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245189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menes | Menes | Menes (fl. c. 3200–3000 BC; ; , probably pronounced *; ) was a pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period of ancient Egypt credited by classical tradition with having united Upper and Lower Egypt and as the founder of the First Dynasty.
The identity of Menes is the subject of ongoing debate, although mainstream Egyptological consensus identifies Menes with the Naqada III ruler Narmer (most likely) or First Dynasty pharaoh Hor-Aha. Both pharaohs are credited with the unification of Egypt to different degrees by various authorities.
Name and identity
The commonly-used name Menes derives from Manetho, an Egyptian historian and priest who lived during the pre-Coptic period of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Manetho noted the name in Greek as Μήνης (transliterated: Mênês). An alternative Greek form, Μιν (transliterated: Min), was cited by the fifth-century-BC historian Herodotus, but is a variant no longer accepted; it appears to have been the result of contamination from the name of the god Min.
The Egyptian form, mnj, is taken from the Turin and Abydos King Lists, which are dated to the Nineteenth Dynasty, whose pronunciation has been reconstructed as . By the early New Kingdom, changes in the Egyptian language meant his name was already pronounced . The name mnj means "He who endures", which, I.E.S. Edwards (1971) suggests, may have been coined as "a mere descriptive epithet denoting a semi-legendary hero [...] whose name had been lost". Rather than a particular person, the name may conceal collectively the Naqada III rulers: Ka, Scorpion II and Narmer.
Narmer and Menes
The almost complete absence of any mention of Menes in the archaeological record and the comparative wealth of evidence of Narmer, a protodynastic figure credited by posterity and in the archaeological record with a firm claim to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, has given rise to a theory identifying Menes with Narmer.
The chief archaeological reference to Menes is an ivory label from Naqada which shows the royal Horus-name Aha (the pharaoh Hor-Aha) next to a building, within which is the royal nebty-name mn, generally taken to be Menes. From this, various theories on the nature of the building (a funerary booth or a shrine), the meaning of the word mn (a name or the verb endures) and the relationship between Hor-Aha and Menes (as one person or as successive pharaohs) have arisen.
The Turin and Abydos king lists, generally accepted to be correct, list the nesu-bit-names of the pharaohs, not their Horus-names, and are vital to the potential reconciliation of the various records: the nesu-bit-names of the king lists, the Horus-names of the archaeological record and the number of pharaohs in Dynasty I according to Manetho and other historical sources.
Flinders Petrie first attempted this task, associating Iti with Djer as the third pharaoh of Dynasty I, Teti (Turin) (or another Iti (Abydos)) with Hor-Aha as second pharaoh, and Menes (a nebty-name) with Narmer (a Horus-name) as first pharaoh of Dynasty I. Lloyd (1994) finds this succession "extremely probable", and Cervelló-Autuori (2003) categorically states that "Menes is Narmer and the First Dynasty begins with him". However, Seidlmayer (2004) states that it is "a fairly safe inference" that Menes was Hor-Aha.
Two documents have been put forward as proof either that Narmer was Menes or alternatively Hor-Aha was Menes. The first is the "Naqada Label" found at the site of Naqada, in the tomb of Queen Neithhotep, often assumed to have been the mother of Horus Aha. The label shows a serekh of Hor-Aha next to an enclosure inside of which are symbols that have been interpreted by some scholars as the name "Menes". The second is the seal impression from Abydos that alternates between a serekh of Narmer and the chessboard symbol, "mn", which is interpreted as an abbreviation of Menes. Arguments have been made with regard to each of these documents in favour of Narmer or Hor-Aha being Menes, but in neither case is the argument conclusive.
The second document, the seal impression from Abydos, shows the serekh of Narmer alternating with the gameboard sign (mn), together with its phonetic complement, the n sign, which is always shown when the full name of Menes is written, again representing the name “Menes”. At first glance, this would seem to be strong evidence that Narmer was Menes. However, based on an analysis of other early First Dynasty seal impressions, which contain the name of one or more princes, the seal impression has been interpreted by other scholars as showing the name of a prince of Narmer named Menes, hence Menes was Narmer's successor, Hor-Aha, and thus Hor-Aha was Menes. This was refuted by ; but opinions still vary, and the seal impression cannot be said to definitively support either theory.
Dates
Egyptologists, archaeologists, and scholars from the 19th century have proposed different dates for the era of Menes, or the date of the first dynasty:
John Gardner Wilkinson (1835) – 2320 BC
Jean-François Champollion (Published posthumously in 1840) – 5867 BC
August Böckh (1845) – 5702 BC
Christian Charles Josias Bunsen (1848) – 3623 BC
Reginald Stuart Poole (1851) – 2717 BC
Karl Richard Lepsius (1856) – 3892 BC
Heinrich Karl Brugsch (1859) – 4455 BC
Franz Joseph Lauth (1869) – 4157 BC
Auguste Mariette (1871) – 5004 BC
James Strong (1878) – 2515 BC
Flinders Petrie (1887) – 4777 BC
Modern consensus dates the era of Menes or the start of the first dynasty between c. 3200–3030 BC; some academic literature uses c. 3000 BC.
