indifferent to any such attempts and counted simply on compulsion provided by a future presence of the Red Army in Poland. The different strategies resulted in a sharp conflict between the two communist politicians.
State National Council, Polish Committee of National Liberation
In the fall of 1943, the PPR leadership began discussing the creation of a Polish quasi-parliamentary, communist-led body, to be named the State National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa, KRN). After the Battle of Kursk the expectation was of a Soviet victory and liberation of Poland and the PPR wanted to be ready to assume power. Gomułka came up with the idea of a national council and imposed his point of view on the rest of the leadership. The PPR intended to obtain consent from the Comintern leader and their Soviet contact Georgi Dimitrov. However, in November the Gestapo arrested Finder and Małgorzata Fornalska, who possessed the secret codes for communication with Moscow and the Soviet response remained unknown. In the absence of Finder, on 23 November Gomułka was elected general secretary (chief) of the PPR and Bierut joined the three-person inner leadership.
The founding meeting of the State National Council took place in the late evening of 31 December 1943. The new body's chairman Bierut was becoming Gomułka's main rival. In mid-January 1944 Dimitrov was finally informed of the KRN's existence, which surprised both him and the Polish communist leaders in Moscow, increasingly led by Jakub Berman, who had other, competing ideas concerning the establishment of a Polish communist ruling party and government.
Gomułka felt that the Polish communists in occupied Poland had a better understanding of Polish realities than their brethren in Moscow and that the State National Council should determine the shape of the future executive government of Poland. Nevertheless, to gain Soviet approval and to clear any misunderstandings a KRN delegation left Warsaw in mid-March heading for Moscow, where it arrived two months later. By that time Stalin concluded that the existence of the KRN was a positive development and the Poles arriving from Warsaw were received and greeted by him and other Soviet dignitaries. The Union of Polish Patriots and the Central Bureau of Polish Communists in Moscow were now under pressure to recognize the primacy of the PPR, the KRN and Władysław Gomułka, which they ultimately did only in mid-July.
On 20 July, the Soviet forces under Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky forced their way across the Bug River and on that same day the combined meeting of Polish communists from the Moscow and Warsaw factions finalized the arrangements regarding the establishment (on 21 July) of the Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN), a temporary government headed by Edward Osóbka-Morawski, a socialist allied with the communists. Gomułka and other PPR leaders left Warsaw and headed for the Soviet-controlled territory, arriving in Lublin on 1 August, the day the Warsaw Uprising erupted in the Polish capital.
Post-war political career
Role in communist takeover of Poland
Gomułka was a deputy prime minister in the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland (Rząd Tymczasowy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej), from January to June 1945, and in the Provisional Government of National Unity (Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej), from 1945 to 1947. As a minister of Recovered Territories (1945–48), he exerted great influence over the rebuilding, integration and economic progress of Poland within its new borders, by supervising the settlement, development and administration of the lands acquired from Germany. Using his position in the PPR and government, Gomułka led the leftist social transformations in Poland and participated in the crushing of the resistance to communist rule during the post-war years. He also helped the communists in winning the 3 x Tak (3 Times Yes) referendum of 1946. A year later, he played a key role in the 1947 parliamentary elections, which were fraudulently arranged to give the communists and their allies an overwhelming victory. After the elections, all remaining legal opposition in Poland was effectively destroyed, and Gomułka was now the most powerful man in Poland. In June 1948, because of the impending unification of the PPR and PPS, Gomułka delivered a talk on the subject of the history of the Polish worker movement.
In a memo written to Stalin in 1948, Gomułka argued that "some of the Jewish comrades don’t feel any link to the Polish nation or to the Polish working class…or they maintain a stance which might be described as ‘national nihilism’". As a result, he considered it "absolutely necessary not only to stop any further growth in the percentage of Jews in the state as well as the party apparatus, but also to slowly lower that percentage, especially at the highest levels of the apparatus". Nikita Khrushchev, who was intimately involved in Polish affairs in the 1940s, according to Khrushchev′s memoirs, believed that Gomułka had a valid point in opposing the personnel policies pursued by Roman Zambrowski, Jakub Berman, and Hilary Minc, all of them of Jewish descent and brought to Poland from Stalin′s Russia. Nevertheless, Khrushchev attributed Gomułka′s subsequent downfall to his rivals having succeeded in portraying Gomułka as being pro-Yugoslav; the charges were not made public but were brought to Stalin′s attention and became crucial in his decision-making on whose side he would support — in view of the Soviet–Yugoslavia rift that occurred in 1948.
Temporary withdrawal from politics
In the late 1940s, Poland's communist government was split by a rivalry between Gomułka and President Bolesław Bierut. Gomułka led a home national group while Bierut headed a group reared by Stalin in the Soviet Union. The struggle ultimately led to Gomułka's removal from power in 1948. While Bierut advocated a policy of complete subservience to Moscow, Gomułka wanted to adapt the Communist blueprint to Polish circumstances. Among other things, he opposed forced collectivization and was skeptical of the Cominform. The Bierut faction had Stalin's ear, and on Stalin's orders, Gomułka was sacked as party leader for "rightist-nationalist deviation," replaced by Bierut. In December, soon after the PPR and Polish Socialist Party merged to form Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) (which was essentially the PPR under a new name), Gomułka was dropped from the merged party's Politburo. He was stripped of his remaining government posts in January 1949 and expelled from the party altogether in November. For the next eight years, he performed no official functions and was subjected to persecution, including almost four years of imprisonment from 1951 to 1954.
Bierut died in March 1956, during a period of de-Stalinization in Poland which gradually developed after Stalin's death. Edward Ochab became the new first secretary of the Party. Soon afterward, Gomułka was partially rehabilitated when Ochab conceded that Gomułka should not have been jailed, while reiterating the charges of "rightist-nationalist deviation" against him.
Rise to power
In June 1956, violent worker protests broke out in Poznań. The worker riots were harshly suppressed and dozens of workers were killed. However, the Party leadership, which now included many reform-minded officials, recognized to some degree the validity of the protest participants' demands and took steps to placate the workers.
The reformers in the Party wanted a political rehabilitation of Gomułka and his return to the Party leadership. Gomułka insisted that he be given real power to implement further reforms. He wanted a replacement of some of the Party leaders, including the pro-Soviet Minister of Defense Konstantin Rokossovsky.
The Soviet leadership viewed events in Poland with alarm. Simultaneously with Soviet troop movements deep into Poland, a high-level Soviet delegation flew to Warsaw. It was led by Nikita Khrushchev and included Mikoyan, Bulganin, Molotov, Kaganovich, Marshal Konev and others. Ochab and Gomułka made it clear that Polish forces would resist if Soviet troops advanced, but reassured the Soviets that the reforms were internal matters and that Poland had no intention of abandoning the communist bloc or its treaties with the Soviet Union. The Soviets yielded.
Following the wishes of the majority of the Politburo members, First Secretary Ochab conceded and on 20 October the Central Committee brought Gomułka and several associates into the Politburo, removed others, and elected Gomułka as the first secretary of the Party. Gomułka, the former prisoner of the Stalinists, enjoyed wide popular support across the country, expressed by the participants of a massive street demonstration in Warsaw on 24 October. Seeing that Gomułka was popular with the Polish people, and given his insistence that he wanted to maintain the alliance with the Soviet Union and the presence of the Red Army in Poland, Khrushchev decided that Gomułka was a leader that Moscow could live with.
Leadership of the Polish People's Republic
Relations with other Eastern Bloc countries
A major factor that influenced Gomułka was the Oder-Neisse line issue. West Germany refused to recognize the Oder-Neisse line and Gomułka realized the fundamental instability of Poland's unilaterally imposed western border. He felt threatened by the revanchist statements put out by the Adenauer government and believed that the alliance with the Soviet Union was the only thing stopping the threat of a future German invasion. The new Party leader told the 8th Plenum of the PZPR on 19 October 1956 that: "Poland needs friendship with the Soviet Union more than the Soviet Union needs friendship with Poland... Without the Soviet Union we cannot maintain our borders with the West". The treaty with West Germany was negotiated and signed in December 1970. The German side recognized the post-World War II borders, which established a foundation for future peace, stability and cooperation in Central Europe.
During the events of the Prague Spring, Gomułka was one of the key leaders of the Warsaw Pact and supported Poland's participation in the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968.
Domestic policies
In 1967–68 Gomułka allowed outbursts of "anti-Zionist" political propaganda, which developed initially as a result of the Soviet bloc's frustration with the outcome of the Arab-Israeli Six-Day War. It turned out to be a thinly veiled anti-Semitic campaign and purge of the army, pursued primarily by others in the Party, but utilized by Gomułka to keep himself in power by shifting the attention of the populace from the stagnating economy and mismanagement. The result was the emigration of the majority of the remaining Polish citizens of Jewish origin. At that time he was also responsible for persecuting protesting students and toughening censorship of the media.
Resignation and retirement
In December 1970, economic difficulties led to price rises and subsequent protests. Gomułka along with his right-hand man Zenon Kliszko ordered the regular Army under General Bolesław Chocha, to shoot striking workers with automatic weapons in Gdańsk and Gdynia. Over 41 shipyard workers of the Baltic coast were killed in the ensuing police-state violence, while well over a thousand people were wounded. The events forced Gomułka's resignation and retirement. In a generational replacement of the ruling elite, Edward Gierek took over the Party leadership and tensions eased.
Gomułka's negative image in communist propaganda after his removal was gradually modified and some of his constructive contributions were recognized. He is seen as an honest and austere believer in the socialist system, who, unable to resolve Poland's formidable difficulties and satisfy mutually contradictory demands, grew more rigid and despotic later in his career. A heavy smoker, he died in 1982 at the age of 77 of lung cancer. Gomułka's memoirs were not published until 1994, long after his death, and five years after the collapse of the communist regime which he served and led.
The American journalist John Gunther described Gomułka in 1961 as being "professorial in manner, aloof, and angular, with a peculiar spry pepperiness".
Decorations and awards
:
Order of the Builders of People's Poland
Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Order of the Cross of Grunwald (1st class)
Partisan Cross
Medal "For Warsaw 1939-1945"
Medal Rodła
Other countries:
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France)
Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (Italy)
Order of Lenin (Soviet Union)
Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin" (Soviet Union)
See also
History of Poland (1945–89)
References
External links
1905 births
1982 deaths
People from Krosno
People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Communist Party of Poland politicians
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Polish Workers' Party politicians
Members of the Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party
Members of the State National Council
Members of the Polish Sejm 1947–1952
Members of the Polish Sejm 1957–1961
Members of the Polish Sejm 1961–1965
Members of the Polish Sejm 1965–1969
Members of the Polish Sejm 1969–1972
Polish atheists
Communist rulers
Collaborators with the Soviet Union
Antisemitism in Poland
Anti-intellectualism
International Lenin School alumni
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Grunwald, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of the Builders of People's Poland
Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1944–1989)
Recipients of the Order of the Banner of Work
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
People of the Cold War | [
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245680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell%20Taylor | Tell Taylor | William "Tell" Taylor (aka Tellie né Tell Roberts;(October 28, 1876 – November 23, 1937). Tell was born 28 October 1876 to Clarinda Jane Roberts (1854-1930) and John Asbury Taylor (1853-1928), on a farm near the Village of Vanlue, Amanda Township, Hancock County, Ohio. He was an American traveling vaudeville performer, tenor vocalist, playwright, music publisher, composer, and lyricist who had written over 200 popular songs. His biggest hit was "Down by the Old Mill Stream" from 1910, one of the most commercially successful Tin Pan Alley publications of the era. The song was published by Tell Taylor, Inc., which he had co-founded in 1907. Taylor performed vaudeville theaters and founded a Chicago music publishing house bearing his name. His other notable songs include "He Sleeps Beneath the Soil of France," "I Love You Best of All," "If Dreams Come True," "Little Old Home in the Valley," "Rock Me to Sleep in the Old Rocking Chair," "Some Day," and "When the Maple Leaves Were Falling." Taylor also wrote the Broadway comedies Tiger Lillee and In New York Town.
Career highlights
Theater
By 1892, at the age of 16, Taylor's name as a thespian began to be published in theater reviews of newspapers in and around New York, Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and Missouri. Among the plays of that year featuring Taylor was By Wits Outwitted, written by Edward Owings Towne, where Taylor played the audacious hero (Valentine Navaro), and Florence Modena playing the pretty heroine (Fernanda). Taylor also played the part of Bill Smith, a farm hand, in A Glimpse of Paradise, by Frank S. Pixley, a one-act play that often preceded the three-act By Wits Outwitted.
Music publishing and songwriting
Before launching his Chicago publishing firm in 1907, Taylor had co-founded one of the original Tin Pan Alley publishing houses in New York City with fellow composer, Ernest R. Ball, and former New York City Mayor who then was a state senator, James J. Walker. In 1918, Earl Kelly Smith (1886–1954), who had been affiliated with Taylor's Chicago publishing house since 1908, opened a branch in New York City. In Chicago, Taylor composed songs and ran his own sheet music publishing firm from 1907 to 1922.
Post publishing & singing
In 1922, Taylor sold his Chicago publishing firm and purchased a farm for his parents near his boyhood home, on the outskirts of Findlay, Ohio, and spent the rest of his life there. In May, he formally assigned his catalog to Forster Music Publishers, Inc,. 216 South Wabash Ave., Chicago, However, "Down By The Old Mill Stream," his top selling composition, was not assigned until 1931.
Death
In the Autumn of 1937, prior to embarking on a trip to California to discuss a motion picture about his life, Taylor entered a Chicago bar and ordered a drink. Tell sat at a table, put his head down to rest and died from a heart attack at the age of 61 on 23 November 1937 in Chicago. He was buried in Van Horn Cemetery, Findlay, Ohio.
Posthumous lawsuit over song
In 1937, when the original copyright for "Down By The Old Mill Stream" was expiring, Earl Kelly Smith (1886–1954) filed an application to renew the copyright as co-composer. The renewal was granted. Jerry Vogel Music Company began publishing it. Forster Music, which had acquired the rights to the song from the heirs of Tell Taylor, filed suit to stop Vogel from publishing the song. In 1944, a US District Court in New York ruled in favor of Forster.
Selected works
Popular songs
G.W. Setchell Publisher (George William Setchell; 1860–1923), Boston
"Tommy: Tell Me True," lyrics by Taylor, music by Don Ramsay (né Donald Howard Lee Ramsay; 1877–) (©1904)
Forster Music Publisher, Inc., Chicago
"Down by the Old Mill Stream" assigned (©1931)
"On The Banks of the Old Mill Stream," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1937)
Tell Taylor, Chicago
"Someday," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1908)
"If Dreams Are True," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1909)
"Flowers of Love," lyrics by Taylor, music by Earl Kelly Smith (1886–1954) (©1909)
"Down by the Old Mill Stream" (©),
"When We Were Sweethearts," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1911)
"Fare-Thee-Well," lyrics by Taylor, music by George Fairman (né George Wayne Fairman; 1881–1962) (©1911)
"The Roses of Erin," lyrics by Taylor & C. F. McNamara, music by Earl Kelly Smith (1886–1954) (©1911)
Copyright renewed 1939 by Earl Kelly Smith (1886–1954), Hollywood, California
"Buckwheat Cakes," lyrics by Taylor, music by Fred Sloop, Jr. (1883–1966) (©1911)
Copyright renewed 1939 by Fred Sloop, Jr. (1883–1966), Steubenville, Ohio
"Forty Years Ago," lyrics by Dave Nowlin (pseudonym of Dave N. Robinson), music by Taylor (©1911)
Copyright renewed 1939 by Dave N. Robinson, Austin, Texas
"When the Maple Leaves Were Falling," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1913)
Copyright renewed 1941 by Jesse Thornton Taylor, Jr. (1890–1956) Findlay, Ohio
"She Sold her Soul For the Sake of Gold," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1914)
"Don't Cry Little Girl, Don't Cry," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1914)
"I Love You Best of All," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1915)
"He Sleeps Beneath the Soil of France," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1917)
"When It's Rose Time In Old Virginia" ("I'll Be Coming Down Your Way"), lyrics & music by Taylor & Ray W. Fay (©1917)
"Tell Me Again You Love Me," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1917)
"We're In The Army Now," lyrics by Taylor & Ole Olsen, music by Isham Jones (©1917)
"When The Autumn Leaves Are Turning Gold," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1917)
"Down in Hindu Town," lyrics by Taylor, music by Fred Rose (©1919)
"I'm Going To Write You A Letter," lyrics & music by Taylor (©1919)
"Bless Your Little Heart," lyrics by Taylor, music by Isham Jones (©1919)
"On the Alamo," lyrics by Gilbert Keyes (aka Gus Kahn) and Joe Lyons, music by Isham Jones (©), assigned on to Forster Music Publisher, Inc.
"Rock Me To Sleep in an Old Rocking Chair" (©1926)
"Little Old Home in the Valley," lyrics & music by Taylor & Al Biship (pub. date unknown)
"When the Southern Moon is Swinging Low," lyrics & music by Taylor and Fay (©1916)
Taylor Music Corp., Chicago
"When The Sun Goes Down in Rainbow Land," lyrics by Taylor, music by Fred Rose. Arrangement by Harry L. Alford. (©1919)
Musical theater (vaudeville)
Tiger Lillies
In New York Town (1905)
Marriages
On November 4, 1907, Taylor married Buda Godman (née Helen Julia Godman; 1888–Unknown), the daughter of Otho and Julia Godman (née Conklin) of Chicago. Buda had met Taylor about two years prior when Taylor had been a dinner guest at the St. Joseph's Convent and Academy in Adrian, Michigan, where Helen had been attending school. Taylor had just started his songwriting career and was appearing with a traveling stage company in Adrian. Buda and Tell had become friends before dinner was over, but did not correspond afterward. Two years later, while attending the performance of "The Girl Question," by Howard, Adams, and Hough, at a theater in Chicago, Buda recognized Tell and sent a note to him backstage, and they became reacquainted. After spending time together lunching and dining during the following week, they met for dinner at a Chicago hotel, and sent for a judge to marry them in the hotel's parlor.
In 1910, Tell Taylor filed for divorce from Buda in Chicago. In late September of that year, the divorce was granted, with Tell accusing Buda of having "affinities" with other vaudevillains. In the divorce proceedings, Tell stated that "I married Buda when we both were drunk and I found out she was quite incapable of loyalty to anyone."
On July 8, 1913, Tell Taylor married again to Blanche Irene King (maiden; born 1887) in McLean County, Illinois. In 1921, Blanch filed for, and was granted a divorce from Tell Taylor in Chicago.
Selected performances
As cast member
Quincy Adams Sawyer, by Justin Adams and Charles Felton Pidgin
Academy of Music, New York
Opening night: Aug 07, 1902
Staged by John Stapleton
The Girl Question, by Joseph E. Howard, Frank R. Adams, and Will Hough
Milwaukee
La Salle Theater, Chicago
Opening night: August 17, 1907
Mort H. Singer (né Mortimer Henry Singer; 1876–1944), theater manager
External links
Tell Taylor webpage
References
1876 births
1937 deaths
Songwriters from Ohio
Vaudeville performers
People from Findlay, Ohio
People from Hancock County, Ohio | [
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245681 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Gierek | Edward Gierek | Edward Gierek (; 6 January 1913 – 29 July 2001) was a Polish Communist politician and de facto leader of Poland between 1970 and 1980. Gierek replaced Władysław Gomułka as First Secretary of the ruling Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) in the Polish People's Republic in 1970. He is known for opening communist Poland to the Western Bloc and for his economic policies based on foreign loans. He was removed from power after labour strikes led to the Gdańsk Agreement between the communist state and workers of the emerging Solidarity free trade union movement.
Born in Sosnowiec, Congress Poland, to a devoutly Catholic family, Gierek emigrated with his relatives to France at a young age. In 1934, he was deported to Poland for communist advocacy and campaigning, but subsequently moved to Belgium to work as a coal miner in Genk. As a result, he was proficient in French, which benefited in pursuing his future political career. During the Second World War, Gierek was active in the Belgian Resistance against the Germans. He returned to post-war Poland only in 1948 after spending 22 years abroad. In 1954, he became part of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) under Bolesław Bierut as a representative of the Silesian region. Known for his openness and public speaking, Gierek gradually emerged as one of the most respected and progressive politicians in the country, whilst becoming a strong opponent to more authoritarian Władysław Gomułka.
Gomułka was removed from office after the 1970 Polish protests were violently suppressed on his authority. In December 1970, Gierek was appointed the new First Secretary and de facto leader of the Polish People's Republic. The first years of his term were marked by industrialization as well as the improvement of living and working conditions. Having spent time in Western Europe, he opened communist Poland to new Western ideas and loosened the censorship, thus turning Poland into the most liberal country of the Eastern Bloc. The large sums of money lent by foreign creditors were directed at constructing blocks of flats and at creating heavy steel and coal industries in his native Silesia. In 1976, Gierek opened the first fully-operational Polish highway from Warsaw to Katowice, which colloquially bears his name to this day. However, by the end of the 1970s Poland submerged into economic decline. The country was so heavily indebted that rationing was introduced due to shortages as the government was unable to pay off the loans. In 1980, he allowed for the Solidarity trade union to appear in accordance with the Gdańsk Agreement, which formed a basis for workers' rights. Seen as a radical move to renounce communism, Gierek was removed from office like his predecessor.
Despite dragging Poland into financial and economic decline, Edward Gierek is fondly remembered for his patriotism and modernization policies; over 1.8 million flats were constructed to house the growing population, and he is also responsible for initiating the production of Fiat 126 in Poland and the erection of Warszawa Centralna railway station, the most modern European station at the time of its completion in 1975. Numerous aphorisms and sayings were popularized under his term, in particular the ones referring to the food shortages were later promoted by Ronald Reagan.
Youth and early career
Edward Gierek was born in Porąbka, now part of Sosnowiec, into a coal mining family. He lost his father to a mining accident in a pit at the age of four. His mother remarried and emigrated to northern France, where he lived from the age of 10 and worked in a coal mine from the age of 13. Gierek joined the French Communist Party in 1931 and in 1934 was deported to Poland for organizing a strike. After completing compulsory military service in Stryi in southeastern Poland (1934–1936), Gierek married Stanisława Jędrusik, but was unable to find employment. The Giereks went to Belgium, where Edward worked in the coal mines of Waterschei, contracting pneumoconiosis (black lung disease) in the process. In 1939 Gierek joined the Communist Party of Belgium. During the German occupation, he participated in communist anti-Nazi Belgian resistance activities. After the war Gierek remained politically active among the Polish immigrant community. He was a co-founder of the Belgian branch of the Polish Workers' Party (PPR) and a chairman of the National Council of Poles in Belgium.
Polish United Workers' Party activist
Gierek, who in 1948 was 35 and had spent 22 years abroad, was directed by the PPR authorities to return to Poland, which he did with his wife and their two sons. Working in the Katowice district PPR organization, in December 1948, as a Sosnowiec delegate he participated in the PPR-PPS unification congress, which resulted in the establishment of the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR). In 1949, he was designated for and attended a two-year higher party course in Warsaw, where he was judged to be poorly qualified for intellectual endeavors but highly motivated for party work. In 1951 Roman Zambrowski sent Gierek to a striking coal mine, charging him with restoring order. Gierek was able to resolve the situation using persuasion and a use of force was avoided. He was a member of the Sejm, Polish parliament, from 1952. During the II Congress of the PZPR (March 1954), he was elected a member of the party's Central Committee. As chief of the Central Committee's Heavy Industry Division, he worked directly under First Secretary Bolesław Bierut in Warsaw.
In March 1956, when Edward Ochab became the party's first secretary, Gierek became a secretary of the Central Committee, even though he publicly expressed doubts about his own qualifications. On 28 June 1956 he was sent to Poznań, where a workers' protest was taking place. Afterwards, delegated by the Politburo, he headed the commission charged with investigating the causes and course of the Poznań events. They presented their report on 7 July, blaming a hostile anti-socialist foreign inspired conspiracy that took advantage of worker discontent in Poznań enterprises. In July Gierek became a member of the PZPR Politburo, but lasted in that position only until October, when Władysław Gomułka replaced Ochab as first secretary. Nikita Khrushchev criticized Gomułka for not retaining Gierek in the Politburo; he remained a Central Committee secretary responsible for economic affairs, however. He would return to the Politburo in March 1959, at the III Congress of the PZPR.
Katowice industrial district leader
In March 1957, in addition to his Central Committee duties, Gierek became first secretary of the Katowice Voivodeship PZPR organization, and he kept this job until 1970. He created a personal power base in the Katowice region and became the nationally recognized leader of the young technocrat faction of the party. On the one hand Gierek was regarded as a pragmatic, non-ideological and economic progress-oriented manager, on the other he was known for his servile attitude toward the Soviet leaders, for whom he was a source of information concerning the PZPR and its personalities. Both the industrial supremacy of Gierek's well-run Upper Silesia territory and the special relationship with the Soviets he cultivated made many believe that Gierek was a likely successor to Gomułka.
The Warsaw University law professor Mieczysław Maneli who knew Gierek from 1960 onward wrote about him in 1971: "Edward Gierek is an old‐fashioned Communist, but without fanaticism or zealousness. His Marxism is encumbered by few dogmas. It is almost pragmatic. He believes profoundly in the leading role that history conferred upon Communist parties and lives by the maxim that a government should be strong and rule unshakably...Gierek's party nickname was “Tshombe,” and Silesia was the “Polish Katanga.” There he operated almost as a sovereign prince, a talented organizer with a real gift for finding efficient and loyal henchmen. All professions were represented in his court: engineers, economists, professors, writers, party apparatchiks and security agents".
Gierek may have tried to make his move during the 1968 Polish political crisis. Soon after the student rally on 8 March in Warsaw, on 14 March in Katowice he led a mass gathering of 100,000 party members from the entire province. He was the first Politburo member to speak publicly on the issue of the protests then taking place and later claimed that his motivation was to demonstrate support for Gomułka's rule, threatened by Mieczysław Moczar's intra-party conspiring. Gierek used strong language to condemn the purported "enemies of People's Poland" who were "disturbing the peaceful Silesian water". He showered them with propaganda epithets and alluded to their bones being crushed if they persevered in their attempts to turn the "nation" away from its "chosen course." Gierek was supposedly embarrassed when participants of the party conference in Warsaw on 19 March shouted his name along with that of Gomułka, as an expression of support. The 1968 events strengthened Gierek's position, also in the eyes of his sponsors in Moscow.
First secretary of the PZPR
When the 1970 Polish protests were violently suppressed, Gierek replaced Gomułka as first secretary of the party and had thus become the most powerful politician in Poland. In late January 1971, he put his new authority on the line and traveled to Szczecin and Gdańsk, to bargain personally with the striking workers. Consumer price increases that triggered the recent revolt were rescinded. Among Gierek's popular moves was the decision to rebuild the Royal Castle in Warsaw, destroyed during World War II and not included in the post-war restoration of the city's Old Town. State controlled media stressed his foreign upbringing and his fluency in the French language.
The arrival of the Gierek team meant the final generational replacement of the ruling communist elite, a process begun in 1968 under Gomułka. Many thousands of party activists, including important elder leaders with background in the prewar Communist Party of Poland, were removed from positions of responsibility and replaced with people whose careers formed after World War II. Much of the overhaul was accomplished during and after the VI Congress of the PZPR, convened in December 1971. The resulting governing class was one of the youngest in Europe. The role of the administration was expanded at the expense of the party, according to the maxim "the party leads, the government governs". Throughout the 1970s, the most highly visible member of the top leadership after Gierek was Prime Minister Piotr Jaroszewicz. From May 1971, Gierek's rival party politician Mieczysław Moczar was increasingly marginalized.
According to historian Krzysztof Pomian, early in his term Gierek abandoned the regime's long-standing practice of on-and-off confrontation with the Polish Catholic Church, and opted for cooperation. The policy resulted in a privileged position of the Church and its leaders for the duration of the communist rule in Poland. The Church markedly expanded its physical infrastructure and also became a crucial political third force, often involved in mediating conflict between the authorities and opposition activists.
Economic expansion and decline
Since the riots that brought down Gomułka were caused primarily by economic difficulties, Gierek promised economic reform and instituted a program to modernize industry and increase the availability of consumer goods. His "reform" was based primarily on large scale foreign borrowing, not accompanied by major systemic restructuring. The need for deeper reform was obscured by the investment boom the country was enjoying in the first half of the 1970s. The first secretary's good relations with Western leaders, especially France's Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and West Germany's Helmut Schmidt, were a catalyst for his receiving foreign aid and loans. Gierek is widely credited with opening Poland to political and economic influence from the Western Bloc. He himself extensively traveled abroad and received important foreign guests in Poland, including three presidents of the United States. Gierek also was trusted by Leonid Brezhnev, which meant that he was able to pursue his policies (globalization of Poland's economy) without much Soviet interference. He had readily granted the Soviets concessions that his predecessor Gomułka would consider contrary to the Polish national interest.
Standard of living increased markedly in Poland in the first half of the 1970s, and for a time Gierek was hailed as a miracle-worker. Poles, to an unprecedented degree, were able to purchase desired consumer items such as compact cars, travel to the West rather freely, and even a solution to the intractable housing supply problem seemed to be on the horizon. Decades later many remembered the period as the most prosperous in their lives. The economy, however, began to falter during the 1973 oil crisis, and by 1976 price increases became necessary. The June 1976 protests were brutally suppressed by police, but the planned price increases were canceled. The greatest accumulation of foreign debt occurred in the late 1970s, as the regime struggled to counter the effects of the crisis.
Crisis, protests, organized opposition
The period of Gierek's rule is notable for the rise of organized opposition in Poland. Changes in the constitution, proposed by the regime, caused considerable controversy at the turn of 1975 and 1976. The intended amendments included formalizing the "socialist character of the state", the leading role of the PZPR and the Polish-Soviet alliance. The widely opposed alterations resulted in numerous protest letters and other actions, but were supported at the VII Congress of the PZPR in December 1975 and largely implemented by the Sejm in February 1976. Organized opposition circles developed gradually and reached 3000–4000 members by the end of the decade.
Because of the deteriorating economic situation, at the end of 1975 the authorities announced that the 1971 freeze in food prices would have to be lifted. Prime Minister Jaroszewicz forced the price rises, in combination with financial compensation favoring upper income brackets; the policy ultimately was adopted despite strong objections voiced by the Soviet leadership. The increase, supported by Gierek, was announced by Jaroszewicz in the Sejm on 24 June 1976. Strikes broke out the following day, with particularly serious disturbances, brutally suppressed by police, taking place in Radom, at Warsaw's Ursus Factory and in Płock. On 26 June, Gierek engaged in the traditional party crisis-confronting mode of operation, ordering mass public gatherings in Polish cities to demonstrate people's supposed support for the party and condemn the "trouble makers".
Ordered by Brezhnev not to attempt any further manipulations with prices, Gierek and his government undertook other measures to rescue the market destabilized in the summer of 1976. In August, sugar "merchandise coupons" were introduced to ration the product. The politics of "dynamic development" was over, as evidenced by such ration cards, which would remain a part of Poland's daily reality until July 1989.
In the aftermath of the June 1976 protests, a major opposition group, the Workers' Defence Committee (KOR), commenced its activities in September to help the persecuted worker protest participants. Other opposition organizations were also established in 1977–79, but historically the KOR proved to be of particular importance.
In 1979, Poland's ruling communists reluctantly allowed Pope John Paul II to make his first papal visit to Poland (2–10 June), despite Soviet advice to the contrary. Gierek, who had previously met Pope Paul VI at the Vatican, talked with the Pope on the occasion of his visit.
Downfall
Although Gierek, distressed by the 1976 price increase policy failure, was persuaded by his colleagues not to resign, divisions within his team intensified. One faction, led by Edward Babiuch and Piotr Jaroszewicz, wanted him to remain at the helm, while another, led by Stanisław Kania and Wojciech Jaruzelski, was less interested in preserving his leadership.
In May 1980, after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the subsequent Western boycott of the Soviet Union, Gierek arranged a meeting between Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and Leonid Brezhnev in Warsaw. As was the case with Władysław Gomułka a decade earlier, a foreign policy success created an illusion that the Polish party leader was secure in his statesman aura, while the paramount political facts were being determined by the deteriorating economic situation and the resultant labor unrest. In July Gierek went to the Crimea, his usual vacation spot. For the last time he talked there with his friend Brezhnev. He responded to Brezhnev's gloomy assessment of the situation in Poland (including the out-of-control indebtedness) with his own upbeat predictions, possibly not fully cognizant of the country's, and his own, predicament.
High foreign debts, food shortages, and an outmoded industrial base were among the factors that forced a new round of economic reforms. Once again, in the summer of 1980 price increases set off protests across the country, especially in the Gdańsk and Szczecin shipyards. Unlike on previous occasions, the regime decided not to resort to force to suppress the strikes. In the Gdańsk Agreement and other accords reached with Polish workers, Gierek was forced to concede their right to strike, and the Solidarity labor union was born.
Shortly thereafter, in early September 1980, he was replaced by the Central Committee's VI Plenum as party first secretary by Stanisław Kania and removed from power. A popular and trusted leader in the early 1970s, Gierek left surrounded by infamy and ridicule, deserted by most of his collaborators. The VII Plenum in December 1980 held Gierek and Jaroszewicz personally liable for the situation in the country and removed them from the Central Committee. The extraordinary IX Congress of the PZPR, in an unprecedented move, voted in July 1981 to expel Gierek and his close associates from the party, as the delegates considered them responsible for the Solidarity-related crisis in Poland, and First Secretary Kania was unable to prevent their action. The next first secretary of the PZPR, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, introduced martial law in Poland on 13 December 1981. Gierek was interned for a year from December 1981. Unlike the (also-interned) opposition activists, the internment status brought Gierek no social respect. He ended his political career as the era's main pariah.
Edward Gierek died in July 2001 of the miner's lung illness in a hospital in Cieszyn, near the southern mountain resort of Ustroń where he spent his last years. From the perspective of time his rule was now seen in a more positive light and over ten thousand people attended his funeral.
With his lifelong wife, Stanisława née Jędrusik, Gierek had two sons, one of whom is MEP Adam Gierek.
Legacy
In 1990 two books, based on extended interviews with Gierek by Janusz Rolicki, were published in Poland and became bestsellers.
Polish society is divided in its assessment of Gierek. His government is fondly remembered by some for the improved living standards the Poles enjoyed in the 1970s under his rule. Uniquely among the PZPR leaders, the Polish public has shown signs of Gierek nostalgia, discernible especially after the former first secretary's death.
Others emphasize that the improvements were only made possible by the unwise and unsustainable policies based on huge foreign loans, which led directly to the economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s. Judged by hindsight, the total sum of over 24 billion borrowed (in 1970s dollars) was not well-spent.
Upon becoming first secretary in December 1970, Gierek promised himself that under his watch people would not be shot on streets. In 1976 the security forces did intervene in strikes, but only after giving up their firearms. In 1980, they did not use force at all.
According to sociologist and left-wing politician Maciej Gdula, the social and cultural transformation that took place in Poland in the 1970s was even more fundamental than the one which occurred in the 1990s, following the political transition. Regarding the politics of alliance of the political and later also money elites with the middle class at the expense of the working class, he said "the general idea of the relationship of forces in our society has remained the same from the 1970s, and the period of mass solidarity was an exception" ("mass solidarity" being the years 1980–81). Since the time of Gierek, Polish society has been hegemonized by cultural perceptions and norms of the (at that time emerging) middle class. Terms like management, initiative, personality, or the individualistic maxim "get educated, work hard and get ahead in life", combined with orderliness, replaced class consciousness and the socialist egalitarian concept, as workers were losing their symbolic status, to be eventually separated into a marginalized stratum.
Decorations and awards
Poland
Foreign Awards
See also
History of Poland (1945–89)
References
External links
Edward Gierek, Polish Leader from Decade 1970–1980
1913 births
2001 deaths
People from Sosnowiec
People from Piotrków Governorate
French Communist Party members
Polish Workers' Party politicians
Members of the Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party
Members of the Polish Sejm 1952–1956
Members of the Polish Sejm 1957–1961
Members of the Polish Sejm 1961–1965
Members of the Polish Sejm 1965–1969
Members of the Polish Sejm 1969–1972
Members of the Polish Sejm 1972–1976
Members of the Polish Sejm 1976–1980
Members of the Polish Sejm 1980–1985
Recipients of the Order of the Builders of People's Poland
Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Gold Cross of Merit (Poland)
Recipients of the Order of the Banner of Work
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur | [
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245682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard%20Libby | Willard Libby | Willard Frank Libby (December 17, 1908 – September 8, 1980) was an American physical chemist noted for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating, a process which revolutionized archaeology and palaeontology. For his contributions to the team that developed this process, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960.
A 1931 chemistry graduate of the University of California, Berkeley, from which he received his doctorate in 1933, he studied radioactive elements and developed sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity. During World War II he worked in the Manhattan Project's Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories at Columbia University, developing the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment.
After the war, Libby accepted professorship at the University of Chicago's Institute for Nuclear Studies, where he developed the technique for dating organic compounds using carbon-14. He also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water, and therefore wine. In 1950, he became a member of the General Advisory Committee (GAC) of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). He was appointed a commissioner in 1954, becoming its sole scientist. He sided with Edward Teller on pursuing a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb, participated in the Atoms for Peace program, and defended the administration's atmospheric nuclear testing.
Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 to become Professor of Chemistry at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), a position he held until his retirement in 1976. In 1962, he became the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP). He started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972, and as a member of the California Air Resources Board, he worked to develop and improve California's air pollution standards.
Early life and career
Willard Frank Libby was born in Grand Valley, Colorado, on December 17, 1908, the son of farmers Ora Edward Libby and his wife Eva May (née Rivers). He had two brothers, Elmer and Raymond, and two sisters, Eva and Evelyn. Libby began his education in a two-room Colorado schoolhouse. When he was five, Libby's parents moved to Santa Rosa, California. He attended Analy High School, in Sebastopol, from which he graduated in 1926. Libby, who grew to be tall, played tackle on the high school football team.
In 1927 he entered the University of California, Berkeley, where he received his B.S. in 1931, and his Ph.D. in 1933, writing his doctoral thesis on the "Radioactivity of ordinary elements, especially samarium and neodymium: method of detection" under the supervision of Wendell Mitchell Latimer. Independently of the work of George de Hevesy and Max Pahl, he discovered that the natural long-lived isotopes of samarium primarily decay by emission of alpha particles.
Libby was appointed Instructor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1933. He became an assistant professor of Chemistry there in 1938. He spent the 1930s building sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity. He joined Berkeley's chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma in 1941. That year he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, and elected to work at Princeton University.
Manhattan Project
On December 8, 1941, the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II, Libby volunteered his services to Nobel Prize laureate Harold Urey. Urey arranged for Libby to be given leave from the University of California, Berkeley and to join him at Columbia University to work on the Manhattan Project, the wartime project to develop atomic bombs, at what became its Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories. During his time in the New York City area, Libby was a resident of Leonia, New Jersey.
Over the next three years, Libby worked on the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment. An atomic bomb required fissile material, and the fissile uranium-235 made up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. The SAM Laboratories therefore had to find a way of separating kilograms of it from the more abundant uranium-238. Gaseous diffusion worked on the principle that a lighter gas diffuses through a barrier faster than a heavier one at a rate inversely proportional to its molecular weight. But the only known gas containing uranium was the highly corrosive uranium hexafluoride, and a suitable barrier was hard to find.
Through 1942, Libby and his team studied different barriers and the means to protect them from corrosion from the uranium hexafluoride. The most promising type was a barrier made of powdered nickel developed by Edward O. Norris of the Jelliff Manufacturing Corporation and Edward Adler from the City College of New York, which became known as the "Norris-Adler" barrier by late 1942.
In addition to developing a suitable barrier, the SAM Laboratories also had to assist in the design of a gaseous separation plant, which became known as K-25. Libby helped with the engineers from Kellex to produce a workable design for a pilot plant. Libby conducted a series of tests that indicated that the Norris-Adler barrier would work, and he remained confident that with an all-out effort, the remaining problems with it could be solved. Although doubts remained, construction work began on the K-25 full-scale production plant in September 1943.
As 1943 gave way to 1944, many problems remained. Tests began on the machinery at K-25 in April 1944 without a barrier. Attention turned to a new process developed by Kellex. Finally, in July 1944, Kellex barriers began to be installed in K-25. K-25 commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased. By April 1945, K-25 had attained a 1.1% enrichment. Uranium partially enriched in K-25 was fed into the calutrons at Y-12 to complete the enrichment process.
Construction of the upper stages of the K-25 plant was cancelled, and Kellex was directed to instead design and build a 540-stage side feed unit, which became known as K-27. The last of K-25's 2,892 stages commenced operation in August 1945. On August 5, K-25 starting producing feed enriched to 23 percent uranium-235. K-25 and K-27 achieved their full potential only in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants. Enriched uranium was used in the Little Boy bomb employed in the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Libby brought home a stack of newspapers and told his wife, "This is what I've been doing."
Radiocarbon dating
After the war, Libby accepted an offer from the University of Chicago of a professorship in the Chemistry Department at the new Institute for Nuclear Studies. He returned to his pre-war studies of radioactivity. In 1939, Serge Korff had discovered that cosmic rays generated neutrons in the upper atmosphere. These interact with nitrogen-14 in the air to produce carbon-14:
1n + 14N → 14C + 1p
The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730±40 years. Libby realized that when plants and animals die they cease to ingest fresh carbon-14, thereby giving any organic compound a built-in nuclear clock. He published his theory in 1946, and expanded on it in his monograph Radiocarbon Dating in 1955. He also developed sensitive radiation detectors that could use the technique. Tests against sequoia with known dates from their tree rings showed radiocarbon dating to be reliable and accurate. The technique revolutionised archaeology, palaeontology and other disciplines that dealt with ancient artefacts. In 1960, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science". He also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water, and therefore wine.
Atomic Energy Commission
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Chairman Gordon Dean appointed Libby to its influential General Advisory Committee (GAC) in 1950. In 1954, he was appointed an AEC commissioner by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on the recommendation of Dean's successor, Lewis Strauss. Libby and his family moved from Chicago to Washington, D.C. He brought with him a truckload of scientific equipment, which he used to establish a laboratory at the Carnegie Institution there to continue his studies of amino acids. Staunchly conservative politically, he was one of the few scientists who sided with Edward Teller rather than Robert Oppenheimer during the debate on whether it was wise to pursue a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb. As a commissioner, Libby played an important role in promoting Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace program, and was part of the United States delegation at the Geneva Conferences on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in 1955 and 1958.
As the only scientist among the five AEC commissioners, it fell to Libby to defend the Eisenhower administration's stance on atmospheric nuclear testing. He argued that the dangers of radiation from nuclear tests were less than that from chest X-rays, and therefore less important than the risk of having an inadequate nuclear arsenal, but his arguments failed to convince the scientific community or reassure the public. In January 1956, he publicly revealed the existence of Project Sunshine, a series of research studies to ascertain the impact of radioactive fallout on the world's population that he had initiated in 1953 while serving on the GAC. By 1958, even Libby and Teller were supporting limits on atmospheric nuclear testing.
UCLA
Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959, he became Professor of Chemistry at University of California, Los Angeles, a position he held until his retirement in 1976. He taught honors freshman chemistry. In 1962, he became the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP), a position he also held until 1976. His time as director encompassed the Apollo space program and the lunar landings.
Libby started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972. As a member of the California Air Resources Board, he worked to develop and improve California's air pollution standards. He established a research program to investigate heterogeneous catalysis with the idea of reducing emissions from motor vehicles through more complete fuel combustion. The election of Richard Nixon as president in 1968 generated speculation that Libby might be appointed as Presidential Science Advisor. There was a storm of protest from scientists who felt that Libby was too conservative, and the offer was not made.
Although Libby retired and became a professor emeritus in 1976, he remained professionally active until his death in 1980.
Awards and honors
Libby was an elected member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received numerous honors and awards, including Columbia University's Chandler Medal in 1954, the Remsen Memorial Lecture Award in 1955, the Bicentennial Lecture Award from the City College of New York and the Nuclear Applications in Chemistry Award in 1956, the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1957, the American Chemical Society's Willard Gibbs Award in 1958, the Joseph Priestley Award from Dickinson College and the Albert Einstein Medal in 1959, the Geological Society of America's Arthur L. Day Medal in 1961, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1961, the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Chemists in 1970, and the Lehman Award from the New York Academy of Sciences in 1971. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1950. Analy High School library has a mural of Libby, and a Sebastopol city park and a nearby highway are named in his honor. His 1947 paper on radiocarbon dating was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the University of Chicago in 2016.
Personal
In 1940, Libby married Leonor Hickey, a physical education teacher. They had twin daughters, Janet Eva and Susan Charlotte, who were born in 1945.
In 1966 Libby divorced Leonor and married Leona Woods Marshall, a distinguished nuclear physicist who was one of the original builders of Chicago Pile-1, the world's first nuclear reactor. She joined him at UCLA as a professor of environmental engineering in 1973. Through this second marriage he acquired two stepsons, the children of her first marriage.
Libby died at the UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles on September 8, 1980, from a blood clot in his lung complicated by pneumonia. His papers are in the Charles E. Young Research Library at the UCLA. Seven volumes of his papers were edited by Leona and Rainer Berger and published in 1981.
Bibliography
Libby, Willard F., Radiocarbon dating, 2d ed., University of Chicago Press, 1955.
(7 volumes)
Notes
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1960 Radiocarbon Dating
1908 births
1980 deaths
American physical chemists
American Nobel laureates
Columbia University people
Manhattan Project people
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
People from Grand Junction, Colorado
People from Leonia, New Jersey
People from Sebastopol, California
University of California, Berkeley alumni
UC Berkeley College of Chemistry faculty
Columbia University faculty
University of Chicago faculty
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Rare earth scientists
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy | [
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245686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritz%20Crackers | Ritz Crackers | Ritz Crackers is a brand of snack cracker introduced by Nabisco in 1934. The original style crackers are disc-shaped, lightly salted, and approximately in diameter.. Each cracker has seven perforations and a finely scalloped edge. Today, the Ritz cracker brand is owned by Mondelēz International.
A single serving of the original cracker (about 5 crackers or 15 grams) provides of food energy, 1 gram of protein, and 4 grams of fat; the whole wheat variety provides and 2.5 grams of fat.
History
In the early 1900s, the Jackson Cracker company of Jackson, Michigan, developed a small, round cracker called the Jaxon. When the company was bought out by Nabisco in 1919, corporate executives changed the name of the cracker to Ritz and made their first addition by adding a cheese-filled centre creating the well-known Ritz Cracker.
Nabisco introduced the Ritz Cracker in 1934. Looking to compete with the similar Hi Ho cracker made by their competitor Sunshine Biscuits, they tasked an employee, Sydney Stern, to create a name and a marketing plan. Stern chose the name 'Ritz', which appealed to individuals enduring the privations of the Great Depression by offering them "a bite of the good life". He also designed the blue circle/yellow lettering logo design, inspired by the round label inside his hat. In 2011, Ritz was identified in a YouGov poll as the "best perceived snack brand" among American consumers.
A cartoon drawing of a box of Ritz Crackers can be seen in Mickey’s Surprise Party (1939), an animated theatrical advertisement/cartoon short produced by Walt Disney Productions for Nabisco.
United States
Ritz Crackers varieties include Original, Roasted Vegetable, Honey Wheat, Garlic Butter, Reduced Fat, Hint of Salt, Whole Wheat, Everything and Ritz Fresh Stacks.
They are also available as sandwiches with peanut butter and cheddar cheese.
International
Ritz Crackers are available in the United Kingdom and Ireland in three varieties: Original and Cheese flavour are sold in 200 g boxes, and Ritz Cheese Sandwich (a cheese spread sandwiched between two Ritz Crackers) is available in 125 g roll packs and 33 g snack packs.
Ritz Crackers are available as dippers for Dairylea Dunkers and Philadelphia Snack. Ritz Crackers are also available as part of a confectionery product made by Cadbury in which the crackers form a sandwich filled with Cadbury Dairy Milk chocolate.
See also
List of crackers
References
External links
Products introduced in 1934
Nabisco brands
Brand name crackers
Mondelez International brands | [
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245688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse%20Laplace%20transform | Inverse Laplace transform | In mathematics, the inverse Laplace transform of a function F(s) is the piecewise-continuous and exponentially-restricted real function f(t) which has the property:
where denotes the Laplace transform.
It can be proven that, if a function F(s) has the inverse Laplace transform f(t), then f(t) is uniquely determined (considering functions which differ from each other only on a point set having Lebesgue measure zero as the same). This result was first proven by Mathias Lerch in 1903 and is known as Lerch's theorem.
The Laplace transform and the inverse Laplace transform together have a number of properties that make them useful for analysing linear dynamical systems.
Mellin's inverse formula
An integral formula for the inverse Laplace transform, called the Mellin's inverse formula, the Bromwich integral, or the Fourier–Mellin integral, is given by the line integral:
where the integration is done along the vertical line Re(s) = γ in the complex plane such that γ is greater than the real part of all singularities of F(s) and F(s) is bounded on the line, for example if the contour path is in the region of convergence. If all singularities are in the left half-plane, or F(s) is an entire function , then γ can be set to zero and the above inverse integral formula becomes identical to the inverse Fourier transform.
In practice, computing the complex integral can be done by using the Cauchy residue theorem.
Post's inversion formula
Post's inversion formula for Laplace transforms, named after Emil Post, is a simple-looking but usually impractical formula for evaluating an inverse Laplace transform.
The statement of the formula is as follows: Let f(t) be a continuous function on the interval [0, ∞) of exponential order, i.e.
for some real number b. Then for all s > b, the Laplace transform for f(t) exists and is infinitely differentiable with respect to s. Furthermore, if F(s) is the Laplace transform of f(t), then the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) is given by
for t > 0, where F(k) is the k-th derivative of F with respect to s.
As can be seen from the formula, the need to evaluate derivatives of arbitrarily high orders renders this formula impractical for most purposes.
With the advent of powerful personal computers, the main efforts to use this formula have come from dealing with approximations or asymptotic analysis of the Inverse Laplace transform, using the Grunwald–Letnikov differintegral to evaluate the derivatives.
Post's inversion has attracted interest due to the improvement in computational science and the fact that it is not necessary to know where the poles of F(s) lie, which make it possible to calculate the asymptotic behaviour for big x using inverse Mellin transforms for several arithmetical functions related to the Riemann hypothesis.
Software tools
InverseLaplaceTransform performs symbolic inverse transforms in Mathematica
Numerical Inversion of Laplace Transform with Multiple Precision Using the Complex Domain in Mathematica gives numerical solutions
ilaplace performs symbolic inverse transforms in MATLAB
Numerical Inversion of Laplace Transforms in Matlab
Numerical Inversion of Laplace Transforms based on concentrated matrix-exponential functions in Matlab
See also
Inverse Fourier transform
Poisson summation formula
References
Further reading
(p. 662 or search Index for "Bromwich Integral", a nice explanation showing the connection to the Fourier transform)
Elementary inversion of the Laplace transform. Bryan, Kurt. Accessed June 14, 2006.
External links
Tables of Integral Transforms at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
Transforms
Complex analysis
Integral transforms
Laplace transforms | [
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245692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive | Reflexive | Reflexive may refer to:
In fiction:
Metafiction
In grammar:
Reflexive pronoun, a pronoun with a reflexive relationship with its self-identical antecedent
Reflexive verb, where a semantic agent and patient are the same
In mathematics and computer science:
Reflexive relation, a relation where elements of a set are self-related
Reflexive user interface, an interface that permits its own command verbs and sometimes underlying code to be edited
Reflexive operator algebra, an operator algebra that has enough invariant subspaces to characterize it
Reflexive space, a subset of Banach spaces
Reflexive bilinear form, a bilinear form for which the order of a pair of vectors does not affect whether it evaluates to zero.
In biology
Reflexive antagonism, the phenomenon by which muscles with opposing functions tend to antagonistically inhibit each other.
Other uses:
Reflexive Entertainment, a video game developer
Reflexivity (social theory), a concept in social theory relating to the capacity of an individual agent to act against influences of socialization and social structure
See also
Reflection (disambiguation)
Reflections (disambiguation) | [
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245693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilroy%20was%20here | Kilroy was here | Kilroy was here is a meme that became popular during World War II, typically seen in graffiti. Its origin is debated, but the phrase and the distinctive accompanying doodle became associated with GIs in the 1940s: a bald-headed man (sometimes depicted as having a few hairs) with a prominent nose peeking over a wall with his fingers clutching the wall.
"Kilroy" was the American equivalent of the Australian "Foo was here" which originated during World War I. "Mr Chad" or just "Chad" was the version that became popular in the United Kingdom. The character of Chad may have been derived from a British cartoonist in 1938, possibly pre-dating "Kilroy was here". According to Dave Wilton, "Some time during the war, Chad and Kilroy met, and in the spirit of Allied unity merged, with the British drawing appearing over the American phrase." Other names for the character include Smoe, Clem, Flywheel, Private Snoops, Overby, Eugene the Jeep, and Sapo.
According to Charles Panati, "The outrageousness of the graffiti was not so much what it said, but where it turned up." It is not known if there was an actual person named Kilroy who inspired the graffiti, although there have been claims over the years.
Origin and use of the phrase
The phrase may have originated through United States servicemen who would draw the picture and the text "Kilroy was here" on the walls and other places where they were stationed, encamped, or visited. An ad in Life magazine noted that WWII-era servicemen were fond of claiming that "whatever beach-head they stormed, they always found notices chalked up ahead of them, that 'Kilroy was here. Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable notes that it was particularly associated with the Air Transport Command, at least when observed in the United Kingdom. At some point, the graffiti (Chad) and slogan (Kilroy was here) must have merged.
Many sources claim origin as early as 1939. Earlier examples of the phrase dating from 1937 are unverified.
According to one story, German intelligence found the phrase on captured American equipment. This led Adolf Hitler to believe that Kilroy could be the name or codename of a high-level Allied spy. At the time of the Potsdam Conference in 1945, it was rumored that Stalin found "Kilroy was here" written in the VIP bathroom, prompting him to ask his aides who Kilroy was. War photographer Robert Capa noted a use of the phrase at Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944: "On the black, charred walls of an abandoned barn, scrawled in white chalk, was the legend of Gen. Anthony McAuliffe's soldiers: KILROY WAS STUCK HERE."
Foo was here
Digger History, the Unofficial history of the Australian & New Zealand Armed Services, says of Foo that "He was chalked on the side of railway carriages, appeared in probably every camp that the 1st AIF World War I served in and generally made his presence felt". If this is the case, then "Foo was here" predates the American version of World War II, "Kilroy was here", by about 25 years. "Foo" was thought of as a gremlin by the Royal Australian Air Force. It has been claimed that Foo came from the acronym for Forward Observation Officer.
Real Kilroys
The Oxford English Dictionary says simply that Kilroy was "the name of a mythical person".
One theory identifies James J. Kilroy (1902–1962), an American shipyard inspector, as the man behind the signature. James Kilroy had served on the Boston City Council and represented the Roxbury district in the Massachusetts Legislature during the 1930s. He worked at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy during the war checking the work of riveters paid by how many rivets they installed. Usually, inspectors made a small chalk mark which riveters used to erase, so that they would be paid double for their work. To prevent this, Kilroy marked work he had inspected and approved with the phrase "Kilroy was here" in more durable crayon.
More than 40 candidates claimed to have originated the phrase and cartoon in response to a 1946 contest conducted by the American Transit Association to establish the origin of the phenomenon. James Kilroy was credited after his claim was verified by shipyard officials and the riveters whose work he inspected. While Kilroy's marks might normally have been painted over, interior painting was a low priority in the rush to launch ships, so Kilroy's marks were seen by thousands of servicemen who sailed aboard troopships built at Quincy. A The New York Times article noted that Kilroy had marked the ships as they were being built as a way to be sure that he had inspected a compartment, and the phrase would be found chalked in places that nobody could have reached for graffiti, such as inside sealed hull spaces. Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable notes this as a possible origin, but suggests that "the phrase grew by accident."
The Lowell Sun reported in November 1945 that Sgt. Francis J. Kilroy Jr. from Everett, Massachusetts, wrote "Kilroy will be here next week" on a barracks bulletin board at a Boca Raton, Florida, airbase while ill with flu, and the phrase was picked up by other airmen and quickly spread abroad. The Associated Press similarly reported Sgt. Kilroy's account of being hospitalized early in World War II, and his friend Sgt. James Maloney wrote the phrase on a bulletin board. Maloney continued to write the shortened phrase when he was shipped out a month later, according to the AP account, and other airmen soon picked it up. Francis Kilroy only wrote the phrase a couple of times.
Chad
The figure was initially known in the United Kingdom as "Mr Chad" and would appear with the slogan "Wot, no sugar" or a similar phrase bemoaning shortages and rationing. He often appeared with a single curling hair that resembled a question mark and with crosses in his eyes. The phrase "Wot, no —?" pre-dates "Chad" and was widely used separately from the doodle. Chad was used by the RAF and civilians; he was known in the army as Private Snoops, and in the navy he was called The Watcher. Chad might have first been drawn by British cartoonist George Edward Chatterton in 1938. Chatterton was nicknamed "Chat", which may then have become "Chad". Life Magazine wrote in 1946 that the RAF and army were competing to claim him as their own invention, but they agreed that he had first appeared around 1944. The character resembles Alice the Goon, a character in Popeye who first appeared in 1933, and another name for Chad was "The Goon".
A spokesman for the Royal Air Force Museum London suggested in 1977 that Chad was probably an adaptation of the Greek letter Omega, used as the symbol for electrical resistance; his creator was probably an electrician in a ground crew. Life suggested that Chad originated with REME, and noted that a symbol for alternating current resembles Chad (a sine wave through a straight line), that the plus and minus signs in his eyes represent polarity, and that his fingers are symbols of electrical resistors. The character is usually drawn in Australia with pluses and minuses as eyes and the nose and eyes resemble a distorted sine wave. The Guardian suggested in 2000 that "Mr. Chad" was based on a diagram representing an electrical circuit. One correspondent said that a man named Dickie Lyle was at RAF Yatesbury in 1941, and he drew a version of the diagram as a face when the instructor had left the room and wrote "Wot, no leave?" beneath it. This idea was repeated in a submission to the BBC in 2005 which included a story of a 1941 radar lecturer in Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, who drew the circuit diagram with the words "WOT! No electrons?" The RAF Cranwell Apprentices Association says that the image came from a diagram of how to approximate a square wave using sine waves, also at RAF Yatesbury and with an instructor named Chadwick. This version was initially called Domie or Doomie, and Life noted that Doomie was used by the RAF. REME claimed that the name came from their training school, nicknamed "Chad's Temple"; the RAF claimed that it arose from Chadwick House at a Lancashire radio school; and the Desert Rats claimed that it came from an officer in El Alamein.
It is unclear how Chad gained widespread popularity or became conflated with Kilroy. It was, however, widely in use by the late part of the war and in the immediate post-war years, with slogans ranging from the simple "What, no bread?" or "Wot, no char?" to the plaintive; one sighting was on the side of a British 1st Airborne Division glider in Operation Market Garden with the complaint "Wot, no engines?" The Los Angeles Times reported in 1946 that Chad was "the No. 1 doodle", noting his appearance on a wall in the Houses of Parliament after the 1945 Labour election victory, with "Wot, no Tories?" Trains in Austria in 1946 featured Mr. Chad along with the phrase "Wot—no Fuehrer?"
As rationing became less common, so did the joke. The cartoon is occasionally seen today as "Kilroy was here", but "Chad" and his complaints have long fallen from popular use, although they continue to be seen occasionally on walls and in references in popular culture.
Smoe
Writing about the Kilroy phenomenon in 1946, The Milwaukee Journal describes the doodle as the European counterpart to "Kilroy was here", under the name Smoe. It also says that Smoe was called Clem in the African theater. It noted that next to "Kilroy was here" was often added "And so was Smoe". While Kilroy enjoyed a resurgence of interest after the war due to radio shows and comic writers, the name Smoe had already disappeared by the end of 1946. A B-24 airman writing in 1998 also noted the distinction between the character of Smoe and Kilroy (who he says was never pictured), and suggested that Smoe stood for "Sad men of Europe". Correspondents to Life magazine in 1962 also insisted that Clem, Mr. Chad or Luke the Spook was the name of the figure, and that Kilroy was unpictured. The editor suggested that the names were all synonymous early in the war, then later separated into separate characters.
Other names
Similar drawings appear in many countries. Herbie (Canada), Overby (Los Angeles, late 1960s), Flywheel, Private Snoops, The Jeep, and Clem (Canada) are alternative names. An advertisement in Billboard in November 1946 for plastic "Kilroys" also used the names Clem, Heffinger, Luke the Spook, Some, and Stinkie. Luke the Spook was the name of a B-29 bomber, and its nose-art resembles the doodle and is said to have been created at the Boeing factory in Seattle. In Chile, the graphic is known as a "sapo" (slang for nosy).
In Poland, Kilroy is replaced with "Józef Tkaczuk" or "M. Pulina". In Russia, the phrase "Vasya was here" () is a notorious piece of graffiti.
In popular culture
Kilroy has been seen in numerous television series and films, music and in computer and video games.
Peter Viereck wrote in 1948 that "God is like Kilroy. He, too, Sees it all." Also in 1948, "Kilroy was here" is scrawled on a moon rock in the Looney Tunes cartoon Haredevil Hare, which was incidentally the first on-screen appearance of Marvin the Martian.
Kilroy is seen scrawling "Kilroy is here" on a wall in Tennessee Williams's 1953 play Camino Real, which he revises to "was" before his final departure. Kilroy functions in the play as "a folk character...who here is a sort of Everyman." The graffiti appears on the cover of the first edition published by New Directions. Isaac Asimov's short story "The Message" (1955) depicts a time-travelling George Kilroy from the 30th century as the writer of the graffiti.
Thomas Pynchon's novel V. (1963) includes the proposal that the Kilroy doodle originated from a band-pass filter diagram. Ken Young wrote a parody of 'Twas the Night Before Christmas which was transmitted to Apollo 8 on December 25, 1968. It featured the lines "When what to his wondering eyes should appear, but a Burma-Shave sign saying, 'Kilroy was here'."
In the 1975 M*A*S*H episode "The Bus", Hawkeye Pierce (Alan Alda) writes "Kilroy" in a dust-encrusted bus window as B.J. Hunnicutt (Mike Farrell) peers out from behind the window, his hands and nose resting on its top edge.
Kilroy was also featured on New Zealand stamp #1422 issued on March 19, 1997.
In the opening credits of the 2009 American sitcom Community, two Kilroys are drawn in blue ink on the inside of a paper fortune teller, their noses forming the L's of lead actor Joel McHale's name.
Kilroy, also referred to as Mr. Chad, is featured in T. Kingfisher's 2019 novel The Twisted Ones.
Gallery
References
Further reading
External links
The Legends of "Kilroy Was Here" by Patrick Tillery
"What's the origin of 'Kilroy was here'?", The Straight Dope
On the legend from snopes.com
Chad drawn in an army album from 21 June 1944 by Ron Goldstein, with the caption "Wot! Leave again?" The album is now held at the Imperial War Museum.
American culture
Articles containing video clips
English phrases
Fore River Shipyard
Graffiti and unauthorised signage
Military history of the United States during World War II
Military humor
1940s neologisms
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245694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20Fire%20FC | Chicago Fire FC | Chicago Fire Football Club is an American professional soccer franchise based in Chicago. The team competes in Major League Soccer (MLS) as a member of the league's Eastern Conference, having moved to the conference in 2002.
The franchise named in memory of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, was founded as the Chicago Fire Soccer Club on October 8, 1997, the Great Fire's 126th anniversary. The team began play in 1998 as one of the league's first expansion teams. The Fire won the MLS Cup as well as the U.S. Open Cup (the "double") in their first season in 1998. They also won U.S. Open Cups in 2000, 2003, and 2006, in addition to the 2003 MLS Supporters' Shield. In 2015, the club won the first ever MLS Wooden Spoon, and repeated the feat in 2016.
The Fire maintains an extensive development system, consisting of the Chicago Fire Development Academy and the Chicago Fire Juniors youth organization. They also operate the Chicago Fire Foundation, the team's community-based charitable division. The Fire's home stadium is Soldier Field.
History
Overview
Chicago Fire FC was founded as Chicago Fire Soccer Club on October 8, 1997. The owner and chairman of the Fire is Joe Mansueto, who purchased the club in 2019. The club president is Ishwara Glassman-Chrein; Georg Heitz was appointed sporting director in December 2019; the chief operating officer is John Urban. The Fire were originally based at Soldier Field from 1997 to 2006. From 2006 to 2019, the club played at SeatGeek Stadium, a stadium originally built for the club, at 71st and Harlem Avenue in Bridgeview. In 2019, with the change of ownership to Joe Mansueto, the Fire are now set to return to Soldier Field for the 2020 MLS season. The Fire are currently one of the most successful clubs in the U.S. Open Cup, winning championships in 1998, 2000, 2003, and 2006.
Many notable players have worn the Fire shirt, including U.S. internationals Chris Armas, Carlos Bocanegra, Frank Klopas, DaMarcus Beasley, Brian McBride, Tony Sanneh, Cory Gibbs, Ante Razov, Josh Wolff, Eric Wynalda and Jon Busch. Some of the club's other notable American professional players include C.J. Brown, Jesse Marsch, Chris Rolfe, and Zach Thornton. The Fire also have a reputation for importing international talent, from established veterans like Bastian Schweinsteiger, Pável Pardo, Piotr Nowak, Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Tomasz Frankowski, Lubos Kubik, Hristo Stoichkov and Jorge Campos; in addition to younger players such as Patrick Nyarko, Marco Pappa, Damani Ralph, Bakary Soumaré and Nery Castillo.
The Chicago Fire are named after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871; the official founding date of the team was the 126th anniversary of that event.
Foundation and initial success (1997–2000)
Founded in 1997 at Navy Pier, on the anniversary of the Great Fire, the Fire immediately tapped into the diverse ethnic makeup of the city. The team brought in Polish players Piotr Nowak, Jerzy Podbrozny, and Roman Kosecki; the Mexican Jorge Campos; and the Czech Lubos Kubik. While all showed their talent while playing for Chicago that first year, American players (Zach Thornton, Chris Armas, C.J. Brown) proved most integral to the Fire's continued success. Under the club's first head coach, Bob Bradley—and against all expectation—the team completed the double in its first competitive year, beating D.C. United in the 1998 MLS Cup Final, and defeating the Columbus Crew in Chicago to win the 1998 U.S. Open Cup a week later.
The team's momentum continued, reaching the 2000 MLS Cup final (losing to Kansas City) and winning the 2000 U.S. Open Cup. Internationally experienced players such as Hristo Stoitchkov joined the Fire, while young American talents such as DaMarcus Beasley developed. The Fire quickly became cemented as one of the league's preeminent teams.
Nomadic times (2002–2004)
With Soldier Field undergoing massive renovations, the Fire moved to the western Chicago suburb of Naperville in 2002. That same year, Bob Bradley abruptly departed the team to lead the MetroStars, from his home state of New Jersey. The Fire then selected the U.S. men's national team's top assistant, Dave Sarachan, to assume the vacant post.
Chicago qualified for the league final while also capturing the Supporters' Shield and 2003 U.S. Open Cup along the way. The team returned to Chicago and the renovated Soldier Field midway through the 2003 season.
After that season, longtime captain Piotr Nowak retired to take a position in the front office. He departed a year later to become manager of D.C. United. In this period new talent emerged, including Jamaican striker Damani Ralph. Still, stagnating performances and the building strength of the Eastern Conference made Chicago's league position ever more tenuous. In 2004, the team missed the league playoffs for the first time in their history.
Turmoil, and a permanent home (2005–2007)
The 2005 season began with the unexpected dismissal of popular club president Peter Wilt by then-owners AEG, a move decried by fans, many players, and club staff. This came as a shock, given his brokering of a $100m deal to build the Fire a stadium in the collar suburb of Bridgeview. He was immediately replaced by MetroStars executive John Guppy.
Competitively, the season was most notable for the blockbuster visit of Milan from Italy's Serie A, and the surprising 4–0 away defeat of D.C. United in the Eastern Conference Semi-finals.
2006 arrived, and the Fire moved from Soldier Field into its new stadium in Bridgeview, a southwest suburb of Chicago: Toyota Park, located at the corner of 71st Street and Harlem Avenue. In its first season, it played host to an unspectacular league campaign; but victory in the 2006 U.S. Open Cup marked a continuation of the club's successes and promise for the future.
The anxiety to win another league title continued to grow, however. Sarachan entered 2007 (his fifth season in charge) under intense pressure from fans and the administration to produce a league championship. Tension mounted further on April 3, 2007, when the Fire signed Mexico and América star Cuauhtémoc Blanco to a Designated Player contract. After a perfect three matches to open the year, they won only one of their next eight, and Sarachan was dismissed. Following a brief search, Millonarios manager Juan Carlos Osorio was named the club's third head coach.
Andell Inc. acquisition of the Fire (2007–2009)
More change came soon afterward. On September 6, 2007, Andell Holdings, a Los Angeles-based private investment firm controlled by chairman Andrew Hauptman, acquired AEG's interest in the Chicago Fire Soccer Club. Reports estimated the purchase price to be upwards of $35 million. The team has not won a major trophy since Hauptman bought the team.
On the field, behind Blanco and Wilman Conde, Osorio's central defender at Millionarios, the Fire went on an extended unbeaten run to close the season, easily qualifying for the playoffs but were defeated at New England in the Eastern Conference Final. On December 10, 2007, the Fire announced Osorio's resignation. He was named manager of the New York Red Bulls eight days later. Hauptman filed tampering charges with the league in protest, and the Fire were compensated by the Red Bulls with cash and draft picks.
Changes came quickly in Osorio's wake. On January 17, 2008, former Fire star Frank Klopas was named Technical Director in charge of player personnel, and longtime Fire assistant Denis Hamlett was appointed manager. While the Fire struggled at home in 2008 the team found unusual success on the road, gathering 22 out of a possible 45 away points. Momentum grew with the long-anticipated signing of Chicago native Brian McBride on a free transfer in July 2008. After disposing of the Red Bulls 5–2 in the season's final game, they decisively conquered New England in the first round of the playoffs with a 3–0 victory at home. This was Chicago's first playoff advancement over the Revolution in four consecutive seasons. But triumph only lasted for a week, as they again missed the league final with their 2–1 Eastern Conference Final loss to eventual champion Columbus.
The 2009 season saw few alterations to the previous year's roster. The story of the season was much the same, as continued poor home form offset excellent performances away from Toyota Park. This led to a second place Eastern Conference finish behind Columbus. Despite this, Real Salt Lake managed to upset the Crew in the quarterfinals, meaning Chicago would host the semi-final for the first time in six years. Chicago's nearly flawless home playoff history meant little in the end, as they lost to Salt Lake, 5–3, on penalties after 120 scoreless minutes. Shortly thereafter, manager Denis Hamlett was dismissed.
A team in flux (2010–2012)
Leading up to 2010, Chicago hired Carlos de los Cobos as head coach, previously manager of El Salvador. Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Chris Rolfe and Gonzalo Segares all departed. More changes came in the summer transfer window with the trade of Justin Mapp to Philadelphia, the acquisition of Mexican international striker Nery Castillo, and the trade for former Swedish international midfielder Freddie Ljungberg. Defender Gonzalo Segares returned to the Fire, leaving Apollon Limassol after only six months away. Despite these reinforcements, the Fire failed to qualify for the playoffs for only the second time in club history. Former U.S. international Brian McBride and club original C.J. Brown retired at season's end, followed closely by the departures of Wilman Conde, Ljungberg, and Castillo.
2011 began much in the way of 2010, with foundering performances both home and away. After nine winless matches, Carlos de los Cobos was let go on May 30, 2011. Technical Director Frank Klopas was named interim head coach. Behind summer reinforcements Pável Pardo and Sebastián Grazzini, as well as forward Dominic Oduro's 12 goals after being acquired in a trade from Houston and Dan Gargan's defensive addition, the Fire qualified for the U.S. Open Cup Final (lost at Seattle) and narrowly missed making the playoffs after gaining 24 points in their last 12 league matches. After the season's conclusion, Klopas was given the permanent manager job on November 3, 2011.
Although expectations were modest for 2012, Klopas' first full season as coach, the year saw a change in fortune for the Fire. The spring and summer months saw several new acquisitions for the club, starting with the reacquiring of Chris Rolfe from Aalborg BK. Rolfe, who scored eight goals and 12 assists in the 21 games he played in 2012, would later be named the Fire's MVP. Other signings included Brazilian midfielders Alex Monteiro de Lima from the Swiss side FC Wohlen, Alvaro Fernandez from Seattle Sounders FC, forward Sherjill MacDonald from Beerschot AC of Belgium and veteran defender Arne Friedrich from VfL Wolfsburg. Although they would fall out of the U.S. Open tournament early that season, the Fire eventually compiled a 17–11–6 record, their best since 2000, and ranked as high as second in the Eastern Conference before ending the year in fourth place. On October 31, 2012, in their first playoff appearance since 2009, the Fire lost their first-round MLS Cup playoff match-up at home against the Houston Dynamo, 2–1.
Missing the playoffs (2013–2015)
In the 2012–2013 offseason, the franchise made some moves to improve on 2012's success. The team acquired Joel Lindpere and Jeff Larentowicz and also traded Dominic Oduro for Dilly Duka and the rights to Robbie Rogers. The beginning of the season saw the team struggling to score goals, resulting in a record of 2–5–1 through April. After two successive losses to the Union in May, and with veteran Arne Friedrich still on injured reserve, the Fire acquired their former centerback Bakary Soumaré from Philadelphia. Also in May, Robbie Rogers expressed an interest to play in Southern California, at which point a deal was brokered for Rogers' rights in exchange for Chicago native Mike Magee from the Los Angeles Galaxy. On June 23, 2013, Friedrich, who had not played a 2012–13 game due to recurring injuries, announced his retirement. After starting the season 2–7–3, the additions of Soumare and Magee led to seven wins in the squad's last 10 games. The Fire were busy in the transfer window as well, adding veteran defensive midfielder Arévalo Ríos and forward Juan Luis Anangonó. The Chicago Fire also advanced to host the semifinal of the 2013 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, but fell 2–0 to eventual champions D.C. United. Alleged fan actions in the stadium that night led to a famous editorial piece, "What it means to be a part of the Fire family", being penned by the club's Director of Communications, which was seen as an odd attack on the fan base and widely panned by local and national media. After a 12–6–6 finish to the season, the Fire narrowly missed the playoffs for the third time in the last four years—losing out to the Montreal Impact on goal difference. On October 30, 2013, the club announced that the president of soccer operations Javier Leon and head coach Frank Klopas had stepped down, but the Fire front office had a replacement one day later.
On October 31, 2013, Chicago Fire named Frank Yallop as its new head coach and director of soccer. On December 5, 2013, Fire MVP Mike Magee became the first Fire player to win the MLS MVP Award—beating out Los Angeles Galaxy's Robbie Keane and Montreal Impact's Marco Di Vaio for the honor.
Meanwhile, Yallop was busy recruiting a new coaching staff which included "Ring of Fire" member and Chicago Fire veteran C. J. Brown and former U.S. International striker Clint Mathis as the team's assistant coaches, adding Columbus Crew's Brian Bliss as Technical Director. Former Fire forward Brian McBride was added as an assistant coach in May 2014 for a short-term assignment.
The shake-up extended to the roster, as Yallop moved team veterans and starters and brought in youth prospects—reforming the team while freeing up cap space. Major exits in early 2014 included Chris Rolfe, Austin Berry, Jalil Anibaba, Daniel Paladini, and Paolo Tornaghi. Filling that void was a handful of youth prospects including Harrison Shipp (homegrown player), Benji Joya (via MLS "weighted lottery"), and Grant Ward on loan from Tottenham Hotspur. Despite rarely looking like a team that could advance to the MLS Cup Playoffs, the team once again advanced to the semifinals of the 2014 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, but were routed 6–0 by eventual champions Seattle Sounders FC on August 13. The result was the worst competitive defeat in club history and saw Frank Yallop issue an apology to Chicago Fire supporters on the club's official website. As the Cup run had, the season ended in disappointment, with the Fire ending the season with a 6–18–10 record, with 18 draws, also setting a record for most draws in an MLS season in the process.
The club began 2015 with renewed hope, bringing three new Designated Player signings in David Accam, Shaun Maloney and Kennedy Igboananike to bolster an anemic attack. The club also signed products Michael Stephens and Eric Gehrig as well as Trinindad & Tobago international Joevin Jones. With so many new pieces needing to adjust, 2015 marked the first time in club history the side began the season with an 0–3–0 record, but they showed signs of recovery by winning their next three matches. Unfortunately, April was the last time the club would be anywhere near equal on wins and losses, but the side did still advance to another Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup semifinal. Playing in front of a sparse crowd at the Philadelphia Union's PPL Park, the Fire fell 1–0 at the same hurdle for the third straight season. Less than two weeks later, Maloney, who was the club's center piece offseason signing, was transferred back to England with Hull City citing personal reasons.
Despite no hope for a Cup final, widespread fan protests and dim likelihood of a playoff berth, the club didn't part ways with Frank Yallop until September 20, 2015, one day after another listless 1–0 home defeat to Orlando City SC. Along with Yallop's departure, the club announced it had named long-time MLS executive Nelson Rodriguez as the club's new general manager, with his first job being to commence a search for a new head coach. Technical director Brian Bliss was given the interim head coaching job, with former player and current club vice president Logan Pause assisting for the remaining five matches. The club has finished the 2015 season with an overall record of 8 wins, 20 losses and 6 ties. For the first time in the club's history Fire finished the season with zero road wins (0–12–5). Twenty losses in a season became the highest in the club's history.
Final years in Bridgeview, IL (2016–2019)
On November 18, 2015, Rodriguez made his first moves as GM, firing most of Yallop's remaining technical staff, including goalkeeping coach Aron Hyde, fitness coach Adrian Lamb and Director of Scouting Trevor James. Rodriguez also parted ways with the club's long-time Director of First Team Operations Ron Stern, Equipment Manager Charles Raycroft and Assistant Equipment Manager Allan Araujo. On November 24, 2015, the club announced that Veljko Paunovic, former coach of the Serbian U-20 side that won the 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup, had been named the new head coach of the Chicago Fire. On January 5, 2016, technical director Brian Bliss also departed the Fire to join Sporting Kansas City as Director of Player Personnel, completing the total overhaul of the technical staff.
On March 21, 2017 Manchester United allowed Bastian Schweinsteiger to join Chicago Fire, subject to a medical and a visa being secured. The move from Manchester United was completed on March 29, 2017.
On July 11, 2018, the club announced that Hauptman had sold a 49 percent stake of his ownership to Joe Mansueto, the founder of Morningstar, Inc. On September 13, 2019, Hauptman sold his majority share to Mansueto, who became the sole owner.
Return to Soldier Field and rebrand (2020–present)
As the 2019 MLS campaign concluded, the Chicago Fire organization began the ambitious process of reinventing the franchise during the course of a three-month offseason. The changes included securing a downtown Chicago venue, adding new front office positions, shifting organizational roles, making major roster changes, and rolling out a new brand identity.
Two days after the end of the season, October 8, the Fire officially announced they would return to Soldier Field to play the 2020 MLS season, that same day Bastian Schweinsteiger announced his retirement. Two days later, the Fire announced the signing of midfielder Álvaro Medrán, eight days later Designated Player and former Golden Boot winner Nemanja Nikolic announced he would be leaving the team.
The first full month of the off-season saw the Fire continue their overhaul. On November 4, the team traded captain Dax McCarty to expansion side Nashville SC. Ten days later Homegrown Player Grant Lillard was dealt to MLS's other expansion team Inter Miami. That same day, November 14, Chicago Fire President and general manager Nelson Rodriguez fired head coach Veljko Paunovic and his staff. News that the Chicago Fire would not be renewing the contract of their last-remaining DP, Nicolas Gaitan, as well as winger Aleksandar Katai was overshadowed by an even larger organizational unveiling one week later.
On November 21, the long-anticipated rebrand of the Chicago Fire franchise was announced. Developed with the help of marketing agency Doubleday & Cartwright, the team revealed changes to its franchise colors, red and white to red, blue, and gold, its name from Chicago Fire Soccer Club to Chicago Fire FC and, most contentiously, its logo.
While the Fire organization made their second player acquisition of the offseason in early December, homegrown player Nicholas Slonina, a relatively quiet few weeks had some followers of the team concerned about their organizational progress. However the Fire were busy again in late December with Nelson Rodriguez relinquishing his on-field decision making responsibilities to new Sporting Director Georg Hietz, who swiftly named former US Soccer Youth National Coach Raphael Wicky as head coach and Sebastian Pelzer as Technical Director. Heitz has previously worked with Wicky at Swiss club FC Basel and "worked closely" with Pelzer at his management consultancy business Heusler Werthmüller Heitz ("HWH").
The Fire opened the 2020 campaign with the signings of Argentinian duo Ignacio Aliseda from Defensa and Gaston Gimenez from Vélez Sarsfield, looking to bolster their squad after losing DP Nicolas Gaitan The Fire also announced the signing of Robert Beric from French outfit Saint-Étienne, who netted in his debut defeat against the Seattle Sounders FC (2–1).
Colors and badge
The club's official primary colors are red, blue, and gold; secondary colors such as navy blue, sky blue, and black have also been used throughout the history of the Fire. The original logo of the Chicago Fire, used from 1997 to 2019, was derived from the Cross of Saint Florian, a common symbol for fire departments in the United States. A stylized "C" sat in the center, representing the city, similar to the logos of the Bears and Cubs. The six points in a ring around the center alluded to the stars in the Municipal Flag of Chicago, one of which commemorates the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. This style was chosen by the original general manager, Peter Wilt, to establish a timeless image evocative of both classic American sports (as in the logos of the NHL Original Six) and the traditions of European soccer.
Nike, the Fire's original equipment supplier, intended for the team to be named the Chicago Rhythm. The Rhythm identity featured a turquoise, black and green color scheme, and a logo adorned with a cobra. Team officials ignored Nike's work, and privately developed the Fire identity with the help of Adrenalin, Inc., a sports branding agency from Denver. The names "Chicago Blues" and "Chicago Wind" were also considered.
The original Fire jerseys were chosen because of their resemblance to a Chicago fireman's coat, featuring broad horizontal stripes across the torso and sleeves. In the first year, the home jersey was red and white with a silver "FIRE" on the stripe; while the away shirts were white and black in the same style. The jersey maintained the same format of an all-red shirt with a white horizontal chest stripe through changes in equipment sponsor (from Nike, to Puma, and currently Adidas), until 2012 when the white stripe was exchanged for a blue stripe. Conversely, the Fire's secondary shirts have changed much over the years from white with black, to white with navy, to white with red, to all-white style and the all-blue currently used. Third shirts have often been yellow (originally to honor the Chicago Sting, later for the expired partnership with Morelia). In 2005, and again from 2014 through 2016, the club wore third shirts with designs based on the municipal flag of Chicago.
The club and their fans make frequent use of the symbols of Chicago, as a show of civic pride. Most prominent are the six-pointed Chicago stars, but the light blue color associated with the city, the municipal device, and the city skyline appear regularly on materials produced by the club and its fans. The municipal flag of Chicago is also favored by fans and often seen at the stadium.
On November 21, 2019, the club unveiled its first major rebranding ahead of their move back to Soldier Field in Chicago. The club's name was changed to Chicago Fire Football Club (Chicago Fire FC) and the original logo was replaced with an ovular crest marked with mirrored sets of three triangles called the "Fire Crown" to reference the revitalization of Chicago following the Great Fire. The crest uses dark blue, red, and gold as its main colors. Secondary design colors are to be ivory and "flag blue", a light blue color derived from the Chicago flag. Before its unveiling, the rebranding was leaked onto social media and garnered an "overwhelmingly negative response" from fans. Comparisons were made between the "Fire Crown" and the existing logo of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC, which uses a similar set of mirrored triangles, and some fans worried that the "Fire Crown" was reminiscent of the logo of the Latin Kings street gang. The team responded to the decidedly negative reaction by saying "[new] brands take time and repetition to build meaning. They will be judged in years, not days", insisting that there are no plans to revive the old logo. The club ultimately unveiled a new crest in the middle of the 2021 season, with a full embrace of it beginning in 2022. This new logo was designed by Matthew Wolff.
Uniform history
Sponsorship
Stadium
Chicago played its home games at SeatGeek Stadium, a soccer-specific stadium located at 71st Street and Harlem Avenue in the Chicago suburb of Bridgeview, Illinois, about 12 miles southwest from downtown Chicago from 2006 until the end of the 2019 season. The Village of Bridgeview owns and operates SeatGeek Stadium, which opened as Toyota Park on June 11, 2006, and originally cost approximately $100 million. It was renamed from Toyota Park to SeatGeek Stadium after the end of the 2018 season, with an estimated naming rights fee between 2.5 million to 4 million per year.
In April 2019, multiple sources reported the club in negotiations with Bridgeview to buy out the remainder of its lease at SeatGeek Stadium and return to Soldier Field. For its first years in the league the Fire played at Soldier Field, the 61,500-capacity home of the Chicago Bears of the NFL and one of the main venues of the 1994 FIFA World Cup. While that stadium was undergoing a $632 million renovation, the Fire played at Cardinal Stadium in Naperville, Illinois, on the outskirts of the Chicago metropolitan area. They returned to Soldier Field toward the end of 2003, remaining there through the end of 2005.
In July 2019, Chicago Fire reached a deal to leave SeatGeek Stadium for a payment of $65.5 million and move back to Soldier Field starting in 2020. The return to Soldier Field was finalized with an agreement with the Chicago Park District in September 2019.
Home stadiums
Soldier Field; Chicago (1998–2001, 2003–2005, 2020–present)
Cardinal Stadium; Naperville, Illinois (2002–2003, one U.S. Open Cup game in 2004)
SeatGeek Stadium; Bridgeview, Illinois (2006–2019)
Other stadiums
Forest View Park; Arlington Heights, Illinois (2000) 1 game in U.S. Open Cup
Milwaukee Sports Complex; Franklin, Wisconsin (2001) 1 game in U.S. Open Cup
McCully Field; Wheaton, Illinois (2001) 1 game in U.S. Open Cup
Shea Stadium, Peoria, Illinois (2008, 2011) 2 games in U.S. Open Cup Qualifying
Club culture
Supporters
There is a noteworthy fan culture for the Fire, existing from the date the club was founded, and building on an enthusiasm throughout Chicago sports. At matches, supporters and ultras groups occupy a standing area directly behind the north goal, in the Harlem End of Toyota Park. This area is referred to as Section 8, originating from the numbering of the corresponding section at Soldier Field and the American military designation of mentally unfit soldiers. Section 8 Chicago, the Independent Supporters' Association (ISA) for the Fire, oversees the activities of these numerous groups. While incorporating a worldwide variety of styles with a Chicago bent, groups as part of Section 8 generally fall under the ultras designation. Additionally, an associated spinoff group called "Sector Latino" which originally congregated in the corner-kick Section 101 at the stadium's southwest end until season long discussions between the ISA and the Chicago Fire Front Office eventually saw the group moved to Section 137, directly behind the south goal. There are also several other affiliated ultras and supporters groups, including The Arsonists, Banter Buddies, Blitzer Mob, Husaria, Fire Ultras 98, Partisans, Red Scare, Second City North, The Western Front, Ultras Red-Side, Mike Ditka Street Crew (MDSC), and Whiskey Brothers Aught-Five. The Section 8 Chicago ISA is a registered 501(c)7 non-profit organization run by volunteers through an elected board of directors.
Match atmosphere is known for organized displays of stadium-wide support, particularly for matches of prime competitive importance. Call-and-response cheering amongst the crowd is commonplace. Fans at SeatGeek Stadium for Fire matches periodically choreograph tifo presentations both to show their pride and inspire the players on the field. SeatGeek Stadium remains one of the few American environments to conduct such fan-driven presentations on a large scale.
Mascot
Their official mascot is Sparky, an anthropomorphic Dalmatian dog. Sparky is usually shown wearing the club's jersey but also arrives wearing firefighter attire.
Rivalries
While the Fire have heated rivalries with a number of different MLS teams, Fire supporters of different ages will likely give different responses as to who the club's main rival is. The earliest Fire supporters would list Brimstone Cup rival FC Dallas as the Fire's nemesis, or Los Angeles Galaxy following heated playoff and cup matches with Dallas and L.A. in the league's early years.
After the Fire moved to the Eastern Conference, meetings with Dallas and LA became less frequent. Rivalries with D.C. United and New England Revolution were stoked following several thrilling playoff meetings. The Fire and Revolution are MLS' most frequent playoff matchup, meeting in the MLS Cup Playoffs 8 different times in 10 seasons from 2000 to 2009, splitting those encounters 4–4, with the Fire winning in 2000, 2003, 2008, and 2009. New England ended the Fire's playoff runs in 2002, 2005, 2006, and 2007. Newer rivals include Columbus Crew, who up until the introduction of FC Cincinnati were the closest MLS team geographically to the Fire, and Atlanta United following quarrels between the two sets of fans.
Broadcasting
Beginning with the 2020 season, WGN Sports was added as a regional television rightsholder under a multi-year deal, with all regional matches airing on WGN-TV. The first season under the contract will be concurrent with the final year of the existing ESPN+ regional rights. WGN had recently lost its legacy professional sports rights to NBC Sports Chicago and Marquee Sports Network. In April 2021, the club announced that their television broadcast team would consist of play-by-play commentator Tyler Terens, color analyst, Tony Meola. Play-by-play commentator Arlo White – whose Fire broadcast debut was postponed in 2020 because of the pandemic – was also expected to call several games.
Spanish-language radio station WRTO has aired Chicago Fire matches since 2017, replacing WEBG-HD2.
Players
Roster
Ring of Fire
The "Ring of Fire" was established in 2003 by Chicago Fire Soccer Club and the Chicago Fire Alumni Association as permanent tribute to honor those who have made the club proud and successful over its history. Aside from the initial member Piotr Nowak, only "Ring of Fire" members can select new inductees, and no more than one can be selected any year. Names and numbers (if applicable) are prominently displayed inside SeatGeek Stadium.
There were no inductees in 2008, 2010, or 2011. In 2008, the members voted to honor two recently deceased fans (supporter leaders Dan Parry and Brandon Kitchens) but were overruled by the club chairman Andrew Hauptman. Parry and Kitchens were later made members of the Wall of Honor, a special recognition for Fire fans. In addition to Parry and Kitchens, the late Fire fans Euan McLean and Al Hack have been inducted into the Wall of Honor as of 2011. C.J. Brown was expected to be honored in 2011, but a new rule was established that inductees must have been away from the club for at least a calendar year. Brown, at the time an assistant head coach at Real Salt Lake, was officially inducted at the halftime ceremony during the home game vs. Real Salt Lake in Toyota Park on May 9, 2012.
On October 3, 2015, Ante Razov, the club's all-time leading scorer, became the eighth individual to be inducted into the club's Ring of Fire Hall of Fame. The ceremony took place on that day during the halftime of the regular season home match against New England Revolution.
10 Piotr Nowak (inducted 2003)
41 Frank Klopas (inducted 2004)
5 Luboš Kubík (inducted 2005)
Former general manager and club president Peter Wilt (inducted 2006)
Former head coach Bob Bradley (inducted 2007)
14 Chris Armas (inducted 2009)
2 C.J. Brown (inducted 2012)
9 Ante Razov (inducted 2015)
Staff
Head coaches
Club presidents
General managers
Chief Operating Officer
Technical directors
Frank Klopas (2008–2011)
Brian Bliss (December 6, 2013 – January 5, 2016)
Sebastian Pelzer (December 28, 2019–)
Directors of player personnel
Mike Jeffries (2010–2012)
Assistant coaches
Denis Hamlett (1998–2007)
Mike Jeffries (1998–2000, 2008–2009)
Frank Klopas (2000)
Daryl Shore (2000–2009)
Tom Soehn (2001–2003)
Craig Reynolds (2004–2007)
Chris Armas (2008–2009)
Alvaro Briones (2010)
Larry Sunderland (2010–2011)
Mike Matkovich (2009–2010, 2012–2013)
Leo Percovich (2011–2013)
Aron Hyde (2010–2015)
C. J. Brown (2013–2014)
Clint Mathis (2014–2015)
Marc Bircham (2015)
Marko Mitrović (2015–2019)
Eric Gehrig (2017–2019)
Frank Klopas (2020–present)
David Zdrillic (2020–2021)
Junior Gonzalez (2022–present)
C. J. Brown (2022–present)
Team physicians
Dr. Preston Wolin (1998–2008)
Dr. Gilberto Muñoz (1999–2015)
Dr. Jeffrey Mjaanes, M.D. (2015– )
Dr. Joshua Blomgren, D.O. (2015– )
Honors
Individual club awards
MLS Team Fair Play Award: 2009
Records
Top goalscorers
Year-by-year
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Fire. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Chicago Fire FC seasons.
1. Avg. Attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top Goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
Team awards
*Golden Boot is the team leader in goals (regular season games only). * Indicates a season where two players tied for the Golden Boot award.
Affiliations
Forward Madison FC – USL League One
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1997
Fire
Fire
1997 establishments in Illinois
Soldier Field
Major League Soccer teams
U.S. Open Cup winners | [
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245695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus%20Crew | Columbus Crew | The Columbus Crew, formerly known as Columbus Crew SC, is an American professional soccer club based in Columbus, Ohio. The Crew competes in Major League Soccer (MLS) as a member of the league's Eastern Conference and began play in 1996 as one of the 10 charter clubs of the league. The team is currently operated by an ownership group led by the Haslam family (also owners of the Cleveland Browns) and former team physician Pete Edwards. The Haslam/Edwards group is the third ownership group in club history.
The franchise was founded in 1994. Its stadium is Lower.com Field, opened in 2021. From 1999 to 2021, the Crew played home games at Historic Crew Stadium (formerly Mapfre Stadium and Columbus Crew Stadium), the first soccer-specific stadium built for an MLS team, with a seating capacity of 19,968 as of the 2015 season. From 1996 to 1998, the Crew played its home games at Ohio Stadium on the campus of Ohio State University. In 2014, the team set club attendance records for both most cumulative attendance and most sellouts.
The Crew have won six major trophies: the MLS Cup in 2008 and 2020; the Supporters' Shield in 2004, 2008, and 2009; and the 2002 U.S. Open Cup. The Crew have qualified for the CONCACAF Champions League (or its predecessor, the CONCACAF Champions' Cup) four times, reaching the quarter-finals on the first three occasions. In 2021, the club won their first continental trophy by winning the Campeones Cup.
History
The beginning (1994–1998)
On June 15, 1994, Major League Soccer announced that Columbus, Ohio, would be home to one of the ten founding members of the new top flight North American professional soccer league. Columbus had promised construction of a soccer-specific stadium and had sold over 12,000 season ticket deposits. The team was tentatively named the Columbus Eclipse in its application to the league, as a solar eclipse had passed over the city after reaching the league's 10,000-deposit minimum, but it was eventually renamed the Crew.
MLS investor Lamar Hunt, and his son Clark became the owners of both the Columbus Crew and Kansas City Wizards in 1996. The first players for the Crew were South African national team veteran Doctor Khumalo, by assignment, and Brian McBride. McBride was selected as the first overall pick in MLS's first draft in 1996. Former U.S. National Team coach Timo Liekoski would be the team's head coach for its first season.
The Crew played their first game on April 13, 1996, in front of a home crowd of 25,266 in Ohio Stadium against D.C. United and won 4–0. Columbus would struggle, however, winning only 5 of their next 21 games. After the 6–16 start, Tom Fitzgerald replaced head coach Liekoski. The Crew, under Fitzgerald, won 9 of their last 10 games to finish fourth in the Eastern Conference. They went on to lose in the conference playoff semi-finals.
The Black & Gold finished 15–17 in both 1997 and 1998, which put them in third and fourth place, respectively, in the Eastern Conference. Each season ended with losses in the Conference Finals to D.C. United. The Crew reached the 1998 U.S. Open Cup Final, however, the match was postponed due to a hurricane and controversially relocated from Virginia Beach to Soldier Field in Chicago then the home of Chicago Fire, who won the match 2 to 1 after extra time. Stern John, in his first of two seasons with Columbus, was the 1998 scoring champion, amassing 26 goals and 5 assists.
A new home (1999–2003)
Columbus's 1999 season began with the opening of Columbus Crew Stadium, the first soccer-specific stadium in the United States. Columbus won their first game in the stadium, 2–0, against New England Revolution in front of a sell-out crowd of 24,741. Columbus would finish in second place at 19–13, but would lose in the conference finals to D.C. United for the third straight season. The 1999 season was the last for Stern John who scored 52 goals in 65 games for the club. The team had the lowest goals against average in the Eastern Conference, and Mark Dougherty became the first goalkeeper in league history to record 50 wins, with a 4–2 win over the MetroStars on August 18, 1999, at Giants Stadium.
Dante Washington was acquired from the Dallas Burn to replace John, but his 13 goals in 2000 was not enough to propel the Crew to the playoffs. For the first time, Columbus failed to reach the postseason. Columbus got off to a slow 1–3–2 start in 2001, which led to the replacement of coach Tom Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald, who had coached 161 of the Crew's first 183 MLS matches over parts of six seasons between 1996 and 2001, was replaced by Greg Andrulis. Andrulis would lead the Black & Gold to a 2nd-place finish in 2001 but the team was ousted from the playoffs in the league quarterfinals.
In 2002, Columbus would win the U.S. Open Cup for the first time in team history. They advanced to the finals by beating the Richmond Kickers, MetroStars, and Kansas City Wizards. In the final, they beat LA Galaxy, who had just won the MLS Cup earlier in the week. Freddy García scored the only goal and keeper Jon Busch posted the shutout in Columbus's 1–0 win. It was the first championship in team history. The Crew finished 11–12–5 in the regular season and finished in a tie for first place. They lost in the league semi-finals to New England. Kyle Martino won rookie of the year in 2002, a first for the Crew. By winning the 2002 U.S. Open Cup, Columbus received a bid to play in the 2003 CONCACAF Champions' Cup. They advanced to the second round by beating Árabe Unido 4–2 on aggregate in the first round before losing to Monarcas Morelia, 6–2. McBride would play his final season with Columbus in 2003 before joining Fulham of the Premier League.
Transitions (2004–2006)
With the departure of Brian McBride, Columbus added Robin Fraser and Simon Elliott to the club. These additions proved to be vital as Fraser went on to win the Defender of the Year award in 2004. The Crew set a franchise record for points, 49, by going 12–5–13, thanks in part to an 18-game unbeaten streak (8–0–10) to end the season. Despite winning the Supporters' Shield for best record in the league, the club would be eliminated from the MLS Cup in the Eastern Conference semi-finals. In his last season for the Black & Gold, Jeff Cunningham scored his 62nd goal, which tied him with McBride for the franchise record.
Over both of the next two seasons, Columbus battled injuries to several players and struggled to win many games. Despite winning the MLS Coach of the Year Award in 2004, Andrulis was replaced on an interim basis by Robert Warzycha midway through the 2005 season. After missing playoffs in the 2005 season, the club would hire former L.A. Galaxy and UCLA head coach Sigi Schmid. Schmid had won an MLS Cup and U.S. Open Championship in his six seasons with Galaxy. Warzycha remained on staff under Schmid. In 2006, the Crew went on a 13-game winless streak (0–7–6) between June 10 and August 19. The season ended on a tragic note when team founder and owner Lamar Hunt died on December 14, 2006.
Around this time, Columbus Crew supporters began using the term "Massive" to describe the club and city, at first ironically, but then as a term of pride and endearment of the club that continuously fought the odds.
The Barros Schelotto era (2007–2010)
The 2007 season in Major League Soccer started with news that global icon David Beckham signed with the LA Galaxy. The Crew followed suit by signing Guillermo Barros Schelotto on April 19, 2007. Columbus also signed forward Alejandro Moreno to bolster its attack. Even with these new players, the Crew still missed the playoffs in 2007.
In 2008, the Crew won its first MLS Cup. Led by Barros Schelotto, who scored seven goals and had 19 assists and won the MLS Most Valuable Player Award, the team also won its second Supporters' Shield. After going 17–7–6 in the regular season, the Black & Gold won playoff games against Kansas City and Chicago Fire before beating the New York Red Bulls 3–1 in the final. Chad Marshall won MLS Defender of the Year award, and Sigi Schmid won Coach of the Year.
After the 2008 season, Sigi Schmid left Columbus to coach Seattle Sounders FC, and the team named former player and assistant coach Robert Warzycha head coach. In 2009, Barros Schelotto was rewarded with the honor of becoming the franchise's first Designated Player. The club went 13–7–10 in the regular season, good enough for 49 points and their second consecutive Supporters' Shield. The Crew was eliminated by Real Salt Lake in the two-legged Eastern Conference semi-finals, 4–2 on aggregate. Chad Marshall won his second consecutive MLS Defender of the Year award.
Columbus started the 2010 season in the CONCACAF Champions League. They reached the quarterfinals, but lost to Toluca in March. The club finished the season 14–8–8, but lost in the quarter-finals of the MLS Cup playoffs to the Colorado Rapids. The Crew lost 2–1 in the 2010 U.S. Open Cup Final at Qwest Field, home of Seattle Sounders FC.
Warzycha's Final Years (2011–2013)
In 2011, the Crew finished ninth in the league at 13–13–8 and lost in the wild card round of the playoffs to the Colorado Rapids.
In 2012, the club finished sixth in the Eastern Conference with a 15–12–7 record. They would narrowly miss the playoffs.
On September 2, 2013, the Crew parted ways with Head Coach Robert Warzycha after an embarrassing home loss to the Seattle Sounders, combined with a highly frustrated fanbase. Brian Bliss, the Crew's technical director, took over as interim head coach. This effectively ended his stay with the club since 1996, when he joined the club as a player.
The Precourt era (2013–2018)
On July 30, 2013, Anthony Precourt became the second investor-operator in the history of the club. Precourt upgraded portions of Crew Stadium, as well as evolving the team's brand in a way that identified with the city of Columbus, all within his first 15 months with the club.
On November 6, 2013, Precourt announced that Gregg Berhalter would be the club's new head coach. Berhalter also became the first sporting director in club history.
The 2014 season saw Columbus return to the postseason for the first time since 2011. Under Berhalter, the Crew finished the year 14–10–10, good enough for the third seed in the Eastern Conference of the MLS Cup Playoffs.
The Crew also sent two of its players to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, center back Giancarlo González and left back Waylon Francis, who both represented Costa Rica during the tournament. Gonzalez was hailed for his performance, being named to ESPN's Best XI of the group stage.
Berhalter was nominated for 2014 MLS Head Coach of the Year. Likewise, goalkeeper Steve Clark was nominated for 2014 Goalkeeper of the Year and Michael Parkhurst won the Individual Fair Play Award for the third time.
Off the field, the Black & Gold announced sports industry veteran Andy Loughnane as its new President of Business Operations on August 16, 2014.
The team set the all-time attendance record and sellout record for a single season at Crew Stadium. The combination of the club's on-field success and off-field resurgence capped a successful full first year for Precourt and Berhalter.
On October 8, 2014, the Precourt ownership changed the name and logo of the club, changing the name from "Columbus Crew" to "Columbus Crew SC".
The beginning of the 2015 season started in late 2014 with the return of Kei Kamara. Kamara proved to be beneficial as he scored 22 regular season goals and 4 playoff goals. Along with Kamara, Ethan Finlay and Waylon Francis received spots in the MLS All-Star game versus English Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur. On September 26, 2015, Crew SC hosted their largest sellout crowd since 2008 with an announced attendance of 22,719. Crew SC came into the playoffs with a bye in the first round after securing second place in the Eastern Conference. Following the Eastern Conference semi-final and final match-ups, Crew SC played host to the Portland Timbers in the 2015 MLS Cup Final. This was the club's second-ever MLS Cup Final appearance after the 2008 MLS Cup championship. The Crew was upset by the Portland Timbers at home following the 2–1 loss. All three goals were scored in the first half including the lone Crew SC goal scored by Kamara. Kamara was nominated for the Landon Donovan MLS MVP Award. Kamara was also nominated for and won the MLS WORKS Humanitarian of the Year Award. Wil Trapp was nominated for the MLS Comeback Player of the Year Award.
Proposed relocation to Austin
On October 17, 2017, Precourt announced intentions to relocate the franchise to Austin, Texas if a downtown stadium could not be secured in Columbus. Following the news, fans and supporters of the club began a campaign and movement known as #SaveTheCrew. Many had been present in the city's council building on behalf of the cause. Later in the month, it was revealed that Precourt had a clause in his purchase of the club that would allow him to only relocate the franchise to Austin.
On November 15, 2017, Precourt and MLS commissioner Don Garber met with Columbus mayor Andrew Ginther and civic and business leaders about the Crew's future in Columbus. After the meeting, both sides issued press releases detailing the meeting. Per the delegation from Columbus, Precourt and MLS refused to take the relocation threat off the table. Per Precourt and MLS, Columbus leaders did not present any plan for a downtown stadium. On the issue, the mayor stated it was "obvious that Don Garber nor PSV (Precourt Sports Ventures) had any commitment for the team to stay in Columbus".
In the annual state of the league conference, commissioner Garber addressed more on the potential move. He had stated the difficulties there has been present with the market over the years. Discussing in 2008, when the league began its initiative to end having ownership groups owning multiple franchises in the league, there was no success in finding a local ownership group in the market of Columbus, with an interested group wanting to purchase the team but with a very low value. It was then when the league's executives hired a different company banker and expanded its search regionally where Anthony Precourt was involved. Garber stated that had Precourt not acquired the club, there was a possibility that Columbus would have ceased operations and ultimately folded. As to why the issues were not stated publicly, Don Garber stated that the league is a "private business" and what's been happening has been seen in other major sport leagues in the country.
On March 5, 2018, Ohio attorney general Mike DeWine and the city of Columbus filed a lawsuit against Precourt, citing a 1996 state law that prevents sports teams that benefited from public facilities or financial assistance from relocating to another city without a six-month notice and attempting to sell the team to a local ownership group. The bill was originally passed after the controversial relocation of the Cleveland Browns to Baltimore.
Haslam era and second MLS Cup (2018–present)
On October 12, 2018, the owner of the Cleveland Browns, Jimmy Haslam, released a statement stating he was in the process of buying the Crew, along with other local groups. MLS later released a statement stating their willingness to keep the Crew in Columbus, and that Precourt will get the rights to start a team in Austin if the deal goes through. On January 1, 2019, control of the Crew franchise was officially transferred to the Haslam family and longtime team physician Dr. Pete Edwards, who took full ownership of the club after reaching a deal with Precourt Sports Ventures LLC. The new ownership group also quickly announced that they would be building a new stadium for the Crew in the Arena District of downtown Columbus.
The team then hired Tim Bezbatchenko as president from Toronto FC and Caleb Porter, previously with the Portland Timbers, as their new coach for the 2019 season. The 2019 season was a forgettable one as the Crew dealt with injuries throughout the season.
Before the start of the 2020 MLS season, the Crew made two major signings, bringing in new Argentinian designated player Lucas Zelarayán and midfielder Darlington Nagbe. The team started out the season well, winning their group in the MLS is Back Tournament before going out in the round of 16 and finishing in third place in the Eastern conference and fourth place overall. After making a run in the playoffs, the Crew won their second MLS Cup just two years into the Haslam era, defeating the Seattle Sounders 3–0 at Mapfre Stadium on December 12, 2020, in MLS Cup 2020.
Weeks into the 2021 season, the franchise announced they would now be known as Columbus SC, using "Columbus Crew" and "The Crew" in informal instances. The rebrand received strongly negative reception from supporters of the team. A statement by the Nordecke claimed that "neither the Nordecke nor any Crew Supporters Group was involved at any time with the conception, development, or design of the rebrand. The Board was only shown the rebrand in the last few days, and it was presented to us as a completed product with no chance for input." The logo was further criticized as generic and harming the team's identity. This was done despite promises of fan involvement by team president Tim Bezbatchenko, which led to him being labeled as a "traitor". A petition was created on change.org to restore the team's name. Other observers noted that the rebrand was part of a similar trend in MLS teams to emulate European naming conventions, and was compared to the rebranding of Chicago Fire FC two years earlier. On May 17, 2021, in response to the backlash surrounding the rebrand, the franchise announced that "Columbus Crew" would remain as their official name and that the new logo would be modified accordingly. In addition, the "SC" was dropped from the brand, with the team's name being simply the "Columbus Crew" once again.
They recorded their first win at Lower.com Field on July 17, 2021.
Colors and badge
The official colors of the Crew are black and gold. Columbus's usual primary jersey is predominately bright yellow with black trim and has been nicknamed the "banana kit" or "canary kit" by fans.
The alternate uniform has historically been black. In the latter part of the 2000s, The Crew began shifting more towards a white uniform with yellow and black trim or stripes. Even so, the away uniforms are seldom worn by The Crew due to the strong favor shown to the traditional home uniform; and also due to the fact that the historically black jerseys compound the summer heat in the United States climate. For the 2015 season, the Crew returned to a black jersey for its alternate uniform.
Prior to the initial MLS season, a citywide public contest was created to decide the name for the team, the very first entry was a hit, and the Columbus Crew was born.
The club badge from 1996 to 2014 was unique amongst MLS teams in that it featured people, containing three silhouetted males wearing construction hats beneath a stylized "Crew" wordmark. The logo was intended to represent a crew of hard-working people, much like the hard-working, blue collar image the city of Columbus cultivates.
Citing a disconnect between what the crest stood for and the 21st-century identity of the city of Columbus, owner Anthony Precourt initiated a rebrand upon assuming ownership in 2013. Precourt said that Columbus was no longer a true blue collar town, and that the industrial/manufacturing motif was no longer representative. In fact, Columbus had grown into a 21st-century city and become much more "dynamic and diverse".
On October 8, 2014, the Crew unveiled a new badge. The new circular-shaped badge features the club's classic black and gold colors, a minimized original crest with "96" overlaid on top, and the black and gold checkerboard pattern predominantly seen on flags waving in the Nordecke. A great deal of symbolism was packed into the new badge. The horizontal stripes are representative of the ten original MLS franchises, and the shield is an homage to the club's original badge with the 96 representing 1996 – the club's first year in competition. The inset "O" in the badge mimics the same shape found in Ohio state flag, a nod to Columbus's role as the state's capital city. Finally, as a significant point of pride for the city of Columbus, "Columbus" was added to the new badge, along with "SC" to further define the brand more accurately as a soccer club.
The club's nickname, the Crew, also evolved from its original meaning as a hard-working construction crew to a new, more relevant one as "a tight-knit group of people who come together to share a passion for our club and the sport of soccer". The nickname, Crew, is now meant to symbolize a unique brand of family and friendship between the club, the fans and the communities who unite to embrace and celebrate the authenticity and heritage of the sport. With the rebrand, the club also identified three brand pillars: original, energetic, and authentically Columbus, in an effort to celebrate its history as a team of firsts – first club in Major League Soccer, first soccer-specific stadium, first major professional championship for Columbus – its youthful, passionate energy, as well as Columbus's young, progressive culture.
Uniform history
Stadium
On May 15, 1999, the Crew opened Columbus Crew Stadium, the first soccer-specific stadium in Major League Soccer, as the Crew beat the New England Revolution 2–0 before a sold-out crowd of 24,741. It has been the model stadium for the rest of the league, and one of the stadiums used by the United States national team in World Cup qualifying. In 2015, the naming rights for the stadium were purchased by Madrid-based insurance company Mapfre.
Previously, the Columbus Crew played their home games at the 102,000-capacity Ohio Stadium on the campus of The Ohio State University, home of the Ohio State Buckeyes college football team. They ended with a 33–20 record while playing there.
The team has also played U.S. Open Cup games at two other stadiums: two games in 2005 and 2016 at the Jesse Owens Memorial Stadium, also owned by the Ohio State University and home of the OSU soccer teams; and one in 2014 at the FirstEnergy Stadium–Cub Cadet Field on the campus of the University of Akron in Akron, Ohio.
As part of the new ownership proposal for the Crew unveiled in 2018, the club announced plans to build a new stadium in the Arena District of Downtown Columbus. The new stadium would cost $230 million and be located at the center of the Confluence Village neighborhood, a mixed-use development with residential and commercial buildings. It would seat 20,000 spectators and include 30 suites and 1,900 club seats. In 2020, a new authority took ownership of Mapfre Stadium, soon renamed Historic Crew Stadium, and its adjacent city sports park, with the team continuing to control that venue in terms of its use as a training facility. The training facility, the OhioHealth Performance Center, opened in June 2021. The new stadium had its groundbreaking ceremony in 2019 and was completed in mid-2021. On June 15, 2021, the new stadium was named Lower.com Field via a sponsorship deal with Columbus-based online real estate company Lower.com, and the Crew's first game there was on July 3 against the New England Revolution.
Revenue and profitability
Having lost money in 2011, in 2012 the Crew identified three financial goals with the aim of achieving financial stability. First, the team wanted a different jersey sponsor, which it achieved when they reached a deal with Barbasol. Second, the team wanted to sell naming rights to Columbus Crew Stadium, hoping for $15 million over 10 years. Third, the Crew had announced in September 2011 that it aimed to increase season-ticket sales from its current levels (later revealed to be 4,000) to 10,000. By November 2012, Crew season tickets were at 6,000, and by August 2013, the Crew had surpassed 7,000 season ticket holders.
Under Precourt Sports Ventures, Anthony Precourt, and Andy Loughnane, the Crew's goals have shifted from exclusively focusing on season ticket sales to selling out MAPFRE Stadium. In 2014, the club set all-time stadium attendance records for highest overall attendance and most sellouts in one season. Loughnane confirmed that the club was trending to increase its season ticket membership by 1,000 members per year and also stated his intent for the club to assimilate into the corporate community and fan culture, adding that he believes this transformation is happening rapidly. On March 3, 2015, the Crew announced that they had agreed to a multimillion-dollar stadium naming rights partnership with MAPFRE Insurance, a first for the stadium. In 2015, the Crew and EAS Sports Nutrition agreed to a naming rights deal for its training facilities. Merchandise sales grew double digits since the previous year, as did food and beverage sales. It was also announced that the club gained over 1,000 new season ticket members from the previous year.
Sponsorship
Mars' Snickers chocolate bar was the Crew's first uniform sponsor, on a five-year, $6 million deal that lasted from 1996 to 2000. From 2002 to 2004 Pepsi was the team's shirt sponsor. Glidden was the Crew's shirt sponsor from 2008 to 2010, a deal worth $1 million per year. In early 2012, they signed a five-year deal with Barbasol, which is based in Dublin, Ohio, for an undisclosed fee.
In late February 2017, Columbus Crew SC signed a three-year deal with Acura, making the company the Official Jersey Partner and the Official Automotive Partner of the team. The deal was also the largest annual commercial transaction in club history.
There was no jersey sponsor in 2001, 2005–2007 and 2011.
Club culture
Supporters and Nordecke
Before the 2008 season, the Columbus Crew front office demolished the north stands where the most ardent of Crew supporters stood, in order to build a stage that would provide additional revenue by facilitating concerts and other events. Prior to this, the team's three supporters' groups (Crew Supporters Union, Hudson Street Hooligans, and La Turbina Amarilla) sat apart because of differences between the groups ranging from age to ethnicity. The building of the stage forced the groups to come together into the north corner of the stadium, forming one large block of vocal supporters. The three groups formed the Nordecke (), which is German for "north corner", celebrating the city's German heritage. In 2006 a large contingency of fans from the Nordecke began traveling together to support the Crew during their away campaigns. In late 2009/early 2010 the term "NorOnTour" grew popular on social networking, to describe the frequent fan traveling support.
Mascot
Columbus Crew's first mascot was "Crew Cat", who was the franchise's mascot for almost 20 years. Columbus's official mascot is "S.C", the son of "Crew Cat" that was introduced for the 2015 MLS season. As new ownership was employed in the 2019 season, the older "Crew Cat" returned and attends games alongside S.C.
Rivalries
The Crew has a rivalry with the Chicago Fire. Columbus is roughly a six-hour drive away from Chicago. Due to the relative close proximity of the two cities, it is not uncommon for supporters of both teams to make the trip to support their club in matches between the two. In the 2008 season, Columbus defeated Chicago in the Eastern Conference Championship match. In 1998, Chicago defeated Columbus for the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup.
The Crew also plays for two rivalry cups during the regular season. One of the series is with Toronto FC for the Trillium Cup, due to the close proximity of the cities. The Crew also contests FC Dallas for the Lamar Hunt Pioneer Cup. This trophy was created due to Lamar Hunt being the owner of both teams until his death.
FC Cincinnati supporters claim the Crew as a rival, although some Columbus supporters do not consider the former USL team a rival. The two sides met in a 2017 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup match in front of 30,000 spectators, the largest non-final crowd for an Open Cup fixture. This derby is known as the Hell is Real Derby, based on a Christian billboard along I-71 between Columbus and Cincinnati.
Broadcasting
In 2016, Crew SC games aired on TWC Sports Channel (now Spectrum Sports), simulcast on Sinclair Broadcast Group-operated stations in Columbus. The majority of games aired on The CW affiliate WWHO, and selected games also aired on WSYX, WTTE, and WSYX's MyNetworkTV subchannel. Dwight Burgess and Neil Sika served as co-hosts.
In 2019, the team reached a deal with Fox Sports Ohio (now known as Bally Sports Ohio), placing all matches on either it or secondary channel Bally Sports Great Lakes.
On March 1, 2019, the team announced English-language radio broadcasts will be on 97.1 WBNS-FM with Chris Doran as the dedicated audio broadcaster. Spanish radio broadcast was also announced for ColumbusCrewSC.com and Juan Valladares as the broadcaster
On February 21, 2020, the team announced Jordan Angeli will replace Dwight Burgess and will be the first woman broadcaster in the club's history.
Players and staff
Current roster
Team management
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Head coach history
The Crew have had eight different head coaches since joining the league in 1996. Timo Liekoski, the only Finnish head coach in MLS history, was the first head coach in 1996, but started 6–16 and was fired midseason to be replaced by Tom Fitzgerald. Sigi Schmid managed the team for three seasons (2006–08). Robert Warzycha was the head coach twice, the first time on an interim basis prior to Schmid's arrival and then immediately after Schmid left until September 2, 2013, when he was fired and Brian Bliss became the interim coach. On November 16, 2013, it was announced that Gregg Berhalter would become the head coach as well as the first sporting director in club history. After Berhalter left to take over as coach of the United States men's national soccer team, Columbus hired Caleb Porter, who had previously been the head coach of the Portland Timbers in MLS and the Akron Zips men's soccer team in the NCAA.
Fitzgerald and Warzycha are tied for the all-time leader in regular season wins (70).
General manager and sporting director history
Player development
Columbus Crew 2
On June 21, 2021, Major League Soccer announced the formation of a new professional league, which would act as a developmental program for its clubs. The new league, which was unveiled on December 6, 2021, would be named MLS Next Pro and the Crew's team would be Columbus Crew 2. The league and club will compete at the Division III level. All home games will be at Historic Crew Stadium.
Academy
The Columbus Crew Academy fields four non-professional teams. There are U14, U15, U17, and U19 clubs. The Crew has signed 15 alumni to First-team MLS contracts, of which 11 have appeared in a regular-season Crew match. Alumnus Wil Trapp was the first player in MLS history to be a homegrown captain.
Notable alumni include Wil Trapp, Aboubacar Keita, Aidan Morris, Isaiah Parente, Juan Castilla, and Anthony Hernandez.
The Crew formed a partnership with the Michigan Wolves youth soccer club in 2011, later extending the partnership another two years in 2014.
Honors
Individual Club Awards
MLS Fair Play Award (5): 1997, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2016
Record
Year-by-year
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Crew. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Columbus Crew seasons.
1. Avg. attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
International tournaments
Columbus holds a 13–6–3 all-time record in international friendlies.
Player records
Appearances
Goals
Assists
Shutouts
Captains
Average attendance
Sources:
* All-time highest home attendance: 31,550 on September 15, 1996 at Ohio Stadium.
**Attendance was 17,473 Pre-COVID and 1,471 Post-COVID.
***Attendance was capped at 1,500 due to COVID restrictions.
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1996
Soccer clubs in Columbus, Ohio
Sports teams in Columbus, Ohio
1996 establishments in Ohio
Major League Soccer teams
Jimmy Haslam
U.S. Open Cup winners
Soccer clubs in Ohio | [
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245698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20%C5%BDi%C5%BEka | Jan Žižka | Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha (; 1360 – 11 October 1424) was a Czech general – a contemporary and follower of Jan Hus and a Radical Hussite who led the Taborites. Žižka was a successful military leader and is now a Czech national hero. He was nicknamed "One-eyed Žižka", having lost one and then both eyes in battle. Jan Žižka led Hussite forces against three crusades and never lost a single battle despite being completely blind in his last stages of life.
He was born in the small village of Trocnov in the Kingdom of Bohemia into an aristocratic family. From his youth, he was attached to the royal court and held the office of Chamberlain to Queen Sofia of Bavaria.
He fought in the Battle of Grunwald (July 15, 1410), where he defended Radzyń against the Teutonic Order. Later he played a prominent role in the civil wars in Bohemia during the reign of Wenceslas IV. In the Battle of Kutná Hora (1421) he defeated the army of the Holy Roman Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom. The effectiveness of his field artillery against the royal cavalry in this battle made it a successful element of Hussite armies.
Žižka's tactics were unorthodox and innovative. In addition to training and equipping his army according to their abilities, he used armored wagons fitted with small cannons and muskets, anticipating the tank of five hundred years later. He exploited geographic features to the full and maintained good discipline in his armies. He had to quickly train peasants to repeatedly face highly trained and armored opponents who usually outnumbered his own troops.
A monument was erected on the Vítkov Hill in Prague to honor Jan Žižka and his victory on this hill in 1420. It is the third largest bronze equestrian statue in the world.
Early life
Jan Žižka was born in one of two Meierhofs of the village Trocnov (nowadays part of Borovany in the České Budějovice District). An old legend says that he was born in the forest under an oak growing just next to the fields and little ponds belonging to the Meierhof. The date of his birth is not known. A document dated 3 April 1378 mentions (Jan called Zizka of Trocnov) but there is no direct evidence whether it was the same person. For example Czech historian Tomek and his followers supposed it could have been the military leader's father. They argued that if Žižka were adult in 1378, he would be too old to become such an able commander after 1419. Others, such as Šmahel, admitted that even such an age might not have prevented him from successful leadership, and so this question remains unsolved. A 1384 document also mentions some Kateřina, a wife of Johannes dictus Zizka.
Žižka's family belonged to the lower Czech gentry () but did not own much estate. Little is known of the rest of the family too. Jan Žižka had several siblings but the only names known to historians are brother Jaroslav and sister Anežka. The family had a crayfish in their coat of arms.
Although some of the south Bohemian nobility led by Henry III of Rosenberg took part in various revolts against the king Wenceslas IV at the turn of the 14th and 15th century (the king was even held captive in the Rosenberg's castles of Příběnice and Český Krumlov for a short time), there is no evidence of Žižka's participation in these conflicts. It is supposed that in the early years of the 15th century Jan Žižka already controlled his family property. However, the family probably got into financial problems and started selling parts of their estate. Some sources suggest that Žižka's father took the place of the royal gamekeeper before he died in 1407 near Plzeň and Žižka himself might have been taken into the royal service too, but the evidence is not clear enough.
However, beginning in 1406, Žižka starts appearing in the black book () of the Rosenbeg estate as an accused bandit. Unfortunately the reasons of this change are not known, but the fact that he declared open hostility to Henry of Rosenberg and also to the city of Budějovice and their allies suggests that he was trying to fight some injustice against his house and to enforce some of his rights in this way. Violence broke out and Žižka tried to make harm to his enemies on any possible occasion, using as his allies also local bandits led by Matěj Vůdce (Matthew the Leader) who were seeking only financial profit. The bandits were mugging merchants and other people travelling on south Bohemian highways. Žižka took part in these raids which included stealing money and various goods, kidnapping, and at least one murder of a man belonging to the cohort of Henry of Rosenberg.
Žižka and the bandits were also in touch with some more powerful enemies of Henry of Rosenberg. For example in 1408 he took part in preparations for conquering the castle Hus near Prachatice (whose burgrave was Mikuláš of Hus who later became one of first commandants in Žižka's army in the beginning of the Hussite Wars). He was also dealing with Aleš of Bítov about his help in an attempt to conquer the towns of Nové Hrady and Třeboň. Another nobleman asking his help was Erhart of Kunštát who wanted to attempt the stronghold of Slověnice.
Šmahel assigns the boom of south-Bohemian banditism in that time to the continual growth of the estates of the rich house of Rosenberg (and of the church estates too) and simultaneous indebtedness and pauperization of the lower gentry together with the thirst for land among their subjects, which resulted into big social tension in the area.
Finally Žižka was forced to leave his residence in Trocnov. The reason could be the growing hostility with his powerful neighbours. Historian Tomek also speculated that he might have been forcibly deprived of his small hereditary property, which was not uncommon in that time. As a result he started leading the life of an outlaw, partly supported by a local nobleman Valkoun. The group, still led by Matěj Vůdce, camped in various places, including a farm in the village of Sedlo (nowadays part of Číměř), a mill not far from Lomnice nad Lužnicí, at a house of an unknown woman in Hlavatce or simply in the woods. In that time mugging, holding people for ransom and attacking small towns were the main source of the group's income who used it for their living and to pay spies and temporary hosts. Some of his companions were finally captured, tortured and executed, including Vůdce.
Žižka's situation changed on 25 of April 1409 when king Wenceslas agreed that his conflict with the city of Budějovice should be finished and on 27 June he pardoned him (calling him "faithful and beloved") by a special letter. At the same time he ordered the city council of Budějovice to do so too. This suggests that the king admitted that Žižka was at least partly right in the conflict.
Grunwald
Žižka was on the winning side of the Battle of Grunwald, also called the 1st Battle of Tannenberg, one of the largest battles in Medieval Europe. It was fought on July 15, 1410, during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. The alliance of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led respectively by King of Poland Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło) and Grand Duke Vytautas (Witold), decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights, led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Most of the Teutonic Knights' leadership were killed or taken prisoner. The Knights never recovered their former power and the financial burden of war reparations caused internal conflicts and an economic downturn in their lands. The battle shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe.
Rise to prominence
Žižka was the military leader of the Hussites in the Hussite Wars. The Hussites were a proto-Protestant, Christian movement following the teachings of Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague, Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415). On November 13, 1419 a temporary armistice was concluded between the partisans of King Sigismund, the last Emperor of the House of Luxemburg and the citizens of Prague. Žižka disapproved of this compromise and left Prague for Plzeň, one of the richest cities of the kingdom with his followers, but soon left that city. On March 25, 1420 he defeated the partisans of Sigismund at Sudoměř, the first pitched battle of the Hussite wars. He later arrived at Tábor, the then-recently established stronghold of the Hussite movement. The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanical character with a very strict military discipline being instituted though the government was established on a thoroughly democratic basis. Žižka took a large part in the organization of the new military community and became one of the four captains of the people (hejtman) who were at its head.
Wagenburg tactics
Žižka helped develop tactics of using wagon forts, called vozová hradba in Czech or Wagenburg by the Germans, as mobile fortifications. When the Hussite army faced a numerically superior opponent they prepared carts for the battle by forming them into squares or circles. The carts were joined wheel to wheel by chains and positioned aslant, with their corners attached to each other, so that horses could be harnessed to them quickly, if necessary. In front of this wall of carts a ditch was dug by camp followers. The crew of each cart consisted of 16–22 soldiers: 4–8 crossbowmen, 2 handgunners, 6–8 soldiers equipped with pikes or flails (the flail was the Hussite "national weapon"), 2 shield carriers and 2 drivers.
The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack. In the first stage the army placed the carts near the enemy army and by means of artillery fire provoked the enemy into battle. The artillery would usually inflict heavy casualties at close range.
In order to avoid more losses, the enemy knights finally attacked. Then the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy. The shooters aimed first at the horses, depriving the cavalry of its main advantage. Many of the knights died as their horses were shot and they fell.
As soon as the enemy's morale was lowered, the second stage, an offensive counterattack, began. The infantry and the cavalry burst out from behind the carts striking violently at the enemy, mostly from the flanks. While fighting on the flanks and being shelled from the carts the enemy was not able to put up much resistance. They were forced to withdraw, leaving behind dismounted knights in heavy armor who were unable to escape the battlefield. The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives.
Gunpowder weapons
The Hussite wars also marked the earliest successful use of pistols on the battlefield and Žižka was an innovator in the use of gunpowder. He was the first European commander to maneuver on the field with cannon of medium caliber mounted on carts in between the wagons. The Czechs called the handgun a píšťala, and anti-infantry field guns houfnice, from which the English words "pistol" and "howitzer" have been derived. The Germans had just started corning gunpowder, making it suitable for use in smaller, tactical weapons. A musketeer on an open field armed with only a single-shot weapon was no match for a charging knight on a horse; however, from behind a castle wall, or from within the enclosure of the wagenburg, massed and disciplined gunmen could use the handgun to its greatest potential. From his experiences at the Battle of Grunwald, Žižka knew exactly how his enemies would attack, and he found new ways to defeat forces numerically superior to his own.
Hussite Crusades
The Hussite Wars were fought to win recognition of faith of the Hussites, the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation, and though predominantly a religious movement, it was also propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. The Catholic Church deemed Hus's teachings heretical. He was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake in 1415. The wars proper began in July 1419, with the First Defenestration of Prague, when protesting Hussites threw the town councillors and the judge out the windows of the New Town Hall. It has been reputed that King Wenceslaus IV was so stunned by the defenestration that he died from the shock shortly afterward on 16 August 1419. This led to the armed conflict in which Žižka was to earn his fame.
The first anti-Hussite crusade
King Sigismund was king of Hungary but only the titular king of Bohemia. Sigismund had acquired a claim on the Bohemian crown, though it was then in question (and remained so till much later) whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. A firm adherent of the Church of Rome, Sigismund was successful in obtaining aid from Pope Martin V, who issued a bull on 17 March 1420 which proclaimed a crusade “for the destruction of the John Wycliffe, Hussites and all other heretics in Bohemia". Sigismund and many German princes arrived before the walls of Prague on June 30 at the head of a vast army of crusaders from all parts of Europe, largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the possibility of pillage. They immediately began a siege of the city and Žižka was compelled to defend the Kingdom. He was a pragmatist in developing his military strategy. His army consisted of farmers and peasants, lacking both the funds and equipment to be classic soldiers with sword, horse and armor, so Žižka used their farmers' skills to boost their military efficiency. He adapted the tools of agriculture into the tools of war. The agricultural flail was transformed into the flail.
Menaced by Sigismund, the citizens of Prague entreated the Taborites for assistance. Led by Žižka and their other captains, the Taborites set out to take part in the defence of the capital. At Prague, Žižka and his men took up a strong position on the hill just outside the city known as the Vítkov, now in Žižkov, a district of Prague named after the battle in his honour. On July 14 the armies of Sigismund made a general attack. A strong German Crusader-led force assaulted the position on the Vítkov, the stronghold that secured the Hussite communications with the open country. Thanks to Žižka's personal leadership, the attack was thrown back and the forces of Sigismund abandoned the siege. On August 22 the Taborites left Prague and returned to Tábor. Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, the castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany remained in possession of his troops. The citizens of Prague laid siege to the Vyšehrad (see Battle of Vyšehrad), and towards the end of October the garrison was on the point of capitulating through famine. Sigismund attempted to relieve the fortress, but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on November 1 near the village of Pankrác. The castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany now capitulated, and shortly afterwards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites.
Žižka now engaged in constant warfare with the partisans of Sigismund, particularly with the powerful Romanist, Oldřich II of Rožmberk. Through this struggle, the Hussites obtained possession of the greater part of Bohemia from Sigismund. It was proposed to elect the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas to the throne. However, the estates of Bohemia and Moravia met at Čáslav on June 1, 1421 and decided to appoint a provisional government, consisting of twenty members chosen from all the political and religious parties of the country. Žižka, who took part in the deliberations at Čáslav, was elected as one of the two representatives of Tábor.
Žižka summarily suppressed some disturbances on the part of a fanatical sect called the Adamites. He then continued his campaigns against the Romanists and the adherents of Sigismund, and having captured and rebuilt a small castle near Litoměřice (Leitmeritz) he retained possession of it, the only reward for his great services that he ever received or claimed. According to the Hussite custom he gave the Biblical name of Chalice (Kalich in Czech) to this new possession, and henceforth adopted the signature of Žižka of the Chalice. Jan Žižka did not capture any more properties for himself during the Hussite Wars. This fact was unusual for the time and distinguished Žižka from his contemporaries.
Later that year he was severely wounded while besieging the castle of Rábí, and lost the use of his remaining eye. Though now totally blind, he continued to command the armies of Tábor.
The second anti-Hussite crusade
At the end of 1421, Sigismund again attempted to subdue Bohemia and gained possession of the important town of Kutná Hora. The mainly German citizens of the city killed a few of the Hussites in the town and closed the city to Žižka, whose armies were camped outside the city walls. Sigismund's armies arrived and surrounded the Hussites. Žižka was at the head of the united armies of Tábor and Prague and though trapped managed to execute what some historians call the first mobile artillery manoeuver in history. Žižka broke through the enemy lines and retreated to Kolín, but having received reinforcements he attacked and defeated Sigismund's unsuspecting army at the village of Nebovidy between Kolín and Kutná Hora on January 6, 1422. Sigismund lost 12,000 men and only escaped himself by rapid flight. Sigismund's forces made a last stand at Německý Brod (Deutschbrod) on 10 January, but the city was stormed by the Czechs, and contrary to Žižka's orders, its defenders were put to the sword.
Civil war
Early in 1423, internal dissent among the Hussites led to civil war. Žižka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Hořice on April 20. Shortly afterwards came news that a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared. This induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopiště on June 24. As soon as the crusaders had dispersed, internal dissent broke out anew. During his temporary rule over Bohemia, Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania had appointed Bořek, the lord of Miletínek, governor of the city of Hradec Králové. Bořek belonged to a moderate Hussite faction, the Utraquist party. After the departure of Sigismund Korybut, the city of Hradec Králové refused to recognize Bořek as its ruler, due to the democratic party gaining the upper hand. They called Žižka to its aid. He acceded to the demand and defeated the Utraquists under Bořek at the farm of Strachov, near the city of Hradec Králové on August 4, 1423.
Žižka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund. Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Žižka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat. In 1424, civil war having again broken out in Bohemia, Žižka decisively defeated the "Praguers" and Utraquist nobles at Skalice on January 6, and at Malešov on June 7. In September, he marched on Prague. On the 14th of that month, peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through the influence of John of Rokycany, afterwards Utraquist archbishop of Prague. It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites should attack Moravia, part of which was still held by Sigismund's partisans, and that Žižka should be the leader in this campaign. However, he died of the plague at Přibyslav on 11 October 1424 on the Moravian frontier. According to chronicler Piccolomini, Žižka's dying wish was to have his skin used to make drums so that he might continue to lead his troops even after death. Žižka was so highly regarded that when he died, his soldiers called themselves the Orphans (sirotci) because they felt as if they had lost their father. His enemies said that "The one whom no mortal hand could destroy was extinguished by the finger of God."
He was succeeded by Prokop the Great.
In popular culture
Žižka appears as one of the main characters in the Armed Garden graphic novella (The Armed Garden and Other Stories) by David B. He is the hero of a novel by George Sand, of a German epic by
Meissner, and of a Bohemian tragedy by Alois Jirásek.
Jan Žižka is a central figure of the "Hussite Revolutionary Trilogy" directed by Otakar Vávra. The films starred Zdeněk Štěpánek as Žižka. It consists of Jan Hus, Jan Žižka and Against All. Jan Žižka appeared in a 1960 Polish film Knights of the Teutonic Order. He is played by Tadeusz Schmidt. In 1968 Czechoslovak film Na Žižkově válečném voze, Žižka was played by Ilja Prachař.
A film Jan Žižka is currently in works by director Petr Jákl. It will follow Jan Žižka during his youth. It is expected to be released in 2021 and will be the most expensive Czech film.
Jan Žižka is one of the main characters in the manga "Dívčí Válka" (also known as "Otome Sensou" or "Battle of the Maidens"), drawn and written by artist Kouichi Ohnishi.
Early in 1917 was created 3rd Czechoslovak Rifle Regiment of the Czechoslovak legions in Russia and named after "Jan Žižka z Trocnova".
During WWII a number of military units were named after Jan Žižka. One of them, the 1st Czechoslovak Partisan Brigade of Jan Žižka, was among the first anti-Nazi guerrilla units in occupied Czechoslovakia. A Yugoslav partisan brigade of the same name was formed in western Slavonia on 26 October 1943 and operated in areas inhabited by a large Czech and Slovak minority.
In the game Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition - Dawn of the Dukes, there is a single player campaign of Jan Žižka.
References
Sources
Count Lützow, The Hussite Wars, J. M. Dent & Sons London, E. P. Dutton & Co. New York (1909).
Höfler, Konstantin, Geschichtsquellen Böhmens.
Heymann, Frederick G. (1969), John Zizka & the Hussite Revolution, Russell & Russell New York (1955).
Turnbull, Stephen, The Hussite Wars (1419–36), Osprey Publishing. .
Fudge, Thomas A., The Crusade Against Heretics in Bohemia, 1418–1437: Sources and Documents for the Hussite Crusades (Crusade Texts in Translation S.).
Šmahel, František, Die Hussitische Revolution I-III, MGH-Schriften. 43/I-III, Hannover (2002).
Verney, Victor (2009), Warrior of God: Jan Žižka and the Hussite Revolution, Frontline Books London. .
Bílek, Jiří (2007), Hádanky naší minulosti 7. Čtyři Janové a bratr Prokop, Euromedia Group Praha. p. 172–173. .
External links
1360 births
1424 deaths
15th-century deaths from plague (disease)
15th-century soldiers
Blind people from the Czech Republic
Czech generals
Czech military leaders
Hussite people
People from Borovany
People from the Kingdom of Bohemia
People in the Battle of Grunwald
Czech revolutionaries
People of the Hussite Wars
15th-century Bohemian people
Medieval Bohemian nobility | [
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245700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami%20Fusion | Miami Fusion | The Miami Fusion was a professional soccer team based in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. They played in Major League Soccer (MLS) for four seasons, from 1998 to 2001. Announced in 1997 as one of the league's first two expansion teams, their best season was 2001, when they won the Supporters' Shield with the best regular season finish. In 2002, after four years of lackluster ticket sales and revenues, MLS contracted the Fusion along with its other Florida-based team, the Tampa Bay Mutiny. The Fusion played their home games at Lockhart Stadium.
History
Early history
Major League Soccer announced a South Florida team in 1997 as one of its first two expansions, along with the Chicago Fire. Miami businessman Ken Horowitz served as owner, the first new investor to join Major League Soccer since its founding in 1995. The team, ultimately named the Miami Fusion, debuted in the 1998 MLS season, playing in Lockhart Stadium, the league's first soccer-specific stadium.
The Fusion started their inaugural season strong. Led by star midfielder Carlos Valderrama, the Fusion drew 20,450 to their first game at Lockhart Stadium against D.C. United, showing off the possibilities of a more intimate venue designed especially for soccer. Another 3,000 were turned away by police. However, interest waned through the year along with the team's middling performance on the field. The Fusion replaced head coach Carlos "Cacho" Cordoba with Ivo Wortmann after game 19, and the team managed a playoff spot, losing to D.C. By the end of the year their average attendance had dropped to 10,284.
The Fusion continued to struggle both on and off the field for the next two years. After years of disagreement, the commissioner "reassigned" Carlos Valderrama back to Tampa Bay in 1999, and the team replaced head coach Ivo Wortmann with Ray Hudson mid-season in 2000. The team made a dramatic improvement in the 2001 season, winning the Supporters' Shield with the best regular season performance, taking the Eastern Conference, and advancing to the league semifinals. Attendance improved as well, but remained fourth worst in the league with an average of 11,177. In the front office, owner Ken Horowitz struggled with finances. He, along with Robert Kraft of the New England Revolution and Stuart Subotnick of the New York/New Jersey MetroStars, formed a faction among MLS owners who wanted to keep spending down, as opposed to Lamar Hunt and Philip Anschutz who wished to invest in long-term development. Despite the team's improvements, by the end of the 2001 season they had the league's lowest season ticket sales and the lowest revenues from sponsors.
Demise
Major League Soccer had reportedly lost an estimated $250 million during its first five years.
The league's poor financial condition forced MLS to stop the bleeding. During the winter break between the 2000 and 2001 seasons, reports began circulating that MLS was considering trimming the league from 12 teams back to 10 teams. Rumors began circulating that the league might pull the plug on the Fusion, even though the Fusion had a low-cost stadium lease, and an improved performance in 2001 with increased fan attendance.
MLS announced in January 2002 that it had decided to contract the two Florida franchises, the Fusion and the Tampa Bay Mutiny. Both teams were withdrawn from the league, ceased operations and folded. Major League Soccer's contraction reduced the league from 12 to 10 teams. The league had chosen to fold the Miami Fusion, in part because the Fusion's ownership reportedly lacked financial resources, had been trying to run the Fusion on a bare-minimum budget, and had asked the league to pay some of the club's expenses. Commissioner Garber stated that the Fusion had the lowest revenue in the league, due to fewer season tickets and almost no revenue from corporate sponsorships.
Miami ownership had reportedly experienced $15 million in operating losses since Miami joined the league. The Fusion's owner, Ken Horowitz, described several difficulties with operating an MLS soccer franchise in South Florida. Many Miami residents were not originally from the area and didn't identify with and support local sports teams. Additionally, the MLS season is in the summer, which is different from the youth soccer season, making it difficult to draw youth soccer teams to attend Fusion matches. There were also issues with local summertime heat and rain. Finally, Horowitz identified a lack of corporate support for the team.
On April 2, 2015, a new club with the name Miami Fusion FC joined the fourth-tier National Premier Soccer League. The club folded in 2018.
MLS returned to the South Florida area in 2018, when Inter Miami CF was announced. On January 29, 2018, the Miami Beckham United group, four years after the ownership's original announcement of pursuing a team, was awarded the twenty-fifth MLS franchise and was set to launch in the 2020 season.
Stadium
The Fusion played their home games at Fort Lauderdale's Lockhart Stadium. They had originally intended to play at the Orange Bowl Stadium in downtown Miami, but could not reach an agreement with the city of Miami, as the city wanted a 10-year lease and a prohibition on the team relocating to another South Florida stadium. Subsequently, the Fusion reached an agreement with the Broward County School Board and the city of Fort Lauderdale to use Lockhart Stadium.
Originally constructed as a high school football and track stadium in 1959, Lockhart had hosted the Fort Lauderdale Strikers of the original North American Soccer League from 1977 to 1983, as well as other soccer games. Fusion owner Ken Horowitz spearheaded a $5 million renovation that converted Lockhart into a 20,000-seat soccer-specific stadium. The new stadium was the first of its kind in Major League Soccer; at the time all other teams played in much larger football stadiums. This innovation set a trend for similar facilities throughout the league that continues today.
The stadium site was redeveloped in 2019 and 2020 with the construction of DRV PNK Stadium for Major League Soccer club Inter Miami CF.
Honors
Supporters' Shield
Winners:2001
MLS Eastern Conference (Regular Season)
Winners:2001
U.S. Open Cup
Runners-up:2000
Year-by-year
Team records
Games: Pablo Mastroeni (100) Diego Serna (100)
Goals: Diego Serna (52)
Assists: Diego Serna (36)
Clean Sheets: Jeff Cassar (7) Nick Rimando (7)
Head coaches
Carlos Córdoba (1998)
Ivo Wortmann (1998–00)
Ray Hudson (2000–01)
See also
Fort Lauderdale Strikers
List of Major League Soccer defunct clubs
Fort Lauderdale–Tampa Bay rivalry
References
External links
Fusion Retrospective Podcast
SportsEcyclopedia.Com: Miami Fusion (1998–2001)
Defunct soccer clubs in Florida
Association football clubs established in 1997
Defunct Major League Soccer teams
Association football clubs disestablished in 2001
1997 establishments in Florida
2001 disestablishments in Florida
Sports in Fort Lauderdale, Florida | [
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245702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita | Amanita | The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own. The most potent toxin present in these mushrooms is α-amanitin.
The genus also contains many edible mushrooms, but mycologists discourage mushroom hunters, other than experts, from selecting any of these for human consumption. Nonetheless, in some cultures, the larger local edible species of Amanita are mainstays of the markets in the local growing season. Samples of this are Amanita zambiana and other fleshy species in central Africa, A. basii and similar species in Mexico, A. caesarea and the "Blusher" Amanita rubescens in Europe, and A. chepangiana in South-East Asia. Other species are used for colouring sauces, such as the red A. jacksonii, with a range from eastern Canada to eastern Mexico.
Many species are of unknown edibility.
Taxonomy
The name is possibly derived from Amanus (), a mountain in Cilicia or from Amantia (Greek: Ἀμάντια, Ἀβάντια; Latin: Amantia), an ancient city in the transboundary region between Epirus or southern Illyria in antiquity.
The genus Amanita was first published with its current meaning by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797. Under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, Persoon's concept of Amanita, with Amanita muscaria (L.) Pers. as the type species, has been officially conserved against the older Amanita Boehm (1760), which is considered a synonym of Agaricus L.
Toxicity
Several members of the section Phalloidieae are notable for their toxicity, containing toxins known as amatoxins, which can cause liver failure and death. These include the death cap A. phalloides; species known as destroying angels, including A. virosa, A. bisporigera and A. ocreata; and the fool's mushroom, A. verna.
More recently, a series in the subgenus Lepidella has been found to cause acute kidney failure, including A. smithiana of northwestern North America, A. pseudoporphyria of Japan, and A. proxima of southern Europe.
Edibility
Although some species of Amanita are edible, many fungi experts advise against eating a member of Amanita unless the species is known with absolute certainty. Because so many species within this genus are so deadly toxic, if a specimen is identified incorrectly, consumption may cause extreme sickness and possibly death.
Edible
Edible species of Amanita include Amanita fulva, Amanita vaginata (grisette), Amanita calyptrata (coccoli), Amanita crocea, Amanita rubescens (blusher), Amanita caesarea (Caesar's mushroom), and Amanita jacksonii (American Caesar's mushroom).
Inedible
Inedible species of Amanita include Amanita albocreata (ringless panther), Amanita atkinsoniana, Amanita citrina (false death cap), Amanita excelsa, Amanita flavorubescens, Amanita franchetii, Amanita longipes, Amanita onusta, Amanita rhopalopus, Amanita silvicola, Amanita sinicoflava, Amanita spreta, and Amanita volvata.
Poisonous species include Amanita brunnescens, Amanita ceciliae, Amanita cokeri (Coker's amanita), Amanita crenulata, Amanita farinosa (eastern American floury amanita), Amanita frostiana, Amanita muscaria (fly agaric), Amanita pantherina (panther cap), and Amanita porphyria.
Deadly poisonous
Deadly poisonous species include Amanita abrupta, Amanita arocheae, Amanita bisporigera (eastern NA destroying angel), Amanita exitialis (Guangzhou destroying angel), Amanita magnivelaris, Amanita ocreata (western NA destroying angel), Amanita phalloides (death cap), Amanita proxima, Amanita smithiana, Amanita subjunquillea (East Asian death cap), Amanita verna (fool's mushroom), and Amanita virosa (European destroying angel).
Psychoactive species
Amanita muscaria
Amanita muscaria was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of the Russian Far East. There are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of A. muscaria was not practiced by these peoples.
Amanita pantherina
Amanita pantherina contains the psychoactive compound muscimol, but is used as an entheogen much less often than its much more distinguishable relative A. muscaria.
Others
Other species identified as containing psychoactive substances include:
Amanita
A. citrina
A. gemmata
A. pantherina var. abietum
A. porphyria
A. regalis
A. strobiliformis
Tricholoma
Tricholoma muscarium
See also
Death cap
Destroying angel
List of Amanita species
References
Sources
External links
Rodham E. Tulloss and Zhu-liang Yang's Amanita site – Comprehensive listing of the nearly 600 named Amanita species with photos and/or technical details on over 510 species.
"The genus Amanita" by Michael Kuo, MushroomExpert.Com, March 2005.
Agaricales genera
Hepatotoxins
Taxa described in 1794
Taxa named by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon | [
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245703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top%20Fuel | Top Fuel | Top Fuel dragsters are the quickest accelerating racing cars in the world and the fastest sanctioned category of drag racing, with the fastest competitors reaching speeds of and finishing the runs in 3.62 seconds.
A top fuel dragster accelerates from a standstill to in as little as 0.8 seconds (less than one third the time required by a production Porsche 911 Turbo to reach ) and can exceed in just . This subjects the driver to an average acceleration of about over the duration of the race and with a peak of over .
Because of the speeds, this class exclusively races to only a distance, and not the traditional one-fourth of a statute mile, or . The rule was changed in 2008 by the National Hot Rod Association following the fatal crash of Funny Car driver Scott Kalitta during a qualifying session at Old Bridge Township Raceway Park in Englishtown, New Jersey. The shortening of the distance was used by the FIA at some tracks, and as of 2012 is now the standard Top Fuel distance defined by the FIA. The International Hot Rod Association, which at the time sanctioned Top Fuel in Australia, dropped the 1/4 mile distance in September 2017 after Santo Rapisarda, a car owner who often runs NHRA races in the United States, pushed for the change.
Top Fuel racing
Before their run, racers often perform a burnout in order to clean and heat tires. Additionally, the burnout applies a layer of fresh rubber to the track surface, which greatly improves traction during launch.
At maximum throttle and RPM, the exhaust gases escaping from a dragster's open headers produce about of downforce. The massive airfoil over and behind the rear wheels produces much more, peaking at around when the car reaches a speed of about .
The engine of a Top Fuel dragster generates around 150 dB of sound at full throttle, enough to cause physical pain or even permanent damage. A sound that intense is not just heard, but also felt as pounding vibrations all over one's body, leading many to compare the experience of watching a Top Fuel dragster make a pass to 'feeling as though the entire drag strip is being bombed.' Before a run, race announcers usually advise spectators to cover or plug their ears. Ear plugs and even earmuffs are often handed out to fans at the entrance of a Top Fuel event.
Dragsters are limited to a maximum wheelbase of .
Currently, the most prolific active driver in Top Fuel is Tony Schumacher, and the most successful crew chief is Alan Johnson, who was the crew chief for six of Schumacher's championships, the back-to-back titles won by driver Gary Scelzi and was the crew chief for his brother Blaine for his entire professional career. The first female driver in the Top Fuel category is also the most associated female in the drag racing world, Shirley Muldowney, who won three championships during her career.
Fuel
Since 2015, NHRA regulations limit the composition of the fuel to a maximum of 90% nitromethane; the remainder is largely methanol. However, this mixture is not mandatory, and less nitromethane may be used if desired. The exhaust gas from nitromethane combustion contains nitric oxide, an important intermediate in industrial chemistry, which is formed in combustion systems and can be generated by lightning in thunderstorms. In mammals, including humans, nitric oxide is a signaling molecule in many physiological and pathological processes.[8] It was proclaimed the "Molecule of the Year" in 1992.[9] The 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for discovering nitric oxide's role as a cardiovascular signalling molecule.
Nitric oxide should not be confused with nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a brown gas and major air pollutant, nor with nitrous oxide (N2O), an anesthetic.
While nitromethane has a much lower energy density () than either gasoline () or methanol (), an engine burning nitromethane can produce up to 2.4 times as much power as an engine burning gasoline. This is made possible by the fact that, in addition to fuel, an engine needs oxygen in order to generate force: of air (21% oxygen) is required to burn of gasoline, compared to only of air for one kilogram of nitromethane, which, unlike gasoline, already has oxygen in its molecular composition. For a given amount of air consumed, this means that an engine can burn 7.6 times more nitromethane than gasoline.
Nitromethane also has a high latent heat of vaporization, meaning that it will absorb substantial engine heat as it vaporizes, providing an invaluable cooling mechanism. The laminar flame speed and combustion temperature are higher than gasoline at and respectively. Power output can be increased by using very rich air-fuel mixtures. This also helps prevent pre-ignition, which is often a problem when using nitromethane.
Due to the relatively slow burn rate of nitromethane, very rich fuel mixtures are often not fully ignited and some remaining nitromethane can escape from the exhaust pipe and ignite on contact with atmospheric oxygen, burning with a characteristic yellow flame. Additionally, after sufficient fuel has been combusted to consume all available oxygen, nitromethane can combust in the absence of atmospheric oxygen, producing hydrogen, which can often be seen burning from the exhaust pipes at night as a bright white flame. In a typical run the engine can consume between and of fuel during warmup, burnout, staging, and the quarter-mile run.
Top fuel engines
Rules
Like many other motor sport formulas originating in the United States, NHRA-sanctioned drag racing favors heavy restrictions on engine configuration, sometimes to the detriment of technological development. In some cases, teams are required to use technologies that may be decades old, resulting in cars that may seem substantially less advanced than the average family car. However, while some basic facets of engine configuration are heavily restricted, other technologies, such as fuel injection, clutch operation, ignition, and car materials and design, are under constant development.
NHRA competition rules limit the engine displacement to . A bore with a stroke are customary dimensions. Larger bores have been shown to weaken the cylinder block. Compression ratio is about 6.5:1, as is common on engines with overdriven Roots-type superchargers.
Engine
The engine used to power a Top Fuel drag racing car is based on a second generation Chrysler RB Hemi, but is built exclusively of specialized parts, it retains the basic configuration with two valves per cylinder activated by pushrods from a centrally-placed camshaft. The engine has hemispherical combustion chambers, a 90-degree valve stem angle; bore pitch.
The block is machined from a piece of forged aluminum. It has press-fitted, ductile iron liners. There are no water passages in the block, which adds considerable strength and stiffness. The engine is cooled by the incoming air/fuel mixture and the lubricating oil. Like the original Hemi, the racing cylinder block has a deep skirt for strength. There are five main bearing caps, which are fastened with aircraft-standard-rated steel studs, with additional reinforcing main studs and side bolts ("cross-bolting"). There are three approved suppliers of these custom blocks.
The cylinder heads are machined from aluminum billets. As such, they, too, lack water jackets and rely entirely on the incoming air/fuel mixture and lubricating oil for their cooling. The original Chrysler design of two large valves per cylinder is used. The intake valve is made from solid titanium and the exhaust from solid Nimonic 80A or similar. Seats are of ductile iron. Beryllium-copper has been tried but its use is limited due to its toxicity. Valve sizes are around for the intake and for the exhaust. In the ports there are integral tubes for the push rods. The heads are sealed to the block by copper gaskets and stainless steel o-rings. Securing the heads to the block is done with aircraft-rated steel studs and stud nuts.
The camshaft is billet steel, made from 8620 carbon or S7 through-hardened tool steel or similar. It runs in five oil pressure lubricated bearing shells and is driven by gears in the front of the engine. Mechanical roller lifters (cam followers) ride atop the cam lobes and drive the steel push rods up into the steel rocker arms that actuate the valves. The rockers are of roller tip type on the intake and exhaust sides. Like the cam follower rollers, the steel tip roller rotates on a steel roller bearing and the steel rocker arms rotate on a pair of through-hardened tool steel shafts within bronze bushings. Intake and exhaust rockers are billet. The dual valve springs are of coaxial type and made out of titanium. Valve retainers are also made of titanium, as are the rocker covers.
Billet steel crankshafts are used; they all have a cross plane a.k.a. 90 degree configuration and run in five conventional bearing shells. 180 degree crankshafts have been tried and they can offer increased power. A 180 degree crankshaft is also about lighter than 90 degree crankshaft, but they create a lot of vibration. Such is the strength of a top fuel crankshaft that in one incident, the entire engine block was split open and blown off the car during an engine failure, and the crank, with all eight connecting rods and pistons, was left still bolted to the clutch.
Pistons are made of forged aluminum. They have three rings and aluminum buttons retain the steel wrist pin. The piston is anodized and Teflon coated to prevent galling during the high thrust load operation encountered. The top ring is an L-shaped section "Dykes" ring that provides a good seal during combustion but a second ring must be used to prevent excessive oil from entering the combustion chamber during intake strokes as the Dykes-style ring offers less than optimal reverse gas/oil sealing. The third ring is an oil scraper ring whose function is to scrape the majority of the oil film off of the cylinder wall as the piston descends, to prevent oil being exposed to combustion heat and contaminating the upcoming round of fuel/air. This "oil scraping" also provides a key heat removal step for the cylinder walls and piston skirts, the oil film is renewed as the piston moves upward after BDC.
The connecting rods are of forged aluminum and do provide some shock damping, which is why aluminum is used in place of titanium, because titanium connecting rods transmit too much of the combustion impulse to the big-end rod bearings, endangering the bearings and thus the crankshaft and block. Each con rod has two bolts, shell bearings for the big end while the pin runs directly in the rod.
Superchargers
The supercharger must be a 14-71 type Roots blower. It has twisted lobes and is driven by a toothed belt. The supercharger is slightly offset to the rear to provide an even distribution of air. Absolute manifold pressure is usually , but up to is possible. The manifold is fitted with a burst plate. Air is fed to the compressor from throttle butterflies with a maximum area of . At maximum pressure, it takes approximately to drive the supercharger.
These superchargers are in fact derivatives of General Motors scavenging-air blowers for their two-stroke diesel engines, which were adapted for automotive use in the early days of the sport. The model name of these superchargers delineates their size – the once commonly used 6-71 and 4-71 blowers were designed for General Motors diesels having six cylinders of each, and four cylinders of each, respectively. Thus, the currently used 14-71 design can be seen to be a huge increase in power delivery over the early designs, purpose-built for the GM Detroit Diesel truck powerplants.
Mandatory safety rules require a secured Kevlar-style blanket over the supercharger assembly as "blower explosions" are not uncommon, from the volatile air/fuel mixture coming from the fuel injectors being drawn directly through them. The absence of a protective blanket exposes the driver, team and spectators to shrapnel in the event that nearly any irregularity in the induction of the air/fuel mixture, the conversion of combustion into rotating crankshaft movements, or in the exhausting of spent gasses is encountered.
Note that Detroit Diesel did not produce a 14-71.
Oil and fuel systems
The oil system has a wet sump which contains of SAE 70 mineral or synthetic racing oil. The pan is made of titanium or aluminum. Titanium can be used to prevent oil spills in the event of a blown rod. Teams are fined and points are lost if oil is spilled on the track surface, so all teams make provision for absorbent blankets/diapers below the engine. Oil pump pressure is somewhere around during the run, at start up, but actual figures differ between teams.
Fuel is injected by a constant flow injection system. There is an engine driven mechanical fuel pump and about 42 fuel nozzles. The pump can flow per minute at 7500 rpm and fuel pressure. In general 10 injectors are placed in the injector hat above the supercharger, 16 in the intake manifold and two per cylinder in the cylinder head. Usually a race is started with a leaner mixture, then as the clutch begins to tighten as the engine speed builds, the air/fuel mixture is enriched. As the increased engine speed builds up pump pressure, the mixture is made leaner to maintain a predetermined ratio that is based on many factors, especially race track surface friction. The stoichiometry of both methanol and nitromethane is considerably greater than that of racing gasoline, as they have oxygen atoms attached to their carbon chains and gasoline does not. This means that a "fueler" engine will provide power over a very broad range from very lean to very rich mixtures. Thus, to attain maximum performance, before each race, by varying the level of fuel supplied to the engine, the mechanical crew may select power outputs barely below the limits of tire traction. Power outputs which create tire slippage will "smoke the tires" and as a result the race is often lost.
Ignition and timing
The air/fuel mixture is ignited by two spark plugs per cylinder. These plugs are fired by two 44-ampere magnetos. Normal ignition timing is 58-65 degrees BTDC (This is dramatically greater spark advance than in a petrol engine as "nitro" and alcohol burn far slower). Directly after launch the timing is typically decreased by about 25 degrees for a short time as this gives the tires time to reach their correct shape. The ignition system limits the engine speed to 8400 rpm. The ignition system provides initial 60,000 volts and 1.2 amperes. The long duration spark (up to 26 degrees) provides energy of . The plugs are placed in such a way that they are cooled by the incoming charge. The ignition system is not allowed to respond to real time information (no computer-based spark lead adjustments), so instead a timer-based retard system is used.
Exhaust
The engine is fitted with eight individual open exhaust pipes, in diameter and long. These are made of steel and fitted with thermocouples for measuring of the exhaust gas temperature. They are called "zoomies" and exhaust gases are directed upward and backwards. Exhaust temperature is about at idle and by the end of a run. During a nighttime event, the slow-burning nitromethane can be seen to extend flames many feet out from the exhaust pipes.
The engine is warmed up for about 80 seconds. After the warm up the valve covers are taken off, oil is changed and the car is refueled. The run including tire warming is about 100 seconds which results in a "lap" of about three minutes. After each lap, the entire engine is disassembled and examined, and worn or damaged components are replaced.
Performance
Measuring the power output of a top fuel engine directly is not always feasible. Certain models use a torque sensor incorporated as part of the RacePak data system. Dynamometers that can measure the output of a Top Fuel engine exist; however, the main limitation is that a Top Fuel engine cannot be run at its maximum power output for more than 10 seconds without overheating or possibly destroying itself explosively. Making such high power levels from such relatively limited displacement is a result of using very high boost levels and running at extremely high RPMs; both of these stress the internal components to a high degree, meaning that the peak power can only safely be achieved for brief periods of time, and even then only by intentionally sacrificing components. The engine power output can also be calculated based upon the car's weight and its performance. The calculated power output of these engines is most likely somewhere between , which is about twice as powerful as the engines installed on some modern diesel locomotives, with a torque output of approximately and a brake mean effective pressure of .
In late 2015, tests using sensors developed by AVL Racing showed peak power of over .
For the purposes of comparison, a 2009 SSC Ultimate Aero TT, which at the time was among the world's most powerful production automobiles, produces of power and of torque.
From start to finish the engine will turn 240 revolutions. Including start up, burnout, staging and the race, the engine must survive just 500 revolutions before being rebuilt.
Engine weight
Block with liners
Heads each
Crankshaft
Complete engine
Mandatory safety equipment
Much of organized drag-racing is sanctioned by the National Hot Rod Association. Since 1955, the association has held regional and national events (typically organized as single elimination tournaments, with the winner of each two car race advancing) and has set rules for safety, with the more powerful cars requiring ever more safety equipment.
Typical safety equipment for contemporary top fuel dragsters: full face helmets with fitted HANS devices; multi-point, quick release safety restraint harness; full body fire suit made of Nomex or similar material, complete with face mask, gloves, socks, shoes, and outer sock-like boots, all made of fire-resistant materials; on board fire extinguishers; kevlar or other synthetic "bullet-proof" blankets around the superchargers and clutch assemblies to contain broken parts in the event of failure or explosion; damage resistant fuel tank, lines, and fittings; externally accessible fuel and ignition shut-offs (built to be accessible to rescue staff); braking parachutes; and a host of other equipment, all built to the very highest standards of manufacturing. Any breakthrough or invention that is likely to contribute to driver, staff, and spectator safety is likely to be adopted as a mandated rule for competition. The 54-year history of NHRA has provided hundreds of examples of safety upgrades.
In 2000, the NHRA mandated the maximum concentration of nitromethane in a car's fuel be no more than 90%. In the wake of a Gateway International Raceway fatality in 2004, involving racer Darrell Russell, the fuel ratio was reduced to 85%. Complaints from teams in regards to cost, however, has resulted in the rule being rescinded starting in 2008, when the fuel mixture returns to 90%, as NHRA team owners, crew chiefs, and suppliers complained about mechanical failures that can result in oildowns or more severe crashes caused by the reduced nitromethane mixture. They also mandated enclosed roll cages.
The NHRA also mandated that different rear tires be used to reduce failure, and that a titanium "shield" be attached around the back-half of the roll-cage to prevent any debris from entering the cockpit. This also was the result of the fatal crash at Gateway International Raceway. The rear tire pressure is also heavily regulated by Goodyear Tire and Rubber on behalf of the NHRA, at , the absolute minimum pressure allowed.
At present, final drive ratios higher than 3.20 (3.2 engine rotations to one rear axle rotation) are prohibited, in an effort to limit top speed potential, thus reducing the level of danger.
History
In 1958, NHRA banned nitro in all categories; the American Hot Rod Association (AHRA) still allowed it, and Fuel Dragsters (FD), Hot Roadsters (HR), and Fuel Coupés (FC): this led to Fuel Altereds (AA/FAs), Factory Experimentals (A/FXs), and (ultimately) Funny Cars (TF/FCs).
Independent drag strips, not NHRA sanctioned, offered venues for the fuel racers. Smokers Car Club hosted the first U.S. Fuel and Gas Championship at Famoso Raceway in March 1959. Bob Hansen won Top Fuel Eliminator (TFE) in his A/HR, with a speed of .
Jimmy Nix, who previously ran a Top Gas dragster; Jim Johnson, who ran a Dodge Polara stocker, and who had won the B/SA title in 1963; Jim Nelson; and Dode Martin pioneered TF/FC. (Nix tried to persuade Chrisman to get Mercury Racing Director Fran Hernandez to allow him to run his Comet's 427 on nitro, as a way to gain leverage on NHRA, so Nix could use nitro himself). These cars ran in NHRA's S/FX class, variously defined as "Super Factory Experimental" or "Supercharged Factory Experimental".
They were shortly turning in E.T.s in the low 11s and trap speeds of over ; at Long Beach on 21 March, an 11.49 pass at was recorded. These cars ran in NHRA's S/FX class, variously defined as "Super Factory Experimental" or "Supercharged Factory Experimental".
Bob Sullivan's Pandemonium (a '65 Plymouth Barracuda) joined about six other nitro-fuelled early funny cars facing fuel dragsters in the 1965 season.
In 1971, Don Garlits introduced the Swamp Rat XIV, a rear-engined Top Fuel dragster. While others had been developed in the previous decade, it was the first successful one, winning the 1971 NHRA Winternationals.
In 1984, Top Fuel was at a low point. It was having trouble attracting full sixteen-car fields, leading to cutting back to eight-car rosters, while the International Hot Rod Association dropped Top Fuel entirely. The same year, Joe Hrudka offered a major purse, the Cragar-Weld Top Fuel Classic and "Big Daddy" Don Garlits returned to Top Fuel full-time. By 1987, NHRA Top Fuel Funny Car was drawing twice as many entrants as positions available.
Most NHRA Top Fuel wins
See also
ANDRA Top Fuel
References
External links
Restored Top Fuel Dragsters from the 60s & 70s
NHRA National Hot Rod Association Website
WSID Website
IHRA International Hot Rod Association Website
Santa Pod Raceway - the home of European Drag Racing
Drag racing classes | [
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245705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado%20Rapids | Colorado Rapids | The Colorado Rapids are an American professional soccer club based in the Denver metropolitan area. The Rapids compete in Major League Soccer (MLS) as a member of the Western Conference. Founded in 1995, as part of the Anschutz Corporation, later to be a founding sports fanchise of the global sports & entertainment juggernaut AEG, the club is a founding member of MLS, playing their first season in 1996. The Rapids are owned by the Kroenke Sports & Entertainment, also owners of the Denver Nuggets of NBA, Colorado Avalanche of NHL and other sports teams outside of the state of Colorado.
Colorado won the MLS Cup in 2010, their second MLS Cup appearance. The first appearance was in 1997, losing to D.C. United. They were also runners-up of the U.S. Open Cup in the 1999 tournament, where they lost to the Rochester Raging Rhinos, the last time a non-MLS team has won the Cup. The Rapids play their home games at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City, moving to the stadium after it opened during the 2007 season.
History
Early years
The Colorado Rapids were one of the ten founding clubs of Major League Soccer, owned and operated by the Anschutz Corporation. The inaugural 1996 season was a forgettable one for Colorado. Despite fielding experienced players like Shaun Bartlett, Chris Henderson, Chris Woods, Roy Wegerle and Marcelo Balboa, and head coach Bob Houghton, the team finished last in the Western Conference with the worst record in the league. Balboa became the first player ever to score for the club and also the first to record a goal at Mile High Stadium (in 1996).
For the following season, Glenn Myernick was hired as a new head coach and Dan Counce joined as a general manager. Myernick and Counce brought new faces to the squad including Paul Bravo, Wolde Harris, Ross Paule, and keeper Marcus Hahnemann. The team struggled early on, but rallied to grab a post-season spot. The Rapids pulled off two upsets and advanced to the 1997 MLS Cup final. Chris Henderson scored a mid-air scissor kick goal past Dallas keeper Mark Dodd in the 87th minute in the Western Conference final, ensuring Colorado's place in the MLS Cup final. They scored in the MLS Cup (hosted at the home stadium of the opposing club) thanks to a goal by Adrián Paz, with the team and club barely able to make the trip thanks to an impending record snowstorm in Denver, but lost the final 2–1 to D.C. United.
Colorado continued on a roller coaster of success alternating with major disappointment: Myernick brought in more new players including Anders Limpar and Marcus Hahnemann and the club made it to the 1999 U.S. Open Cup final, only to be upset 2–0 by the Rochester Raging Rhinos.
The 2000 season boasted two of the more memorable moments in Rapids history. The first was Marcelo Balboa's famous bicycle kick which garnered the Goal of the Year. The second was clinching a playoff spot in the final game of the season against the Los Angeles Galaxy, with Paul Bravo scoring in the 97th minute.
In 2001 Tim Hankinson took the reins as Colorado's new head coach. Scottish striker John Spencer also joined the club that year. While Hankinson did bring effective players like Mark Chung, Chris Henderson, Carlos Valderrama, and Joe Cannon to the squad—and made the playoffs every year—Hankinson also signed a number of expensive and unsuccessful players including Zizi Roberts and Darryl Powell. During his coaching stint, the club also traded away club legend Marcelo Balboa, who would play one game for MetroStars before retiring.
2002 was a banner year for the Rapids, and they started off their new year at their new home of Invesco Field at Mile High by acquiring two powerhouses and future stars for the team, Pablo Mastroeni and Kyle Beckerman from the defunct Miami Fusion F.C. Chris Henderson went down in history as the first player ever to score a goal in the brand-new stadium. Mark Chung posted record numbers on the season, and Mastroeni shone for the U.S. Men's National Team in that year's World Cup. The club advanced to the MLS Cup Playoffs Semifinals, and although they did not advance to the MLS Cup, the Rapids did clean up at the MLS postseason awards ceremonies. General Manager Dan Counce was named MLS Executive of the Year and 4 other Rapids front office staff were named as the best at their positions in MLS that year. Mark Chung was named to the League Best XI squad and also took home the MLS Fair Play Award. Finally, the Rapids ticket sales staff was named best in the league after the Rapids finished first in MLS average home attendance for the first time ever with an average home crowd of over 20,000 fans per home game.
2003 saw the club change their identity, with a rebranding that brought in the new team identity and color scheme of black and blue. Mark Chung and forward John Spencer had banner years. Spencer, the Rapids' team captain, set a new team record by scoring in six consecutive games and tied his own team record with 14 goals on the season. He finished the season third in MLS with 33 points, was a finalist for Honda MVP and was named to the MLS Pepsi Best XI. Joining him on the Best XI was Chung, who tied his career-high of a year prior with 11 goals and was second on the team with 28 points. This was Chung's second consecutive appearance on the MLS Best XI and it marked the first time in league history that two Rapids had been so honored in the same season.
The Rapids set a new MLS record for the lowest home Goals Against Average over an entire season with at 0.53 by only allowing eight goals in 15 matches at Invesco Field during the season, and never more than one in a single game. After Kansas City broke the Rapids’ MLS record 16-game home undefeated streak on June 9, the Black & Blue reeled off 11 more undefeated home games. On the year Colorado was undefeated when scoring more than one goal, a credit to the play of goalkeeper Joe Cannon and the suffocating defense.
Kroenke Sports Enterprises purchased the club in late 2004 and made several changes before the 2005 season. In the front office, KSE replaced long-time executive GM Dan Counce with Charlie Wright, who appointed Fernando Clavijo as the new head coach.
Clavijo and Wright brought in many new additions to the squad including Jeff Cunningham, Terry Cooke, and David "Dedi" Ben Dayan. The team saw steady improvement over the course of the 2005 season. The season's success was highlighted by a dramatic playoff victory over FC Dallas in a penalty shootout, and their claiming of the brand new Rocky Mountain Cup in the tournament's inaugural year.
Colorado's 2006 season seemed to parallel trends from previous years. Clavijo's squad performed inconsistently and only secured a playoff spot at the last instant. Lightning managed to strike twice as they duplicated their 2005 playoff run by again beating FC Dallas in penalties only to crash out of the Western Conference Final by a two-goal deficit. Other highlights from the final black and blue season include securing the Rocky Mountain Cup for the second consecutive year and winning the MLS Reserve Division.
2007–13
New head executive Jeff Plush took over the business responsibilities of the club when he was named Managing Director in January 2006. The club's colors were changed to burgundy and blue, to align with other clubs owned by Kroenke Sports Enterprises. This accompanied the company's commitment to building the world's largest professional soccer stadium and fields complex, Dick's Sporting Goods Park, which opened to worldwide acclaim in March 2007, and formulating relationships with another KSE soccer club, Arsenal of the English Premier League and Pachuca of Mexico.
The Rapids enjoyed a successful inaugural year at Dick's Sporting Goods Park, hosting numerous international exhibitions and tournaments on the stadium's complex, and successfully bid and won the rights to host and produce the 2007 MLS All-Star Game; on the pitch though the team's record was 9–13–8.
The team started out strong with a 2–1 victory over D.C. United in frigid conditions. Herculez Gomez became the first player to score in the Rapids' brand new stadium. The team had a long winless streak that saw them sink in the standings. Colorado ultimately finished just shy of a playoff spot. Major low points in the season included an embarrassing 5–0 loss to the Seattle Sounders in the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, and a defeat to Real Salt Lake that saw them lose both a playoff berth and the possession of the Rocky Mountain Cup. The club won the MLS Reserve League for the second consecutive year.
Heading into the 2008 season, Rapids GM Charlie Wright added depth to the midfield and defense. Major signings included Christian Gómez and Jose Burciaga Jr. The 2008 season saw a resurgent Rapids side, which started off the season with a complete thrashing of David Beckham and the LA Galaxy by a 4–0 score on Opening Day to launch the season. However, an inconsistent mid-season stretch where, for 13 games, the Rapids could not win two games in a row or lose 2 in a row, saw Clavijo resign from the head coach position for personal reasons, and saw Gary Smith, an assistant coach who came from the Arsenal F.C. system, take over on an interim basis with 11 games left in the season. Under Smith's direction, the Rapids surged into the playoff race, with two key away wins, but fall short of the playoffs in the last game of the season, against Real Salt Lake. Salt Lake tied the Rapids 1–1 in the 90th minute of that game to eliminate the Rapids from playoff contention. Because of the signs of improvement shown in the last 11 games, Smith was hired as the head coach.
The 2009 campaign featured head coach Gary Smith in his first full season. Smith took over the reins from Fernando Clavijo as interim manager after Clavijo resigned. Smith's first appointment was ex-England international Steve Guppy as his assistant; Guppy had spent the previous season at USL-1 team Rochester Rhinos as their player assistant coach. Shortly after, Rapids veteran midfielder Pablo Mastroeni re-signed with the club for four years after mulling potential offers from Europe. The Rapids also signed new four-year contracts with midfielders Colin Clark and Nick LaBrocca and defenders Jordan Harvey and Kosuke Kimura. The Colorado Rapids acquired former QPR and Chicago Fire goalkeeper Matt Pickens to replace Senegalese goalkeeper Bouna Coundoul. The other major roster move included the arrival of Ivan Guerrero from D.C. United in exchange for midfielder Christian Gomez and backup goalkeeper Mike Graczyk. The media criticized the Rapids for not making more roster changes for the 2009 season. However, the core of the team remained intact.
2010: MLS Cup Champions
The 2010 campaign featured many roster moves: Danny Earls, Jeff Larentowicz, Claudio Lopez, Quincy Amarikwa, Ian Joyce, and Wells Thompson join the club. The offseason also included a new contract for star forward Conor Casey. The Colorado Rapids also excited many of the ultras supporter groups by the creation and construction of a supporters terrace within Dick's Sporting Goods Park. During the summer transfer window, the Colorado Rapids signed academy youth player Davy Armstrong, and brought in defender Anthony Wallace from FC Dallas. Colorado also sent Mehdi Ballouchy to New York Red Bulls in exchange for Macoumba Kandji and acquired Brian Mullan from Houston Dynamo in exchange for Colin Clark. Following these changes, Colorado qualified for the MLS Cup playoffs and defeated the Columbus Crew in the first round. On November 13, Colorado hosted the San Jose Earthquakes in the MLS Eastern Conference Championship and won by a score of 1–0, leading to the team's first trip to the MLS Cup since 1997. Colorado faced off against FC Dallas in the finals. During the final, the Rapids trailed 1–0 at halftime. Conor Casey equalized in the second half to send the game to extra time. Macoumba Kandji helped set up the game-winner that went off FC Dallas defender George John. Colorado won the 2010 MLS Cup 2–1, Colorado's first MLS Cup championship and first major trophy in the club's history.
The 2011 campaign led to no roster changes. However, Sanna Nyassi and Tyrone Marshall were signed from Seattle Sounders FC. Joseph Nane and Josh Janniere were additions from Toronto FC. Local product Steven Emory was signed after an open tryout during preseason. The Rapids made the headlines when Irish International and former Hull City striker Caleb Folan signed with the club. The primary departure was defender Julian Baudet. Since Colorado won the 2010 MLS Cup, they automatically qualified for the group stages of the 2011–2012 CONCACAF Champions League. On September 9, Colorado signed versatile defender Miguel Comminges. The Guadeloupe International can play at either Left or Right back. On September 13, Comminges made his debut for Colorado as a substitute in a 4–1 home loss to Club Santos Laguna in the CONCACAF Champions League.
The 2012 season began with several changes to the club. Oscar Pareja was appointed head coach following the departure of Gary Smith. The team traded Sanna Nyassi to the Montreal Impact, and Macoumba Kandji to Houston Dynamo. Acquiring Hunter Freeman, Jaime Castrillón, Luis Zapata, and young Kamani Hill and the loan of young talent Martín Rivero the Rapids looked to begin on a positive note. After defeating the Columbus Crew 2–0 on opening day, things seemed promising. However, as the season ticked by, things started to turn for the worst. Looking for a turnaround, Hárrison Henao was loaned and Brazilian Edu was signed. In July, Kosuke Kimura was traded to the Portland Timbers. Shortly after, defender Tyson Wahl was brought in via trade from the Montreal Impact. After a poor season, the Rapids looked for a late-season turnaround when they signed Hendry Thomas from Wigan Athletic. The Rapids were eliminated from playoff contention in late September ending hopes for another MLS cup.
The 2013 season for the Rapids saw massive changes made to the team. All-time leading goal scorer Conor Casey was released and Omar Cummings would be traded during the offseason, the Forward duo combining for 89 goals in the Rapids' careers. With the majority of the 2010 MLS Champions team gone (only 5 players remaining on the squad), the team looked considerably different. Coach Oscar Pareja wanting a squad of younger, more athletic players. Colorado finished the 2013 season campaign with a 14–11–9 (W-L-T) record which placed them fifth in the Western Conference, eighth in the overall standings. They were eliminated in the knockout round in the playoffs. During the off-season, Oscar Pareja revealed his desire to return to FC Dallas to be the head coach there after taking the opportunity to do so. Eventually, Colorado found his successor which would be none other than Colorado veteran Pablo Mastroeni who had previously retired as a player.
2014–present
Under Mastroeni's first year as head coach, Colorado finished eighth in the West and seventeenth overall having 8 wins, 18 losses, and 8 ties having the Rapids fail to qualify for the MLS Cup Playoffs, after previously qualifying last year. Despite an upper-mid table performance to start the season, the club was plagued heavily by injuries, causing the team to go winless in their final fourteen matches of the season. In the U.S. Open Cup, the Rapids were eliminated from the tournament to the Atlanta Silverbacks. Additionally, they were unable to defend their Rocky Mountain Cup title, losing to rivals, Real Salt Lake.
During the off-season following the 2015 season, where Colorado finished last in the Western Conference, The Rapids had made major changes in their line up, which includes acquiring players: Shkelzen Gashi, Marco Pappa, Jermaine Jones and Tim Howard, who all joined by the summer transfer window. The club went on to having a successful 2016 campaign with a 15-game unbeaten streak and a trip to the western conference championship in which they lost to Seattle Sounders 3–1 aggregate. The 2017 campaign saw the departure of Jermaine Jones, and several weeks into the season, the Rapids made more changes to their roster by trading Sam Cronin and Marc Burch to new expansion side Minnesota United. The team struggled, and head coach Pablo Mastroeni was fired by the end of the season as the Rapids finished the 2017 season with 9 wins, 19 losses and 6 draws, good for 10th in the Western Conference.
For the 2018 season, the Rapids hired former New Zealand coach Anthony Hudson. The Rapids made many additions, including wingback Edgar Castillo and midfielder Jack Price while switching to Hudson's preferred 3-5-2 formation. The season began with the Rapids being eliminated from the 2018 CONCACAF Champions League by Toronto FC, a tournament they had qualified for on the strength of the 2016 campaign. The middle of the 2018 saw another major trade with 2017's leading goalscorer Dominique Badji being traded to FC Dallas for Kellyn Acosta. Despite the changes in the 2018 season, it ended with another 10th place Western Conference finish, with the Rapids accruing 8 wins, 19 losses and 7 draws.
For the 2019, the Rapids turned their attention to MLS veterans for additions to the roster adding Benny Feilhaber, Kei Kamara, Diego Rubio and Keegan Rosenberry. The team also added youngsters Jonathan Lewis, Matt Hundley, Sam Raben and Andre Shinyashiki to the squad. In the preseason, the Rapids parted ways with Sheklzen Gashi. Despite the changes to the team and scoring in every game but one, the Rapids began the 2019 season winless in their first 11 games. The Rapids parted ways with Hudson after going winless in the first nine games of the season. The club named Conor Casey as interim head coach on May 1. Casey led the Rapids to a record of 7 wins, 7 losses and 4 draws. On Aug. 25, the Rapids named Robin Fraser the club's ninth permanent head coach. Fraser posted a 5-2-0 (W-L-D) record, falling just shy of the postseason.
The Rapids made several moves ahead of 2020, trading for Auston Trusty and permanently acquiring Lalas Abubakar. The club also brought in Drew Moor, a 2010 MLS Cup champion with Colorado, as well as goalkeeper William Yarbrough, midfielder Nicolas Benezet and Designated Player Younes Namli. The Rapids started 2020 with two wins before MLS paused its season in early March due to COVID-19. Colorado was placed in Group D of the MLS is Back Tournament with Real Salt Lake, Sporting Kansas City and Minnesota United FC. The MLS regular season restarted in August with Colorado taking three points from four games. On Sept. 12, the Rapids defeated Real Salt Lake, 5-0, marking Colorado's first ever win at Rio Tinto Stadium and beginning a run of three wins in four, including three shutouts. After several players and team staff tested positive for COVID-19, the Rapids paused their season, eventually cancelling five matches. After a full month between games, the Rapids returned to action with losses at Sporting KC and Minnesota. MLS changed the MLS Cup Playoffs qualifying format to points-per-game on Oct. 31. The Rapids then defeated defending MLS Cup champion Seattle Sounders FC, 3–1, before clinching a playoff berth with a 1–0 win at Portland Timbers on Nov. 4. Colorado closed the regular season with a 2–1 win at Houston Dynamo on Nov. 8. Colorado visited Minnesota in the first round of the Audi 2020 MLS Cup Playoffs, falling 3–0. The season featured break-out performances by Rapids Homegrown defender Sam Vines and Homegrown midfielder Cole Bassett. Vines played every minute of every regular season match, while Bassett led the team with five goals and five assists. Both were named to MLS 22 Under 22 for a second consecutive year.