History
By 500 BC, mythical and exaggerated claims had made Menes a culture hero, and most of what is known of him comes from a much later time.
Ancient tradition ascribed to Menes the honour of having united Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom and becoming the first pharaoh of the First Dynasty. However, his name does not appear on extant pieces of the Royal Annals (Cairo Stone and Palermo Stone), which is a now-fragmentary king's list that was carved onto a stela during the Fifth Dynasty. He typically appears in later sources as the first human ruler of Egypt, directly inheriting the throne from the god Horus. He also appears in other, much later, king's lists, always as the first human pharaoh of Egypt. Menes also appears in demotic novels of the Hellenistic period, demonstrating that, even that late, he was regarded as an important figure.
Menes was seen as a founding figure for much of the history of ancient Egypt, similar to Romulus in ancient Rome. Manetho records that Menes "led the army across the frontier and won great glory".
Capital
Manetho associates the city of Thinis with the Early Dynastic Period and, in particular, Menes, a "Thinite" or native of Thinis. Herodotus contradicts Manetho in stating that Menes founded the city of Memphis as his capital after diverting the course of the Nile through the construction of a levee. Manetho ascribes the building of Memphis to Menes' son, Athothis, and calls no pharaohs earlier than Third Dynasty "Memphite".
Herodotus and Manetho's stories of the foundation of Memphis are probably later inventions: in 2012 a relief mentioning the visit to Memphis by Iry-Hor—a predynastic ruler of Upper Egypt reigning before Narmer—was discovered in the Sinai Peninsula, indicating that the city was already in existence in the early 32nd century BC.
Cultural influence
Diodorus Siculus stated that Menes had introduced the worship of the gods and the practice of sacrifice as well as a more elegant and luxurious style of living. For this latter invention, Menes' memory was dishonoured by the Twenty-fourth Dynasty pharaoh Tefnakht and Plutarch mentions a pillar at Thebes on which was inscribed an imprecation against Menes as the introducer of luxury.
In Pliny's account, Menes was credited with being the inventor of writing in Egypt.
Crocodile episode
Diodorus Siculus recorded a story of Menes related by the priests of the crocodile god Sobek at Crocodilopolis, in which the pharaoh Menes, attacked by his own dogs while out hunting, fled across Lake Moeris on the back of a crocodile and, in thanks, founded the city of Crocodilopolis.
George Stanley Faber (1816), taking the word campsa to mean either crocodile or ark and preferring the latter, identifies Menes with Noah and the entire story as a flood myth.
Gaston Maspero (1910), while acknowledging the possibility that traditions relating to other kings may have become mixed up with this story, dismisses the suggestions of some commentators that the story should be transferred to the Twelfth Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat III and sees no reason to doubt that Diodorus did not correctly record a tradition of Menes. Later, Edwards (1974) states that "the legend, which is obviously filled with anachronisms, is patently devoid of historical value".
Death
According to Manetho, Menes reigned for 62 years and was killed by a hippopotamus.
In popular culture
Alexander Dow (1735/6–79), a Scottish orientalist and playwright, wrote the tragedy Sethona, set in ancient Egypt. The lead part of Menes is described in the dramatis personæ as "next male-heir to the crown" now worn by Seraphis, and was played by Samuel Reddish in a 1774 production by David Garrick at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.
See also
First Dynasty of Egypt family tree
Mannus, ancestral figure in Germanic mythology
Minos, king of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa
Manu (Hinduism), Progenitor of humanity
Nu'u, Hawaiian mythological character who built an ark and escaped a Great Flood
Nüwa, goddess in Chinese mythology best known for creating mankind
Min (god)
Hor-Aha
Notes
References
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31st-century BC Pharaohs
32nd-century BC Pharaohs
Deaths due to hippopotamus attacks
Egyptian mythology
Hunting accident deaths
People whose existence is disputed
Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt
Accidental deaths in Egypt
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245190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum%20of%20Genghis%20Khan | Mausoleum of Genghis Khan | The Mausoleum of Genghis Khan is a temple dedicated to Genghis Khan, where he is worshipped as ancestor, dynastic founder, and deity. The temple is better called the Lord's Enclosure (i.e. shrine), the traditional name among the Mongols, as it has never truly contained the khan's body. It is the main centre of the worship of Genghis Khan, a growing practice in the Mongolian shamanism of both Inner Mongolia, where the temple is located, and Mongolia.
The temple is located in the Kandehuo Enclosure in the town of Xinjie, in the Ejin Horo Banner in the Ordos Prefecture of Inner Mongolia, in China. The main hall is actually a cenotaph where the coffin contains no body (only headdresses and accessories), because the actual tomb of Genghis Khan has never been discovered.
The present structure was built between 1954 and 1956 by the government of the People's Republic of China in the traditional Mongol style. It was desecrated and its relics destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, but it was restored with replicas in the 1980s and remains the center of Genghis Khan worship. It was named a AAAAA-rated tourist attraction by China's National Tourism Administration in 2011.