Colors and badge
The Rapids' image has evolved a great deal since their inception. The team has undergone two complete re-brandings. Originally using green as the primary uniform color, the team changed to black and blue for the 2003 season.
As Colorado were preparing to move into Dick's Sporting Goods Park for the 2007 season, the club re-invented themselves again to more closely align with the DNA and color scheme of other KSE teams, changing their colors to burgundy and blue, and creating a brand new shield logo to fit in with more traditional global soccer marks.
Colorado has had three logos in their history. They originally first used the "river" logo as their primary crest with the "circular" logo as a secondary one. In 2002, the two logos would switch, with the "circular" one becoming the primary. For the 2007 re-branding, the Rapids created the new shield-style logo, which is the one that is currently used today. Its main features consist of a mountain representing the Rocky mountains in the region as well as the number 96, referring to the franchise's Inaugural season.
The original look of the Rapids sported a predominantly white kit with green trim, when the club's uniform supplier was Puma. Other minor colors such as gold and blue were occasionally incorporated, with the club's association with Reebok. Eventually, black became more heavily used and eventually overtook white as the more dominant color that accompanied the green, when the club switched to Kappa.
The Rapids underwent an image change prior to the 2003 season. Following the club's switch to Atletica, the uniform colors switched to black and blue vertical stripes, similar to the uniforms worn by Italian Serie A club Inter Milan. The blue and black vertical stripes remained almost unchanged when MLS adopted Adidas as their league-wide kit sponsor.
The uniforms underwent one last change for the 2007 season. The Rapids now sport burgundy (Pantone 202) and sky blue (Pantone 278) as their primary colors. The Colorado Rapids also have a brand new third uniform, consisting of a white shirt, white socks and burgundy shorts.
The Rapids' home jersey for 2013 featured the same burgundy primary color and featured the names of all season ticket holders imprinted in the fabric. The Rapids also had a special away jersey for the 2013 season, featuring the colors of the Colorado state flag.
The club's use of burgundy led to Scottish pop band Little Eye, fronted by the brother of Rapids player Jamie Smith, writing a song about the team called "Burgundy Sky", which is now used as the Rapids official anthem.
The Colorado Rapids were the last existing MLS club to earn a paid sponsorship deal on the front of their jerseys. In May 2014, the club announced a five-year sponsorship deal with Ciao Telecom. In October 2014, the Rapids sued Ciao for missed payments and quietly disassociated from the company. The club later reached an agreement with Transamerica as a shirt sponsor for two seasons starting in 2015. The Rapids then extended their agreement with Transamerica in March 2016 to go through the 2019 season.
Stadium
The Rapids play their home games at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City (approximately 8 miles north of downtown Denver). The stadium capacity is 19,680 and cost $131 million to construct. It is also referred to as a soccer-specific stadium, since it was constructed for the Colorado Rapids. The soccer stadium opened on April 7, 2007. The stadium complex includes youth soccer fields and various retail establishments, and is owned and operated by Kroenke Sports Enterprises (KSE) which also owns the Colorado Avalanche, Denver Nuggets, Colorado Crush and Colorado Mammoth sports franchises, and is a co-owner of English Premier League club Arsenal.
Prior to moving to DSG Park in 2007, Colorado Rapids shared Mile High Stadium and then Invesco Field at Mile High with the Denver Broncos American football franchise. The Rapids have one of the highest discrepancies between their home record and away record in MLS. From their inception in 1996 through the 2014 season, the Rapids record at home was 146–73–6, winning about 65% of their matches at home. However, the Rapids were only 70–164–4 on the road during that same time span, winning only 29% of their games on the road.
Club culture
Rocky Mountain Cup
In 2005, Real Salt Lake joined Major League Soccer and became the Rapids' closest neighbor. The supporters groups of the two clubs created a regular-season competition between the two sides to foster and memorialize this budding rivalry. Each season, the Rocky Mountain Cup is determined by the winner of the head-to-head fixtures within league play.
Supporters
The Rapids had strong fan attendance in 2002 when they led the league in average fans per game. For 2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League (CCL) games, the Supporters Terrace was officially closed. CONCACAF regulations require "all-seater" stadiums, and the terraces at Dick's Sporting Goods Park are standing-only areas with no stadium seating. CCL group stage fixtures have seen the Pid Army and the Bulldog Supporters Group relocated to either midfield in the East stands (against Isidro Metapán) or directly behind the South goal in sections 117 and 118 (against Santos Laguna and Real España). In 2012, it was revealed that the Rapids had 3,561 season ticket holders after the club's front office mistakenly emailed a spreadsheet that contained a list of every season ticket holder in the season ticket base. The front office admitted to the mistake in a follow-up email to the season ticket holders. On February 9, 2013, the leaders of the club's three supporters groups—Class VI, the Pid Army and the Bulldog Supporters Group—announced that they would combine into one group going forward: Centennial 38.
Broadcasting
Rapids matches appear on several channels including Altitude Television, which is owned by Kroenke Sports Entertainment as are the Colorado Avalanche and Denver Nuggets. Major League Soccer determined in 2007 that every game must be televised, either through a regional (or local) TV station, or a national channel.
All games are broadcast on television by Altitude, the official television partner of the Rapids, or else via nationally available channels, including ESPN/ESPN2, Fox Sports 1/Fox Sports 2, and Univision/Unimas/Univision Deportes Network, or the MLS Direct Kick package.
Prior to 2013, the play-by-play duties were covered by a variety of voices, notably Todd Romero and Marc Stout, before the Rapids brought in former BBC sports broadcaster, Richard Fleming. Fleming spent 16 years at the BBC, covering the FIFA World Cup, Confederations Cup, the European Championship, the CAF Africa Cup of Nations, and the English Premier League. He even reported on a World Cup qualifier in North Korea, and later worked for Arsenal TV. He is joined by U.S. legend Marcelo Balboa as color analyst.
Fleming and Balboa co-host a 30-minute preview show before each game, calling the home matches from Dick's Sporting Goods Park, and the road games from Altitude's studios.
Connor Cape and others also do play-by-play for Altitude Radio.
Players and staff
Roster
Out on loan
Team management
{|class="wikitable"
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!style="background:#862633; color:#FFFFFF; border:2px solid #8BB8E8;" scope="col" colspan="2"|Front office
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!style="background:#862633; color:#FFFFFF; border:2px solid #8BB8E8;" scope="col" colspan="2"|Coaching staff
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!style="background:#862633; color:#FFFFFF; border:2px solid #8BB8E8;" scope="col" colspan="2"|Colorado Rapids Academy
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Head coach history
General manager and sporting director history
Gallery of honor
The Rapids Gallery of Honor was established in 2003 to honor the club's all-time top players. The Gallery of Honor is commemorated with signage on the main stand on the west end of Dick's Sporting Goods Park with the players' names and uniform numbers. The two inaugural entrants were Marcelo Balboa and Paul Bravo, co-entered in the Gallery's formation during halftime of the Rapids' home match on July 4, 2003 at Invesco Field at Mile High.
#17 Marcelo Balboa (inducted 2003)
#9 Paul Bravo (inducted 2003)
#19 Chris Henderson (inducted 2007)
#7 John Spencer (inducted 2009)
#25 Pablo Mastroeni (inducted 2014)
#9 Conor Casey (inducted 2017)
Honors
Source:
MLS Cup
Winners: 2010
Runners-up: 1997
Supporters' Shield
Runners-up: 2016
U.S. Open Cup
Runners-up: 1999
Reserve and friendly
MLS Reserve Division (2): 2006, 2007
Rocky Mountain Cup (5): 2005, 2006, 2013, 2015, 2020
Team records
Year-by-year results
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Rapids. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Colorado Rapids seasons.
1. Avg. Attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top Goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
By opponent
Dissolved after 2001 season.
Dissolved after 2014 season.
International tournaments
Player records
Goals
Bold denotes players still playing for the club.
Affiliations
Colorado Springs Switchbacks FC – USL Championship (2nd division)
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1995
Rapids
1995 establishments in Colorado
Major League Soccer teams
Commerce City, Colorado
Kroenke Sports & Entertainment | [
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245711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20England%20Revolution | New England Revolution | The New England Revolution is an American professional soccer club based in the Boston metropolitan area that competes in Major League Soccer (MLS), in the Eastern Conference of the league. It is one of the ten charter clubs of MLS, having competed in the league since its inaugural season.
The club is owned by Robert Kraft, who also owns the New England Patriots along with his son, Jonathan Kraft. The name "Revolution" refers to the New England region's significant involvement in the American Revolution that took place from 1775 to 1783.
New England plays their home matches at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, located 21 miles (34 km) southwest of downtown Boston. The club played their home games at the adjacent and now-demolished Foxboro Stadium, from 1996 until 2001. The Revs are the only original MLS team to have every league game in their history televised.
The Revolution won their first major trophy in the 2007 U.S. Open Cup. The following year, they won the 2008 North American SuperLiga. They won their first Supporters' Shield in 2021. The Revolution have participated in five MLS Cup finals in 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2014, which are the most of clubs who have not won the MLS Cup.
History
The early years (1996–2001)
The success of the 1994 FIFA World Cup (with Foxboro Stadium as one of nine venues) paved the way for a new era of sports in the Boston area. On June 6, 1995, Robert Kraft became the founding investor/operator of the Revolution, joining Major League Soccer (MLS) as one of its 10 charter clubs for its inaugural season in 1996. Kraft is also the owner of the National Football League's (NFL) New England Patriots and CEO of the Kraft Group.
The inaugural Revolution team featured several U.S. Men's national team regulars returning from abroad to be part of the new league. Despite the presence of Alexi Lalas, Mike Burns, and Joe-Max Moore, however, the team was one of only two that failed to make the playoffs of the then 10 team league. The following season, the squad made the playoffs, but failed to advance past the first round. For the next five years, this playoff result would be the Revs' best (which they matched in the 2000 season), as a revolving door of players and head coaches failed to make much of an impact on the fledgling league.
Attendance in these early years was high despite the team's poor on-field performances. More than 15,000 people per match regularly came to watch the Revolution play in the old Foxboro Stadium. The Revs did manage to make the final of the 2001 U.S. Open Cup, but they lost to the Los Angeles Galaxy on a golden goal by Danny Califf. It was a harbinger of finals to come for the Revolution.
Steve Nicol era (2002–2011)
Liverpool great Steve Nicol was appointed as head coach on a full-time basis during the 2002 season. He had previously held the position of interim head coach during the 1999 and 2002 seasons. After taking over, Nicol guided the Revolution to a playoff berth for a league-record eight straight seasons, failing for the first time in 2010. The first six of those berths (from 2002 to 2007) resulted in an appearance in the conference final or better, including three consecutive MLS Cup finals from 2005 to 2007. From the 2008 season until 2013, the Revs failed to go further than the first round of the playoffs. Still, Nicol was respected as one of the best coaches in the league.
Playoff success (2002–2007)
In his first season in charge, Nicol guided the Revs to a first-place finish in the Eastern Conference. The team advanced through the playoffs to the MLS Cup final, where they lost to the Galaxy again, this time 1–0 on a golden goal by Carlos Ruiz.
Consecutive MLS Cup finals
After losing in the conference finals in 2003 and 2004, the Revs repeated their 2002 feat finishing tops in the east and losing the cup final to Los Angeles 1–0 in extra time again in 2005. New England had a real chance to win their first MLS championship, in MLS Cup 2006, against the Houston Dynamo. After Taylor Twellman scored in the 113th minute, the Revs allowed an equalizing header from the Dynamo's Brian Ching less than a minute later that sent the game to penalty kicks, where the Revs lost 4–3.
In the 2007 season, the Revs made it to two cup finals. The 2007 MLS Cup was a rematch from the previous year, though the result was the same as Houston defeated New England 2–1. The Revolution hold the record for most losses in MLS Cup games. Though they lost the 2007 MLS Cup, they defeated FC Dallas to win their first-ever trophy: the 2007 U.S. Open Cup.
Their 2002 MLS Cup appearance granted them a spot in the 2003 CONCACAF Champions Cup, but they lost their first match-up 5:3 on aggregate after playing two games on the road to LD Alajuelense. The Revolution again faced LD Alajuelense of Costa Rica in the home and away 2006 CONCACAF Champions' Cup. The "home" game was played February 22, 2006, in Bermuda despite some fans feeling that playing at Gillette Stadium in the adverse conditions of winter in New England could have been advantageous. The Revs failed to advance, as they drew 0–0 in Bermuda and lost 0–1 in Costa Rica.
Rebuilding (2008–2011)
The 2007 U.S. Open Cup victory qualified the club for the preliminary round of the newly expanded CONCACAF Champions League. Additionally, their top-four finish qualified them for SuperLiga 2008. Therefore, the Revolution competed in four different competitions (MLS, Open Cup, Champions League, and SuperLiga) during the 2008 season. The Revolution had an excellent run at the beginning of the 2008 season. By mid-July, they were leading the overall MLS table and had finished as the number one overall seed in SuperLiga. The team won the tournament, defeating the Houston Dynamo on penalties to earn a small amount of revenge on for their successive MLS Cup defeats. That trophy, however, was the high point for the 2008 Revs. Fixture congestion led to a rash of injuries and general fatigue, and the team crashed out the Champions League with an embarrassing 4–0 home defeat to regional minnows Joe Public FC of Trinidad and Tobago (the tie ended 6–1 Joe Public on aggregate). The team also struggled in domestic play, limping to a third-place finish in the East and losing to the Chicago Fire in the first round of the playoffs. The Revs managed a semifinal appearance in the 2008 U.S. Open Cup, but lost to D.C. United.
In 2009, the Revs continued the mediocrity that had plagued the second half of their 2008 season, losing to Chicago again in the first round of the playoffs. The team also lost to Chicago in the semifinals of the 2009 SuperLiga. 2010 started even more dismally than 2009, with the team failing to put together an unbeaten streak longer than three games until July. Despite the abysmal progress, this unbeaten streak coincided with the Revs' third consecutive SuperLiga appearance, and for the second time in three years, the team made the competition's final, but lost 2–1 to Monarcas Morelia of Liga MX.
The team failed to make the playoffs in either 2010 or 2011, and at the end of the 2011 season, announced they had parted ways with manager Steve Nicol, who had managed the team for 10 years.
2010s
The team hired former player Jay Heaps as head coach. The 2012 season was another disappointment.
In 2013, the team finished 3rd place in the Eastern Conference, making the playoffs for the first time since 2009 with the help of a budding Homegrown Player, Diego Fagundez.
In the April 2014 issue of Boston Magazine, journalist Kevin Alexander named the Kraft family as "the Worst Owners in the League" in an article that contrasted the family's sparkling reputation as NFL owners with their alleged lack of interest in MLS and the Revolution.
The 2014 season brought success. The Revolution signed U.S. national team member Jermaine Jones in late August on a designated player contract. They then went on a 10–1–1 streak led by Jones and MVP candidate Lee Nguyen to finish in 2nd place in the regular season in the Eastern Conference. The Revolution breezed through the playoffs without losing a game, making it to their first MLS Cup Final since 2007. New England lost to the LA Galaxy for the 3rd time in the MLS Cup extending their winless streak in their overall MLS Cup appearances.
Bruce Arena era (2019–present)
On May 9, 2019, coach Brad Friedel was fired by the Revolution after a 12–21–13 career record and a 2–8–2 record to open the 2019 season. He was replaced by former D.C. United, LA Galaxy and USMNT coach Bruce Arena. Under Arena, the Revolution went eleven games undefeated until losing 2–0 to the Los Angeles FC on August 3, 2019. They were eliminated in the 1st Round of the 2019 Playoffs by Atlanta United FC, getting shut out 1–0. The Revolution lost to the Columbus Crew 1–0 in the Eastern Conference Finals in the 2020 Playoffs.
2021: Supporters' Shield winners
The 2021 season saw the Revolution win their first Supporters' Shield in club history by having the best record in the regular season. New England set a new MLS record for points in a season (73), surpassing the previous mark of 72 set by Los Angeles FC in 2019. The franchise's turnaround since May 2019 has been credited to head coach and sporting director Bruce Arena.
Team colors and crest
The original club badge is stylized and based on the flag of the United States with some of the stars made into a soccer ball (similar to Adidas' ball for the UEFA Champions League), composed of six stars, representing the six New England states. The overall design mirrors the 1994 FIFA World Cup logo. The Revolution was the last founding team of the MLS to keep its original crest. In 2014, the flag and ball were retained while the name was dropped.
In 2021, the club launched its new logo. They enlisted an independent third-party to conduct focus groups consisting of Boston sports fans to elicit feedback about what the re-branded badge should represent. It features an "R" sitting above a red strikethrough. The inner shape references traditional flag drapery which plays homage to the original Revolution logo. The "R"'s font references the Boston Tea Party mark and American Revolutionary era lettering. Red details around the logo itself are reminiscent of patriotic bunting and the strikethrough behind the logo is meant to symbolize defiance.
Uniforms
Traditionally, the Revolution have worn all-navy at home, with the exception of red shorts during the club's first year in 1996. Since 2014, the club has worn white shorts at home. To mark the club and the league's 25th anniversary, the red shorts returned for the 2020 and 2021 seasons. The Revolution wore white secondary uniforms for their entire existence until 2015; that year club introduced a red away jersey with white and green accents in tribute to the flag of New England, and away uniforms demonstrated more design variation from there. The following is a partial list of the last eight kits worn by the Revolution.
Home
Away
Sponsorship
Stadium
The Revolution play home matches at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts. At its inception, the Revolution played their games at Foxboro Stadium, alongside the American football team New England Patriots of the National Football League (NFL). In 2002, Robert Kraft financed a $350-million project as a replacement for Foxboro Stadium which would come to be known as Gillette Stadium. In 2007, Kraft began to develop the land around Gillette Stadium, creating a $375-million open-air shopping and entertainment center called Patriot Place.
Gillette Stadium is a 66,000-seat stadium including luxury and box seating. The Revolution artificially limit the stadium's capacity for MLS matches, with certain seating sections covered with tarpaulins, or made inaccessible. However, the club does open the entire stadium for international matches and MLS Playoffs. On October 20, 2020, during the 2002 MLS Cup final a record was established when a crowd of 61,316 attended a Revolution 1–0 loss against the Los Angeles Galaxy. This was the largest stand-alone MLS post-season crowd on record until the 2018 MLS Cup in Atlanta at Mercedes-Benz Stadium.
Although the Revolution have played on natural grass from 2002 to 2006, they currently play on FieldTurf which was upgraded in April 2014 to FieldTurf "Revolution" with "VersaTile" drainage system. Gillete Stadium's FieldTurf surface was certified by FIFA with a two-star quality rating, the highest possible rating. Kraft, however, announced that he would be willing to switch the stadium to a natural grass playing field as part of his stadium bid for 2026 FIFA World Cup.
Kraft opened a new $35 million training center in 2019. The team's training facilities and offices are located in the wetlands behind Gillette Stadium. Despite these new facilities, Kraft claimed that he was still committed to building a new soccer-specific stadium in the city.
Plans for a soccer–specific stadium
On August 2, 2007, The Boston Herald reported that the city of Somerville and Revolution officials had held preliminary discussions about building a 50,000 to 55,000-seat stadium on a site off of Innerbelt Road near Interstate 93. The stadium could cost anywhere between $50 and $200 million based on other similar MLS soccer-specific stadiums. After a two-year hiatus, the Revolution renewed their plans to build a stadium in Somerville since the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority finalized its Green Line maintenance facility plans. In a July 2010 interview, Kraft said that over $1 million had been invested in finding a suitable site, preferably in the urban core.
On November 18, 2014, The Boston Globe reported that the Kraft family had met with city and state officials over a stadium in South Boston on a public lot off Interstate 93. The proposed site is adjacent to an industrial site that has been identified for the main Olympic stadium by the organizing group for Boston's now-failed bid to host the 2024 Summer Olympics, of which Robert Kraft was a member.
Player development
Reserves
On October 9, 2019, the club announced the formation of a reserve team, New England Revolution II, in USL League One that would begin play in the 2020 season and that they would play at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough. On November 25, 2019, the club announced its first manager, Clint Peay.
Academy system
The New England Revolution Academy is an elite youth development program fully-funded by the senior club and recognized by U.S. Soccer as one of the top 10 youth development programs in the country. Competing in MLS Next, a successor to the U.S. Soccer Development Academy, the Revolution Academy provides local players a pathway to a professional career.
Since 2010 when Diego Fagúndez became the Revolution's first ever MLS Homegrown Player Rule signing, the Revolution have promoted several other youth prospects from their academy team, including Scott Caldwell, Zachary Herivaux, Justin Rennicks, Isaac Angking and Damian Rivera.
Club culture
Supporters
The team's supporter's clubs are called the Midnight Riders and The Rebellion. The name 'Midnight Riders' is in honor of the famous rides of Paul Revere and William Dawes, who announced the departure of British troops from Boston to Concord at the beginning of the American Revolution. The two groups together occupy the north stand of the stadium, which they have nicknamed "The Fort". The Fort is a general admission section and draws its name from the revolutionary theme which runs through the team supporters. In the same theme, the Revolution also employ a corps known as the End Zone Militia, a group of American Revolutionary War reenactors founded in 1996 by Geoff Campbell. The reenactors wear authentic 18th century clothing including the iconic colonial tricorn hat, and carry flintlock black gunpowder muskets which are ceremoniously fired when the Revolution score a goal.
Rivalries
The club's main rival is widely considered to be New York Red Bulls, due to the rivalry stemming from other Boston–New York rivalries in other professional sports such as the Knicks–Celtics rivalry in the NBA, the Jets–Patriots rivalry in the NFL and the Yankees-Red Sox rivalry in Major League Baseball. Beginning in 2002, the Revs had a 20 match undefeated streak against the Red Bulls for games at Gillette Stadium. This streak helped to intensify the rivalry between the teams. The streak came to an end on June 8, 2014, as the Red Bulls won 2–0 at Gillette Stadium.
The Revolution have also built rivalries with fellow Eastern Conference teams D.C. United and Chicago Fire. These teams have faced each other on numerous occasions in the playoffs. In a 2009 poll on the club's official site, New England fans considered the Chicago Fire the Revs' most bitter rival as the clubs have clashed many times in the MLS playoffs and regular season.
Since 2015 a rivalry has also developed with newcomer club New York City FC, due to the latter club's association with the Yankees and with Yankee Stadium being the club's incumbent home ground. To further fuel this rivalry, New York City FC knocked out the Revolution in the eastern conference semifinals of the 2021 MLS Cup Playoffs in a 2–2 tie that eventually went to penalties, despite the Revolution having the superior regular season record that year.
Broadcasting
Beginning with the 2021 season, all Revolution matches are televised locally in high definition on either WBZ-TV or WSBK-TV; nationally televised matches air on ESPN, Fox Sports, and Univision. All matches are broadcast on radio by 98.5 The Sports Hub, but this is a simulcast of the TV feed. Brad Feldman handles play-by-play on both TV and radio with former Revolution and USMNT player Charlie Davies doing color commentary. Prior to 2021, matches were aired locally on NBC Sports Boston.
Players
Roster
Team management
Head coaches
The club's current head coach and sporting director is Bruce Arena. The club's previous head coach was Mike Lapper, the interim replacement for Brad Friedel who was appointed the position on November 9, 2017, and subsequently fired on May 9, 2019. There have been eight permanent managers and four interim managers of the Revolution since the appointment of the club's first professional manager, Frank Stapleton in 1996. The club's longest-serving head coach, in terms of both length of tenure and number of games overseen, is Steve Nicol, who managed the club between 2002 and 2011.
Staff
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="background:#0A2240; color:#fff; border:2px solid #CE0E2D;" scope="col" colspan="2"|Ownership and senior management
|-
|-
! style="background:#0A2240; color:#fff; border:2px solid #CE0E2D;" scope="col" colspan="2"|Coaching staff
Honors
Continental trophies
North American SuperLiga
Champions: 2008
Domestic trophies
MLS Cup
Runners-Up: 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2014
Supporters' Shield
Champions: 2021
Runners-Up: 2005
U.S. Open Cup
Champions: 2007
Runners-Up: 2001, 2016
Team records
Year-by-year
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Revolution. For the full season-by-season history, see List of New England Revolution seasons.
1. Avg. Attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top Goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
Notes
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1996
Soccer clubs in Massachusetts
1996 establishments in Massachusetts
20th century in Foxborough, Massachusetts
Sports in Foxborough, Massachusetts
Major League Soccer teams
U.S. Open Cup winners | [
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245712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampa%20Bay%20Mutiny | Tampa Bay Mutiny | Tampa Bay Mutiny was a professional soccer team based in Tampa, Florida. They were a charter member of Major League Soccer (MLS) and played from 1996 to 2001. They played their home games at Tampa Stadium and then at Raymond James Stadium.
The Mutiny were established in 1994 and were owned and operated by MLS throughout their existence. They were successful in their first years of play, winning the first MLS Supporters' Shield behind MLS MVP Carlos Valderrama and high-scoring forward Roy Lassiter, whose 27 goals in 1996 remained the MLS single-season record until 2018. However, in subsequent years, dropping attendance and revenues became problems, especially as their on-field success declined and the lease at their second home pitch of Raymond James Stadium removed sources of gameday revenues. Owing to these issues, MLS attempted without success to find a local ownership group to take over operations from the league, and both the Mutiny the league's other Florida-based team, the Miami Fusion, were folded before the 2002 season.
History
In 1994, newly established Major League Soccer announced it would place one of its charter franchises in the Tampa Bay Area. The region was seen as a potentially fertile market for soccer due to the success of the Tampa Bay Rowdies in the old North American Soccer League in the 1970s and 1980s. The Mutiny took the field in 1996 when the MLS began play. While the Mutiny had no direct connection to the Rowdies franchise, the Mutiny occasionally paid tribute to its predecessor by wearing green and gold alternative kits, once wearing both the Mutiny and Rowdies logos on the same shirt.
The Mutiny were owned and operated by MLS along with two other teams, the Dallas Burn and the San Jose Clash, with the league hoping eventually sell the franchises to private local owners. The team managed strong signings in 1995, including Carlos Valderrama, Roy Lassiter, and Martín Vásquez. They were successful in their first two years, particularly in 1996, when they won the first Supporters' Shield with the best regular-season finish behind Most Valuable Player Carlos Valderrama and Golden Boot winner Roy Lassiter.
On April 13, 1996, the Mutiny played their inaugural game against the New England Revolution, winning 3–2. Led by manager Thomas Rongen and Roy Lassiter, who scored a record 26 goals in the season, the Mutiny claimed the best record in the league at 20–12 and were the first winners of the Supporters' Shield. In the playoffs, they beat the Columbus Crew before losing in the conference final to eventual champions D.C. United.
In 1997, Thomas Rongen took over the New England Revolution, and was replaced by John Kowalski. Under him, the Mutiny finished the season with a record of 17–15, but were swept in the playoffs by the Columbus Crew. After the season, Kowalski resigned from the club. 1998 saw Tim Hankinson join the club as the new manager while star player Carlos Valderrama joined new MLS side Miami Fusion. As a result, the Mutiny would struggle through the season, finishing with a record of 12–20, missing the playoffs for the first time.
In 1999, the Mutiny reacquired Carlos Valderrama. Despite this, they struggled, being swept by the Columbus Crew in the first round of the playoffs, which they qualified for despite having a losing record. In the 2000 season, the Mutiny finished with a 16–12–4 record after rebounding from a poor start to the campaign. However, they were swept by the Los Angeles Galaxy in the first round of the playoffs. In 2001, Tim Hankinson was fired, but struggles continued with successors Alfonso Mondelo and Perry Van der Beck. Mondelo was fired midseason, and neither manager could revive the struggling franchise. On September 4, the Mutiny lost 2–1 to the Columbus Crew in what would be their last ever match. They managed just four wins and two draws, recording 21 losses over the course of the campaign.
The city of Tampa demolished Tampa Stadium in 1998, and the Mutiny moved to new Raymond James Stadium for the 1999 season with a much less favorable lease. The club was hampered by declining attendance and low revenues which were exacerbated by a lease agreement that which transferred most match day revenue to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, resulting in an inability to secure a local ownership group. In 2001, the Mutiny had the worst record in MLS with only four wins in twenty-seven matches on the season and drew an average attendance of under 11,000 per game, among the league's lowest. Faced with financial losses up to $2 million a year, MLS courted Malcolm Glazer and his family, owners of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers National Football League team, to purchase the Mutiny. The Glazers considered the deal but ultimately declined, leaving the league with no prospective owners willing to take over the team. MLS folded the Mutiny, as well as its other Florida-based team, the Miami Fusion, in 2002. The Glazers would purchase Manchester United in 2005.
Honors
Team
MLS Supporters' Shield:
1996
Semi-finals Appearances:
1996
Eastern Conference (Regular Season Winners):
1996
Copa de Puerto Rico
2000
Players
MLS Most Valuable Player:
1996 Carlos Valderrama
MLS Rookie of the Year Award: (2)
1996 Steve Ralston
1997 Mike Duhaney
MLS Golden Boot: (2)
1996 Roy Lassiter (27g, 4a)
2000 Mamadou Diallo (26g, 4a)
MLS Fair Play Award: (2)
1999 Steve Ralston
2000 Steve Ralston
MLS Best XI selections (7)
1996 Carlos Valderrama, Roy Lassiter
1997 Carlos Valderrama
1999 Steve Ralston
2000 Carlos Valderrama, Steve Ralston, Mamadou Diallo
MLS All-Star Game MVP: (3)
1996 Carlos Valderrama
1997 Carlos Valderrama
2000 Mamadou Diallo
MLS All-Star Game starters: (10)
1996 Carlos Valderrama, Roy Lassiter, Martín Vásquez, Cle Kooiman
1997 Carlos Valderrama
1998 Frankie Hejduk, Jan Eriksson
1999 Carlos Valderrama
2000 Carlos Valderrama, Steve Ralston
MLS All-Star Game reserves: (10)
1996 Mark Dougherty, Steve Pittman
1997 Giuseppe Galderisi, Steve Ralston, Frank Yallop
1998 Thomas Ravelli, Mauricio Ramos
2000 Mamadou Diallo, Scott Garlick
2001 Mamadou Diallo
MLS records:
26 assists in one season: Carlos Valderrama in 2000
MLS All-Star Game MVP: Carlos Valderrama in 1996 & 1997
Canadian Soccer Hall of Fame:
2004 Frank Yallop
Coach and Admin
MLS Coach of the Year Award:
1996 Thomas Rongen
MLS Executive of the Year Award:
1999 Nick Sakiewicz
MLS Operations Executive of the Year Award: (2)
1996 Eddie Austin
2001 Eddie Austin
Players
See also All-time Tampa Bay Mutiny roster
Head coaches
Thomas Rongen (1996)
John Kowalski (1997–98)
Tim Hankinson (1998–00)
Alfonso Mondelo (2001)
Perry Van der Beck (2001)
Team records
Games: Steve Ralston (177)
Goals: Roy Lassiter (37)
Assists: Carlos Valderrama (81)
Shutouts: Scott Garlick (11)
Home stadiums
Tampa Stadium (1996–1998)
Raymond James Stadium (1999–2001)
Year-by-year
See also
Tampa Bay Rowdies of the USL Championship
Fort Lauderdale–Tampa Bay rivalry
References
External links
Official website (archived December 2, 2001)
Tampa Bay Mutiny on St. Petersburg Times
BigSoccer.Com: Central Florida Superthread (Part 2)
SportsEcyclopedia.Com: Tampa Bay Mutiny (1996–2001)
Defunct soccer clubs in Florida
Association football clubs established in 1994
Mutiny
Defunct Major League Soccer teams
Sports in Tampa, Florida
Association football clubs disestablished in 2002
1994 establishments in Florida
2002 disestablishments in Florida | [
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245714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yala%20province | Yala province | Yala (, ) is the southernmost Province (changwat) of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from northwest clockwise) Songkhla, Pattani, and Narathiwat. Yala is one of two landlocked provinces in southern Thailand, the other being Phatthalung. Its southern part borders Kedah and Perak of Malaysia.
Geography
Yala province is in southern Thailand. The highest point of the Sankalakhiri Range (Northern Titiwangsa Mountains), the -high Ulu Titi Basah (ฮูลูติติปาซา), is on the Thai/Malaysian border between Yala province and Perak. The total forest area is or 32.5 percent of provincial area.
Toponymy
The name "Yala" is the Thai transliteration of the Malay word "Jala" (Jawi: جالا), meaning "net", which was in turn derived from Sanskrit (Devanagari: जाल). The province is also known as "Jala" in Patani Malay language.
History
Historically, Pattani province was the centre of the Sultanate of Patani, a semi-independent Malay kingdom that paid tribute to the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Ayutthaya. After Ayutthaya fell under Burmese control in 1767, the Sultanate of Patani gained full independence, but under King Rama I (reigned from 1782 to 1809), the area was again placed under Siam's control in 1785 and made a mueang. In 1808, Mueang Pattani was split into seven smaller mueang including Yala and Reman.
The province was recognized as part of Siam by the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, negotiated with the British Empire, while Siam surrendered its claims to Kelantan, Kedah, Terengganu, and Perlis.
There is a separatist movement in Yala, which after being dormant for many years, emerged again in 2004 and has become increasingly violent. Eight bombs exploded in the province over two days, on 6–7 April 2014. The bombings resulted in one death and 28 injuries, as well as damage to a warehouse estimated at 100 million baht. Local officials accordingly tightened security in the province during the Songkran festivities scheduled for 13–15 April.
The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) in 2014 advised its citizens to only undertake essential travel in the province, while the Australian Government's Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade recommends that travellers completely avoid the province.
Demographics
Together with Narathiwat, Pattani and Satun Yala is one of the four provinces of Thailand with a Muslim majority. About 72 percent of the people are Malay-speaking Muslims and mainly live in rural locations. The remainder are Thai and Thai Chinese Buddhists, who live in towns and cities.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a miner with simple mining tools including hoes, crowbars, and baskets. Yala was originally a mining town with tin and tungsten ores.
The provincial tree is the red saraca (Saraca declinata), and the provincial flower is the bullet wood (Mimusops elengi).
Khela mahseer (Tor douronensis) is the provincial fish, since it is a rare fish that can only be found in the lower southern region. Currently, Yala Provincial Fisheries Office is able to breed.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
Yala is divided into eight districts (amphoe), which are further divided into 56 subdistricts (tambon) and 341 villages (muban).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Yala Provincial Administration Organisation () and 16 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Yala has city (thesaban nakhon) status and Sateng Nok and Betong have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 13 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 47 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Transportation
The nearest Thai airport to Yala is Hat Yai International Airport in Songkhla province. Thailand's transport ministry is constructing the 1.9 billion baht Betong International Airport. It is scheduled to be opened in February 2022. Designed to handle 300 arrivals per hour, it is projected to serve one million passengers per year, generating three billion baht for the district. Nok Air, Bangkok Airways, and Malaysia's Firefly Airlines have plans to fly to Betong.
Yala is served by the State Railway of Thailand from the Yala Railway Station.
The province lies on Route 410 (Pattani–Betong Highway), which runs from Pattani through Yala and Betong before passing through the Thailand-Malaysia Border.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
See also
2007 South Thailand bombings
2019 Yala attack
References
External links
Province page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand
Website of the province
Provinces of Thailand
Southern Thailand | [
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245716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich%20Mielke | Erich Mielke | Erich Fritz Emil Mielke (; 28 December 1907 – 21 May 2000) was a German communist official who served as head of the East German Ministry for State Security (Ministerium für Staatsicherheit – MfS), better known as the Stasi, from 1957 until shortly after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
A native of Berlin and a second-generation member of the Communist Party of Germany, Mielke was one of two triggermen in the 1931 murders of Berlin Police captains Paul Anlauf and Franz Lenck. After learning that a witness had survived, Mielke escaped arrest by fleeing to the Soviet Union, where the NKVD recruited him. He was one of the key figures in the decimation of Moscow's German Communists during the Great Purge as well as in the persecution of suspected anti-Stalinists in the International Brigade during the Spanish Civil War.
Following the end of World War II in 1945, Mielke returned to the Soviet Zone of Occupied Germany, which he helped organize into a Marxist-Leninist satellite state under the Socialist Unity Party (SED), later becoming head of the Stasi. According to historian Jack Koehler, he was "the longest serving secret police chief in the Soviet Bloc".
The Stasi under Mielke has been called by historian Edward Peterson the "most pervasive police state apparatus ever to exist on German soil". In a 1993 interview, Holocaust survivor and Nazi-hunter Simon Wiesenthal has said that, if one considers only the oppression of their own people, the Stasi under Mielke was "much, much worse than the Gestapo".
During the 1950s and 1960s Mielke led the process of forcibly forming collectivised farms from East Germany's family-owned farms, which sent a flood of refugees to West Germany. In response, Mielke oversaw the construction (1961) of the Berlin Wall and co-signed orders to shoot fatally all East Germans who attempted to leave the country. He also oversaw the establishment of pro-Soviet police states and paramilitary insurgencies in Western Europe, Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East.
In addition to his role as head of the Stasi, Mielke was also an Army General in the National People's Army (Nationale Volksarmee), and a member of the SED's ruling Politburo. Dubbed "The Master of Fear" () by the West German press, Mielke was one of the most powerful and most hated men in East Germany.
After German reunification in 1990, Mielke was arrested (1991), prosecuted (1992), convicted, and incarcerated (1993) for the 1931 murders of Paul Anlauf and Franz Lenck. Released from prison early due to ill health in 1995, he died in a Berlin nursing home in 2000.
Early life
Erich Mielke was born in a tenement in Berlin-Wedding, Brandenburg, on 28 December 1907. During the First World War, the neighborhood was known as "Red Wedding" due to many residents' Marxist militancy. In a handwritten biography written for the Soviet secret police, Mielke described his father as "a poor, uneducated woodworker," and said that his mother died in 1911. Both were, he said, members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). After his remarriage to "a seamstress," the elder Mielke and his new wife joined the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany and remained members when it was renamed the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). His son Erich claimed "My younger brother Kurt and two sisters were Communist sympathisers."
Despite his family's poverty, Erich Mielke was academically gifted enough to be awarded a free scholarship in the prestigious Köllnisches Gymnasium, but was expelled on 19 February 1929, for being "unable to meet the great demands of this school." While attending the Gymnasium, Mielke joined the Communist Party of Germany in 1925, and worked as a reporter for the communist newspaper Rote Fahne from 1928 to 1931.
During the Weimar Republic, the KPD was the largest communist party in Europe and was seen as the "leading party" of the communist movement outside the Soviet Union. Under Ernst Thälmann's leadership, the KPD was completely obedient to Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, and from 1928 the Party was both funded and controlled by the Comintern in Moscow.
Until the end of the Republic, the KPD viewed the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), which dominated German politics between 1918 and 1931, as their mortal enemy. In keeping with Stalin's policy towards social democracy, the KPD considered all SPD members to be "social fascists". The KPD also believed that all other political parties were "fascist" and regarded itself as "the only anti-fascist Party" in Germany. Nevertheless, the KPD closely collaborated with the Nazi Party during the early 1930s and both Parties intended to replace the democratically elected government of the Weimar Republic with a totalitarian single party state.
Soon after joining the Party, Mielke joined the KPD's paramilitary wing, or Parteiselbstschutz ("Party Self Defense Unit"). At the time, the Parteiselbstschutz in Berlin was commanded by KPD Reichstag Representatives Hans Kippenberger and Heinz Neumann.
According to John Koehler, "Mielke was a special protege of Kippenberger's having taken to his paramilitary training with the enthusiasm of a Prussian Junker. World War I veterans taught the novices how to handle pistols, rifles, machine guns, and hand grenades. This clandestine training was conducted in the sparsely populated, pastoral countryside surrounding Berlin. Mielke also pleased Kippenberger by being an exceptional student in classes on the arts of conspiratorial behavior and espionage, taught by comrades who had studied at the secret M-school of the GRU in Moscow."
According to John Koehler, members of the Parteiselbstschutz "served as bouncers at Party meetings and specialized in cracking heads during street battles with political enemies." Besides the ruling SPD and its paramilitary Reichsbanner forces, the arch-enemies of the Parteiselbstschutz were the Stahlhelm, which was the armed wing of the Monarchist German National People's Party (DVNP), Trotskyites, and "radical nationalist parties."
According to Koehler, the KPD's Selbstschutz men "always carried a Stahlrute, two steel springs that telescoped into a tube seventeen centimeters long, which when extended became a deadly, 35-centimeter weapon. Not to be outdone by the Nazis, these street-fighters were often armed with pistols as well."
In a 1931 biography written for the Cadre Division of the Comintern, Mielke recalled, "We took care of all kinds of work; terror acts, protecting illegal demonstrations and meetings, arms-trafficking, etc. The last work, which was accomplished by a Comrade and myself, was the Bülowplatz Affair" ().
Bülowplatz murders
Planning
During the last days of the Weimar Republic, the KPD had a policy of assassinating two Berlin police officers in retaliation for every KPD member killed by the police.
On 2 August 1931, KPD Members of the Reichstag Heinz Neumann and Hans Kippenberger received a dressing down from Walter Ulbricht, the Party's leader in the Berlin-Brandenburg region. Enraged by police interference and by Neumann and Kippenberger's failure to follow the policy, Ulbricht stated, "At home in Saxony we would have done something about the police a long time ago. Here in Berlin we will not fool around much longer. Soon we will hit the police in the head."
Enraged by Ulbricht's words, Kippenberger and Neumann decided to assassinate Paul Anlauf, the 42-year-old Captain of the Berlin Police's Seventh Precinct. Captain Anlauf, a widower with three daughters, had been nicknamed "Schweinebacke", or "Pig Face" by the KPD.
According to historian John Koehler, "Of all the policemen in strife-torn Berlin, the reds hated Anlauf the most. His precinct included the area around KPD headquarters, which made it the most dangerous in the city. The captain almost always led the riot squads that broke up illegal rallies of the Communist Party."
On the morning of Sunday 9 August 1931, Kippenberger and Neumann gave a last briefing to the hit-team in a room at the Lassant beer hall. Mielke and Erich Ziemer were selected as the shooters. During the meeting, Max Matern gave a Luger pistol to fellow lookout Max Thunert and said, "Now we're getting serious. We're going to give Schweinebacke something to remember us by."
Kippenberger then asked Mielke and Ziemer, "Are you sure that you are ready to shoot Schweinebacke?" Mielke responded that he had seen Anlauf many times during police searches of Party Headquarters. Kippenberger then instructed them to wait at a nearby beer hall which would permit them to overlook the entire Bülow-Platz. He further reminded them that Anlauf was accompanied everywhere by Senior Sergeant Max Willig, whom the KPD had nicknamed, "Hussar".
Kippenberger concluded, "When you spot Schweinebacke and Hussar, you take care of them." Mielke and Ziemer were informed that, after the assassinations were completed, a diversion would assist in their escape. They were then to return to their homes and await further instructions.
That evening, Anlauf was lured to Bülow-Platz by a violent rally demanding the dissolution of the Prussian Parliament.
According to Koehler, "As was often the case when it came to battling the dominant SPD, the KPD and the Nazis had combined forces during the pre-plebiscite campaign. At one point in this particular campaign, Nazi propaganda chief Joseph Goebbels even shared a speaker's platform with KPD agitator Walter Ulbricht. Both parties wanted the parliament dissolved because they were hoping that new elections would oust the SPD, the sworn enemy of all radicals. That fact explained why the atmosphere was particularly volatile this Sunday."
Murder at the Babylon Cinema
At eight o'clock that evening, Mielke and Ziemer waited in a doorway as Anlauf, Willig, and Captain Franz Lenck walked toward the Babylon Cinema, which was located at the corner of Bülowplatz and Kaiser-Wilhelm-Straße. As they reached the door of the movie house, the policemen heard someone scream, "Schweinebacke!"
As Anlauf turned toward the sound, Mielke and Ziemer opened fire at point blank range. Willig was wounded in the left arm and the stomach. However, he managed to draw his Luger pistol and fired a full magazine at the assailants. Lenck was shot in the chest and fell dead in front of the entrance. Willig crawled over and cradled the head of Anlauf, who had taken two bullets in the neck.
Meanwhile, Mielke and Ziemer made their escape by running into the theater and out an emergency exit. They tossed their pistols over a fence, where they were later found by Homicide Detectives from the elite Mordkommission. Mielke and Ziemer then returned to their homes.
According to Koehler, "Back at Bülowplatz, the killings had triggered a major police action. At least a thousand officers poured into the square, and a bloody street battle ensued. Rocks and bricks were hurled from the rooftops. Communist gunmen fired indiscriminately from the roofs of surrounding apartment houses. As darkness fell, police searchlights illuminated the buildings. Using megaphones, officers shouted, "Clear the streets! Move away from the windows! We are returning fire!" By now the rabble had fled the square, but shooting continued as riot squads combed the tenements, arresting hundreds of residents suspected of having fired weapons. The battle lasted until one o'clock the next morning. In addition to the two police officers, the casualties included one Communist who died of a gunshot wound and seventeen others who were seriously wounded."
Anlauf's wife had died three weeks earlier of kidney failure. The murder of Anlauf thus left their three daughters as orphans. Their oldest daughter was forced to rush her planned wedding in order to keep her sisters from being put in an orphanage. Lenck was survived by his wife. Willig was hospitalized for 14 weeks, but made a full recovery and returned to active duty. In recognition for Willig's courage, the Berlin Police promoted him to Lieutenant.
After the murders, the act was celebrated at the Lichtenberger Hof, a favorite beer hall of the Rotfrontkämpferbund, where Mielke boasted: "Today we celebrate a job that I pulled!" ()
Fugitive
According to Koehler, "Kippenberger was alarmed when word reached him that Sergeant Willig had survived the shooting. Not knowing whether the sergeant could talk and identify the attackers, Kippenberger was taking no chances. He directed a runner to summon Mielke and Ziemer to his apartment at 74 Bellermannstrasse, only a few minutes walk from where the two lived. When the assassins arrived, Kippenberger told them the news and ordered them to leave Berlin at once. The parliamentarian's wife Thea, an unemployed schoolteacher and as staunch a Communist Party member as her husband, shepherded the young murderers to the Belgian border. Agents of the Communist International (Comintern) in the port city of Antwerp supplied them with money and forged passports. Aboard a merchant ship, they sailed for Leningrad. When their ship docked, they were met by another Comintern representative, who escorted them to Moscow."
Beginning in 1932, Mielke attended the Comintern's Military Political school under the alias Paul Bach. He later graduated from the Lenin School shortly before being recruited into the OGPU.
Trial
According to Koehler, "In mid-March 1933, while attending the Lenin School, Mielke received word from his OGPU sponsors that Berlin police had arrested Max Thunert, one of the conspirators in the Anlauf and Lenck murders. Within days, fifteen other members of the assassination team were in custody. Mielke had to wait six more months before the details of the police action against his Berlin comrades reached Moscow. On 14 September 1933, Berlin newspapers reported that all fifteen had confessed to their roles in the murders. Arrest warrants were issued for ten others who had fled, including Mielke, Ziemer, Ulbricht, Kippenberger, and Neumann."
Koehler also stated, "Defenders of Mielke later claimed that confessions had been obtained under torture by the Nazi Gestapo. However, all suspects were in the custody of the regular Berlin city criminal investigation bureau, most of whose detectives were SPD members. Some of the suspects had been nabbed by Nazi SA men and probably beaten before they were turned over to police. In the 1993 trial of Mielke, the court gave the defense the benefit of the doubt and threw out a number of suspect confessions."
On 19 June 1934, the 15 conspirators were convicted of first degree murder. The three deemed most culpable, Michael Klause, Max Matern, and Friedrich Bröde were sentenced to death. Their co-defendants received sentences ranging from nine months to fifteen years incarceration at hard labor. Klause's sentence was commuted to life in prison based upon his cooperation. Bröde hanged himself in his cell. As a result, only Matern was left to be executed by beheading on 22 May 1935.
Matern was subsequently glorified as a martyr by KPD and East German propaganda. Ziemer was officially killed in action while fighting on the Republican-side during the Spanish Civil War. Mielke, however, would not face trial for the murders until 1993.
Career in Soviet intelligence
The Great Terror
Although Moscow's German Communist community was decimated during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge, Mielke survived and was promoted.
In a handwritten autobiography prepared after World War II, Mielke recalled, "During my stay in the S.U. (Soviet Union), I participated in all Party discussions of the K.P.D. and also in the problems concerning the establishment of socialism and in the trials against the traitors and enemies of the S.U."
Among the German communists executed as a result of these "discussions" were Mielke's former mentors Heinz Neumann and Hans Kippenberger.
Mielke further recalled, "I was a guest on the honor grandstand of Red Square during the May Day and October Revolution parades. I became acquainted with many comrades of the Federation of World Communist Parties and the War Council of the Special Commission of the Comintern. I will never forget my meeting with Comrade Dimitrov, the Chairman of the Comintern, whom I served as an aide together with another comrade. I saw Comrade Stalin during all demonstrations at Red Square, especially when I stood on the grandstand. I mention these meetings because all these comrades are our models and teachers for our work."
During his time in the USSR, Mielke also developed a lifelong reverence for Felix Dzerzhinsky, the Polish aristocrat who founded the Soviet secret police. Mielke also began an equally permanent habit of calling himself a Chekist.
In a citation written decades later, Mielke described his philosophy of life, "The Chekist is the political combatant. He is the loyal son of... the workers' class. He stands at the head of the battle to strengthen the power of our workers' and peasants' state."
Spanish Civil War
From 1936 to 1939, Mielke served in Spain as an operative of the Servicio de Investigación Militar, the political police of the Second Spanish Republic. While attached to the staff of, "veteran GRU agent," and future Stasi minister Wilhelm Zaisser, Mielke used the alias Fritz Leissner. Bernd Kaufmann, the director of the Stasi's espionage school later said, "The Soviets trusted Mielke implicitly. He earned his spurs in Spain."
At the time, the S.I.M. was heavily staffed by agents of the Soviet NKVD, whose Spanish rezident was General Aleksandr Mikhailovich Orlov. According to author Donald Rayfield, "Stalin, Yezhov, and Beria distrusted Soviet participants in the Spanish war. Military advisors like Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, journalists like Koltsov were open to infection by the heresies, especially Trotsky's, prevalent among the Republic's supporters. NKVD agents sent to Spain were therefore keener on abducting and murdering anti-Stalinists among Republican leaders and International Brigade commanders than on fighting Franco. The defeat of the Republic, in Stalin's eyes, was caused not by the NKVD's diversionary efforts, but by the treachery of the heretics."
In a 1991 interview, Walter Janka, a fellow German communist exile and company commander in the International Brigade, recalled his encounters with Mielke. During the winter of 1936, Janka was summoned by the SIM and interrogated by Mielke. Mielke demanded to know why Janka had voluntarily traveled to Spain rather than being assigned there by the Party. When he told Mielke to get lost, the SIM demoted Janka to the ranks and then expelled him from the International Brigade. Years later, Janka recalled, "While I was fighting at the front, shooting at the Fascists, Mielke served in the rear, shooting Trotskyites and Anarchists."
Upon the defeat of the Spanish Republic, Mielke fled across the Pyrenees Mountains to France, where he was interned at Camp de Rivesaltes, Pyrénées-Orientales. Mielke, however, managed to send a message to exiled KPD members and, in May 1939, escaped to Belgium. Although the Public Prosecutor of Berlin learned of Mielke's presence and filed for his extradition, the Belgian Government refused to comply, regarding the assassinations of Captains Anlauf and Lenck as "a political crime."
The NKVD and the SIM's witch hunt for both real and imagined anti-Stalinists had serious consequences. It horrified numerous formerly pro-Soviet Westerners who had been witnesses, including John Dos Passos, Arthur Koestler and George Orwell, and caused them to permanently turn against the USSR.
Mielke's belief that anti-Soviet Marxists had collaborated with Franco and stabbed the Republic in the back continued to shape his attitudes for the rest of his life. In a 1982 speech before a group of senior Stasi officers, he said, "We are not immune from villains among us. If I knew of any already, they wouldn't live past tomorrow. Short shrift. It's because I'm a Humanist, that I'm of this view."
In the same speech, Mielke also said, "All this blithering over to execute or not to execute, for the death penalty or against—all rot, Comrades. Execute! And, when necessary, without a court judgment."
World War II
During World War II, Mielke's movements remain mysterious. In a biography written after the war, he claimed to have infiltrated Organisation Todt under the alias Richard Hebel, but historian John O. Koehler considers this unlikely.
Koehler admits, however, "Mielke's exploits must have been substantial. By war's end, he had been decorated with the Order of the Red Banner, the Order of the Great Patriotic War First Class, and twice with the Order of Lenin. It is likely that he served as an NKVD agent, at least part of the time with guerrilla units behind German lines, for he knew all the partisan songs by heart and sang them in faultless Russian."
Occupied Germany
Komissariat-5
In April 1945, Mielke returned to the Soviet Zone of Occupied Germany aboard a special Soviet aircraft that also carried fellow German Communists Walter Ulbricht, Wilhelm Zaisser, Ernst Wollweber, and many of the future leaders of the East Germany.
That same month, Mielke's future handler, NKGB General Ivan Serov, travelled to Germany from Warsaw and, from his headquarters in the Berlin suburb of Karlshorst, divided the Soviet Zone into "Operative Sectors."
On 10 July 1945, Marshal Georgy Zhukov signed SMA Order No. 2, which legalized the re-establishment of "anti-fascist" political parties like the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). On 15 July 1945, Mielke walked into the KPD's headquarters and volunteered his services.
In an autobiography written for the KPD, Mielke disclosed—truthfully—his involvement in the 1931 murders of Berlin Police Captains Anlauf and Lenck, and—mistakenly or misleadingly—that for this he had been tried in absentia, found guilty, and sentenced to death. In actuality, Mielke's "name was mentioned in the 1934 trials but he was never tried". He admitted—truthfully—fighting on the Republican side during the Spanish Civil War, but claimed—falsely—that he had been released from the French internment camps and had worked in Belgium for an underground Communist newspaper under the code name "Gaston". Furthermore, Mielke concealed his past and contemporaneous involvement with the NKVD, NKGB, and the Nazi Organisation Todt (which he asserted he'd infiltrated).
According to Koehler, "As might be expected, Mielke's account of his past was approved by the Soviets. Had Serov not been part of the conspiracy, Mielke would have been instantly arrested or at least subjected to an intense internal investigation because of his membership in the Nazi Organisation Todt, which used thousands of slave laborers. But he was cleared in record time and by the end of June the Soviets had installed him as a station commander of the newly formed Volkspolizei (Vopo), the People's Police."
On 16 August 1947, Serov ordered the creation of Kommissariat 5, the first German political police since the defeat of Nazi Germany.
According to Anne Applebaum, however, not everyone approved of the plan. In Moscow, Soviet Interior Minister Viktor Abakumov argued that a new secret police force would be demonized by Western governments and the media, which would paint the K-5 as a "new Gestapo." Furthermore, Abakumov, like Stalin, intensely distrusted German Communists and alleged that there "were not enough German cadres who have been thoroughly checked." Notwithstanding Abakumov's objections, however, recruitment into the K-5 began almost immediately. It is possible, as Norman Naimark suspects, that the NKGB had realized that their officers' lack of fluency in the German language was engendering massive popular resentment.
Wilhelm Zaisser, who had been Mielke's commanding officer in Republican Spain, was appointed the K-5's head. Mielke was installed as his deputy.
According to John Koehler, "The K-5 was essentially an arm of the Soviet secret police. Its agents were carefully selected veteran German communists who had survived the Nazi-era in Soviet exile or in concentration camps and prisons. Their task was to track down Nazis and anti-communists, including hundreds of members of the Social Democratic Party. Mielke and his fellow bloodhounds performed this task with ruthless precision. The number of arrests became so great that the regular prisons could not hold them. Thus, Serov ordered the establishment or re-opening of eleven concentration camps, including the former Nazi death camps of Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen."
According to Anne Applebaum, "One of the few documents from that era to survive (most were removed by the KGB or perhaps destroyed, in 1989 or before) mentions a departmental training meeting and included a list of attendees. Topping the list is a group of Soviet advisers. In this sense, K-5 did resemble the political police in the rest of Eastern Europe: as in Hungary, Poland, and the USSR itself, this new political police force was initially extra-governmental, operating outside the ordinary rule of law."
According to Edward N. Peterson, "Not surprisingly, K-5 acquired a reputation as bad as that of Stalin's secret police and worse than that of the Gestapo. At least with the Nazis, albeit fanatically racist, their victims did not suddenly disappear into the GULAG."
The Amalgamation
Despite the K-5's mass arrests of members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet Zone, the number of SPD members continued to grow. By March 1946, SPD members outnumbered KPD members by more than 100,000. Fearing that they would lose the elections scheduled for the autumn, the leadership of the KPD asked for and received Stalin's permission to merge the two parties. When the SPD's leadership agreed only to schedule a vote for the rank and file to decide, permission was denied by the Soviet occupation authorities. The K-5 then began mass arrests of SPD members who refused to support the merger.
On 22 April 1946, the remaining leaders of the SPD in the Soviet Zone announced that they had united with the KPD to form the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). The SPD in the western zones of Occupied Germany responded by forming the SPD East Bureau in order to support and finance those Social Democrats who refused to accept the merger. Those who joined or worked with the East Bureau were, however, in serious danger of arrest by the K-5 and trial by Soviet military tribunals. By 1950, more than 5,000 SPD members and sympathisers had been imprisoned in the Soviet Zone or transferred to the GULAG. More than 400 were either executed or died during their imprisonments.
John Koehler has written that, prior to the spring of 1946, many Germans in the Soviet Zone, "merely shrugged at the wave of arrests, believing that the victims were former Nazi officials and war criminals." But then came the mass arrests of Social Democrats who opposed the merger, who, "were joined by people who had been denounced for making anti-communist or anti-Soviet remarks, among their number hundreds who were as young as fourteen years. Although these arrests were made by Germans purporting to be officials of the criminal police, the existence of the K-5 political police eventually was exposed. Mielke, meanwhile, had risen to the post of vice-president of the German Administration for Interior Affairs – the equivalent of the NKVD – and continued his manipulations from behind the scenes."
Investigation
In January 1947, two retired Berlin policemen recognized Mielke at an official function. Informing the head of the criminal police in West Berlin, the policemen demanded that Mielke be arrested and prosecuted for the murders of Captains Anlauf and Lenck. Wilhelm Kühnast, the Public Prosecutor of Berlin, was immediately informed and ordered a search of the Kammergericht archives. To his astonishment, the files of the 1931 murders had survived the wartime bombing of Germany. Finding ample evidence of Mielke's involvement, Kühnast ordered the arrest of the communist policeman.
According to John Koehler, "At that time, the city administration, including the police, was under the control of the Allied Control Commission, which consisted of U.S., British, French, and Soviet military officers. All actions by city officials, including the judiciary, were to be reported to the Commission. The Soviet representative alerted the MGB. Action was swift. Marshal Vasily Sokolovsky, who had replaced Zhukov, protested, and his representatives at the Commission launched a vicious campaign to discredit Kühnast."
The Soviet representatives falsely claimed that Kühnast, a jurist with an impeccable anti-Nazi record, had been an official of Roland Freisler's People's Court. Taking the Soviets at their word, the Western Allies removed Kühnast from his position and placed him under house arrest. During the Berlin airlift, Kühnast fled from his home in East Berlin and was granted political asylum in the American Zone.
Meanwhile, the Soviet authorities confiscated all documents relating to the murders of Captains Anlauf and Lenck. According to Koehler, "The Soviets handed the court records to Mielke. Instead of destroying the incriminating papers, he locked them in his private safe, where they were found when his home was searched in 1990. They were used against him in his trial for murder."
Deutsche Wirtschaftskommission
In 1948, Mielke was appointed as security chief of the German Economic Commission (), the precursor to the future East German government.
Mielke's task was to investigate the theft and sale of state property on the black market. He was also charged with intercepting the growing number of refugees fleeing to the French, British, and American Zones.
Those his security forces caught while attempting to defect were used as slave labor in the uranium mines that were providing raw material for the Soviet atomic bomb project.
German Democratic Republic
Independence
In 1949, the Soviet Military Administration ceded its legal functions to the newly created German Democratic Republic.
On 14 January 1950, Marshal Vasili Chuikov announced that all Soviet "internment camps" on German soil had been closed. Soon after, the DWK was absorbed into the newly created Ministry for State Security. In keeping with earlier syllabic abbreviations along the same lines (see OrPo, KriPo, and GeStaPo) East Germans immediately dubbed it the "Stasi" (from Staatssicherheit). With the approval of the Soviets, Mielke's commanding officer from Spain and in the K5, Wilhelm Zaisser, was appointed as the Stasi's head. Mielke was appointed to his staff with the rank of State Secretary. Mielke was also granted a seat in the SED's ruling Politburo.
According to John Koehler, "In the five years since the end of World War II, the Soviets and their vassals had arrested between 170,000 and 180,000 Germans. Some 160,000 had passed through the concentration camps, and of these about 65,000 had died, 36,000 had been shipped to the Soviet Gulag, and another 46,000 had been freed."
In 1949, as a response to the remilitarization of East Germany and the Soviet blockade of West Berlin, the United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Portugal formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. In 1950, as a response to the outbreak of the Korean War, West Germany was also permitted to join NATO, which was then upgraded into a military alliance.
According to Koehler, however, "As the Cold War intensified, living conditions in Soviet-occupied East Germany showed little improvement beyond the postwar level of bare subsistence. The new government of the DDR – a mere puppet of the Kremlin – relied more and more on the Stasi to quell discontent among factory workers and farmers. Ulbricht, claiming that the social unrest was fomented by capitalist agents, once ordered Mielke to personally visit one large plant and 'arrest four or five such agents' as an example to the others. The Stasi deputy 'discovered' the agents in record time."
Field show trials
Also in 1949, Noel Field, an American citizen who had spied for the NKVD from inside the U.S. State Department, the Office of Strategic Services, and the CIA, fled from his posting in Switzerland to Communist Czechoslovakia after his cover was blown by fellow mole Whittaker Chambers. On 11 May 1949, the Czechoslovakian secret police, or StB, in obedience to a direct order from KGB chief Lavrenti Beria, arrested Field in Prague. Field was then handed over to the Hungarian ÁVO. After his interrogation in Budapest, Fields was used as a witness at show trials of senior Soviet Bloc Communists who, like László Rajk and Rudolf Slánský, stood accused of having spied for the United States. The real reason for the trials was to replace homegrown Communists in Eastern Europe with those who would be blindly loyal to Joseph Stalin and to blame the division of Germany on the intrigues of U.S. intelligence.
At the Rajk show trial, the prosecutor declared, "Noel Field, one of the leaders of American espionage, specialized in recruiting spies from among left-wing elements."
In August 1950, six senior SED members, including Willi Kreikemeyer, the director of Deutsche Reichsbahn and head of Berliner Rundfunk, were accused of "special connections with Noel Field, the American spy." All were either imprisoned or shot.
John Koehler writes, "Similar purges were conducted in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Bulgaria, where Field appeared as a witness in show trials that resulted in some death sentences. The Soviets simply distrusted all Communists who had sought exile in the West. All the while, Mielke remained untouched and continued to serve as the deputy secret police chief. His survival reinforced the belief that he had spent the war years in the Soviet Union instead of France and Belgium as he had claimed in the 1945 questionnaire."
In June 1950, Erica Wallach, Noel Field's adopted daughter, decided to search for him. From Paris, she telephoned Leo Bauer, the editor-in-chief of Berliner Rundfunk. The call was monitored by agents of the Soviet Ministry for Internal Affairs, and Bauer's handler instructed him to invite Mrs. Wallach to East Berlin, where she was immediately arrested. Mielke personally interrogated her and, at one point, offered Mrs. Wallach immediate release if she named the members of her fictitious spy network. She was condemned to death by a Soviet military tribunal in East Berlin and shipped to the Lubianka prison in Moscow for her execution. After Joseph Stalin's death in on 5 March 1953, Erica Wallach's sentence was reduced to hard labor in Vorkuta, a region of the Gulag located above the Arctic Circle. She was released during the Khrushchev thaw in October 1955. At first, she was unable to join her husband and daughters in the U.S. because of the U.S. State Department's concern over her former membership in the Communist Party of Germany. It took the personal intervention of CIA Director Allen Dulles to reunite Erica Wallach with her family in 1957. Wallach's memoir of her experiences, Light at Midnight, was published in 1967.
Death of Stalin
After Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin died inside his Kuntsevo Dacha on 5 March 1953, the Central Committee of the East German Socialist Unity Party met in a special session and eulogized the dictator as the "great friend of Germany who was always an advisor of and help to our people."
Two months later, on 5 May 1953, the SED's General Secretary, Walter Ulbricht, and the rest of the leadership increased work quotas by 10%. They also decided to rename Chemnitz Karl-Marx-Stadt and to institute the Order of Karl Marx as the GDR's highest award.
Two weeks later, Mielke accused "a group of Party officials" of "plotting against the leadership", which "resulted in more expulsions from the Politburo and the Central Committee."
East German uprising of 1953
Discontent among factory workers about a 10% increase of work quotas without a corresponding wage hike boiled over. On 16 June 1953, nearly one hundred construction workers gathered before work for a protest meeting at Stalinallee, in East Berlin. Words spread rapidly to other construction sites and hundreds of men and women joined the rally, which marched to the House of Ministries. The protesters chanted slogans for five hours, demanding to speak to Walter Ulbricht and Otto Grotewohl. Only Heavy Industry Minister Fritz Selbmann and Professor Robert Havemann, president of the GDR Peace Council, emerged. Their speech, however, was answered with jeers and the Ministers retreated into the heavily armed building. The regular and the Kasernierte Volkspolizei were summoned from their barracks, but made no move to attack the protesters, who returned to Stalinallee, where a general strike was called.
Following West Germany's Federal Minister for All-German Questions Jakob Kaiser's admonition in a late night broadcast to East Germans to shy away from provocations, RIAS, starting with its 11 pm news broadcast, and from then on in hourly intermissions, repeated the workers' demand to continue the strike the next day, calling specifically for all East Berliners to participate in a demo at 7am on the 17th at Strausberger Platz.
The following day, 17 June 1953, more that 100,000 protesters took to the streets of East Berlin. More than 400,000 protesters also took to the streets in other cities and towns throughout the German Democratic Republic. Everywhere, the demands were the same: free elections by secret ballot.
Outside of Berlin, the main centres of the protests included the industrial region around Halle, Merseburg, and Bitterfeld, as well as middle-size towns like Jena, Görlitz, and Brandenburg. No more than 25,000 people participated in strikes and demonstrations in Leipzig, but there were 32,000 in Magdeburg, 43,000 in Dresden, 53,000 in Potsdam – and in Halle, a figure close to 100,000.
In West Berlin, the American radio station RIAS and several other West German stations reported on the protests and on plans for a general strike. As East Germans listened to the broadcasts, 267,000 workers at State-owned plants in 304 cities and towns joined the general strike. In 24 towns, outraged East Germans stormed the Stasi's prisons and freed between 2,000 and 3,000 political prisoners.
In response to orders, the Soviet Occupation Forces, the Stasi and the Kasernierte Volkspolizei went on the attack. Bloody street battles ensued and hundreds of policemen defected to the side of the protesters. Both police and Stasi stations were overrun and some government offices were sacked. The Party leadership retreated into a fortified compound in the Pankow district of East Berlin.
At noon, the Soviet authorities terminated all tram and metro traffic into the Eastern sector and all but closed the sector borders to West Berlin to prevent more demonstrators from reaching the city centre. An hour later, they declared martial law in East Berlin.
The repression took place outside East Berlin police HQ – where Soviet tanks opened fire on "the insurgents".
According to John Koehler, "... by late afternoon, Soviet tanks accompanied by Infantry and MVD troops had rolled into East Berlin and other cities in the Soviet Zone. This made the people even angrier. At Berlin's Potsdamer Platz, which bordered on the American Sector, irate protesters ignored machine gun fire and the menacing barrels of tank guns. They ripped cobblestones from the streets and hurled them at the tanks."
Fighting between the Red Army (and later GDR police) and the demonstrators persisted into the afternoon and night. In some cases, the tanks and the soldiers fired directly into the crowds.
Overnight, the Soviets (and the Stasi) started to arrest hundreds of people. Ultimately, up to 10,000 people were detained and at least 20, probably as many as 40, people were executed, including Red Army soldiers who refused to obey orders. With the SED leadership effectively paralysed at the Soviet headquarters in Karlshorst, control of the city passed to the Soviets.
In honor of the uprising, West Germany established 17 June as a national holiday, called Day of German Unity. The extension of the Unter den Linden boulevard to the west of the Brandenburg Gate, formerly called Charlottenburger Chaussee, was also renamed Straße des 17. Juni ("17 June Street") in honor of the uprising.
According to John Koehler, "Provisional prison camps were set up to hold the thousands of Stasi victims. Nearly 1,500 persons were sentenced in secret trials to long prison terms. On 24 June, Mielke issued a terse announcement that one Stasi officer, nineteen demonstrators, and two bystanders had been killed during the uprising. He did not say how many were victims of official lynching. The numbers of the wounded were given as 191 policemen, 126 demonstrators, and 61 bystanders."
Also according to Koehler, "Calm returned to the streets of the Soviet Zone, yet escapes to the West continued at a high rate. Of the 331,390 who fled in 1953, 8,000 were members of the Kasernierte Volkspolizei, the barracked people's police units, which were actually the secret cadre of the future East German Army. Also among the escapees were 2,718 members and candidates of the SED, the ruling Party."
The Khrushchev thaw
Purges
Alarmed by the uprising, Lavrenty Beria, the First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union and head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, personally travelled from Moscow to East Berlin. He conferred with Stasi Minister Wilhelm Zaisser and with Mielke, his deputy, both of whom he had known since the early 1930s. During both conversations, Beria demanded to know why the Stasi had failed to recognize the extreme discontent of the population and inform the Party leadership, which could then have prevented the uprising by taking extremely repressive measures in advance. Both Zaisser and Mielke answered Beria's questions circumspectly, and were accordingly left in their posts.
In response to the uprising, Beria decided to replace several hundred MVD officers, including Major General Ivan Fadeykin, the MVD resident of East Germany. The Stasi, according to John Koehler, "generally remained untouched except for the arrests and dismissals, for dereliction of duty, of a handful of officers in the provinces. One high-ranking Stasi officer shot himself."
Following Beria's return to Moscow, however, he was arrested on 26 June 1953, in a coup d'état led by Nikita Khrushchev and Marshal Georgy Zhukov. Beria was tried on charges of 357 counts of rape and high treason. He was sentenced to death and shot by Red Army Colonel-General Pavel Batitsky on 23 December 1953.
In an interview to Neues Deutschland, the official party newspaper of East Germany, on 30 June 1953, the Party's Minister of Justice, Max Fechner, declared that, "illegal arrests," had been made and that being a member of a strike committee or suspicion of being a ringleader was not in itself grounds for arrest and conviction.
Meanwhile, when the East German Politburo met on 8 July, it seemed that Ulbricht would be deposed as Party General Secretary. Zaisser conceded that the whole Politburo was responsible for the "accelerated construction of socialism" and of the subsequent fallout. But he also added that to leave Ulbricht as Premier, "would be opposed catastrophic for the New Course".
By the end of the meeting, only two Politburo members still supported Ulbricht's leadership: Free German Youth League chief Erich Honecker and Party Control Commission Chairman Hermann Matern. Ulbricht only managed to forestall a decision then and there with a promise to make a statement at the forthcoming 15th SED CC Plenum, scheduled for later that month.
Meanwhile, Mielke informed a Party commission looking for scapegoats that his boss, Stasi Minister Wilhelm Zaisser, was calling for secret negotiations with West Germany and that, "he believed the Soviet Union would abandon the DDR."
By late July, Ulbricht was completely certain that he had the support of the new Soviet Premier, Nikita Khrushchev. Therefore, he expelled his main opponents, Zaisser, Hernstadt and Ackermann, from the Politburo, and thus strengthened his position further.
SED Minister of Justice Max Fechner was personally arrested by Mielke and replaced by Hilde Benjamin, who was known to East German citizens as "Red Hilde", "The Red Freisler," and as, "The Red Guillotine," for her role as a judge in the SED's show trials.
Fechner was convicted of being, "an enemy of the Party and the State," and served three years in Bautzen Prison.
Wilhelm Zaisser was replaced as head of the Stasi by Ernst Wollweber and Mielke remained on staff as his deputy.
Tenure as Stasi head
Mielke headed the Stasi from 1957 until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. There was, under the East German system, no provision for parliamentary oversight. However, starting in 1971 Mielke was required to provide a detailed intelligence briefing to party secretary Erich Honecker each Tuesday, directly following the weekly Politburo meeting. (Before 1971, under Walter Ulbricht, Mielke was not involved in routine intelligence briefings to the leadership which, instead, were provided directly to Ulbricht by Intelligence Chief Markus Wolf.)
Internal discipline
During his tenure, Mielke enforced "political and personal discipline reminiscent of the early French Foreign Legion". New recruits were required to take a solemn oath pledging "to fight alongside the state security organs of all socialist countries against all enemies of socialism" on pain of "the severest punishment under the Republic's laws and the contempt of the workers." Recruits were also required to sign a security pledge vowing never to make unauthorized visits to any "capitalist countries" and to report on any members of their families who did so.
Violations of the oath resulted in expulsion from the Stasi and blacklisting from all but the most menial jobs. Serious violations were tried before secret tribunals and led an estimated 200 Stasi agents to be shot. Colonel Rainer Wiegand once said, "There was only one way to leave the MfS without being haunted for the rest of your life. You either retired or you died."
Domestic activities
Under Erich Mielke's leadership, the Stasi employed 85,000 full-time domestic spies and 170,000 civilian informants () (IMs). East Germans coined a term to describe the Stasi's pervasive surveillance of the population "All-Covered" (). For this reason, Anna Funder has referred to East Germany as, "the most perfected surveillance state of all time."
According to John Koehler, "...the Stasi's tentacles probed every aspect of life. Full-time officers were posted to all major industrial plants. Without exception, one tenant in every building was designated as a watchdog reporting to an area representative of the Volkspolizei...In turn, the police officer was the Stasi's man. If a relative or friend came to stay overnight, it was reported. Schools, universities and hospitals were infiltrated from top to bottom. German academe was shocked to learn that Heinrich Fink, professor of theology and vice-chancellor of East Berlin's Humboldt University, had been a Stasi informer since 1968. After Fink's Stasi connections came to light, he was summarily fired. Doctors, lawyers, journalists, writers, actors, and sports figures were co-opted by Stasi officers, as were waiters and hotel personnel. Tapping about 100,000 telephone lines in East Germany and West Berlin around the clock was the job of 2,000 officers... Churchmen, including high officials of both Protestant and Catholic denominations, were recruited en masse as secret informants. Their offices and confessionals were infested with eavesdropping devices. Even the director of Leipzig's famous Thomas Church choir, Hans-Joachim Rotzsch, was forced to resign when he was unmasked as a Spitzel, the people's pejorative for a Stasi informant."
In an interview with journalist Anna Funder, an ex-Stasi officer recalled, "Most often, people we approached would inform for us. It was very rare that they would not. However, sometimes we felt that we might need to know where their weak points were, just in case. For example, if we wanted a pastor, we'd find out if he'd had an affair, or had a drinking problem—things that we could use as leverage. Mostly though, people said yes."
On Mielke's orders, and with his full knowledge, Stasi officers also engaged in arbitrary arrest, kidnapping, brutal harassment of political dissidents, torture, and the imprisonment of tens of thousands of citizens.
In a 1991 interview, Jewish Holocaust survivor and Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal said, "The Stasi was much, much worse than the Gestapo, if you consider only the oppression of its own people. The Gestapo had 40,000 officials watching a country of 80 million, while the Stasi employed 102,000 to control only 17 million."
Activities abroad
During Mielke's tenure, the Stasi's operations beyond East Germany were overseen by Markus Wolf and the Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung (MfS-HVA).
Mielke and Wolf provided money, training, and surveillance equipment to help build pro-Soviet secret police forces in Fidel Castro's Cuba, Baathist Syria, Sandinista-ruled Nicaragua, Mengistu Haile Mariam's Ethiopia, Idi Amin's Uganda, Kwame Nkrumah's Ghana, and South Yemen.
After the opening of Stasi archives, it was revealed that West Germany was riddled with MfS-HVA moles. In what John Koehler has dubbed, "The Invisible Invasion", some West German citizens collaborated out of Marxist beliefs, but others were recruited through blackmail, greed, career frustrations, or sexual favors from Stasi operatives.
Another tactic was for Stasi military advisers assigned to African and Middle Eastern countries to request the arrest of West German tourists. Local police would then turn the prisoner over to the Stasi agent, who would offer the West German a choice between espionage or incarceration.
Senior politicians from the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Free Democratic Party of Germany, and the Christian Democratic Union were exposed and, when still alive, prosecuted.
Mielke and Wolf also seriously compromised West Germany's police departments, foreign and domestic intelligence services, diplomatic corps, military-industrial complex, and journalistic profession.
The Stasi compromised the United States military and diplomatic presence in West Germany.
The most damaging American to spy for the Stasi was United States Army Sergeant James Hall III, who volunteered his services to Soviet and East German intelligence in November 1981.
Sergeant Hall sold the Stasi 13,088 pages of classified documents, including detailed information about Project Trojan, a worldwide electronic network with the ability to pinpoint armored vehicles, missiles and aircraft by recording their signal emissions during wartime and the complete National SIGINT Requirements List (NSRL), a 4258-page document about NSA operations at home and abroad.
In 1988, Sergeant Hall was tricked into confessing his espionage career to an undercover FBI Special Agent named Dmitri Droujinsky, a Russian-American who was posing as an agent of the KGB. When news of Sergeant Hall's arrest became public, one Washington intelligence official called the breach, "the Army's Walker Case."
Collusion with Nazism
Beginning in 1960, Mielke and Wolf used false flag recruitment to secretly organize and finance Neo-Nazi organizations, which they then instructed to vandalize Jewish religious and cultural sites throughout West Germany. During the Jerusalem trial of Adolf Eichmann, Stasi agents sent letters to West German Neo-Nazis and Waffen-SS veterans, urging them to speak out and to raise money for Eichmann's defense attorney. This was done in order to lend credibility to Communist propaganda about the allegedly Fascist and neo-Nazi orientation of the Federal Republic of Germany.
According to German historian Michael Wolffsohn, "There is no doubt that in the 1960s as now, there were Nazis who were unreconstructed, unchangeable and evil, but without the help of East Germany, these Nazis were incapable of a national, coordinated campaign. That was true of right-wing extremist criminals in the 1980s as well. The East German Communists used anything they could against West Germany, including the... fears by Western countries and Jews that a new Nazism could be growing in West Germany. There is... evidence that the East Germans continued to use Anti-Semitism as a tool against West Germany in the 1970s and perhaps right up until 1989."
In a 1991 interview with John Koehler, Holocaust survivor and Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal said of the Stasi, "They not only terrorized their own people worse than the Gestapo, but the government was the most Anti-Semitic and Anti-Israeli in the entire Eastern Bloc. They did nothing to help the West in tracking down Nazi criminals; they ignored all requests from West German judicial authorities for assistance. We have just discovered shelves of files on Nazis stretching over four miles. Now we also know how the Stasi used those files. They blackmailed Nazi criminals who fled abroad after the war into spying for them. What's more, the Stasi trained terrorists from all over the world."
Support for paramilitary and terrorist groups
During a 1979 visit to the GDR by senior PLO member Salah Khalaf, Mielke said, "We are paying great attention to the Palestine resistance and the other revolutionary forces fighting against the policies of the United States and against the provocations of the Israeli aggressor. Together with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, we will do everything to support this just battle."
With this in mind, Mielke ordered the Stasi to finance, arm, and train, "urban guerrillas," from numerous countries. According to former Stasi Colonel Rainer Wiegand, Mielke's ties to violent paramilitary groups were overseen by Markus Wolf and Department Three of the MfS-HVA. Members of the West German Baader-Meinhoff Group, the Chilean Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front, and Umkhonto we Sizwe, the paramilitary wing of the African National Congress, were brought to East Germany for training in the use of military hardware, insurgent tactics, and, "the leadership role of the Party." Similar treatment was meted out to Palestinians from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, Abu Nidal, and Black September.
Other Stasi agents worked as military advisers to Soviet-backed African guerrilla organizations and the governments they later formed. They included the Namibian SWAPO and the Angolan MPLA during the South African Border War, the FRELIMO during the Mozambican War of Independence and civil war, and Robert Mugabe's ZANLA during the Rhodesian Bush War.
Colonel Wiegand revealed that Mielke and Wolf provided bodyguards from the Stasi's counter-terrorism division for Venezuelan-born PLO terrorist Carlos the Jackal and Black September leader Abu Daoud during their visits to the GDR. Col. Wiegand had been sickened by the 1972 Munich massacre and was horrified that the GDR would treat the man who ordered it as an honored guest. When he protested, Wiegand was told that Abu Daoud was, "a friend of our country, a high-ranking political functionary," and that there was no proof that he was a terrorist.
During the 1980s, Wiegand secretly blackmailed a Libyan diplomat into spying on his colleagues. Wiegand's informant told him that the La Belle bombing and other terrorist attacks against American and West German citizens were being planned at the Libyan Embassy in East Berlin. When Wiegand showed him a detailed report, Mielke informed the SED's Politburo, which ordered the Colonel to continue surveillance but not interfere with the plans of the Libyans.
According to John Koehler, "Murder, kidnapping, extortion, bank robbery, and arson were felonies under the East German criminal code. However, if these offenses were committed under the banner of the 'anti-imperialist struggle,' the communist system would look the other way. Moreover, it had assigned the Stasi to make sure that terrorists were properly trained for murder and sowing mayhem. There was no limits to the East German regime's involvement with terrorism, so long as it could be ideologically justified."
The Peaceful Revolution
According to John Koehler, "Increasingly concerned over the growing popular opposition, Stasi Minister Mielke early in 1989 ordered the creation of a special elite unit for crushing disturbances. Its personnel were carefully selected members of the counterespionage and counterterrorism directorate. They were equipped with special batons similar to electric cattle prods but much more powerful. In a secret speech to top-ranking Stasi officers on 29 June, Mielke warned that, 'hostile opposing forces and groups have already achieved a measure of power and are using all methods to achieve a change in the balance of power. Former Stasi Colonel Rainer Wiegand told me he was horrified when Mielke compared the situation with that of China two months earlier. Chinese students in Beijing had begun massive protests in April and in May, during a student demonstration in Tiananmen Square, security troops had opened fire on them killing hundreds. 'Mielke said our situation was comparable and we had to be ready to counter it with all means and methods,' Wiegand recalled. 'Mielke said that the Chinese leadership had succeeded in smothering the protests before the situation got out of hand.'"
Despite Mielke's attempts to suppress them, East Germany's protesters grew more emboldened with every arrest.
40th anniversary of the GDR
As the fortieth anniversary of the GDR approached, Mielke ordered, "We must stop the internal enemy. At the least hint of a disturbance of the celebration, isolate and arrest them."
One former Stasi Major recalled, "We mixed inconspicuously with the demonstrators, accompanied by our IMs. Hundreds of us stood at the sides of the street in order to stop any activity before it got started. We barely got any sleep toward the end. Never did I sense that the people were afraid of the MfS. The Stasi was more afraid of the people than the people were of them."
According to Koehler, "Despite the unrest, the regime celebrated its fortieth with a huge, pompous ceremony in Berlin on 7 October, while tens of thousands of outside the ornate building of the State Council. The People's Police cordons were utterly ineffectual. As Stasi Minister Erich Mielke drove up and was greeted by General Günter Kratsch, the counterintelligence chief, Mielke screamed at police: "Club those pigs into submission!" () The police ignored Mielke's ranting.
As more and more East Germans were arrested for protesting the 40th anniversary celebrations, many of them sang The Internationale in Vopo and Stasi custody to imply that they, rather than their captors, were the real working class and the real revolutionaries.
According to Anna Funder, "There was a sea of red flags, a torchlight procession, and tanks. The old men on the podium wore light-grey suits studded with medals. Mikhail Gorbachev stood next to Honecker, but he looked uncomfortable among the much older Germans. He had come to tell them that it was over, to convince the leadership to adopt his reformist policies. He had spoken openly about the danger of not 'responding to reality.' He pointedly told the Politburo that, 'life punishes those who come too late.' Honecker and Mielke ignored him, just as they ignored the crowds when they chanted, "Gorby, help us! Gorby, help us!"
Plan X
On 8 October 1989, Mielke and Honecker ordered the Stasi to implement "Plan X"—the SED's plan to arrest and indefinitely detain 85,939 East Germans during a state of emergency. According to John Koehler, Plan X had been in preparation since 1979 and was, "a carbon copy of how the Nazi concentration camps got their start after Hitler came to power in 1933."
By 1984, 23 sites had been selected for "isolation and internment camps." Those who were to be imprisoned in them ran into six categories; including anyone who had ever been under surveillance for anti-state activities, including all members of peace movements which were not under Stasi control.
According to Anna Funder, "The plans contained exact provisions for the use of all available prisons and camps, and when those were full for the conversion of other buildings: Nazi detention centers, schools, hospitals, and factory holiday hostels. Every detail was foreseen, from where the doorbell was located on the house of each person to be arrested to the adequate supply of barbed wire and the rules of dress and etiquette in the camps..."
However, when Mielke sent the orders, codenamed "Shield" (), to each local Stasi precinct to begin the planned arrests, he was not obeyed. Terrified of an East German version of the mass lynchings of Hungarian secret police agents during the 1956 Revolution, Stasi agents throughout the GDR fortified their office-buildings and barricaded themselves inside.
Toppling Honecker
Even as orders were going out to implement Plan X, Mielke had already thrown his support behind the anti-Honecker faction in the SED's Politburo. Although he was of the same generation as Honecker and had matured in an environment where following orders was the rule, he was sober enough and politically savvy enough to realize this approach no longer worked. During a session on 10 October 1989, Mielke delivered a report attacking Honecker's desire to violently suppress the demonstrations rather than offer concessions.
In what Edward N. Peterson has called "a remarkable disclaimer of responsibility for the violence," Mielke declared that Honecker's orders to him "were built on false situation judgments." He added that Honecker's commands on 7 and 8 October "were false and undifferentiated condemnations of those who think differently. Despite this evaluation, there was never any instructions to use violence against persons. There is nothing in our basic principles to consider a demonstration as part of a possible counterrevolutionary coup."
Mielke also claimed that "the Party judged the situation falsely. We tried to tell them the true situation, but enough was not done." Mielke argued in favor of solving the demonstrations politically and giving "every DDR citizen the right to travel."
On 17 October 1989, Mielke and the rest of the GDR's Politburo met to follow Gorbachev's demand, voiced in August, for Honecker be removed as General Secretary of the SED and State Council chairman. Suspecting that Honecker's personal bodyguards might try to arrest the members of the Central Committee when they met to vote Honecker out in favour of Egon Krenz, Mielke saw to it that Stasi agents who were loyal to him were stationed near the meeting room. While deliberations were underway, Mielke told Honecker that "we simply cannot start shooting with tanks," and tried to impress upon Honecker that it was "the end".
After the vote to oust Honecker passed, Mielke "got nasty," and accused Honecker of corruption. Honecker responded that Mielke should not open his mouth so much. Mielke responded by putting the last nail into Honecker's coffin. He announced that the MfS had a file on the now-ousted leader. It contained proof of Honecker's corrupt business practices, sexual activities, and how, as a member of the underground Communist Party of Germany during the Nazi years, he had been arrested by the Gestapo and had named names.
To the shock of both the Politburo and the Stasi, Krenz's first televised addresses failed to win popular support. Despite his assurances that the SED was at last ready to embrace Gorbachev's policies of Glasnost and Perestroika, Krenz's approval ratings remained extremely low.
Former Politburo member Günter Schabowski later recalled, "We made a palace revolution without offering a real alternative... We had not quickly and thoroughly enough whittled away from Stalin's methods."
Defeat
On 7 November 1989, Mielke resigned, along with eleven out of eighteen members of the SED's Council of Ministers, in response to the increasing disintegration of the GDR.
Two days later, Schabowski announced on television that the east–west border was open without restriction.
According to Anna Funder, there was panic at Stasi Headquarters in Berlin-Lichtenberg, "Stasi officers were instructed to destroy files, starting with the most incriminating–those naming westerners who spied for them, and those that concerned deaths. They shredded the files until the paper shredders overheated and shorted out. Among other shortages in the East, there was a shredder shortage, so they had to send agents out under cover to West Berlin to buy more. In Building 8 alone, the citizens' movement found over a hundred burnt out shredders. When they ran out of working shredders from the West and could not procure more they began using scissors to cut the documents by hand.
According to William F. Buckley, Jr., "In the weeks after 9 November, Stasi offices were stormed in various cities around East Germany. Stasi commissars in three of those cities committed suicide. But not one was lynched or executed."
Televised humiliation
On 13 November 1989, Mielke was summoned to deliver a briefing about the protests to the GDR parliament, or Volkskammer. Formerly a "rubber stamp parliament," the disintegration of the SED's power had allowed the Volkskammer to begin exercising real authority over the GDR. Therefore, Mielke, as the head of the Stasi (known as the "shield and sword of the [SED] party"), was summoned before the newly empowered parliament to justify his position in government.
As his speech was broadcast live, Mielke began by using overly bombastic, flag-waving language, saying "We have, comrades, dear assembly members, an extraordinarily high amount of contact with all working people" (). To his shock, the Volkskammer responded with boos, whistles, and catcalls.
His face grief-stricken and pale, Mielke then tried to defuse the situation, "Yes, we have such contact, let me tell you-let me tell you why. I am not afraid to stand here and to give you an unbiased answer" (). Mielke continued, speaking of the "triumph" of the socialist economy, continuing all the while to address the members of the Volkskammer as "Comrades" (). In response, Volkskammer member Dietmar Czok of the Christian Democratic Union, rose from his seat and raised his hand. The Volkskammer's president, Günther Maleuda, interrupted Mielke and urged Czok to speak.
With his voice dripping with contempt, Czok told Mielke, "As a point of order, I will not tell you this again. There are more people sitting in this Chamber than just your Comrades!" (). In response, many in the Volkskammer burst into applause, cheers, and shouts of "We are not your Comrades!" ()
Trying to appear magnanimous, Mielke responded, "This is a natural, Humanistic question! This is just a question of formality." (), leading to further shouts of displeasure from the members of the Volkskammer. In a last ditch effort, Mielke "raised his arms like an evangelist," and cried, "I love all – all Humanity! I really do! I set myself before you!" ()
Everyone in the room, including staunch SED members, burst out laughing. Then Mielke started to cry. John Koehler later wrote, "Mielke was finished."
Mielke's address to the Volkskammer remains the most famous broadcast in the history of German television. Anna Funder has written, "When they think of Mielke, East Germans like to think of this."
The Fall
On 17 November 1989, the Volkskammer renamed the MfS the Amt für Nationale Sicherheit (AfNS – Office for National Security). The following day, Mielke's tenure in office ended when the Volkskammer appointed Generalleutnant Wolfgang Schwanitz as the new director of the AfNS.
On 1 December 1989, the Volkskammer nullified the clause of the GDR constitution that enshrined the SED's "leading role" in the government and formally ending Communist rule in East Germany. Two days later, the SED announced that Mielke's party membership had been permanently revoked. Years later, he lamented, "Millions have died for nothing. Everything we fought for – it has all amounted to nothing." He also said, "If the party had given me the task, then there would perhaps still be a GDR today. On that you can rely."
Prosecution
Indictments
On 7 December 1989, Erich Mielke was arrested and placed in solitary confinement for embezzlement of public funds in order to improve his hunting estate. He was charged with "Damaging the People's Economy" (Schädigung der Volkswirtschaft). On 7 January 1990, he was further charged with high treason and conspiring with Erich Honecker to bug the telephones and open the mail of every one of East Germany's citizens.
Meanwhile, the Federal Constitutional Court announced that Mielke had also been indicted for having ordered two terrorist attacks by the Baader-Meinhoff Group against United States military personnel who were stationed on West German soil. The first was the car bomb attack against the United States Air Force at Ramstein Air Base on 31 August 1981. The second was the attempted murder with an RPG-7 anti-tank rocket of United States Army General Frederick Kroesen, his wife, and the West German police officer who was driving their armored Mercedes at Heidelberg on 15 September 1981.
After German reunification in October 1990, Mielke was also indicted for ordering the shootings of defectors at the Berlin Wall. He was also charged with misuse of office, breach of trust, and incitement to pervert the course of justice.
Bülowplatz trial
In February 1992, Mielke was put on trial for the 1931 first degree murders of Berlin Police Captains Anlauf and Lenck as well as the attempted murder of Senior Sergeant Willig. The evidence for Mielke's guilt was drawn from the original police files, the transcripts from the 1934 trial of his co-conspirators, and a handwritten memoir in which Mielke revealed that his role in, "the Bülowplatz Affair," had been his reason for fleeing to Moscow from the Weimar Republic in 1931. All had been found in Mielke's house safe during a police search in 1990. Mielke was believed to have kept the documents for the purpose of "blackmailing Honecker and other East German leaders." Former Associated Press reporter and White House Press Secretary John Koehler also testified that Mielke had boasted of his involvement in the Bülowplatz murders during a confrontation at Leipzig in 1965.
During his trial, Mielke appeared increasingly senile, admitting his identity but otherwise remaining silent, taking naps, and showing little interest in the proceedings. In a widely publicized incident, Mielke appeared to mistake the presiding judge for a prison barber. When a journalist for Der Spiegel attempted to interview him in Plötzensee Prison, Mielke responded, "I want to go back to my bed" (). Opinion was divided whether Mielke was suffering from senile dementia or was pretending in order to evade prosecution.
After twenty months of one-and-a-half-hour daily sessions, Erich Mielke was convicted on two counts of murder and one of attempted murder. On 26 October 1993, a panel of three judges and two jurors sentenced him to six years' imprisonment. At his sentencing, Mielke started to cry. In pronouncing sentence, Judge Theodor Seidel, told Mielke that he "will go down in history as one of the most fearsome dictators and police ministers of the 20th century."
Imprisonment
Mielke was then put on trial for ordering the shootings of East Germans who were trying to defect to the West. In November 1994, the presiding judge adjourned the proceedings, ruling that Mielke was not mentally competent to stand trial.
During his incarceration, at JVA Moabit corrections officers supplied Mielke with a red telephone like the one in his office at Stasi Headquarters. Although it was not connected to the outside world, Mielke enjoyed having imaginary conversations with non-existent Stasi agents. His other favorite pastime was watching game shows on television.
In 1995, parole officers and Mielke's attorneys argued that he was "totally confused" and obtained his release. At 87 years of age, Erich Mielke was Germany's oldest prison inmate and had been incarcerated for 1,904 days. Days before his release, the Public Prosecutor of Berlin announced that he was "not interested in chasing an 87-year-old man anymore" and that all further prosecution of Mielke had been indefinitely suspended.
According to Koehler, "[Mielke's] bank account, which held more than 300,000 Marks (about US$187,500), was confiscated. Before his arrest in 1989, the most feared man in East Germany had lived in a luxurious home with access to an indoor pool. In addition, he owned a palatial hunting villa, complete with a movie theater, trophy room, 60 servants, and a 60 square kilometers hunting preserve. After he was released from prison Mielke was obliged to move into a two-room, 55-square-meter flat. Like all Stasi pensioners, he would henceforth have to live on 802 marks (about US$512) a month."
Death
Erich Mielke died on 21 May 2000, aged 92, in a Berlin nursing home. After being cremated at the crematorium in Meissen, an urn containing Mielke's ashes was buried in an unmarked grave at the Zentralfriedhof Friedrichsfelde in Berlin. An estimated 100 people reportedly attended the funeral. Erich Mielke's grave is outside the memorial section established at the entrance in 1951 by East German leaders for communist heroes. Within hours of his funeral, the flowers and wreaths left at Mielke's grave were ripped to shreds by persons unknown.
Legacy
Writing in 2003, Australian journalist Anna Funder declared, "The name Mielke has now come to mean 'Stasi.' Victims are dubiously honored to find his signature in their files: on plans for someone to be observed 'with all possible methods', on commands for arrest, for kidnapping, instructions to judges for sentencing, orders for 'liquidation'. The honor is dubious because... he signed so many."
In 2012, the museum at the former Stasi headquarters opened Mielke's office as a permanent exhibit. Soon after, The Guardian correspondent Tam Eastley visited the exhibit and numerous sites in Berlin connected to Mielke's life, times, and legacy. When she visited Mielke's grave, Eastley found that it had become a shrine for adherents of Ostalgie.
Personal life
Erich Mielke was a fitness enthusiast, a non-smoker, and drank very little. He was a keen hunter and owned a large area of ground where he would hunt animals with other East German and visiting Soviet officials.
During the late 1940s, when Mielke was working as security chief of the DWK, he began a relationship with Gertrud Mueller, a seamstress. On 18 December 1948, shortly after the birth of their son Frank Mielke, Erich and Gertrud married in a civil ceremony.
According to the newspaper Bild, the Mielkes adopted an orphaned girl named Ingrid, who was born in 1950. Like her adopted brother Frank, Ingrid Mielke attended the Wilhelm Pieck School. She ultimately became a captain in the Stasi and married a Stasi Lieutenant named Norbert Knappe. As of 1999, the Knappes had both refused to grant an interview to Bild reporters.
In popular culture
Erich Mielke has appeared as a character in both films and novels set in the GDR.
Volker Schlöndorff's The Legend of Rita (2000), which focuses on Stasi collusion with the West German far-left terrorist organization Rote Armee Fraktion. In conversation with fictional Stasi officer Erwin Hull (Martin Wuttke), Mielke (Dietrich Körner) expresses admiration for the RAF's campaign against the United States, West Germany, and the State of Israel, which he compares with his own activities against the Weimar Republic and the Nazis. The RAF members are then brought to a training camp, where Stasi agents instruct them in the use of grenade launchers and other kinds of military hardware. Mielke's name is never disclosed and Agent Hull addresses him only as, "Comrade General." ()
Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck's The Lives of Others (2006), which focuses on the Stasi's surveillance and repression of the East German population. In the film, a previously loyal GDR playwright named Georg Dreymann (Sebastian Koch) publishes an anonymous article in the West German magazine Der Spiegel which accuses East Germany's Minister of Culture of having persecuted a blacklisted stage director until he hanged himself. Soon after the article goes to press, Mielke's voice is heard over the telephone giving a dressing down to fictional Stasi Lieutenant Colonel Anton Grubitz (Ulrich Tukur). Addressed only as "Genosse Armeegeneral" (Mielke was the only person to ever hold that rank in the Stasi), Mielke threatens to throw Grubitz in front of a firing squad if he fails to identify and arrest the article's author.
In Philip Kerr's novel Field Grey (2010), Mielke first appears in 1931 Berlin, when protagonist Bernie Gunther saves him from being murdered by Nazi Brownshirts. The novel then flashes forward to 1954, when Gunther is recruited into a CIA plot to abduct Mielke from East Berlin.
Honours and awards
Mielke received a large number of awards and commemorative medals from organisations within the German Democratic Republic and from allied states. A more complete list is available (in German) at Liste der Orden und Ehrenzeichen des Erich Mielke.
Awards of the German Democratic Republic
Patriotic Order of Merit in gold (7 October 1954)
Six Orders of Karl Marx (28 December 1957, 20 November 1973, 1 December 1975, 28 December 1977, 28 June 1982, 28 December 1982)
Twice Hero of Labour of the GDR (5 October 1964, 24 February 1968)
Twice Hero of the GDR (1 December 1975, 28 December 1982)
Banner of Labour (8 May 1960)
Medal for Exemplary Border Service (26 April 1956)
Medal for Faithful Service in the National People's Army;
Bronze (7 October 1957)
Silver (8 February 1959)
Gold (1 July 1960)
Gold for 20 years service (8 February 1965)
Medal for Fighters Against Fascism (6 September 1958)
Gold Medal of Merit of the National People's Army (1 March 1957)
Scharnhorst Order, twice (25 September 1979, 7 October 1984)
Awards of the Soviet Union
Hero of the Soviet Union (25 December 1987)
Four Orders of Lenin (12 June 1973, 28 December 1982, 1 April 1985, 28 December 1987)
Order of the Patriotic War, 1st class (6 May 1970)
Four Orders of the Red Banner (23 October 1958, 5 February 1968, 28 December 1977, February 1980)
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Soviet Militia" (20 December 1967)
Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary since the Birth of Vladimir Il'ich Lenin" (1970)
Medal "For Distinction in Guarding the State Border of the USSR" (6 January 1970)
Order of the October Revolution (February 1975)
Other states
Order of Georgi Dimitrov (Bulgaria, 28 December 1982)
Order of Friendship (Czechoslovakia) (28 December 1982)
Order of the Red Star (Czechoslovakia) (16 November 1970)
References
Further reading
Buckley, Jr., William F. (2004), The Fall of the Berlin Wall, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Funder, Anna (2003), Stasiland: True Stories from Behind the Berlin Wall, Granta Books, London.
Kuchel, Dany (2011) "Le Glaive et le Bouclier", une histoire de la Stasi en France.
Otto, Wilfriede, Erich Mielke, Biographie: Aufstieg und Fall eines Tschekisten. Dietz-Verlag, Berlin 2000, .
Peterson, Edward N. (2002). The Secret Police and the Revolution: The Fall of the German Democratic Republic, Praeger Publications, Westport, Connecticut. London.
Pickard, Ralph (2007). STASI Decorations and Memorabilia, A Collector's Guide. Frontline Historical Publishing.
Pickard, Ralph (2012). STASI Decorations and Memorabilia Volume II. Frontline Historical Publication.
1907 births
2000 deaths
Politicians from Berlin
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German military personnel of World War II | [
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245719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative%20Commons%20license | Creative Commons license | A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted "work". A CC license is used when an author wants to give other people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that the author has created. CC provides an author flexibility (for example, they might choose to allow only non-commercial uses of a given work) and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work from concerns of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work.
There are several types of Creative Commons licenses. Each license differs by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution. They were initially released on December 16, 2002, by Creative Commons, a U.S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, numbered 1.0 through 4.0. Released in November 2013, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. While the Creative Commons license was originally grounded in the American legal system, there are now several Creative Commons jurisdiction ports which accommodate international laws.
In October 2014, the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA and CC0 licenses as conformant with the "Open Definition" for content and data.
History and international use
Lawrence Lessig and Eric Eldred designed the Creative Commons License (CCL) in 2001 because they saw a need for a license between the existing modes of copyright and public domain status. Version 1.0 of the licenses was officially released on 16 December 2002.
Origins
The CCL allows inventors to keep the rights to their innovations while also allowing for some external use of the invention. The CCL emerged as a reaction to the decision in Eldred v. Ashcroft, in which the United States Supreme Court ruled constitutional provisions of the Copyright Term Extension Act that extended the copyright term of works to be the last living author's lifespan plus an additional 70 years.
License porting
The original non-localized Creative Commons licenses were written with the U.S. legal system in mind; therefore, the wording may be incompatible with local legislation in other jurisdictions, rendering the licenses unenforceable there. To address this issue, Creative Commons asked its affiliates to translate the various licenses to reflect local laws in a process called "porting." As of July 2011, Creative Commons licenses have been ported to over 50 jurisdictions worldwide.
Chinese use of the Creative Commons license
Working with Creative Commons, the Chinese government adapted the Creative Commons License to the Chinese context, replacing the individual monetary compensation of U.S. copyright law with incentives to Chinese innovators to innovate as a social contribution. In China, the resources of society are thought to enable an individual's innovations; the continued betterment of society serves as its own reward. Chinese law heavily prioritizes the eventual contributions that an invention will have towards society’s growth, resulting in initial laws placing limits on the length of patents and very stringent conditions regarding the use and qualifications of inventions.
"Info-communism"
An idea sometimes called "info-communism" found traction in the Western world after researchers at MIT grew frustrated over having aspects of their code withheld from the public. Modern copyright law roots itself in motivating innovation through rewarding innovators for socially valuable inventions. Western patent law assumes that (1) there is a right to use an invention for commerce and (2) it is up to the patentee's discretion to limit that right. The MIT researchers, led by Richard Stallman, argued for the more open proliferation of their software's use for two primary reasons: the moral obligation of altruism and collaboration, and the unfairness of restricting the freedoms of other users by depriving them of non-scarce resources. As a result, they developed the General Public License (GPL), a precursor to the Creative Commons License based on existing American copyright and patent law. The GPL allowed the economy around a piece of software to remain capitalist by allowing programmers to commercialize products that use the software, but also ensured that no single person had complete and exclusive rights to the usage of an innovation. Since then, info-communism has gained traction, with some scholars arguing in 2014 that Wikipedia itself is a manifestation of the info-communist movement.
Applicable works
Work licensed under a Creative Commons license is governed by applicable copyright law. This allows Creative Commons licenses to be applied to all work falling under copyright, including: books, plays, movies, music, articles, photographs, blogs, and websites.
Software
While software is also governed by copyright law and CC licenses are applicable, the CC recommends against using it in software specifically due to backward-compatibility limitations with existing commonly used software licenses. Instead, developers may resort to use more software-friendly free and open-source software software licenses. Outside the FOSS licensing use case for software there are several usage examples to utilize CC licenses to specify a "Freeware" license model; examples are The White Chamber, Mari0 or Assault Cube. Despite the status of CC0 as the most free copyright license, the Free Software Foundation does not recommend releasing software into the public domain using the CC0.
However, application of a Creative Commons license may not modify the rights allowed by fair use or fair dealing or exert restrictions which violate copyright exceptions. Furthermore, Creative Commons licenses are non-exclusive and non-revocable. Any work or copies of the work obtained under a Creative Commons license may continue to be used under that license.
In the case of works protected by multiple Creative Commons licenses, the user may choose either of them.
Preconditions
The author, or the licensor in case the author did a contractual transfer of rights, need to have the exclusive rights on the work. If the work has already been published under a public license, it can be uploaded by any third party, once more on another platform, by using a compatible license, and making reference and attribution to the original license (e.g. by referring the URL of the original license).
Consequences
The license is non-exclusive and royalty-free, unrestricted in terms of territory and duration, so is irrevocable, unless a new license is granted by the author after the work has been significantly modified. Any use of the work that is not covered by other copyright rules triggers the public license. Upon activation of the license, the licensee must adhere to all conditions of the license, otherwise the license agreement is illegitimate, and the licensee would commit a copyright infringement. The author, or the licensor as a proxy, has the legal rights to act upon any copyright infringement. The licensee has a limited period to correct any non-compliance.
Types of licenses
Four rights
The CC licenses all grant "baseline rights", such as the right to distribute the copyrighted work worldwide for non-commercial purposes and without modification. In addition, different versions of license prescribe different rights, as shown in this table:
The last two clauses are not free content licenses, according to definitions such as DFSG or the Free Software Foundation's standards, and cannot be used in contexts that require these freedoms, such as Wikipedia. For software, Creative Commons includes three free licenses created by other institutions: the BSD License, the GNU LGPL, and the GNU GPL.
Mixing and matching these conditions produces sixteen possible combinations, of which eleven are valid Creative Commons licenses and five are not. Of the five invalid combinations, four include both the "nd" and "sa" clauses, which are mutually exclusive; and one includes none of the clauses. Of the eleven valid combinations, the five that lack the "by" clause have been retired because 98% of licensors requested attribution, though they do remain available for reference on the website. This leaves six regularly used licenses plus the CC0 public domain declaration.
Six regularly used licenses
The six licenses in most frequent use are shown in the following table. Among them, those accepted by the Wikimedia Foundation – the public domain dedication and two attribution (BY and BY-SA) licenses – allow the sharing and remixing (creating derivative works), including for commercial use, so long as attribution is given.
Zero / public domain
Besides copyright licenses, Creative Commons also offers CC0, a tool for relinquishing copyright and releasing material into the public domain. CC0 is a legal tool for waiving as many rights as legally possible. Or, when not legally possible, CC0 acts as fallback as public domain equivalent license. Development of CC0 began in 2007 and it was released in 2009. A major target of the license was the scientific data community.
In 2010, Creative Commons announced its Public Domain Mark, a tool for labeling works already in the public domain. Together, CC0 and the Public Domain Mark replace the Public Domain Dedication and Certification, which took a U.S.-centric approach and co-mingled distinct operations.
In 2011, the Free Software Foundation added CC0 to its free software licenses. However, despite CC0 being the most free and open copyright license, the Free Software Foundation currently does not recommend using CC0 to release software into the public domain.
In February 2012, CC0 was submitted to Open Source Initiative (OSI) for their approval. However, controversy arose over its clause which excluded from the scope of the license any relevant patents held by the copyright holder. This clause was added with scientific data in mind rather than software, but some members of the OSI believed it could weaken users' defenses against software patents. As a result, Creative Commons withdrew their submission, and the license is not currently approved by the OSI.
From 2013 to 2017, the stock photography website Unsplash used the CC0 license, distributing several million free photos a month. Lawrence Lessig, the founder of Creative Commons, has contributed to the site. Unsplash moved from using the CC0 license to their own similar license in June 2017, but with a restriction added on using the photos to make a competing service which made it incompatible with the CC0 license.
In October 2014, the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC0 as conformant with the Open Definition and recommend the license to dedicate content to the public domain.
Retired licenses
Due to either disuse or criticism, a number of previously offered Creative Commons licenses have since been retired, and are no longer recommended for new works. The retired licenses include all licenses lacking the Attribution element other than CC0, as well as the following four licenses:
Developing Nations License: a license which only applies to developing countries deemed to be "non-high-income economies" by the World Bank. Full copyright restrictions apply to people in other countries.
Sampling: parts of the work can be used for any purpose other than advertising, but the whole work cannot be copied or modified
Sampling Plus: parts of the work can be copied and modified for any purpose other than advertising, and the entire work can be copied for noncommercial purposes
NonCommercial Sampling Plus: the whole work or parts of the work can be copied and modified for non-commercial purposes
Version 4.0
The latest version 4.0 of the Creative Commons licenses, released on November 25, 2013, are generic licenses that are applicable to most jurisdictions and do not usually require ports. No new ports have been implemented in version 4.0 of the license. Version 4.0 discourages using ported versions and instead acts as a single global license.
Rights and obligations
Attribution
Since 2004, all current licenses other than the CC0 variant require attribution of the original author, as signified by the BY component (as in the preposition "by"). The attribution must be given to "the best of [one's] ability using the information available". Creative Commons suggests the mnemonic "TASL": title -- author -- source [web link] -- [CC] licence. Generally this implies the following:
Include any copyright notices (if applicable). If the work itself contains any copyright notices placed there by the copyright holder, those notices must be left intact, or reproduced in a way that is reasonable to the medium in which the work is being re-published.
Cite the author's name, screen name, or user ID, etc. If the work is being published on the Internet, it is nice to link that name to the person's profile page, if such a page exists.
Cite the work's title or name (if applicable), if such a thing exists. If the work is being published on the Internet, it is nice to link the name or title directly to the original work.
Cite the specific CC license the work is under. If the work is being published on the Internet, it is nice if the license citation links to the license on the CC website.
Mention if the work is a derivative work or adaptation. In addition to the above, one needs to identify that their work is a derivative work, e.g., "This is a Finnish translation of [original work] by [author]." or "Screenplay based on [original work] by [author]."
Non-commercial licenses
The "non-commercial" option included in some Creative Commons licenses is controversial in definition, as it is sometimes unclear what can be considered a non-commercial setting, and application, since its restrictions differ from the principles of open content promoted by other permissive licenses. In 2014 Wikimedia Deutschland published a guide to using Creative Commons licenses as wiki pages for translations and as PDF.
Adaptability
Rights in an adaptation can be expressed by a CC license that is compatible with the status or licensing of the original work or works on which the adaptation is based.
Legal aspects
The legal implications of large numbers of works having Creative Commons licensing are difficult to predict, and there is speculation that media creators often lack insight to be able to choose the license which best meets their intent in applying it.
Some works licensed using Creative Commons licenses have been involved in several court cases. Creative Commons itself was not a party to any of these cases; they only involved licensors or licensees of Creative Commons licenses. When the cases went as far as decisions by judges (that is, they were not dismissed for lack of jurisdiction or were not settled privately out of court), they have all validated the legal robustness of Creative Commons public licenses.
Dutch tabloid
In early 2006, podcaster Adam Curry sued a Dutch tabloid who published photos from Curry's Flickr page without Curry's permission. The photos were licensed under the Creative Commons Non-Commercial license. While the verdict was in favor of Curry, the tabloid avoided having to pay restitution to him as long as they did not repeat the offense. Professor Bernt Hugenholtz, main creator of the Dutch CC license and director of the Institute for Information Law of the University of Amsterdam, commented, "The Dutch Court's decision is especially noteworthy because it confirms that the conditions of a Creative Commons license automatically apply to the content licensed under it, and binds users of such content even without expressly agreeing to, or having knowledge of, the conditions of the license."
Virgin Mobile
In 2007, Virgin Mobile Australia launched an advertising campaign promoting their cellphone text messaging service using the work of amateur photographers who uploaded their work to Flickr using a Creative Commons-BY (Attribution) license. Users licensing their images this way freed their work for use by any other entity, as long as the original creator was attributed credit, without any other compensation required. Virgin upheld this single restriction by printing a URL leading to the photographer's Flickr page on each of their ads. However, one picture, depicting 15-year-old Alison Chang at a fund-raising carwash for her church, caused some controversy when she sued Virgin Mobile. The photo was taken by Alison's church youth counselor, Justin Ho-Wee Wong, who uploaded the image to Flickr under the Creative Commons license. In 2008, the case (concerning personality rights rather than copyright as such) was thrown out of a Texas court for lack of jurisdiction.
SGAE vs Fernández
In the fall of 2006, the collecting society Sociedad General de Autores y Editores (SGAE) in Spain sued Ricardo Andrés Utrera Fernández, owner of a disco bar located in Badajoz who played CC-licensed music. SGAE argued that Fernández should pay royalties for public performance of the music between November 2002 and August 2005. The Lower Court rejected the collecting society's claims because the owner of the bar proved that the music he was using was not managed by the society.
In February 2006, the Cultural Association Ladinamo (based in Madrid, and represented by Javier de la Cueva) was granted the use of copyleft music in their public activities. The sentence said:
GateHouse Media, Inc. v. That's Great News, LLC
On June 30, 2010 GateHouse Media filed a lawsuit against That's Great News. GateHouse Media owns a number of local newspapers, including Rockford Register Star, which is based in Rockford, Illinois. That's Great News makes plaques out of newspaper articles and sells them to the people featured in the articles. GateHouse sued That's Great News for copyright infringement and breach of contract. GateHouse claimed that TGN violated the non-commercial and no-derivative works restrictions on GateHouse Creative Commons licensed work when TGN published the material on its website. The case was settled on August 17, 2010, though the settlement was not made public.
Drauglis v. Kappa Map Group, LLC
The plaintiff was photographer Art Drauglis, who uploaded several pictures to the photo-sharing website Flickr using Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic License (CC BY-SA), including one entitled "Swain's Lock, Montgomery Co., MD.". The defendant was Kappa Map Group, a map-making company, which downloaded the image and used it in a compilation entitled "Montgomery Co. Maryland Street Atlas". Though there was nothing on the cover that indicated the origin of the picture, the text "Photo: Swain's Lock, Montgomery Co., MD Photographer: Carly Lesser & Art Drauglis, Creative Commoms , CC-BY-SA-2.0" appeared at the bottom of the back cover.
The validity of the CC BY-SA 2.0 as a license was not in dispute. The CC BY-SA 2.0 requires that the licensee to use nothing less restrictive than the CC BY-SA 2.0 terms. The atlas was sold commercially and not for free reuse by others. The dispute was whether Drauglis' license terms that would apply to "derivative works" applied to the entire atlas. Drauglis sued the defendants in June 2014 for copyright infringement and license breach, seeking declaratory and injunctive relief, damages, fees, and costs. Drauglis asserted, among other things, that Kappa Map Group "exceeded the scope of the License because defendant did not publish the Atlas under a license with the same or similar terms as those under which the Photograph was originally licensed." The judge dismissed the case on that count, ruling that the atlas was not a derivative work of the photograph in the sense of the license, but rather a collective work. Since the atlas was not a derivative work of the photograph, Kappa Map Group did not need to license the entire atlas under the CC BY-SA 2.0 license. The judge also determined that the work had been properly attributed.
In particular, the judge determined that it was sufficient to credit the author of the photo as prominently as authors of similar authorship (such as the authors of individual maps contained in the book) and that the name "CC-BY-SA-2.0" is sufficiently precise to locate the correct license on the internet and can be considered a valid URI of the license.
Verband zum Schutz geistigen Eigentums im Internet (VGSE)
In July 2016, German computer magazine LinuxUser reported that a German blogger Christoph Langner used two licensed photographs from Berlin photographer Dennis Skley on his private blog Linuxundich. Langner duly mentioned the author and the license and added a link to the original. Langner was later contacted by the Verband zum Schutz geistigen Eigentums im Internet (VGSE) (Association for the Protection of Intellectual Property in the Internet) with a demand for €2300 for failing to provide the full name of the work, the full name of the author, the license text, and a source link, as is required by the fine print in the license. Of this sum, €40 goes to the photographer, and the remainder is retained by VGSE. The Higher Regional Court of Köln dismissed the claim in May 2019.
Works with a Creative Commons license
Creative Commons maintains a content directory wiki of organizations and projects using Creative Commons licenses. On its website CC also provides case studies of projects using CC licenses across the world. CC licensed content can also be accessed through a number of content directories and search engines (see Creative Commons-licensed content directories).
Unicode symbols
After being proposed by Creative Commons in 2017, Creative Commons license symbols were added to Unicode with version 13.0 in 2020. The circle with an equal sign (meaning no derivatives) is present in older versions of Unicode, unlike all the other symbols.
These symbols can be used in succession to indicate a particular Creative Commons license, for example, CC-BY-SA (CC-Attribution-ShareAlike) can be expressed with Unicode symbols CIRCLED CC, CIRCLED HUMAN FIGURE and CIRCLED ANTICLOCKWISE ARROW placed next to each other: 🅭🅯🄎
Case law database
In December2020, the Creative Commons organization launched an online database covering licensing case law and legal scholarship.
See also
Free culture movement
Free music
Free software
Non-commercial educational
Notes
References
External links
Full selection of licenses
Licenses. Overview of free licenses. freedomdefined.org
WHAT IS CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSE. – THE COMPLETE DEFINITIVE GUIDE
Web-friendly formatted summary of CC BY-SA 3.0
Computer law
Copyleft
Free content licenses
Intellectual property activism
Intellectual property law
Public copyright licenses
Articles containing video clips
Copyleft software licenses | [
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245733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial%20and%20error | Trial and error | Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem-solving. It is characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the practicer stops trying.
According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C. Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". Under Morgan's Canon, animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behavior seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial-and-error learning. An example is a skillful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behavior. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.
Edward Lee Thorndike was the initiator of the theory of trial and error learning based on the findings he showed how to manage a trial-and-error experiment in the laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in a series of puzzle boxes in order to study the law of effect in learning. He plotted to learn curves which recorded the timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that learning was promoted by positive results, which was later refined and extended by B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning.
Trial and error is also a method of problem solving, repair, tuning, or obtaining knowledge. In the field of computer science, the method is called generate and test (Brute force). In elementary algebra, when solving equations, it is guess and check.
This approach can be seen as one of the two basic approaches to problem-solving, contrasted with an approach using insight and theory. However, there are intermediate methods which for example, use theory to guide the method, an approach known as guided empiricism.
This way of thinking has become a mainstay of Karl Popper's critical rationalism.
Methodology
The trial and error approach is used most successfully with simple problems and in games, and it is often the last resort when no apparent rule applies. This does not mean that the approach is inherently careless, for an individual can be methodical in manipulating the variables in an attempt to sort through possibilities that could result in success. Nevertheless, this method is often used by people who have little knowledge in the problem area. The trial-and-error approach has been studied from its natural computational point of view
Simplest applications
Ashby (1960, section 11/5) offers three simple strategies for dealing with the same basic exercise-problem, which have very different efficiencies. Suppose a collection of 1000 on/off switches have to be set to a particular combination by random-based testing, where each test is expected to take one second. [This is also discussed in Traill (1978–2006, section C1.2]. The strategies are:
the perfectionist all-or-nothing method, with no attempt at holding partial successes. This would be expected to take more than 10^301 seconds, [i.e., 2^1000 seconds, or 3·5×(10^291) centuries]
a serial-test of switches, holding on to the partial successes (assuming that these are manifest), which would take 500 seconds on average
parallel-but-individual testing of all switches simultaneously, which would take only one second
Note the tacit assumption here that no intelligence or insight is brought to bear on the problem. However, the existence of different available strategies allows us to consider a separate ("superior") domain of processing — a "meta-level" above the mechanics of switch handling — where the various available strategies can be randomly chosen. Once again this is "trial and error", but of a different type.
Hierarchies
Ashby's book develops this "meta-level" idea, and extends it into a whole recursive sequence of levels, successively above each other in a systematic hierarchy. On this basis, he argues that human intelligence emerges from such organization: relying heavily on trial-and-error (at least initially at each new stage), but emerging with what we would call "intelligence" at the end of it all. Thus presumably the topmost level of the hierarchy (at any stage) will still depend on simple trial-and-error.
Traill (1978–2006) suggests that this Ashby-hierarchy probably coincides with Piaget's well-known theory of developmental stages. [This work also discusses Ashby's 1000-switch example; see §C1.2]. After all, it is part of Piagetian doctrine that children learn first by actively doing in a more-or-less random way, and then hopefully learn from the consequences — which all has a certain resemblance to Ashby's random "trial-and-error".
Application
Traill (2008, espec. Table "S" on p.31) follows Jerne and Popper in seeing this strategy as probably underlying all knowledge-gathering systems — at least in their initial phase.
Four such systems are identified:
Natural selection which "educates" the DNA of the species,
The brain of the individual (just discussed);
The "brain" of society-as-such (including the publicly held body of science); and
The adaptive immune system.
Features
Trial and error has a number of features:
solution-oriented: trial and error makes no attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution.
problem-specific: trial and error makes no attempt to generalize a solution to other problems.
non-optimal: trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution.
needs little knowledge: trials and error can proceed where there is little or no knowledge of the subject.
It is possible to use trial and error to find all solutions or the best solution, when a testably finite number of possible solutions exist. To find all solutions, one simply makes a note and continues, rather than ending the process, when a solution is found, until all solutions have been tried. To find the best solution, one finds all solutions by the method just described and then comparatively evaluates them based upon some predefined set of criteria, the existence of which is a condition for the possibility of finding a best solution. (Also, when only one solution can exist, as in assembling a jigsaw puzzle, then any solution found is the only solution and so is necessarily the best.)
Examples
Trial and error has traditionally been the main method of finding new drugs, such as antibiotics. Chemists simply try chemicals at random until they find one with the desired effect. In a more sophisticated version, chemists select a narrow range of chemicals it is thought may have some effect using a technique called structure–activity relationship. (The latter case can be alternatively considered as a changing of the problem rather than of the solution strategy: instead of "What chemical will work well as an antibiotic?" the problem in the sophisticated approach is "Which, if any, of the chemicals in this narrow range will work well as an antibiotic?") The method is used widely in many disciplines, such as polymer technology to find new polymer types or families.
Trial and error is also commonly seen in player responses to video games - when faced with an obstacle or boss, players often form a number of strategies to surpass the obstacle or defeat the boss, with each strategy being carried out before the player either succeeds or quits the game.
Sports teams also make use of trial and error to qualify for and/or progress through the playoffs and win the championship, attempting different strategies, plays, lineups and formations in hopes of defeating each and every opponent along the way to victory. This is especially crucial in playoff series in which multiple wins are required to advance, where a team that loses a game will have the opportunity to try new tactics to find a way to win, if they are not eliminated yet.
The scientific method can be regarded as containing an element of trial and error in its formulation and testing of hypotheses. Also compare genetic algorithms, simulated annealing and reinforcement learning – all varieties for search which apply the basic idea of trial and error.
Biological evolution can be considered as a form of trial and error. Random mutations and sexual genetic variations can be viewed as trials and poor reproductive fitness, or lack of improved fitness, as the error. Thus after a long time 'knowledge' of well-adapted genomes accumulates simply by virtue of them being able to reproduce.
Bogosort, a conceptual sorting algorithm (that is extremely inefficient and impractical), can be viewed as a trial and error approach to sorting a list. However, typical simple examples of bogosort do not track which orders of the list have been tried and may try the same order any number of times, which violates one of the basic principles of trial and error. Trial and error is actually more efficient and practical than bogosort; unlike bogosort, it is guaranteed to halt in finite time on a finite list, and might even be a reasonable way to sort extremely short lists under some conditions.
Jumping spiders of the genus Portia use trial and error to find new tactics against unfamiliar prey or in unusual situations, and remember the new tactics. Tests show that Portia fimbriata and Portia labiata can use trial and error in an artificial environment, where the spider's objective is to cross a miniature lagoon that is too wide for a simple jump, and must either jump then swim or only swim.
See also
Ariadne's thread (logic)
Brute-force attack
Brute-force search
Dictionary attack
Empiricism
Genetic algorithm
Learning curve
Margin of error
Regula falsi
Voodoo programming
References
Further reading
Ashby, W. R. (1960: Second Edition). Design for a Brain. Chapman & Hall: London.
Traill, R.R. (1978–2006). Molecular explanation for intelligence…, Brunel University Thesis, HDL.handle.net
Traill, R.R. (2008). Thinking by Molecule, Synapse, or both? — From Piaget’s Schema, to the Selecting/Editing of ncRNA. Ondwelle: Melbourne. Ondwelle.com — or French version Ondwelle.com.
Zippelius, R. (1991). Die experimentierende Methode im Recht (Trial and error in Jurisprudence), Academy of Science, Mainz,
Error
Heuristics
Learning methods
Problem solving methods
Philosophy of science | [
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245765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Jayhawks | The Jayhawks | The Jayhawks are an American alternative country and country rock band that emerged from the Twin Cities music scene in the mid-1980s. Led by vocalists/guitarists/songwriters Gary Louris and Mark Olson, their country rock sound was influential on many bands who played the Twin Cities circuit during the 1980s and 1990s, such as Uncle Tupelo, the Gear Daddies and the Honeydogs. They have released eleven studio albums, with and without Olson (who left the band for the first time in 1995), including five on the American Recordings label. After going on hiatus from 2005 to 2009, the 1995 lineup of the band reunited and released the album Mockingbird Time in September 2011; Olson left the band for the second time after the tour to promote the album. After another hiatus in 2013, the 1997 lineup led by Louris reunited to play shows in 2014 to support the reissue of three albums originally released between 1997 and 2003. Since then, the band has continued to tour and record, releasing the albums Live at The Belly Up in 2015; Paging Mr. Proust, co-produced by Peter Buck, in 2016; Back Roads and Abandoned Motels in 2018; and XOXO (The Jayhawks album) in 2020.
History
Founding years and early success (1984–1995)
The Jayhawks was formed in 1984 by Minneapolis musicians Mark Olson (guitar and vocals) and Caleb Palmiter (bass), with the duo adding Tommy Rey (drums) for its first shows. In 1985 the short-lived trio was relaunched as a four-piece band after Olson recruited Steve Retzler (guitar), Marc Perlman (bass), and Norm Rogers (drums). Later that year Gary Louris (guitar and vocals) replaced Retzler.
Their first album, The Jayhawks, was released by Bunkhouse Records, a small independent label, in 1986. Their music at the time, mostly written by Olson, showed a strong roots/country rock influence. Rogers left and was replaced by Thad Spencer, and the band worked for the next years on demo tapes in search of a major label recording contract. During this period, Louris left the band briefly (following a car accident) and Dan Gaarder replaced him. Louris returned, and the collected demos from 1986 to 1989 were brought together to create Blue Earth, released on the Minneapolis label Twin Tone in 1989. On this album Louris shared more of the songwriting with Olson. After touring the U.S. in support of Blue Earth, Spencer left the band and was replaced in 1988 by Ken Callahan, who stayed with the band until 1993.
In 1991, Dave Ayers, the head of A&R for Twin Tone, was on a phone call with A&R representative George Drakoulias of Def American while Blue Earth played in the background. Drakoulias asked about the music and eventually met with and signed the band to the label later that year.
In 1992 the Jayhawks had their major label release, Hollywood Town Hall, on Def American. The album was produced by Drakoulias and recorded primarily in Los Angeles and at Pachyderm Recording Studio in Minnesota. Though Louris's fuzzy guitar was at the forefront, a clear folksy influence was also emerging in Olson and Louris's songwriting. The album was successful, powered by the single "Waiting for the Sun", and it brought the Jayhawks a wider fan base. Adding Karen Grotberg on keyboards and vocals, the band toured extensively.
That year Olson, Louris and Perlman, along with Olson's longtime friend and future collaborator in the Original Harmony Ridge Creekdippers, Mike Russell, were recruited by Joe Henry as the backing band for his album ""Short Man's Room" and its 1993 followup, "Kindness of the World."
In 1995 they went into the studio to produce Tomorrow the Green Grass on the renamed American Recordings label. The lead track, "Blue", was a Top 40 hit in Canada (peaking at No. 33), but the record's production had been very expensive and the album failed to sell as expected in the U.S. Among the album's songs is "Miss Williams' Guitar," a love song for Olson's then-girlfriend, singer-songwriter Victoria Williams (the pair later married, but divorced in February 2006). Drummer, singer and songwriter Tim O'Reagan joined the band for the 1995 tour; session drummer Don Heffington had played on the album.
Middle years (1995–2004)
By the end of 1995, Olson unexpectedly left the band to spend more time with Williams (with whom he would later form the Original Harmony Ridge Creekdippers). The band continued to record as the Jayhawks, adding Kraig Johnson on guitar. Johnson, another Minneapolis musical fixture, had played in the seminal SST band Run Westy Run, Iffy and Golden Smog.
The Jayhawks released Sound of Lies in 1997, with Louris composing most of the songs and allowing all of his influences a share in the proceedings. The result mixed straight rock (the ironic "Big Star"), psychedelic, acoustic (the title track) and even some dub elements, taking the band far from its country-influenced origins.
Smile (2000), produced by Bob Ezrin, had more of a pop music feel (which utilized new sounds for the band, like drum loops and synthesizers), jarring some of the band's long-time fans. The New York Times positively reviewed the album, but in a nod to the band's lack of widespread recognition, titled the review "What If You Made a Classic and No One Cared?" Though still a member through the recording of the album, a pregnant Grotberg left the band before the Smile tour and was replaced by Jen Gunderman. The song "I'm Gonna Make You Love Me" appeared in a Ralph Lauren commercial, the second soundtrack released from Dawson's Creek Songs from Dawson's Creek Volume 2, and the 2001 film All Over the Guy.
Rainy Day Music (2003), was stripped down, more acoustic, and generally seen as a return to their alt-country roots ("Tailspin," "Stumbling Through the Dark," "You Look So Young"). The band now consisted of founding members Louris and Perlman, along with drummer O'Reagan and touring band member ex-Long Ryder Stephen McCarthy, from Richmond, Virginia, who also played with Johnny Hott and the Piedmont Surprise. McCarthy added pedal steel, lap steel, banjo, guitar and backing vocals to the album and subsequent live shows. This lineup toured in 2003 and early 2004, including their first appearance on PBS's long-running series Austin City Limits. The band's final show was in Valencia, Spain.
In addition to their studio albums, the Jayhawks released Live from the Women's Club, an all-acoustic live recording of Louris, Perlman and O'Reagan from 2002. It was sold only at concerts as an "Official Jayhawks Bootleg." It includes the demo of the original version of "I'm Gonna Make You Love Me", called "Someone Will", and a cover of David Wiffen's "(Lost My) Driving Wheel", originally popularized by Tom Rush. A follow-up, Live from the Women's Club 2, contains the rest of the concert, including a cover of Tim Hardin's "Reason to Believe" and a rendition of "Jennifer Save Me" from Golden Smog, the alt/country supergroup of which Louris was a founding member (and which Perlman later joined).
Hiatus (2004–2009)
Both old and new Jayhawks members progressed to solo efforts and side projects, and the band as a whole was generally considered to be broken up and not expected to produce new material soon. However, the band members appeared to have kept in touch, tour together in their other projects, and reunited on occasion. Olson and Louris toured together in the winter of 2005 and spring of 2006, billed as "From the Jayhawks: An Evening with Mark Olson & Gary Louris, Together Again."
In September 2008, the 1995 lineup of Louris, Olson, O'Reagan, Grotberg and Perlman reunited briefly for the Azkena Rock Festival in Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.
In January 2009, Olson and Louris released an acoustic album, Ready for the Flood.
Aftermath (2009–present)
In April 2009, Billboard reported that the Jayhawks had reunited. The band's mid-1990s lineup played two shows that summer, one at Barcelona's Primavera Sound Festival on May 30 and one at Minneapolis's Basilica Block Party on July 10. Band co-leader Louris told Billboard that the reunion would be a part-time thing: "I think the plan is that we're going to play festivals. Next year, we're hoping to play Bonnaroo and things like that. We'll see if it grows from there."
In July 2009, Sony Legacy and American Recordings released Music from the North Country, The Jayhawks Anthology, a project supervised by Louris. The standard CD features highlights from the band's studio albums, while a deluxe version adds rarities, B-sides, and unreleased material, as well as a DVD of the band's music videos.
On May 18, 2010, the initial release The Jayhawks was digitally remastered from reel-to-reel and reissued on Lost Highway Records. The re-release features an eleven-page booklet designed by Olson. In fall 2010, the Jayhawks returned to the recording studio, planning to have a new album out by spring or early summer 2011.
In January 2011, Legacy Recordings reissued collector's editions of both Hollywood Town Hall and Tomorrow the Green Grass, each featuring outtakes and B-sides. Tomorrow the Green Grass features a second disc, entitled The Mystery Demos, featuring tracks from two recording sessions with Olson and Louris in 1992. Prior to the release of The Mystery Demos, several of the featured tracks had been re-recorded and released on various Jayhawks related albums, such as Olson's solo release, The Salvation Blues and the Olson–Louris collaboration Ready for the Flood. To celebrate the release of the reissues, the Jayhawks—Louris, Olson, Perlman, Grotberg, and O'Reagan—launched a concert mini-tour in January 2011, with shows in Toronto (January 18), New York City (January 20 and 21), Philadelphia (January 22), Chicago (January 27 and 28), and Minneapolis (January 29). For the January 20 show at New York's Webster Hall, the band performed Hollywood Town Hall in its entirety, followed by the complete Tomorrow the Green Grass the following evening.
In 2011 the band reunited again and recorded a new studio album. The lineup consisted of Olson, Louris, Perlman, Grotberg, and O'Reagan, and, as Louris said, "Our goal is to make the best Jayhawks album that's ever been done". Eighteen songs were recorded, 16 of them new, but only 12 made it to the final release. The album, Mockingbird Time, was released September 20. From 2009 to 2012 this lineup performed over 100 shows in North America and Europe before once again going on hiatus in the fall of 2012.
2014 saw new activity from the band once again. The final phase of the career-spanning reissue project started in 2009 commenced in the summer of 2014 with the reissue (on CD and LP) of the three albums the band made after Olson left in 1995: Sound of Lies (1997), Smile (2000) and Rainy Day Music (2003). The reissues, on American Recordings/UME, feature bonus tracks, new liner notes and fresh remastering from original analog sources by Vic Anesini. Deluxe two-LP vinyl editions were also released; this was the first vinyl release in the U.S. of Smile and the first time vinyl copies of Sound of Lies and Rainy Day Music had been available after having been long out of print. Most of the 1997 touring lineup (Louris, Perlman, O'Reagan, Grotberg and Johnson) toured in 2014 and 2015 to support the reissues, concentrating on material from the 1997–2004 era of the band that had largely gone unplayed in concert for over a decade. The band released Live at the Belly-Up, a digital-only album on April 7, 2015.
The band announced in September 2015 that they were recording a new studio album with the 2014–2015 lineup. The album was recorded in Portland, Oregon, with Peter Buck from R.E.M and Tucker Martine producing. In January 2016 The Jayhawks announced on their Tumblr account that their new album would be titled Paging Mr. Proust and it was released on April 29, 2016 on Thirty Tigers. Kraig Johnson left the band again before the release of Paging Mr. Proust. Jeff "Chet" Lyster was added as a touring member on guitar, pedal steel and background vocals prior to the 2016 tour.
The band collaborated with Ray Davies, formerly of The Kinks, for an album released in April, 2017 titled Americana, based on Davies' experiences in the USA.
The Jayhawks also backed Wesley Stace on his 2017 album Wesley Stace's John Wesley Harding.
Norm Rogers, the band's drummer from 1984 to 1988, died on February 19, 2018.
2018 saw The Jayhawks backing Ray Davies again on his album Our Country - Americana Act II (released June 2018) as well as releasing their own album Back Roads and Abandoned Motels (July 2018). The band also recorded "What Would I Dreamer Do?" for the compilation album Forever Words, setting lyrics by Johnny Cash to music for the first time.
On July 13, 2018 the Jayhawks released Back Roads and Abandoned Motels on Sony Legacy Recordings label, featuring new fifth member John Jackson, who co-produced the album and served previously as a touring member on some tour dates since 2014.
The band has been honored with a star on the outside mural of the Minneapolis nightclub First Avenue, recognizing performers that have played sold-out shows or have otherwise demonstrated a major contribution to the culture at the iconic venue. Receiving a star "might be the most prestigious public honor an artist can receive in Minneapolis," according to journalist Steve Marsh.
In 2020, the core lineup of Louris, Pearlman, O'Reagan, and Grotberg released the new album, XOXO (The Jayhawks album), that featured songwriting and lead vocals from each member of the band. Previous / part-time members John Jackson and Stephen McCarthy recorded on select songs, as well. The band appeared on the CBS This Morning: Saturday national morning show on June 27, 2020. The band resumed touring in 2021, with multiple dates on the Fall 2021 tour featuring McCarthy in the performing lineup for just the second time in 17 years.
Members
Since the departure of John Jackson as a full-time member, the current lineup of the Jayhawks consists of:
Gary Louris: guitar, lead vocals, backing vocals
Tim O'Reagan: drums, backing vocals, lead vocals
Karen Grotberg: keyboards, backing vocals
Marc Perlman: bass, backing vocals, lead vocals
Timeline
Discography
Jayhawks studio albums
The Jayhawks (1986)
Blue Earth (1989)
Hollywood Town Hall (1992)
Tomorrow the Green Grass (1995)
Sound of Lies (1997)
Smile (2000)
Rainy Day Music (2003)
Mockingbird Time (2011)
Paging Mr. Proust (2016)
Back Roads and Abandoned Motels (2018)
XOXO (2020)
See also
Golden Smog
References
External links
Official Jayhawks Lost Highway Artist Page
Musical groups from Minnesota
American alternative country groups
Lost Highway Records artists
Musical groups established in 1985
Articles which contain graphical timelines
1985 establishments in Minnesota | [
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245768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20Fire | Chicago Fire | Chicago Fire may refer to:
Great Chicago Fire, the fire that burned much of Chicago in 1871
Chicago Fire FC, a Major League Soccer club
Chicago Fire Premier, part of the development system for the Chicago Fire FC
Chicago Fire NPSL, part of the development system for the Chicago Fire FC
Chicago Fire Juniors, youth club affiliate of the Chicago Fire FC
Chicago Fire (WFL), an American football team in the defunct World Football League
Chicago Fire Department
Chicago Fire (TV series), an American drama series on NBC
Chicago Fire (AFA), an American football team in the defunct American Football Association
Music
Chicago Fire (Son Seals album), 1980
Chicago Fire (Eric Alexander album), 2013 | [
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245772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilberforce%20University | Wilberforce University | Wilberforce University is a private historically black university in Wilberforce, Ohio. Affiliated with the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), it was the first college to be owned and operated by African Americans. It participates in the United Negro College Fund.
Central State University, also in Wilberforce, Ohio, began as a department of Wilberforce University where Ohio state legislators could sponsor scholarship students.
The college was founded in 1856 by a unique collaboration between the Cincinnati, Ohio, Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) to provide classical education and teacher training for black youth. The first board members were leaders both black and white.
The outbreak of the American Civil War (1861–65) resulted in a decline in students from South, who were the majority, and the college closed in 1862 because of financial losses. The AME Church purchased the institution in 1863 to ensure its survival, making it the first black-owned and operated college in the nation. AME Bishop Daniel Payne was one of the university's original founders and became its first president after re-opening; he was the first African American to become a college president in the United States. After an arson fire in 1865, the college was aided by donations from prominent white supporters and a grant from the US Congress to support rebuilding. Later it received support from the state legislature.
During the 1890s, scholar W. E. B. Du Bois taught at the university. In the late 19th century, it enlarged its mission to include black students from South Africa.
History
Wilberforce College was founded to educate African-American students. Twenty years earlier, a similar plan in New Haven, Connecticut, was met with a near-riot (New Haven Excitement), and was quickly abandoned. (See Simeon Jocelyn.) Discrimination against Blacks was legal, and the white colleges that would accept Black students could be counted on one hand (Hillsdale College Michigan, the Oneida Institute, the Oberlin Collegiate Institute (later Oberlin College), and New-York Central College).
Located three miles (5 km) from the county seat of Xenia, Ohio in the southwestern part of the state, what developed as Wilberforce University was founded as a collaboration among leaders of the Cincinnati Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME Church). They planned to promote classical education and teacher training for black youth. Among the first 24 members of the bi-racial board of trustees in 1855 were Bishop Daniel A. Payne, Rev. Lewis Woodson and Messrs. Ishmael Keith and Alfred Anderson, all of the AME Church. Also on the Board were Salmon P. Chase, then Governor of Ohio and a strong supporter of abolition; a member of the Ohio State Legislature, and other Methodist leaders from the white community. They named the college after the British abolitionist and statesman William Wilberforce.
As a base for the college, the Cincinnati Conference bought a hotel, cottages and of a former resort property near Xenia. It was named Tawawa House after the springs in the area, a word derived from a Shawnee term for "clear or golden water". This color was associated with the natural springs nearby because of its high iron content. White people had founded the health resort in 1851 because of the springs, which they also called Yellow Springs. The waters had long been reputed to have health benefits.
Because of its location, this resort area had attracted summer people from both Cincinnati and the South, particularly after completion of the Little Miami Railroad in 1846. Some people in this area of abolitionist sentiment were shocked when wealthy white Southern planters patronized the resort with their entourages of enslaved African-American mistresses and mixed-race "natural" children.
Given migration patterns, this was also an area where numerous free people of color settled, many having moved across the Ohio River from the South to find better work and living conditions. Some were pushed from Southern states, which often required newly manumitted individuals to leave within a certain time period. Xenia had quite a large free black population, as did other towns in southern Ohio, such as Chillicothe, Yellow Springs and Zanesville. Free blacks and anti-slavery white supporters used houses in Xenia as stations on the Underground Railroad in the years before the Civil War. Wilberforce College also supported freedom-seeking slaves.
The college opened for classes in 1856, and by 1858 its trustees selected Rev. Richard S. Rust as the first president. Overriding some protest by men, in the 1850s the college hired Frances E. W. Harper, an abolitionist poet, as the first woman to teach at the school.
By 1860 the private university had more than 200 students. It is notable that most were from the South, the "natural" mixed-race sons and daughters of wealthy white planters and their enslaved African-American mistresses. The fathers paid for the educations that were denied their children in the South. They were among the fathers who did not abandon their mixed-race children but provided them with the social capital of education and sometimes property.
The outbreak of the Civil War threatened the college's finances. The Southern planters withdrew their children, and no more paying students came from the South. The Methodist church said it had to divert its resources to support the war. The college closed temporarily in 1862 when the Cincinnati Methodist Church was unable to fund it fully.
Led by Bishop Daniel A. Payne, in 1863 the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) decided to buy the college to ensure its survival; they paid the cost of its debt. They sold another property to raise the money. Founders were Bishop Payne, who was selected as its president; James A. Shorter, pastor of the AME Church in Zanesville, Ohio and a future bishop; and Dr. John G. Mitchell, principal of the Eastern District Public School of Cincinnati. Payne was the first African American to become a college president in the United States.
When an arson fire damaged some of the buildings in 1865, Payne went to his network to appeal for aid in rebuilding the college. Salmon P. Chase, then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and Dr. Charles Avery from Pittsburgh each contributed $10,000 to rebuild the college. Mary E. Monroe, another white supporter, contributed $4200. In addition, the US Congress approved a $25,000 grant for the college, which raised additional monies privately from a wide range of donors.
In 1888 the AME Church came to an agreement with the Republican Party-dominated state legislature that brought considerable financial support and political patronage to the college. It negotiated contemporary pressures to emphasize industrial education for many black youth by accommodating both that and the classical education.
As an act of political patronage, the state legislature established a commercial, normal and industrial (CNI) department at Wilberforce College. While this created complications for administration and questions about the mission of the college, in the near term it brought tens of thousands of dollars annually in state aid to the campus. Each state legislator could award an annual scholarship to the CNI department at Wilberforce, enabling hundreds of African-American students to attend classes. The state-funded students could complete liberal arts at the college, and students at Wilberforce could also take "industrial" classes.
By the mid-1890s, the college also admitted students from South Africa, as part of the AME Church's mission to Africa. The church helped support such students with scholarships, as well as arranging board with local families. An 1898 report published by the AME Church listed the university as having 20 faculty, 334 students, and 246 graduates.
The college became a center of black cultural and intellectual life in southwestern Ohio. Because the area did not receive many European immigrants, blacks had more opportunities at diverse work. Xenia and nearby towns developed a professional black elite.
Generations of leaders: teachers, ministers, doctors, politicians and college administrators, and later men and women of all occupations, have been educated at the university. In the 19th century, Bishop Payne established his dream, a theological seminary, which was named in his honor. Top-ranking scholars taught at the college, including W.E.B. Du Bois, the philologist William S. Scarborough, Edward Clarke, and John G. Mitchell, dean of the seminary. In 1894 Lieutenant Charles Young, the third black graduate of West Point and at the time the only African-American commissioned officer in the US Army, led the newly established military science department.
Additional leading scholars taught at the college in the early 20th century, such as Theophilus Gould Steward, a politician, theologian and missionary; and the sociologist Richard R. Wright, Jr., the first African American to earn a PhD from the University of Pennsylvania. He was a future AME bishop and became president of Wilberforce. These men were also prominent in the American Negro Academy, founded in 1897 to support the work of scholars, writers and other intellectuals. In 1969 the organization was revived as the Black Academy of Arts and Letters.
In 1941, the normal/industrial department was expanded by development of a four-year curriculum. In 1947, this section was split from the university and given independent status. It was renamed as Central State College in 1951. With further development of programs and departments, in 1965 it achieved university status as Central State University.
Growth of Wilberforce University after the mid-20th century led to construction of a new campus in 1967, located one mile (1.6 km) away. In 1974, the area was devastated by an F5 tornado that was part of the 1974 Super Outbreak, which destroyed much of the city of Xenia and the old campus of Wilberforce.
Older campus buildings still in use include the Carnegie Library, built in 1909 with matching funds from the Carnegie Foundation, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places; Shorter Hall, built in 1922; and the Charles Leander Hill Gymnasium, built in 1958. The former residence of Charles Young near Wilberforce was designated as a National Historic Landmark by the US Department of Interior, in recognition of his significant and groundbreaking career in the US Army.
In the 1970s, the university established the National Afro-American Museum and Cultural Center, to provide exhibits and outreach to the region. It is now operated by the Ohio Historical Society. The university also supports the national Association of African American Museums, to provide support and professional guidance especially to smaller museums across the country.
In 2021 the university announced it was cutting tuition by 15% for Ohio residents.
2008 Financial aid audit
In 2008 the US Department of Education, Office of the Inspector General (OIG) completed an audit of financial management, specifically the university's management of Title IV funds, which related to its work-study program. For the two-year audit period (2004–2005, 2005–2006) the audit found numerous faults. In summary, the OIG found that the university did not comply with Title IV, HEA requirements because of administrative problems, including staff turnover, insufficient financial aid staff, failure to have written procedures, and lack of communication with other offices. The university worked with auditors to set up appropriate staff and procedures.
Presidents
Richard Rust, 1858–1862 (under the joint board of trustees representing the Methodist Episcopal and African Methodist Episcopal churches)
Daniel A. Payne, 1863–1876, first president of the college under AME operation
Benjamin F. Lee, 1876–1884
Samuel T. Mitchell, 1884–1900
Joshua H. Jones, 1900–1908
William S. Scarborough, 1908–1920
John A. Gregg, 1920–1924
Gilbert H. Jones, 1924–1932
Richard R. Wright, Jr., 1932–1936, 1941–1942
D. Ormonde Walker, 1936–1941
Charles H. Wesley, 1942–1947
Charles Leander Hill, 1947–1956
Rembert E. Stokes, 1956–1976
Charles E. Taylor, 1976–1984
Yvonne Walker Taylor, 1984–1988
John L. Henderson, 1988–2002
Floyd Flake, 2002–2008
Patricia Hardaway, 2009–2013,
Wilma Mishoe, interim
Algeania Marie Warren Freeman, 2014–2016, former president of Livingstone College and Martin University
Herman J. Felton, Jr., 2016–2018
Elfred Anthony Pinkard, 2018–present
Academics
Cooperative education
Wilberforce requires all students to participate in cooperative education to meet graduation requirements. The cooperative program places students in internships that provide practical work experience in addition to academic training. It has been a required part of the curriculum at Wilberforce since 1966.
NASA SEMAA project
In October 2006, Wilberforce held the grand opening and dedication for the NASA Science, Engineering, Mathematics and Aerospace Academy (SEMAA) and the associated Aerospace Education Laboratory (AEL). It was attended by Dr. Bernice G. Alston, deputy assistant administrator of NASA's office of Education, and the Dave Hobson, U.S. Representative from Ohio's 7th congressional district.
NASA's program was designed to provide training in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics to underprivileged students to support NASA's future needs. There were 17 NASA SEMAA project sites through the United States. Through this partnership, Wilberforce offered training sessions for students in grades K-12 during the academic year and during the summer. The AEL is computerized classroom that provided technology to students in grades 7–12 that supported the SEMAA training sessions.
Student activities
Athletics
Wilberforce University teams, nicknamed athletically as the Bulldogs, are part of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing as an Independent of the Association of Independent Institutions (AII). The Bulldogs formerly competed as members of the American Mideast Conference. Men's sports include basketball and cross country, while women's sports include basketball and cross country.
Students also participate in the following intramural sports: basketball, softball, volleyball, flag football, and tennis.
NPHC organizations
All nine of the National Pan-Hellenic Council organizations currently have chapters at Wilberforce University. These organizations are:
Notable alumni
See also
Historically black colleges and universities
Representation in other media
Dolen Perkins-Valdez's novel Wench (2010) explores the lives of several enslaved women of color brought to the Tawawa House resort during the summers by their Southern white masters. They were among the visitors in the years before the property was bought for use as the college.
References
External links
Official website
Official athletics website
Horace Talbert, The Sons of Allen: Together with a Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, Ohio, 1906, Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina
Historically black universities and colleges in the United States
Private universities and colleges in Ohio
Universities and colleges affiliated with the African Methodist Episcopal Church
Education in Greene County, Ohio
Educational institutions established in 1856
Buildings and structures in Greene County, Ohio
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church
Antebellum educational institutions that admitted African Americans
1856 establishments in Ohio | [
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245775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aureola | Aureola | An aureola or aureole (diminutive of Latin aurea, "golden") is the radiance of luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages, surrounds the whole figure.
In Romance languages, the noun Aureola is usually more related to the disc of light surrounding the head of sacred figures and that in English is called Halo or Nimbus.
In art
In the earliest periods of Christian art it was confined to the figures of the persons of the Christian Godhead, but it was afterwards extended to the Virgin Mary and to several of the saints.
The aureola, when enveloping the whole body, generally appears oval or elliptical in form, but occasionally depicted as circular, vesica piscis, or quatrefoil. When it appears merely as a luminous disk round the head, it is called specifically a halo or nimbus, while the combination of nimbus and aureole is called a glory. The strict distinction between nimbus and aureole is not commonly maintained, and the latter term is most frequently used to denote the radiance round the heads of saints, angels or Persons of the Trinity.
This is not to be confused with the specific motif in art of the Infant Jesus appearing to be a source of light in a Nativity scene. These depictions derive directly from the accounts given by Saint Bridget of Sweden of her visions, in which she describes seeing this.
Development
The nimbus in Christian art first appeared in the 5th century, but practically the same motif was known from several centuries earlier, in pre-Christian Hellenistic art. It is found in some Persian representations of kings and gods, and appears on coins of the Kushan kings Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva, as well as on most representations of the Buddha in Greco-Buddhist art from the 1st century AD. Its use has also been traced through the Egyptians to the ancient Greeks and Romans, representations of Trajan (arch of Constantine) and Antoninus Pius (reverse of a medal) being found with it. Roman emperors were sometimes depicted wearing a radiant crown, with pointed rays intended to represent the rays of the sun. According to Islamic tradition, the Prophet Mohammed may not be depicted representationally; however some religious artists have indicated his presence in historical scenes using an empty, flaming aureole as a placeholder.
In the circular form the nimbus constitutes a natural and even primitive use of the idea of a crown, modified by an equally simple idea of the emanation of light from the head of a superior being, or by the meteorological phenomenon of a halo. The probability is that all later associations with the symbol refer back to an early astrological origin (compare Mithras), the person so glorified being identified with the sun and represented in the sun's image; so the aureole is the Hvareno of Mazdaism. From this early astrological use, the form of "glory" or "nimbus" has been adapted or inherited under new beliefs.
Mandorla
A mandorla is a vesica piscis shaped aureola which surrounds the figures of Christ and the Virgin Mary in traditional Christian art. It is commonly used to frame the figure of Christ in Majesty in early medieval and Romanesque art, as well as Byzantine art of the same periods. The term refers to the almond like shape: "mandorla" means almond nut in Italian. In icons of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the mandorla is used to depict sacred moments which transcend time and space, such as the Resurrection, Transfiguration, and the Ascension. These mandorla will often be painted in several concentric patterns of color which grow darker as they come close to the center. This is in keeping with the church's use of Apophatic theology, as described by Dionysius the Areopagite and others. As holiness increases, there is no way to depict its brightness, except by darkness.
In a famous romanesque fresco of Christ in Glory at Sant Climent de Taüll, the inscription "Ego Sum Lux Mundi" ("I Am the Light of the World") is incorporated in the Mandorla design.
The tympanum at Conques has Christ, with a gesture carved in romanesque sculpture, indicate the angels at his feet bearing candlesticks. Six surrounding stars, resembling blossoming flowers, indicate the known planets including the Moon. Here the symbolism implies Christ as the Sun.
In one special case, at Cervon (Nièvre), Christ is seated surrounded by eight stars, resembling blossoming flowers. At Conques the flowers are six-petalled. At Cervon, where the almond motif is repeated in the rim of the mandorla, they are five-petalled, as are almond flowers -the first flowers to appear at the end of winter, even before the leaves of the almond tree. Here one is tempted to seek for reference in the symbolism of the nine branched Chanukkiyah candelabrum. In the 12th century a great school of Judaic thought radiated from Narbonne, coinciding with the origins of the Kabbalah. Furthermore, at Cervon the eight star/flower only is six petalled: the Root of David, the Morningstar, mentioned at the close of Book of Revelation (22:16) (In one of the oldest manuscripts of the complete Hebrew Bible, the Leningrad Codex, one finds the Star of David imbedded in an octagon.)
In the symbolism of Hildegarde von Bingen the mandorla refers to the Cosmos.
Aureole (atmospheric phenomenon)
In meteorology, an aureole is the inner disk of a corona, an optical phenomenon produced by the diffraction of light from the Sun or the Moon (or, occasionally, other bright light sources) by individual small water droplets and sometimes tiny ice crystals of a cloud or on a foggy glass surface. The aureole is often (especially in case of the Moon) the only visible part of the corona and has the appearance of a bluish-white disk which fades to reddish-brown towards the edge.
See also
Aura
Aureole effect
Crown of Immortality
Five Crowns
Glory
Halo
Heiligenschein
Velificatio
References
Further reading
Timmers J.J.M. A Handbook of Romanesque Art New York London 1969 Icon Editions, Harper and Row
Gérard de Champéaux, Dom Sébastièn Sterckx o.s.b. Symboles, introduction à la nuit des temps 3, Paris 1966 ed. Zodiaque (printed: Cum Permissu Superiorum)
Adolphe Napoléon Didron, Christian iconography or, the history of Christian art in the Middle Ages London 1886 https://archive.org/stream/christianiconogr01didruoft
Brian Young The Villein's Bible; stories in romanesque carving London 1990 Barry & Jenkins
Roger Cook The Tree of Life: Image for the Cosmos New York 1974 Avon Books
External links
Religious symbols
Buddhist iconography
Christian iconography | [
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245785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agua%20Prieta | Agua Prieta | Agua Prieta (English: Dark Water, Opata: Bachicuy) is a town in Agua Prieta Municipality in the northeastern corner of the Mexican state of Sonora. It stands on the Mexico–U.S. border, adjacent to the town of Douglas, Arizona. The municipality covers an area of 3,631.65 km2 (1,402.2 sq mi). In the 2010 census the town had a population of 79,138 people, making it the seventh-largest community in the state, and a literacy rate of 96.3%. 89% of the homes in the city have electricity, 94% have running water, and 86% are connected to the sewer system. The city's most important economic activities, in descending order, are industry, commerce and farming.
The city is the location of the CFE Agua Prieta power plant. It is connected to the United States by the Douglas, Arizona Port of Entry, and is linked to the rest of Mexico by Federal Highways 2 and 17.
History
Agua Prieta city began at the end of the 19th century as railroads were built between Douglas, Arizona, and Nacozari, Sonora, to transport minerals and goods. As a result, the first settlers of the city, then just a few blocks, were those employed by the U.S. mining company Phelps Dodge Corporation, which was based in Douglas, Arizona. One can say that the town was "founded" in 1899, but it was not until a "contract" was made in 1903 between officials and private citizens, to the name Camou, that area "pertaining" to those citizens was made a Commissary of Fronteras county. Agua Prieta city did not become an "independent head of municipality," with its current name and location, until August 28, 1916. Rodolfo L. Márquez was the new municipality's first president. It rose to the status of villa (town) on May 8, 1933, and it was "officially" placed in its current category of city relatively recently, on November 6, 1942.
Climate
The climate is cold semi-arid (Köppen: BSk). In a latitude over the geographic subtropics, located in a plateau and in the interior of the continent gives a cold winter but at the same time a climatic pattern often dry and with great thermal amplitude during the day. And on the other hand the summer is very hot due to the absence of cloud cover and the air dry with average in the afternoon well above 30 °C. Most of the time there is no precipitation, but a considerable amount of rain falls between July and August.
Culture
Los Apson was one of the most successful musical bands during the second half of the 60s; all original members originated from (A)gua (P)rieta, (Son)ora, hence their name. They led the phenomenon known in Mexico as the "northern invasion". Along with the British influence, Los Apson was one of the main decisive elements that brought new nuances to the Mexican musical movement.
Sports
The main sport in Agua Prieta is baseball, closely followed by soccer and basketball. Agua Prieta's professional baseball team is the Toros de Agua Prieta. In 2012, Agua Prieta had its first ever Olympian when Luis Alberto Rivera represented Mexico in the long jump at the XXX Olympic Games in London, UK.
Economy
Agua Prieta II is the first integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) power plant in Mexico – one of the first power plants of its type in the world – and it is being equipped with the SPPA-E3000 low-voltage switchgear solution from Siemens Mexico Energy. Agua Prieta II is a combined-cycle power plant (CCPP) that has been extended with a solar field and parabolic trough collectors. In this type of power plant, the steam generated by the solar field is fed into the water-steam cycle of the CCPP to increase steam turbine output and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The power plant in Mexico will have an output of approximately 465 Megawatts (MW) with a contribution from the solar field of 12 MW, it will supply electricity to northwest Mexico. The end customer is the Mexican state power provider Comisión Federal de Electricidad, which already operates two plants of the same type in Morocco and Algeria.
Agua Prieta is home to several maquiladoras, including Levolor, Commercial Vehicle Group, Joyson Safety Systems, Velcro, Standex-Meder Electronics, and Alstyle Apparel & Activewear (Gildan).
Politics
The Plan of Agua Prieta was a political manifesto signed in the city of Agua Prieta on April 23, 1920, by the governor of Sonora, Adolfo de la Huerta, and Plutarco Elías Calles in support of Álvaro Obregón, with the principal objective of bringing an end to the presidency of Venustiano Carranza, who was forced to flee Mexico City and was killed a month later. The Plan of Agua Prieta used as its political banner the 1917 Constitution, with which Carranza had not complied. It also advocated the convening of elections, appointed Huerta as supreme commander of the Constitutionalist Army, and dictated the rules for electing a provisional president, resulting in Huerta being named president by Congress in June.
Agua Prieta played an important role in the Mexican Revolution. Plutarco Elías Calles and Lázaro Cárdenas, two future presidents of Mexico, both lived in the town during its early years. In 1914, the Hotel Central, a now-demolished hotel in the center of the city, was the seat of Carranza's constitutional government. In 1915, Pancho Villa made a night attack on Agua Prieta that was repelled by the forces of Plutarco Elías Calles, assisted by large searchlights (possibly powered by American electricity). The Plan de Agua Prieta, a manifesto which called for the rejection of the government headed by Venustiano Carranza, was signed in a curiosity shop near the international border in 1920. The army headed by Álvaro Obregón eventually deposed Carranza.
List of mayors
1952–1954
Don Jesus Siqueiros
PRI
1964-1967
Antonio B. Loreto Barthelemy
PRI
1979–1982
Luis Córdova Corrales
PAN
1982–1985
Leonardo Yáñez Vargas
PAN
1985–1988
Bernardino Meza Ortíz
PRI
1988–1991
Baudelio Vildósola Teran
PRI
1991–1994
Bernardino Ibarrola Serrano
PRI
1994–1997
Óscar Ochoa Patrón
PAN
1997–2000
Vicente Terán Uribe
PRI
2000–2003
Irma Villalobos Rascón
PRI
2003–2006
David Figueroa Ortega
PAN
2006–2009
Antonio Cuadras
PRI
2009–2012
Vicente Terán Uribe
PSD
2012 (March – September)
Francisco Javier Carrera Hernandez
PRI
2012–2015
Irma Villalobos Rascón
PRI
Notable people
Zarela Martinez, New York City-based Mexican restaurateur and cookbook author
Los Apson, early 1960s rock band named for the town (Agua Prieta SONora)
{Carlos Valenzuela}, International beauty expert, motivational speaker, author of award-winning Letters to Young Carlos.
See also
San Bernardino, Sonora
Notes
References
External links
Gobierno Municipal de Agua Prieta Official website
Sonora Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México.
Link to tables of population data from Census of 2010 INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática]
Populated places in Sonora
Mexico–United States border crossings
1899 establishments in Mexico | [
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245786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs.%20Miller | Mrs. Miller | Elva Ruby Miller (October 5, 1907 – June 28, 1997), who recorded under the name "Mrs. Miller", was an American singer who gained some fame in the 1960s, for her series of shrill and off-tempo renditions of popular songs such as "Moon River", "Monday, Monday", "A Lover's Concerto", and "Downtown". An untrained mezzo-soprano, she sang in a heavy, vibrato-laden style; according to Irving Wallace, David Wallechinsky and Amy Wallace in The Book of Lists 2, Miller's voice was compared to the sound of "roaches scurrying across a trash can lid."
Nevertheless, "Downtown" reached the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in April 1966, peaking at No. 82. The single's B-side, "A Lover's Concerto," barely cracked the Hot 100 that same month at No. 95.
Life and career
Elva Ruby Connes was born in Joplin, Missouri, the third of seven children born to Edward and Ada (Martin) Connes. She grew up in Missouri and Kansas. She married John Richardson Miller, a professional investor thirty years her senior, on January 17, 1934. They moved to Claremont, California the following year, where she studied music, voice, and composition at Pomona College and involved herself in church and community projects.
She said singing was "a hobby", but she produced several records, mainly of classical, gospel, and children's songs. She self-financed and recorded at least one 45 ("Slumber Song"), and distributed it to local orphanages. It was while making a recording that arranger Fred Bock heard her. He convinced her to try more modern songs and took the recordings to different record labels.
Miller was discovered by radio disc jockey (and later Laugh-In announcer) Gary Owens who first featured Miller on his radio program in 1960. Owens also included her on a limited-run album of his comedy routines. In 1965, Miller was signed to Capitol Records by Lex de Azevedo, a young up-and-coming producer at the label.
Miller's success, like that of Florence Foster Jenkins before her and Wing after her, was due to the amateurishness of her singing. Capitol Records seemed eager to emphasize it —in a 1967 interview with Life magazine, Miller claimed that during recording sessions she was deliberately conducted a half beat ahead or behind time, and said the worst of several recordings of a song were chosen for the finished album. Her first LP, with the tongue-in-cheek title Mrs. Miller's Greatest Hits, was issued by Capitol in 1966. Made up entirely of well-known pop songs, it sold more than 250,000 copies in its first three weeks. Gary Owens wrote the album's liner notes. Will Success Spoil Mrs. Miller?! followed, and The Country Soul of Mrs. Miller came a year later.
Miller sang for US servicemen in Vietnam, performed at the Hollywood Bowl, and guest starred on numerous television talk and variety shows. She also appeared in Roddy McDowall's film The Cool Ones, where she sang "It's Magic". Eventually, public interest in Miller began to wane, and Capitol Records dropped her from their roster in 1968. She released one album, Mrs. Miller Does Her Thing, on the small Amaret Records label, before issuing several singles on her own Vibrato Records label. She recorded two albums of material at Radio Recorders studios in Hollywood that were issued by Dunhill Records, which went unnoticed.
Her last known recording was a self-released EP in 1971.
Miller officially retired in 1973, when interest in her career had almost completely vanished. She spent her remaining years doing work for various charities. She lived in a condo in Northridge, California, until the earthquake in 1994; she then moved into a retirement home.
She may have been the inspiration for a similar act called Mr Miller and the Blue Notes, who released a 1966 version of the Herman's Hermits hit "Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter".
Death
Elva Miller died in Garden Terrace Retirement Center, in Vista, California, in 1997, aged 89. She was interred in Pomona Mausoleum, at Pomona Valley Memorial Park, in Pomona, California. Two years later, a compilation CD of her work was released on Capitol's Ultra-Lounge label: Wild, Cool & Swingin,' The Artist Collection Vol. 3: Mrs. Miller.
Discography
Albums
"—" did not chart
Charting singles
See also
Leona Anderson
Florence Foster Jenkins
Tryphosa Bates-Batcheller
William Hung
William Topaz McGonagall
William Shatner's musical career
Jonathan and Darlene Edwards
References
External links
Mrs. Miller's World website
1907 births
1997 deaths
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
American women pop singers
American novelty song performers
People from Joplin, Missouri
Outsider musicians
Pomona College alumni | [
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245787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nogales%2C%20Sonora | Nogales, Sonora | Heroica Nogales (), more commonly known as Nogales, is a city and the county seat of the Municipality of Nogales. It is located on the northern border of the Mexican state of Sonora. The city is abutted on its north by the city of Nogales, Arizona, across the U.S.-Mexico border.
History
The independent Nogales Municipality, which included the town of Nogales, was established on July 11, 1884. The Nogales Municipality covers an area of 1,675 km2. Nogales was declared a city within the Municipality on January 1, 1920.
Batalla del 27 de agosto de 1918 ~ Battle of Ambos Nogales
The international trade that existed between the two cities greatly propelled the economic development of Nogales, Sonora, and the greater Northern Sonora region, but that did not prevent significant problems from forming in the area after the outbreak of the 1910 Mexican Revolution.
On August 27, 1918, at about 4:10 pm, a gun battle erupted unintentionally when a Mexican civilian attempted to pass through the border, back to Mexico, without checking in at the U.S. Customs house. After the initial shooting, reinforcements from both sides rushed to the border. On the Mexican side, the majority of the belligerents were angry civilians upset with the killings of Mexican border crossers by the U.S. Army along the vaguely defined border between the two cities during the previous year (the U.S. Border Patrol did not exist until 1924). For the Americans, the reinforcements were the 10th Cavalry, off-duty 35th Regimental soldiers and militia. Hostilities quickly escalated and several soldiers were killed and others wounded on both sides. The mayor of Nogales, Sonora, Felix B. Peñaloza was killed when waving a white truce flag/handkerchief with his cane.
Due in part to the heightened hysteria caused by World War I, allegations surfaced that German agents fomented this violence and died fighting alongside the Mexican troops it was claimed they led into battle. U.S. newspaper reports in Nogales prior to the August 27, 1918 battle documented the departure of the Mexican garrison in Nogales, Sonora, to points south that August in an attempt to quell armed political rebels. Furthermore, an investigation by Army officials from Fort Huachuca, Arizona, could not substantiate accusations of militant German agents in the Mexican border community and instead traced the origins of the violence to the abuse of Mexican border crossers in the year prior to the Battle of Ambos Nogales. The main result of this battle was the building of the first permanent border fence between the two cities of Nogales. Though largely unheard of in the U.S. (and even within most of Mexico), the municipal leaders of Nogales, Sonora, successfully petitioned the Mexican Congress in 1961 to grant the Mexican border city the title of "Heroic City", leading the community's official name, Heroica Nogales, a distinction shared with the Sonoran cities of Guaymas, Caborca, and Ures, and a number of other cities in Mexico.
Escobarista Rebellion
Early in March 1929, the Escobarista Rebellion exploded in Nogales, sponsored by Obregonistas, supporters of Mexican president Álvaro Obregón, who had been assassinated on July 17, 1928. General Manuel Aguirre, commanding the rebellious 64th Regiment, took power without firing a shot, causing federales from Naco to send a daily airplane to attack the rebels. It dropped a few bombs over Nogales without doing any damage, while the rebels fought back with machine guns from the roofs without doing any damage to the airplane. There was only one casualty, a woman who was scared by a bomb explosion and had a heart attack. That same month, a hooded man appeared at night driving a tank on Morley Street on the U.S. side, then entered Mexico to help the federales in Naco. It seems that the tank had been bought in 1927 for fighting the Yaquis, but U.S. officials prohibited it from leaving the U.S., and it had been kept in a warehouse in Nogales, Arizona.
Climate
Nogales has a semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk) with hot summers and cool winters, often presenting freezing temperatures.
Demographics
, the census reported that the City of Nogales had a population of 159,103 people, representing approximately 50% growth from 1990. By the 2005 census the official population of the city was 189,759, and that of Nogales Municipality was 193,517. At the latest census in 2010, the official numbers were 212,533 for the City of Nogales, and 220,292 for the Municipality.
The city and the municipality both rank third in the state in population, after Hermosillo and Ciudad Obregón. The municipality includes many outlying but small rural communities. The only other localities with over 1,000 inhabitants are La Mesa (2,996) and Centro de Readaptación Social Nuevo (2,203) . Nogales is served by Nogales International Airport.
The population growth is in part due to the influx of industry that has come since the opening of the maquiladora industry through the National Industrialization Program, decades before the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). During the 90s, this economic context was, in part, held by an important Sonora state social policy by the Secretary of Urban Infrastructure and Ecology, Vernon Perez Rubio, accomplishing the city's total coverage on drinking water, with a 20-year guaranteed service. Manufacturing now accounts for 55% of the city's gross domestic product, and services are growing as well, most of this caused by the growing jobs in the city.
Nogales has experienced enormous population growth which covers the hills along the central narrow north–south valley. Dispersed among the houses, the visitor will find a mixture of factories, stores, etc. In 2006, the southern half of the city experienced a modern urbanization development including shopping malls, wide avenues, and modern housing conglomerations.
Monuments
At the center of Nogales, there is the Plaza de Benito Juárez. Here there is a statue with two leading figures designed by Spanish sculptor Alfredo Just. This is a tribute to Mexican President Benito Juárez, and the other is the "Monument to Ignorance", where a naked man who represents the Mexican people is fighting with a winged creature that represents ignorance.
Economy
Transportation
The primary commercial artery is Mexico Federal Highway 15, which links the state with the U.S. as well as major cities in Mexico.
In aviation, the city is served by the Aeropuerto internacional de Nogales, which, had no commercial airline service.
Tourism
Due to its location, Nogales is one of the most important ports of entry for U.S. tourists. The downtown area consists of bars, hotels, restaurants, and a large number of curio stores, which sell a large variety of artesanias (handicrafts, leather art, handmade flowers, clothes) brought from the deeper central and southern states of Mexico. Local dishes commonly available in restaurants include many types of antojitos (Mexican food) such as enchiladas, tacos, burritos with carne machaca (dried meat), menudo and tamales.
Manufacturing
Maquiladoras, or manufacturing plants, employ a large percentage of the population. Nogales' proximity to the U.S. and the abundance of inexpensive labor make it an efficient location for foreign companies to have manufacturing and assembly operations. Some of the companies that have established maquiladoras in Nogales include: Continental AG, The Chamberlain Group, Walbro, ABB, Javid LLC.
Production and export
Approximately 92 establishments produce foreign exports. Sixty-five of these establishments are located in seven industrial parks, which employ approximately 25,400 workers, around 50 percent of the total employed population of the municipality. Also important to the economy is livestock for both foreign export and cattle breeding.
Agriculture
Produce is one of Mexico's largest exports to the United States and the Mariposa Port of entry, at Nogales, is the most widely used route for produce destined for the U.S. It is estimated that over 80 percent of Americas produce passes through Nogales each year. The produce industry requires facilities for the storage, packing, transport and logistics of these goods and provides many with employment on both sides of the border. November through March represent peak harvesting season and it is during these months when jobs are abundant and importation is at its highest.
Government
The municipality of Nogales was governed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) from 1931 to 2006, when power shifted to the National Action Party (PAN). After more than seven decades of being in power, the PRI was defeated by the PAN when the businessman and philanthropist Marco Antonio Martínez Dabdoub ran for the presidency of Nogales, and gained access to the municipal government after having won by 30,826 votes against 23,892 of his PRI opponent.
Municipal presidents
Gallery
Religion
Since 13 March 2015, its Catedral Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe is also the episcopal cathedral see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Nogales. It is a suffragan of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Hermosillo, from which its diocesan territory was split off.
In popular culture
Nogales is discussed at length in the popular political economics book Why Nations Fail, comparing the relative success of Nogales, Arizona, north of the border to the poverty of Nogales, Sonora, to the south.
Notable people
Ana Gabriela Guevara, World Athletics Championship 2003 Female | World Champion in Paris 2003 and Olympic silver medalist in 2004 Olympic Games | Athenas 2004 within the 400 meters (athletics )
David Zepeda, actor, singer, model and lawyer.
Óscar Valdez, professional boxer, two-time Olympian, former featherweight world champion of the WBO, and reigning WBC super featherweight world champion.
Urigod [Rata Piedra Preciosa]
See also
Nogales Municipality, Sonora
Municipalities of Sonora
References
Link to tables of population data from Census of 2005—INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática
External links
Nogales, Ayuntamiento Digital (Official Website of Nogales, Sonora)
Everything you want to know about Both/Ambos Nogales - Bilingual
Planet Nogales (Information about Nogales Arizona and Nogales Sonora)
Nogales Sonora Website
Mexico–United States border crossings
Populated places in Sonora
Populated places in the Sonoran Desert
Twin cities
1884 establishments in Mexico | [
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245791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankh | Ankh | The ankh or key of life is an ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol that was most commonly used in writing and in Egyptian art to represent the word for "life" and, by extension, as a symbol of life itself.
The ankh has a cross shape but with a teardrop-shaped loop in place of a vertical upper bar. The origins of the symbol are not known, although many hypotheses have been proposed. It was used in writing as a triliteral sign, representing a sequence of three consonants, Ꜥ-n-ḫ. This sequence was found in several Egyptian words, including the words meaning "mirror", "floral bouquet", and "life". In art the symbol often appeared as a physical object representing either life or substances such as air or water that are related to it. It was especially commonly held in the hands of ancient Egyptian deities, or being given by them to the pharaoh, to represent their power to sustain life and to revive human souls in the afterlife.
The ankh was one of the most common decorative motifs in ancient Egypt and was also used decoratively by neighbouring cultures. Coptic Christians adapted it into the crux ansata, a shape with a circular rather than oval loop, and used it as a variant of the Christian cross. The ankh came into widespread use in Western culture in the 1960s, and it is often used as a symbol of African cultural identity, Neopagan belief systems, and the goth subculture.
Use in writing
In ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, the ankh was a triliteral sign: one that represented a sequence of three consonant sounds. The ankh stood for the sequence Ꜥ-n-ḫ, where n is pronounced like the English letter n, Ꜥ is a voiced pharyngeal fricative, and ḫ is a voiceless or voiced velar fricative (sounds not found in English). In the Egyptian language, these consonants were found in the verb meaning "live", the noun meaning "life", and words derived from them, such as sꜤnḫ, which means "cause to live" or "nourish"; Ꜥnḫ evolved into ⲱⲛϩ (onh) in the Coptic stage of the language. The sign is known in English as the "ankh", based on the hypothetical pronunciation of the Egyptian word, or as the "key of life", based on its meaning.
One of the common uses of the word Ꜥnḫ was to express a wish that a particular person live. For example, a phrase meaning something like "may you be healthy and alive" was used in polite contexts, similar to the English phrase "if you please", and the phrase Ꜥnḫ wḏꜣ snb, meaning "alive, sound, and healthy", was used as an honorific for the pharaoh when he was mentioned in writing. The Egyptian word for "oath" was also Ꜥnḫ, because oaths in ancient Egypt began with a form of the word "live".
The same consonants were found in the word for "mirror" and the word for a floral bouquet, so the sign was also used in writing these words. The three consonants also compose the word for a looped rope-like object found in illustrations on many coffins from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1650 BC). The Egyptologists Battiscombe Gunn and Alan Gardiner, in the early 20th century, believed these objects to be sandal straps, given that they appear in pairs at the foot of the coffin and the accompanying texts say the objects are "on the ground under his feet".
Origins
Early examples of the ankh sign date to the First Dynasty (c. 30th to 29th century BC). There is little agreement on what physical object the sign originally represented.
Many scholars believe the sign is a knot formed of a flexible material such as cloth or reeds, as early versions of the sign show the lower bar of the ankh as two separate lengths of flexible material that seem to correspond to the two ends of the knot. These early versions bear a resemblance to the tyet symbol, a sign that represented the concept of "protection". For these reasons, the Egyptologists Heinrich Schäfer and Henry Fischer thought the two signs had a common origin, and they regarded the ankh as a knot that was used as an amulet rather than for any practical purpose.
Hieroglyphic writing used pictorial signs to represent sounds, so that, for example, the hieroglyph for a house could represent the sounds p-r, which were found in the Egyptian word for "house". This practice, known as the rebus principle, allowed the Egyptians to write the words for things that could not be pictured, such as abstract concepts. Gardiner believed the ankh originated in this way. He pointed out that the sandal-strap illustrations on Middle Kingdom coffins resemble the hieroglyph, and he argued that the sign originally represented knots like these and came to be used in writing all other words that contained the consonants Ꜥ-n-ḫ. Gardiner's list of hieroglyphic signs labels the ankh as S34, placing it within the category for items of clothing and just after S33, the hieroglyph for a sandal. Gardiner's hypothesis is still current; James P. Allen, in an introductory book on the Egyptian language published in 2014, assumes that the sign originally meant "sandal strap" and uses it as an example of the rebus principle in hieroglyphic writing.
Various authors have argued that the sign originally represented something other than a knot. Some have suggested that it had a sexual meaning. For instance, Thomas Inman, an amateur mythologist in the nineteenth century, thought the sign represented the male and female reproductive organs, joined into a single sign. Victor Loret, a nineteenth-century Egyptologist, argued that "mirror" was the sign's original meaning. A problem with this argument, which Loret acknowledged, is that deities are frequently shown holding the ankh by its loop, and their hands pass through it where the solid reflecting surface of an ankh-shaped mirror would be. Andrew Gordon, an Egyptologist, and Calvin Schwabe, a veterinarian, argue that the origin of the ankh is related to two other signs of uncertain origin that often appear alongside it: the was-sceptre, representing "power" or "dominion", and the djed pillar, representing "stability". According to this hypothesis, the form of each sign is drawn from a part of the anatomy of a bull, like some other hieroglyphic signs that are known to be based on body parts of animals. In Egyptian belief semen was connected with life and, to some extent, with "power" or "dominion", and some texts indicate the Egyptians believed semen originated in the bones. Therefore, Gordon and Schwabe suggest the signs are based on parts of the bull's anatomy through which semen was thought to pass: the ankh is a thoracic vertebra, the djed is the sacrum and lumbar vertebrae, and the was is the dried penis of the bull.
Use in religion and art
In Egyptian belief, life was a force that circulated throughout the world. Individual living things, including humans, were manifestations of this force and fundamentally tied to it. Life came into existence at the creation of the world, and cyclical events like the rising and setting of the sun were thought of as reenactments of the original events of creation that maintained and renewed life in the cosmos. Sustaining life was thus the central function of the deities who governed these natural cycles. Therefore, the ankh was frequently depicted being held in gods' hands, representing their life-giving power. The Egyptians also believed that when they died, their individual lives could be renewed in the same manner as life in general. For this reason, the gods were often depicted in tombs giving ankh signs to humans, usually the pharaoh. As the sign represented the power to bestow life, humans other than the pharaoh were rarely shown receiving or holding the ankh before the end of the Middle Kingdom, although this convention weakened thereafter. The pharaoh to some extent represented Egypt as a whole, so by giving the sign to him, the gods granted life to the entire nation.
By extension of the concept of "life", the ankh could signify air or water. In artwork, gods hold the ankh up to the nose of the king: offering him the breath of life. Hand fans were another symbol of air in Egyptian iconography, and the human servants who normally carried fans behind the king were sometimes replaced in artwork by personified ankh signs with arms. In scenes of ritual purification, in which water was poured over the king or a deceased commoner, the zigzag lines that normally represented water could be replaced by chains of ankh signs.
The ankh may have been used decoratively more than any other hieroglyphic sign. Mirrors, mirror cases, and floral bouquets were made in its shape, given that the sign was used in writing the name of each of these objects. Some other objects, such as libation vessels and sistra, were also shaped like the sign. The sign appeared very commonly in the decoration of architectural forms such as the walls and shrines within temples. In contexts such as these, the sign often appeared together with the was and djed signs, which together signified "life, dominion, and stability". In some decorative friezes in temples, all three signs, or the ankh and was alone, were positioned above the hieroglyph for a basket that represented the word "all": "all life and power" or "all life, power, and stability". Some deities, such as Ptah and Osiris, could be depicted holding a was scepter that incorporated elements of the ankh and djed.
Amulets made in the shape of hieroglyphic signs were meant to impart to the wearer the qualities represented by the sign. The Egyptians wore amulets in daily life as well as placing them in tombs to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife. Ankh-shaped amulets first appeared late in the Old Kingdom (c. 2700 to 2200 BC) and continued to be used into the late first millennium BC, yet they were rare, despite the importance of the symbol. Amulets shaped like a composite sign that incorporated the ankh, was, and djed were more widespread.
Ankh signs in two-dimensional art were typically painted blue or black. The earliest ankh amulets were often made of gold or electrum, a gold and silver alloy. Egyptian faience, a ceramic that was usually blue or green, was the most common material for ankh amulets in later times, perhaps because its color represented life and regeneration.
Other ancient cultures
The people of Syria and Canaan adopted many Egyptian artistic motifs during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1950–1500 BC), including hieroglyphs, of which the ankh was by far the most common. It was often placed next to various figures in artwork or shown being held by Egyptian deities who had come to be worshipped in the ancient Near East. It was sometimes used to represent water or fertility. Elsewhere in the Near East, the sign was incorporated into Anatolian hieroglyphs to represent the word for "life", and the sign was used in the artwork of the Minoan civilization centered on Crete. Minoan artwork sometimes combined the ankh, or the related tyet sign, with the Minoan double axe emblem.
Artwork in the Meroitic Kingdom, which lay south of Egypt and was heavily influenced by its religion, features the ankh prominently. It appears in temples and funerary art in many of the same contexts as in Egypt, and it is also one of the most common motifs in the decoration of Meroitic pottery.
Christianity
The ankh was one of the few ancient Egyptian artistic motifs that continued to be used after the Christianization of Egypt during the 4th and 5th centuries AD. The sign resembles the staurogram, a sign that resembles a Christian cross with a loop to the right of the upper bar and was used by early Christians as a monogram for Jesus, as well as the crux ansata, or "handled cross", which is shaped like an ankh with a circular rather than oval or teardrop-shaped loop. The staurogram has been suggested to be influenced by the ankh, but the earliest Christian uses of the sign date to around AD 200, well before the earliest Christian adoption of the ankh. The earliest known example of a crux ansata comes from a copy of the Gospel of Judas from the 3rd or early 4th century AD. The adoption of this sign may have been influenced by the staurogram, the ankh, or both.
According to Socrates of Constantinople, when Christians were dismantling Alexandria's greatest temple, the Serapeum, in 391 AD, they noticed cross-like signs inscribed on the stone blocks. Pagans who were present said the sign meant "life to come", an indication that the sign Socrates referred to was the ankh; Christians claimed the sign was their own, indicating that they could easily regard the ankh as a crux ansata.
There is little evidence for the use of the crux ansata in the western half of the Roman Empire, but Egyptian Coptic Christians used it in many media, particularly in the decoration of textiles.
Modern use
Much more recently, the ankh has become a popular symbol in modern Western culture, particularly as a design for jewelry and tattoos. Its resurgence began when the counterculture of the 1960s stirred a greater interest in ancient religions. In the 21st century it is the most widely recognized symbol of African origin in the Western world, and it is sometimes used by people of African descent in the United States and Europe as a symbol of African cultural identity. The ankh also symbolizes Kemetism, a group of religious movements based on the religion of ancient Egypt. The sign is also popular in the goth subculture, being particularly associated with vampires, because an ankh pendant appears prominently in the 1983 vampire film The Hunger.
The sign is incorporated twice in the Unicode standard for encoding text and symbols in computing. It appears as U+2625 (☥) in the Miscellaneous Symbols block, and as U+132F9 (𓋹) in the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block.
Citations
Works cited
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Further reading
External links
Cross symbols
Ancient Egyptian symbols
Crosses in heraldry
Egyptian amulets
Egyptian artefact types
Egyptian mythology
Egyptian words and phrases
Egyptian hieroglyphs: crowns-dress-staves
Religious symbols
Magic symbols | [
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245793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa%2C%20%C5%8Cita | Usa, Ōita | is a city located in Ōita Prefecture, Japan at the tip of Kunisaki Peninsula in northern Kyushu.
Notable for the Usa Jingū, the head shrine of all 40,000 Hachiman shrines across Japan, the city annually attracts as many as 1.8 million worshipers from all over the country on New Year's Day. There are other tourist attractions in the city, such as the temple of Hongan-ji Betsuin, making it one of the prefecture's leading tourist cities.
As of March 2017, the city has an estimated population of 55,534 and a population density of 130 persons per km². The total area is 439.12 km².
Geography
Usa is located at the tip of the Kunisaki Peninsula in northern Kyushu.
Usa is made up of three areas.
Usa, the area surrounding the Usa Jingū (also known as the Usa Shrine)
Yokkaichi, the area surrounding the Hongan-ji temple, and an administrative town from the Edo Period
Nagasu, a port area
History
The town of Usa became a city on April 1, 1967. On March 31, 2005, the towns of Ajimu and Innai (both from Usa District) were merged into Usa.
Attractions
Futaba no Sato, a museum dedicated to sumo wrestler Futabayama Sadaji, is located in the city. There is a statue outside the museum, built by the government in 1999, depicting the names and hand prints of three sumo wrestlers who have won more than 60 competitive bouts. In addition to Futubayama, Tanikaze Kajinosuke and Hakuhō Shō are represented on the statue.
Usa Jingū is situated in the city, and attracts as many as 1.8 million visitors annually. Nearby is the Ōita Prefectural Museum of History.
Product labeling
There have been claims that products made in this town and exported to the US in the 1960s carried the label "MADE IN USA", for it to appear as if the product was made in the United States. There are reports that the name of the town was changed to "USA" for this purpose. The aforementioned claims are false. The city had this name long before the 1960s. Usa is a city and products must be labeled by country of origin, making it highly improbable that this would be an adequate loophole. In addition, any products being imported to the U.S. marked as being "made in USA" would have been flagged.
Notable people
Futabayama Sadaji, 35th yokozuna in sumo
References
External links
Usa City official website
Cities in Ōita Prefecture | [
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245794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%201 | Salyut 1 | Salyut 1 (DOS-1) () was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Salyut program followed this with five more successful launches of seven more stations. The final module of the program, Zvezda (DOS-8), became the core of the Russian segment of the International Space Station and remains in orbit.
Salyut 1 was modified from one of the Almaz airframes, and was made out of five components: a transfer compartment, a main compartment, two auxiliary compartments, and the Orion 1 Space Observatory.
Salyut 1 was visited by Soyuz 10 and Soyuz 11. The hard-docking of Soyuz 10 failed and the crew had to abort this mission. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. However, they were killed by asphyxia caused by failure of a valve just prior to Earth reentry, and are the only people to have died above the Kármán line. Salyut 1's mission was later terminated, and it burned up on reentry into Earth's atmosphere on October 11, 1971.
Background
Salyut 1 originated as a modification of the Soviet military's Almaz space station program that was then in development. After the landing of Apollo 11 on the Moon in July 1969, the Soviets began shifting the primary emphasis of their crewed space program to orbiting space stations, with a possible lunar landing later in the 1970s if the N-1 rocket became flight-worthy. Leonid Brezhnev canceled the lunar landing program in 1974 after four catastrophic N-1 launch failures. One other motivation for the space station program was a desire to one-up the US Skylab program then in development. The basic structure of Salyut 1 was adapted from the Almaz with a few modifications and would form the basis of all Soviet space stations through Mir.
Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for "Long-duration orbital station"), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (Mir was internally known as DOS-7). Several military experiments were nonetheless carried on Salyut 1, including the OD-4 optical visual ranger, the Orion ultraviolet instrument for characterizing rocket exhaust plumes, and the highly classified Svinets radiometer.
Construction and operational history
Construction of Salyut 1 began in early 1970, and after nearly a year it was shipped to the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Some remaining assembly had yet to be done, and this was completed at the launch center. The Salyut programme was managed by Kerim Kerimov, chairman of the state commission for Soyuz missions.
Launch was planned for April 12, 1971 to coincide with the 10th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight on Vostok 1, but technical problems delayed it until April 19. The first crew launched later in the Soyuz 10 mission, but they ran into troubles while docking and were unable to enter the station; the Soyuz 10 mission was aborted and the crew returned safely to Earth. A replacement crew launched on Soyuz 11 and remained on board for 23 days. This was the first time in the history of spaceflight that a space station had been occupied, and a new record was set for time spent in space. This success was, however, short-lived when the crew was killed during reentry, as a pressure-equalization valve in the Soyuz 11 reentry capsule had opened prematurely, causing the crew to asphyxiate. They were the first and, as of 2021, only humans to have died in space. After this accident, all missions were suspended while the Soyuz spacecraft was redesigned. The station was intentionally destroyed by de-orbiting after six months in orbit, because it ran out of fuel before a redesigned Soyuz spacecraft could be launched to it.
Structure
At launch, the announced purpose of Salyut was to test the elements of the systems of a space station and to conduct scientific research and experiments. The craft was described as being in length, in maximum diameter, and in interior space with an on-orbit dry mass of . Of its several compartments, three were pressurized (100 m³ total), and two could be entered by the crew.
Transfer compartment
The transfer compartment was equipped with the only docking port of Salyut 1, which allowed one Soyuz 7K-OKS spacecraft to dock. It was the first use of the Soviet SSVP docking system that allowed internal crew transfer, a system that is in use today. The docking cone had a front diameter and a aft diameter.
Main compartment
The second and main compartment was about in diameter. Televised views showed enough space for eight large chairs (seven at work consoles), several control panels, and 20 portholes (some obstructed by instruments). In Salyut 1 the interior design used various colors (light and dark gray, apple green, light yellow) for supporting the cosmonauts’ orientation in weightlessness.
Auxiliary compartments
The third pressurized compartment contained the control and communications equipment, the power supply, the life support system, and other auxiliary equipment. The fourth and final unpressurized compartment was about 2 m in diameter and contained the engine installations and associated control equipment. Salyut had buffer chemical batteries, reserve supplies of oxygen and water, and regeneration systems. Externally mounted were two double sets of solar cell panels that extended like wings from the smaller compartments at each end, the heat regulation system's radiators, and orientation and control devices.
Salyut 1 was modified from one of the Almaz airframes. The unpressurized service module was the modified service module of a Soyuz craft.
Orion 1 Space Observatory
The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32 Å/mm (3.2 nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5 Å at 2600 Å (0.5 nm at 260 nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars Vega and Beta Centauri between 2000 and 3800 Å (200 and 380 nm). The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.
Specifications
Length – 15.8 m
Maximum diameter – 4.15 m
Habitable volume – 90 m³
Mass at launch – 18,900 kg
Launch vehicle – Proton (3–4 stages)
Span across solar arrays – about 10 m
Area of solar arrays – 28 m²
Number of solar arrays – 4
Resupply carriers – Salyut 1-type Soyuz (redesigned Soyuz missions were intended to take place, but this did not occur)
Number of docking ports – 1
Total crewed missions – 2
Total long-duration crewed missions – 1
Visiting spacecraft and crews
The only spacecraft that ever docked to Salyut 1 were Soyuz 10 and Soyuz 11. Soyuz 10 failed to hard-dock with Salyut 1 and had to abort the mission. Soyuz 11 conducted experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days, however the cosmonauts later died during reentry in their Soyuz capsule.
Soyuz 10
Soyuz 10 was launched on April 22, 1971, carrying cosmonauts Vladimir Shatalov, Aleksei Yeliseyev, and Nikolai Rukavishnikov. After taking 24 hours for rendezvous and approach, Soyuz 10 soft-docked with Salyut 1 on April 24 at 01:47 UTC and remained for 5.5 h. Hard-docking was unsuccessful due to technical malfunctions. The crew could not enter the station and had to return to Earth on April 24.
Soyuz 11
Soyuz 11 was launched on June 6, 1971 at 04:55:09 UTC and took 3 hours and 19 minutes on June 7 to complete docking. The cosmonauts Georgy Dobrovolsky, Viktor Patsayev, and Vladislav Volkov entered to Salyut 1 and their mission was announced as:
Checking the design, units, onboard systems, and equipment of the orbital piloted station.
Testing the station's manual and autonomous procedures for orientation and navigation, as well as the control systems for maneuvering the space complex in orbit.
Studying Earth's surface geology, geography, meteorology, and snow and ice cover.
Studying physical characteristics, processes, and phenomena in the atmosphere and outer space in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Conducting medico-biological studies to determine the feasibility of having cosmonauts in the station perform various tasks, and studying the influence of space flight on the human organism.
On June 29, after 23 days and flying 362 orbits, the mission was cut short due to problems aboard the station, including an electrical fire. The crew transferred back to Soyuz 11 and reentered the Earth's atmosphere. The capsule parachuted to a soft landing at 23:16:52 UTC in Kazakhstan, but the recovery team opened the hatch to find all three crew members dead in their couches. An inquest found that a pressure relief valve had malfunctioned during reentry leading to a loss of cabin atmosphere. The crew were not wearing pressure suits, and it was decreed that all further Soyuz missions would require the use of them.
Reentry of Salyut 1
Salyut 1 was moved to a higher orbit in July–August 1971 to ensure that it would not be destroyed prematurely through orbital decay. In the meantime, Soyuz capsules were being substantially redesigned to allow pressure suits to be worn during launch, docking maneuvers, and re-entry. The Soyuz redesign effort took too long however, and by September, Salyut 1 was running out of fuel. It was decided to conclude the station's mission and on October 11, the main engines were fired for a deorbit maneuver. After 175 days, the world's first space station burned up over the Pacific Ocean.
Pravda (October 26, 1971) reported that 75% of Salyut 1's studies were carried out by optical means and 20% by radio-technical means, while the remainder involved magnetometrical, gravitational, or other measurements. Synoptic readings were taken in both the visible and invisible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
See also
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Salyut 1 chronology at Zarya.info
Salyut program
1971 in the Soviet Union
Spacecraft launched in 1971
Spacecraft which reentered in 1971
Populated places established in 1971 | [
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245795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wairarapa | Wairarapa | Wairarapa (; ), a geographical region of New Zealand, lies in the south-eastern corner of the North Island, east of metropolitan Wellington and south-west of the Hawke's Bay Region. It is lightly populated, having several rural service towns, with Masterton being the largest. It is named after its largest lake, Lake Wairarapa.
The region is commonly referred to as The Wairarapa, particularly when used after a preposition (e.g., locals will say they live "in the Wairarapa", and travel "to" and "from the Wairarapa").
Boundaries
Wairarapa is shaped like a rectangle, about long (from Palliser Bay north to Woodville) and wide (from the Tararua Range east to the coast). The Ngāti Kahungunu tribe's boundary for the region is similar. Their tribal area begins at Pōrangahau and ends at Turakirae. It is the southernmost of their three rohe (homelands) running down the eastern North Island from Wairoa. For the Rangitāne tribe, Wairarapa is part of a wider homeland that includes Manawatu and Horowhenua.
The north–south divide was reinforced in 1989, when local authority boundaries changed. The new Tararua District Council covers northern Wairarapa and southern Hawke's Bay. Central and southern Wairarapa was divided into three district councils: Masterton, Carterton and South Wairarapa. South Wairarapa District Council, based in Martinborough, is the local government authority for areas south of Carterton, encompassing the towns of Greytown, Featherston and Martinborough and the rural areas down to the Hutt. It is separated from Upper Hutt and Lower Hutt cities by the Rimutaka Ranges. Carterton District Council based in Carterton is the fastest growing area in New Zealand and the Masterton District Council covers areas up to the Tararua District.
In terms of national politics, after the proportional representation electoral system was introduced in 1996, the Wairarapa electorate expanded to include southern Hawke's Bay.
The area from Mount Bruce north, extending through Eketahuna, Pahiatua, Woodville, Dannevirke, to just north of Norsewood is part of the Tararua District and is in the Manawatū-Whanganui region, because it is in the catchment of the headwaters of the Manawatu River. The river runs westward between the two mountain ranges (Tararua Range to the south and Ruahine Range to the north) via the Manawatu Gorge, to pass through Palmerston North and reach the west coast of the North Island.
The east coast contains settlements such as Tinui, Castlepoint, and Riversdale Beach, while the main southern rivers drain through or past Lake Wairarapa to discharge into Palliser Bay east of Cook Strait.
History
The name Wairarapa means "glistening waters" in te reo Māori. According to some oral histories, the Polynesian explorer Kupe named the wetlands after touching down in the area several times. According to other oral histories, explorer Haunui named the wetlands after the way the lake appeared to glisten from the Remutaka Ranges to the west.
During British colonial times the region was also known colloquially as The Wydrop.
Rangitane and Ngāti Kahungunu were the resident Māori tribes (iwi) when European explorers arrived in the area in the 1770s.
European settlement began in the early 1840s, initially on large grazing runs leased from Māori, and with closer settlement from the 1850s.
On 23 January 1855 the strongest earthquake recorded in New Zealand hit the region; it reached magnitude 8.2 on the Richter Scale and caused five deaths among the then sparse population.
Economy
The agricultural industries, including forestry, cropping, sheep, beef and dairy farming, are major land users. The area around Martinborough, in the south, is notable for its vineyards and wine, as are the outskirts of Masterton and Carterton. Beer has been brewed at Mangatainoka, near Pahiatua, since 1889. Deer farming is growing in importance.
Transport
The region is well served by different transport modes. The State Highway 2, via Rimutaka Hill Road connects the region to Wellington in the south and the Manawatu in the north. The Wairarapa railway line connects the region via the Rimutaka Tunnel to Wellington, and connects with the Palmerston North - Gisborne Line at Woodville. A commuter rail passenger service, the Wairarapa Connection from Masterton to Wellington is operated by Tranz Metro.
Many residents, especially in the southern towns such as Featherston and Greytown, commute to work in Wellington, either by train or over the Rimutaka Ranges by car.
Wildlife
Many of New Zealand's endangered native birds can be seen at the Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre, which is just south of Eketahuna.
Notable people
Bob Charles, champion golfer and winner of the 1963 British Open, at Carterton.
Masterton-born singer/songwriter Ladyhawke aka Pip Brown
Jemaine Clement, one half of the comedy band/TV series "Flight of the Conchords"
James Cameron, motion film director
Murray Halberg, middle-distance runner and Olympic gold medalist, at Eketahuna
Brian Lochore, All Black captain and World Cup-winning coach, at Masterton
Marcus Daniell Masterton-born professional tennis player.
Keith Holyoake, former Prime Minister of New Zealand, at Pahiatua.
Maurice Wilkins, Nobel Prize-winning scientist, whose work led to the discovery of the structure of DNA, at Pongaroa.
Alan Graham MacDiarmid, Nobel Prize-winning chemist, born in Masterton.
Vincent Ward, Film director, at Greytown (What dreams may come, The Navigator, Vigil, River Queen)
Raybon Kan, Comedian, at Masterton
Mike Fabulous, member of The Black Seeds and Fly My Pretties
Jesse Ryder, International cricketer, at Masterton
Ross Taylor, International cricketer
Featherston-born Professor Max Abbott, recipient of the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal, Pro-Vice Chancellor of Auckland University of Technology, and former Chairman of Auckland's Waitamata DHB and president of the World Federation for Mental Health.
Arthur Prior, Masterton-born logician and philosopher. Professor of Philosophy at the University of Manchester, fellow and tutor at Balliol College, Oxford, and founder of Temporal logic.
See also
List of regions in New Zealand
Georgina Beyer, Ex MP for Wairarapa, ex Mayor of Carterton.
Grant Batty, Greytown, Ex *All Black*
Geoffrey Fisken, Grazier, Fighter Pilot
Zac Guildford, Masterton, All Black
New Zealand wine
References
External links
Wairarapa Times-Age newspaper | [
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245796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%202 | Salyut 2 | Salyut 2 (OPS-1) ( meaning Salute 2) was a Soviet space station which was launched in 1973 as part of the Salyut programme. It was the first Almaz military space station to fly. Within two weeks of its launch, the station had lost attitude control and depressurized, leaving it unusable. Its orbit decayed and it re-entered the atmosphere on 28 May 1973, without any crews having visited it.
Spacecraft
Salyut 2 was an Almaz military space station.
It was designated part of the Salyut programme in order to conceal the existence of the two separate space station programmes.
Salyut 2 was long with a diameter of , and had an internal habitable volume of . At launch it had a mass of . A single aft-mounted docking port was intended for use by Soyuz spacecraft carrying cosmonauts to work aboard the station. Two solar arrays mounted at the aft end of the station near the docking port provided power to the station, generating a total of 3,120 watts of electricity. The station was equipped with 32 attitude control thrusters, as well as two RD-0225 engines, each capable of generating of thrust, for orbital manoeuvres.
Launch
Salyut 2 was launched from Site 81/23 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, atop a three-stage Proton-K rocket, serial number 283-01. The launch took place at 09:00:00 UTC on 3 April 1973, and successfully placed Salyut 2 into low Earth orbit. Upon reaching orbit, Salyut 2 was assigned the International Designator 1973-017A, whilst NORAD gave it the Satellite Catalog Number 06398. The third stage (8S812) of the Proton-K rocket entered orbit along with Salyut 2. On 4 April, it was catalogued in a orbit, inclined at 51.4 degrees.
Failure
Three days after the launch of Salyut 2, the Proton's spent third stage exploded, due to pressure changes within the tanks. This explosion resulted in a cloud of debris, some of which followed a similar trajectory to the station. Ten days later this debris struck the station, damaging the hull and causing depressurization. Both solar panels were torn free, removing the ability of the station to generate power and control its attitude.
Three pieces of debris from the station were catalogued, and had decayed from orbit by 13 May. The remainder of the station reentered the atmosphere on 28 May 1973 over the Pacific Ocean.
An inquiry into the failure initially determined that a fuel line had burst, burning a hole in the station. The damage from the debris collision was only discovered later.
Fidel Castro tour
When First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba Fidel Castro was in the Soviet Union as part of a whirlwind tour in 1972, General Secretary of the СССР of the Soviet Union Leonid Brezhnev brought Fidel Castro to the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre.
Fidel Castro was photographed inside both the Soyuz docking trainer and the Salyut-2 (OPS-1/Almaz) military space station.
See also
Salyut
TKS spacecraft
Almaz
Mir
Skylab
International Space Station
References
1973 in the Soviet Union
1973 in spaceflight
Salyut program
Soviet military spacecraft
Spacecraft which reentered in 1973
Almaz program
Spacecraft launched in 1973 | [
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245797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%203 | Salyut 3 | Salyut 3 (; ; also known as OPS-2 or Almaz 2) was a Soviet space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully. It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature. Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.
It attained an altitude of 219 to 270 km on launch and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272 km. Only one of the three intended crews successfully boarded and manned the station, brought by Soyuz 14; Soyuz 15 attempted to bring a second crew but failed to dock.
Although little official information has been released about the station, several sources report that it contained multiple Earth-observation cameras, as well as an on-board gun. The station was deorbited, and re-entered the atmosphere on 24 January 1975. The next space station launched by the Soviet Union was the civilian station Salyut 4; the next military station was Salyut 5, which was the final Almaz space station.
Background
The first space station, Salyut 1 (also called DOS-1) had been launched by the Soviet Union in April 1971. Only one mission successfully docked with Salyut 1, which was Soyuz 11, whose three-person crew stayed aboard the station for 22 days in June 1971. After undocking from the station, the Soyuz 11 crew were killed just before reentry.
At the time there were competing "civilian" and pure military Soviet space programs; Salyut 1, for example, was developed as a "civilian" program. Other civilian stations, called Long-term Orbital Stations (DOS), were considered successors of Salyut 1. These consisted of the unsuccessful DOS-2 in 1972, DOS-3 in 1974, and later the successful Salyut 4, Salyut 6, and Salyut 7.
The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as Almaz stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations. But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations. The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.
Description
Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³. It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust. Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.
The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed. The floor was covered with Velcro to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio cassette tapes. Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit. The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.
Earth-observation cameras
The work compartment was dominated by the Agat-1 Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources; NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre. The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes. The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.
The cosmonauts were able to develop film while on the station. Important or interesting images were printed, and then scanned by a TV imaging system for broadcast to Earth. They needed as little as 30 minutes to shoot, develop, and scan a photograph. Less important images were packed into a small Earth-return capsule, which could be ejected from the station.
In addition to the Agat-1 camera, other cameras on board included a topographical camera, a star camera, and a Volga infrared camera with a resolution of 100 metres. Cosmonaut Pavel Popovich, who visited the station as the commander of Soyuz 14, recalled that the station was equipped with 14 cameras.
On-board gun
The Salyut 3, although called a "civilian" station, was equipped with a "self-defence" gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman. Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter "Vulkan" gun, which was a variant of the 23 mm Nudelman aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman NR-30 30 mm gun. Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23. These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14. Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out. The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station. Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion, while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.
Station operations
Only one manned spacecraft, Soyuz 14, docked with Salyut 3. One other spacecraft, Soyuz 15, came within 40 metres of the station, but failed to dock due to a malfunctioning rendezvous system.
Launch
The station was launched on 25 June 1974 by a three-stage Proton launch vehicle.
Salyut 3 was the first space station to maintain its constant orientation relative to the Earth's surface. To achieve that, as many as 500,000 firings of the attitude control thrusters had been performed. Its initial orbit was 219 km by 270 km above mean sea level, which was considered low. The suspicions of Western observers were raised by the low altitude, combined with the choice of crew from the Soviet Air Force, and the use of radio frequencies normally designated for military use.
Soyuz 14
On 4 July, a little over a week after Salyut 3 was launched, the manned spacecraft Soyuz 14 docked with the station, having been launched the previous day. The crew of Soyuz 14 consisted of commander Pavel Popovich and flight engineer Yury Artyukhin. The crew spent 15 days aboard the station.
On 9 July, it was reported that the crew activated the Earth-observation cameras, and spent several days taking photos of various locations, including central Asia. They placed some film in the Earth return capsule. After undocking, Soyuz 14 safely landed on 19 July.
Soyuz 15
The spacecraft Soyuz 15 was launched on 26 August 1974, carrying a two-man crew consisting of commander Gennadi Sarafanov and flight engineer Lev Demin. They were intended to be the second crew to man Salyut 3, but they failed to dock, after their Igla rendezvous system on their Soyuz spacecraft malfunctioned, and they were unable to manually dock. Due to the limited battery life of their Soyuz spacecraft, they deorbited and landed two days after launch. At the time of the spaceflight, Demin was 48 years old, earning him the record for the oldest person to fly in space up to that point. This record was broken the following year, with Deke Slayton's spaceflight as a part of the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project.
Unmanned operations
Following the failed docking of Soyuz 15, it was decided that the Igla docking system needed significant modifications. Due to the amount of time needed to make the changes, and the limited time Salyut 3 had left in orbit due to orbital decay, the next planned mission to the station was cancelled. The spacecraft which would have been used on the third mission to Salyut 3 was later used for the mission Soyuz 20 to Salyut 4 (a civilian space station).
Following this decision, on 23 September 1974, the station's Earth return capsule was released. The ejected capsule was deorbited by small engines. NASA sources report that the parachute of Salyut 3's capsule opened at an altitude of 8.4 km. Other sources say the main parachute did not open, and the capsule was deformed upon landing, but that all the film was recoverable.
Also following the decision to not send any more cosmonauts to the station, the on-board gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion, while other sources say three test firings took place at the end of the mission.
The station was deorbited on 24 January 1975 over the Pacific Ocean.
See also
TKS spacecraft
Notes
References
SP-2000-4408. Part 2 (page 1-499), Part 1 (page 500-1011)
External links
Soviet Space Stations as Analogs - NASA report (PDF format)
Salyut program
1974 in the Soviet Union
1974 in spaceflight
Space weapons
Crewed spacecraft
Soviet military spacecraft
Almaz program
Spacecraft launched in 1974
Spacecraft which reentered in 1975
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245798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%204 | Salyut 4 | Salyut 4 (DOS 4) (; English translation: Salute 4) was a Salyut space station launched on December 26, 1974 into an orbit with an apogee of 355 km, a perigee of 343 km and an orbital inclination of 51.6 degrees. It was essentially a copy of the DOS 3 (or Kosmos 557), and unlike its ill-fated sibling it was a complete success. Three crews attempted to make stays aboard Salyut 4 (Soyuz 17 and Soyuz 18 docked; Soyuz 18a suffered a launch abort). The second stay was for 63 days duration, and an unmanned capsule, called Soyuz 20, remained docked to the station for three months, proving the system's long-term durability despite some deterioration of the environmental system during Soyuz 18's mission. Salyut 4 was deorbited February 2, 1977, and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on February 3.
Description
Salyut 4 represented the second phase of DOS civilian space station. Although the basic design of Salyut 1 was retained, it switched to three large solar panels mounted on the forward module rather than its predecessor's four small panels on the docking module and engine compartment, presumably to generate more power. It had an interior floor area of 34.8 sq. m The pitch of the station was 2 X 59 N, yaw was 2 X 59 N and roll was 2 X 20 N. The electric System produced an average of 2.00 kW of power. It had 2,000 kg of scientific equipment alongside two sets of three solar panels each and was equipped with the Delta Navigation System which was a new autonomous navigation system that calculates orbital elements without assistance from ground. It was powered by KTDU-66 thrusters.
Instrumentation
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25 cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes. One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the Filin telescope, consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450 cm2 in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37 cm2 for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 aJ). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).
Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50 kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.
Science
Among others, observations of Sco X-1, Cir X-1, Cyg X-1, and A0620-00 were published from the Filin data. A highly variable low energy of 0.6 to 0.9 keV (96 to 144 aJ) flux was detected in Sco X-1. Cir X-1 was not detected at all during a July 5, 1975 observation, providing an upper limit on the emission of 3.5e-11 erg·cm−2·s−1 (35 fW/m2) in the 0.2 to 2.0 keV (32 to 320 aJ) range. Cyg X-1 was observed on several occasions. Highly variable flux, in both the time and energy domains, was observed.
Specifications
Length – 15.8 m
Maximum diameter – 4.15 m
Habitable volume – 90 m3
Weight at launch – 18,900 kg
Launch vehicle – Proton (three-stage)
Orbital inclination – 51.6°
Area of solar arrays – 60 m2
Number of solar arrays – 3
Electricity production – 4 kW
Resupply carriers – Soyuz Ferry
Number of docking ports – 1
Total manned missions – 3
Total unmanned missions – 1
Total long-duration manned missions – 2
Visiting spacecraft and crews
Soyuz 17 – January 11 – February 10, 1975
Aleksei Gubarev
Georgi Grechko
Soyuz 18a – April 5, 1975 – Launch abort
Vasily Lazarev
Oleg Makarov
Soyuz 18 – May 24 – July 26, 1975
Pyotr Klimuk
Vitaly Sevastyanov
Soyuz 20 – November 17, 1975 – February 16, 1976
no crew
Salyut 4 Expeditions
See also
Space station for statistics of occupied space stations
Salyut
TKS spacecraft
Almaz
Mir
Skylab
International Space Station
References
NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive
Soviet Space Stations as Analogs – NASA report (PDF format)
Salyut program
1974 in the Soviet Union
1974 in spaceflight
Spacecraft launched in 1974 | [
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245799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%205 | Salyut 5 | Salyut 5 ( meaning Salute 5), also known as OPS-3, was a Soviet space station. Launched in 1976 as part of the Salyut programme, it was the third and last Almaz space station to be launched for the Soviet military. Two Soyuz missions visited the station, each manned by two cosmonauts. A third Soyuz mission attempted to visit the station, but failed to dock, whilst a fourth mission was planned but never launched.
Launch
Salyut 5 was launched at 18:04:00 UTC on 22 June 1976. The launch took place from Site 81/23 the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, and used a three-stage Proton-K 8K82K carrier rocket with the serial number 290-02.
Upon reaching orbit, Salyut 5 was assigned the International Designator 1976-057A, whilst the North American Aerospace Defense Command gave it the Satellite Catalog Number 08911.
Spacecraft
Salyut 5 was an Almaz spacecraft, the last of three to be launched as space stations after Salyut 2 and Salyut 3. Like its predecessors, it was long, with a maximum diameter of . It had a habitable interior volume of , and a mass at launch of . The station was equipped with a single docking port for Soyuz spacecraft, with the Soyuz 7K-T being the configuration in service at the time. Two solar arrays mounted laterally at the same end of the station as the docking port provided it with power. The station was equipped with a KSI capsule to return research data and materials.
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The German Kristall furnace was used for crystal growth experiments aboard the station.
Operation
Four manned missions to Salyut 5 were originally planned. The first, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day. The primary objective of the Soyuz 21 mission aboard Salyut 5 was to conduct military experiments, however scientific research was also conducted, which included studying aquarium fish in microgravity and observing the sun. The crew also conducted a televised conference with school pupils. Cosmonauts Boris Volynov and Vitali Zholobov remained aboard Salyut 5 until 24 August, when they returned to Earth landing 200 km southwest of Kokchetav. The mission had been expected to last longer, however the atmosphere within Salyut 5 became contaminated with nitric acid fumes from a fuel leak, which affected the crew's psychological and physical condition, necessitating an emergency landing.
On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.
The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.
The fourth planned mission, which would have been designated Soyuz 25 if launched, was intended to visit the station for two weeks in July 1977. It would have been crewed by cosmonauts Anatoly Berezovoy and Mikhail Lisun; the backup crew for the Soyuz 24 mission. The mission was cancelled for the above-mentioned shortage of propellant. The spacecraft which was constructed for the Soyuz 25 mission was reused for the Soyuz 30 mission to Salyut 6. Since it could not be refuelled, and no longer had the fuel to sustain manned operations, the KSI recoverable capsule was ejected and returned to Earth on 26 February. Salyut 5 was deorbited on 8 August 1977 and burned up as it reentered the Earth's atmosphere.
See also
Space station for statistics of occupied space stations
Salyut
TKS spacecraft
Almaz
Mir
Skylab
International Space Station
References
1976 in the Soviet Union
1976 in spaceflight
Crewed spacecraft
Salyut program
Soviet military spacecraft
Almaz program
Spacecraft launched in 1976
de:Saljut#Saljut 5 (Almas 3) | [
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245800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%206 | Salyut 6 | Salyut 6 (; lit. Salute 6), DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.
Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months. Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
The success of Salyut 6 contrasted with the programme's earlier failures and limited successes. The early history of the programme was plagued by the fatalities of Soyuz 11 and three launched stations which quickly failed. Earlier successful stations received few crews, limited to several weeks' habitation by the design life of their Soyuz craft and the presence of a single docking port per station; unsuccessful docking was also common. Salyut 6 on the other hand routinely received successful dockings of crewed and uncrewed craft, although the first visiting craft Soyuz 25 and later Soyuz 33 failed to dock with the station.
From 1977-1981, the station was occupied by human crews during six separate, discontinuous intervals, each coterminous with the presence of a resident crew who were first-in, last-out while support crew visited. Between each of these intervals Salyut 6 was vacant, although it was visited by Soyuz T-1 and Kosmos 1267 during its periods of vacancy. Following the launch of successor Salyut 7, Salyut 6 was de-orbited on 29 July 1982, almost five years after its own launch.
Description
Salyut 6, launched on a Proton 8K82K rocket on 29 September 1977, marked the switch from engineering development stations to routine operations, and united the most effective elements from each of the previous stations. Its navigation system, made up of the Delta semi-automatic computer to depict the station's orbit and the Kaskad system to control its orientation, was based on that used on Salyut 4, as was its power system, which consisted of a trio of steerable solar panels, together producing a peak of 4 kilowatts of power over 51 m². The station's thermal regulation systems, which made use of a sophisticated arrangement of insulation and radiators, was also derived from that used on Salyut 4. In addition, Salyut 6 made use of environmental systems first used on Salyut 3, and controlled its orientation using gyrodynes first tested on that station.
The most important feature on Salyut 6, however, was the addition of a second docking port on the aft end of the station, which allowed two spacecraft to be docked at once. This enabled resident crews to receive shorter, visiting expeditions whilst they remained on board, and for crew transfers to take place between the Soyuz craft. Typically, visiting crews returned to Earth in the older Soyuz which the resident crew had flown to the station, leaving a newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle. This procedure allowed resident crews to remain aboard Salyut 6 past the three-month lifespan of the first-generation Soyuz 7K vehicle. However Salyut 6 was not occupied continuously, or "handed off" from one expedition to another. Rather, the six resident crews took up occupancy in the station and were visited by various Soyuz support missions and Progress supply tugs, and upon each resident crew's departure, Salyut 6 was vacant. The first long-duration crew to visit the station broke a long-standing endurance record set on board the American Skylab station, staying 96 days in orbit, whilst the longest expedition lasted 185 days. Most of the visiting expeditions were flown as part of the Intercosmos programme, with non-Soviet cosmonauts visiting the station. Vladimír Remek of Czechoslovakia, the first space traveller not from the US or USSR, visited Salyut 6 in 1978, and the station hosted cosmonauts from Hungary, Poland, Romania, Cuba, Mongolia, Vietnam, and East Germany. Georgi Ivanov, a Bulgarian, was a member of the crew of Soyuz 33, which failed to dock with the station. The failure implicated the resident crew's Soyuz 32, with the result that a modified Soyuz 34 was launched to them without a crew, as a return vehicle.
The rearward of the two ports was fitted with plumbing to allow the station to be refueled by unmanned Progress spacecraft. These freighters, which brought supplies and extra equipment to keep the station replenished, helped ensure that the crew were always able to carry out useful scientific work aboard the station. In all, twelve Progress flights delivered over 20 tonnes of equipment, supplies and fuel.
The addition of the extra docking port caused the adoption of the Almaz-derived twin-chamber propulsion system first used on Salyut 3 and 5, with the two engine nozzles – each producing 2.9 kilonewtons of thrust – mounted peripherally on either side of the aft port. Salyut 6 introduced a Unified Propulsion System, with both the engines and the station's control thrusters running on unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide, drawn from a common set of pressurized tanks, allowing the refueling capabilities of the visiting Progress tankers to be exploited to the maximal effect. The entire engine and fuel storage assembly was contained within an unpressurized bay at the rear of the station, which had the same diameter as the main pressurized compartment. However, the replacement of the Soyuz engine used on previous stations with the bay meant that the station kept an overall length similar to its predecessors. The main engines could not be fired if the rear docking port was in use, hence any orbital maneuvers during this time had to be performed by the visiting spacecraft.
Salyut 6's propulsion system experienced a serious malfunction during the second crew residency in 1978 and was not usable again for the remainder of the station's lifespan. As a consequence, it was limited to firing its attitude-control thrusters, and visiting spacecraft had to perform orbital adjustments. After each crew residency ended, it was necessary for Progress and TKS spacecraft to boost the station into a high orbit, so it wouldn't decay until the next residency began.
To enable spacewalks, Salyut 6 was equipped with an inward-opening EVA hatch on the side of the forward transfer compartment, which could be used as an airlock in a similar way to the system used on Salyut 4. This compartment contained two new semi-rigid spacesuits, which allowed much greater flexibility than earlier suits and could be donned within five minutes in case of an emergency. Finally, the station offered considerable improvements in living conditions over previous outposts, with machinery being soundproofed, the crews being provided with designated "cots" for sleeping and the equipping of the station with a shower and extensive gymnasium.
Instruments
The primary instrument carried aboard the station was the BST-1M multispectral telescope, which could carry out astronomical observations in the infrared, ultraviolet and submillimetre spectra using a 1.5 metre-diameter mirror, which was operated in cryogenic conditions at around . The telescope could be operated only when Salyut 6 was on the night side of the Earth and had its cover closed for the rest of the time.
The second major instrument was the MKF-6M multispectral camera, which carried out Earth-resources observations. An improved form of a camera first tested on Soyuz 22, the camera captured an area of 165 × 220 kilometres with each image, down to a resolution of 20 metres. Each image was captured simultaneously in six bands in 1200-frame cassettes, which required regular replacement due to the fogging effects of radiation. Salyut 6 also featured a KATE-140 stereoscopic topographic mapping camera with a focal length of 140 millimetres, which captured images of 450 × 450 kilometres with a resolution of 50 metres in the visible and infrared spectra, which could be operated either remotely or by the resident crews. The photographic capabilities of the station were, therefore, extensive, and the Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had planted a number of specifically selected crops at test sites to examine the capabilities of the cameras.
To further expand its scientific capabilities, Salyut 6 was equipped with 20 portholes for observations, two scientific airlocks to expose equipment to space or eject rubbish, and various pieces of apparatus to carry out biological experiments. Later on during the flight, a Progress spacecraft delivered an external telescope, the radio observatory, which incorporated a directional antenna and five radiometers. The antenna was deployed on the rear docking assembly, with the controller remaining inside the station, and was used for both astronomical and meteorological observations.
Support craft
Salyut 6 was primarily supported by the manned Soyuz spacecraft, which carried out crew rotations and would also have been used in the event of an emergency evacuation. The ferries docked automatically to the station, making use of the new Igla automatic docking system, and were used by departing crews to return to Earth at the end of their flight.
The station was the first to be able to be resupplied by the newly developed unmanned Progress freighters, although they could only dock at the rear port, as the front port lacked the plumbing used to refuel the propulsion system. The freighters docked automatically to the station via the Igla, and were then opened and emptied by the cosmonauts on board, whilst transfer of fuel to the station took place automatically under supervision from the ground.
In addition to the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, after the final crew had left, Salyut 6 was visited by an experimental transport logistics spacecraft called Kosmos 1267 in 1982. The transport logistics spacecraft, known as the TKS, was originally designed for the Almaz programme, and proved that large modules could dock automatically with space stations, a major step toward the construction of multimodular stations such as Mir and the International Space Station.
Resident crews
The station received 16 cosmonaut crews, including six long-duration crews, with the longest expedition lasting 185 days. Resident crew missions were identified with an EO prefix, whilst short-duration missions were identified with EP.
On 10 December 1977 the first resident crew, Yuri Romanenko and Georgy Grechko, arrived on Soyuz 26 and remained aboard Salyut 6 for 96 days.
On 15 June 1978, Vladimir Kovalyonok and Aleksandr Ivanchenkov (Soyuz 29) arrived and remained on board for 140 days.
Vladimir Lyakhov and Valery Ryumin (Soyuz 32) arrived on 25 February 1979 and stayed 175 days.
On 9 April 1980 Leonid Popov and Valery Ryumin (Soyuz 35) arrived for the longest stay on Salyut 6, 185 days. While aboard, on 19 July 1980, they sent their greetings to the Olympians and wished them happy starts in the live communication between the station and the Central Lenin Stadium, where the opening ceremony of the 1980 Summer Olympics was held. They appeared on the stadium's scoreboard and their voices were translated via loud speakers.
A repair mission, consisting of Leonid Kizim, Oleg Makarov, and Gennady Strekalov (Soyuz T-3) worked on the space station for 12 days starting on 27 November 1980.
On 12 March 1981 the last resident crew, Vladimir Kovalyonok and Viktor Savinykh, arrived and stayed for 75 days.
Station operations
Docking operations
On four occasions, a visiting Soyuz craft was transferred from the station's aft port to its forward port. This was done to accommodate upcoming Progress shuttles, which could only refuel the station using connections available at the aft port. Typically, the resident crew would first dock at the forward port, leaving the aft port available for Progress craft and visiting Soyuz support crews. When a support crew docked at the aft port and left in the older, forward Soyuz, the resident crew would move the new vehicle forward by boarding it, undocking, and translating some 100–200 meters away from Salyut 6. Then, ground control would command the station itself to rotate 180 degrees, and the Soyuz would close and re-dock at the forward port. Soyuz 31, 34, 36 and 37 performed the operation, piloted by resident crews after the newer vehicles had been left available by departed support crews.
Dates and times are 24-hour Moscow Time. Sources:,Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, pp. 76-89.
Station crews
Dates and times are 24-hour Coordinated Universal Time.
Spacewalks
Dates and times are 24-hour Coordinated Universal Time. Source:
See also
Timeline of longest spaceflights
References
Salyut program
1977 in the Soviet Union
1977 in spaceflight
Spacecraft launched in 1977
Spacecraft which reentered in 1982 | [
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245801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut%207 | Salyut 7 | Salyut 7 (; ) (a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991. It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15. Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total. Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.
It was part of the Soviet Salyut programme, and launched on 19 April 1982 on a Proton rocket from Site 200/40 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Soviet Union. Salyut 7 was part of the transition from monolithic to modular space stations, acting as a testbed for docking of additional modules and expanded station operations. It was the eighth space station of any kind launched. Salyut 7 was the last of both the second generation of DOS-series space stations and of the monolithic Salyut Program overall, to be replaced by Mir, the modular, expandable, third generation.
Description
Salyut 7 was the backup vehicle for Salyut 6 and very similar in equipment and capabilities. With delays to the Mir programme it was decided to launch the back-up vehicle as Salyut 7. In orbit the station suffered technical failures though it benefited from the improved payload capacity of the visiting Progress and Soyuz craft and the experience of its crews who improvised many solutions (such as a fuel line rupture in September 1983 requiring EVAs by the Soyuz T-10 crew to repair). It was aloft for eight years and ten months (a record not broken until Mir), during which time it was visited by 10 crews constituting six main expeditions and four secondary flights (including French and Indian cosmonauts). The station also saw two flights of Svetlana Savitskaya making her the second woman in space since Valentina Tereshkova first flew in June 1963 and the first woman to perform an EVA during which she conducted metal cutting and welding alongside her colleague Vladimir Dzhanibekov. Aside from the many experiments and observations made on Salyut 7, the station also tested the docking and use of large modules with an orbiting space station. The modules were called "Heavy Kosmos modules" though in reality were variants of the TKS spacecraft intended for the cancelled Almaz military space station. They helped engineers develop technology necessary to build Mir.
Equipment
It had two docking ports, one on either end of the station, to allow docking with the Progress unmanned resupply craft, and a wider front docking port to allow safer docking with a Heavy Kosmos module. It carried three solar panels, two in lateral and one in dorsal longitudinal positions, but they now had the ability to mount secondary panels on their sides. Internally, the Salyut 7 carried electric stoves, a refrigerator, constant hot water and redesigned seats at the command console (more like bicycle seats). Two portholes were designed to allow ultraviolet light in, to help kill infections. The medical, biological and exercise sections were improved, to allow long stays in the station. The BST-1M telescope used in Salyut 6 was replaced by an X-ray detection system.
To support experiments in cultivating plants in space, several different plant life support systems were installed: Oasis 1A, Vazon, Svetoblok, Magnetogravistat, Biogravistat and Fiton(Phyton)-3. It was in Fiton-3 that Arabidopsis became the first plants to flower and produce seeds in the zero gravity of space.
Salyut 7 was the most advanced and most comfortable space station of the Salyut series. A set of modifications to the interior made it more liveable. There were approximately 20 windows with shades on the Salyut 7. To protect the inside of the windows, they were covered with removable glass panels. The colour scheme was improved and a refrigerator was installed. The ceiling on the Salyut 7 was white; the left wall was apple green and the right one beige, a signature design by interior design architect, Galina Balashova, who carried on the concept through Soyuz to Mir and Buran, in an effort to replace 'survive' with 'comfort', working with seasoned cosmonauts to make living conditions better and 'closer to home'. Externally, in a departure from previous first generation stations, the large diameter operations section which housed the large scientific apparatus, was colored in a distinctive brown-red and white stripe pattern. This was done to differentiate between it and the outwardly similar Salyut 6 that, for several months of its life, was in orbit at the same time.
Crews and missions
Following up the use of Kosmos 1267 on Salyut 6, the Soviets launched Kosmos 1443 on 2 March 1983 from a Proton SL-13. It docked with the station on 10 March, and was used by the crew of Soyuz T-9. It jettisoned its recovery module on 23 August, and re-entered the atmosphere on 19 September. Kosmos 1686 was launched on 27 September 1985, docking with the station on 2 October. It did not carry a recovery vehicle, and remained connected to the station for use by the crew of Soyuz T-14. Ten Soyuz T crews operated in Salyut 7. Only two Interkosmos "guest cosmonauts" worked in Salyut 7. The first attempt to launch Soyuz T-10 was aborted on the launch pad when a fire broke out at the base of the vehicle. The payload was ejected, and the crew was recovered safely.
Resident crews
Salyut 7 had six resident crews.
The first crew, Anatoli Berezovoy and Valentin Lebedev, arrived on 13 May 1982 on Soyuz T-5 and remained for 211 days until 10 December 1982.
On 27 June 1983, the crew of Vladimir Lyakhov and Alexander Alexandrov arrived on Soyuz T-9 and remained for 150 days, until 23 November 1983.
On 8 February 1984, Leonid Kizim, Vladimir Solovyov and Oleg Atkov began a 237-day stay, the longest on Salyut 7, which ended on 2 October 1984.
Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinykh (Soyuz T-13) arrived at the space station on 6 June 1985 to repair its malfunctions.
On 17 September 1985, Soyuz T-14 docked with the station carrying Vladimir Vasyutin, Alexander Volkov and Georgi Grechko. Eight days later Dzhanibekov and Grechko left the station and returned to Earth after 103 days, while Savinyikh, Vasyutin and Volkov remained on Salyut 7 and returned to Earth on 21 November 1985 after 65 days.
On 6 May 1986, Soyuz T-15 carrying Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov docked with the space station and undocked, after a 50-day stay, on 25 June 1986. The Soyuz had come from the Mir space station and returned to Mir on 26 June 1986 in a flight lasting 29 hours.
There were also four visiting missions, crews which came to bring supplies and make shorter duration visits with the resident crews.
Technical and crew problems
The station suffered from two major problems, the first of which required extensive repair work to be performed on a number of EVAs.
Leaks
On 9 September 1983, during the stay of Vladimir Lyakhov and Alexander Alexandrov, while reorienting the station to perform a radiowave transmission experiment, Lyakhov noticed the pressure of one fuel tank was almost zero. Following this, Alexandrov spotted a fuel leak when looking through the aft porthole. Ground control decided to try to repair the damaged pipes, in what was the most complex repair attempted during EVA at the time. This was to be attempted by the next crew, the current one lacking the necessary training and tools. The damage was eventually repaired by Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov, who needed four EVAs to fix two leaks. A special tool to fix the third leak was delivered by Soyuz T-12, and the leak was subsequently fixed.
Loss of power
On 11 February 1985, contact with Salyut 7 was lost. The station began to drift, and all systems shut down. At this time the station was uninhabited, after the departure of Leonid Kizim, Vladimir Solovyov and Oleg Atkov, and before the next crew arrived. It was once again decided to attempt to repair the station. The work was performed by Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinykh on the Soyuz T-13 mission during June 1985, in what was in the words of author David S. F. Portree "one of the most impressive feats of in-space repairs in history". This operation forms the basis of the 2017 Russian film Salyut 7.
All Soviet and Russian space stations were equipped with automatic rendezvous and docking systems, from the first space station Salyut 1 using the Igla system, to the Russian Orbital Segment of the International Space Station using the Kurs system. Upon arrival, on 6 June 1985, the Soyuz crew found the station was not broadcasting radar or telemetry for rendezvous, and after arrival and external inspection of the tumbling station, the crew estimated proximity using handheld laser rangefinders.
Dzhanibekov piloted his ship to intercept the forward port of Salyut 7 and matched the station's rotation. After hard docking to the station and confirming the station's electrical system was dead, Dzhanibekov and Savinykh sampled the station atmosphere prior to opening the hatch. Attired in winter fur-lined clothing, they entered the station to conduct repairs. The fault was eventually found to be an electrical sensor that determined when the batteries needed charging.
Once the batteries were replaced, the station started charging them, and warmed up over the next few days. Within a week sufficient systems were brought back online to allow uncrewed Progress cargo ships to dock with the station.
End of life
Salyut 7 was last inhabited in 1986 by the crew of Soyuz T-15, who ferried equipment from Salyut 7 to the new Mir space station. Between 19 and 22 August 1986, engines on Kosmos 1686 boosted Salyut 7 to a record-high mean orbital altitude of 475 km to forestall reentry until 1994. Retrieval at a future date by a Buran shuttle was also planned.
However, unexpectedly high solar activity in the late 1980s and early 1990s increased atmospheric drag on the station and sped its orbital decay. It finally underwent an uncontrolled reentry on 7 February 1991 over the town of Capitán Bermúdez in Argentina after it overshot its intended entry point, which would have placed its debris in uninhabited portions of the southern Pacific Ocean.
Expeditions and visiting spacecraft
Notation:
EO () or PE means Principal Expedition
EP () or VE means Visiting Expedition
Expeditions
Spacewalks
Docking operations
On three occasions, a visiting Soyuz craft was transferred from the station's aft port to its forward port. This was done to accommodate upcoming Progress shuttles, which could only refuel the station using connections available at the aft port. Typically, the resident crew would first dock at the forward port, leaving the aft port available for Progress craft and visiting Soyuz support crews. When a support crew docked at the aft port and left in the older, forward Soyuz, the resident crew would move the new vehicle forward by boarding it, undocking, and translating some 100–200 meters away from Salyut 7. Then, ground control would command the station itself to rotate 180 degrees, and the Soyuz would close and re-dock at the forward port. Soyuz T-7, T-9 and T-11 performed the operation, piloted by resident crews.
Specifications
Specifications of the baseline 1982 Salyut 7 module, from Mir Hardware Heritage (1995, NASA RP1357):
Length – about 16 m
Maximum diameter – 4.15 meters
Habitable volume – 90 m³
Weight at launch – 19,824 kg
Launch vehicle – Proton rocket (three-stage)
Orbital inclination – 51.6°
Span across solar arrays – 17 m
Area of solar arrays – 51 m²
Number of solar arrays – 3
Electricity available – 4.5 kW
Resupply carriers – Soyuz-T, Progress, TKS spacecraft
Docking System – Igla or manual approach
Number of docking ports – 2
Total manned missions – 12
Total unmanned missions – 15
Total long-duration missions – 6
Number of main engines – 2
Main engine thrust (each) – 300 kg
Visiting spacecraft and crews
(Launched crews. Spacecraft launch and landing dates listed.)
Soyuz T-5 – 13 May – 27 August 1982
Anatoli Berezovoy
Valentin Lebedev
Soyuz T-6 – 24 June – 2 July 1982 – Intercosmos Flight
Vladimir Dzhanibekov
Aleksandr Ivanchenkov
Jean-Loup Chrétien – France
Soyuz T-7 – 19 August – 10 December 1982
Leonid Popov
Aleksandr Serebrov
Svetlana Savitskaya
Soyuz T-8 – 20–22 April 1983 – Failed docking
Vladimir Titov
Gennady Strekalov
Aleksandr Serebrov
Soyuz T-9 – 27 June – 23 November 1983
Vladimir Lyakhov
Alexander Alexandrov
Soyuz T-10-1 – 26 September 1983 – Launch abort
Vladimir Titov
Gennady Strekalov
Soyuz T-10 – 8 February – 11 April 1984
Leonid Kizim
Vladimir Solovyov
Oleg Atkov
TKS 3 – 4 March – 14 August 1983 – Launched unmanned as Kosmos 1443.
Soyuz T-11 – 3 April – 2 October 1984 – Intercosmos Flight
Yury Malyshev
Gennady Strekalov
Rakesh Sharma – India
Soyuz T-12 – 17–29 July 1984
Vladimir Dzhanibekov
Svetlana Savitskaya
Igor Volk
Soyuz T-13 – 6 June – 26 September 1985
Vladimir Dzhanibekov
Viktor Savinykh
Soyuz T-14 – 17 September – 21 November 1985
Vladimir Vasyutin
Georgi Grechko
Alexander Volkov
TKS 4 – September 1985 – 7 February 1991 – Launched unmanned as Kosmos 1686. Featured a high-resolution photo apparatus and optical sensor experiments (infrared telescope and Ozon spectrometer).
Soyuz T-15 – 13 March – 16 July 1986 – Also visited Mir
Leonid Kizim
Vladimir Solovyov
In popular culture
The repair and reactivation of the station by Soyuz T-13 is the subject of the 2017 Russian historical drama Salyut 7. These events also served as a plot base for the Polish novel Połowa nieba (pol. Half the sky), by Bartek Biedrzycki (first published 2018), collected in Zimne światło gwiazd in 2020.
See also
List of spacewalks
Skylab
STS-61 (Hubble Space Telescope mirror fix-mission)
References
External links
Salyut program
1982 in the Soviet Union
Spacecraft launched in 1982
Spacecraft which reentered in 1991 | [
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245802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Myriokephalon | Battle of Myriokephalon | The Battle of Myriokephalon (also known as the Battle of Myriocephalum, , or Düzbel Muharebesi) was a battle between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks in Phrygia in the vicinity of Lake Beyşehir in southwestern Turkey on 17 September 1176. The battle was a strategic reverse for the Byzantine forces, who were ambushed when moving through a mountain pass.
It was to be the final, unsuccessful effort by the Byzantines to recover the interior of Anatolia from the Seljuk Turks.
Background
Between 1158 and 1161 a series of Byzantine campaigns against the Seljuk Turks of the Sultanate of Rûm resulted in a treaty favourable to the Empire, with the sultan recognising a form of subordination to the Byzantine emperor. Immediately after peace was negotiated the Seljuk sultan Kilij Arslan II visited Constantinople where he was treated by Emperor Manuel I Komnenos as both an honoured guest and an imperial vassal. Following this event there was no overt hostility between the two powers for many years. It was a fragile peace, however, as the Seljuks wanted to push from the arid central plateau of Asia Minor into the more fertile coastal lands, while the Byzantines wanted to recover the Anatolian territory they had lost since the Battle of Manzikert a century earlier.
During the long peace with the Seljuks Manuel was able to concentrate his military power in other theatres. In the west, he defeated Hungary and imposed Byzantine control over all the Balkans. In the east, he recovered Cilicia from local Armenian dynasts and managed to reduce the Crusader Principality of Antioch to vassal status. However, peace with Byzantium also allowed Killij Arslan to eliminate internal rivals and strengthen his military resources. When the strongest Muslim ruler in Syria Nur ad-Din Zangi died in 1174, his successor Saladin was more concerned with Egypt and Palestine than the territory bordering the Empire. This shift in power gave Kilij Arslan the freedom to destroy the Danishmend emirates of eastern Anatolia and also eject his brother Shahinshah from his lands near Ankara. Shahinshah, who was Manuel's vassal, and the Danishmend emirs fled to the protection of Byzantium. In 1175 the peace between Byzantium and the Sultanate of Rûm fell apart when Kilij Arslan refused to hand over to the Byzantines, as he was obliged to do by treaty, a considerable proportion of the territory he had recently conquered from the Danishmends.
March
The army gathered at Lopadion by Manuel was supposedly so large that it spread across ten miles, and marched towards the border with the Seljuks via Laodicea, Chonae, Lampe, Celaenae, Choma and Antioch. Arslan tried to negotiate but Manuel was convinced of his superiority and rejected a new peace. He sent part of the army under Andronikos Vatatzes towards Amasia while his larger force marched towards the Seljuk capital at Iconium (Konya). Both routes were through heavily wooded regions, where the Turks could easily hide and set up ambushes; the army moving towards Amasia was destroyed in one such ambush. The Turks later displayed Andronikos's head, impaled on a lance, during the fighting at Myriokephalon.
The Turks also destroyed crops and poisoned water supplies to make Manuel's march more difficult. Arslan harassed the Byzantine army in order to force it into the Meander valley, and specifically the mountain pass of Tzivritze near the fortress of Myriokephalon. Once at the pass Manuel decided to attack, despite the danger from further ambushes, and also despite the fact that he could have attempted to bring the Turks out of their positions to fight them on the nearby plain of Philomelion, the site of an earlier victory won by his grandfather Alexios. The lack of forage, and water for his troops, and the fact that dysentery had broken out in his army may have induced Manuel to decide to force the pass regardless of the danger of ambush.
Army numbers and organisation
Byzantines
All sources agree that the Byzantine force was of exceptional size. The historian John Haldon estimates the army at 25,000–30,000 men, while John Birkenmeier puts it at around 35,000 men. The latter number is derived from the fact that sources indicated a supply train of 3,000 wagons accompanied the army, which was enough to support 30,000–40,000 men. Birkenmeier believes that the army contained 25,000 Byzantine troops with the remainder composed of an allied contingent of Hungarians sent by Manuel's kinsman Béla III of Hungary and tributary forces supplied by the Principality of Antioch and Serbia.
The Byzantine army was divided into a number of divisions, which entered the pass in the following order: a vanguard, largely of infantry (the other divisions being composed of a mix of infantry and cavalry); the main division (of eastern and western Tagmata); then the right wing (largely composed of Antiochenes and other Westerners), led by Baldwin of Antioch (Manuel's brother-in-law); the baggage and siege trains; the Byzantine left wing, led by Theodore Mavrozomes and John Kantakouzenos; the emperor and his picked troops; and finally the rear division under the experienced general Andronikos Kontostephanos.
Seljuks
No estimates of Seljuk numbers for the battle have been possible. Primary sources have provided figures for other Seljuk campaigns. In 1160, John Kontostephanos defeated a force of 22,000 Seljuk Turks and about 20,000–24,000 Turks invaded the Maeander river valley in 1177. However, modern historians have estimated that the various Seljuk successor states (such as the Sultanate of Rum) could field at most 10,000–15,000 men. This is likely a closer estimate for the possible Seljuk strength at Myriokephalon considering the much larger and united Seljuk Empire fielded around 20,000–30,000 men at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Sultanate of Rum was much smaller territorially than the Seljuk Empire and probably had smaller armies, for example, its army at the Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097 has been estimated at between 6,000–8,000 men.
The Seljuk army consisted of two main sections: the askars of the sultan and of each of his emirs, and an irregular force of Turkoman tribesmen. The askari (Arabic for 'soldier') was a full-time soldier, often a mamluk, a type of slave-soldier though this form of nominal slavery was not servile. They were supported by payments in cash or though a semi-feudal system of grants, called iqta'. These troops formed the core of field armies and were medium to heavy cavalry; they were armoured, and fought in coherent units with bow and lance. In contrast, the Turkoman tribesmen were semi-nomadic irregular horsemen, who served under their own chieftains. They lived off their herds and served the sultan on the promise of plunder, the ransom of prisoners, for one-off payments, or if their pasturelands were threatened. These tribesmen were unreliable as soldiers, but were numerous, and were effective as light mounted archers, adept at skirmish tactics.
Battle
The Byzantine vanguard was the first to encounter Arslan's troops, and went through the pass with few casualties, as did the main division. Possibly the Turks had not yet fully deployed in their positions. These divisions sent their infantry up onto the slopes to dislodge the Seljuk soldiers, who were forced to withdraw to higher ground. The following divisions did not take this precaution, also they were negligent in not maintaining a defensive formation of closed ranks and they did not deploy their archers effectively. By the time the first two Byzantine divisions exited the far end of the pass, the rear was just about to enter; this allowed the Turks to close their trap on those divisions still within the pass. The Turkish attack, descending from the heights, fell especially heavily on the Byzantine right wing. This division seems to have quickly lost cohesion and been broken, soldiers fleeing one ambush often running into another. Heavy casualties were sustained by the right-wing and its commander, Baldwin, was killed. The Turks then concentrated their attacks on the baggage and siege trains, shooting down the draught animals and choking the roadway. The left-wing division also suffered significant casualties and one of its leaders, John Kantakouzenos, was slain when fighting alone against a band of Seljuk soldiers. The remaining Byzantine troops were panicked by the carnage in front of them and the realisation that the Turks had also begun to attack their rear. The sudden descent of a blinding dust-storm did nothing to improve the morale or organisation of the Byzantine forces, though it must have confused the Seljuk troops also. At this point, Manuel seems to have suffered a crisis of confidence and reputedly sat down, passively awaiting his fate and that of his army.
The emperor was eventually roused by his officers, re-established discipline and organised his forces into a defensive formation; when formed up, they pushed their way past the wreck of the baggage and out of the pass. Debouching from the pass they rejoined the unscathed van and main divisions, commanded by John and Andronikos Angelos, Constantine Makrodoukas and Andronikos Lampardas. Whilst the rest of the army had been under attack in the pass the troops of the van and main divisions had constructed a fortified encampment. The rear division, under Andronikos Kontostephanos, arrived at the camp somewhat later than the emperor, having suffered few casualties.
The night was spent in successfully repulsing further attacks by Seljuk mounted archers. Niketas Choniates states that Manuel considered abandoning his troops but was shamed into staying by the scathing words of an anonymous soldier and the disapproval of a shocked Kontostephanos. However, this would appear to be hyperbole on the historian's part as Manuel would have placed himself in much greater danger by flight than if he remained in the midst of his army. The following day, the Turks circled the camp firing arrows; Manuel ordered two counterattacks, led by John Angelos and Constantine Makrodoukas respectively, but there was no renewal of a general action.
Outcome
Both sides, it appears, had suffered casualties, though their extent is difficult to quantify. Modern historians have postulated that about half of the Byzantine army was engaged and around half of those became casualties. As the Byzantine army moved back through the pass after the battle it was seen that the dead had been scalped and their genitals mutilated, "It was said that the Turks took these measures so that the circumcised could not be distinguished from the uncircumcised and the victory therefore disputed and contested since many had fallen on both sides." Most importantly Manuel's siege equipment had been captured and destroyed. The Byzantines, without any means of attacking Iconium, were now no longer in a position to continue the campaign. Also the Seljuk Sultan was keen for peace to be restored as soon as possible; he sent an envoy named Gabras, together with gifts of a Nisaean warhorse and a sword, to Manuel in order to negotiate a truce. As a result of these negotiations, the Byzantine army was to be allowed to retreat unmolested on condition that Manuel destroy his forts and evacuate the garrisons at Dorylaeum and Sublaeum in the Byzantine-Seljuk borderlands. However, despite Kilij Arslan's protestations of good faith, the retreat of the Byzantine army was harassed by the attacks of Turkoman tribesmen (over whom Kilij Arslan probably had very little control). This, taken with an earlier failure by the sultan to keep his side of a treaty signed in 1162, gave Manuel an excuse to avoid observing the terms of this new arrangement in their entirety. He therefore demolished the fortifications of the less important fortress of Sublaeum but left Dorylaeum intact.
Manuel himself compared his defeat to that of Manzikert, sending a message to Constantinople ahead of his army likening his fate to that of Romanos Diogenes. However, in the same message he: "Then extolled the treaties made with the sultan, boasting that these had been concluded beneath his own banner which had waved in the wind in view of the enemy's front line so that trembling and fear fell upon them." It is notable that it was the sultan who initiated peace proposals by sending an envoy to Manuel and not the reverse. The conclusion that Kilij Arslan, though negotiating from a position of strength, did not consider that his forces were capable of destroying the Byzantine army is inescapable. A possible reason for Kilij Arslan's reluctance to renew the battle is that a large proportion of his irregular troops may have been far more interested in securing the plunder they had taken than in continuing the fight, thus leaving his army seriously weakened.
Aftermath
Myriokephalon, although a significant defeat for the Byzantines, did not materially affect the capabilities of the Byzantine army. This is underlined by the notable victory the Byzantines won over the Seljuks at Hyelion and Leimocheir on the Meander River the following year. Ironically, this battle was a reverse of Myriokephalon, with a Seljuk army blundering into a classic ambush laid by the Byzantine general John Komnenos Vatatzes. Manuel continued to meet the Seljuks in smaller battles with some success, and concluded a probably advantageous peace with Kilij Arslan in 1179. However, like Manzikert, Myriokephalon was a pivotal event and following it the balance between the two powers in Anatolia gradually began to shift, and subsequently, Byzantium was unable to compete for dominance of the Anatolian interior.
Myriokephalon had more of a psychological impact than a military impact, as it proved that the Empire could not destroy Seljuk power in central Anatolia, despite the advances made during Manuel's reign. Essentially, the problem was that Manuel had allowed himself to be distracted by a series of military adventures in Italy and Egypt, instead of dealing with the more pressing issue of the Turks. This had given the Sultan many years in which to eliminate his rivals, enabling him to build up a force capable of facing the Byzantine army in the field. Without the years required to build up Seljuk military power, the battle could not have taken place. Furthermore, during the campaign, Manuel made several serious tactical errors, such as failing to scout out the route ahead effectively and ignoring the advice of his senior officers. These failings caused him to lead his forces straight into a classic ambush. However, in defence of Manuel's generalship it is clear that he organised his army in a very effective manner. The army was composed of a number of 'divisions', each of which was self-reliant and could act as a small independent army; it has been argued that it was this organisation which allowed the greater part of his army to survive the ambush inflicted on it.
An important facet of Manuel's dispositions was that the vanguard was composed of infantry. Infantry are far better troops than cavalry when operating in mountainous terrain and it appears that the infantry van was meant to dislodge any Seljuk soldiery from the high ground dominating the pass. They signally failed to sweep the Seljuks from the pass and this failure was a major cause of the Byzantine defeat. Added to this there seems to have been a failure in generalship by the commanders of the right and left wings, who did not deploy their troops as effectively as had the commanders of the two leading divisions.
After Manuel's death, the empire drifted into anarchy, and it was never again in a position to mount a major offensive in the east. The defeat of Myriokephalon marked the end of Byzantine attempts to recover the Anatolian plateau, which was now lost to the empire forever.
See also
Komnenian army
References
Further reading
Primary sources
Secondary sources
Heath, I. (2019) Armies and Enemies of the Crusades 1096-1291, 2nd ed., Wargames Research Group
Battles of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars
Battles involving Hungary
Battles involving the Sultanate of Rum
History of Konya Province
Conflicts in 1176
1176 in Asia
1170s in the Byzantine Empire
Manuel I Komnenos | [
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245804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Marquis | Don Marquis | Donald Robert Perry Marquis ( ; July 29, 1878 – December 29, 1937) was an American humorist, journalist, and author. He was variously a novelist, poet, newspaper columnist, and playwright. He is remembered best for creating the characters Archy and Mehitabel, supposed authors of humorous verse. During his lifetime he was equally famous for creating another fictitious character, "the Old Soak," who was the subject of two books, a hit Broadway play (1922–23), a silent film (1926) and a talkie (1937).
Life
Marquis was born and grew up in Walnut, Illinois. His brother David died in 1892 at the age of 20; his father James died in 1897. After graduating from Walnut High School in 1894, he attended Knox Academy, a now-defunct preparatory program run by Knox College, in 1896, but left after three months. From 1902 to 1907 he served on the editorial board of the Atlanta Journal where he wrote many editorials during the heated gubernatorial election between his publisher Hoke Smith and future Pulitzer Prize winner, Clark Howell (Smith was the victor).
In 1909, Marquis married Reina Melcher, with whom he had a son, Robert (1915–1921) and a daughter, Barbara (1918–1931). Reina died on December 2, 1923.
Three years later Marquis married the actress Marjorie Potts Vonnegut, whose first husband, actor Walter Vonnegut, was a cousin of American author, playwright and satirist Kurt Vonnegut Jr. She died in her sleep on October 25, 1936.
Marquis died of a stroke in New York City, after suffering three other strokes that partly disabled him.
On August 23, 1943, the United States Navy christened a Liberty ship, the , in his memory.
Career
Marquis began work for the New York newspaper The Evening Sun in 1912 and edited for the next eleven years a daily column, "The Sun Dial". During 1922 he left The Evening Sun (shortened to The Sun in 1920) for the New York Tribune (renamed the New York Herald Tribune in 1924), where his daily column, "The Tower" (later "The Lantern") was a great success. He regularly contributed columns and short stories to the Saturday Evening Post, Collier's and American magazines and also appeared in Harper's, Scribner's, Golden Book, and Cosmopolitan.
Marquis's best-known creation was Archy, a fictional cockroach (developed as a character during 1916) who had been a free-verse poet in a previous life, and who supposedly left poems on Marquis's typewriter by jumping on the keys. Archy usually typed only lower-case letters, without punctuation, because he could not operate the shift key. His verses were a type of social satire, and were used by Marquis in his newspaper columns titled "archy and mehitabel"; mehitabel was an alley cat, occasional companion of archy and the subject of some of archy's verses. The archy and mehitabel pieces were illustrated by cartoonist George Herriman, better known to posterity as the author of the newspaper comic Krazy Kat. Other characters developed by Marquis included Pete the Pup, Clarence the ghost, and an egomaniacal toad named Warty Bliggins.
Marquis was the author of about 35 books. He co-wrote (or contributed posthumously) to the films The Sports Pages, Shinbone Alley, The Good Old Soak and Skippy. The 1926 film The Cruise of the Jasper B was supposedly based on his 1916 novel of the same name, although the plots have little in common.
Publications
1912: Danny's Own Story (novel)
1915: Dreams & Dust (poems)
1916: Cruise of the Jasper B. (novel)
1916: Hermione and Her Little Group of Serious Thinkers (sketches)
1919: Prefaces (essays)
1921: The Old Soak and Hail and Farewell (sketches) Dramatized 1921, 1926, 1937.
The Tomcat (poem)
1921: Carter and Other People (short stories)
1921: Noah an' Jonah an' Cap'n John Smith (poems, sketches)
1922: Poems and Portraits (poems)
1922: Sonnets to a Red-Haired Lady and Famous Love Affairs (poems)
1922: The Revolt of the Oyster (short stories)
1924: The Dark Hours (play) This story of the trial, passion and crucifixion of Jesus had its professional premiere on 14 March 1932 at the Maryland Theatre in Baltimore, Maryland. Bretaigne Windust directed the University Players with a cast of more than 50, which included Joshua Logan as Caiaphas, Charles Crane Leatherbee as Pilate, Henry Fonda as Peter, and Kent Smith as Jesus. The play subsequently opened on Broadway on 14 November 1932 and ran 8 performances. See, Houghton, Norris. But Not Forgotten: The Adventure of the University Players, New York, William Sloane Associates: 1951, pp. 285–6.
1924: Pandora Lifts the Lid (novel)
1924: Words and Thoughts (play)
1924: The Awakening (poems)
1927: Out of the Sea (play)
1927: The Almost Perfect State (essays)
1927: archy and mehitabel (poems, sketches)
1928: Love Sonnets of a Cave Man (poems)
1928: When the Turtles Sing (short stories)
1929: A Variety of People (short stories)
1930: Off the Arm (novel)
1933: archys life of mehitabel (poems, sketches)
1934: Master of the Revels (play)
1934: Chapters for the Orthodox (short stories)
1935: archy does his part (poems, sketches)
1936: Sun Dial Time (short stories)
1939: Sons of the Puritans (novel)
1940: the lives and times of archy and mehitabel (omnibus)
1946: The Best of Don Marquis (omnibus)
1978: Everything's Jake (play)
1982: Selected Letters of Don Marquis (letters) Edited by William McCollum Jr.
1996: archyology (poems, sketches) Edited by Jeff Adams.
1998: archyology ii (poems, sketches) Edited by Jeff Adams.
2006: The Annotated Archy and Mehitabel (poems, sketches) Edited by Michael Sims.
See also
Franklin Pierce Adams
Heywood Broun
Christopher Morley
Notes
References
"Humor’s sober side: Being an interview with Don Marquis, another of a series on how humorists get that way by Josephine Van de Grift," Bisbee Daily Review, October 13, 1922, p. 4.
Further reading
O Rare Don Marquis by Edward Anthony, published 1962 by Doubleday.
External links
Essays by Don Marquis at Quotidiana.org
Don Marquis.org
Don Marquis.com
Finding aid to Don Marquis papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
American cartoonists
American columnists
American humorists
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American poets
1878 births
1937 deaths
Knox College (Illinois) alumni
People from Bureau County, Illinois
People from Walnut, Illinois
Poets from Illinois
Journalists from Illinois
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers | [
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245805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carroll%20O%27Connor | Carroll O'Connor | John Carroll O'Connor (August 2, 1924 – June 21, 2001) was an American actor, producer, and director whose television career spanned over four decades. Became a lifelong member of the Actors Studio, in 1971, O'Connor found widespread fame as Archie Bunker (for which he won four Emmy Awards), the main character in the CBS television sitcoms All in the Family (1971–79) and its continuation, Archie Bunker's Place (1979–83). O'Connor later starred in the NBC/CBS television crime drama In the Heat of the Night (1988–95), where he played the role of Sparta, Mississippi, police chief William "Bill" Gillespie. At the end of his career in the late 1990s, he played Gus Stemple, the father of Jamie Buchman (Helen Hunt) on Mad About You. In 1996, O'Connor was ranked number 38 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time. He won 5 Emmys and two Golden Globe Awards.
Early life
Carroll O'Connor, the eldest of three sons, was born on August 2, 1924, in Manhattan, New York City, to Edward Joseph O'Connor, a lawyer, and his wife, Elise Patricia O'Connor (née O'Connor), a teacher. Both of his brothers became doctors: Hugh, who died in a motorcycle accident in 1961, and Robert, a psychiatrist in New York City. O'Connor spent much of his youth in Elmhurst and Forest Hills, Queens, the same borough in which his character Archie Bunker would later live.
O'Connor graduated from Newtown High School in Elmhurst. In 1941, he enrolled at Wake Forest University in North Carolina but dropped out when the United States entered World War II. During the war, he was rejected by the United States Navy and enrolled in the United States Merchant Marine Academy for a short time. After leaving that institution, he became a merchant seaman and served in the United States Merchant Marine during the war.
After the war, O'Connor attended the University of Montana, where he worked at the Montana Kaimin student newspaper as an editor; in 1949 he resigned his editing position in protest to the pressure from the campus administration that led to the confiscation and destruction of an issue of the paper, which carried a cartoon depicting the Montana Board of Education as rats gnawing at a bag of university funds. At the University of Montana, he also joined the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity. O'Connor did not take any drama courses as an undergraduate at the University of Montana, but he did act in student theater productions. He met Nancy Fields (born 1929), who later became his wife, when she was working as a makeup artist on a student play in which he was acting. He later left that university to help his younger brother Hugh get into medical school in Ireland, where Carroll completed his undergraduate studies at University College Dublin. There he studied Irish history and English literature, graduated in 1952, and began his acting career.
After O'Connor's fiancée, Nancy Fields, graduated from the University of Montana in 1951 with degrees in drama and English, she sailed to Ireland to study at Trinity College Dublin and meet Carroll, who was visiting his brother, Hugh. The couple married in Dublin on July 28, 1951. In 1956, O'Connor returned to the University of Montana to earn a master's degree in speech.
Prolific character actor
After acting in theatrical productions in Dublin and New York during the 1950s, O'Connor's breakthrough came when he was cast by director Burgess Meredith (assisted by John Astin) in a featured role in the Broadway adaptation of James Joyce's novel Ulysses. O'Connor and Meredith remained close, lifelong friends.
O'Connor made his television acting debut as a character actor on two episodes of Sunday Showcase. These two parts led to other roles on such television series as The Americans, The Eleventh Hour, Bonanza, The Fugitive, The Wild Wild West, Armstrong Circle Theatre, The Outer Limits, The Great Adventure, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., Dr. Kildare, I Spy, That Girl, Premiere, Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea and Insight, among many others. O'Connor starred as an Eastern European villain in the first season of Mission Impossible, season one, episode 18 "The Trial". Late in his career, he appeared on several episodes of Mad About You as the father of Helen Hunt's character.
Considered roles
He was among the actors considered for the roles of the Skipper on Gilligan's Island and Dr. Smith in the TV show Lost in Space, and he was the visual template in the creation of Batman nemesis Rupert Thorne, a character who debuted at the height of All in the Family'''s success in Detective Comics No. 469 (published May 1976 by DC Comics).
Early film roles
O'Connor appeared in a number of studio films in the 1960s and early 1970s, including Lonely Are the Brave (1962), Cleopatra (1963), In Harm's Way (1965), What Did You Do in the War, Daddy? (1966), Hawaii (1966), Not with My Wife, You Don't! (1966), Warning Shot (1967), Point Blank (1967), The Devil's Brigade (1968), For Love of Ivy (1968), Death of a Gunfighter (1969), Marlowe (1969), Kelly's Heroes (1970) and Doctors' Wives (1971). In many of his roles he portrayed a military or police officer, in several a particularly blustery one.
Television roles
In the 1960s, O'Connor appeared in episodes of notable television series such as The Americans, The Untouchables, Naked City, Death Valley Days, Bonanza, The Defenders, The Outer Limits, The Fugitive, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, Ben Casey, Dr. Kildare, I Spy, The Wild Wild West, Mission: Impossible, That Girl and Gunsmoke (1966 - “The Wrong Man”; S12E7).
O'Connor also performed in anthology television shows such as NBC Sunday Showcase, The United States Steel Hour, Armstrong Circle Theatre, The Play of the Week, The Dick Powell Show, Alcoa Premiere, The DuPont Show of the Week, Profiles in Courage and Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre.All in the Family
O'Connor was living in Italy in 1968 when producer Norman Lear asked him to come to New York City and star in a series that he was creating for ABC titled Justice For All. Lear recruited O'Connor to play the role of Archie Justice, a bigot who was able to bring forth some measure of empathy from the audience. After two television pilots of the sitcom were produced (between 1968 and 1970), the hosting network was changed to CBS. For the third pilot, the last name of its main character was changed to Bunker, and its title was changed to All in the Family. The show was based on the BBC's Till Death Us Do Part, and Bunker was based on Alf Garnett, but he was somewhat less abrasive than the original British character.
O'Connor's Queens background and his ability to speak with a working-class New York accent both influenced Lear to set the show in Queens.
Desiring a well-known actor to play the lead, Lear approached Mickey Rooney but he declined the role. O'Connor accepted the role because he did not expect the show to succeed, and he believed that he would move back to Europe when it failed. In her book Archie & Edith, Mike & Gloria: the Tumultuous History of All in the Family, Donna McCrohan revealed that O'Connor had requested that Lear provide him with a return airplane ticket to Rome as a condition of his acceptance of the role so that he could return to Italy when the show failed. Instead, All in the Family became the highest-rated show on American television for five consecutive seasons.
While O'Connor's personal politics were liberal, he understood the Bunker character and played him not only with bombast and humor but with touches of vulnerability. The show's writing was consistently left of center, but O'Connor, while his character held right-wing views, could also deftly skewer the liberal pieties of the day. Bunker was famous for his English language malapropisms, but O'Connor was in truth a highly educated and cultured man and taught English before he turned to acting. Archie Bunker's long-suffering wife Edith was played by Jean Stapleton, also from New York City, a Broadway actress whom Lear remembered from the play and film Damn Yankees. The show also starred unknown character actors Rob Reiner as Archie's liberal son-in-law Michael "Meathead" Stivic and Sally Struthers as Gloria, Archie and Edith's only child and Mike's wife.
CBS debated whether the controversial subject matter of All in the Family would mesh with a sitcom. Racial issues, ethnicities, religions, class, education, women's equality, gun control, politics, inflation, the Vietnam War, energy crisis, Watergate and other timely topics of the 1970s were addressed. Like its British predecessor Till Death Us Do Part, the show lent dramatic social substance to the traditional sitcom format. Archie Bunker's popularity made O'Connor a top-billing star of the 1970s. O'Connor was apprehensive of being typecast for playing the role, but at the same time he was protective, not just of his character, but of the entire show.
A contract dispute between O'Connor and Lear marred the beginning of the show's fifth season. Eventually O'Connor received a raise and appeared in the series until it ended. For his work as Archie Bunker, he was nominated for eight Emmy Awards as Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series; he won the award four times (1972, 1977, 1978 and 1979). At the end of the eighth season in 1978, Reiner and Struthers left the series to pursue other projects.
Rob Reiner said in a 2014 interview about his on- and off-screen chemistry with O'Connor: "We did over 200 shows in front of a live audience. So I learned a lot about what audiences like, what they don't like, how stories are structured. I would spend a lot of time in the writing room and I actually wrote some scripts. And from Carroll O'Connor I learned a lot about how you perform and how important the script and story are for the actors. So the actor doesn't have to push things. You can let the story and the dialogue support you if it's good. I had great people around me, and I took from all the people who were around." Comparing O'Connor's character to Archie Bunker, Reiner said: "Carroll O'Connor brought his humanity to the character even though he had these abhorrent views. He's still a feeling, human being. He loved his wife even though he acted the way he did, and he loved his daughter. Those things come out. I don't think anybody's all good or all bad."
Archie Bunker's Place
When All in the Family ended after nine seasons, Archie Bunker's Place continued in its place and ran for four additional years. Longtime friend and original series star Jean Stapleton kept her role as Edith Bunker, but she was limited to five guest appearances in Season 1. In the second-season premiere, her character died of a stroke, leaving Archie to cope with the loss. The show was canceled in 1983. O'Connor was angered about the show's cancellation, maintaining that the show ended with an inappropriate finale. He would later work for CBS again when he starred in In the Heat of the Night on NBC and they decided not to renew the series. CBS allowed the series to continue for two more years and have a proper ending.
In the Heat of the Night
While coping with his son's drug problem, O'Connor starred as Sparta, Mississippi, Police Chief Bill Gillespie, a tough veteran cop on In the Heat of the Night. Based on the novel by John Ball and the 1967 movie of the same name, the series debuted on NBC in March 1988 and performed well. He cast his inexperienced son Hugh O'Connor as Officer Lonnie Jamison. The headquarters of the Sparta Police Department was actually the library in Covington, Georgia.
In 1989, while working on the set, O'Connor was hospitalized and underwent open heart surgery, which caused him to miss four episodes at the end of the second season (Actor Joe Don Baker took his place in those episodes as an acting police chief.) O'Connor would later serve as one of the executive producers for the series, starting with the third season. The series was transferred from NBC to CBS in 1992 and cancelled two years later after its seventh season. O'Connor reprised his role the following year for four two-hour In the Heat of the Night television films.
While on the series, O'Connor recorded "Bring a Torch, Jeanette Isabella" for the 1991 In the Heat of the Night Christmas CD Christmas Time's A Comin'. He was joined by Grand Ole Opry star mandolinist Jesse McReynolds, Nashville accordionist Abe Manuel Jr., and Nashville fiddlers Buddy Spicher and Randall Franks. CD Producer and series co-star Randall Franks created the arrangement which was co-produced by series co-star Alan Autry. He joined other members of the cast for a recording of "Jingle Bells" with vocals by Country Music Hall of Fame members Little Jimmy Dickens, Kitty Wells, Pee Wee King, The Marksmen Quartet, Bobby Wright, Johnnie Wright and Ken Holloway. According to MeTV, Carroll wrote several episodes under the pseudonym Matt Harris.
Career honors
Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy, 1972, All in the Family Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, 1971, 1976, 1977, and 1978, All in the Family George Foster Peabody Broadcasting Award, 1980, for Archie Alone episode, Archie Bunker's Place Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, 1989, In the Heat of the Night'
Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama, 1989, In the Heat of the Night
Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama nomination 1990, In the Heat of the Night''
Television Academy Hall of Fame, inducted 1990 for contributions to the television industry
NAACP Image Award, 1992, In the Heat of the Night Best Dramatic Series NAACP Image Award, 1993, In the Heat of the Night Best Dramatic SeriesOther honors
In 1973, his fraternity conferred its highest honor, the Sigma Phi Epsilon Citation, on him.
O'Connor is the only male actor to have won the lead acting Emmy Award in both the comedy and drama series categories.
In July 1991, O'Connor, Jean Stapleton, Reiner, and Sally Struthers reunited to celebrate the 20th anniversary of All in the Family. With reruns which airing in syndication on TV Land, Antenna TV and CBS, the show's popularity continued.
In March 2000, O'Connor received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was given a St. Patrick's Day tribute by MGM.
O'Connor's caricature is displayed at Sardi's restaurant in New York City's Theater District.
Personal life
In 1962, while he was in Rome filming Cleopatra, O'Connor and his wife Nancy Fields O'Connor adopted a six-day-old boy, naming him Hugh after O'Connor's brother who had died a year earlier. At age 17, Hugh worked as a courier on the set of Archie Bunker's Place. O'Connor eventually created the role of Officer Lonnie Jamison on In the Heat of the Night for his son.
O'Connor was a devout Catholic who regularly attended Mass.
In 1989, O'Connor was admitted to the hospital for heart bypass surgery and quit his 30-year smoking habit.
On March 28, 1995, O'Connor's son Hugh took his own life after a long battle with drug addiction. Following his son's death, O'Connor appeared in public service announcements for the Partnership for a Drug-Free America and spent the rest of his life working to raise awareness about drug addiction. O'Connor also successfully lobbied the state of California to pass legislation allowing family members of an addicted person or anyone injured by a drug dealer's actions, including employers, to sue for reimbursement for medical treatment, rehabilitation costs and other economic and noneconomic damages. The law, known as the Drug Dealer Civil Liability Act, went into effect in 1997. It is also referred to as the Hugh O'Connor Memorial Law. The act is based on the 1992 Model Drug Dealer Liability Act, which has been passed in 17 states and the Virgin Islands. Cases have been brought under the act in states such as California, Illinois, and Utah.
His son's suicide inspired O'Connor to start a crusade against the man who had sold the drugs to Hugh. He called Harry Perzigian "a partner in murder" and a "sleazeball," and Perzigian countered with a defamation lawsuit against O'Connor. In 1997, a California jury decided in O'Connor's favor. In an interview on CNN's Larry King Live soon after the verdict, O'Connor said that he would never be able to put his son's death behind him, saying: "I can't forget it. There isn't a day that I don't think of him and want him back and miss him, and I'll feel that way until I'm not here any more."
During the late 1990s, O'Connor established a small automotive restoration shop in Newbury Park, California. Called Carroll O'Connor Classics, the shop contained many of O'Connor's personal vehicles and the cars once owned by his late son. Among the cars O'Connor owned were a Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow sold to him by William Harrah, a Maserati 3500 GT, and a Dodge Challenger equipped with a 440-cubic inch V-8, which he drove during production of All in the Family.
In 1997, the O'Connors donated US$1 million (worth $ today) to their alma mater to help match a challenge grant to the University of Montana from the National Endowment for the Humanities. The university named a regional studies and public policy institute the O'Connor Center for the Rocky Mountain West. Afterward, O'Connor taught screenwriting at the university.
In 1998, O'Connor underwent a second surgery to clear the blockage in a carotid artery in order to reduce his risk of stroke.
Death
O'Connor died at the age of 76 on June 21, 2001, in Culver City, California from a heart attack brought on by complications from diabetes. His funeral Mass was celebrated at St. Paul the Apostle Catholic Church in Westwood, and was attended by All in the Family cast members Rob Reiner, Sally Struthers, and Danielle Brisebois, as well as producer Norman Lear. Jean Stapleton, a close friend of O'Connor's since the early 1960s, did not attend the service because of a commitment for a stage performance.
O'Connor's best friend Larry Hagman and his family attended the funeral, along with the surviving cast of In the Heat of the Night, including Alan Autry and Denise Nicholas. Actor Martin Sheen, then starring on The West Wing, delivered the eulogy. O'Connor's body was buried at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery with his son Hugh's cenotaph placed on his gravestone.
In honor of O'Connor's career, TV Land moved an entire weekend of programming to the next week and showed a continuous marathon of All in the Family. During the commercial breaks, TV Land also showed interview footage of O'Connor and various All in the Family actors, producers with whom he had worked, and other associates. His wife Nancy Fields O'Connor died on November 10, 2014, at age 84.
Partial credits
Starring roles
All in the Family (1971–1979) as Archie Bunker (salary $200,000 per episode)
Archie Bunker's Place (1979–1983) as Archie Bunker (salary $250,000 per episode)
In the Heat of the Night (1988–1994) as Chief/Sheriff Bill Gillespie
Films (feature and made-for-TV)
Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar" (1956) as Crassus
The Defiant Ones (1958) as Truck driver (uncredited)
The Sacco-Vanzetti Story (TV mini-series) (1960) as Frederick Katzman
A Fever in the Blood (1961) as Matt Keenan
Parrish (1961) as Fire fighter (uncredited)
By Love Possessed (1961) as Bernie Breck
Lad: A Dog (1962) as Hamilcar Q. Glure
Belle Sommers (TV) (1962) as Mr. Griffith
Lonely Are the Brave (1962) as Hinton the Truck Driver
Cleopatra (1963) as Casca
The Silver Burro (TV) (1963)
Nightmare in Chicago a.k.a. Once Upon a Savage Night (TV) (1964)
In Harm's Way (1965) as *Cmdr./Capt. Burke (USS Swayback)
The Last Patrol episode of The Time Tunnel (1966) as British General Southall and Colonel Southall, his 1815 ancestor
The Time Tunnel (1966)
What Did You Do in the War, Daddy? (1966) as Gen. Bolt
Hawaii (1966) as Charles Bromley
Not with My Wife, You Don't! (1966) as Gen. Maynard C. Parker
Warning Shot (1967) as Paul Jerez
Point Blank (1967) as Brewster
Waterhole#3 (1967) as Sheriff John H. Copperud
The Devil's Brigade (1968) as Maj. Gen. Maxwell Hunter
For Love of Ivy (1968) as Frank Austin
Death of a Gunfighter (1969) as Lester Locke
Marlowe (1969) as Lt. Christy French
Ride a Northbound Horse (TV)(1969)
Fear No Evil (TV) (1969) as Myles Donovan
Kelly's Heroes (1970) as Gen. Colt
Doctors' Wives (1971) Dr. Joe Gray
Of Thee I Sing (TV) (1972) as President Wintergreen
Law and Disorder (1974) as Willie
The Last Hurrah (TV) (1977) as Frank Skeffington
A Different Approach (1978)
Brass a.k.a. Police Brass (TV) (1985) as Frank Nolan
Convicted (1986) (TV) as Lewis May
The GLO Friends Save Christmas (1986) as Santa
The Father Clements Story (1987) (TV) as Cardinal Cody
Gideon (1998) as Leo Barnes
36 Hours to Die (TV) (1999) Jack 'Balls' O'Malley
Return to Me (2000) as Marty O'Reilly (final film role)
Writer
Bronk (TV) (1975) Series creator
The Last Hurrah (TV) (1977)
Archie Bunker's Place (1979) TV series (writer)
Brass aka Police Brass (TV) (1985) (credited as Matt Harris)
In the Heat of the Night (1988–1995) Numerous episodes (credited as Matt Harris)
Producer
Bronk (TV) (1975) Series (executive producer)
The Last Hurrah (TV) (1977) (executive producer)
In the Heat of the Night (TV) (1988–1995) (executive producer)
Director
Archie Bunker's Place (TV) (1979) Series
In the Heat of the Night (TV) (1988) Series
Crew
In the Heat of the Night (TV) (1988) Series (executive story editor credited as Matt Harris)
Composer/lyricist
All in the Family (TV) (1971) Archie Bunker's Place (TV) (1979) Both series "Remembering You" (Lyrics by O'Connor, Music by Roger Kellaway)
In the Heat of the Night (TV) (1988–1995) "Sweet, Sweet Blues" (Music and Lyrics by O'Connor) Episode aired November 26, 1991 S0508 (season 5, ep 8) performed by Bobby Short
Series music
All in the Family (TV) (1971) sang title song with Jean Stapleton (Music by Charles Strouse, Lyrics by Lee Adams)
Music In the Heat of the Night episode: When the Music Stopped (1992) About a Mile (1992)
Lyrics by Carroll O'Connor
Music by Robert Schumann and Richard S. Kaufman
Performed by Robert Goulet
Author
I Think I'm Outta Here () (1999) Autobiography
Guest starring roles
The Untouchables "Star Witness" playing "William Norman" January 21, 1960
Shirley Temple's Storybook playing "Appleyard" November 27, 1960
"The Black Arrow"
The Americans playing "Captain Garbor" May 8, 1961
"The Coward"
The Untouchables playing "Arnie Kurtz aka Albert Krim" (2 episodes, 1961–1962)
"Bird in the Hand"
The Dick Powell Show playing "Leonard Barsevick" "Pericles on 31st Street" April 12, 1962
Naked City June 20, 1962
"Goodbye Mama, Hello Auntie Maud"
Naked City playing "Tony Corran" December 19, 1962
"Spectre of the Rose Street Gang"
Stoney Burke Harry Clark in "Webb of Fear" (1963)
The Defenders (2 episodes, 1962–1963)
Ben Casey (2 episodes, 1962–1965)
Dr. Kildare (2 episodes, 1962–1965)
Death Valley Days playing "Senator Dave Broderick" February 8, 1963
"A Gun Is Not a Gentleman"
The Dick Powell Show playing "Dr. Lyman Savage" February 12, 1963
"Luxury Liner"
Bonanza playing "Tom Slayden" May 19, 1963
"The Boss"
The Outer Limits playing "Deimos" January 13, 1964
"Controlled Experiment"
The Fugitive playing "Sheriff Bray" March 10, 1964
"Flight from the Final Demon"
The Man from U.N.C.L.E. playing "Walter Brach" October 27, 1964
"The Green Opal Affair"
Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea playing "Old John" December 21, 1964
"Long Live the King"
Insight (2 episodes, 1965–1970)
I Spy playing "Dr. Karolyi" April 13, 1966
"It's *All Done with Mirrors"
The Time Tunnel playing "General Southall/Colonel Southall" October 7, 1966
"The Last Patrol"
Gunsmoke playing "Hootie Kyle" October 29, 1966
"The Wrong Man"
The Wild Wild West playing "Fabian Lavendor" November 25, 1966
"The Night of the Ready-Made Corpse"
Mission: Impossible playing "Josef Varsh" January 28, 1967
"The Trial"
That Girl playing "Giuseppe Casanetti" February 23, 1967
"A Tenor's Loving Care"
Gunsmoke playing "Major Glenn Vanscoy" October 30, 1967
"Major Glory"
Dundee and the Culhane "The Duelist Brief" (1967)
Insight (1970)
"The Day God Died"
Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In as "Guest Performer" December 13, 1971
The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour as himself (2 episodes, 1971–1972)
This Is Your Life as himself "Don Rickles" January 12, 1972
The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson as himself (5 episodes, 1972–1975)
The Dean Martin Show as himself "Celebrity Roast: Carroll O'Connor" December 7, 1973
The Dick Cavett Show as himself "London – New York" September 8, 1976
Saturday Night Live as himself (uncredited) September 25, 1976
Bill Moyers' Journal as himself May 16, 1981
Gloria playing "Archie Bunker" in episode: "Gloria, the First Day (un-aired pilot)" 1982
The Redd Foxx Show "Old Buddies" March 1, 1986
Mad About You (1996–1999) Gus Stemple #3
Party of Five (six episodes; all in 1996) as "Jake Gordon"
The Rosie O'Donnell Show as himself March 4, 1998
Biography: Carroll O'Connor June 22, 2001 as himself
Misc
Remembering You (1972) An LP of classic songs Himself
An All-Star Tribute to Elizabeth Taylor (1977) Himself
CBS: On the Air (1978) mini-series part VII co-host
The 30th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards (1978) Himself Winner
All in the Family: 20th Anniversary Special (1991) Himself
All in the Family: The E! True Hollywood Story (2000) Himself
Intimate Portrait: Minnie Driver (2000) Narrator
A&E Biography: Carroll O'Connor – All in a Lifetime (2001) Himself
Archive footage featuring Carroll O'Connor
Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey (2000) (V)
The 53rd Annual Primetime Emmy Awards (2001) Memorial tribute
Inside TV Land: African Americans in Television (2002)
The 74th Annual Academy Awards'' (2002) Memorial tribute
See also
References
External links
1924 births
2001 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters
Alumni of University College Dublin
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male television writers
American military personnel of World War II
American people of Irish descent
American Roman Catholics
American sailors
American television directors
American television writers
Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (television) winners
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
Catholics from New York (state)
Deaths from diabetes
Male actors from New York City
Military personnel from New York City
Military personnel from New York (state)
Newtown High School alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Elmhurst, Queens
People from Forest Hills, Queens
Screenwriters from New York (state)
Television producers from New York City
United States Merchant Marine Academy alumni
United States Merchant Mariners
United States Merchant Mariners of World War II
University of Montana alumni
University of Montana faculty
Wake Forest University alumni | [
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245807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyney%20University%20of%20Pennsylvania | Cheyney University of Pennsylvania | Cheyney University of Pennsylvania is a public historically black university in Cheyney, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1837, it is the oldest historically black college (HBCU). It is a member of the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education and the Thurgood Marshall College Fund. The university offers bachelor's degrees and is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education.
History
Built on land donated by the prominent Cheyney family, the university was founded as the African Institute in February 1837 and renamed the Institute of Colored Youth (ICY) in April 1837. Instruction was at the high school level (which at the time was considered advanced) until well into the twentieth century, when Cheyney became a college.
The African Institute was founded by Richard Humphreys, a Quaker philanthropist who bequeathed $10,000 (), one-tenth of his estate, to design and establish a school to educate people of African descent and prepare them as teachers.
Born on a plantation on Tortola, an island in the British West Indies, Humphreys came to Philadelphia in 1764. Many Quakers were abolitionists, and he became concerned about the struggles of free people of color to make a living and gain education in a discriminatory society. News of a race riot against free blacks in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1829 inspired Humphreys to bequeath money in his will for higher education for free blacks. He charged thirteen fellow Quakers to design an institution "to instruct the descendents of the African Race in school learning, in the various branches of the mechanic Arts, trades and Agriculture, in order to prepare and fit and qualify them to act as teachers ..."
Founded as the African Institute, the school was soon renamed the Institute for Colored Youth. In its early years, it provided training in trades and agriculture, as those were the predominant skills needed in the general economy. In 1902, the institute was relocated to George Cheyney's farm, a 275-acre property west of Philadelphia. The name "Cheyney" became associated with the school in 1913. The school's official name changed several times during the 20th century. In 1983, Cheyney was taken into the State System of Higher Education as Cheyney University of Pennsylvania.
The university has traditionally offered opportunities to many students from Philadelphia's inner city schools. Its alumni have close ties in the city and state. It became part of a 1980 civil rights lawsuit against the state government; it alleged that the state had unlawfully underfunded the historically black university. The suit was settled 19 years later in 1999. This was five years after the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights began investigating states "that once practiced segregation in higher education and were never officially found to have eliminated it." In the settlement, the state agreed to provide $35 million to Cheyney over a five-year period, particularly for construction of needed buildings and academic development. By comparison, the university had an annual budget of about $23 million at the time.
In November 2015, the Middle States Commission on Higher Education placed Cheyney University on probation. Three years later, the commission placed the university on "show cause" status which required the university to show cause by November 21, 2019, for showing compliance with the commission's standards or accreditation would not be renewed. The accreditation concerns were driven by the university's financial woes, a concern the university sought to address in part with increased fundraising.
On November 21, 2019, the Middle States Commission on Higher Education reaffirmed Cheyney's accreditation as "...the institution is now in compliance with Standard VI (Planning, Resources, and Institutional Improvement) and Requirement of Affiliation 11." The Middle States commission will continue to monitor financial stability of the university, with a report from Cheyney due to the commission on March 1, 2020.
Presidents
Aaron A. Walton, 13th President (May 2017 – present)
Frank Pogue, Ph.D.; 12th President (October 2014 – May 2017)
Phyllis Worthy Dawkins, Ph.D.; Acting President (2014)
Michelle R. Howard-Vital, 11th President (2007–2014),
Wallace C. Arnold, 10th Cheyney University President (2004–2007)
W. Clinton Pettus, 9th Cheyney University President. (1996–2004)
H. Douglas Covington, 8th Cheyney University President (1992–1995)
Valarie Swain-Cade McCoullum (interim) 7th President (1991–1992)
LeVerne McCummings, 6th Cheyney University President (1985–1991)
Wade Wilson, President 1968–1981
Dr. Leslie Pinckney Hill, founder and president of then Cheyney State Teachers College (1913–1951)
Campus
Cheyney University Quad
Burleigh Hall
Harry T. Burleigh Hall (1928) is named for Harry T. Burleigh, the first critically successful African American composer and a major international figure in the world of music in the 20th century. His works include “Nobody Knows the Trouble I‘ve Seen”. Burleigh also provided insight for the composition of the Cheyney Alma Mater, written by Leslie Pinckney Hill. The building, which forms the eastern end of the historic Quadrangle, was 1842 to 1875. Cope was instrumental in helping to raise funds for the institute throughout his long and loyal tenure as a board member.
Browne Hall
Hugh M. Browne Hall (1938) was originally constructed as a home economics center, and is named for Hugh Mason Browne, who was principal of the school from 1903 to 1913. It subsequently served as Cheyney's reception center, and housing for several administrative offices. Current plans call for renovation after which it will house high achieving students.
Dudley Hall
Dudley Hall (1931), named for Mildred B. Dudley a pioneering music faculty member, was formerly named Pennsylvania Hall. Dudley Hall was originally a gymnasium and later the home of the music department. After a renovation it became a fine arts center and theatre for student productions. The Dudley theatre has seen performances by Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee, in addition to highly regarded student productions.
Carnegie Library
Andrew Carnegie Hall (1909) is located on the quadrangle and is named for one of America's most famous philanthropists, the steel magnate, Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919). Carnegie had a passion for libraries and donated millions for the construction of libraries across the United States. Carnegie donated funding ($10,000) for the first library building constructed for the Institute for Colored Youth (ICY) in 1909. The building served as library, cafeteria, and gymnasium and study area. In 1962 an addition was constructed for classroom use, and now houses the business department. After a renovation in 2005, the grand hall is now used for special receptions & the rest of the building is home to Cheyney's business department.
Emlen Hall
Emlen Hall (1904) is named for Samuel Emlen, Quaker board member, and the founder of the Emlen Institute in Philadelphia, from whose estate the ICY had earlier received considerable financial aid. Construction on Emlen was begun in 1904 and completed in 1905. Emlen was originally a dormitory for women; however, later it was used for staff housing, business support services, and the business school. Currently, it is used for housing for the Keystone Honor Academy Students. Only these honor students are offered the privilege to stay in the historic building.
Humphreys Hall
Richard Humphreys Hall (1903), located on the historic quadrangle, was the very first building constructed under the governance of the Quaker Board of Governors. Construction began in 1903, and the building was in use by 1904. Named in honor of Richard Humphreys (1750–1832), the Quaker philanthropist and founder of the Institute for Colored Youth (ICY), whose will bequeathed the generous donation that enabled the establishment of the institution in 1837. Humphreys Hall has variously been used as a classroom building, industrial building, co-educational dormitory, and combination dining- room/kitchen. Originally called the “Industrial Building”, it was dedicated “Humphreys Hall” in honor of Richard Humphreys in June 1906. After an extensive renovation, the new use of the building is to house Humphrey's Scholars.
Biddle Hall
James G. Biddle Hall (1938), an administration building, is named for James G. Biddle who served on the Cheyney Board from 1912 until his death in 1947. When then-Cheyney Training School for Teachers was purchased by the Commonwealth, he became chairman of the Board of Trustees appointed by the governor. The building previously housed the computer center and math and computer sciences department. After a later renovation, it currently houses offices for the President, Vice Presidents for Student Affairs, and Institutional Advancement, and an art gallery. On the Quad, it is located across from Browne Hall, is parallel to Humphries Hall and diagonal from Burleigh Hall.
Other buildings
Marian Anderson Music Center
Marian Anderson Music Center (1970) is named for the internationally famous contralto from Philadelphia, who performed at Cheyney, and attended the center's dedication ceremony. The classroom building with accompanying auditorium also contains practice suites. The 36,000 square foot facility contains state-of-the-art acoustics and a wireless communication system installed. Marian Anderson (1897–1993) was one of the most celebrated contraltos of the twentieth century.
Marcus A. Foster Student Alumni Center
Marcus A. Foster Student Alumni Center (1970), is named in honor of Marcus Foster, a Cheyney alumnus (class of 1946), and renowned educator, who was assassinated while serving with distinction as superintendent of the Oakland, California, public school system. An addition was constructed in 1975, with accommodations for student and administrative offices, bookstore, lounges, and an auditorium. Currently, it also houses on the third floor a state-of-the-art computer lab, updated in 2016.
Leslie Pinckney Hill Library
Leslie Pinckney Hill Library (1974) was named for Dr. Leslie Pinckney Hill (1880–1960), the first president of Cheyney who led the school for thirty-eight years, from 1913 to 1951. The tri-level building is nearly four times the size of the original Carnegie Library that it replaced. Among its treasures are portraits by Laura Wheeler Waring. The library also houses the University Archives. It received an extensive renovation in 2016.
Vaux Hall
Vaux Hall (1960) was constructed as the industrial arts center. Named for two Quaker financial supporters of the institute, George Vaux, Sr. and George Vaux, Jr. Both men furthered Humphreys' bequest for the Institute for Colored Youth, including the Emlen Trust via vigorous fundraising. Vaux Hall served metal technology, drafting and CAD applications, photography, radio and broadcast sciences and printing graphics technology which was a staple of Cheyney University through the early 1990s. Vaux continues in its importance today to the fine arts, and information technology.
Wade Wilson Administration Center
Wade Wilson Administration Center (1979) was named for Dr. Wade Wilson (1914–1988), an alumnus, former star athlete, and industrial arts professor. Dr. Wilson was the fourth president of Cheyney University, and served as president from 1968 to 1981. During his tenure as president Dr. Wilson was an active presence in the legislative arena on behalf of the university. The Wade Wilson building was built in 1980 and occupied in 1981 as the new location for the Office of the President. Later, other administrative offices were moved to the building. Currently, the building houses the offices of the Provost, the Office of the Vice President for Finance, the mailroom, registrar, Human Resources, Financial Aid, and related support offices.
Athletics
Cheyney University has one of the most storied basketball programs in NCAA Division II history. The men's basketball program is 7th all-time in NCAA win percentage, including 16 PSAC conference championships, four Final Fours, and one National Championship (1978). The women's basketball team in 1982 competed in the championship game of the inaugural NCAA Division I tournament despite being a Division II school.
In 2009, Cheyney University hired the first ever NCAA men's and women's basketball coaches who are brother and sister. The men's coach was Dominique Stephens, a North Carolina Central University graduate and member of the NCAA Division II Basketball Championship team, and the women's coach was Marilyn Stephens, the Temple University Hall of Famer.
During the 2007–2008 through 2010–2011 academic years, the university violated NCAA rules in the certification of initial, transfer and continuing eligibility involving all sports programs. During the four-year period, numerous student-athletes competed while ineligible due to improper certification. In amateurism certification alone, 109 student-athletes practiced, competed and received travel expenses and/or athletically related financial aid before the university received their amateurism certification status from the NCAA Eligibility Center. The committee also concluded that a former compliance director failed to monitor when she did not follow proper procedures in the certification of student-athletes’ eligibility. The entire athletics program was on probation until August 2019. In spring 2018, the team withdrew from Division II and played the following season as an independent, citing financial problems.
Student life
All nine National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) organizations are present on Cheyney University's campus. The following is a collective list of all the NPHC chapters chartered at the university.
Fraternities
Sororities
Notable alumni
See also
Lincoln University, Pennsylvania's other historically black university
References
Further reading
External links
Cheyney Athletics website
School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Historically black universities and colleges in the United States
Educational institutions established in 1837
African-American history of Pennsylvania
Universities and colleges in Delaware County, Pennsylvania
1837 establishments in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Antebellum educational institutions that admitted African Americans
Public universities and colleges in Pennsylvania | [
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245808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20Legend | Golden Legend | The Golden Legend (Latin: Legenda aurea or Legenda sanctorum) is a collection of hagiographies by Jacobus de Varagine that was widely read in late medieval Europe. More than a thousand manuscripts of the text have survived.<ref name="maddocks">Hilary Maddocks, "Pictures for aristocrats: the manuscripts of the Légende dorée", in Margaret M. Manion, Bernard James Muir, eds. Medieval texts and images: studies of manuscripts from the Middle Ages 1991:2; a study of the systemization of the Latin manuscripts of the Legenda aurea is B. Fleith, "Le classement des quelque 1000 manuscrits de la Legenda aurea latine en vue de l'éstablissement d'une histoire de la tradition" in Brenda Dunn-Lardeau, ed. Legenda Aurea: sept siècles de diffusion", 1986:19-24</ref> It was likely compiled around the years 1259–1266, although the text was added to over the centuries.
Initially entitled Legenda sanctorum (Readings of the Saints), it gained its popularity under the title by which it is best known. It overtook and eclipsed earlier compilations of abridged legendaria, the Abbreviatio in gestis et miraculis sanctorum attributed to the Dominican chronicler Jean de Mailly and the Epilogus in gestis sanctorum of the Dominican preacher Bartholomew of Trent. When printing was invented in the 1450s, editions appeared quickly, not only in Latin, but also in almost every major European language. Among incunabula, printed before 1501, Legenda aurea was printed in more editions than the Bible and was one of the most widely published books of the Middle Ages. During the height of its popularity the book was so well known that the term "Golden Legend" was sometimes used generally to refer to any collection of stories about the saints. It was one of the first books William Caxton printed in the English language; Caxton's version appeared in 1483 and his translation was reprinted, reaching a ninth edition in 1527.
Written in simple, readable Latin, the book was read in its day for its stories. Each chapter is about a different saint or Christian festival. The book is considered the closest thing to an encyclopaedia of medieval saint lore that survives today; as such, it is invaluable to art historians and medievalists who seek to identify saints depicted in art by their deeds and attributes. Its repetitious nature is explained if Jacobus da Varagine meant to write a compendium of saintly lore for sermons and preaching, not a work of popular entertainment.
Lives of the saints
The book sought to compile traditional lore about saints venerated at the time of its compilation, ordered according to their feast days. Jacobus da Varagine for the most part follows a template for each chapter: etymology of the saint's name, a narrative about their life, a list of miracles performed, and finally a list of citations where the information was found.
Each chapter typically begins with an etymology for the saint's name, "often entirely fanciful". An example (in Caxton's translation) shows his method:
As a Latin author, Jacobus da Varagine must have known that Silvester, a relatively common Latin name, simply meant "from the forest". The correct derivation is alluded to in the text, but set out in parallel to fanciful ones that lexicographers would consider quite wide of the mark. Even the "correct" explanations (silvas, "forest", and the mention of green boughs) are used as the basis for an allegorical interpretation. Jacobus da Varagine's etymologies had different goals from modern etymologies, and cannot be judged by the same standards. Jacobus' etymologies have parallels in Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae, in which linguistically accurate derivations are set out beside allegorical and figurative explanations.
Jacobus da Varagine then moves on to the saint's life, compiled with reference to the readings from the Roman Catholic Church's liturgy commemorating that saint; then embellishes the biography with supernatural tales of incidents involving the saint's life.
Medieval view of Muhammad
The chapter "St Pelagius, Pope and the History of the Lombards" begins with the story of St Pelagius, then proceeds to touch upon events surrounding the origin and history of the Lombards in Europe leading up to the 7th century when the story of Muhammad begins. The story then goes on to describe "Magumeth (Mahomet, Muhammad)" as "a false prophet and sorcerer", detailing his early life and travels as a merchant through his marriage to the widow Khadija, and goes on to suggest that his "visions" came as a result of epileptic seizures and the interventions of a renegade Nestorian monk named Sergius. The chapter conveys the medieval Christian understanding of the beliefs of Saracens and other Muslims. It may be because of this long history that early copies of the entire work were sometimes referred to as Historia Lombardica.
Miracle tales of relics
Many of the stories also conclude with miracle tales and similar wonderlore from accounts of those who called upon that saint for aid or used the saint's relics. Such a tale is told of Saint Agatha; Jacobus da Varagine has pagans in Catania repairing to the relics of St. Agatha to supernaturally repel an eruption of Mount Etna:
And for to prove that she had prayed for the salvation of the country, at the beginning of February, the year after her martyrdom, there arose a great fire, and came from the mountain toward the city of Catania and burnt the earth and stones, it was so fervent. Then ran the paynims to the sepulchre of S. Agatha and took the cloth that lay upon her tomb, and held it abroad against the fire, and anon on the ninth day after, which was the day of her feast, ceased the fire as soon as it came to the cloth that they brought from her tomb, showing that our Lord kept the city from the said fire by the merits of S. Agatha.
Mary Magdalene's sea voyage
Sources
Jacobus carefully lists many of the sources he used to collect his stories, with more than 120 total sources listed; among the three most important are Historia Ecclesiastica by Eusebius, Tripartate History by Cassiodorus, and Historia scholastica by Petrus Comestor.
However, scholars have also identified other sources which Jacobus did not himself credit. A substantial portion of Jacobus' text was drawn from two epitomes of collected lives of the saints, both also arranged in the order of the liturgical year, written by members of his Dominican order: one is Jean de Mailly's lengthy Abbreviatio in gestis et miraculis sanctorum (Summary of the Deeds and Miracles of the Saints) and the other is Bartholomew of Trent's Epilogum in gesta sanctorum (Afterword on the Deeds of the Saints). The many extended parallels to text found in Vincent de Beauvais' Speculum historiale, the main encyclopedia that was used in the Middle Ages, are attributed by modern scholars to the two authors' common compilation of identical sources, rather than to Jacobus' reading Vincent's encyclopedia. More than 130 more distant sources have been identified for the tales related of the saints in the Golden Legend, few of which have a nucleus in the New Testament itself; these hagiographic sources include apocryphal texts such as the Gospel of Nicodemus, and the histories of Gregory of Tours and John Cassian. Many of his stories have no other known source. A typical example of the sort of story related, also involving St. Silvester, shows the saint receiving miraculous instruction from Saint Peter in a vision that enables him to exorcise a dragon:
In this time it happed that there was at Rome a dragon in a pit, which every day slew with his breath more than three hundred men. Then came the bishops of the idols unto the emperor and said unto him: O thou most holy emperor, sith the time that thou hast received Christian faith the dragon which is in yonder fosse or pit slayeth every day with his breath more than three hundred men. Then sent the emperor for S. Silvester and asked counsel of him of this matter. S. Silvester answered that by the might of God he promised to make him cease of his hurt and blessure of this people. Then S. Silvester put himself to prayer, and S. Peter appeared to him and said: "Go surely to the dragon and the two priests that be with thee take in thy company, and when thou shalt come to him thou shalt say to him in this manner: Our Lord Jesus Christ which was born of the Virgin Mary, crucified, buried and arose, and now sitteth on the right side of the Father, this is he that shall come to deem and judge the living and the dead, I commend thee Sathanas that thou abide him in this place till he come. Then thou shalt bind his mouth with a thread, and seal it with thy seal, wherein is the imprint of the cross. Then thou and the two priests shall come to me whole and safe, and such bread as I shall make ready for you ye shall eat.<p>Thus as S. Peter had said, S. Silvester did. And when he came to the pit, he descended down one hundred and fifty steps, bearing with him two lanterns, and found the dragon, and said the words that S. Peter had said to him, and bound his mouth with the thread, and sealed it, and after returned, and as he came upward again he met with two enchanters which followed him for to see if he descended, which were almost dead of the stench of the dragon, whom he brought with him whole and sound, which anon were baptized, with a great multitude of people with them. Thus was the city of Rome delivered from double death, that was from the culture and worshiping of false idols, and from the venom of the dragon.
Jacobus describes the story of Saint Margaret of Antioch surviving being swallowed by a dragon as "apocryphal and not to be taken seriously" (trans. Ryan, 1.369).
Perception and legacy
The book was highly successful in its time, despite many other similar books that compiled legends of the saints. The reason it stood out against competing saint collections probably is that it offered the average reader the perfect balance of information. For example, compared to Jean de Mailly's work Summary of the Deeds and Miracles of the Saints, which The Golden Legend largely borrowed from, Jacobus added chapters about the major feast days and removed some of the saints' chapters, which might have been more useful to the Medieval reader.
Many different versions of the text exist, mostly due to copiers and printers adding additional content to it. Each time a new copy was made, it was common for that institution to add a chapter or two about their own local saints. Today more than 1000 original manuscripts have been found, the earliest of which dates back to 1265.
Contemporary influences and translationsThe Golden Legend had a big influence on scholarship and literature of the Middle Ages. According to research by Manfred Görlach, it influenced the South English Legendary, which was still being written when Jacobus' text came out. It was also a major source for John Mirk's Festial, Osbern Bokenam's Legends of Hooly Wummen, and the Scottish Legendary.
By the end of the Middle Ages, The Golden Legend had been translated into almost every major European language. The earliest surviving English translation is from 1438, and is cryptically signed by "a synfulle wrecche". In 1483, the work was re-translated and printed by William Caxton under the name The Golden Legende, and subsequently reprinted many times due to the demand.
16th-century rejection and 20th-century revival
The adverse reaction to Legenda aurea under critical scrutiny in the 16th century was led by scholars who reexamined the criteria for judging hagiographic sources and found Legenda aurea wanting; prominent among the humanists were two disciples of Erasmus, Georg Witzel, in the preface to his Hagiologium, and Juan Luis Vives in De disciplinis. Criticism among members of Jacobus' Dominican order were muted by the increased reverence towards the archbishop, which culminated in his beatification in 1815. The rehabilitation of Legenda aurea in the 20th century, now interpreted as a mirror of the heartfelt pieties of the 13th century, is attributed to Téodor de Wyzewa, whose retranslation into French, and its preface, have been often reprinted.
Editions and translations
The critical edition of the Latin text has been edited by Giovanni Paolo Maggioni (Florence: SISMEL 1998). In 1900, the Caxton version was updated into more modern English by Frederick Startridge Ellis, and published in seven volumes. Jacobus da Varagine's original was translated into French around the same time by Téodor de Wyzewa. A modern English translation of the Golden Legend has been published by William Granger Ryan, and (2 volumes).
A modern translation of the Golden Legend is available from Fordham University's Medieval Sourcebook.
See also
Piero della Francesca's The History of the True CrossWilliam Caxton
Pseudo-Abdias
References
Works cited
External links
Golden Legend Hathi TrustThe Golden Legend'' — William Caxton's Middle English version (not quite complete).
, William Caxton's text with missing page from St. Paul supplied.
Illustrations of The Golden Legend from the HM 3027 manuscript of Legenda Aurea from the Huntington Library
William Caxton's version (complete)
1260s books
13th-century Christian texts
13th-century Latin books
Books about Nero
Christian folklore
Christian hagiography
Christian iconography
Literature of the Dominican Order
Latin encyclopedias
Medieval literature
Medieval legends | [
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245813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20China | Communist China | Communist China may refer to:
People's Republic of China (PRC), the modern state known as "China"
Communist Party of China (CPC), commonly known as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)
Chinese Soviet Republic (CSR)
History of the People's Republic of China | [
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245819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake%20Bayhawks | Chesapeake Bayhawks | The Chesapeake Bayhawks were a Major League Lacrosse (MLL) professional men's field lacrosse team based in Annapolis, Maryland since 2010. They played in the greater Baltimore metro area beginning with the MLL's inaugural 2001 season, as the Baltimore Bayhawks from 2001–2006 and as the Washington Bayhawks from 2007–2009.
They won six Steinfeld Cup titles, the most of any MLL franchise.
Franchise history
Early success
The Bayhawks played two seasons at Homewood Field at Johns Hopkins University, in 2001 and 2003, while they played at M&T Bank Stadium in downtown Baltimore in 2002. Their home moved to Johnny Unitas Stadium on the campus of Towson University from 2004 to 2006. They won National Division titles in 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2005 and made the 2004 playoffs as a wild card.
In 2001, the Bayhawks won the National Division crown, but fell short in the championship game to the Long Island Lizards. The following year, the Bayhawks repeated as National Division champions and this time avenged their title game loss by beating the Lizards to win their first MLL crown. In the MLL's third season, the Bayhawks continued their National Division dominance with their third straight title, but again came up just short in the MLL Championship against the Lizards. The Bayhawks made the playoffs in 2004, but were eliminated in the semifinals.
The 2005 Bayhawks squad is regarded as one of the greatest lacrosse teams ever assembled. Led by hall-of-famers Gary Gait and Tom Marechek, the Bayhawks went 10–2, dominating the competition and setting several scoring records throughout the year. They scored 47 more goals than any other team and lead the league with fewest goals allowed, resulting in an average score of 20–13. The team capped the regular season with their fourth National Division title and their second MLL crown.
The Bayhawks were the only Major League Lacrosse team to have a winning season in each of the first five years of the league, posting a 44–19 record.
Move to Washington, D.C.
The 2006 season was a transition year for the Bayhawks. BT Lax Operating purchased the franchise from the prior ownership group led by the Pivec family. The Bayhawks went 4–8 and missed the playoffs for the first time in its history. Following the season, the new owners announced the team would be renamed the Washington Bayhawks and play around Washington, DC.
The Washington Bayhawks played their first home game of the 2007 season at George Mason Stadium in Fairfax, Virginia with the subsequent five home games at Georgetown University's Multi-Sport Field. George Mason Stadium served as the primary field for five home games during 2008 with one home game at Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis, Maryland. Both years the Bayhawks produced losing records, 5–7 and 4–8.
In 2009, the Bayhawks returned to Maryland for good and signed a three-year agreement with the US Naval Academy for their home games. A permanent home did not help the Bayhawks on the field, they finished with another 5–7 season.
Dynasty in Annapolis
In March 2010, the Bayhawks announced a new ownership group, Hometown Lacrosse, LLC led by majority owner Brendan Kelly. The Bayhawks also announced that the team name would be changed to the Chesapeake Bayhawks to include all areas of the region from Northern Maryland to Virginia and Washington, DC to the Eastern Shore. The Bayhawks continued to play at Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis. The team started out 4–6, leading Kelly to fire John Tucker and take over as head coach himself. With Kelly's leadership, the team finished the 2010 season at 6–6 and made the playoffs for the first time since 2005. The Bayhawks defeated the Boston Cannons 13–9 in the semifinals, and won the Steinfeld Trophy for the third time with another 13–9 victory over their archrivals, the Long Island Lizards.
After a rollercoaster season and another 6–6 record in 2011, the Bayhawks were defeated by the Boston Cannons in a close match-up in the playoffs at home. In the off-season, the team made some major changes when Kelly stepped down as head coach and promoted Dave Cottle from assistant coach to head coach. Cottle immediately brought in Tony Resch to serve as his defensive coordinator. In 2012 they recaptured the Steinfeld Cup, defeating the Denver Outlaws 16–6 in the final.
The Bayhawks repeated as MLL champions in 2013, defeating the Charlotte Hounds 10–9 in the final.
Playoff drought
After their third title in four years in 2013, the Bayhawks missed the playoffs in the following four seasons, the second time in franchise history. In 2016, seven teams finished tied atop the standings at 8-6, including the Bayhawks. Due to tiebreaker procedures, the Bayhawks were left out of the playoffs.
In 2017, the Bayhawks started the season 3-1, but a four-game losing streak put them in a bad position at 3-5. The Bayhawks were finally able to regain some momentum but were ultimately eliminated with a loss during the second-to-last week of the regular season. They finished the season on a high note though, a 23-19 victory over the defending champion Denver Outlaws. In the game, rookie Josh Byrne scored seven goals and finished 2017 with the Major League Lacrosse record for goals in a season for a rookie with 39. The win put them at an even 7-7, but did not prevent them from extending their playoff drought to four seasons. On September 14, the Bayhawks announced that head coach Brian Reese would not be returning because the team wanted a full-time coach, the league's first. On December 13, the Bayhawks announced they were bringing back Dave Cottle as head coach.
The Bayhawks were developing plans for a $40 million 10,000-seat stadium in Crownsville that would have included a three-story team headquarters. The project's first phase would be a 6,000 seat amphitheater that the Bayhawks hope to be playing in by 2020, while phase two would include 20 youth fields but the local community has raised significant objections to the plans.
Cottle returns as head coach
The Bayhawks new and old head coach Dave Cottle began the 2018 campaign at home against the Dallas Rattlers, who were playing in their first game since relocating from Rochester. The Rattlers defeated the Bayhawks 15-9. On April 28, the Bayhawks collected their first win of the season and Cottle's second tenure with a 14-11 victory over the Florida Launch.
After a 1-2 start, the Bayhawks would rattle off seven straight victories, including back-to-back wins over the defending champion Ohio Machine, a team who swept them the season before. The Bayhawks would drop three of their last four contests of the regular season, but at 9-5, the team still earned second place and a home playoff game in the 2018 postseason.
In their first playoff appearance since 2013, the Bayhawks lost a close game to the Denver Outlaws, 13-12, despite defeating the Outlaws twice in the regular season. It was only the Bayhawks' second playoff loss in five trips to the postseason since becoming the Chesapeake Bayhawks in 2010.
After the 2018 season, the professional lacrosse landscape changed drastically with the launch of the Premier Lacrosse League and the migration of nearly 150 Major League Lacrosse players to the upstart league. In addition, the number of MLL teams was shaved from nine to six, as two teams folded and one (Charlotte) went on a hiatus. In the new-look MLL, the Bayhawks took advantage. Led by Lyle Thompson, who would win league MVP and offensive player of the year honors, Chesapeake would finish a league-best 10-6 in the regular season. Despite this, the Bayhawks would essentially have to play as the road team as they eventually made it to the championship game, played at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Denver, where they would face: the Denver Outlaws. In front of an Outlaw-friendly crowd, the Bayhawks stormed out to a 5-0 lead before letting Denver slowly creep back into it. The Outlaws would take their first lead of the game, 9-8, with eight minutes to go. The Bayhawks, though, would persevere with goals from Steele Stanwick and Andrew Kew in the final three minutes. Chesapeake would ultimately win their sixth Steinfeld Cup, and first in six years.
In January 2020, Cottle stepped away as head coach. He was replaced by Tom Mariano, who had previously served as an assistant to Cottle.
Rivalry
The Bayhawks' biggest rival were the New York Lizards. They faced each other in five Steinfeld Cup championships: the first three, in 2005, and in 2010. The Lizards won in 2001 and 2003, the Bayhawks in 2002, 2005, and 2010. Both Long Island and the Baltimore area try to claim bragging rights to be the top "hotbed" of producing lacrosse talent.
Roster
Roster
MLL award winners
Most Valuable Player
Greg Cattrano: 2002
Gary Gait: 2005
Lyle Thompson: 2019
Rookie of the Year
Brodie Merrill: 2005
Matt Ward: 2006
Josh Byrne: 2017
Defensive Player of the Year
Rob Doerr: 2001
Offensive Player of the Year
Mark Millon: 2002, 2003
Lyle Thompson: 2019
Goalie of the Year
Greg Cattrano: 2001, 2002
Niko Amato: 2018
Most Improved Player
Peet Poillon: 2010
Season-by-season
[a] August 17 game at Long Island canceled due to rain
Head coaches
References
External links
Lacrosse clubs established in 2001
2001 establishments in Maryland
Lacrosse teams in Maryland | [
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245822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Lizards | New York Lizards | The New York Lizards, originally the Long Island Lizards, were a Major League Lacrosse (MLL) team based in Hempstead, New York, located on Long Island. They are original members of the MLL. They lost the league's inaugural game on June 7, 2001 to the Baltimore Bayhawks (now Chesapeake Bayhawks), 16–13.
History
In the MLL's inaugural season in 2001, the Long Island Lizards split their home games between Hofstra Stadium, now James M. Shuart Stadium, and EAB Park (now Bethpage Ballpark). For the 2002 season, they used Hofstra Stadium as their home field. As of 2003, the Lizards played all home contests at Mitchel Athletic Complex, in Uniondale, New York until 2008. The team will return to James M. Shuart Stadium for their home games in 2009. The Lizards have won American Division championships in 2001, 2002, and 2003, and Major League Lacrosse titles in 2001, 2003 and 2015. The team made the playoffs in 2005 as a wildcard despite a losing record. The team's name and logo are based on the Italian wall lizard, a small reptile that was imported to Long Island (which has no native lizards) in the 1960s and which populate areas of the team's hometown of Hempstead in Nassau County.
On December 14, 2012 the Lizards changed their name to the New York Lizards.
Prior to the 2015 season, the Lizards made a trade with the Boston Cannons for Paul Rabil. In exchange for Paul Rabil and Mike Stone, the Cannons received Max Seibald, Brian Karalunas and three draft picks. That season, the Lizards won their third Steinfeld Cup and first in 12 years by defeating their instate rival Rochester Rattlers 15–12. The Lizards won the game at Fifth Third Bank Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia before a Steinfeld Cup-record 8,674 fans.
Prior to the 2019 season, Rabil and his brother Michael formed the Premier Lacrosse League, which would compete directly with Major League Lacrosse. With the launch of the PLL, 140 players from Major League Lacrosse migrated to the upstart league. In the Lizards' first season after the pro lacrosse landscape changed vastly, they lost a franchise worst 11 games in 2019, and posted their second-worst winning percentage (.313). After two MLL teams and one went on a hiatus (Charlotte), New York finished last out of six teams that season. After Rob Pannell finished out his contract that season, he too bolted for the PLL. So in 2020, a season shorted and compacted into a week-long, quarantined tournament thanks to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Lizards joined the 2006 Chicago Machine as the only two teams in league history to post a winless season; albeit the 2020 Lizards' 0–5 record was not as bad as the Machine's 0–12 season. Additionally, the Lizards led in all five games and only finished with a -8 goal differential (-11 score differential).
Rivalry
Chesapeake Bayhawks
The Lizards' main rival is the Chesapeake Bayhawks. Between them they hold 8 of the 15 MLL league championships awarded through the 2015 season. The two teams have played in the championship game five times, with Chesapeake winning 3 of those 5.
Boston Cannons
The Lizards have found a new rival in the Boston Cannons after they traded their All Star Mid Fielder Paul Rabil to New York in January 2015. That season the Lizards faced the Cannons in the MLL semi-finals and the game resulted in a dramatic overtime victory for the Lizards(16-15). The tension of that game continued into the 2016 MLL season when the Cannons came to James M. Shuart Stadium, which resulted in another intense over-time victory for the Lizards(13-12).
General managers
Joe Spallina is the former head coach and current general manager of the New York Lizards.
Coaching staff
Current coaching staff
Head coach – BJ O'Hara
Assistant coach – Ted Garber
Assistant coach – Mike Gongas
All-time head coaches
Current roster
(C)- captain
MLL Award Winners
Most Valuable Player
Jay Jalbert: 2003
Greg Gurenlian: 2015
Rob Pannell: 2018
Rookie of the Year
Matt Gibson: 2012
Rob Pannell: 2013
Coach of the Year
John DeTommaso: 2001
Jim Mule: 2010
Joe Spallina: 2012
Offensive Player of the Year
Rob Pannell: 2016, 2018
Defensive Player of the Year
Nicky Polanco: 2005
Joe Fletcher: 2015
Goalie of the Year
Brian Dougherty: 2003
Drew Adams: 2010, 2011, 2015
Most Improved Player
Stephen Peyser: 2011
Retired numbers
2 – Greg Cattrano
9 – Tim Goettlemann
10 – Jay Jalbert
29 – Pat McCabe
21 – Brodie Thoms
Season-by-season
* August 17 game against Baltimore canceled due to rain
2001 Long Island Lizards season
2002 Long Island Lizards season
2003 Long Island Lizards season
2004 Long Island Lizards season
2005 Long Island Lizards season
2006 Long Island Lizards season
2007 Long Island Lizards season
2008 Long Island Lizards season
2009 Long Island Lizards season
2010 Long Island Lizards season
2011 Long Island Lizards season
2012 Long Island Lizards season
2013 New York Lizards Season
2017 New York Lizards season
2018 New York Lizards season
2019 New York Lizards season
MLL Collegiate Draft history
First Round Selections
2001: Eric Wedin, Johns Hopkins (4th overall)
2002: None
2003: None
2004: None
2005: None
2006: None
2007: Matt McMonagle, Cornell (10th overall)
2008: None
2009: Zack Greer, Bryant (3rd overall)
2010: Peter McKee, Duke (4th overall)
2011: Zach Brenneman, Notre Dame (5th overall)
2012: Rob Pannell, Cornell (1st overall)
2013: None
2014: Joe Fletcher, Loyola (3rd overall); Luke Duprey, Duke (4th overall)
2015: None
2016: None
2017: None
2018: Joel Tinney, Johns Hopkins (5th overall)
2019: None
References
Lacrosse clubs established in 2001
2001 establishments in New York (state)
Lacrosse teams in New York (state)
Sports teams in New York City | [
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245823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas%20Rattlers | Dallas Rattlers | The Dallas Rattlers were a professional men's field lacrosse team as a member of Major League Lacrosse (MLL) based in Frisco, Texas starting in 2018. The franchise was a charter member of the MLL, operating as the Rochester Rattlers in Rochester, New York, from 2001 to 2008 and 2011 to 2017.
After the 2008 season, the team was dissolved. The Rattlers' staff and roster was transferred to the new Toronto Nationals franchise, but the history, colors, and name of the Rattlers franchise remained in Rochester so that they could be used for a future MLL team. After a two-year absence, the Chicago Machine moved to Rochester to play the 2011 season under the Rattlers name.
On November 16, 2017, the franchise announced that it was relocating to Frisco, a northern suburb of Dallas, and would be known as the Dallas Rattlers. The team is owned by Jim Davis, founder and chairman of New Balance.
The league suspended the Rattlers for the 2020 season while retaining the rights to the team branding to possibly return at a later date. Most of the players and team staff were transferred to the expansion Connecticut Hammerheads.
Franchise history
Rochester Rattlers
In 2001 and 2002 the team played home games at Frontier Field. They played at Bishop Kearney Field from 2003 to 2005, and moved into the new PAETEC Park in 2006. In April 2015, negotiations between the Rattlers and Sahlen's Stadium in Rochester fell through, resulting in the team moving its home field to Eunice Kennedy Shriver Stadium on the campus of SUNY Brockport. They returned to the city of Rochester for the 2016 season, using Wegmans Stadium at the Aquinas Institute as their home field. In 2017, they announced a return to the city's professional soccer stadium, now under new ownership and known as Marina Auto Stadium.
The Rattlers made the playoffs in 2001 and 2005 as a wildcard. They were the National Division champions in 2004. On June 16, 2007, the Rochester Rattlers won a 27–26 (in overtime) game over the Denver Outlaws in the highest scoring game in MLL history at INVESCO Field at Mile High.
In 2008, the Rattlers won their first and only MLL championship by defeating the Philadelphia Barrage 16–15 in overtime in the semifinals and the Denver Outlaws 16–6 in the championship game.
After the 2008 season, the team was dissolved and the rights to the team were sold to a Toronto, Ontario-based group on February 19, 2009. The Rattlers' staff and roster was transferred to the new Toronto franchise, named the Toronto Nationals; however, the Rattlers' history, team colors, and name remained in Rochester, thus allowing the Chicago Machine to be re-branded as the Rochester Rattlers in time for the 2011 season.
Dallas Rattlers
On November 16, 2017 the league announced that the Rattlers would be relocating to the Dallas market for the 2018 season and become the Dallas Rattlers. It was announced that head coach Tim Soudan would not be joining the team in Texas and instead Bill Warder, a long-time assistant coach for the Rattlers, would be the head coach. Warder and the rest of the Rattlers would play and win their first game as the new Dallas Rattlers on April 21 at Navy-Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in a 15–9 defeat of the Chesapeake Bayhawks.
The Rattlers would finish first place in the league at 11–3, becoming the first team since the 2015 New York Lizards to win a double-digit number of games. They also finished a league-best 6–1 at their new home in Frisco, where they finished second place in the league in attendance. Five of the seven home games in the regular season were decided by one goal.
On August 11, the Rattlers hosted their former in-state rival Lizards in Frisco. The Lizards were the only team to defeat the Rattlers at home in the regular season, just two weeks prior. However, the Rattlers used a balanced attack and a crowd of over 6,000 people to fuel them to a 15–12 victory. The win lifted them to a championship game appearance in their first season in Dallas, and fourth appearance in franchise history.
The championship game was held on August 18 in Charleston, South Carolina at MUSC Health Stadium. The Rattlers would face the third-seeded Denver Outlaws, who defeated the team in the 2014 championship game. After grabbing a 9–6 lead midway through the second quarter, Dallas would suffer a 15-minute scoreless drought while the Outlaws went on a 7–0 run. The Rattlers would never recover and ended up dropping the contest, 16–12. The night before, Bill Warder was named Coach of the Year, John Galloway was named Co-Goalie of the Year, and Matt Dunn was named Defensive Player of the Year.
2019: New blood
Like many other teams in the league, when the Premier Lacrosse League was formed, the Rattlers found themselves having to replace a number of star players, including many that had played with each other for several years in Rochester. Key returners that would take upon bigger roles on and off the field in 2019 would include Ryan McNamara, Zack Greer, Donny Moss, Mike Lazore, Jack Curran, and Cody Radziewicz. The Rattlers would also pick up Dallas native Bryce Wasserman in the offseason. Dallas product Christian Carson-Banister would also start the season in goal for the team in his first Major League Lacrosse appearances.
Dallas stumbled out of the gates, starting a league-worst 0-7. However, midseason acquisitions of rookies Sean Sconone (goalie) and Bradley Voigt (attack), as well as veterans Kyle Buchanan and Adam Osika proved wonders. The Rattlers picked up their first win of the season, 11-8 at Broncos Stadium at Mile High against the Denver Outlaws in the last week before the All Star Break. Sconone make his name known with 20 saves. This would start a streak of six straight victories that would result in the Rattlers on the doorstep of a playoff berth. During the streak, the Rattlers would beat every team in the league, win four on the road, and defeat three first-place teams (all on the road).
Despite owning their playoff destiny heading into the last homestand of the season, the Rattlers would lose two one-goal games to New York and Atlanta officially eliminating them from postseason contention. Dallas would finish 7-9 and miss out on the playoffs for just the second time in six years.
Season-by-season
Roster
MLL Award Winners
Most Valuable Player
Ryan Powell: 2001
John Grant Jr.: 2007, 2008
Rookie of the Year
Adam Doneger: 2003
Alex Smith: 2007
Coach of the Year
Tim Soudan: 2014
Bill Warder: 2018
Defensive Player of the Year
Brodie Merrill: 2006, 2007, 2008
Michael Manley: 2014, 2016
Joel White: 2016
Matt Dunn: 2018
Offensive Player of the Year
John Grant Jr.: 2001, 2007, 2008
Casey Powell: 2005
Jordan Wolf: 2015
Goalie of the Year
John Galloway: 2014, 2016, 2018
Sean Sconone: 2019
Most Improved Player
Andrew Combs: 2005
Justin Turri: 2014
Coaches and others
References
Lacrosse clubs established in 2018
2018 establishments in Texas | [
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245824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannons%20Lacrosse%20Club | Cannons Lacrosse Club | The Cannons Lacrosse Club are a Premier Lacrosse League (PLL) professional men's field lacrosse team. Formerly based in Boston, Massachusetts, they played in Major League Lacrosse (MLL) as the Boston Cannons from their inaugural 2001 season to 2020. The team's home field was Veterans Memorial Stadium in nearby Quincy. In the MLL, the team won two Steinfeld Cup championship games in 2011 and 2020, the latter being the MLL's final championship. The Cannons joined the PLL in 2020 following the MLL–PLL merger and were rebranded as the Cannons Lacrosse Club.
Franchise History
The Cannons Lacrosse Club identity was adopted following the MLL-PLL merger in December 2020 for the team formerly known as Boston Cannons. They were the only MLL team identity to continue into the 2021 PLL season. The Boston Cannons were one of the original six teams of Major League Lacrosse (MLL), and the only team from the MLL's inaugural 2001 season to stay in the same market, without folding or moving elsewhere. MLL was founded by Jake Steinfeld, Dave Morrow, and Tim Robertson. The Cannons founder and president is Matt Dwyer. From their inaugural season of 2001 through 2003, the Cannons played their home games at Cawley Memorial Stadium in Lowell, Massachusetts. In their inaugural 2001 season, the Cannons finished with a record of 3–11 but still qualified for the playoffs finishing in second place in the division. In 2004, they moved to Nickerson Field at Boston University where they played through the 2006 season. In 2007, they moved to Harvard Stadium in Allston, a neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts, which is less than from Nickerson Field and also within that distance from the Cannons' main office in Boston. The team qualified for the MLL playoffs 2001–2006, 2009-2011 and 2015. The Cannons won the 2004 and 2005 MLL American Division championships.
2011 championship season
The Cannons won the Steinfeld Cup for the first time in 2011, defeating the Hamilton Nationals 10–9. Boston went 9–3 in the regular season, their best record since going 10–2 in 2005. After losing to Chesapeake 13–9 in the 2010 semifinal, the Cannons avenged the Bayhawks by defeating them 14–13 in the 2011 semifinal with a goal from Max Quinzani. Boston became the fifth charter franchise to win a championship. By 2011, the Cannons were one of four charter franchises still in the league that started with six teams in 2001. The other three remaining charter franchises (Lizards, Bayhawks, and Rattlers had all previously won at least one Steinfeld Cup (the defunct Barrage had won three). Head coach Bill Daye stepped down a month after winning the Steinfeld Cup, citing he wanted to spend more time with his family. Entering the 2021 season, Daye remains the franchise's all-time leader in regular-season games coached (72), regular-season games won (43), and playoff games coached (6).
2013–2018
The Cannons in 2013 and 2014 finished 5–9 and 6–8. This included a 1–5 start in 2013 leading to Steve Duffy's firing on June 10. John Tucker took his place and played .500 for the rest of the season. After the Cannons missed the playoffs for the fourth time in franchise history in 2014, Tucker led the team back to the postseason in 2015 as the 8–6 fourth seed. They played the New York Lizards and lost 16–15 in overtime. The Lizards went on to win the Steinfeld Cup.
John Tucker left the Cannons after the 2015 season to become the first head coach and general manager of the expansion team Atlanta Blaze. On October 8, 2015, Sean Quirk was announced as the sixth head coach in franchise history. In an odd 2016 year in which seven of the league's nine teams, including the Cannons, finished with identical 8-6 records, Quirk's team was not rewarded with one of the four playoff spots after tie-breaking procedures. On December 20, 2016, it was announced that John Tucker would be returning to the Cannons as the team's offensive coordinator in 2017. Tucker was fired mid-season by the Blaze after a 3–7 start.
Despite a Week 1 win in 2017, the Cannons season turned around. At 3–6, the Cannons traded away captain Will Manny and Joe LoCascio to the New York Lizards for Dave Lawson and Chris LaPierre on June 27. On July 14, the Cannons announced that neither Lawson nor LaPierre would suit up for the team that season. Dave Lawson informed team officials that he would be retiring from the league while Chris LaPierre decided not to report to the team. The Cannons finished the season on a six-game losing streak. At 3-11, the Cannons posted the worst record in the league and tied their franchise-worst record from 2001, their inaugural season.
2019–2020: New pro lacrosse landscape and second title
Following the 2018 season, Paul Rabil launched the Premier Lacrosse League, baiting over 140 MLL players to migrate over. However, the Cannons maintained more of their roster than other teams like the Dallas Rattlers or Rabil's New York Lizards. Two months prior to the start of the 2019 season, the league cut the team roster from nine to six when the Ohio Machine and Florida Launch folded and Charlotte Hounds suspended operations for two seasons. Taking this to their advantage, the Cannons posted a 9–7 record in 2019, good enough for the third of four postseason seeds and gave Boston its first playoff berth since 2015. Boston faced the Denver Outlaws in the semifinal, who were also hosting Championship Weekend. The Cannons got off to a hot start and led by as many as six goals, but ultimately fell, 17–15, ending their season.
2019 was the Cannons' first season in Quincy. During the offseason they announced a move to and $1.5 million renovation of Veterans Memorial Stadium. The Cannons announced two sellouts in their first season in the updated venue.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 season was shortened to five regular season games in seven days, all to be played in front of no fans at Navy-Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis, Maryland. The Cannons finished fourth place out of six teams with a 3–2 record, and were the only team to defeat the Denver Outlaws in the regular season. Heading into the postseason, the Cannons were scheduled to play the Outlaws in the semifinal. However, after a player from the Chesapeake Bayhawks experience symptoms of COVID-19 and eventually tested positive, the two other postseason competitors, Chesapeake and Connecticut, withdrew from the tournament. The Cannons' semifinal game with the Outlaws was pushed back a day and would be played as the championship. Boston defeated Denver for the second time in two days, the latter in 13-10 fashion for the franchise's second title, first in nine years. Newcomer attackman Bryce Wasserman, who played for the Dallas Rattlers the season before, was named league MVP for 2020.
2021–present: PLL Cannons Lacrosse Club
On December 16, 2020, in a statement from Major League Lacrosse (MLL), the Boston Cannons officially became the eighth team in the Premier Lacrosse League (PLL). It was announced that the team would be dropping "Boston" from their name and become "Cannons Lacrosse Club" to fit league nomenclature, the roster would be set via an expansion draft, and the team would begin play in the PLL in the 2021 season. Small tweaks to the former Boston Cannons branding resulted in a PLL crest and logo reveal on January 12, 2021. One week later, the league announced that Sean Quirk would continue coaching at the helm of the Cannons identity.
The Cannons played their first game of the 2021 season on June 4 at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, falling to the Redwoods Lacrosse Club, 12–11. They would finish the season 7th in the league, falling in the first round of the playoffs.
General Managers
David Gross (2001–2005)
Jason Chandler (2006–2007)
Mark Kastrud (2008–2011)
Kevin Barney (2011–2017)
Current Coaching Staff
Head Coach - Sean Quirk
Assistant Coaches - John Klepacki, Sean Kirwan
All-Time Head Coaches
Record updated through matches of June 4, 2021
Roster
(C) indicates captain
Roster as of July 5, 2021.
Source:
MLL Award Winners
Most Valuable Player
Conor Gill: 2004
Paul Rabil: 2009, 2011
Matt Poskay: 2010
Bryce Wasserman: 2020
Rookie of the Year
Conor Gill: 2002
Coach of the Year
Scott Hiller: 2002, 2005
Bill Daye: 2011
John Tucker: 2015
Sean Quirk: 2020
Defensive Player of the Year
Ryan Curtis: 2003
Zach Goodrich: 2020
Offensive Player of the Year
Paul Rabil: 2009, 2011, 2012
Matt Poskay: 2010
Goalie of the Year
Chris Garrity: 2005
Kip Turner: 2010
David Huntley Man of the Year
Nick Marrocco: 2019
Most Improved Player
Chris Eck: 2009
Davey Emala: 2015
PLL Award Winners
Welles Crowther Humanitarian Award
Lyle Thompson: 2021
Season-by-season records
Draft History
First Round Selections (MLL Collegiate Draft)
2001: None
2002: Steve Dusseau, Georgetown (2nd overall); Conor Gill, Virginia (3rd overall)
2003: Chris Fiore, UMass (3rd overall)
2004: Chris Passavia, Maryland (6th overall)
2005: Johnny Christmas, Virginia (5th overall)
2006: None
2007: Kip Turner, Virginia (2nd overall)
2008: Paul Rabil, Johns Hopkins (1st overall)
2009: Brandon Corp, Colgate (4th overall)
2010: Max Quinzani, Duke (3rd overall)
2011: Shamel Bratton, Virginia (6th overall)
2012: None
2013: Cam Flint, Denver (6th overall)
2014: Scott McWilliams, Virginia (8th overall)
2015: Ryan Tucker, Virginia (4th overall); John Glesener, Army
2016: Greg Coholan, Virginia (6th overall), Brandon Mullins, Syracuse (9th overall)
2017: Sergio Perkovic, Notre Dame (2nd overall)
2018: Trevor Baptiste, Denver (1st overall)
2019: Zach Goodrich, Towson (3rd overall)
2020: Nick Mellen, Syracuse (4th overall)
First Round Selections (PLL Collegiate Draft)
2021: None
First Round Selections (PLL Entry Draft)
2020: Lyle Thompson (1st overall); Zach Goodrich (6th overall)
Community involvement
The Cannons often reach out to the local community, hosting a variety of lacrosse camps and events for local youth. In addition, the Cannons support MetroLacrosse, by arranging scholarships for MetroLacrosse players and donating tickets for each home game to MetroLacrosse players and families. MetroLacrosse also maintains a booth in the Fan Zone for each home game.
References
External links
2001 establishments in Massachusetts
Lacrosse teams in Massachusetts
Lacrosse clubs established in 2001
Sports in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Quincy, Massachusetts | [
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245827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Pride | New Jersey Pride | The New Jersey Pride were a men's professional field lacrosse team in the Major League Lacrosse formerly based in Piscataway, New Jersey, United States from 2001-2008.
Franchise history
In 2001, the first year of the league’s existence, the Pride played its games at Yogi Berra Stadium at Montclair State University but TD Bank Park in Bridgewater Township, New Jersey in 2002 to 2003. For 2004 to 2005, the Pride played its home games on Sprague Field at Montclair State University. The Pride made the league's playoffs in 2002 and 2003.
For the 2006 season, the Pride moved to the 5,000 seat stadium on the campus of Rutgers University which houses the Scarlet Knights’ soccer and lacrosse teams and is officially named The Soccer/Lacrosse Stadium at Yurcak Field in honor of Ronald N. Yurcak, a 1965 All-American Rutgers lacrosse player.
The team suspended operations after the 2008 season.
Season-by-season
Former Stars
Jesse Hubbard. Princeton, 1998; 3-time NCAA National Champion, Princeton University with Jon Hess; Leading all-time scorer at Princeton; All NCAA Tournament Team, 1997 and 1998; All Ivy, 1997 and 1998. Hubbard was traded to the Los Angeles Riptide prior to the 2008 Season.
Scott Urick. Georgetown, 2000; 2-time NCAA All-American and Captain; Georgetown’s all-time Leading Scorer; Georgetown’s All-Time Single Season and Career Leader in ground balls; Played on four NCAA Tournament Teams; NCAA North-South All-Star, 2000.
Adam Doneger. Johns Hopkins, 2000-2003; two-time First Team All-American and co-captain; Scored a career-high 28 goals and seven assists in 2003; NCAA All-Tournament Team, 2002.
Kyle Harrison. Johns Hopkins, 2005; National Player-of-the-Year, 2005 Tewaaraton Trophy Winner; 2005 National Champion and 1st overall selection in the 2005 College Draft. Harrison was also traded to the Los Angeles Riptide for the 2008 season.
Matt Danowski. Duke, 2008; Tewaaraton Trophy Winner 2007; Acquired Second in the lacrosse draft. Took option of an extra year at Duke. Was expected to go first 2007
Award winners
4-time All-Star Jesse Hubbard
2-time All-Star Scott Urick
3-time All-Star Jay Jalbert
3-time All-Star David Curry
1-time All-Star Jon Hess
2003 Rookie of the Year and All-Star Adam Doneger
2005 Community Service Award Winner Ryan McClay
2006 All-MLL Team Andy Corno
Coaches and others
Ted Georgalas 2001-05 (24-35)
Brian Silcott 2005 (1-4)
Peter Jacobs 2006- (15-21)
Charlie Shoulberg 2001-2002 (General Manager)
Bob Turco 2003-2004 (General Manager)
Trey Reeder 2005-2007 (General Manager)
Steve Ferretti 2002-2008 (Assistant General Manager, General Manager)
Robert Brown 2005-2008 (President)
External links
New Jersey Pride Official Website
Defunct Major League Lacrosse teams
Lacrosse clubs established in 2001
Sports clubs disestablished in 2008
Defunct sports teams in New Jersey
Lacrosse teams in New Jersey
Sports teams in the New York metropolitan area
2001 establishments in New Jersey
2008 disestablishments in New Jersey | [
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245829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20Resisters%20League | War Resisters League | The War Resisters League (WRL) is the oldest secular pacifist organization in the United States.
History
Founded in 1923 by men and women who had opposed World War I, it is a section of the London-based War Resisters' International. It continues to be one of the leading radical voices in the anti-war movement.
Many of the organization's founders had been jailed during World War I for refusing military service. From the Fellowship of Reconciliation many Jews, suffragists, socialists, and anarchists separated to form this more secular organization.
Although the WRL was opposed to US participation in World War II, it did not protest against it; the WRL complied with the Espionage Act, ceased public protests, and did not solicit new members during this period. During World War II, many members were imprisoned as conscientious objectors. In the 1950s, WRL members worked in the civil rights movement and organized protests against nuclear weapons testing and civil defense drills.
In the 1960s, WRL was the first pacifist organization to call for an end to the Vietnam War. WRL also organized the first demonstration against the war with a September 21, 1963 vigil at the U.S. Mission to the UN, followed by an October 9, 1963 picket of Madame Ngo Dinh Nhu speaking at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City. WRL was among the primary groups (along with Committee for Nonviolent Action, the Fellowship of Reconciliation, the Socialist Party, and the Student Peace Union) to organize coordinated nationwide protests against the Vietnam War on December 19, 1964.
The organization's opposition to nuclear weapons was extended to include nuclear power in the 1970s and 1980s. The WRL has also been active in feminist and anti-racist causes and works with other organizations to reduce the level of violence in modern culture.
Current activities
Presently, the War Resisters League is actively organizing against the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan as well as the impact of war at home. Much of its organizing is focused on challenging military recruiters and ending corporate profit from war. It publishes an annual peace calendar, the quarterly magazine WIN: Through Revolutionary Nonviolence, and other materials and is involved in a number of national peace and justice coalitions, including United for Peace and Justice and the National War Tax Resistance Coordinating Committee. Since 1958, WRL has awarded almost annually the War Resisters League Peace Award to a person or organization whose work represents the League's radical nonviolent program of action.
The War Resisters League annually publishes a pie chart showing how much of the U.S. federal budget actually covers current and past military expenses, listing the total as 54%:
"The figures are federal funds, which do not include trust funds — such as Social Security — that are raised and spent separately from income taxes....The government practice of combining trust and federal funds began during the Vietnam War, thus making the human needs portion of the budget seem larger and the military portion smaller. "
These figures are at odds with official government figures:
"[Dov S. Zakheim, the Pentagon comptroller pointed] out that the 2004 military budget would represent 16.6 percent of all federal spending, compared with 27.3 percent in the late 1980s."
Key members
Sidney Aberman
Devere Allen
Norma Becker
Ruth Benn
Frida Berrigan
Albert Bigelow
Karl Bissinger
Elinor Byrns
Maris Cakars
Mandy Carter
Sybil Claiborne
Winston Dancis
Dave Dellinger
Barbara Deming
Ralph DiGia
Julius Eichel
Joe Felmet
Roy Finch
Larry Gara
Sidney E. Goldstein
Walter Gormly
Edward P. Gottlieb
Richard Gregg
G. Simon Harak
George W. Hartmann
Ammon Hennacy
Nat Hentoff
Isidor B. Hoffman
John Haynes Holmes
George Houser
Evelyn West Hughan
Jessie Wallace Hughan
Bert Kanegson
Abe Kaufman
Randy Kehler
Roy Kepler
Steve Ladd
Frieda Langer Lazarus
Bradford Lyttle
Ruth MacAdam
Dwight Macdonald
David McReynolds
A.J. Muste
Tracy Mygatt
Frank Olmstead
James Otsuka
Grace Paley
James Peck
Orlie Pell
Frances Rose Ransom
Earle L. Reynolds
Ruth Mary Reynolds
Edward (Ned) Richards
Igal Roodenko
Vicki Rovere
Bayard Rustin
Ira Sandperl
Lawrence Scott (Quaker)
Joanne Sheehan
Craig Simpson
Upton Sinclair
Ernest Allyn Smith
William Sutherland
Arlo Tatum
Evan W. Thomas
Carmen Trotta
Jay Nelson Tuck
Anna Strunsky Walling
George Willoughby
Lillian Willoughby
Frances M. Witherspoon
Irma Zigas
See also
Military budget and total US federal spending
List of anti-war organizations
List of peace activists
Pacifism
People's Freedom Union
War resister
War Resisters' International
Footnotes
Further reading
Bennett, Scott H. Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915-1963 NY: Syracuse Univ. Press, 2003.
External links
War Resisters League website
War Resisters Support Campaign – an effort to let US soldiers stay in Canada so they don't have to fight in Iraq or go to prison
War Resisters League Online Bookstore
1923 establishments in the United States
Anti-nuclear organizations based in the United States
Organizations established in 1923
Peace organizations based in the United States | [
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245835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Tanzania | Music of Tanzania | As in other countries, the musical production in Tanzania is constantly undergoing changes. Music listened to by Tanzanians today stretches from traditional African music or the string-based taarab to a distinctive hip hop known as bongo flava.
National anthem
The Tanzanian national anthem is Mungu Ibariki Africa (God Bless Africa), composed by South African composer Enoch Sontonga in 1897. The tune is the ANC's official song and later became the national anthem of South Africa. The melody is also the national anthem of Zambia. In Tanzania, Swahili lyrics were written for this anthem. - Another patriotic song, going back to colonial times, is Tanzania, Tanzania.
Gospel music/choral music
Modern Gospel, in Swahili Muziki wa Injili, musicians include:
Christina Shusho – Gospel singer
Jeniffer Mgend – Gospel singer
Mr. Elliot Andy – Choral music, university
Dionys Mbilinyi – Choral music, church organist
John Mgandu – Choral music, church organist
Sabinus Komba – Choral music
Imani Sanga – Choral music, church organist
Ambwene Mwasongwe- Gospel Singer
Bongo Flava/Pop, R&B
Bongo Flava is one of the newer Tanzanian genres, developed in the 1990s, and is a fusion genre. R&B, afro pop, and hip hop are popular also. At its inception, Bongo flava was more heavily influenced by US Hip-Hop and Reggae, fused with traditional Tanzanian music styles. Today however, the sound has somewhat changed, oscillating from its central point -music sung in Swahili- to include a variety of music cultures and styles, and can be described as a fusion of Afrobeats, R&B, Reggaeton and Taraab. Its name denotes the Swahilisation of global music forms by incorporating Tanzanian musical and linguistic elements. By adding the 'Flava' (= flavour) of Bongo, the name was born.
The current trend among Tanzanian music consumers has started changing from international popular music towards favouring products from their local artists who sing in Swahili, the national language. Popular artists include Vanessa Mdee(Vee Money), Bill Nass, Diamond Platnumz, Harmonize, Mbosso, Jux, Alikiba, Navy Kenzo, Shetta, Ben Pol, Lava Lava, Dully Sykes, Rich Mavoko, Rayvanny, Whozu , Marioo, Darassa, Elja Eks, Jay Melody, Nandy (singer) And some of upcoming artists like Ronze,Kidson & Lord Music. Some of the best known producers include Tudd Thomas, Mesen Selekta, P-Funk Majani, Nahreel, S2Kizzy, Lizer classic , Abbah Process , Kimambo Beats, Bonga de Alpha, Blaq, Mr T-Touch, Daxo Chali and Mocco Genius.
Traditional music
The more than 120 ethnic groups of Tanzania have developed a large number of specific traditional musical and dance styles with corresponding instruments. The Zaramo people, for instance, perform traditional dance, such as "Mitamba Yalagala Kumchuzi" on tuned goblet drums, tuned cylindrical drums, and tin rattles.
The multi-instrumentalist Hukwe Zawose, a member of the Gogo ethnic group, was the 20th century's most prominent exponent of Tanzanian traditional music. He specialized in the ilimba, a large lamellophone similar to the mbira.
Saida Karoli is a famous traditionalist Tanzanian female singer and performer, who sings in Haya. Karoli's music is described as natural with mellow vocals and hypnotically rhythmicism. Her songs Ndombolo Ya Solo or Maria Salome were huge hits in Tanzania and the countries around; she was nominated at the 2005 and 2006 Tanzania Music Awards in the Best Folk Album category and for the Best Female Vocalist category.
Mtindo
A mtindo (pl. mitindo) is simply a rhythm, dance or style identified with a particular band. Sikinde, for example, is associated with Mlimani Park Orchestra, and is derived from the ngoma (musical events held by the Zaramo). Some bands maintain the same mtindo throughout their career, while others change with new personnel or popular preference.
Taarab
Taarab is a music genre popular in Tanzania and Kenya. It is influenced by the musical traditions of the African Great Lakes, North Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent. Taarab rose to prominence in 1928 with the advent of the genre's first star, Siti binti Saad.
History of dance music
The first popular music craze in Tanzania was in the early 1930s, when Cuban Rumba was widespread. Young Tanzanians organized themselves into dance clubs and their bands, like the Dar es Salaam Jazz Band, which was founded in 1932. Local bands at the time used brass and percussion instruments, later adding strings. Bands like Morogoro Jazz and Tabora Jazz were formed (despite the name, these bands did not play American style jazz). Competitions were commonplace, a legacy of native ngoma societies and colonial beni brass bands.
Tanzania was influenced heavily after the 1960s with the influence of African and Latin music. Tanzanian soldiers brought back with them the music of these cultures, as well as Cuban and European music, when returning from World War II. These musical influences fused and brought together the Tanzanian people. Eventually the country and its people created its own style of music. This style, called "Swahili Jazz" is a mix of beats and styles of Cuban, European, Latin and African music. Swahili jazz gave Tanzania a sense of independence and togetherness as a country.
Independence came in 1961, however, and three years later the state patronage system was set up, and most of the previous bands fell apart. Musicians were paid regular fees, plus a percentage of the gate income, and worked for a department of the government. The first such band is the Nuta Jazz Band, which worked for the National Union of Tanzania.
The 1970s saw the popularization a laid-back sound popularized by Orchestre Safari Sound and Orchestre Maquis Original. These groups adopted the motto "Kamanyola bila jasho" (dance Kamanyola without sweating). Maquis hailed from Lubumbashi in southeastern Zaire, moving to Dar es Salaam in the early 70s. This was a common move at the time, bringing elements of soukous from the Congo Basin. Kasalo Kyanga composed the 1985 hit "Karubandika", which was a popular dance song.
Popular bands in the 60s, 70s and 80s included Vijana Jazz, who were the first to add electronic instruments to dansi (in 1987) and DDC Mlimani Park Orchestra, led by Michael Enoch. Rivalries between the bands sometimes led to chaos in the scene, as when Hugo Kisima lured musicians from Mlimani Park and disbanded the wildly popular Orchestra Safari Sound in 1985, forming the International Orchestra Safari Sound. International Orchestra Safari Sound was briefly popular, but the Orchestra Safari Sound was revitalized by Nguza Viking (formerly of maquis), who became bandleader in 1991; this new group lasted only a year.
The most recent permutation of Tanzanian dance music is mchiriku. Bands like Gari Kubwa, Tokyo Ngma and Atomic Advantage are among the pioneers of this style, which uses four drums and a keyboard for a sparse sound. Loudness is very important to the style, which is usually blared from out-dated speakers; the resulting feedback is part of the music. The origin of the style is Zaramo wedding music.
Hip hop
After Tanzania gained its independence, the leaders of the country failed in their mission to produce a successful economy. Structural Adjustment Programs were put into place, which mimicked the same colonial practices that the country attempted to free itself from. Tanzanian youths turned to crime to survive. "It is not surprising that most Tanzanians viewed these conditions, especially the rise in crime, and the almost simultaneous rise or rap music, as a single phenomenon. The political establishment and older generation did not accept rap music or uhuni music- since it became synonymous with disruption and anti-social behavior. Yet for the younger generation, traditional Swahili music did not address contradictions of the ‘liberalized’ Tanzanian economy."
In 1991, Tanzania hosted a hip hop competition called "Yo Rap Bonanza." While most rappers were performing American songs word for word; Saleh Ajabry, a Tanzanian, wrote his own Swahili lyrics to a song based on Vanilla Ice’s "Ice Ice Baby," and won the competition.
Dar es Salaam's Kwanza Unit is the first Tanzanian hip hop crew, but technical limitations hindered commercial success. Mr. II and Juma Nature are the most famous Tanzanian rappers; Mr II's (then known as 2-Proud) "Ni Mimi" (1995) is the first major hit for the field. Groups like X Plastaz have moved away from American-style hip hop and incorporated Maasai vocal styles and other Tanzanian musics. Tanzanian hip hop is often called as Bongo Flava.
Global popular culture, particularly U.S. hip hop, has played a major role in influencing Tanzanian culture since its independence. This is most evident among Tanzanian urban youth, who have absorbed global hip hop music and produced their own varieties. With the increased mediatization of Tanzania in the 1990s, Tanzanian urban youth have had more access to hip hop music, and the incorporation of global culture has become more prevalent and visible in urban Tanzania, not only in the music, but also in fashion, food, dance, and sports. Hip hop has essentially provided Tanzanian urban youth and young adults with a means of expressing themselves and forming an identity, such as the conceptual identity of msafiri (the traveler), a classic subject borrowed from Swahili lore, and a recurrent theme in Dar hip hop. While Tanzania hip hop is influenced by American hip hop it is also distinctly localized. Whereas American Hip Hop is the product of black urban youth and heavily influenced by race, Tanzania bongo flava took root in the slightly better off part of the city with those that more access to the Western world. Furthermore, Tanzania hip hop artist saw themselves as distinct from American artists in that they focus more on economic issues and less on violence"" Rapper Sam Stigilydaa put it poignantly when he said, "American rappers talk about crazy things-drinking, drugs, violence against women, American blacks killing blacks. I hope African doesn't turn crazy"
Because of the massive hip hop artist and fan base in Northern Tanzania's Arusha city, today this is termed as East Africa's Hip hop capital. Artists such as spark Dog Malik, JCB, Watengwa, Chindo aka Umbwax, Donii, Wadudu wa dampo, Jambo Squad, Nako-to-nako, Weusi, Nahreel and many others who are heading Tanzania's hip-hop music are from this City. there other hip hop artists and crew like tamaduni music, kikosi kazi and artist like fid q, nikki mbishi, p the mc, dizasta vina, zaiid,the one incredible, mex cortez, cygon, mansu lii, nash mc,6 o'clock, ghetto ambasador, songa, wakazi,afande sele, stamina, roma,jay moh, professor, chid benz as well as the up coming artists like cado kitengo, man side, toxic fuvu, they conserve hip hop elements and originality, they are calling themselves "baba wa rap" the fathers of rap", they are from dar es salaam, the have freestyle session event like kilingeni"msasani club.
Reggae
Mbaraka Mwinshehe is the most popular and original musician of Tanzania, also there is a greater influx of musicians from the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), who were entering the country as refugees and made residence in the country. But in recent years, mainly from the mid-nineties, new generation of musicians has emerged and are coming up with popular tunes which are Tanzanian in composition. Bands like Twanga Pepeta(African Stars Band) have created Tanzanian original new sound.
Jah Kimbuteh is the first major reggae star in Tanzania, beginning his career with Roots and Kulture in 1985. Newer artists in Tanzanian reggae genre include the Jam Brothers and Ras Innocent Nyanyagwa.
At present, Ras Nas is considered one of the best-known reggae musicians from Tanzania. Ras Nas combines reggae, afro and dub poetry. Many musicians work in bands that play at a hotel, usually led by a keyboard and including a rock-based sound.
Distribution and access to music
The mushrooming of FM music stations and reasonable production studios has been a major boost to the music industry in the country. Contemporary artists like Diamond Platnumz, Harmonize, Juma Nature, Nandy, Rayvanny, Ali Kiba, Lady Jaydee, Mr. Nice, Elja Eks, Mr. II, Cool James, Dully Sykes, Professor Jay and many others command a huge audience of followers in the country and neighbouring countries.
More information about Tanzanian music and events can be found on the various web portals that have sprung up recently. Tanzania has an enormously high growth rate for internet technologies, estimated at up to 500% per year. Because costs for computers are still quite high, many users share connections at internet cafes or at work.naomba.com business directory, tanzaniadirectory.info Movie and Sports information, and Arusha locality information all are part of an increasing number of websites dedicated to the region. Digital Tanzania music downloads are mostly done by free download websites and music platforms like iTunes, Google Music etc.
Freddie Mercury
Freddie Mercury, born Farouk Bulsara into the Indian Parsi community of Stone Town, Zanzibar, later moved to England and rose to worldwide fame as the lead singer, and a songwriter and instrumentalist, of the rock music group Queen. He died on 24 November 1991. Efforts to honour his life and work on the 60th anniversary of his birth were abandoned in September 2006 following the protests of a radical Islamic group on the archipelago, Uamsho, who said he had violated Islam with his openly gay lifestyle. Mercury and the Bulsara family were Parsis from India—followers of Zoroastrianism, not Muslims.
The Mercury House, a former home of the Bulsara family, opened as a souvenir store in Stone Town, Zanzibar, in 2002. It opened as a museum to Freddie Mercury on 24 November 2019.
See also
Sauti za Busara Festival
Taarab
Muziki wa dansi
Further reading
Graebner, Werner. "Mtindo – Dance With Style". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 681–689. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Graebner, Werner. "The Swahili Coastal Sound". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 690–697. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Askew, Kelly M. Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania. 2002. University of Chicago Press.
Notes
References
External links
List of Top Tanzanian Songs. - Tanzanian Music Website
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Music of Zanzibar – Taarab and Ikwan Safaa. Accessed 25 November 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Culture Musical Club and Bi Kidude. Accessed 25 November 2010.
Tanzanian culture
Tanzanian music | [
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245838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immorality%20Act | Immorality Act | Immorality Act was the title of two acts of the Parliament of South Africa which prohibited, amongst other things, sexual relations between white people and people of other races. The first Immorality Act, of 1927, prohibited sex between whites and blacks, until amended in 1950 to prohibit sex between whites and all non-whites. The second Immorality Act, of 1957, continued this prohibition and also dealt with many other sex offences. The ban on interracial sex was lifted in 1985, but certain sections of the 1957 act dealing with prostitution remain in force as the "Sexual Offences Act, 1957".
The 1927 act
The Immorality Act, 1927 (Act No. 5 of 1927) prohibited sexual intercourse outside of marriage between "Europeans" (white people) and "natives" (black people). The penalty was up to five years' imprisonment for the man and four years' imprisonment for the woman. A person's colour during trial was dictated by their 'race', a term which described a person's appearance, mannerisms, and assumed descent/ethnicity (similar to later 'colour classifications' recognised during the Apartheid era of South African history, where races were decided upon by government officials, not pre-determined by the true ethnicity of the accused). The act also prohibited "procuring" women for interracial intercourse, and contained a proposal that described a punishment of up to six years of imprisonment specifically for coloured women who were thought to be provoking white males to have intercourse with them.
The Immorality Amendment Act, 1950 (Act No. 21 of 1950) amended the 1927 act to forbid unmarried sexual intercourse between "Europeans" and anyone not "European". The prohibition was therefore extended to intercourse between white people and coloured or Asian people. Interracial marriages had been banned in 1949 by the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act. Later legislation closely related to the Immorality Act also banned the marriage of interracial couples outside of South Africa, viewing foreign marriages as invalid and illegal.
The 1957 act
The Immorality Act, 1957 (Act No. 23 of 1957; subsequently renamed the Sexual Offences Act, 1957) repealed the 1927 and 1950 acts and replaced them with a clause prohibiting sexual intercourse or "immoral or indecent acts" between white people and anyone not white. It increased the penalty to up to seven years' imprisonment for both partners. The 1957 act also prohibited brothel-keeping, procuring, and living off the proceeds of prostitution; and it prohibited sexual intercourse with people under the age of sixteen.
The Immorality Amendment Act, 1969 (Act No. 57 of 1969) amended the 1957 act to introduce or expand a number of offences. It prohibited the manufacturing or sale of any "article intended to be used to perform an unnatural sexual act" (i.e. sex toys). Despite the fact that sex between men was already prohibited under the common law crime of sodomy, the 1969 act made it a statutory crime for a man to have sex with another male under the age of nineteen. It also introduced section 20A, the infamous "three men at a party" clause, which prohibited any sexual activity between men at a party, where "party" was defined as any occasion where more than two people were present.
The Immorality and Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Amendment Act, 1985 (Act No. 72 of 1985) repealed the provisions of the 1957 act that prohibited interracial sex, and repealed the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act. This came as part of the repeal of many petty apartheid laws under the government of P. W. Botha. This act specifically deleted the definitions of "coloured" and "white" within the act, and repealed Section 16 of the 1957 act which barred interracial, extramarital sex.
The Immorality Amendment Act, 1988 (Act No. 2 of 1988) renamed the Immorality Act, 1957 to the Sexual Offences Act, 1957. It criminalised, for the first time, a woman having sex with a person under the age of consent, for that purpose setting the age of consent at 16 for a boy and 19 for a girl. It also made it a crime to be a prostitute, where previously only certain acts related to prostitution (brothel-keeping, procuring, etc.) had been illegal. The legislation also noted that either gender could now be convicted of sexual offences.
Repeal
The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007 repealed most of the remaining provisions of the 1957 act. The only provisions still in force are those related to prostitution.
The men-at-a-party offence (section 20A) was invalidated in 1998 by the Constitutional Court in the case of National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Justice. The increased age of consent of nineteen for same-sex sexual activity (as opposed to sixteen for opposite-sex sexual activity) was invalidated in 2008 in the case of Geldenhuys v National Director of Public Prosecutions, although by that time the discriminatory provisions had been repealed by the 2007 amendment act.
See also
Anti-miscegenation laws
Population Registration Act, 1950
Apartheid legislation
References
External links
Apartheid: Mixed marriages and the immorality act
Apartheid laws in South Africa
Multiracial affairs in Africa
Sex laws in South Africa | [
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245840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantagraphics | Fantagraphics | Fantagraphics (previously Fantagraphics Books) is an American publisher of alternative comics, classic comic strip anthologies, manga, magazines, graphic novels, and the erotic Eros Comix imprint. Many notable cartoonists have published their work through Fantagraphics, including Jessica Abel, Peter Bagge, Ivan Brunetti, Charles Burns, Daniel Clowes, Mary Fleener, Roberta Gregory, Joe Sacco, Chris Ware, and the Hernandez brothers.
History
Founding
Fantagraphics was founded in 1976 by Gary Groth and Michael Catron in College Park, Maryland. The company took over an adzine named The Nostalgia Journal, which it renamed The Comics Journal.
As comics journalist (and former Fantagraphics employee) Michael Dean writes, "the publisher has alternated between flourishing and nearly perishing over the years." Kim Thompson joined the company in 1977, using his inheritance to keep the company afloat. (He soon became a co-owner.)
The company moved from Maryland to Stamford, Connecticut.
Beginning in 1981 Fantagraphics (under its Redbeard imprint) published Amazing Heroes, a magazine which examined comics from a hobbyist's point of view, as another income stream to supplement The Comics Journal. Amazing Heroes ran for 204 issues (plus a number of specials and annuals), folding with its July 1992 issue. The demise is traceable to the rise and success of Wizard. Kim Thompson joked later, "I don't carry a grudge or anything—it's the circle of life."
Comics publisher
Beginning in 1979, Fantagraphics began publishing comics, starting with Jay Disbrow's The Flames of Gyro. They gained wider recognition in 1982 by publishing the Hernandez brothers' Love and Rockets, and moved on to such critically acclaimed and award-winning series as Acme Novelty Library, Eightball, and Hate.
The company moved operations to Greater Los Angeles in 1984.
Catron acted as Fantagraphics' co-publisher until 1985 (also handling advertising and circulation for The Comics Journal from 1982 to 1985), when he left the company.
The Kirby Award and the Harvey Award
From 1985 to 1987, Fantagraphics coordinated and presented (through their magazine Amazing Heroes) The Jack Kirby Award for achievement in comic books, voted on by comic-book professionals. The Kirby Award was managed by Dave Olbrich, a Fantagraphics employee (and later publisher of Malibu Comics). In 1987, a dispute arose when Olbrich and Fantagraphics each claimed ownership of the awards. A compromise was reached, and, starting in 1988, the Kirby Award was discontinued and two new awards were created: the Eisner Award, managed by Olbrich; and the Fantagraphics-managed Harvey Award, named for cartoonist Harvey Kurtzman. Since their inception, the Harvey Awards have been presented at various comic book conventions, such as the Chicago Comicon, the Dallas Fantasy Fair, WonderCon, the Pittsburgh Comicon, the MoCCA Festival, Baltimore Comic-Con and their current venue, the New York Comic Con. The Harvey Awards are no longer affiliated with Fantagraphics.
Relocation to Seattle
In 1989, Fantagraphics relocated from Los Angeles to its current location in the Maple Leaf neighborhood of Seattle, Washington.
In 1990, the publisher introduced Eros Comix, a lucrative line of erotic comics that provided a replacement revenue stream for Amazing Heroes and which helped the company again avoid bankruptcy.
Longtime employee Eric Reynolds joined Fantagraphics in 1993, first as news editor for The Comics Journal from 1993, before moving to marketing and promotion in 1996. Groth and Thompson acknowledged Reynolds was key to the company's rise to profitability.
Tom Spurgeon, later known as the publisher of The Comics Reporter, was editor of The Comics Journal from 1994 to 1999.
Financial ups and downs
In 1998, Fantagraphics was forced into a round of layoffs; and in 2003 the company almost went out of business, losing over $60,000 in the wake of the 2002 bankruptcy of debtor and book trade distributor Seven Hills Distribution. One employee quit during the subsequent downsizing while denouncing Fantagraphics' "disorganization and poor management." Fantagraphics was saved by a restructuring and a successful appeal to comic book fandom that resulted in a huge number of orders. After restructuring, the company has had greater success with such hardcover collections as The Complete Peanuts, distributed by W. W. Norton & Company.
In 2009, Fantagraphics ceased publishing the print edition of The Comics Journal, shifting from an eight-times a year publishing schedule to a larger, more elaborate, semi-annual format supported by a new website.
European line
Starting in 2005, Fantagraphics began a European graphic novel line, starting with the co-publication of the Ignatz Series, edited and produced by the Italian artist Igort. The publisher announced a deal with Jacques Tardi in March 2009 that would see co-publisher Thompson translate a large number of his books.
New challenges
In 2006, Fantagraphics opened its own retail store, Fantagraphics Bookstore & Gallery, in Seattle's Georgetown neighborhood.
In early 2012, Michael Catron returned to Fantagraphics as editor with the company he had co-founded 36 years earlier.
Co-publisher Kim Thompson left Fantagraphics due to illness in March 2013, and died of lung cancer a few months later. His absence left the company without a number of titles it had been counting on for the summer and fall of 2013; and, in November, Fantagraphics started a Kickstarter campaign to raise $150,000, which it surpassed in four days.
In August 2020 the company rebranded, from Fantagraphics Books to just Fantagraphics, to reflect its status as a digital publisher also. At the same time it introduced a more compact logo featuring a stylized ink pen nib and a torch.
Imprints
Ignatz series
The Ignatz series is an international comic imprint. It is published by Fantagraphics (U.S.), Avant Verlag (Germany), Vertige Graphic (France), Oog & Blik (Holland), Coconino Press (Italy), and Sinsentido (Spain). It is named for Ignatz Mouse, a character in the comic strip Krazy Kat.
The books in the Ignatz series are designed midway between standard North American comic book pamphlet-size and graphic novel-size. Each title is 32 pages, two-color, saddle stitched, 8″ × 11″, with jacket, priced at $7.95.
The Ignatz collection is edited and produced by Italian artist Igort. Fantagraphics editor Kim Thompson frequently provided translations.
Eros Comix
Eros Comix is an adult-oriented imprint of Fantagraphics, established in 1990 to publish pornographic comic books. Eros Comix sells anime videos, DVDs, adult comic books, and books of erotic art and photography. The 2006 Eros Comix print catalog sold over 470 items, including adult comic books and humorous cheesecake-style comics often featuring pin-up girls like Bettie Page.
Writer-artist Tom Sutton contributed work to Eros titles under the pseudonym "Dementia".
Titles
Comics anthology magazines
Anything Goes!
BLAB!
Blood Orange
Critters
Ganzfeld
Graphic Story Monthly
Hotwire Comix and Capers
MOME
NOW
Pictopia
Prime Cuts
Snake Eyes
Zero Zero
Magazines
Amazing Heroes – a defunct publication devoted mostly to mainstream comics
The Comics Journal – magazine of comics news and criticism
Honk – magazine of comics news and criticism
Nemo, the Classic Comics Library – a defunct magazine devoted to classic comics
Comic book series
Acme Novelty Library
Artbabe
The Adventures of Captain Jack
Angry Youth Comix
Big Mouth
The Biologic Show
Black Hole
Castle Waiting
Crap
Cud
Dalgoda
Doofus
Duplex Planet Illustrated
Eightball
The Eye of Mongombo
Evil Eye
Fission Chicken
Frank
Ganges
Good Girls
Grit Bath
Hate
Hip Hop Family Tree Vol. 1-4 by Ed Piskor
Jim
Jizz
Journey
La Perdida
Love and Rockets
Meatcake
Mechanics (Three-issue miniseries)
Megahex
Naughty Bits
Neat Stuff
The Nimrod
Raisin Pie
Real Stuff
Schizo
Shadowland
Stinz
The Stuff of Dreams
Unsupervised Existence
Uptight
Usagi Yojimbo (up to volume 7)
Tales Designed to Thrizzle
Wandering Son
Weasel
Whot Not!
Wuvable Oaf
# series
0: Babel #1 by David B. [France]
Baobab #1 by Igort [Italy]
Insomnia #1 by Matt Broersma [U.K./U.S.A.]
Wish You Were Here #1: The Innocents by Gipi [Italy]
Interiorae #1 by Gabriella Giandelli [Italy]
Ganges #1 by Kevin Huizenga [U.S.A.]
Chimera #1 by Lorenzo Mattotti [Italy]
Insomnia #2 by Matt Broersma [U.K./U.S.A.]
Babel #2 by David B. [France]
Wish You Were Here #2: They Found the Car by Gipi [Italy]
Reflections #1 by Marco Corona [Italy]
Baobab #2 by Igort [Italy]
Niger #1 by Leila Marzocchi [Italy]
Delphine #1 by Richard Sala [U.S.]
New Tales of Old Palomar #1 by Gilbert Hernandez [U.S.]
Interiorae #2 by Gabriella Giandelli [Italy]
Calvario Hills #1 by Marti [Spain]
The End #1 by Anders Nilsen [U.S.]
Reflections #2 by Marco Corona [Italy]
New Tales of Old Palomar #2 by Gilbert Hernandez [U.S.]
Delphine #2 by Richard Sala [U.S.]
Sammy the Mouse #1 by Zak Sally [U.S.]
Grotesque #1 by Sergio Ponchione [Italy]
Niger #2 by Leila Marzocchi [Italy]
Reflections #3 by Marco Corona [Italy]
Insomnia #3 by Matt Broersma [U.K./U.S.A.]
New Tales of Old Palomar #3 by Gilbert Hernandez [U.S.]
Ganges #2 by Kevin Huizenga [U.S.]
Baobab #3 by Igort [Italy]
Delphine #3 by Richard Sala [U.S.]
Grotesque #2 by Sergio Ponchione [Italy]
Interiorae #3 by Gabriella Giandelli [Italy]
Sammy the Mouse #2 by Zak Sally [U.S.]
Grotesque #3 by Sergio Ponchione [Italy]
Delphine #4 by Richard Sala [U.S.]
Ganges #3 by Kevin Huizenga [U.S.]
Niger #3 by Leila Marzocchi [Italy]
Grotesque #4 by Sergio Ponchione [Italy]
Interiorae #4 by Gabriella Giandelli [Italy]
Sammy the Mouse #3 by Zak Sally [U.S.]
Ganges #4 by Kevin Huizenga [U.S.]
To be released:
XX: Babel #3 by David B.
XX: Baobab #4 by Igort [Italy]
XX: Calvario Hills #2 by Marti
XX: The End #2 by Anders Nilsen
XX: Wish You Were Here #3 by Gipi [Italy]
Graphic novels
King by Ho Che Anderson
Pixy by Max Andersson
Ghost World by Dan Clowes
Caricature by Dan Clowes
Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron by Dan Clowes
Patience by Dan Clowes
Beasts by Jacob Covey
My Favorite Thing Is Monsters by Emil Ferris
Drawn to Berlin by Ali Fitzgerald
The Wipeout by Francesca Ghermandi
Black is the Color by Julia Gfrörer
Laid Waste by Julia Gfrörer
Amsterdam by Simon Hanselmann
Megahex by Simon Hanselmann
One More Year by Simon Hanselmann
Palomar by Gilbert Hernandez
Locas by Jaime Hernandez
I Killed Adolf Hitler by Jason
The Lie and How We Told It by Tommi Parrish
Anywhere But Here by Miki Tori
Palestine by Joe Sacco
Safe Area Goražde by Joe Sacco
Harum Scarum by Lewis Trondheim
The Hoodoodad by Lewis Trondheim
Alphabetical Ballad of Carnality by David Sandlin
Weathercraft, Congress of the Animals, and Fran by Jim Woodring
Frederick and Eloise: A Love Story by Brian Biggs
Classic comics compilations
Disney comics
The Complete Carl Barks Disney Library
Disney Masters
The Don Rosa Library
Walt Disney's Mickey Mouse
Other titles
Barnaby
Buz Sawyer
Captain Easy
The Complete Crumb Comics
Dennis the Menace
The EC Artists' Library
Feiffer: The Collected Works
Humbug
Krazy Kat
Little Nemo
Little Orphan Annie
Nancy
The Complete Peanuts
Pogo: The Complete Syndicated Comic Strips
Poor Arnold's Almanac
The Complete E. C. Segar Popeye
Powerhouse Pepper
Prince Valiant
Sam's Strip
Books
Black Images in the Comics: A Visual History by Fredrik Strömberg
Blacklight: The World of L.B. Cole by Bill Schelly
Film Noir 101: The 101 Best Film Noir Posters from the 1940s & 1950s by Mark Fertig
Laura Warholic by Alexander Theroux, 2007
Massive: Gay Erotic Manga and the Men Who Make It edited by Anne Ishii, Chip Kidd, and Graham Kolbeins
No Straight Lines edited by Justin Hall
Significant Objects edited by Joshua Glenn and Rob Walker
Tales of Terror! The EC Companion by Grant Geissman and Fred von Bernewitz
Take That, Adolf! The Fighting Comic Books of the Second World War by Mark Fertig
Eros Comix titles
Adult Frankenstein by Enrico Teodorani
Aunts in your Pants by Enrico Teodorani
Birdland by Gilbert Hernandez
Elizabeth Bathory by Raulo Cáceres
Ironwood by Bill Willingham
Karate Girl
Omaha the Cat Dancer by Kate Worley (story) and Reed Waller (art)
Ramba by Rossi, Delizia, and Laurenti, whose protagonist is an erotic Italian hitlady
Small Favors by Colleen Coover
Sticky by Dale Lazarov and Steve MacIsaac
Submit! by Silvano & Enrico Teodorani
Tales from the Clit by Enrico Teodorani
Tijuana Bibles
Untamed Love by Frank Frazetta
Vladrushka and Rosa & Annalisa by JLRoberson
Wendy Whitebread by Don Simpson
Wheela, Biker Bitch of the Apocalypse by Enrico Teodorani
MangErotica titles
Bondage Fairies (1996)
Hot Tails (1996)
Spunky Knight (1996)
Super Taboo (1996)
Secret Plot (1997)
Countdown: Sex Bomb (1997)
Misty Girl Extreme (1997)
Secret Plot Deep (1998)
Silky Whip by Oh! great (1998)
New Bondage Fairies: Fairie Fetish (1998)
Slut Girl (2000)
Pink Sniper by Kengo Yonekura (2006)
Domin-8 Me! by Sesshu Takemura (2007, original title: Take On Me)
Milk Mama by Yukiyanagi (2008)
Love Selection by Gunma Kisaragi (2010)
Too Hot to Handle by Jogi Tsukino (2010, original title: ♭37 °C)
Love & Hate by Enomoto Heights (2011)
A Strange Kind of Woman by Inu (2011)
Recognition
Kirby Awards
1986
Best Black-and-White Comic: Love and Rockets, by Jaime Hernandez and Gilbert Hernandez
Note: In 1988, the Kirby Awards was disbanded and replaced by the Harvey and the Eisner Awards.
Eisner Awards
List of won Eisner Awards:
1994
Best Archival Collection: Complete Little Nemo in Slumberland Vol. 6 by Winsor McCay
1995
Best Publication Design: The Acme Novelty Library, designed by Chris Ware
1996
Best Continuing Series: Acme Novelty Library, by Chris Ware
Best Archival Collection: The Complete Crumb Comics Vol. 11, by Robert Crumb
Best Coloring: Chris Ware - The Acme Novelty Library Best Comics-Related Publication - Periodical: The Comics Journal Best Publication Design: The Acme Novelty Library by Chris Ware
1997
Best Comics-Related Periodical: The Comics Journal Best Publication Design: Acme Novelty Library Vol. 71998
Best Coloring: Chris Ware, The Acme Novelty Library Best Comics-Related Periodical: The Comics Journal Best Comics-Related Product: Acme Novelty Library display stand, designed by Chris Ware
1999
Best Comics-Related Periodical: The Comics Journal2000
Best Continuing Series: Acme Novelty Library by Chris Ware
Best Graphic Album - New: Acme Novelty Library Vol. 13, by Chris Ware
Best Writer/Artist: Dan Clowes, Eightball2001
Best Writer/Artist - Humor: Tony Millionaire, Maakies Best Coloring: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library #14
2002
Best Single Issue: Eightball #22, by Dan Clowes
Best Writer/Artist: Dan Clowes, Eightball Best Publication Design: Acme Novelty Library #15, designed by Chris Ware
2003
Best Single Issue or One-Shot: The Stuff of Dreams by Kim Deitch
Best Archival Collection/Project: Krazy & Ignatz by George Herriman
Best Writer/Artist- Humor: Tony Millionaire, The House at Maakies Corner Best Comics-Related Publication (Periodical or Book): B. Krigstein Vol. 1, by Greg Sadowski
2004
Best Archival Collection/Project: Krazy & Ignatz: 1929–1930, by George Herriman, edited by Bill Blackbeard
2005
Best Single Issue or One-Shot: Eightball #23: "The Death Ray", by Dan Clowes
Best Archival Collection/Project: The Complete Peanuts edited by Gary Groth
Best Publication Design: The Complete Peanuts, designed by Seth
2007
Best Archival Collection/Project - Strips: The Complete Peanuts 1959–1960, 1961–1962, by Charles Schulz
Best U.S. Edition of International Material: The Left Bank Gang by Jason
Best Writer/Artist-Humor: Tony Millionaire, Billy Hazelnuts2008
Best Archival Collection/Project - Comic Books: I Shall Destroy All the Civilized Planets!, by Fletcher Hanks
Best U.S. Edition of International Material: I Killed Adolf Hitler by Jason
2009
Best U.S. Edition of International Material:The Last Musketeer by Jason
2011
Best Reality-Based Work: It Was the War of the Trenches by Jacques Tardi
Best U.S. Edition of International Material: It Was the War of the Trenches by Jacques Tardi
2012
Best Archival Collection/Project-Comic Strips: Walt Disney's Mickey Mouse Vols. 1-2, by Floyd Gottfredson, edited by David Gerstein and Gary Groth
2013
Best Short Story: Moon1969: The True Story of the 1969 Moon Launch,by Michael Kupperman, in Tales Designed to Thrizzle #8
Best Archival Collection/Project-Strips: Pogo Vol. 2: Bona Fide Balderdash, by Walt Kelly, edited by Carolyn Kelly and Kim Thompson
2014
Best Short Story: Untitled by Gilbert Hernandez, in Love and Rockets: New Stories #6
Best U.S. Edition of International Material: Goddam This War!,by Jacques Tardi and Jean-Pierre Verney
Best Writer/Artist: Jamie Hernandez, Love and Rockets: New Stories #6
2015
Best Reality-Based Work: Hip Hop Family Tree Vol. 2 by Ed Piskor
2016
Best Archival Collection/Project - Strips: The Eternaut, by Héctor Germán Oesterheld and Francisco Solana Lopez, edited by Gary Groth and Kristy Valenti
Best Writer/Artist: Bill Griffith, Invisible Ink: My Mother's Secret Love Affair with a Famous Cartoonist2017
Best Archival Collection/Project - Comic Books (at least 20 years old): The Complete Wimmen's Comix, edited by Trina Robbins, Gary Groth and J. Michael Catron
2018
Best Graphic Album- New: My Favorite Thing Is Monsters by Emil Ferris
Best U.S. Edition of International Material: Run for It: Stories of Slaves Who Fought for the Freedom,by Marcelo D'Salete, translated by Andrea Rosenberg
Best Writer/Artist: Emil Ferris, My Favorite Thing Is Monsters Best Coloring: Emil Ferris My Favorite Thing Is Monsters Best Comics-Related Periodical/Journalism: The Comics Journal, edited by Dan Nadel, Timothy Hodler and Tucker Stone, www.tcj.com
Best Comics-Related Book: How to Read Nancy: The Elements of Comics in Three Easy Panels, by Paul Karasik and Mark Newgarden
Harvey Awards
List of won Harvey Awards:
1989
Best Writer: Gilbert Hernandez - Love and Rockets Best Continuing or Limited Series: Love and Rockets by Jaime and Gilbert Hernandez
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Crumb Comics, by Robert Crumb
1990
Best Writer: Gilbert Hernandez - Love and Rockets Best New Series: Eightball by Dan Clowes
Best Continuing or Limited Series: Love and Rockets by Jaime and Gilbert Hernandez
Best Single Issue or Story: Eightball #1, by Dan Clowes
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Little Nemo in Slumberland, by Winsor McCay
1991
Best Cartoonist (writer/artist): Peter Bagge, Hate Best Letterer: Dan Clowes, Eightball Best New Series: Hate by Peter Bagge
Best Continuing or Limited Series: Eightball by Dan Clowes
Best Single Issue or Story: Eightball #3, by Dan Clowes
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth and Helena Harvilicz
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Crumb Comics, by Robert Crumb
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: The Complete Little Nemo in Slumberland, by Winsor McCay, edited by Richard Marschall, designed by Dale Crain
1992
Best Inker: Jaime Hernandez, Love and Rockets Best Continuing or Limited Series: Eightball by Dan Clowes, edited by Gary Groth
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth, Helena Harvilicz and Frank Young
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Crumb Comics, by Robert Crumb
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: The Complete Little Nemo in Slumberland, by Winsor McCay, edited by Richard Marschall, art directed by Dale Crain
1993
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth and Frank Young
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Crumb Comics, by Robert Crumb
1994
Best American Edition of Foreign Material: Billie Holiday by José Antonio Muñoz and Carlos Sampayo, edited by Gary Grot, Robert Boyd and Kim Thompson
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Little Nemo In Slumberland Vol. 6 by Winsor McCay, edited by Bill Blackbeard, packaged by Dale Crain
1995
Best New Series: Acme Novelty Library by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Crumb Comics, by Robert Crumb, edited by Gary Groth and Robert Boyd, art direction by Mark Thompson
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: Acme Novelty Library, by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson
1996
Best Letterer: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best Colorist: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Crumb Comics Vol. II, by Robert Crumb, edited by Mark Thompson
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: Acme Novelty Library, by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson, art directed by Chris Ware
1997
Best Writer: Daniel Clowes, Eightball Best Letterer: Dan Clowes, Eightball Best Colorist: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best Continuing or Limited Series: Eightball by Dan Clowes, edited by Gary Groth
Best Single Issue or Story: Acme Novelty Library #13, by Chris Ware
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth and Tom Spurgeon
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: Acme Novelty Library, by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson, art directed by Chris Ware
1998
Best Colorist: Chris Ware, his body of work in 1997, including Acme Novelty Library Best New Series: Penny Century by Janime Hernandez, edited by Gary Groth
Best Single Issue or Story:Eightball #18, by Dan Clowes, edited by Gary Groth
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: Acme Novelty Library, by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson, art directed by Chris Ware
1999
Best Artist or Penciller: Jaime Hernandez, his body of work in 1998, including Penny Century Best Inker: Charles Burns, Black Hole Best Single Issue or Story: Penny Century #3 "Home School", by Jaime Hernandez
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth and Tom Spurgeon
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: Acme Novelty Library, by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson, art directed by Chris Ware
2000
Best Inker: Jaime Hernandez, Penny Century Best Letterer: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best Colorist: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best Cover Artist: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best New Series: Weasel by Dave Cooper, edited by Gary Groth
Best Continuing or Limited Series: Acme Novelty Library by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson
Best Single Issue or Story: Acme Novelty Library #13 by Chris Ware
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal Special Award Excellence in Presentation: Acme Novelty Library #13 by Chris Ware
2001
Best Artist or Penciller: Jaime Hernandez, Penny Century Best Inker: Charles Burns, Black Hole Best New Series: Luba's Comix and Stories by Gilbert Hernandez, edited by Gary Groth
Best Continuing or Limited Series: Acme Novelty Library by Chris Ware, edited by Kim Thompson
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal2002
Best Cartoonist (writer/artist): Daniel Clowes, Eightball Best Inker: Charles Burns, Black Hole Best Letterer: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best Colorist: Chris Ware, Acme Novelty Library Best New Series: La Perida, by Jessica Abel
Best Single Issue or Story: Eightball #22 by Dan Clowes
2003
Best Inker: Jaime Hernandez, Love and Rockets Best Graphic Album of Previously Published Work: 20th Century Eightball by Daniel Clowes
Best Anthology: Comics Journal Summer Special 2002 Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: B. Krigstein Vol. 1 Best Domestic Reprint Project: Krazy and Ignatz Special Award Excellence in Presentation: Krazy and Ignatz, designed by Chris Ware
2004
Best Inker: Charles Burns, Black Hole Best Cover Artist: Charles Burns, Black Hole Best Single Issue or Story: Love and Rockets #9 by Jamie and Gilbert Hernandez (tied with Gotham Central # 6-10 by Greg Rucka and Michael Lark)
Best Domestic Reprint Project: Krazy and Ignatz by George Herriman, edited by Bill Blackbeard
2005
Best Writer: Daniel Clowes - Eightball Best Inker: Charles Burns, Black Hole Best Single Issue or Story: Eightball #23 by Daniel Clowes - 2006, Love and Rockets (vol. 2) #15, by Hernandez
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Peanuts 1950–1952 by Charles Schulz
Special Award Excellence in Presentation: The Complete Peanuts 1950–1952, by Charles Schulz, designed by Seth
2006
Best Inker: Charles Burns, Black Hole Best New Talent: R. Kikuo Johnson, Night Fisher (split award with tied Marvel Knights 4 by Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa)
Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation: The Comics Journal, edited by Gary Groth
2007
Best Cartoonist (writer/artist): Jaime Hernandez, Love and RocketsBest Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Peanuts2008
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Peanuts2009
Best Domestic Reprint Project: The Complete Peanuts2011
Best Continuing or Limited Series: Love and Rockets Vol. 3 by Jaime and Gilbert Hernandez
2013
Best Cartoonist (writer/artist): Jaime Hernandez, Love and RocketsReferences
Notes
Sources consulted
Spurgeon, Tom with Michael Dean. Everything Was in Season': Fantagraphics from 1978–1984: Amazing Heroes", The Comics Journal'' (December 8, 2016).
External links
Fantagraphics Books at the Big Comic Book Database
Book publishing companies based in Seattle
Comic book publishing companies of the United States
Publishers of adult comics
American companies established in 1976
Publishing companies established in 1976
Fantagraphics Books
Disney comics publishers | [
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245842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fume%20hood | Fume hood | A fume hood (sometimes called a fume cupboard or fume closet) is a type of local ventilation device that is designed to limit exposure to hazardous or toxic fumes, vapors or dusts.
Description
A fume hood is typically a large piece of equipment enclosing five sides of a work area, the bottom of which is most commonly located at a standing work height.
Two main types exist, ducted and recirculating (ductless). The principle is the same for both types: air is drawn in from the front (open) side of the cabinet, and either expelled outside the building or made safe through filtration and fed back into the room. This is used to:
protect the user from inhaling toxic gases (fume hoods, biosafety cabinets, glove boxes)
protect the product or experiment (biosafety cabinets, glove boxes)
protect the environment (recirculating fume hoods, certain biosafety cabinets, and any other type when fitted with appropriate filters in the exhaust airstream)
Secondary functions of these devices may include explosion protection, spill containment, and other functions necessary to the work being done within the device.
Fume hoods are generally set back against the walls and are often fitted with infills above, to cover up the exhaust ductwork. Because of their recessed shape they are generally poorly illuminated by general room lighting, so many have internal lights with vapor-proof covers. The front is a sash window, usually in glass, able to move up and down on a counterbalance mechanism. On educational versions, the sides and sometimes the back of the unit are also glass, so that several pupils can look into a fume hood at once. Low air flow alarm control panels are common, see below.
Fume hoods are generally available in 5 different widths; 1000 mm, 1200 mm, 1500 mm, 1800 mm and 2000 mm. The depth varies between 700 mm and 900 mm, and the height between 1900 mm and 2700 mm. These designs can accommodate from one to three operators.
For exceptionally hazardous materials, an enclosed glovebox may be used, which completely isolates the operator from all direct physical contact with the work material and tools. The enclosure may also be maintained at negative air pressure to ensure that nothing can escape via minute air leaks.
Liner materials
Phenolic resin (for general applications)
Fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP)
Epoxy resin
Polypropylene (the best material for the majority of applications)
Square-corner stainless steel (for durability and heat resistance)
Coved-corner stainless steel (easier to decontaminate, for radiochemical and biohazard applications)
Cement board (for rough usage)
Control panels
Most fume hoods are fitted with a mains-powered control panel. Typically, they perform one or more of the following functions:
Warn of low air flow
Warn of too large an opening at the front of the unit (a "high sash" alarm is caused by the sliding glass at the front of the unit being raised higher than is considered safe, due to the resulting air velocity drop)
Allow switching the exhaust fan on or off
Allow turning an internal light on or off
Specific extra functions can be added, for example, a switch to turn a waterwash system on or off.
Ducted fume hoods
Most fume hoods for industrial purposes are ducted. A large variety of ducted fume hoods exist. In most designs, conditioned (i.e. heated or cooled) air is drawn from the lab space into the fume hood and then dispersed via ducts into the outside atmosphere.
The fume hood is only one part of the lab ventilation system. Because recirculation of lab air to the rest of the facility is not permitted, air handling units serving the non-laboratory areas are kept segregated from the laboratory units. To improve indoor air quality, some laboratories also utilize single-pass air handling systems, wherein air that is heated or cooled is used only once prior to discharge. Many laboratories continue to use return air systems to the laboratory areas to minimize energy and running costs, while still providing adequate ventilation rates for acceptable working conditions. The fume hoods serve to evacuate hazardous levels of contaminant.
To reduce lab ventilation energy costs, variable air volume (VAV) systems are employed, which reduce the volume of the air exhausted as the fume hood sash is closed. This product is often enhanced by an automatic sash closing device, which will close the fume hood sash when the user leaves the fume hood face. The result is that the hoods are operating at the minimum exhaust volume whenever no one is actually working in front of them.
Since the typical fume hood in US climates uses 3.5 times as much energy as a home, the reduction or minimization of exhaust volume is strategic in reducing facility energy costs as well as minimizing the impact on the facility infrastructure and the environment. Particular attention must be paid to the exhaust discharge location, to reduce risks to public safety, and to avoid drawing exhaust air back into the building air supply system.
Auxiliary air
This method is outdated technology. The premise was to bring non-conditioned outside air directly in front of the hood so that this was the air exhausted to the outside. This method does not work well when the climate changes as it pours frigid or hot and humid air over the user making it very uncomfortable to work or affecting the procedure inside the hood. This system also uses additional ductwork which can be costly.
Constant air volume (CAV)
In a survey of 247 lab professionals conducted in 2010, Lab Manager Magazine found that approximately 43% of fume hoods are conventional CAV fume hoods.
Non-bypass CAV
Closing the sash on a non-bypass CAV hood will increase face velocity (inflow velocity or "pull"), which is a function of the total volume divided by the area of the sash opening. Thus, a conventional hood's performance (from a safety perspective) depends primarily on sash position, with safety increasing as the hood is drawn closed. To address this issue, many conventional CAV hoods specify a maximum height that the fume hood can be open in order to maintain safe airflow levels.
A major drawback of conventional CAV hoods is that when the sash is closed, velocities can increase to the point where they disturb instrumentation and delicate apparatuses, cool hot plates, slow reactions, and/or create turbulence that can force contaminants into the room.
Bypass CAV
Bypass CAV hoods (which are sometimes also referred to as conventional hoods) were developed to overcome the high velocity issues that affect conventional fume hoods. These hood allows air to be pulled through a "bypass" opening from above as the sash closes. The bypass is located so that as the user closes the sash, the bypass opening gets larger. The air going through the hood maintains a constant volume no matter where the sash is positioned and without changing fan speeds. As a result, the energy consumed by CAV fume hoods (or rather, the energy consumed by the building HVAC system and the energy consumed by the hood's exhaust fan) remains constant, or near constant, regardless of sash position.
Low flow/high performance bypass CAV
"High-performance" or "low-flow" bypass CAV hoods are the newest type of bypass CAV hoods and typically display improved containment, safety, and energy conservation features. Low-flow/high performance CAV hoods generally have one or more of the following features: sash stops or horizontal-sliding sashes to limit the openings; sash position and airflow sensors that can control mechanical baffles; small fans to create an air-curtain barrier in the operator's breathing zone; refined aerodynamic designs and variable dual-baffle systems to maintain laminar (undisturbed, nonturbulent) flow through the hood. Although the initial cost of a high-performance hood is typically more than that of a conventional bypass hood, the improved containment and flow characteristics allow these hoods to operate at a face velocity as low as 60 fpm, which can translate into $2,000 per year or more in energy savings, depending on hood size and sash settings.
Reduced air volume (RAV)
Reduced air volume hoods (a variation of low-flow/high performance hoods) incorporate a bypass block to partially close off the bypass, reducing the air volume and thus conserving energy. Usually, the block is combined with a sash stop to limit the height of the sash opening, ensuring a safe face velocity during normal operation while lowering the hood's air volume. By reducing the air volume, the RAV hood can operate with a smaller blower, which is another cost-saving advantage.
Since RAV hoods have restricted sash movement and reduced air volume, these hoods are less flexible in what they can be used for and can only be used for certain tasks. Another drawback to RAV hoods is that users can in theory override or disengage the sash stop. If this occurs, the face velocity could drop to an unsafe level. To counter this condition, operators must be trained never to override the sash stop while in use, and only to do so when loading or cleaning the hood.
Variable air volume (VAV)
VAV hoods, the newest generations of laboratory fume hoods, vary the volume of room air exhausted while maintaining the face velocity at a set level. Different VAV hoods change the exhaust volume using different methods, such as a damper or valve in the exhaust duct that opens and closes based on sash position, or a blower that changes speed to meet air-volume demands. Most VAV hoods integrate a modified bypass-block system that ensures adequate airflow at all sash positions. VAV hoods are connected electronically to the laboratory building's HVAC, so hood exhaust and room supply are balanced. In addition, VAV hoods feature monitors and/or alarms that warn the operator of unsafe hood-airflow conditions.
Although VAV hoods are much more complex than traditional constant-volume hoods, and correspondingly have higher initial costs, they can provide considerable energy savings by reducing the total volume of conditioned air exhausted from the laboratory. Since most hoods are operated the entire time a laboratory is open, this can quickly add up to significant cost savings. These savings are, however, completely contingent on user behavior: the less the hoods are open (both in terms of height and in terms of time), the greater the energy savings. For example, if the laboratory's ventilation system uses 100% once-through outside air and the value of conditioned air is assumed to be $7 per CFM per year (this value would increase with very hot, cold or humid climates), a 6-foot VAV fume hood at full open for experiment set up 10% of the time (2.4 hours per day), at 18 inch working opening 25% of the time (6 hours per day), and completely closed 65% of the time (15.6 hours per day) would save approximately $6,000 every year compared to a hood that is fully open 100% of the time.
Potential behavioral savings from VAV fume hoods are highest when fume hood density (number of fume hoods per square foot of lab space) is high. This is because fume hoods contribute to the achievement of lab spaces' required air exchange rates. Put another way, savings from closing fume hoods can only be achieved when fume hood exhaust rates are greater than the air exchange rate needed to achieve the required ventilation rate in the lab room. For example, in a lab room with a required air exchange rate of 2000 cubic feet per minute (CFM), if that room has just one fume hood which vents air at a rate of 1000 square feet per minute, then closing the sash on the fume hood will simply cause the lab room's air handler to increase from 1000 CFM to 2000 CFM, thus resulting in no net reduction in air exhaust rates, and thus no net reduction in energy consumption.
In a survey of 247 lab professionals conducted in 2010, Lab Manager Magazine found that approximately 12% of fume hoods are VAV fume hoods.
Canopy fume hoods
Canopy fume hoods, also called exhaust canopies, are similar to the range hoods found over stoves in commercial and some residential kitchens. They have only a canopy (and no enclosure and no sash) and are designed for venting non-toxic materials such as non-toxic smoke, steam, heat, and odors. In a survey of 247 lab professionals conducted in 2010, Lab Manager Magazine found that approximately 13% of fume hoods are ducted canopy fume hoods.
Ductless (recirculating) fume hoods
These units generally have a fan mounted on the top (soffit) of the hood, or beneath the worktop. Air is sucked through the front opening of the hood and through a filter, before passing through the fan and being fed back into the workplace. With a ductless fume hood it is essential that the filter medium be able to remove the particular hazardous or noxious material being used. As different filters are required for different materials, recirculating fume hoods should only be used when the hazard is well known and does not change. Ductless Hoods with the fan mounted below the work surface are not recommended as the majority of vapours rise and therefore the fan will have to work a lot harder (which may result in an increase in noise) to pull them downwards. Units with the fan mounted above the work surface have been proven to offer greater levels of safety.
Air filtration of ductless fume hoods is typically broken into two segments:
Pre-filtration: This is the first stage of filtration, and consists of a physical barrier, typically open cell foam, which prevents large particles from passing through. Filters of this type are generally inexpensive, and last for approximately six months depending on usage.
Main filtration: After pre-filtration, the fumes are sucked through a layer of activated charcoal which absorbs the majority of chemicals that pass through it. Ammonia and carbon monoxide will, however, pass through most carbon filters. Additional specific filtration techniques can be added to combat chemicals that would otherwise be pumped back into the room. A main filter will generally last for approximately two years, dependent on usage.
Ductless fume hoods are sometimes not appropriate for research applications where the activity, and the materials used or generated, may change or be unknown. As a result of this and other drawbacks, some research organizations, including the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Columbia University, Princeton University, the University of New Hampshire, and the University of Colorado, Boulder either discourage or prohibit the use of ductless fume hoods.
A benefit of ductless fume hoods is that they are mobile, easy to install since they require no ductwork, and can be plugged into a 120 volt or 240 volt outlet.
In a survey of 247 lab professionals conducted in 2010, Lab Manager Magazine found that approximately 22% of fume hoods are ductless fume hoods.
Specialty designs
Acid digestion
These units are typically constructed of polypropylene to resist the corrosive effects of acids at high concentrations. If hydrofluoric acid is being used in the hood, the hood's transparent sash should be constructed of polycarbonate which resists etching better than glass. Hood ductwork should be lined with polypropylene or coated with PTFE (Teflon).
Downflow
Downflow fume hoods, also called downflow work stations, are typically ductless fume hoods designed to protect the user and the environment from hazardous vapors generated on the work surface. A downward air flow is generated and hazardous vapors are collected through slits in the work surface.
Perchloric acid
These units feature a waterwash system (scrubber - see below) in the ductwork. Because dense perchloric acid fumes settle and form explosive crystals, it is vital that the ductwork be cleaned internally with a series of sprays.
Radioisotope
This fume hood is made with a coved stainless steel liner and coved integral stainless steel countertop that is reinforced to handle the weight of lead bricks or blocks.
Scrubber
This type of fume hood absorbs the fumes through a chamber filled with plastic shapes, which are doused with a scrubbing medium. The chemicals are washed into a sump, which is often filled with a neutralizing liquid. The fumes are then dispersed, or disposed of, in the conventional manner.
Waterwash
These fume hoods have an internal wash system that cleans the interior of the unit, to prevent a build-up of dangerous chemicals.
Energy consumption
Because fume hoods constantly remove very large volumes of conditioned (heated or cooled) air from lab spaces, they are responsible for the consumption of large amounts of energy. Energy costs for a typical hood range from $4,600/year for moderate climates such as Los Angeles, to $9,300/year for extreme cooling climates such as Singapore. Fume hoods are a major factor in making laboratories four to five times more energy intensive than typical commercial buildings. The bulk of the energy that fume hoods are responsible for is the energy needed to heat and/or cool air delivered to the lab space. Additional electricity is consumed by fans in the HVAC system and fans in the fume hood exhaust system.
A number of universities run or have run programs to encourage lab users to reduce fume hood energy consumption by keeping VAV sashes closed as much as possible. For example, Harvard University's Chemistry & Chemical Biology Department ran a "Shut the sash" campaign, which resulted in a sustained ~30% reduction in fume hood exhaust rates. This translated into cost savings of approximately $180,000 per year, and a reduction in annual greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to 300 metric tons of carbon dioxide. Other institutions reporting programs to reduce energy consumption by fume hoods include Massachusetts Institute of Technology, North Carolina State University, University of British Columbia, University of California, Berkeley, University of California, Davis, University of California, Irvine, University of California, Los Angeles, University of California, Riverside, University of California, San Diego, University of California, Santa Barbara, University of Central Florida and University of Colorado, Boulder.
Newer person detection technology can sense the presence of a hood operator within a zone in front of a hood. Zone presence sensor signals allow ventilation valve controls to switch between normal and stand by modes. Coupled with laboratory space occupancy sensors these technologies can adjust ventilation to a dynamic performance objective.
Maintenance
Fume hood maintenance can involve daily, periodic, and annual inspections:
Daily fume hood inspection
The fume hood area is visually inspected for storage of material and other visible blockages.
Periodic fume hood function inspection
Capture or face velocity is typically measured with a velometer or anemometer. Hoods for most common chemicals have a minimum average face velocity of per minute at sash opening of . Face velocity readings should not vary by more than 20%. A minimum of six readings may be used determine average face velocity.
Other local exhaust devices are smoke tested to determine if the contaminants they are designed to remove are being adequately captured by the hood.
Annual maintenance
Exhaust fan maintenance, (i.e. lubrication, belt tension, fan blade deterioration and rpm), is performed in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendation, or as adjusted for appropriate hood function.
Safety & Energy Upgrades to be performed by professionals as required from time to time to be compliant.
History
The need for ventilation has been apparent from early days of chemical research and education. Some early approaches to the problem were adaptations of the conventional chimney. A hearth constructed by Thomas Jefferson in 1822–1826 at the University of Virginia was equipped with a sand bath and special flues to vent toxic gases.
In 1904 the newbuilt Chemical Faculty at the Technical University in Gdańsk was equipped with fume hoods made of wood and glass in auditoria, several lecture rooms, student laboratories and rooms for scientists. Sliding up and down front panel with glass protected from fumes and explosions. Each fume hood was illuminated, equipped with gas installation for heating and running water with a drain. Harmful and corrosive gaseous byproducts of reactions were actively removed using the natural draft of a fireplace chimney. This early design is still functioning after over 110 years.
The draft of a chimney was also used by Thomas Edison as what has been called the "first fume hood". The first known modern "fume cupboard" design with rising sashes was introduced at the University of Leeds in 1923.
Modern fume hoods are distinguished by methods of regulating air flow independently of combustion, improving efficiency and potentially removing volatile chemicals from exposure to flame. Fume hoods were originally manufactured from wood, but during the 1970s and 1980s epoxy powder-coated steel became the norm. During the 1990s, wood pulp derivatives treated with phenolic resin (plastic laminates and solid grade laminates) for chemical resistance and flame spread retardance started to become widely accepted.
See also
Laminar flow cabinet
Biosafety cabinet
Vented Balance Safety Enclosure
ECO Funnel
Notes
References
External links
Northwestern University Office for Research Safety - The Chemical Fume Hood Handbook
Lab Manager Magazine: CAV, RAV & VAV
University of Louisville's Chemical Hood User's Guide
Information from the University of Bath in the UK
The Fume Hood Resource Center by Lab Manager Magazine
University of Toronto's Guide to running a sash-shutting campaig
Laboratory equipment
Ventilation | [
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245844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Ghana | Music of Ghana | There are many styles of traditional and modern music of Ghana, due to Ghana's worldwide geographic position on the African continent. The best known modern genre originating in Ghana is Highlife.So many years, Highlife was the preferred music genre until the introduction of Hiplife and many others.
Traditional music
The traditional musicology of Ghana may be divided geographically between the open and vast savanna country of northern Ghana inhabited by Ghanaians of Gur and Mande speaking groups; and the fertile, forested southern coastal areas, inhabited by Ghanaians speaking Kwa languages such as Akan.
The northern musical traditions belong to the wider Sahelian musical traditions. It features a mix of melodic composition on stringed instruments such as the kologo lute and the gonjey fiddle, wind instruments such as flutes and horns, and voice; with polyrhythms clapped or played on the talking drum, gourd drums or brekete bass drums. The tradition of gyil music (balafon) is also common, especially in northwestern Ghana around Wa and Lawra. Music in the northern styles is mostly set to a minor pentatonic or chromatic scale and melisma plays an important part in melodic and vocal styles. There is a long history of either griot or praise-singing traditions.
The music of the coast is associated with social functions, and relies on complex polyrhythmic patterns played with drums and bells as well as harmonized song. Drums and dance are often linked, and the tradition of royal talking drums fontomfrom (distinct from the northern talking drum) means music is widely used for communication of both tangible and esoteric topics. The most well known of southern Ghanaian drum traditions is the kete and adowa drum and bell ensembles. Music can also be linked to traditional religions. An exception to this rule is the Akan tradition of singing with the Seperewa harp-lute which had its origins in the stringed harps of the north and west.
Gold Coast period
During the Gold Coast era lexie, the Gold Coast was a hotbed of musical syncretism. Rhythms especially from gombe and ashiko, guitar-styles such as mainline and osibisaba, European brass bands and sea shanties, were all combined into a melting pot that became high-life.
Mid-20th century and the invention of Ghanaian pop
Ghana became an independent nation in 1957. The music of Ghana often reflects a Caribbean influence, yet it still retains a flavour on its own. While pan-Ghanaian music had been developed for some time, the middle of the 20th century saw the development of distinctly Ghanaian pop music. High-life incorporated elements of swing, jazz, rock, ska and soukous. To a much lesser extent, Ghanaian musicians found success in the United States and, briefly, the United Kingdom with the surprise success of Osibisa's Afro-rock in the 1970s.
Guitar-bands in the 1930s, 1940s, 1950s and 1960s
In the 1930s, Sam's Trio, led by Jacob Sam (Kwame Asare), was the most influential of the high-life guitar-bands. Their "Yaa Amponsah", three versions of which were recorded in 1928 for Zonophone, was a major hit that remains a popular staple of numerous high-life bands. The next major guitar-band leader was E. K. Nyame, who sang in Twi. Nyame also added the double bass and more elements of the Western hemisphere, including jazz and Cuban music on the recommendation of his producer and manager E. Newman-Adjiri. In the 1960s, dance high-life was more popular than guitar-band high-life; most of the guitar bands began using the electric guitar until a roots revival in the mid-1970s.
Dance high-life in the 1930s, 1940s, 1950s and 1960s
Dance highlife evolved during World War II, when American jazz and swing became popular with the arrival of servicemen from the United States and United Kingdom. After independence in 1957, the socialist government began encouraging folk music, but highlife remained popular and influences from Trinidadian music. E. T. Mensah was the most influential musician of this period, and his band The Tempos frequently accompanied the president. The original bandleader of The Tempos was Guy Warren, who was responsible for introducing Caribbean music to Ghana and, later, was known for a series of innovative fusions of African rhythms and American jazz. Ebo Taylor, King Bruce, Jerry Hansen (musician) and Stan Plange also led influential dance bands during the 1950s and 1960s. By the 1970s, however, pop music from Europe and the US dominated the Ghanaian scene until a mid-1970s roots revival.
1970s: Head revival
By the beginning of the 1970s, traditionally styled highlife had been overtaken by electric guitar bands and pop-dance music. Since 1966 and the fall of President Kwame Nkrumah, many Ghanaian musicians moved abroad, settling in the US, and UK. High-life bands arose like Sammy Kofi's (also known as Kofi Sammy). In 1971, the Soul to Soul music festival was held in Accra. Several legendary American musicians played, including Wilson Pickett, Ike and Tina Turner and Carlos Santana. With the exception of Mexican-American Santana, these American superstars were all black, and their presence in Accra was seen as legitimizing Ghanaian music. Though the concert is now mostly remembered for its role as a catalyst in the subsequent Ghanaian roots revival, it also led to increased popularity for American rock and soul. Inspired by the American musicians, new guitar bands arose in Ghana, including Nana Ampadu& the African Brothers, The City Boys and others. Musicians such as C. K. Mann, Daniel Amponsah and Eddie Donkor incorporated new elements, especially from Jamaican reggae. A group called Wulomei also arose in the 1970s, leading a cultural revival to encourage Ghanaian youths to support their own countryman's music. By the 1980s, the UK was experiencing a boom in African music as Ghanaian and others moved there in large numbers. The group Hi-Life International was probably the most influential band of the period, and others included Jon K, Dade Krama, Orchestra Jazira and Ben Brako. In the middle of the decade, however, British immigration laws changed, and the focus of Ghanaian emigration moved to Germany.
The Ghanaian-German community created a form of highlife called Burger-highlife. The most influential early burgher highlife musician was George Darko, whose "Akoo Te Brofo" coined the term and is considered the beginning of the genre. Burgher highlife was extremely popular in Ghana, especially after computer-generated dance beats were added to the mix. The same period saw a Ghanaian community appear in Toronto and elsewhere in Canada. Pat Thomas is probably the most famous Ghanaian-Canadian musician. Other emigres include Ghanaian-American Obo Addy, the Ghanaian-Swiss Andy Vans and the Ghanaian-Dutch Kumbi Salleh. In Ghana itself during the 1980s, reggae became extremely popular.
Hip-life
By the late 1990s, a new generation of artists discovered the so-called Hiplife. The originator of this style is Reggie Rockstone, a Ghanaian musician who dabbled with hip-hop in the United States before finding his unique style. Hiplife basically was hiphop in the Ghanaian local dialect backed by elements of the traditional High-life. Ace music producer Hammer of The Last Two unveiled artistes including Obrafour, Tinny and Ex-doe who further popularized the Hiplife music genre respectively. Hiplife has since proliferated and spawned stars such as Reggie Rockstone, Sherifa Gunu, Ayigbe Edem, Samini and Sarkodie. Producers responsible for steering this genre to what it is today were Hammer of The Last Two, Ball J, EL and Jupitar Dancehall Artiste.
Hip hop
Ghanaian hip hop is a subculture and art movement which developed in Ghana during the late 1990s. The hiphop genre came into existence in Ghana through Reggie Rockstone, who is known as the hiplife father and other notable musicians such as Jayso and Ball J .It first came to Ghana as Hiplife where Reggie Rockstone introduced a fusion of hiphop beats with African sounds to create a whole new genre known as Gh hiphop.
Afro Beats
In the late 2000’s, a new generation of artists introduced the Afro beats genere into the Ghana music scene which is mostly referred to as Afro-pop. The likes of 4x4 and Fuse ODG among others popularized it and it has become part of the Ghanaian music Culture.
See also
Gh hiphop
Ghanaian hip hop
Azonto
List of record labels in Ghana
Rhythm in Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan African music traditions
References
External links
Ghana Music The largest source of Ghana music videos, news, biographies, reviews, interviews & more! Get recommendations for new music to download, stream or own.
GhKings Store: Ghana's first successful online music store.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Koo Nimo and King Ayisoba. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Serena Owusua Dankwa and Batman Samini. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Ghana music lyrics, audio, blogs, more Museke Ghana.
Ghana Base Music Powering the Ghanaian Music Online.
Music in Ghana Music in Ghana.
West African music
Ghana Music
Ghanaian Songs | [
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245850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Bangladesh | Music of Bangladesh | The music of Bangladesh spans a wide variety of styles. Bangladesh claims some of the most renowned singers, composers and producers in Asia. Music has served the purpose of documenting the lives of the people and was widely patronized by the rulers. It comprises a long tradition of religious and regular song-writing over a period of almost a millennium.
Classical music
Ragapradhan Gaan
Bangladeshi classical music is based on modes called ragas. In composing these songs, the melodies of north Indian ragas are used. As far as the Charyagiti (9th century), ragas have been used in Bengali music. Jaydev’s Gitagovindam, Padavali Kirtan, Mangal Giti, Shyamasangit, Tappa, Brahma Sangeet and Tagore songs have been inspired by Ragas. The use of north Indian ragas in Bangla songs began in 18th century. This trend gathered momentum during the 19th and 20th centuries. The pioneers of these trend were Ramnidhi Gupta, Kali Mirza, Raghunath Roy and the founder of the Bishnupur Gharana, Ramshanker Bhattacharya. Nawab of Lakhnau, Wajid Ali Shah played an important role in this trend. He was dethroned by the British empire in 1856 and banished to Metiaburuz, Kolkata. During his 30-year exile, he patronized music, specially dhrupad, tappa, thumri and kheyal. And, thus made a lasting impact on Bangladeshi music. All traditional Bengali music tend to be based on various variations of Hindustani Classical Music. Rabindranath Tagore had a deep appreciation for north Indian ragas, successfully introduced ragas in his songs. He was followed by Dwijendralal Roy, Rajanikanta Sen and Atulprasad Sen.
Folk music
Folk has come to occupy the lives of Bangladeshis almost more than any other genre of Bengali music. Among the luminaries of the different folk traditions are Lalon Fokir, Shah Abdul Karim, Radharaman Dutta, Hason Raja, Khursheed Nurali (Sheerazi), Ramesh Shil, Kari Amir Uddin Ahmed and Abbas Uddin. Folk songs are characterised by simple musical structure and words. Before the advent of radio, entertainment in the rural areas relied on a large extent on stage performances by folk singers. With the arrival of new communication technologies and digital media, many folk songs were modernised and incorporated into modern songs (Adhunik songeet).
Folk music can be classified into several subgenres:
Baul: mainly inspired by Lalon and almost exclusively performed by Baul mystics.
Bhandari: Devotional music from the South (mainly Chittagong).
Bhatiali: Music of fishermen and boatman, almost always tied by a common ragas sung solo.
Bhawaiya: Song of bullock-cart drivers of the North (Rangpur).
Dhamail: A form of folk music and dance originated in Sylhet. It is practiced in the Sylhet Division in Bangladesh and in areas influenced by the Sylheti culture such as the Barak Valley of Assam and parts of Tripura, Meghalaya and Manipur in India.
Gazir Gaan: Devotional songs dedicated to Gazi Pir, who is part of Pach Pir tradition of folk practice and belief.
Ghazal: Popular folk music of Sufi genres, introduced from philosophy and religion in music practiced mainly by Bengali Muslims.
Gombhira: Song (originated in Chapai Nawabganj) performed with a particular distinctive rhythm and dance with two performers, always personifying a man and his grand father, discussing a topic to raise social awareness.
Hason Raja: Devotional songs written by a music composer by the name of Hason Raja (from Sylhet, northeastern side of Bangladesh near Assam) that was recently repopularised as dance music.
Jari: songs involving musical battle between two groups
Jatra Pala: songs associated exclusively with plays (performed on-stage). Usually involves colourful presentations of historical themes.
Jhumur: traditional dance song form Bangladesh and eastern part of India.
Kavigan: poems sung with simple music usually presented on stage as a musical battle between poets.
Kirtan: devotional song depicting love to Hindu God Krishna and his (best-known) wife, Radha.
Lalon: best known of all folk songs and the most important subgenre of Baul songs, almost entirely attributed to spiritual writer and composer, Lalon Fokir of Kushtia. He is known to all in West Bengal of India too.(Western Bangladesh, near the border with West Bengal).
Pala Gaan: folk ballad also known as Pat.
Sari: sung especially by boatmen. It is often known as workmen's song as well.
Shyama Sangeet: a genre of Bengali devotional songs dedicated to the Hindu goddess Shyama or Kali which is a form of supreme universal mother-goddess Durga or parvati. It is also known as Shaktagiti or Durgastuti.
Baul
Baul is the most commonly known category of Bangladeshi folk songs. It is mostly performed by hermits who are followers of Sufism in Bangladesh. Present day Sufis earn mainly from performing their music. Baul songs incorporate simple words expressing songs with deeper meanings involving creation, society, lifestyle and human emotions. The songs are performed with very little musical support to the main carrier, the vocal. Instruments used include the Ektara ("one-string"), Dotara ("two-strings"), ba(n)shi (country flute made from bamboo) and cymbals. In recent times, Baul geeti has lost popularity, due to urbanisation and westernisation.
রবীন্দ্র সঙ্গীত (Music of Robindra)
Rabindra Sangeet ( Robindro shonggit, ), also known as Tagore Songs, are songs written and composed by Rabindranath Tagore. They have distinctive characteristics in the music of Bengal, popular in India and Bangladesh. "Sangeet" means music, "Rabindra Sangeet" means Songs of Rabindra.
Rabindra Sangeet used Indian classical music and traditional folk music as sources.
নজরুল গীতি (Music of Nazrul)
Nazrul Geeti or Nazrul Sangeet, literally "music of Nazrul," are songs written and composed by Kazi Nazrul Islam, a Bengali poet and national poet of Bangladesh and active revolutionary during the Indian Independence Movement. Nazrul Sangeet incorporate revolutionary notions as well as more spiritual, philosophical and romantic themes.
শাহ আবদুল করিম (Music of Shah Abdul Karim)
Shah Abdul Karim known as "Baul Samrat" or king of baul music, he has composed over 1600 baul songs, some of his notable songs include Keno Piriti Baraila Re Bondhu, Murshid Dhono He Kemone Chinibo Tomare, Nao Banailo Banailo Re Kon Mestori, Ashi Bole Gelo Bondhu and Mon Mojale Ore Bawla Gaan. He referred to his compositions as Baul Gaan. He holds voice against unfairness, injustice, prejudice and communalism through his writings. Karim portraits Bhati area's people love, wish and happiness amid the writings. He got inspiration from another legendary musician Fakir Lalon Shah. Karim wrote many spiritual songs including Marfati or Dehatatta. Bangla Academy has translated ten songs of his in the English language. Karim wrote many spiritual songs including Marfati or Dehatatta. Bangla Academy has translated ten songs of his in English.
লালন গীতি (Music of Lalon)
Lalon also known as Fakir Lalon Shah, Lalon Shah, Lalon Fakir. Lalon composed numerous songs and poems, which describe his philosophy. Lalon left no written copies of his songs, which were transmitted orally and only later transcribed by his followers. Also, most of his followers could not read or write either, so few of his songs are found in written form.
Rock
Instruments
Common instruments are:
Sitar
Violin
Flutes
Harmonium
Esraj (a traditional Bengali instrument)
Ektara ("one-string")
Dotara ("two-strings")
Khamak
Dhak
Dhol
See also
Bengali folk literature
Culture of Bengal
Culture of India
Culture of West Bengal
History of Bengali literature
Music of Bengal
Music of West Bengal
Bangladeshi rock
Shah Abdul Karim
References
Bengali music
Sylhet Gitika | [
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245854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here%20Today%2C%20Tomorrow%20Next%20Week%21 | Here Today, Tomorrow Next Week! | Here Today, Tomorrow Next Week! is the second studio album by Icelandic alternative rock band the Sugarcubes, released in September 1989 through Elektra Records. A version of the album sung in Icelandic titled Illur Arfur! (English: Bad Legacy!) was released as well, with the same English track listing, under the name of Sykurmolarnir (Sugarcubes in Icelandic). The album reached #70 on the Billboard 200, #15 on the UK Albums Chart and #1 on the UK Indie Albums chart. The album wasn't as well received by critics as their critically acclaimed debut album, Life's Too Good, and was criticized for Einar's greater vocal contribution.
The album spanned three singles: "Regina" which reached #2 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart, "Tidal Wave" and "Planet". All three singles were also released a music video, as well as "Eat the Menu".
The name of the album was inspired by Mr. Toad from the famous children's book The Wind in the Willows.
Track listing
Notes
The bonus tracks don't appear on the LP edition.
"Hot Meat" is a reworking of "Coldsweat" from the band's debut album, Life's Too Good, as well as the B-side of "Regina".
Personnel
The Sugarcubes
Björk Guðmundsdóttir – vocals
Einar Örn Benediktsson – vocals, trumpet
Þór Eldon Jónsson – guitar
Margrét Örnólfsdóttir – keyboards
Bragi Ólafsson – bass
Sigtryggur Baldursson – drums and percussion
Additional personnel
Baritone Saxophone (track 1) – Nigel Hitchcock
Brass, Arranged By (track 1) – Ólafur Gaukur
Tenor saxophone (track 1) – Gary Barnacle
Trombone (track 1) – Pete Thomas
Trombone bass (track 1) – Kenny Hamilton
Trumpet (track 1) – John Thirkell, Stewart Brooks
Cello (track 13) – Anthony Pleeth, Ben Kennard, Martin Loveday, Paul Kegg
Viola (track 13) – David Emanuel, Garfield Jackson, George Robertson, Levine Andrade
Violin (track 13) – Barry Wilde, Ben Cruft, Bill Benham, David Woodcock, Elizabeth Edwards, Mark Berrow, Peter Oxer, Roger Garland, Wilfred Gibson
Lead Violin (track 13) – Gavyn Wright
Strings Conductor, Arranged By (track 13) – Chris Cameron
Contractor (track 13) – Isobel Griffiths
Strings recording (track 13) – Mike Ross-Trevor
Mixing – Pétur Gíslason (tracks 1, 7, 8), Derek Birkett (tracks 2, 4–6, 9–13), Siggi Baldursson (track 3)
Production – Derek Birkett, The Sugarcubes
Recording – Brian Pugsley
Additional recording – Brad Grisdale, Gail Lambourne, Gerard Johnson (track 1), Gordon Milne, Ian Horne, Julian Withers, Karen White, Phil Bodger, Will Gosling
Technical assistance – Paul Ellis
Publisher – Second Wind
Artwork – Keli Kaldi, Óskar Storm
Layout – Designland
Outside photo – Aged Rings
Inside photo – Andrew Catlin
Sleeve design – Keli Kaldi and Óskar Strom
Charts
References
The Sugarcubes albums
1989 albums
Elektra Records albums
Albums recorded at Berry Street Studio | [
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245864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve%20Minor%20Prophets | Twelve Minor Prophets | The Minor Prophets or Twelve Prophets (, Shneim Asar; , Trei Asar, "Twelve") (, "the Twelve Prophets"), occasionally Book of the Twelve, is a collection of prophetic books, written between about the 8th and 4th centuries BC, which are in both the Jewish Tanakh and Christian Old Testament.
In the Tanakh, they appear as a single book, ("The Twelve"), which is the last book of the Nevi'im, the second of three major divisions of the Tanakh.
In the Christian Old Testament, the collection appears as twelve individual books, one for each of the prophets: the Book of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Their order, and position in the Old Testament, varies slightly between the Protestant, Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles.
The name "Minor Prophets" goes back apparently to St. Augustine, who distinguished the 12 shorter prophetic books as prophetae minores from the four longer books of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel.
Composition
Individual books
Scholars usually assume that there exists an original core of prophetic tradition behind each book which can be attributed to the figure after whom it is named. In general, each book includes three types of material:
Autobiographical material in the first person, some of which may go back to the prophet in question;
Biographical materials about the prophet in the third person – which incidentally demonstrate that the collection and editing of the books was completed by persons other than the prophets themselves;
Oracles or speeches by the prophets, usually in poetic form, and drawing on a wide variety of genres, including covenant lawsuit, oracles against the nations, judgment oracles, messenger speeches, songs, hymns, narrative, lament, law, proverb, symbolic gesture, prayer, wisdom saying, and vision.
The noteworthy exception is the Book of Jonah, an anonymous work which contains a narrative about the prophet Jonah.
As a collection
It is not known when these short works were collected and transferred to a single scroll, but the first extra-biblical evidence for the Twelve as a collection is c. 190 BCE in the writings of Jesus ben Sirach, and evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls suggests that the modern order of the Tanakh, which would potentially include the twelve, had been established by 150 BCE. It is believed that initially the first six were collected, and later the second six were added; the two groups seem to complement each other, with Hosea through Micah raising the question of iniquity, and Nahum through Malachi proposing resolutions.
Many, though not all, modern scholars agree that the editing process which produced the Book of the Twelve reached its final form in Jerusalem during the Achaemenid period (538–332 BCE), although there is disagreement over whether this was early or late.
The comparison of different ancient manuscripts indicates that the order of the individual books was originally fluid. The arrangement found in current Bibles is roughly chronological. First come those prophets dated to the early Assyrian period: Hosea, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah; Joel is undated, but it was possibly placed before Amos because parts of a verse near the end of Joel (3.16 [4.16 in Hebrew]) and one near the beginning of Amos (1.2) are identical. Also we can find in both Amos (4.9 and 7.1–3) and Joel a description of a plague of locusts. These are followed by prophets that are set in the later Assyrian period: Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. Last come those set in the Persian period: Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, although some scholars date "Second Zechariah" to the Hellenistic Era. However it is important to note that chronology was not the only consideration, as "It seems that an emphatic focus on Jerusalem and Judah was [also] a main concern. For example, Obadiah is generally understood as reflecting the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. and would therefore fit later in a purely chronological sequence.
Sequence of books
In the Hebrew Bible, these works are counted as one anthology. The works appear in the same order in Jewish, Protestant and Catholic Bibles, but in Eastern Orthodox Christian Bibles they are ordered according to the Septuagint. The books are in rough chronological order, according to explicit statements within the books themselves.
The twelve books are:
Christian commemoration
In the Roman Catholic Church, the twelve minor prophets are read in the Tridentine Breviary during the fourth and fifth weeks of November, which are the last two weeks of the liturgical year, before Advent.
In Year 1 of the modern Lectionary, Haggai, Zechariah, Jonah, Malachi, and Joel are read in weeks 25–27 of Ordinary Time. In Year 2, Amos, Hosea, and Micah are read in weeks 14–16 of Ordinary Time. In Year 1 of the two-year cycle of the Office of Readings in the Liturgy of the Hours, Micah 4 and 7 are read in the third week of Advent; Amos, Hosea, Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk are read in weeks 22–29 of Ordinary Time. In Year 2, Haggai and Zechariah 1–8 are read in weeks 11–12 of Ordinary Time; Obadiah, Joel, Malachi, Jonah, and Zechariah 9–14 are read in Week 18.
They are collectively commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31.
See also
Biblical prophecy
Books of the Bible
List of Biblical prophets
Prophet
References
Further reading
Achtemeier, Elizabeth R. & Murphy, Frederick J. The New Interpreter’s Bible, Vol. VII: Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature, Daniel, The Twelve Prophets (Abingdon, 1996)
Cathcart, Kevin J. & Gordon, Robert P. The Targum of the Minor Prophets. The Aramaic Bible 14 (Liturgical Press, 1989)
Chisholm, Robert B. Interpreting the Minor Prophets (Zondervan, 1990)
Feinberg, Charles L. The Minor Prophets (Moody, 1990)
Ferreiro, Alberto (ed). The Twelve Prophets. Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture (Inter-Varsity Press, 2003)
Hill, Robert C. (tr). Theodoret of Cyrus: Commentary on the Prophets Vol 3: Commentary on the Twelve Prophets (Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2007)
House, Paul R. The Unity of the Twelve. JSOT Supplement Series, 97 (Almond Press, 1990)
Jones, Barry Alan. The Formation of the Book of the Twelve: a Study in Text and Canon. SBL Dissertation Series 149 (Society of Biblical Literature, 1995)
Keil, Carl Friedrich. Keil on the Twelve Minor Prophets (1878) (Kessinger, 2008)
Longman, Tremper & Garland, David E. (eds). Daniel–Malachi. The Expositor's Bible Commentary (Revised ed) 8 (Zondervan, 2009)
McComiskey, Thomas Edward (ed). The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary (Baker, 2009)
Navarre Bible, The: Minor Prophets (Scepter & Four Courts, 2005)
Nogalski, James D. Literary Precursors to the Book of the Twelve. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft (Walter de Gruyter, 1993)
Petterson, Anthony R., ‘The Shape of the Davidic Hope across the Book of the Twelve’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 35 (2010), 225–46.
Phillips, John. Exploring the Minor Prophets. The John Phillips Commentary Series. (Kregel, 2002)
Roberts, Matis (ed). Trei asar: The Twelve Prophets: a New Translation with a Commentary Anthologized from Talmudic, Midrashic, and Rabbinic Sources (Mesorah, 1995–)
Rosenberg, A.J. (ed). The Twelve Prophets: Hebrew Text and English Translation. Soncino Books of the Bible (Soncino, 2004)
Shepherd, Michael B. "The Twelve Prophets in the New Testament" (Peter Lang, 2011)
Slavitt, David R. (tr). The Book of the Twelve Prophets (Oxford University Press, 1999)
Smith, James E. The Minor Prophets. Old Testament Survey (College Press, 1994)
Stevenson, John. Preaching From The Minor Prophets To A Postmodern Congregation (Redeemer, 2008)
Walton, John H. (ed). The Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Zondervan, 2009)
Nevi'im
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245867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wacky%20Races%20%281968%20TV%20series%29 | Wacky Races (1968 TV series) | Wacky Races is an American animated television series produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions for Saturday mornings. The series features 11 different cars racing against each other in various road rallies throughout North America, with all of the drivers hoping to win the title of the "World's Wackiest Racer". The show was inspired by the 1965 comedy film The Great Race.
The cartoon had many regular characters, with 23 people and animals spread among the 11 race cars. Wacky Races ran Saturday mornings on CBS from September 14, 1968, to January 4, 1969, and in syndication from 1976 to 1982. Seventeen 20-minute episodes were produced, with each of them featuring two 10-minute segments.
The series spawned numerous spin-offs throughout the years featuring Dick Dastardly, the most similar in theme being "Fender Bender 500" in 1990.
In 2017, the series was remade as a reboot, airing on Boomerang.
It aired only once on
Cartoon Network on August 13, 2018.
Plot
The cartoon revolves around several racers with various themes who are each allowed to use strange gimmicks to compete against other racers in many races across the United States.
The racers consist of:
Peter Perfect, a gentlemanly racer, in the Turbo Terrific (9); Peter is extremely strong, but also very vain, and he often boasts about the virtues of his high-tech race car – which regularly falls to pieces seconds after he praises it. He is fond of Penelope and often helps her out.
Rufus Ruffcut, a lumberjack, and his companion Sawtooth, a beaver, in the Buzz Wagon (10); their car, entirely made of wood, features four circular saw blades as wheels and Sawtooth is able to cut through obstacles (such as trees and other objects) at super-high speed.
Sergeant Blast and Private Meekly in an armored car/tank hybrid called the Army Surplus Special (6); the Sergeant uses "fire power" (i.e. shooting cannonballs from his turret) to temporarily boost power in the car.
The Ant Hill Mob, a group of dwarf-like gangsters led by Clyde and is composed of him, Ring-A-Ding, Rug Bug Benny, Mac, Danny, Kirby and Willy, in the Bulletproof Bomb (7); they are sometimes preoccupied with getting caught by the police and are able to use "getaway power", which involves all the gangsters (except for Clyde) extending their legs through the bottom of the car and running.
Professor Pat Pending, an inventor, in the Convert-a-Car (3); he can transform his car into pretty much anything that moves.
Penelope Pitstop, the lone female driver, in a 1930s racing costume in the Compact Pussycat (5); a Southern belle, Penelope seems more concerned with her looks than with racing and often gets herself into trouble. Nevertheless, she is a skilled racer.
The Slag Brothers, Rock and Gravel, in a caveman-themed race car called the Boulder Mobile (1); their car is made out of rock and the brothers (who talk in caveman-like gibberish but with occasional intelligible words) power it up by hitting it on both sides with their clubs and are also able to re-build it from bare rock, always using their clubs.
The Gruesome Twosome, Tiny "Big Gruesome" and Bela "Little Gruesome", who are monsters, in the Creepy Coupe (2); their horror-themed car includes a small bell tower inhabited by a fire-breathing dragon, bats and other creatures. The Creepy Coupe's special booster is "dragon power," with the dragon acting as a RATO unit.
The Red Max, a Manfred von Richthofen-styled aviator who speaks with a German accent, in a car/airplane hybrid called the Crimson Haybaler (4); his vehicle is able to fly, although only for short distances in ground effect.
Lazy Luke, a hillbilly, and Blubber Bear, a timid, cry-baby bear, in the Arkansas Chuggabug (8); Luke maneuvers the steering wheel with his bare feet and his car is steam-powered from an old rickety boiler. Luke has been known to blow up a balloon and use it as an air jet for briefly increased speed.
Dick Dastardly, an archetypal mustache-twirling villain and his wheezily snickering dog, Muttley, in the Mean Machine (00); their sinister vehicle is a purple, rocket-powered car with an abundance of concealed weapons and the ability to fly. Dastardly's usual race strategy revolves around using the Mean Machine's great speed to get ahead of the other racers and then setting a trap to stop them and maintain the lead, but most of his plans backfire, causing him to fall back into last place. As a result, Dastardly is the only racer who not only never wins, but never even finishes in the top three in any race. In the opening title sequence, Dastardly attempts to stall the racers by chaining their cars to a pole, but then he accidentally shifts his car into reverse, bumps into and breaks the pole and frees the others as the race begins.
Production
One of the unused plans for the series was that the races would be part of a live-action game show produced by Heatter-Quigley Productions (known for The Hollywood Squares), in which contestants would bet on which Wacky Racer would cross the finish line first. Although the game show concept was scrapped, the series was still produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions, in association with Heatter-Quigley Productions.
In 1988, a made-for-TV movie, Around the World with the Wacky Racers, was planned as part of Hanna-Barbera's Superstars 10 series of TV movies, but never got past the concept stage.
It has been said that the feature film The Great Race (1965) was an influence towards three characters in this series: Peter Perfect (after Leslie Gallant III, played by Tony Curtis), Penelope Pitstop (after Maggie Dubois, played by Natalie Wood), and Dick Dastardly (after Professor Fate, played by Jack Lemmon).
Voice cast
Paul Winchell – Dick Dastardly, Private Meekly, Clyde
Don Messick – Muttley, Professor Pat Pending, Gravel Slag, Bella Gruesome, Ring-a-Ding, Sawtooth
Daws Butler – Rock Slag, Tiny Gruesome, Red Max, Sergeant Blast, Peter Perfect, Rufus Ruffcut
John Stephenson – Luke, Blubber Bear
Janet Waldo – Penelope Pitstop
Dave Willock – Commentator/Narrator
List of episodes
Race results
The show gave the results of each race at the end of each episode (the first, second, and third placings are given by the narrator, and the narrative sometimes saw some or all of the other cars cross the finish line) as well as what happened with Dick Dastardly after his last scheme's failure. The show never indicated a particular scoring system or way to determine who won the Wacky Races as a whole. The cumulative totals for first-, second-, and third-place finishes for each contestant are presented below:
Standings
Spin-offs and similar series
Penelope Pitstop and the Ant Hill Mob were spun off into another cartoon series in 1969 titled The Perils of Penelope Pitstop. In the same year, Dick Dastardly and Muttley were given a spin-off series titled Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines. The series is sometimes mistakenly known as Stop the Pigeon, after the show's working title and theme song. Both series ran for a season each.
In 1977, Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels was produced. The titular Captain Caveman was modeled after the Slag Brothers.
In 1990, a cartoon segment in Wake, Rattle and Roll named Fender Bender 500 was produced. The show follows the same premise as Wacky Races, taking place on a World Tour instead of in the United States. Only Dick Dastardly was retained from the original cast; all the other racers are from other Hanna-Barbera shows such as "Yogi Bear" and "Augie Doggie and Doggie Daddy".
In 2006, the pilot for a spin-off series titled Wacky Races Forever was produced for Cartoon Network. The series depicted a roster of both new and returning racers competing against each other. Penelope Pitstop and Peter Perfect had married and created Perfect Industries, the corporate sponsor of the new Wacky Races, whereas their children Parker and Piper competed in the race. Other characters included the Slag Brothers, Professor Pat Pending (depicted here with a mad scientist personality), a teenage version of the Gruesome Twosome, and Dick Dastardly and Muttley (working for a new villain named Mr. Viceroy, who sought to steal Perfect Industries). The series was not picked up by Cartoon Network.
In 2016, DC Comics launched a comic series called Wacky Raceland. It was a dark and gritty reimagining of the series set after the Apocalypse in a similar vein to the Mad Max franchise. The comic ran for six issues from May to December 2016.
A reboot—also produced by Hanna-Barbera—was released on Boomerang's SVOD service in 2017. It also aired on the Boomerang channels around the world starting later in the year.
Films
Hanna-Barbera cinematic universe
Scoob! (2020)
Dick Dastardly (voiced by Jason Isaacs) and Muttley (voiced by Billy West and archived laugh recordings Don Messick) made an appearance as the main villains in the animated Scooby-Doo feature film, Scoob!, released on May 15, 2020. Rock and Gravel Slag made cameo appearances during the prehistoric gladiator scene. Various drawings of the Wacky Racers cameo on Dick Dastardly's prison cell on the wall during the credits. Penelope Pitstop was to appear physically as a main character interacting with Scooby and Shaggy according to concept art but she instead makes a brief cameo on a video game cabinet themed around her. A film based on Wacky Races is currently in development by Warner Animation Group, although it's currently unknown if it'll be connected to Scoob!.
Video games
The main plot of Wacky Races, in which characters racing on unusual fictional vehicles and using various over-the-top "weapons" to hinder their opponents, would later go on to inspire the kart racing video game genre in the 1990s,. Wacky Races eventually has its own video game series since 1991, preceding Nintendo's Super Mario Kart, which was considered as the foremost game of this kind. Various video games based on the series have been produced.
Wacky Races (1991)
Wacky Races (2000)
Wacky Races: Starring Dastardly and Muttley
Wacky Races: Mad Motors
Wacky Races: Crash and Dash
In 1993, Sega released a medal game based on the series, exclusively in Japan. It was a racing game, but the outcome of the race depended entirely on luck. Later in 2007, another game called Wacky Races: Mad Motors for the PlayStation 2 was released by Blast Entertainment on June 12. A new video game for the Wii and Nintendo DS consoles titled Wacky Races: Crash and Dash was released on June 27, 2008. This game was developed by Eidos. In 2009, another arcade game was released by Banpresto, which was a more traditional racing game. It ran on the Taito Type X2, and was released internationally by Gamewax.
Home video
A three-disc DVD release of the complete series was made available in Japan on August 10, 2001, and had both English and Japanese audio. In Great Britain, Warner released a three-disc set with no extra features, which was only available in Virgin Megastores. The complete box set of Wacky Races was released on July 31, 2006, as an HMV exclusive but is essentially the standard Volumes 1–3 with no extras. The Australian release of Volume 1 and 2 was made available in 2005 and Volume 3 released in 2007.
Warner Home Video released the entire series, with commentaries and other extras, in a DVD box set on October 19, 2004.
A two-and-a-half-hour VHS video was made available in 1996.
All 34 episodes can be purchased on the iTunes Store.
On February 14, 2017, Warner Archive re-released Wacky Races: The Complete Series on DVD in region 1 as part of their Hanna-Barbera Classics Collection as a Manufacture-on-Demand (MOD) release.
Translated language titles
Bosnian: Uvrnute (Strange racing)
Catalan: Els cotxes esbojarrats (The bumpy cars)
Dutch: Hotse-knotse-kneuzen-rally (Wild bumpy loser rally)
French: Les Fous du volant (The Fools of the Wheel)
Frisian: Hotse-knotse-kneuzen-rally (Rally of hot knees)
Galician: Os tolos do volante (The Fools of the Wheel)
German: Autorennen Total (Total car race)
Hungarian: Flúgos futam (Wacky race)
Italian: Le corse pazze (The crazy races) or La corsa più pazza del mondo (The craziest race of the World)
Japanese: チキチキマシン猛レース – Chikichikimashin mō rēsu (Chiki Chiki Racing Machines)
Polish: Odlotowe wyścigi (Cool races)
Portuguese:
Portugal: A Mais Louca Corrida do Mundo (The Craziest Race of the World)
Brazil: Corrida Maluca (Crazy Race)
Romanian: Curse Trăsnite (Wacky Races)
Spanish: Los autos locos (The crazy cars)
Serbian: Уврнуте трке (Uvrnute , Strange racing)
Swedish: Fartdårarna (The speed freaks)
The cars and characters in other media
Life-size working replicas of the vehicles have been built in the U.K. (where the show was very popular) and appear annually at the Goodwood Festival of Speed, with new additions each year. 2008 saw the last of the cars (the Ant Hill Mob in the Bulletproof Bomb #7) added to the collection, making a complete set.
The Digimon Frontier episode "Trailmon vs. Trailmon" paid tribute to the show.
In 2006, the car manufacturer Vauxhall launched a television commercial for the British market, parodying Wacky Races with a similar setup featuring Corsa cars. The commercial made several references to the cartoon as well as utilizing the show's theme music and Muttley's iconic snicker.
The English adult comic Viz had a one-off parody strip called "Wacky Racists" with David Irving as Dick Dastardly, Unity Mitford as Penelope Pitstop, Eugène Terre'Blanche as Lazy Luke, Oswald Mosley as Muttley, and comedian Bernard Manning in the "Fatcuntmobile".
In 2013, the car manufacturer Peugeot launched a TV commercial for the Brazilian market (and later used in Spain and Turkey), featuring the cartoon characters in a real-life universe.
Wacky Races was also seen in the South Park episode "Handicar".
Dick Dastardly and Muttley made a cameo in the Uncle Grandpa episode "Uncle Grandpa Retires".
The Buzz Wagon appeared in the OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes episode "Crossover Nexus".
Dick Dastardly, Muttley, and Penelope Pitstop appear in Space Jam: A New Legacy as part of the spectators of the big game, and Penelope is the Compact Pussycat the whole time. Muttley also appears in his Scoob! form.
See also
List of works produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions
List of Hanna-Barbera characters
References
External links
It's the Wacky Races!
Cartoon Network: DOC – Wacky Races – cached copy from Internet Archives
The Cartoon Scrapbook – Profile on Wacky Races
Wacky Races on Flickr
Bulletproof Bomb #7 Replica at Greenwood Races
Arkansas Chugabug #8 Replica at Greenwood Races
The Buzz WAgon # 10 Replica at Greenwood races
1960s American animated television series
1968 American television series debuts
1969 American television series endings
American children's animated comedy television series
American children's animated fantasy television series
American children's animated sports television series
Animated television series about dogs
Animated television series about auto racing
Appaloosa Interactive games
Automotive television series
CBS original programming
English-language television shows
Radio Philippines Network original programming
Television shows adapted into comics
Television shows adapted into video games
Television series by Hanna-Barbera
Television series by Heatter-Quigley Productions
Wacky Races
Prehistoric people in popular culture | [
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245868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypermethrin | Cypermethrin | Cypermethrin (CP) is a synthetic pyrethroid used as an insecticide in large-scale commercial agricultural applications as well as in consumer products for domestic purposes. It behaves as a fast-acting neurotoxin in insects. It is easily degraded on soil and plants but can be effective for weeks when applied to indoor inert surfaces. Exposure to sunlight, water and oxygen will accelerate its decomposition. Cypermethrin is highly toxic to fish, bees and aquatic insects, according to the National Pesticides Telecommunications Network (NPTN). It is found in many household ant and cockroach killers, including Raid, Ortho, Combat, and ant chalk.
Uses
Cypermethrin is used in agriculture to control ectoparasites which infest cattle, sheep, and poultry.
Human exposure
Cypermethrin is moderately toxic through skin contact or ingestion. It may cause irritation to the skin and eyes. Symptoms of dermal exposure include numbness, tingling, itching, burning sensation, loss of bladder control, incoordination, seizures and possible death. Pyrethroids may adversely affect the central nervous system. Human volunteers given dermal doses of 130μg/cm on the earlobe experienced local tingling and burning sensations. One man died after eating a meal cooked in a 10% cypermethrin/oil mix that was mistakenly used for cooking oil. Shortly after the meal, the victim experienced nausea, prolonged vomiting, stomach pains, and diarrhea which progressed to convulsions, unconsciousness and coma. Other family members exhibited milder symptoms and survived after hospital treatment. It may cause allergic skin reactions in humans. Excessive exposure can cause nausea, headache, muscle weakness, salivation, shortness of breath and seizures. In humans, cypermethrin is deactivated by enzymatic hydrolysis to several carboxylic acid metabolites, which are eliminated in the urine. Worker exposure to the chemical can be monitored by measurement of the urinary metabolites, while severe overdosage may be confirmed by quantitation of cypermethrin in blood or plasma.
Study in animals
Cypermethrin is very toxic to cats which cannot tolerate the therapeutic doses for dogs. This is associated with UGT1A6 deficiency in cats, the enzyme responsible for metabolizing cypermethrin. As a consequence, cypermethrin remains much longer in the cat's organs than in dogs or other mammals and can be fatal in large doses.
In male rats cypermethrin has been shown to exhibit a toxic effect on the reproductive system by Elbetieha et al 2001. In another result, after 15 days of continual dosing, both androgen receptor levels and serum testosterone levels were significantly reduced. These data suggested that cypermethrin can induce impairments of the structure of seminiferous tubules and spermatogenesis in male rats at high doses.
Long-term exposure to cypermethrin during adulthood is found to induce dopaminergic neurodegeneration in rats, and postnatal exposure enhances the susceptibility of animals to dopaminergic neurodegeneration if rechallenged during adulthood.
If exposed to cypermethrin during pregnancy, rats give birth to offspring with developmental delays. In male rats exposed to cypermethrin, the proportion of abnormal sperm increases. It causes genetic damage: chromosomal abnormalities increased in bone marrow and spleen cells when mice were exposed to cypermethrin. Cypermethrin is classified as a possible human carcinogen, because it causes an increase in the frequency of lung tumors in female mice. Cypermethrin has been linked to an increase in bone marrow micronuclei in both mice and humans.
One study showed that cypermethrin inhibits “gap junctional intercellular communication”, which plays an important role in cell growth and is inhibited by carcinogenic agents. Studies have shown that residue from cypermethrin can last for 84 days in the air, on walls, the floor and on furniture.
Environmental effects
Cypermethrin is a broad-spectrum insecticide, which means it kills beneficial insects as well as the targeted insects. Fish are particularly susceptible to cypermethrin, but when used as directed, application around residential sites poses little risk to aquatic life. Resistance to cypermethrin has developed quickly in insects exposed frequently and can render it ineffective.
References
External links
Cypermethrin Fact Sheet - National Pesticide Information Center
Cypermethrin Pesticide Information Profile - Extension Toxicology Network
Neurotoxins
Organochlorides
Endocrine disruptors
(cyano-(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl) 2,2,3-trimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylates
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245869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major%20prophet | Major prophet | The major prophets is a grouping of books in the Christian Old Testament that does not occur in the Hebrew Bible. All of these books are traditionally regarded as authored by a prophet such as Jeremiah, Isaiah, Daniel, and Ezekiel. The term "major" has nothing to do with the achievement or importance of the prophets, rather the length of the books. In comparison to the books of the Twelve Minor Prophets, whose books are short and grouped together into one single book in the Hebrew Bible, these books are much longer.
The order of the books
Hebrew Bible
The Tanakh, often called the Hebrew Bible, is separated into three sections: the Torah, the Nevi'im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). The Book of Jeremiah, Book of Isaiah, and the Book of Ezekiel are included among the Nevi'im. The Book of Lamentations and the Book of Daniel are included among the Ketuvim. The Hebrew Bible does not include the Book of Baruch.
Catholic Bible
Along with the books in the Hebrew Bible, the Catholic Bible includes the Letter of Jeremiah which is found in Chapter 6 of the Book of Baruch. This was written by Baruch ben Neriah, a scribe of Jeremiah.
Protestant Bible
Most Protestant Bibles include only the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Jeremiah, the Book of Lamentations, the Book of Ezekiel, and the Book of Daniel.
Period of Prophecy
All the books of the major prophets took place during the "Period of Prophecy", which covers the time from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the Babylonian captivity of Judah. It is understood from all versions of the books that during this time, the four major prophets were chosen by God to be spoken to and speak the divine word to the people.
Isaiah
The Book of Isaiah tells primarily of prophecies of the judgments awaiting nations that are persecuting Judah.
Jeremiah
The Book of Jeremiah was written as a message to the Jews in exile in Babylon, explaining the disaster of exile as God's response to Israel's pagan worship.
Lamentations
The Book of Lamentations tells of the mourning the desertion of the city by God, its destruction, and the ultimate return of the divinity.
Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel tells of the judgements on Israel and the nation and also the future blessings of Israel.
Daniel
The Book of Daniel tell of God's plans to save all Israel in their present oppression, just as he saved Daniel from his enemies.
See also
Bible prophecy
List of Biblical prophets
References
Christian terminology
Prophets in Christianity
Christian Bible content
Prophetic books | [
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245874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Henderson | Ray Henderson | Ray Henderson (born Raymond Brost; December 1, 1896 – December 31, 1970) was an American songwriter.
Early life
Born in Buffalo, New York, United States, Henderson moved to New York City and became a popular composer in Tin Pan Alley. He was one third of a successful songwriting and music publishing team with Lew Brown and Buddy De Sylva from 1925 through 1930, responsible for several editions of the revue called George White's Scandals and such book musicals as Good News, Hold Everything!, and Follow Thru. After De Sylva's departure, Henderson continued to write with Brown through 1933.
Then, he worked with other partners. In 1934, he composed the musical Say When with lyricist Ted Koehler.
Music
Henderson's biggest hit songs included "Annabelle" (1923), "Bye Bye Blackbird", "Has Anybody Seen My Girl?" (a/k/a "Five Foot Two, Eyes of Blue"), "I'm Sitting on Top of the World", "Don't Bring Lulu" (all 1925), "The Birth of the Blues" (1926), "The Varsity Drag", "The Best Things in Life Are Free" (both 1927), "You're The Cream In My Coffee", "Button Up Your Overcoat" (both 1928), "You Are My Lucky Star", "I'm a Dreamer, Aren't We All", "(Keep Your) Sunny Side Up" (all 1929), "The Thrill Is Gone", "Life Is Just a Bowl of Cherries" (both 1931), and "Animal Crackers in My Soup" (1935).
Career
Henderson also worked as an accompanist to song and dance acts in Vaudeville. His last Broadway show was a resuscitation of the Ziegfeld Follies, one of several put on after Ziegfeld's death. Henderson's, in 1943, had the longest run of any Follies at 553 performances. He effectively retired from composing in the late 1940s, and worked on an opera which was never completed.
Death
Henderson died of a heart attack in Greenwich, Connecticut in December 1970, at the age of 74.
In popular culture
Good News has been adapted for film twice; in 1930 and in 1947.
The 1956 film The Best Things in Life Are Free was a dramatization of the songwriting team of Henderson, Brown and De Sylva; Henderson was played by Dan Dailey. The film included many of the trio's songs.
In 2000, a revue of Henderson's music called It's the Cherries opened in New York City as the inaugural show of the American Composer Series.
References
External links
Ray Henderson at the Internet Archive
Ray Henderson recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1896 births
1970 deaths
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American composers
Broadway composers and lyricists
Musicians from Buffalo, New York
Songwriters from New York (state)
Vaudeville performers | [
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245878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephedra%20%28medicine%29 | Ephedra (medicine) | Ephedra is a medicinal preparation from the plant Ephedra sinica. Several additional species belonging to the genus Ephedra have traditionally been used for a variety of medicinal purposes, and are a possible candidate for the soma plant of Indo-Iranian religion. It has been used in traditional Chinese medicine, in which it is referred to as Ma Huang, for more than 2,000 years. Native Americans and Mormon pioneers drank a tea brewed from other Ephedra species, called "Mormon tea" and "Indian tea".
Dietary supplements containing ephedra alkaloids have been found to be unsafe, with reports of serious side effects and ephedra-related deaths. In response to accumulating evidence of adverse effects and deaths related to ephedra, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the sale of supplements containing ephedrine alkaloids in 2004. The ban was challenged in court by ephedra manufacturers, but ultimately upheld in 2006 by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit. Ephedra extracts not containing ephedrine have not been banned by the FDA and are still sold legally.
Biochemistry and effects
A wide variety of alkaloid and non-alkaloid compounds have been identified in various species of ephedra. Of the six ephedrine-type ingredients found in ephedra (at concentrations of 0.02-3.4%), the most common are ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which are the sources of its stimulant and thermogenic effects. These compounds stimulate the brain, increase heart rate, constrict blood vessels (increasing blood pressure), and expand bronchial tubes (making breathing easier). Their thermogenic properties cause an increase in metabolism, as evidenced by an increase in body heat.
Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a performance-enhancing drug, despite a lack of evidence that it improves athletic performance. Ephedra may also be used as a precursor in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine.
Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes in combination with aspirin and caffeine. Some studies in regulated and supervised environments have shown that ephedra is effective for marginal short-term weight loss (0.9 kg/month more than the placebo), although it was untested whether such weight loss is maintained. However, several reports have documented a number of adverse events attributable to unregulated ephedra supplements.
Adverse effects of ephedra consumption may include severe skin reactions, irritability, nervousness, dizziness, trembling, headache, insomnia, profuse perspiration, dehydration, itchy scalp and skin, vomiting, and hyperthermia. More serious potential side effects include irregular heartbeat, seizures, heart attack, stroke, and death.
Purity and dosage
There are no formal requirements for standardization or quality control of dietary supplements in the United States, and the dosage of effective ingredients in supplements may vary widely from brand to brand or batch to batch. Studies of ephedra supplements have found significant discrepancies between the labeled dose and the actual amount of ephedra in the product. Significant variation in ephedrine alkaloid levels, by as much as 10-fold, was seen even from lot to lot within the same brand.
Regulation in the United States
Escalating concerns regarding the safety of ephedra supplements led the FDA to ban the sale of supplements containing ephedrine alkaloids (specifically ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, norephedrine, and methylephedrine) in the United States in 2004. This ban was challenged by supplement manufacturers and initially overturned, but ultimately upheld.
Initial concerns and industry response
In 1997, in response to mounting concern over serious side effects of ephedra, the FDA proposed a ban on products containing 8 mg or more of ephedrine alkaloids and stricter labeling of low-dose ephedra supplements. The FDA also proposed that ephedra labels be required to disclose the health risks of ephedra, such as heart attack, stroke, and death.
In response, the supplement industry created a public relations group, the Ephedra Education Council, to oppose the changes, and commissioned a scientific review by a private consulting firm, which reported that ephedra was safe. The Ephedra Education Council also attempted to block publication of a study confirming wide discrepancies between the labeled potency of supplements and the actual amount of ephedra in the product.
Metabolife, makers of the best-selling brand of ephedra supplement, had received over 14,000 complaints of adverse events associated with its product. These reports were not initially provided to the FDA. Co-founder of Metabolife, Michael Ellis, was sentenced in 2008 to six months in federal prison for his failure to report adverse effects from his company's products to the FDA. Senators Orrin Hatch (R. Utah) and Tom Harkin (D. Iowa), authors of the Dietary Supplements Health and Education Act, questioned the scientific basis for the FDA's proposed labeling changes and suggested that the number of problems reported were insufficient to warrant regulatory action. At the time, Senator Hatch's son was working for a firm hired to lobby Congress and the FDA on behalf of ephedra manufacturers.
In addition to the activities of the Ephedra Education Council, Metabolife spent more than $4 million between 1998 and 2000 lobbying against state regulation of ephedra in Texas. Business Week reported that efforts to regulate ephedra and other potentially harmful supplements had been "beaten down by deep-pocketed industry lobbying."
In 2000, the FDA withdrew the proposed labeling changes and restrictions.
Additional evidence and deaths
A review of ephedra-related adverse reactions, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2000, found a number of cases of sudden cardiac death or severe disability resulting from ephedra use, many of which occurred in young adults using ephedra in the labeled dosages. Subsequently, in response to pressure from the consumer advocacy group Public Citizen, Metabolife was compelled by the Department of Justice in 2002 to turn over reports of over 15,000 ephedra-related adverse events, ranging from insomnia to death, which the company had previously withheld from the FDA. Use of ephedra was considered to have possibly contributed to the death of Minnesota Vikings offensive lineman Korey Stringer from heatstroke in 2001.
Steve Bechler, a pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles, died of complications from heatstroke following a spring training workout on February 17, 2003. The medical examiner found that ephedra toxicity played a "significant role" in Bechler's sudden death. Following Bechler's death, the FDA re-opened its efforts to regulate ephedra use. According to Bruce Silverglade, legal director for the Center for Science in the Public Interest, "All of a sudden [after Bechler's death] Congress dropped objections to an ephedra ban and started demanding that the FDA act."
Senator Orrin Hatch (R. Utah), who in 1999 had helped block the FDA's attempts to regulate ephedra, said in March 2003 that "...it has been obvious to even the most casual observer that problems exist", and called FDA action to regulate ephedra "long overdue."
Ephedrine supplement ban
In response to renewed calls for the regulation of ephedra, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned a large meta-analysis of ephedra's safety and efficacy by the RAND Corporation. This study found that ephedra promoted modest short-term weight loss, but there was insufficient data to determine whether it was effective for long-term weight loss or performance enhancement. The use of ephedrine alkaloids in this study was associated with significant gastrointestinal, psychiatric, and autonomic side effects. Almost simultaneously, a study in Annals of Internal Medicine found that ephedrine alkaloids were 100 to 700 times more likely to cause a significant adverse reaction than other commonly used supplements such as kava or Ginkgo biloba.
On December 30, 2003, the FDA issued a press release recommending that consumers stop buying and using products containing ephedrine alkaloids, and indicating its intention to ban the sale of ephedrine alkaloid-containing supplements. Subsequently, on April 12, 2004, the FDA issued a final rule banning the sale of ephedrine alkaloid-containing dietary supplements. Tommy Thompson, the Secretary of Health and Human Services, stated that "...These products pose unacceptable health risks, and any consumers who are still using them should stop immediately." Products containing ephedra extract remain legal to this day.
Legal challenges
Nutraceutical Corporation, a supplement manufacturer based in Park City, Utah, challenged the legality of the FDA's ban of ephedra alkaloids as exceeding the authority given the agency by the Dietary Health Supplements and Education Act. Nutraceutical Corporation stated that while they did not intend to restart marketing ephedra, they were concerned about the scope of the FDA's regulatory action. Judge Tena Campbell of the Utah Federal District Court ruled that the FDA had not proven that low doses of ephedra alkaloids were unsafe, although she also noted that studies to address the safety of low-dose ephedra would be unethical. Nevertheless, her ruling overturned the ban on the sale of ephedra alkaloids in the state of Utah, and called into question whether the ban could be enforced anywhere in the United States.
The ruling was appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit in Denver, Colorado. On August 17, 2006, the Appeals Court upheld the FDA's ban of ephedra alkaloids, finding that the 133,000 page administrative record compiled by the FDA supported the agency's finding that ephedra alkaloids posed an unreasonable risk to consumers. Nutraceutical Corp. filed a petition for a writ of certiorari seeking a rehearing on the ban of ephedra alkaloids; however, on May 14, 2007 the United States Supreme Court declined to hear this petition. The sale of ephedra alkaloid-containing dietary supplements remains illegal in the United States. Sales of products containing ephedra extract not containing ephedrine remain legal.
Use in sports
Ephedrine is listed as a banned substance by both the International Olympic Committee and the World Anti-Doping Agency. The National Football League banned players from using ephedra as a dietary supplement in 2001 after the death of Minnesota Vikings offensive tackle Korey Stringer; ephedra was found in Stringer's locker and lawyers for the team contended that it contributed to his death. The substance is also banned by the National Basketball Association. It was also banned by Major League Baseball after the 2003 death of Steve Bechler. Nonetheless, ephedra remains widely used by athletes; a 2006 survey of collegiate hockey players found that nearly half had used ephedra believing it enhanced their athletic performance.
Prominent cases
In the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the Argentine footballer Diego Armando Maradona tested positive for ephedrine. The Japanese motorcycle racer Noriyuki Haga tested positive for ephedrine in 2000, being disqualified from two races and banned from two more as a result. NFL punter Todd Sauerbrun of the Denver Broncos was suspended for the first month of the 2006 season after testing positive for ephedrine.
Connections to Soma rituals
History of Soma
It was only two hundred and fifty years ago when western scholars first encountered the Vedas, but these ancient religious texts had been written down around 1500 B.C. and likely existed orally long before that. Throughout the many hymns, prayers, and philosophy found in its pages, a mysterious plant is mentioned often and with great reverence. This plant alternates from a holy substance to an actual personified god and is considered a teacher, doctor, medicine, a bringer of insight and a vector of inspiration. The deity version of Soma was associated with medicinal herbs and the moon and was considered a bringer of health and prosperity. The plant was an essential aspect of Vedic religion to alter one’s mind, enabling communion with the divine. The ritual drinking of Soma was also found in the ancient Zoroastrian text, the Avesta. The rituals and importance of the plant were very similar to those in Vedic culture but were instead called by the name haoma. It is unknown why, but eventually in both the Vedic and Zoroastrian cultures a substitute substance was used in these religious ceremonies and over time the definitive identity of Soma-Haoma has been lost. There is much debate over which species of plant are the sacred plant of the Vedic and Zoroastrian faiths.
Ritual use of Ephedra
In Hinduism, the Vedic texts show Soma as being not only a plant but also a drink and a deity. The Rigveda is one of the four oldest and most sacred collections of stories in Hinduism. In the Rigveda soma is a drink consumed by two of the main gods; Agni and Indra. In the texts the drink helped the gods in battle by strengthening them physically. Because of this, soma was given and consumed by warriors before wartime or a battle. The drink was supposed to give the warriors strength and luck in the upcoming conflict. Immortality is also a quality associated with soma due to it being a drink of the divine. At religious ceremonies the drink was consumed to give consumers longevity in life. At birth the drink was also given to the babies for these same reasons.
In Zoroastrianism the drink is called haoma and has similar uses. Just like in Hinduism, the drink was related to immortality and long life. Haoma was the first thing newborns drank. This assured the child would be healthy and live a long life. The drink was also administered to people close to death to resurrect them back into good health.
The physical appearance of Ephedra is also a reason it is believed to be the soma plant. According to the Vedic text Rigveda, the plant composing soma is shaped like an arrow. Ephedra sinica is a gymnosperm that forms stalks with buds on the end. It is easy to see how this shape could be described like an arrow. Another text refers to soma as a twig, which is much like Ephedra sinica when it is dried out.
See also
Chinese medicine
Sida cordifolia
Pinellia
Synephrine
References
External links
United States FDA links to actions
FDA Rule
United States NIH Factsheet regarding weight loss and athletic performance
Dietary Supplements: Balancing Consumer Choice and Safety. A report of the New York State Task Force on Life & the Law.
The history of Ephedra (ma-huang).
Dietary supplements
Herbal and fungal stimulants
Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine
Drugs in sport
Withdrawn drugs
Amphetamine alkaloids
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245879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lew%20Brown | Lew Brown | Lew Brown (born Louis Brownstein,; December 10, 1893 – February 5, 1958) was a lyricist for popular songs in the United States. During World War I and the Roaring Twenties, he wrote lyrics for several of the top Tin Pan Alley composers, especially Albert Von Tilzer. Brown was one third of a successful songwriting and music publishing team with Buddy DeSylva and Ray Henderson from 1925 until 1931. Brown also wrote or co-wrote many Broadway shows and Hollywood films. Among his most-popular songs are "Button Up Your Overcoat", "Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree", "Life Is Just a Bowl of Cherries", "That Old Feeling", and "The Birth of the Blues".
Early life and family
Brown was born December 10, 1893, in Odessa, Russian Empire, part of today's Ukraine, the son of Etta (Hirsch) and Jacob Brownstein. His family was Jewish. When he was five, his family immigrated to the United States and settled in New York City. He attended DeWitt Clinton High School but, at the suggestion of a teacher, he left to pursue his songwriting career without graduating.
Lew Brown was married first to Sylvia Fiske, then to Catherine "June" Brown until his death. He had two daughters from his first marriage, Naomi Brown Greif and Arlyne Brown Mulligan. The latter was married to the prominent jazz saxophonist Gerry Mulligan.
Career
Brown started writing for Tin Pan Alley in 1912 and collaborated with established composers, like Albert Von Tilzer. Two of their well-known works that year were "(I'm Going Back to) Kentucky Sue" and "I'm the Lonesomest Gal in Town". Brown then wrote a string of popular World War I songs during 1914–1918, teaming with Von Tilzer, Al Harriman, and other composers.
In 1925, Brown formed his most-successful songwriting partnership with Buddy DeSylva and Ray Henderson. Their cheerful hits, such as "Button Up Your Overcoat" and "The Birth of the Blues", earned lasting appreciation for "the rich variety of verbal mosaics" and "the suggestive imagery that was their trademark". DeSylva left in 1931 but Brown and Henderson continued scoring Broadway shows. Brown also worked with other composers, like Sammy Fain. "Brown in 1939 estimated that he had written or collaborated on about 7,000 songs."
Brown wrote the lyrics to "Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree" (1942), which appeared in the film Private Buckaroo. Recordings by Glenn Miller and by the Andrews Sisters popularized the song with World War II soldiers and radio audiences. Not long after this hit, Brown retired from songwriting.
Honors and awards
Brown and Fain's "That Old Feeling" (1937) was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. "Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Von Tilzer, DeSylva, Brown and Henderson were all included in the inaugural class of the Songwriters Hall of Fame.
Biographical film
The DeSylva, Brown and Henderson songwriting team was the subject of the 1956 musical biopic: The Best Things in Life Are Free. Brown was portrayed by Ernest Borgnine.
Death
Brown died of a heart attack at home in New York City on February 5, 1958.
Individual songs
Cecil Mack and Lew Brown, "Shine". Music: Ford Dabney. 1910.
Albert Von Tilzer and Lew Brown. "(I'm Going Back to) Kentucky Sue". New York: The York Music Co., 1912.
Albert Von Tilzer and Lew Brown. "I'm The Lonesomest Gal In Town". New York: The York Music Co., 1912.
Edgar Leslie and Lew Brown. "They Start in to Battle Again". New York, 1914.
Albert Von Tilzer and Lew Brown. "Au Revoir But Not Good Bye, Soldier Boy". Broadway Music, 1917.
Albert Von Tilzer and Lew Brown. "I May Be Gone for a Long, Long Time". Broadway Music, 1917.
Albert Von Tilzer, Charles McCarron, and Lew Brown. "What Kind of an American are You?". Broadway Music, 1917.
Darl MacBoyle and Lew Brown. "Since Johnny Got His Gun". Music: Albert Von Tilzer. New York, 1917.
"I'll Come Back to You When It's All Over". Music: Kerry Mills. 1917.
Al Harriman and Lew Brown. "I'm Writing to You, Sammy". New York, 1917.
Al Harriman and Lew Brown. "I Can't Stay Here While You're Over There". New York, 1918.
Lew Brown and Al Harriman. "I Wonder What They're Doing To-Night (Your Girl and Mine)". Music: Jack Egan. New York, 1918.
Al Harriman and Lew Brown. "We'll Do Our Share (While You're Over There)". Music: Jack Egan. New York, 1918.
Will Clayton and Lew Brown. "(Watch, Hope, and Wait) Little Girl ('I'm Coming Back to You')". New York, 1918.
Albert Von Tilzer and Lew Brown. "I May Stay Away a Little Longer". New York, 1918.
Albert Von Tilzer and Lew Brown. "Oh By Jingo!" 1919.
Max Friedman, Lew Porter and Lew Brown. "Tillie Don't Be So Silly". New York, 1919.
Albert Von Tilzer and Lew Brown. "Dapper Dan", 1921.
"Last Night on the Back Porch". Music: Carl Schraubstader. 1923.
Lew Brown and Sidney Clare. "Then I'll Be Happy". Music: Cliff Friend. 1925.
Lew Brown and Billy Rose. Don't Bring Lulu". Music: Ray Henderson. 1925.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "The Birth of the Blues". Music: Ray Henderson. 1926.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "It All Depends on You". Music: Ray Henderson. 1926.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "Lucky Day". Music: Ray Henderson. 1926.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "The Best Things in Life Are Free". Music: Ray Henderson. 1927.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "So Blue". Music: Ray Henderson. 1927.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "The Varsity Drag". Music: Ray Henderson. 1927.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "Button Up Your Overcoat". Music: Ray Henderson. 1928.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "You're the Cream in My Coffee". Music: Ray Henderson. 1928.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "Sonny Boy". Music: Ray Henderson. 1928.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "Together". Music: Ray Henderson. 1928.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "I'm A Dreamer, Aren't We All?". Music: Ray Henderson. 1929.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "Sunny Side Up". Music: Ray Henderson. 1929.
Buddy DeSylva and Lew Brown. "One More Time". Music: Ray Henderson. 1931.
"Life Is Just a Bowl of Cherries". Music: Ray Henderson. 1931.
"That's Why Darkies Were Born". Music: Ray Henderson. 1931.
"Stand Up and Cheer". Music: Harry Akst. 1934.
"That Old Feeling". Music: Sammy Fain. 1937.
Lew Brown and Wladimir Timm. "Beer Barrel Polka" (English lyrics). 1939.
Lew Brown, Charles Tobias, and Sam H. Stept. "Comes Love". 1939.
Lew Brown, Charles Tobias, and Sam H. Stept. "Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree (with Anyone Else but Me)". New York: Robbins Music Corp, 1942.
Theater and film productions
Theater source: Playbill Vault
George White's Scandals of 1925 – revue – co-lyricist
George White's Scandals of 1926 – revue – co-lyricist
Good News (1927) – musical – co-lyricist
Manhattan Mary (1927) – musical – contributing composer, lyricist, bookwriter
George White's Scandals of 1928 – revue – co-lyricist
Hold Everything! (1928) – musical – co-lyricist
Three Cheers (1928) – musical – contributing lyricist
The Singing Fool (1928) – musical film – co-lyricist
Sunny Side Up (1929) – musical film – co-lyricist, co-bookwriter
Follow Thru (1929) – musical – co-lyricist
Follow Thru (1930) – musical film – co-lyricist
Flying High (1930) – musical – co-lyricist
Flying High (1931) – musical film – co-lyricist
George White's Scandals of 1931 – revue – lyricist
Indiscreet (1931) – comedy film – co-producer, co-writer, co-lyricist
Hot-Cha! (1932) – musical – lyricist, co-bookwriter
Strike Me Pink (1933) – revue – co-producer, lyricist, co-writer, production co-supervisor
Calling All Stars (1934) – revue – producer, co-writer, lyricist, co-director, production supervisor
Stand Up and Cheer! (1934) – musical film – associate producer, co-composer, lyricist, co-bookwriter
Walter Wanger's Vogues of 1938 – featured co-songwriter for "That Old Feeling"
Yokel Boy (1939) – musical – producer, director, bookwriter, co-composer, co-lyricist
Crazy With the Heat (1941) – revue – director
Good News (1947) – musical film – co-lyricist
Mr. Wonderful (1956) – musical – featured co-songwriter for "The Birth of the Blues"
Posthumous credits
Good News (1974 revision/revival) – co-composer, co-lyricist
Big Deal (1986) – musical – featured co-songwriter for "Life Is Just a Bowl of Cherries" and "Button Up Your Overcoat"
Fosse (1999) – revue – featured co-songwriter for "Life is Just a Bowl of Cherries"
Swing! (1999) – revue – featured co-songwriter for "Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree"
References
External links
Lew Brown, Songwriters Hall of Fame – includes full ASCAP catalog of his songs and shows
The Jazz Age at the Internet Archive, audio tracks 04, 08–22
Lew Brown recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
Jewish American songwriters
American musical theatre composers
1893 births
1958 deaths
20th-century American musicians
Broadway composers and lyricists
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Odessa Jews
Musicians from New York City
DeWitt Clinton High School alumni
20th-century American Jews | [
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] |
245885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Difference%20Engine | The Difference Engine | The Difference Engine (1990) is an alternative history novel by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling. It is widely regarded as a book that helped establish the genre conventions of steampunk.
It posits a Victorian era Britain in which great technological and social change has occurred after entrepreneurial inventor Charles Babbage succeeded in his ambition to build a mechanical computer (actually his Analytical Engine rather than the difference engine).
The novel was nominated for the British Science Fiction Award in 1990, the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1991, and both the John W. Campbell Memorial Award and the Prix Aurora Award in 1992.
Setting
The novel is chiefly set in 1855. The fictional historical background diverges from our timeline around 1824, at which point Charles Babbage completes his Difference Engine and proceeds to develop an Analytical Engine. He becomes politically powerful and at the 1830 general election successfully opposes the Tory Government of the Duke of Wellington. Although Wellington stages a coup d'état in 1830 in an attempt to overturn his defeat and prevent the acceleration of technological change and social upheaval, he is assassinated in 1831. The Industrial Radical Party, led by a Lord Byron who survives the Greek War of Independence, comes to power. The Tory Party and hereditary peerage are eclipsed, and British trade unions assist in the ascendancy of the Industrial Radical Party (much as they aided the Labour Party of Great Britain in the twentieth century in our own world). As a result, Luddite anti-technological working class revolutionaries are ruthlessly suppressed.
By 1855, the Babbage computers have become mass-produced and ubiquitous, and their use emulates the innovations that actually occurred during our information technology and Internet revolutions. Other steam-powered technologies have also developed and so, for example, Gurney steam carriages increasingly common. The novel explores the social consequences of an information technology revolution in the nineteenth century, such as the emergence of "clackers" (a reference to hackers), technologically-proficient people, such as Théophile Gautier, who are skilled at programming the Engines through the use of punched cards.
In the novel, the British Empire is more powerful than in our reality because of the development and the use of extremely-advanced steam-driven technology in industry. In addition, similar military technology has enhanced the capabilities of the armed forces (airships, dreadnoughts, and artillery) and the Babbage computers themselves. Under the Industrial Radical Party, Britain shows the utmost respect for leading scientific and industrial figures such as Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Charles Darwin. Indeed, they are collectively called "savants" and often raised to the peerage on their merits, causing a break with the past as regards social prestige and class distinction. The new patterns are also reflected in the educational sphere: classical studies have lost importance to more practical concerns such as engineering and accountancy.
Britain, rather than the United States, opened Japan to Western trade, in part because the United States became fragmented by interference from a Britain that foresaw the implications of a unified United States on the world stage. Counterpart successor states to our world's United States include a (truncated) United States; the Confederate States of America; the Republic of Texas; the Republic of California; a Communist Manhattan Island commune (with Karl Marx as a leading light); British North America (analogous to Canada, albeit slightly larger in this world); Russian America (Alaska); and terra nullius. Napoleon III's French Empire holds an entente with the British, and Napoleon is even married to a British woman.
In the world of The Difference Engine, France occupies Mexico, as it did briefly in reality during the American Civil War. Like Great Britain, it has its own analytical/difference engines (ordinateurs), especially used in the context of domestic surveillance within its police force and intelligence agencies. As for the other world powers, Germany remains fragmented, with no suggestion that Prussia will eventually form the core of a unified nation, as it did in our own timeline in 1871, which may be caused by French sabotage analogous to that pursued in the case of the fragmentation of the United States noted above. Japan is awakening after the British ended its isolation, and looks, as in our timeline, set to become one of this world's leading industrial and economic powers from the 20th century onward.
The intervention of Lords Byron and Babbage provide famine relief with grain confiscated from the landed aristocracy. The Great Famine of Ireland never occurred, there is no agitation for Irish home rule or Irish independence and the Irish instead have become enthusiastic supporters of the Radical regime. A Spanish Civil War is mentioned to be taking place in 1855 with one side being the Royalists, and in 1905, possibly as a result of that conflict, there is an independent Republic of Catalonia.
Among other historical characters, the novel features "Texian" President Sam Houston, as an exile after a political coup in Texas, a reference to Percy Bysshe Shelley (as a Luddite), John Keats as a kinotropist (an operator of mechanical pixellated screens), and Benjamin Disraeli as a publicist and tabloid writer.
Plot summary
The action of the story follows Sybil Gerard, a political courtesan and daughter of an executed Luddite leader; Edward "Leviathan" Mallory, a paleontologist and explorer; and Laurence Oliphant, a historical figure who, as is portrayed in the book, was a travel writer whose work was a cover for espionage activities "undertaken in the service of Her Majesty".<ref>'"Secret Agent", Chap. 5, 'Laurence Oliphant, Anne Taylor, Oxford University Press, 1982</ref> Linking all their stories is the trail of a mysterious set of reportedly very powerful computer punch cards and the individuals fighting to obtain them.
Many characters come to believe that the punch cards are a gambling "modus", a programme that would allow the user to place consistently winning bets. The last chapter reveals that the punched cards represent a program that proves two theorems, which, in reality, would not be discovered until 1931 by Kurt Gödel. Ada Lovelace delivers a lecture on the subject in France.
Defending the cards, Mallory gathers his brothers and Ebenezer Fraser, a secret police officer, to fight the revolutionary Captain Swing, who leads a London riot during "the Stink", a major episode of pollution in which London swelters under an inversion layer (comparable to the London Smog of December 1952).
After the abortive uprising, Oliphant and Sybil Gerard meet at a cafe in Paris. Oliphant informs her that he is aware of her true identity but will not pursue it. However, he wants information that would compromise her seducer, Charles Egremont MP, now regarded as an obstacle to the strategies and political ambitions of Lords Brunel and Babbage. Sybil has longed for an opportunity for vengeance against Egremont, and the resultant political scandal destroys his parliamentary career and aspirations for a merit lordship. Oliphant also encounters a Manhattan-based group of feminist pantomime artists.
After several vignettes that elaborate on the alternate historical origins of the world of The Difference Engine, Lovelace delivers her lecture on Gödel's Theorem, as its counterpart is known in our world. She is chaperoned by Fraser and castigated by Sybil Gerard, who is still unable to forgive Ada's father, the late Lord Byron, for his role in her own father's death.
At the very end of the novel is a depiction of an alternate 1991 from the vantage point of a computer, which is revealed to be the narrator as it achieves self-awareness.
Characters
The character Michael Godwin was named after attorney Mike Godwin to thank for his technical assistance in linking Sterling and Gibson's computers, which allowed them to collaborate between Austin and Vancouver.
The characters of Sybil Gerard; her father, Walter Gerard; Charles Egremont; and Dandy Mick are all borrowed from Benjamin Disraeli's novel Sybil Literary criticism and significance
The novel has attracted the attention of scholars, including Jay Clayton, who explores the book's attitude toward hacking, as well as its treatment of Babbage and Ada Lovelace; Herbert Sussman, who demonstrates how the book rewrites Benjamin Disraeli's novel Sybil; and Brian McHale, who relates it to the postmodern interest in finding a "new way of 'doing' history in fiction."
The novel was nominated for the British Science Fiction Award in 1990, the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1991, and both the John W. Campbell Memorial Award and the Prix Aurora Award in 1992.
Influence
The 1993 video game The Chaos Engine (released as Soldiers of Fortune in the USA) was based on The Difference Engine''.
References
External links
The Difference Dictionary, an indexed addendum of topics discussed in the novel, compiled by Eileen Gunn
Editions of The Difference Engine at WorldCat.org
The Difference Engine at Worlds Without End
Review at Infinity-plus
"Gibson and Sterling's Alternative History: The Difference Engine as Radical Rewriting of Disraeli's Sybil"
1990 British novels
British alternative history novels
British steampunk novels
Charles Babbage
Collaborative novels
Novels set in London
Novels by Bruce Sterling
Novels by William Gibson
Fiction set in 1855
American Civil War alternate histories | [
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245886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macanese%20people | Macanese people | The Macanese people () are an East Asian ethnic group that originated in Macau in the 16th century, consisting of people of predominantly mixed Cantonese and Portuguese as well as Malay, Japanese, English, Sinhalese, and Indian ancestry.
Name
The term "澳門人" (meaning Macanese) and "土生葡人" (meaning native-born Portuguese people) in Chinese (Cantonese), the lingua franca of Macau, refers to the Macau people and the Macanese people, respectively. Although there have been attempts by the Portuguese Macau government in the mid-1990s to redefine the Portuguese and English term "Macanese" as Macau Permanent Resident (anyone born in Macau regardless of ethnicity, language, religion or nationality), in accordance with the Chinese (Cantonese) usage, it didn't succeed. Consequently, the Portuguese and English term "Macanese" refers neither to the indigenous people of Macau (Tanka people) nor to the demonym of Macau, but to a distinctive minority culture (1.2% of all Macau population) that Macau people are proud of.
Culture
Modern Macanese culture can be best described as a Sino-Latin culture. Historically, many ethnic Macanese spoke Patuá, which is a Portuguese-based creole and now virtually extinct. Many are fluent in both Portuguese and Cantonese. The Macanese have preserved a distinctive Macanese cuisine.
History
The Portuguese Colonial Period
Macau was founded circa 1557 by Portuguese merchants with permission of the Chinese Canton governor and later the emperor. Since its beginning, Macau has not been conquered and until the attacks of the Dutch in 1604, it didn't have a military garrison. Portuguese culture dominates the Macanese, but Chinese cultural patterns are also significant. The community acted as the interface between Portuguese merchant settlers or ruling colonial government – Portuguese from Portugal who knew little about Chinese – and the Chinese majority (90% of population) who knew equally little about the Portuguese. Some Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage. Some were Portuguese men stationed in Macau as part of their military service. Many stayed in Macau after the expiration of their military service, marrying Macanese women.
Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese; initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese/Sinhalese (from Sri Lanka), Indochina, Malay (from Malacca), and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau. Slave women of Indian, Indonesian, Malay, and Japanese origin were used as partners by Portuguese men. Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men. Macau received an influx of African slaves, Japanese slaves as well as Christian Korean slaves who were bought by the Portuguese from the Japanese after they were taken prisoner during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) in the era of Hideyoshi. From 1555 onwards, Macau received slave women of Timorese origin as well as women of African origin, and from Malacca and India. Macau was permitted by Pombal to receive an influx of Timorese women. Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from the Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people since they were rejected by non-Christian Chinese. The majority of marriages between Portuguese and natives was between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low-class Chinese women. Western men like the Portuguese were refused by high class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners. Literature in Macau was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes. More of the stories of Christianized Chinese who adopted Portuguese customs will be narrated on the 3rd paragraph. Furthermore, in the midst of the Manila Galleon trade, a small number of Latinos settled in the ports of Macau in China and Ternate in Indonesia which were secondary connecting trade nodes to the primary trade-route between Manila, Philippines and Acapulco, Mexico; they intermarried with the Portuguese settlers and various Asian settlers; the first Latin Americans Asians were mostly Mexicans and to a lesser extent, Colombians and Peruvians who made their way to Asia (Mainly the Philippines) in the 16th century, the Latin-Americans who were sent to the Philippines and Macau from the Spanish colonies in America were often made up of Mulattoes, Mestizos and Indios (Amerindians). Following the Shimabara Rebellion in 1638, about 400 Japanese Christians were officially deported to Macau or to the Spanish Philippines, and thousands more were pressured into voluntary exile.
During the late-nineteenth century, and increasingly during Salazar's fascist Estado Novo regime, the upbringing of most Macanese fell along the lines of the continental Portuguese – attending Portuguese schools, participating in mandatory military service (some fought in Africa) and practising the Catholic faith. As recently as the 1980s, most Macanese had not received formal Chinese schooling and, hence, could speak but not read or write Chinese. Spoken Cantonese was largely familiar, and some spoke the language with a regional accent (鄉下話) – acquired largely from their mothers or amahs.
Since Portuguese settlement in Macau – dating from 1557 – included a strong Catholic presence, a number of Chinese converted to Catholicism. A large number of Macanese can trace their roots to these New Christians. Many of these Chinese were assimilated into the Macanese community, dropping their Chinese surnames and adopting Portuguese surnames. In the collective Macanese folk memory, there is a little ditty about the parish of St. Lazarus Parish, called 進教圍, where these Chinese converts lived: 進教圍, 割辮仔, 唔係姓念珠 (Rosário) 就係姓玫瑰 (Rosa). Hence, it is surmised that many Macanese with surnames of Rosario or Rosa probably were of Chinese ancestry. Because of this, there are many Eurasians carrying Portuguese surnames Rosario, Rosa, and others that are not Portuguese-blooded may be mistaken by others as Portuguese-blooded, and Eurasians of Portuguese blood carrying Portuguese surnames trace their Portuguese blood on maternal side. A visit to the St Michael the Archangel Cemetery (Cemitério São Miguel Arcanjo), the main Catholic cemetery near the St. Lazarus Parish, would reveal gravestones with a whole spectrum of Chinese and Portuguese heritage: Chinese with Portuguese baptised names with or without Portuguese surnames, Portuguese married with Chinese Catholics, and so on.
The mid-twentieth century, with the outbreak of the Second World War in the Pacific and the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan, saw the Macanese population surge through the re-integration of two disparate Macanese communities: the Hong Kong Macanese and the Shanghai Macanese. With the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong in 1941, the Macanese population, escaping the occupation, made its way to Macau as refugees. These Macanese, including many skilled workers and civil servants, were fluent in English and Portuguese and brought valuable commercial and technical skills to the colony. Another distinct group within the Macanese community is the 上海葡僑; the descendants of Portuguese settlers from Shanghai that acted as middlemen between other foreigners and the Chinese in the "Paris of the Orient". They emigrated from Shanghai to Macau in 1949 with the coming of the Red Guard. Many spoke little Portuguese and were several generations removed from Portugal, speaking primarily English and Shanghainese, and/or Mandarin. The Shanghai Macanese carved a niche by teaching English in Macau. Only the children and grandchildren of Shanghainese settlers who were born and raised in Macau have the ability to speak Portuguese.
A number of Macanese also emigrated during the Carnation Revolution and Macau's handover to the People's Republic of China, respectively. Most potential emigrants looked to Brazil, Portugal's African territories, and Australia.
The Post-Colonial Period
Beginning with the post-1974 independence of other Portuguese colonies and hastened by Macau's return to China, the Macanese community began to lose its Portuguese heritage. Many Portuguese, Eurasians and Chinese who were loyal to the Portuguese left after its return to China. Of those that remained, many children – including those of pure Chinese descent – switched from Portuguese- to English-medium high school education, particularly as many of parents recognised the diminishing value of Portuguese schooling. Many Macanese people of mixed ancestry since Portuguese time never speak Portuguese and speak only Cantonese as their first language; if other Macanese people of mixed ancestry speak Portuguese, they speak it as a second language, affected by a Cantonese accent. At the same time, Macanese of pure Portuguese descent are also learning Cantonese and Mandarin to be able to communicate to non-Portuguese-speaking Chinese. Today, most Macanese – if they are still young enough – would go back to study to read and write Chinese. Many see a niche role for fluent speakers of Portuguese, Cantonese and Mandarin. Code-switching between Portuguese, Cantonese, and Mandarin among native speakers is common. In the 1980s Macanese or Portuguese women began to marry men who identified themselves as Chinese.
Macanese identity dispute
There is some dispute around the exact meaning of "Macanese". An essay by Marreiros offers a broad spectrum of "Macanese types", ranging from Chinese Christian converts who live among the Portuguese to the descendants of old-established families of Portuguese lineage; all groups are integrated into this historically legitimated group. As a general rule, it is not a point of reference, however for ethnic Chinese living and raised in Macau; they often identify themselves as Chinese or Chinese from Macau; "Macanese" is applied to those people who have been acculturated through Western education and religion and are recognized by the Macanese community as being Macanese.
Traditionally, the basis for Macanese ethnic affiliation has been the use of the Portuguese language at home or some alliances with Portuguese cultural patterns and not solely determined along hereditary lines. Pina-Cabral and Lourenço suggest that this goal is reached "namely through the Portuguese-language school-system". Often, due to the close proximity to the Portuguese, the Macanese closely identify themselves with Portuguese nationals as opposed to Chinese in the bi-cultural and bi-racial equation. In practice, however, being Macanese is left up to how individuals categorize themselves.
In the mid-1990s, there had been attempts by the Macau government to redefine the Macanese to be everyone born in Macau regardless of ethnicity, language or nationality. Since the re-integration of Macau with the People's Republic of China in late 1999, the traditional definitions are in a state of re-formulation. Given the shifting political climate of Macau, some Macanese are coming to recognize and identify closer with a Chinese heritage.
This ambiguity might be reduced by the further adjective crioulo.
Prominent Macanese
Arts and letters
José dos Santos Ferreira – poet
Henrique de Senna Fernandes – lawyer/writer
Entertainment
李嘉欣 Michelle Monique Reis – Miss Hong Kong 1988, socialite and actress
肥媽 Maria Cordero – singer/actress
Alexander Lee Eusebio, U-KISS former member and now a solo artist.
祖·尊尼亞 Joe Junior (actual name: Jose Maria Rodrigues Jr.) – veteran singer & TV actor
The Pedruco Sisters – is a family of 4 Macanese sisters who have competed at the Miss Chinese International pageant and Miss World pageant representing Macau.
梁洛施 Luisa Isabella Nolasco da Silva – Hong Kong-based actress, singer, and model
Louie Castro – household name in Hong Kong entertainment industry since the early 70s, singer, actor and radio personality
阿瑞 Ari Calangi – contestant on season 1 of the reality television singing competition, Sing! China.
古卓文 Germano Ku (Germano Guilherme), Hong Kong-based Macanese-Pakistani singer
Tony Ayres: born in Macau, Tony is now an Australian film director
Politics, military and business
Colonel Vicente Nicolau de Mesquita, a commander of a group of 36 Portuguese soldiers, who won the battle of Passaleão, which was fought near the Portas do Cerco, against 400 Chinese soldiers, on August 25, 1849.
羅保議員 Sir Roger Lobo, a businessman, former Hong Kong Legislative Council member and former Urban Council member, from the well known Macau's Lobo family.
Pedro Nolasco da Silva, writer, translator, teacher, civil servant and politician.
沙利士 Arnaldo de Oliveira Sales, former member and chairman of the Urban Council, former president of the Olympic Committee of Hong Kong and former president of the Club Lusitano de Hong Kong.
José Pedro Braga – manager of the Hongkong Telegraph between 1902 and 1910, chairman of China Light and Power Company in 1934 and 1938 and the first Portuguese member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, between 1929 and 1937.
黎婉華 Clementina Leitão, deceased wife of Stanley Ho. Also a member of one of pre-WWII Macau's wealthiest families
陳麗敏 Florinda da Rosa Silva Chan, current Secretary for Administration and Justice
高天賜 José Pereira Coutinho, jurist, Counselor of the Portuguese Communities, President of New Hope a pro-democracy party in Macau, President of Macau Civil Servants Association and Deputy of the Legislative Assembly of Macau
羅立文 Raimundo Arrais do Rosário, current Secretary for Transport and Public Works
See also
Eurasian (mixed ancestry)
Kristang people
Macau people
Indian diaspora
References
Bibliography
Amaro, Ana Maria (1989). O Traje da Mulher Macaense, Da Saraca ao Do das Nhonhonha de Macau. Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau.
Amaro, Ana Maria (1993). Filhos da Terra. Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau.
Dicks, Anthony R. (1984). "Macao: Legal Fiction and Gunboat Diplomacy" in Leadership on the China Coast, Goran Aijmer (editor), London: Curzon Press, pp. 101–102.
Guedes, João (1991). As seitas: histôrias do crime e da política em Macau. Macau: Livros do Oriente.
Marreiros, Carlos (1994). "Alliances for the Future" in Review of Culture No. 20 July/September (English Edition), 162–172.
Pina Cabral, João de (2002). Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao. New York and London: Berg (Continuum Books) – London School Monographs in Social Antrhropology 74.
Pina Cabral, João de, and Nelson Lourenço (1993). Em Terra de Tufões: Dinâmicas da Etnicidade Macaense. Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau.
Porter, Jonathan (1996). Macau, the imaginary city: culture and society, 1557 to the present. Boulder: Westview Press.
Teixeira, Manuel (1965). Os Macaenses. Macau: Imprensa Nacional.
Watts, Ian (1997). "Neither Meat nor Fish: Three Macanse Women in the Transition" in Macau and Its Neighbors toward the 21st Century. Macau: University of Macau.
External links
Macau society
Multiracial affairs in Asia
European diaspora in China
Portuguese colonisation in Asia
Portuguese diaspora in Asia
Ethnic groups in China | [
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245888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Intrepid | USS Intrepid | USS Intrepid may refer to:
, an armed ketch captured as a prize by the US Navy on 23 December 1803. Later used by Commodore Stephen Decatur on a mission to enter Tripoli harbor and destroy the captured . The vessel was later exploded in the harbor of Tripoli 4 September 1804.
, an experimental steam torpedo ram commissioned 31 July 1874 and sold 9 May 1892
, a training and receiving ship launched 8 October 1904 and sold 20 December 1921
, an aircraft carrier launched 26 April 1943 and decommissioned 15 March 1974. Intrepid opened as a museum in New York City during August 1982 and is designated as a National Historic Landmark.
See also
Intrepid was the name of the Lunar Module on Apollo 12
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245903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Intrepid%20%28CV-11%29 | USS Intrepid (CV-11) | USS Intrepid (CV/CVA/CVS-11), also known as The Fighting "I", is one of 24 s built during World War II for the United States Navy. She is the fourth US Navy ship to bear the name. Commissioned in August 1943, Intrepid participated in several campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations, including the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s as an attack carrier (CVA), and then eventually became an antisubmarine carrier (CVS). In her second career, she served mainly in the Atlantic, but also participated in the Vietnam War. She was the recovery ship for a Mercury and a Gemini space mission. Because of her prominent role in battle, she was nicknamed "the Fighting I", while her frequent bad luck and time spent in dry dock for repairs—she was torpedoed once and hit by four separate Japanese kamikaze aircraft—earned her the nicknames "Decrepit" and "the Dry I".
Decommissioned for the second time in 1974, in 1982 Intrepid became the foundation of the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York City.
Service history
The keel for Intrepid was laid down on 1 December 1941 in Shipway 10 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia, days before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States' entrance into World War II. She was launched on 26 April 1943, the fifth to be launched. She was sponsored by the wife of Vice Admiral John H. Hoover. On 16 August 1943, she was commissioned with Captain Thomas L. Sprague in command before heading to the Caribbean for shakedown and training. She thereafter returned to Norfolk, before departing on 3 December, bound for San Francisco. She proceeded on to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, arriving there on 10 January, where she began preparations to join the rest of the Pacific Fleet for offensive operations against the Imperial Japanese Navy.
World War II
Central Pacific operations
Intrepid joined the Fast Carrier Task Force, then Task Force 58 (TF 58), for the next operation in the island-hopping campaign across the Central Pacific: the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign. On 16 January 1944, Intrepid, her sister ship , and the light carrier left Pearl Harbor to conduct a raid on islands in the Kwajalein Atoll from 29 January to 2 February. The three carriers' air group destroyed all 83 Japanese aircraft stationed on Roi-Namur in the first two days of the strikes, before Marines went ashore on neighboring islands on 31 January in the Battle of Kwajalein. That morning, aircraft from Intrepid attacked Japanese beach defenses on Ennuebing Island, up until ten minutes before the first Marines landed. The Marines quickly took the island and used it as a fire base to support the follow-on attack on Roi.
With the fighting in the Kwajalein Atoll finished by 3 February, Intrepid and the rest of TF 58 proceeded to launch Operation Hailstone, a major raid on the main Japanese naval base in the Central Pacific, Truk Lagoon. From 17 to 19 February, the carriers pounded Japanese forces in the lagoon, sinking two destroyers and some of merchant ships. Additionally, the strikes demonstrated the vulnerability of Truk, which convinced the Japanese to avoid using it in the future. Intrepid did not emerge from the operation unscathed, however. On the night of 17–18 February, a Japanese torpedo bomber (given the designation "Raid Easy" by Intrepid's CIC) scored a hit on the carrier near her stern. The torpedo struck below the waterline, jamming the ship's rudder to port and flooding several compartments. Sprague was able to counteract the jammed rudder by running the port side screw at high speed while idling the starboard screw for two days until high winds overpowered the improvised steering. The crew then fashioned a jury rigged sail out of scrap canvas and hatch covers, which allowed the ship to return to Pearl Harbor, where she arrived on 24 February. Temporary repairs were effected there, after which Intrepid steamed to Hunters Point Naval Shipyard in San Francisco for permanent repairs on 16 March, arriving there six days later.
The work was completed by 9 June, and Intrepid began two months of training around Pearl Harbor. Starting in early September, Intrepid joined operations in the western Caroline Islands; the Fast Carrier Task Force was now part of the Third Fleet under Admiral William Halsey Jr., and had been renamed Task Force 38. On 6 and 7 September, she conducted air strikes on Japanese artillery batteries and airfields on the island of Peleliu, in preparation for the invasion of Peleliu. On 9 and 10 September, she and the rest of the fleet moved on to attack airfields on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, followed by further strikes on bases in the Visayan Sea between 12 and 14 September. On 17 September, Intrepid returned to Pelelieu to provide air support to the Marines that had landed on the island two days before.
Philippines campaign
Intrepid and the other carriers then returned to the Philippines to prepare for the Philippines campaign. At this time, Intrepid was assigned to Task Group 38.2. In addition to targets in the Philippines themselves, the carriers also struck Japanese airfields on the islands of Formosa and Okinawa to degrade Japanese air power in the region. On 20 October, at the start of the Battle of Leyte, Intrepid launched strikes to support Allied forces as they went ashore on the island of Leyte. By this time, Halsey reduced the carriers of TG 38.2 to just Intrepid, Cabot, and the light carrier commanded by Rear Admiral Gerald F. Bogan aboard Intrepid.
Between 23 and 26 October, the Japanese Navy launched a major operation to disrupt the Allied landings in the Philippines, resulting in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. On the morning of 24 October, a reconnaissance aircraft from Intrepid spotted Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's flagship, . Two hours later, Intrepid and Cabot launched a strike on Kurita's Center Force, initiating the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea; this included eight Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers from Intrepid, which launched their attack at 10:27. One bomb struck the roof of Turret No. 1, failing to penetrate. Two minutes later, the battleship Musashi was struck starboard amidships by a torpedo from a Grumman TBF Avenger, also from Intrepid. In return, the Japanese shot down a pair of Avengers. Another eight Helldivers from Intrepid attacked Musashi again at around noon, scoring two more hits, with two Helldivers shot down. Three minutes later, nine Avengers attacked from both sides of the ship, scoring three torpedo hits on the port side. Further strikes from and inflicted several more bomb and torpedo hits at around 13:30. At 15:25, Musashi was attacked by 37 aircraft from Intrepid, the fleet carrier and Cabot. These aircraft scored hits with 13 bombs and 11 torpedoes during this attack, for the loss of three Avengers and three Helldivers. In addition to the loss of Musashi, many of Kurita's other ships, including Yamato, the battleships and , and heavy cruiser were damaged in the attacks, forcing him to break off the operation temporarily.
After Kurita's force began to withdraw, Halsey ordered TF 38 to steam north to intercept the aircraft carriers of the Northern Force, commanded by Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa. Bogan correctly perceived that Ozawa's force was intended to lure TF 38 away from the landing area to allow Kurita to attack it, but Halsey overruled him and several other Task Group commanders who voiced similar concerns. Early on 25 October, aircraft from Intrepid and the other carriers launched a strike on the Japanese carriers. Aircraft from Intrepid scored hits on the carrier and possibly the carrier . Further strikes throughout the morning resulted in the sinking of four Japanese aircraft carriers and a destroyer in the Battle off Cape Engaño. Halsey's preoccupation with the Northern Force allowed Kurita the respite he needed to turn his force back to the east, push through the San Bernardino Strait, where it engaged the light forces of escort carriers, destroyers, and destroyer escorts that were directly covering the landing force in the Battle off Samar. Kurita nevertheless failed to break through the American formation, and ultimately broke off the attack.
On 27 October, TG 38.2 returned to operations over Luzon; these included a raid on Manila on 29 October. That day, a kamikaze hit Intrepid on one of her port side gun positions; damage was minimal though ten men were killed and another six were wounded. A Japanese air raid on 25 November struck the fleet shortly after noon. Two kamikazes crashed into Intrepid, killing sixty-nine men and causing a serious fire. The ship remained on station, however, and the fires were extinguished within two hours. She was detached for repairs the following day, and reached San Francisco on 20 December.
Okinawa and Japan, March–December 1945
In the middle of February 1945, back in fighting trim, the carrier steamed for Ulithi, arriving on 13 March. She set off westward for strikes on Japan on 14 March and four days later launched strikes against airfields on Kyūshū. That morning a twin-engined Japanese G4M "Betty" broke through a curtain of defensive fire turned toward Intrepid and exploded only 50 ft (15 m) off Intrepids forward boat crane. A shower of flaming gasoline and aircraft parts started fires on the hangar deck, but damage control teams quickly put them out. Intrepids aircraft joined attacks on remnants of the Japanese fleet anchored at Kure damaging 18 enemy naval vessels, including battleship Yamato and carrier . The carriers turned to Okinawa as L-Day, the start of the most ambitious amphibious assault of the Pacific war, approached. Between 26 and 27 March, their aircraft attacked the Ryūkyūs, softening up enemy defensive works. The invasion began on 1 April. Intrepid aircraft flew support missions against targets on Okinawa and made neutralizing raids against Japanese airfields in range of the island. On 16 April, during an air raid, a Japanese aircraft dove into Intrepids flight deck forcing the engine and part of her fuselage right on through, killing eight men and wounding 21. In less than an hour the flaming gasoline had been extinguished, and only three hours after the crash, aircraft were again landing on the carrier.
On 17 April, Intrepid retired homeward via Ulithi. She made a stop at Pearl Harbor on 11 May, arriving at San Francisco for repairs on 19 May. On 29 June, the carrier left San Francisco. On 6 August, her aircraft launched strikes against Japanese on bypassed Wake Island. Intrepid arrived at Eniwetok on the next day. On 15 August, when the Japanese surrendered, she received word to "cease offensive operations." Intrepid got under way on 21 August to support the occupation of Japan. On 2 December, she left Yokosuka and arrived at San Pedro, California, on 15 December.
Post-war
Decommissioning and conversion to attack carrier
On 4 February 1946, Intrepid moved to San Francisco Bay. The carrier was reduced in status to "commission in reserve" on 15 August, and she was decommissioned on 22 March 1947. After her decommissioning, the Intrepid became part of the Pacific Reserve Fleet. On 9 February 1952, she was recommissioned and on 12 March began the voyage to Norfolk, where the carrier would receive SCB-27C modernization to operate jet aircraft as an attack aircraft carrier. On 9 April, the Intrepid was temporarily decommissioned for the modernization at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. On 1 October, she was reclassified as attack carrier CVA-11 and recommissioned in reserve on 18 June 1954. On 13 October, the carrier became the first to launch aircraft with American-built steam catapults. Two days later, the Intrepid became part of the Atlantic Fleet in full commission.
1955–1961
In 1955, Intrepid conducted her shakedown cruise out of Guantánamo Bay. On 28 May, she departed Mayport, Florida, for the first of two deployments in the Mediterranean with the 6th Fleet. The Intrepid returned to Norfolk from the second deployment on 5 September. On 29 September, she entered the New York Navy Yard for her SCB-125 modernization, which added an enclosed bow and an angled flight deck. After the end of the modernization in April 1957, Intrepid conducted refresher training out of Guantánamo Bay. In September, she participated in Operation Strikeback, the largest peacetime naval exercise up to that time in history, which simulated a Soviet attack on NATO. In December, operating from Norfolk, she conducted Operation Crosswind, a study of the effects of wind on carrier launches. The study proved that carriers could safely conduct flight operations without turning into the wind and even launch aircraft while steaming downwind. Between 1958 and 1961, Intrepid alternated Mediterranean deployments with operations along the Atlantic coast of the United States and exercises in the Caribbean.
1962–1965
Intrepid was reclassified to an anti-submarine warfare carrier, CVS-11, on 8 December 1961. On 10 March 1962, the carrier entered the Norfolk Navy Yard for overhaul and refit for her new anti-submarine warfare role. After the completion of the overhaul and refit, she departed on 2 April with Carrier Antisubmarine Air Group 56 embarked. After training exercises, Intrepid was selected as the principal ship in the recovery team for astronaut Scott Carpenter and his Project Mercury space capsule, Aurora 7. Shortly before noon on 24 May 1962, Carpenter splashed down in Aurora 7 northeast of Puerto Rico and several hundred miles from Intrepid. Minutes after he was located by land-based search aircraft, two helicopters from Intrepid, carrying NASA officials, medical experts, Navy frogmen, and photographers, were airborne and headed to the rescue. One of the choppers picked him up over an hour later and flew him to the carrier which safely returned him to the United States. Intrepid spent the summer of 1962 training midshipmen at sea, and received a thorough overhaul at Norfolk in the fall.
On 23 January 1963, the carrier departed Hampton Roads for warfare exercises in the Caribbean. In late February, she interrupted these operations to join a sea hunt for the Venezuelan freighter Anzoátegui, whose mutinous second mate had led a group of pro-Castro terrorists in hijacking the vessel. After the Communist pirates had surrendered at Rio de Janeiro, the carrier returned to Norfolk on 23 March. Intrepid operated along the Atlantic Coast for the next year from Nova Scotia to the Caribbean perfecting her antisubmarine techniques. On 11 June 1964, she left Norfolk carrying midshipmen to the Mediterranean for a hunter-killer at sea training with the 6th Fleet. While in the Mediterranean, Intrepid aided in the surveillance of a Soviet task group. En route home her crew learned that she had won the coveted Battle Efficiency "E" for antisubmarine warfare during the previous fiscal year. In the fall of 1964, the carrier operated along the East Coast. In early September, Intrepid entertained 22 NATO statesmen as part of their tour of U.S. military installations. Between 18 and 19 October 1964, the Intrepid was at Yorktown for ceremonies commemorating Lord Cornwallis's surrender 183 years before. The French Ambassador attended the ceremony and presented the U.S. with 12 cannon cast from molds found in the Bastille, replicas of those brought to American forces by Lafayette.
On the night of 21 November, during a brief deployment off North Carolina, swift and efficient rescue procedures saved the life of an airman Jenner Sanders, who fell overboard while driving an aircraft towing tractor. In early 1965, Intrepid began preparations for a vital role in NASA's first manned Gemini flight, Gemini 3. On 23 March, Lieutenant Commander John Young and Major Gus Grissom in Molly Brown (the Gemini 3 spacecraft) splashed down some from Intrepid after history's first controlled re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere ended the pair's nearly perfect three-orbit flight aboard Gemini 3. A Navy helicopter lifted the astronauts from the spacecraft and flew them to Intrepid for medical examination and debriefing. Later, Intrepid retrieved Molly Brown and returned the spacecraft and astronauts to Cape Kennedy.
1965–1974
After this mission Intrepid entered the Brooklyn Navy Yard in April for a major overhaul to bring her back to peak combat readiness. This was the final Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization job performed by the New York Naval Shipyard, Brooklyn, New York, which was scheduled to close. In September 1965, Intrepid, with her work approximately 75% completed, eased down the East River to moor at the Naval Supply Depot at Bayonne, New Jersey, for the completion of her multimillion-dollar overhaul. After builder's sea trials and fitting out at Norfolk she sailed to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba on a shakedown cruise.
From April 1966 to February 1969, Intrepid made three Vietnam deployments, with Carrier Air Wing 10 embarked. Mid-1966 found Intrepid with the Pacific Fleet off Vietnam. Nine A-4 Skyhawks and six A-1 Skyraiders, loaded with bombs and rockets, were catapulted in seven minutes, with only a 28-second interval between launches. A few days later planes were launched at 26-second intervals. After seven months of service with the United States Seventh Fleet off Vietnam, Intrepid returned to Norfolk having earned her commanding officer, Captain John W. Fair, the Legion of Merit for combat operations in Southeast Asia.
On 9 October 1966 Lieutenant, junior grade William T. Patton of VA-176 from Intrepid, flying a propeller driven A-1H Skyraider, shot down one MiG-17. For the action, Lieutenant (jg) Patton was awarded the Silver Star.
In June 1967, Intrepid returned to the Western Pacific by way of the Suez Canal just prior to its closing during the Israeli-Arab crisis. There she began another tour with the Seventh Fleet.
In 1968, Intrepid won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet. For Carrier Air Wing 10's final cruise aboard Intrepid from 4 June 1968 to 8 February 1969 off Southeast Asia, the wing consisted of VF-111 Detachment 11 (F-8C), VA-106 with the A-4E, VA-66 Waldos (A-4C), VFP-63 Detachment 11 (RF-8G), VA-36 'Roadrunners' (A-4C), VAQ-33 Detachment 11 (EA-1F), VAW-121 Detachment 11 (E-1B), and HC-2 Detachment 11.
In 1969, Intrepid was home ported at Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island, relieving as the flagship for Commander Carrier Division 16. In the fall, the ship was run aground by Captain Horus E. Moore, but was freed within two hours. From April–October 1971, Intrepid took part in NATO exercises, and made calls in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean ports of Lisbon, Plymouth, Kiel, Naples, Cannes, Barcelona, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Greenock, Rosyth, Portsmouth, and Bergen. During this cruise, submarine detection operations were conducted in the Baltic and at the edge of the Barents Sea above the Arctic Circle, under close scrutiny of Soviet air and naval forces. She subsequently returned to her homeport to be refitted.
Beginning in July 1972, Intrepid participated once again in NATO exercises, visiting Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Bergen, Brussels, Portsmouth and Gourock. Intrepid found herself in the Barents and made round the clock flight operations as she was above the Arctic Circle. She cut her North Atlantic cruise short, returning to Quonset Point for a mini-overhaul. She made her final cruise in the Mediterranean, stopping twice in Barcelona and Malaga Spain; Lisbon, Portugal; Nice, France; Naples, Italy; Palma, Majorca; and Piraeus, Greece once. Due to fuel limitations Intrepid spent as much time in port as she did underway.
On 15 March 1974, Intrepid was decommissioned for the final time.
Preservation as museum ship
In 1976, Intrepid was moored at Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in Philadelphia and hosted exhibits as part of the United States Bicentennial celebrations.
Plans originally called for Intrepid to be scrapped after decommissioning, but a campaign led by real estate developers Zachary and Larry Fisher and the Intrepid Museum Foundation saved the carrier and established it as a museum ship. In August 1982, the ship opened at Pier 86 on the Hudson River in New York City as the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum. Four years later, Intrepid was officially designated as a National Historic Landmark.
Over the years, Intrepid has hosted many special events including wrestling events, press conferences, parties and the FBI operations center after the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks.
2006–2008 renovation
Throughout the last several years, the Intrepid museum has operated a fund for the restoration, raising over $60 million to refit Intrepid, to improve its exhibits for visitors, and improve Pier 86.
In early July 2006, it was announced that Intrepid would undergo renovations and repairs, along with Pier 86 itself. It closed on 1 October 2006, in preparation for its towing to Bayonne, New Jersey, for repairs, and later Staten Island, New York, for renovation and temporary docking.
On 6 November 2006, an attempt to remove the aircraft carrier from the pier for restoration was temporarily put on hold by the Coast Guard. Despite the use of several tugs with a combined , officials said the ship was stuck in 24 years worth of accumulated silt and would not move.
On 11 November 2006, the United States Navy announced that it would spend $3 million to dredge the mud and silt from under Intrepid. The effort was led by the United States Navy Supervisor of Salvage and Diving with assistance from the United States Army Corps of Engineers, United States Coast Guard, and contractors. The teams operated for three weeks to clear the site of mud and silt.
On 5 December 2006, after the removal of of muck from under the ship and around its four giant screws, Intrepid was successfully removed from its pier and was towed to Bayonne.
Intrepid made a D-Day "landing" on Staten Island, 6 June 2007, after being towed from a slip at Bayonne Dry Dock & Repair Corp.
While in Staten Island, Intrepid underwent the next phase of her refurbishment, and received an $8 million interior renovation. Never-before-seen areas of the ship including the forecastle (fo'c'sle, commonly known as the anchor chain room), general berthing quarters and the ship's machine shop were opened to the public for the first time. The hangar deck features a new layout and design including new interactive exhibits. Around 1,200 tons of her original weight in steel were removed and 339 epoxy-coated steel pilings ranging in length from 60 to 183 feet were installed. Intrepid also received a new coat of paint, using almost 7,000 gallons to re-paint the interior, hull, towers, and decks. Total cost of the renovation was $120 million—$55 million for the ship and $65 million for Pier 86.
The carrier was towed back into place on the Hudson River on 2 October 2008 and reopened to the public on 8 November.
On 12 December 2011, ownership of the Space Shuttle Enterprise was officially transferred to the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York City. In preparation for the anticipated relocation, engineers evaluated the vehicle in early 2010 and determined that it was safe to fly on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft once again. At approximately 9:40 am Eastern Daylight Time on 27 April 2012 Enterprise took off from Dulles International Airport en route to a fly-by over the Hudson River, New York's JFK International Airport, the Statue of Liberty, the George Washington and Verrazano-Narrows Bridges, and several other landmarks in the city; in an approximately 45-minute "final tour". At 11:23 am Eastern Daylight Time Enterprise touched down at JFK International Airport.
The mobile Mate-Demate Device and cranes were transported from Dulles to the ramp at JFK and the shuttle was removed from the SCA overnight on 12 May 2012, placed on a specially designed flat bed trailer and returned to Hangar 12. On 3 June, a Weeks Marine barge took Enterprise to Jersey City. The Shuttle sustained cosmetic damage to a wingtip when a gust of wind blew the barge towards a piling. It was hoisted by crane barge Weeks 533 on 6 June onto the Intrepid Museum in Manhattan.
The Enterprise went on public display on 19 July 2012, at the Intrepid Museum's new Space Shuttle Pavilion.
Awards
Intrepid earned five battle stars and the Presidential Unit Citation during World War II, and a further three battle stars for Vietnam service.
Navy Unit Commendation (2)
Navy Expeditionary Medal
China Service Medal (extended)
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic-Pacifc Campaign Medal (5 battle stars)
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal (with Asia and Europe clasps)
National Defense Service Medal
Vietnam Service Medal (5 battle stars)
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross Medal with Palm)
Philippine Liberation Medal
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
See also
Intrepid Four
List of aircraft carriers
List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
List of museum ships
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
USS Intrepid Association – former crew members' website
Photos of Intrepid – NavSource Online
Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum
1943 ships
Battle of Leyte Gulf
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Essex-class aircraft carriers
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
Military and war museums in New York (state)
Museum ships in New York (state)
Museums in Manhattan
National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
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245909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/597%20BC | 597 BC | The year 597 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 157 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 597 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
Events
March 16 – Several months' Siege of Jerusalem ends with Nebuchadnezzar capturing and plundering the city and Temple in Jerusalem. He sends into Babylonian captivity the new young king Jeconiah (replacing him with Zedekiah, a puppet ruler) and number of other prominent Jews, including Ezekiel, along with a sizable portion of the Jewish population of the Kingdom of Judah, numbering about 10,000. The Ark of the Covenant vanishes at this time.
Battle of Bi. Jin and Chu fought in the battle of Bi. Viscount Huan of Zhongxing led the Jin army and was defeated by King Zhuang of Chu.
Births
Deaths
References | [
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245910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/587%20BC | 587 BC | The year 587 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 167 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 587 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
Events
Jerusalem is conquered by the Babylonians, ending the Kingdom of Judah. The temple of Jerusalem is destroyed and some of the inhabitants are exiled. An alternate date of 586 BC has also been proposed for this event.
Births
Deaths
References | [
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245912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/559%20BC | 559 BC | The year 559 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 195 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 559 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
Events
Cyrus the Great succeeds his father Cambyses I of Anshan.
In the year of his accession (560–559 BC), the Babylonian king Neriglissar commands the declaration of an intercalendary month, so that his first year of kingship begins on Nisan 1 of 559 BC.
Births
Amitis Shahbanu, Achaemenid queen
Deaths
Cambyses I, father of Cyrus the Great and king of Anshan
References | [
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245916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salter%20Street%20Films | Salter Street Films | Salter Street Films was a Canadian television and film production company based in Halifax, Nova Scotia.
History
The company was founded by brothers Paul and Michael Donovan in 1983. Paul Donovan was trained as a director at the London Film School; Michael graduated from Dalhousie University’s Law School and began as a producer of Paul's film projects. Salter Street Films was named after the street in Halifax where Paul and Michael had been living.
The company began life with early problems. Its first major feature film was Def-Con 4 (1985) which eventually became profitable, but other pictures such as George's Island (1989), Buried on Sunday (1992) and Paint Cans (1994), though critically acclaimed, were money-losers. The company's salvation turned out to be the science fiction series Lexx, which was a hit in Germany, Russia and Eastern Europe. This Canadian-German co-production went on to become a lucrative money-maker through international sales and was one of the first shows to develop a cult following almost exclusively through the Internet.
Concurrently, the Donovan brothers found success with the satirical This Hour Has 22 Minutes becoming a hit on CBC Television as well as other series such as CODCO, Emily of New Moon, Made in Canada, Blackfly, the children's series Pirates and the special Rick Mercer's Talking To Americans. These shows found homes on the CBC as well as other Canadian networks and cable channels. Salter Street also created the Stop motion children's show Poko which is still in production. In 1994, it has a 20% interest in The Popcorn Channel, which was set to be on the air in the first quarter of 1995. In the 1990s, it meant to mine European co-production with four television movies, which were planning on to be in production in 1995.
Based on their reputation for political satire, American documentary film-maker Michael Moore approached Salter Street to produce his Bowling for Columbine project. Michael Donovan agreed, and arranged financing in Canada and Germany. The documentary won both the Anniversary Prize at Cannes and the Oscar for Best Documentary Feature.
In 2000, a year after the Donovan brothers had taken the company public, Salter Street Films was awarded the broadcast licence for the Independent Film Channel by the CRTC. This potentially lucrative award, combined with SSF's reputation as a content-provider, attracted interest from the powerful media corporation Alliance Atlantis. Alliance Atlantis bought Salter Street from the majority shareholders the following year. Paul and Michael Donovan remained on as producers.
Acquisition and close
In 2003, two years after the purchase, Alliance Atlantis closed the operation, transferring Salter Street's ongoing television productions to Alliance.
Paul Donovan has continued as an independent producer and director. In May 2004, Michael Donovan formed the Halifax Film Company with many of the former Salter Street employees. In 2006, Halifax Film merged with Decode Entertainment to form DHX Media (Now WildBrain).
References
External links
Salter.com, official Webpage of Salter Street Films (archived 2002-06-03)
Defunct film and television production companies of Canada
Cinema of Nova Scotia
Companies based in Halifax, Nova Scotia
Mass media companies established in 1983
Mass media companies disestablished in 2003
1983 establishments in Nova Scotia
2003 disestablishments in Nova Scotia
Lexx
This Hour Has 22 Minutes
Former Corus Entertainment subsidiaries
Alliance Atlantis | [
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245920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraswati | Saraswati | Saraswati (, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is a part of the tridevi of Saraswati, along with Lakshmi and Parvati.
The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in the Rigveda. She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic period through modern times of Hindu traditions. She is generally shown to have four arms, holding a book, a rosary, a water pot and a musical instrument called Veena. Each of these items have symbolic meaning in Hinduism.
Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring, and also known as Saraswati Puja and Saraswati Jayanti in so many parts of India) in her honour, and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write the letters of the alphabet on that day. The goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India, as well as some Buddhist sects.
Etymology
Saraswati, is a Sanskrit fusion word of saras (सरस्) meaning "pooling water", but also sometimes translated as "speech"; and vati (वती) meaning "she who possesses". Originally associated with the river or rivers known as Saraswati, this combination, therefore, means "she who has ponds, lakes, and pooling water" or occasionally "she who possesses speech". It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati (सरसु+अति) which means "one with plenty of water".
The word Saraswati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the Rigveda. In initial passages, the word refers to the Sarasvati River and is mentioned as one among several northwestern Indian rivers such as the Drishadvati. Saraswati, then, connotes a river deity. In Book 2, the Rigveda describes Saraswati as the best of mothers, of rivers, of goddesses.
अम्बितमे नदीतमे देवितमे सरस्वति — Rigveda 2.41.16
Best of mothers, the best of rivers, best of goddesses, Sarasvatī.
Saraswati is celebrated as a feminine deity with healing and purifying powers of abundant, flowing waters in Book 10 of the Rigveda, as follows:
अपो अस्मान मातरः शुन्धयन्तु घर्तेन नो घर्तप्वः पुनन्तु |
विश्वं हि रिप्रं परवहन्ति देविरुदिदाभ्यः शुचिरापूत एमि || — Rigveda 10.17
May the waters, the mothers, cleanse us,
may they who purify with butter, purify us with butter,
for these goddesses bear away defilement,
I come up out of them pure and cleansed. — translated by John Muir
In Vedic literature, Saraswati acquires the same significance for early Indians (states John Muir) as that accredited to the river Ganges by their modern descendants. In hymns of Book 10 of Rigveda, she is already declared to be the "possessor of knowledge". Her importance grows in Vedas composed after Rigveda and in Brahmanas, and the word evolves in its meaning from "waters that purify", to "that which purifies", to "vach (speech) that purifies", to "knowledge that purifies", and ultimately into a spiritual concept of a goddess that embodies knowledge, arts, music, melody, muse, language, rhetoric, eloquence, creative work and anything whose flow purifies the essence and self of a person. In Upanishads and Dharma Sastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, virtuous emoluments, the meaning and the very essence of one's activity, one's action.
Saraswati is known by many names in ancient Hindu literature. Some examples of synonyms for Saraswati include Brahmani (power of Brahma), Brahmi (goddess of sciences), Bharadi (goddess of history), Vani and Vachi (both referring to the flow of music/song, melodious speech, eloquent speaking respectively), Varnesvari (goddess of letters), Kavijihvagravasini (one who dwells on the tongue of poets). The Goddess Saraswati is also known as Vidyadatri (Goddess who provides knowledge), Veenavadini (Goddess who plays Veena, the musical instrument held by Goddess Saraswati), Pustakdharini (Goddess who carries a book), Veenapani (Goddess who carries a veena in her hands), Hansavahini (Goddess who sits on swan) and Vagdevi (Goddess of speech).
In some interpretations, "Sara" is translated as "Essence", and "Sva" is translated to "Self". Thus, the name Saraswati would translate to "She who helps realize the essence of self" or "She who reconciles the essence (of Parabrahman) with one's self".
Nomenclature
In the Hindi language, her name is written . In the Telugu, Saraswati is also known as Chaduvula Thalli (చదువుల తల్లి) and Shārada (శారద). In Konkani, she is referred to as Shārada, Veenapani, Pustakadhārini, Vidyadāyini. In Kannada, variants of her name include Sharade, Sharadamba, Vāni, Veenapani in the famous Sringeri temple. In Tamil, she is also known as Kalaimagal (கலைமகள்), Nāmagal (நாமகள்), Kalaivāni (கலைவாணி), Vāni (வாணி) and Bharathi (பாரதி). In the Tiruvalluva Maalai, a collection of fifty-five Tamil verses praising the Kural literature and its author Valluvar, she is referred to as Nāmagal and is believed to have composed the second verse. She is also addressed as Sāradā (the one who offers sāra or the essence), Shāradā (the one who loves the autumn season), Veenā-pustaka-dhārini (the one holding books and a Veena), Vāgdevi, Vāgishvari (both meaning "goddess of speech"), Vāni (speech), Varadhanāyaki (the one bestowing boons), Sāvitri (consort of Brahma), and Gāyatri (mother of Vedas).
In India, she is locally spelled as সৰস্বতী in Assamese, সরস্বতী in Bengali, സരസ്വതി in Malayalam, சரஸ்வதி in Tamil, and ସରସ୍ଵତୀ in Odia. Outside Nepal and India, she is known in Burmese as Thurathadi (, or ) or Tipitaka Medaw (, ), in Chinese as (), in Japanese as Benzaiten () and in Thai as Suratsawadi () or Saratsawadi ().
History
In Hindu tradition, Saraswati has retained her significance as a goddess from the Vedic age up to the present day. In Shanti Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Saraswati is called the mother of the Vedas, and later as the celestial creative symphony who appeared when Brahma created the universe. In Book 2 of Taittiriya Brahmana, she is called “the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music”. Saraswati is the active energy and power of Brahma. She is also mentioned in many minor Sanskrit publications such as Sarada Tilaka of 8th century CE as follows,
May the goddess of speech enable us to attain all possible eloquence,
she who wears on her locks a young moon,
who shines with exquisite lustre,
who sits reclined on a white lotus,
and from the crimson cusp of whose hands pours,
radiance on the implements of writing, and books produced by her favour. – On Saraswati, Sarada Tilaka
Saraswati became a prominent deity in Buddhist iconography – the consort of Manjushri in 1st millennium CE. In some instances such as in the Sadhanamala of Buddhist pantheon, she has been symbolically represented similar to regional Hindu iconography, but unlike the more well-known depictions of Saraswati. Since the veena is attributed to Saraswati, the Hindu goddess of music and learning through an uninterrupted sequence of ragas.
Symbolism and iconography
The goddess Saraswati is often depicted as a beautiful woman dressed in pure white, often seated on a white lotus, which symbolizes light, knowledge and truth. She not only embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically in white themes from dress to flowers to swan – the colour symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity, discrimination for true knowledge, insight and wisdom.
Her dhyana mantra describes her to be as white as the moon, clad in a white dress, bedecked in white ornaments, radiating with beauty, holding a book and a pen in her hands (the book represents knowledge).
She is generally shown to have four arms, but sometimes just two. When shown with four hands, those hands symbolically mirror her husband Brahma's four heads, representing manas (mind, sense), buddhi (intellect, reasoning), citta (imagination, creativity), and ahamkāra (self consciousness, ego). Brahma represents the abstract, while she represents action and reality.
The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning – a pustaka (book or script), a mālā (rosary, garland), a water pot and a musical instrument (vīnā). The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals, representing the power of meditation, inner reflection, and spirituality. A pot of water represents the purifying power to separate right from wrong, the clean from the unclean, and essence from the inessential. In some texts, the pot of water is symbolism for soma – the drink that liberates and leads to knowledge. The most famous feature on Saraswati is a musical instrument called a veena, represents all creative arts and sciences, and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony. Saraswati is also associated with anurāga, the love for and rhythm of music, which represents all emotions and feelings expressed in speech or music.
A hamsa – either a swan or a goose – is often shown near her feet. In Hindu mythology, the hamsa is a sacred bird, which if offered a mixture of milk and water, is said to be able to drink the milk alone. It thus symbolizes the ability to discriminate between good and evil, essence from the outward show, and the eternal from the evanescent. Due to her association with the swan, Saraswati is also referred to as Hamsavāhini, which means “she who has a hamsa as her vehicle”. The swan is also a symbolism for spiritual perfection, transcendence and moksha.
Sometimes a citramekhala (also called mayura, peacock) is shown beside the goddess. The peacock symbolizes colorful splendor, the celebration of dance, and – as the devourer of snakes – the alchemical ability to transmute the serpent poison of self into the radiant plumage of enlightenment.
She is usually depicted near a flowing river or another body of water, which depiction may constitute a reference to her early history as a river goddess.
She is a part of the Tridevi, the triad of great Goddesses. She represents the Sattwa Guna, and Jnana Shakti.
Saraswati as a river
Devi Saraswati was initially a river goddess in early texts like the Rigveda. She was the personification of the Sarasvati river, which is a symbol of purity.
The story of Devi Saraswati becoming a river is mentioned in the Srishti Khanda of Padma Purana as well as in Skanda Purana. There was a terrible battle between the Bhargavas (a group of Brahmana) and Hehayas (a group of Kshatriya), and from this an all-consuming fire called Vadavagni was born which could destroy the whole world. In some versions, a sage named Auva created it. The devas were worried and they went to Vishnu or Shiva. The supreme god suggested that they should go to Saraswati for help as she can become a river and immerse the Vadavagni in the ocean. All the devas and devis went to Saraswati and requested her to protect the universe.
She said that she would only agree if her disciple, Bramha told her to do so. Then they all went to Bramha and Bramha told Saraswati to become a river. Saraswati agreed and left Brahmaloka and arrived at sage Uttanka's ashram. There she met Shiva. He gave the Vadavagni in a pot to Saraswati and told her to originate from Plaksha tree. Saraswati merged with the tree and transformed into a river. From there she flowed towards Pushkar. Saraswati continued her journey towards the ocean. At last, she reached the end of her journey and immersed the fire in the ocean.
Manifestations of Saraswati
Avatars
There are many avatars and forms of Goddess Saraswati.
She is venerated as Mahasaraswati in the Kashmir Shakti Peetha, as Vidhya Saraswati in Basara and Vargal, and as Sharadamba in sringeri. In some parts, she is known by her twin identities, Savitri and Gayatri.
She takes her Matrika (Warrior) avatar as Brahmani. Saraswati is not just the goddess of knowledge and wisdom but also she is the Brahmavidya herself, the goddess of the wisdom of ultimate truth. Her Mahavidhya forms are Matangi and Tara Mahavidya she manifests:
As Mahakali, she is the destroyer of ignorance and ego, and the darkness that surrounds the mind of the unlearned and lethargic.
As Parvati, she is Brahmavidhya, the ultimate truth.
As Lakshmi, she is Vidhyalakshmi, who provides wealth according to skill.
As Vidhya, she is the formless concept of wisdom and knowledge in all of its aspects.
As Gayatri, she is the personification of the Vedas.
As Savitri, She is the personification of purity, consort of Lord Brahma
Maha Saraswati
In some regions of India, such as Vindhya, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam, as well as east Nepal, Saraswati is part of the Devi Mahatmya mythology, in the Tridevi of Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati. This is one of many different Hindu legends that attempt to explain how the Hindu trimurti of gods (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) and goddesses (Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati) came into being. Various Purana texts offer alternate legends for Maha Saraswati.
Maha Saraswati is depicted as eight-armed and is often portrayed holding a Veena whilst sitting on a white lotus flower.
Her dhyāna shloka given at the beginning of the fifth chapter of Devi Mahatmya is:
Wielding in her lotus-hands the bell, trident, ploughshare, conch, pestle, discus, bow, and arrow, her lustre is like that of a moon shining in the autumn sky. She is born from the body of Gauri and is the sustaining base of the three worlds. That Mahasaraswati I worship here who destroyed Sumbha and other asuras.
Mahasaraswati is also part of another legend, the Navshaktis (not to be confused with Navdurgas), or nine forms of Shakti, namely Brahmi, Vaishnavi, Maheshwari, Kaumari, Varahi, Narsimhi, Aindri, Shivdooti, and Chamunda, revered as powerful and dangerous goddesses in eastern India. They have special significance on Navaratri in these regions. All of these are seen ultimately as aspects of a single great Hindu goddess, with Maha Saraswati as one of those nine.
Mahavidya Nila Saraswati
In Tibet and parts of India, Nilasaraswati is sometimes considered as a form of Mahavidya Tara. Nila Saraswati is not much a different deity from traditional Saraswati, who subsumes her knowledge and creative energy in tantric literature. Though the traditional form of Saraswati is of calm, compassionate, and peaceful one: Nila Saraswati is the ugra (angry, violent, destructive) manifestation in one school of Hinduism, while the more common Saraswati is the saumya (calm, compassionate, productive) manifestation found in most others. In tantric literature of the former, Nilasaraswati has 100 names. There are separate dhyana shlokas and mantras for her worship in Tantrasara.
She is worshipped in parts of India as an incarnate or incarnation of Goddess Tara but mostly outside India. She is not only worshipped but also been manifested as a form of Goddess Saraswati.
Sharada avatar in Kashmir
The earliest known shrine dedicated to goddess worship in Kashmir is Sharada Peeth (6th–12th centuries CE), dedicated to the goddess Sharada. It is a ruined Hindu temple and ancient centre of learning located in present-day Azad Kashmir. The goddess Sharada worshipped in Sharada Peeth is a tripartite embodiment of the goddess Shakti: Sharada (goddess of learning), Saraswati (goddess of knowledge), and Vagdevi (goddess of speech, which articulates power). Kashmiri Pandits believe the shrine to be the abode of the goddess. In line with the Kashmiri Pandit belief that springs which are the abode of goddesses should not be looked at directly, the shrine contains a stone slab concealing the spring underneath, which they believe to be the spring in which the goddess Sharada revealed herself to the rishi Shandilya. It advanced the importance of knowledge and education in Kashmiri Pandit culture, which persisted well after Kashmiri Pandits became a minority group in Kashmir.
As one of the Maha Shakti Peethas, Hindus believe that it represents the spiritual location of the goddess Sati's fallen right hand. Sharada Peeth is one of the three holiest sites of pilgrimage for Kashmiri Pandits, alongside the Martand Sun Temple and the Amarnath Temple.
Saraswati in Jainism
Saraswati is also revered in Jainism as goddess of knowledge and regarded as source of all learning. Saraswati is depicted in standing posture with 4 hands, one holding text, other holding a rosary and two hands holding Veena. Saraswati is seated on lotus with peacock as her vehicle. Saraswati is also regarded as responsible for dissemination of tirthankars sermon.
The earliest sculpture of Saraswati in any religious tradition is the Mathura Jain Saraswati from Kankali Tila dating 132 CE.
Worship
Temples
Ancient Sharada Peeth in Pakistan's Azad Kashmir is one of the oldest surviving temples of Saraswati.
There are many temples dedicated to Saraswati around the world. Some notable temples include the Gnana Saraswati Temple in Basar on the banks of the River Godavari, the Wargal Saraswati and Shri Saraswati Kshetramu temples in Medak, Telangana. In Karnataka, one of many Saraswati/Sharada pilgrimage spots is Shringeri Sharadamba Temple. In Ernakulam district of Kerala, there is a famous Saraswati temple in North Paravur, namely, Dakshina Mookambika Temple North Paravur. In Tamil Nadu, Koothanur hosts a Saraswati temple at Koothanur in Tamil Nadu about 25 kilometres from Tiruvarur. In her identity as Brahmani, additional Saraswati temples can be found throughout Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
Festivals
One of the most famous festivals associated with Goddess Saraswati is the Hindu festival of Vasant Panchami. Celebrated on the 5th day in the Hindu calendar month of Magha (month), it is also known as Saraswati Puja and Saraswati Jayanti in India.
Saraswati Puja in East and Northeast India
In Assam, Odisha, West Bengal and Tripura, Goddess Saraswati is worshipped on Vasant Panchami, a Hindu festival celebrated every year on the 5th day in the Hindu calendar month of Magha (about February). Hindus celebrate this festival in temples, homes and educational institutes alike.
Saraswati Puja in North, West and Central India
In Bihar and Jharkhand, Vasant Panchami is commonly known as Saraswati Puja. On this day, Goddess Saraswati is worshipped in schools, colleges, educational institutes as well as in institutes associated with music and dance. Cultural programmes are also organised in schools and institutes on this day. People especially students worship Goddess Saraswati also in pandals (a tent made up of colourful clothes, decorated with lights and other decorative items). In these states, on the occasion of Saraswati Puja, Goddess Saraswati is worshipped in the form of idol, made up of soil. On Saraswati Puja, the idol is worshipped by people and prasad is distributed among the devotees after puja. Prasad mainly consists of boondi (motichoor), pieces of carrot, peas and Indian plum (ber). On the next day or any day depending on religious condition, the idol is immersed in a pond (known as Murti Visarjan or Pratima Visarjan) after performing a Havana (immolation), with full joy and fun, playing with abir and gulal. After Pratima Visarjan, members involved in the organisation of puja ceremony eat khichdi together.
In Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka, Saraswati Puja starts with Saraswati Avahan on Maha Saptami and ends on Vijayadashami with Saraswati Udasan or Visarjan.
In 2018, the Haryana government launched and sponsored the annual National Saraswati Mahotsav in its state named after Saraswati.
Saraswati Puja in South India
In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the last three days of the Navaratri festival, i.e., Ashtami, Navami, and Dashami, are celebrated as Saraswati Puja. The celebrations start with the Puja Vypu (Placing for Worship). It consists of placing the books for puja on the Ashtami day. It may be in one's own house, in the local nursery school run by traditional teachers, or in the local temple. The books will be taken out for reading, after worship, only on the morning of the third day (Vijaya Dashami). It is called Puja Eduppu (Taking [from] Puja). Children are happy, since they are not expected to study on these days. On the Vijaya Dashami day, Kerala and Tamil Nadu celebrate the Ezhuthiniruthu or Initiation of Writing for the little children before they are admitted to nursery schools. This is also called Vidyarambham. The child is made to write for the first time on the rice spread in a plate with the index finger, guided by an elder of the family or by a teacher.
During the Navratri festivities, on the seventh day, which coincides with the Moola nakshatra (which is considered to be Devi's birth star), the Goddesses in various temples are decorated and worshipped in the form of Mahasaraswati, in honor of the Goddess of knowledge, wisdom, arts, and learning. Students throng these temples in large numbers and receive books, pencils, pens and other learning equipment as "Devi prasadam". "Aksharabhyasa", the ceremony of initiating a child into the process of learning, is held on a large scale across these temples.
Outside the Indian subcontinent
Indonesia
Watugunung, the last day of the pawukon calendar, is devoted to Saraswati, goddess of learning. Although it is devoted to books, reading is not allowed. The fourth day of the year is called Pagerwesi, meaning "iron fence". It commemorates a battle between good and evil.
Saraswati is an important goddess in Balinese Hinduism. She shares the same attributes and iconography as Saraswati in Hindu literature of India – in both places, she is the goddess of knowledge, creative arts, wisdom, language, learning and purity. In Bali, she is celebrated on Saraswati day, one of the main festivals for Hindus in Indonesia. The day marks the close of 210 day year in the Pawukon calendar.
On Saraswati day, people make offerings in the form of flowers in temples and to sacred texts. The day after Saraswati day, is Banyu Pinaruh, a day of cleansing. On this day, Hindus of Bali go to the sea, sacred waterfalls or river spots, offer prayers to Saraswati, and then rinse themselves in that water in the morning. Then they prepare a feast, such as the traditional bebek betutu and nasi kuning, that they share.
The Saraswati Day festival has a long history in Bali. It has become more widespread in Hindu community of Indonesia in recent decades, and it is celebrated with theatre and dance performance.
China
Veneration of Saraswati migrated from the Indian subcontinent to China with the spread of Buddhism, where she in known as Biàncáitiān (辯才天), meaning "Eloquent Devī", as well as Miàoyīntiān (妙音天), meaning "Devī of Wonderful Sounds". She is commonly enshrined in Chinese Buddhist monasteries as one of the Twenty-Four Devas, a group of protective deities who are regarded as protectors of the Buddhist dharma. Her Chinese iconography is based on her description in the Golden Light Sutra, where she is portrayed as having eight arms, one holding a bow, one holding arrows, one holding a knife, one holding a lance, one holding an axe, one holding a pestle, one holding an iron wheel, and one holding ropes. In another popular Buddhist iconographic form, she is portrayed as sitting down and playing a pipa, a Chinese lute-like instrument.
Japan
The concept of Saraswati migrated from India, through China to Japan, where she appears as Benzaiten (弁財天). Worship of Benzaiten arrived in Japan during the 6th through 8th centuries. She is often depicted holding a biwa, a traditional Japanese lute musical instrument. She is enshrined on numerous locations throughout Japan such as the Kamakura's Zeniarai Benzaiten Ugafuku Shrine or Nagoya's Kawahara Shrine; the three biggest shrines in Japan in her honour are at the Enoshima Island in Sagami Bay, the Chikubu Island in Lake Biwa, and the Itsukushima Island in Seto Inland Sea.
Cambodia
Saraswati was honoured with invocations among Hindus of Angkorian Cambodia, suggests a tenth-century and another eleventh-century inscription. She and Brahma are referred to in Cambodian epigraphy from the 7th century onwards, and she is praised by Khmer poets for being the goddess of eloquence, writing, and music. More offerings were made to her than to her husband Brahma. She is also referred to as Vagisvari and Bharati in Yasovarman era Khmer literature.
Thailand
In ancient Thai literature, Saraswati (; ) is the goddess of speech and learning, and consort of Brahma. Over time, Hindu and Buddhist concepts on deities merged in Thailand. Icons of Saraswati with other deities of India are found in old Thai wats. Amulets with Saraswati and a peacock are also found in Thailand.
Myanmar
In Burma, the Shwezigon Mon Inscription dated to be of 1084 CE, near Bagan, recites the name Saraswati as follows,
"The wisdom of eloquence called Saraswati shall dwell in the mouth of King Sri Tribhuwanadityadhammaraja at all times". – Translated by Than Tun
In Buddhist arts of Myanmar, she is called Thurathadi (or Thayéthadi). Students in Myanmar pray for her blessings before their exams. She is also believed to be, in Mahayana pantheon of Myanmar, the protector of Buddhist scriptures.
Tibet
In Tibet, she is known as the Goddess of Music (), or the Tara of Music (), considered the consort of Mañjuśri, Buddha of Wisdom, she is one of the 21 Taras.
Saraswati is the Divine Embodiment & bestower of Enlightened Eloquence & Inspiration, patroness of the arts, sciences, music, language, literature, history, poetry & philosophy, all those engaged in creative endeavours in Tibetan Buddhism. She is considered the peaceful manifestation of Palden Lhamo (Glorious Goddess). In the Gelugpa tradition, Palden Lhamo is known as Magzor Gyalmo (the Queen who Repels Armies) and is a wrathful emanation of Saraswati while being a protector. Saraswati was the yidam (principal personal meditational deity) of 14th century Tibetan monk Je Tsongkhapa. He composed a devotional poem to her. She is believed in the Tibetan tradition to have accompanied him on his travels, as well as regularly engaging in conversations with him.
See also
Aban, "the Waters", representing and represented by Aredvi Sura Anahita.
Anahita – the Old Persian goddess of wisdom
Arachosia name of which derives from Old Iranian *Harahvatī (Avestan , Old Persian Hara(h)uvati-).
Athena – the Greek goddess of wisdom and knowledge
Sága – the Norse goddess of learning and knowledge
Brahmi – Shaktidharmic version of Saraswati
Minerva – the Roman goddess of wisdom and knowledge
Rhea – the Greek goddess consort of Cronos and mother of the gods and titans.
Saraswati Puja
Sarasvati River, a manifestation of the goddess Saraswati.
Saraswati Vandana Mantra
Saraswati yoga
Sharada Peeth
Tara (Devi)
Tridevi
Koothanur Maha Saraswathi Temple
Citations
References
Further reading
Sailen Debnath, The Meanings of Hindu Gods, Goddesses and Myths, , Rupa & Co., New Delhi.
External links
Arts goddesses
Hindu goddesses
Buddhist goddesses
Heavenly attendants in Jainism
Knowledge goddesses
Sea and river goddesses
Shaktism
Wisdom goddesses
Consorts of Brahma
Tiruvalluva Maalai contributors
Music and singing goddesses
Taras
Personifications of rivers
Rigvedic deities | [
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245922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mall | Mall | Mall ( or ) may refer to a shopping mall, a strip mall, or a pedestrian street or an esplanade (a long open area where people can walk, which is the original meaning of the word).
Mall or MALL may also refer to:
Shopping complexes
Shopping mall, a shopping mall is a modern, chiefly North American, term for a form of shopping precinct or shopping center
Lists of shopping malls
The Mall Fund which owns "The Mall" shopping centres in the United Kingdom
The Mall Group which owns "The Mall" shopping centres in Thailand
The Mall (Bromley), a shopping centre in southeast London
The Mall (Sofia) (Tsarigradsko Mall), shopping centre in Sofia, Bulgaria
Packages Mall, a shopping centre in Lahore, Pakistan, owned by Packages Limited
The Mall, Patna, a shopping centre in Patna, Bihar, India
Places
The Mall, or the Esplanade of the European Parliament, Brussels
The Mall, London, the landmark ceremonial approach road to Buckingham Palace
The Mall, Armagh, a cricket ground in Armagh, Northern Ireland
The Mall (Cleveland), a 1903 long public park in down-town Cleveland, Ohio
The Mall, Kanpur, central business district of the city
The Mall, Lahore, a road in Lahore, Pakistan
Mall, Ranga Reddy, a village in India
McKeldin Mall, the academic mall of the University of Maryland, College Park
The National Mall, an open-area national park in downtown Washington, D.C.
Nicollet Mall, the central business district of Minneapolis, Minnesota
Pall Mall, London, is a street in the St James's area of the City of Westminster, Central London
People with the name
Joel Mall (born 1991), Swiss football goalkeeper
Mac Mall, West Coast rapper
Arts, entertainment, and media
Mall (album), a 1991 album by Gang of Four
Mall (film), a 2014 film by Linkin Park's turntablist Joe Hahn
Mall (soundtrack), a soundtrack album from the film
"Mall" (song), a 2017 song by Eugent Bushpepa that represented Albania in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018
"Mall", by C418 from Minecraft - Volume Beta, 2013
Other uses
MALL, a protein
Mall Airways, regional airline in eastern United States and Canada from 1973 to 1989
Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) - language learning that is assisted or enhanced through the use of a handheld mobile device
See also
6teen, Canadian sitcom whose working title was The Mall
Assan Jana Mall-o Mall, a 2002 album by Abrar-ul-Haq
Malla (disambiguation)
MALS (disambiguation)
Maul (disambiguation)
Mole (disambiguation) | [
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245923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary%20copyright | Parliamentary copyright | See Template:Non-free Parliamentary copyright for Wikipedia's image licensing tag.
Parliamentary copyright is a form of copyright in works made by either of the two Houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom: the House of Lords or the House of Commons. It also applies to Bills proposed in either House and to the devolved legislatures in the United Kingdom: the Scottish Parliament, Northern Ireland Assembly or Senedd Cymru – the Welsh Parliament.
History
Parliamentary copyright was first created in the United Kingdom by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Prior to this legislation being passed, what is now covered by Parliamentary copyright was Crown copyright. Parliamentary works produced prior to 1 August 1989 are therefore Crown, rather than Parliamentary, copyright.
Application
Parliamentary copyright applies where a work is made "by or under the direction or control of the House of Commons or the House of Lords". Where Parliamentary copyright applies, the work qualifies for copyright protection even though the usual requirements relating to qualifications for copyright protection may not apply. The House by whom, or under whose direction or control, the work is made is the first owner of any copyright in the work, and if the work is made by or under the direction or control of both Houses, the two Houses are joint first owners of copyright.
Copyright in such a work is referred to in this Part as “Parliamentary copyright”, notwithstanding that it may be, or have been, assigned to another person. Parliamentary copyright in a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work lasts for 50 years from the end of the calendar year in which the work was made.
"Works made by or under the direction or control of the House of Commons or the House of Lords" includes work made by an officer or employee of that House in the course of his duties, and any sound recording, film or live broadcast of the proceedings of that House, but a work is not regarded as made "by or under the direction or control" of either House simply because it has been commissioned by or on behalf of that House. In the case of a work of joint authorship where Parliamentary copyright applies, Parliamentary copyright only extends to the portion that it applies to and not the whole work.
For the purposes of holding and enforcing copyright, the two Houses of Parliament, which otherwise only exist during the lifetime of a Parliament (and not during a dissolution or prorogation) are treated as having the legal capacities of a body corporate. The copyrights created by the Act are enforceable by and in the name of the Speaker of the House of Commons, or the Clerk of the Parliaments in respect of the House of Lords.
Legislation
Bills in the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Copyright in Bills introduced into Parliament belongs to one or both of the Houses of Parliament. A Bill is normally introduced into one of the two Houses first, and once it is approved by one it goes to the other.
Copyright in public Bills belongs to the House into which the Bill is introduced, and if it is passed by that House, it is then shared by both Houses jointly. The copyright starts from the time when the text of the Bill is handed in to the House in which it is introduced. Copyright in private Bills belongs to both Houses jointly and starts from the time when a copy of the Bill is first deposited in either House. Copyright in a personal Bill belongs in the first instance to the House of Lords, and if it is passed by that House, it is then shared by both Houses jointly. This copyright only starts when the Bill has First Reading in the House of Lords.
This form of Parliamentary copyright ceases when a Bill is granted Royal Assent, or if the Bill does not receive Royal Assent, on the withdrawal or rejection of the Bill or the end of the Session. However, copyright in a Bill continues even if rejected by the House of Lords if, by virtue of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, it remains possible for it to be presented for Royal Assent in that Session. Once Parliamentary copyright starts to apply in relation to a Bill, it removes any other form of copyright which might have applied.
Bills in other legislatures
The same principles apply in respect of Bills introduced into the Scottish Parliament, Northern Ireland Assembly or the Senedd Cymru – Welsh Parliament, from the point a Bill is introduced until it is either given Royal Assent, or withdrawn or rejected. In these cases, the copyright belongs to the corporate body of the respective legislature: the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body, the Northern Ireland Assembly Commission or the Senedd Commission.
Acts
When a Bill (of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, or one of the devolved legislatures) is given Royal Assent by the Queen, it becomes an Act. Royal Assent is also given to Church of England Measures. Parliamentary copyright ends on Royal Assent and instead Crown copyright commences for a period of 50 years, to the exclusion of any other form of copyright.
Open Parliament Licence
Parliament operates an "Open Parliament Licence", similar to the Open Government Licence. This permits the copying, publication, distribution, transition, adaptation and commercial and non-commercial exploitation of some information to which Parliamentary copyright applies.
Terms
In order to use this licence, the user must acknowledge the source of the information by including an attribution statement and, where possible, provide a link to the licence.
The licence does not cover the use of:
personal data;
information that has neither been published nor disclosed under information access legislation (including the Freedom of Information Acts for the UK and Scotland) by or with the consent of Parliament;
the Royal Arms and the Crowned Portcullis;
third party rights that Parliament is not authorised to license; or
information subject to other intellectual property rights, including patents, trademarks, and design rights.
This licence does not grant the right to use the information in a way that suggests any official status or that Parliament endorses the user or their use of the information.
Other restrictions
There are additional (in some cases, non-copyright) restrictions that apply to some materials related to Parliamentary affairs:
The Crowned Portcullis
Images featured on Art in Parliament
The Parliamentary Archives
Parliamentary photographic images
Live and archive video or audio broadcasts
Non-commercial use of content from parliamentlive.tv is permitted under the separate "Downloading and Sharing Terms and Conditions" of the Parliamentary Recording Unit.
See also
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Crown copyright
References
External links
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
UK Parliament - Parliamentary copyright
Copyright law
United Kingdom copyright law
Parliament of the United Kingdom | [
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245924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namtar | Namtar | Namtar (or Namtaru, or Namtara; meaning destiny or fate), was a chthonic minor deity or demon in Mesopotamian mythology, god of death, and sukkal and messenger of An, Ereshkigal, and Nergal.
Namtar was the son of Enlil and Ereshkigal; he was born before his father raped the goddess Ninlil. Namtar was considered responsible for diseases and pests. It was said that he commanded sixty diseases in the form of demons that could penetrate different parts of the human body; offerings to him were made to prevent those illnesses. It is thought that the Assyrians and Babylonians took this belief from the Sumerians after conquering them. To some they were the spirit of fate, and therefore of great importance. Apparently they executed the instructions given him concerning the fate of men, and could also have power over certain of the gods. In other writings they were regarded as the personification of death, much like the modern concept of the Grim Reaper.
In the story of Ishtar's Descent to the underworld, acting as Ereshkigal's 'messenger', Namtar curses Ishtar with 60 diseases, naming five of the head, feet, side, eyes, and heart, after she arrives in the underworld.
Namtar was regarded as the beloved son of Bêl/Enlil, and was married to the underworld goddess Hušbišag.
References
Michael Jordan, Encyclopedia of Gods, Kyle Cathie Limited, 2002
Descent of the Goddess Ishtar into the Lower World
Mesopotamian gods
Mesopotamian demons
Health gods
Death gods
Mesopotamian underworld | [
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