Location
The cenotaph is located at an elevation of on the Gandeli or Gande'er Prairie about southeast of Xilian and about south of the county seat of Ejin Horo Banner, Inner Mongolia. It is the namesake of its surrounding banner, whose name translates from Mongolian as "the Lord's Enclosure".
The site is north of Yulin; south of Dongsheng; and from Baotou. There is a new interchange on highway 210 leading directly to the site.
History
Early sites
After Genghis Khan died in or around Gansu on 12 July AD1227, his remains were supposedly carried back to central Mongolia and buried secretly and without markings, in accordance with his personal directions. His actual burial site remains unknown but was almost certainly not in Ejin Horo, which had only recently been conquered from the Tangut Empire. Without a body, the Mongols honored the khan's memory and spirit through his personal effects. These ceremonies allegedly date to the same year as his death. Kublai Khan built temples for his grandfather's cult in Daidu and Shangdu. Nine "palaces" for rituals concerning his cult were maintained by an imperial official in Karakorum.
After the fall of the Yuan in 1368, these permanent structures were replaced by portable mausoleums called the "eight white yurts" (naiman tsagaan ger). These had originally been palaces where the khan had lived, but were altered to mausoleums by Ögedei Khan. These yurts were first encamped at Avraga site at the base of the Khentii Mountains in Delgerkhaan in Mongolia's Khentii Province.
Ordos
The shrine was entrusted to caretakers known as the Darkhad. Their leader was chosen from the Borjigin clan and was known as the Jinong since the first, Kamala, had been appointed King of Jin. The Darkhad moved from the Kherlen River to the Ordos, which took its name (Mongolian for "palaces") from the mausoleum's presence there. The caretakers oversaw commemorative and religious rituals and were visited by pilgrims. Mongol khans were also crowned at the yurts.
Under the Qing, 500 Darkhad were exempted from military service and taxation; the shrine also received 500 taels (about ) of silver each year to maintain its rituals. The site's rituals became more local, more open to lower-class people, and more Buddhist.
The Mongolian prince Toghtakhutörü and the Darkhad built a permanent mausoleum in Setsen Khan Aimag in 1864. This traditional Chinese structure was described by a Belgian missionary in 1875 but was destroyed at the Panchen Lama's suggestion in order to end an outbreak of plague among the Darkhad in early 20th century.
Around the fall of the Qing, the mausoleum became notable as a symbol for Mongolian nationalists. The Buryat scholar Tsyben Zhamtsarano advocated a removal of the shrine to northern Mongolia . After the Mongolian Revolution, a sacrificial rite was held for Genghis Khan to "bring peace and safety to... human beings and other creatures" and to "drive out bandits, thieves, illness, and other internal and external malefactions" in 1912. Some Mongolians planned to remove some of the ritual objects—particularly the Black Sülde, an allegedly magical heaven-sent trident—to the independent northern Mongolian territory from the Inner Mongolian shrine; in 1914, a letter from the Beijing office overseeing Mongolia and Tibet ordered Arbinbayar, the head of the Ihe Juu League, that
In 1915, Zhang Xiangwen (t s pZhāng Xiāngwén, wChang Hsiang-wen) began the scholarly controversy over the site of Genghis Khan's tomb by publishing an article claiming that it was in Ejin Horo.
During World War II, Prince Demchugdongrub, the notional leader of the Japanese puppet government in Mongolia, ordered that the mobile tomb and its relics be moved to avoid a supposed "Chinese plot to plunder it". This was rebuffed by the local leader Shagdarjab, who claimed that the shrines could never be moved and locals would resist any attempt to do so. When he accepted Japanese weaponry to defend it, however, the Nationalist government became alarmed at the possibility of Japan using the cult of Genghis Khan to lead a Mongolian separatist movement. The yurts and their relics were to be removed to Qinghai either at their armed insistence or at Shagdarjab's invitation. (Accounts differ.) The Japanese still attempted to use the cult of Genghis Khan to fan Mongolian nationalism; from 1941–4, the IJA colonel Kanagawa Kosaku constructed a separate mausoleum in Ulan Hot consisting of 3 main buildings in a estate.
Gansu
Once in Chinese hands, the relics did not go to Qinghai as planned. On 17 May 1939, 200 specially-selected Nationalist troops conveyed the relics to Yan'an, then the principal base of the Chinese Communists. Upon their arrival on 21 June 1939, the Communists held a large public sacrifice to Genghis Khan with a crowd of about ten thousand spectators; the Central Committee presented memorial wreathes; and Mao Zedong produced a new sign for it in his calligraphy, reading "Genghis Khan Memorial Hall" (t s Chéngjísī Hán Jìniàntáng). As part of the Second United Front, it was allowed to pass out of the Communist controlled area to Xi'an, where Shaanxi governor Jiang Dingwen officiated another religious ritual before a crowd of tens of thousands on 25 June. (Accounts vary from thirty to 200,000.) Li Yiyan, a member of the Nationalists' provincial committee, wrote the booklet China's National Hero Genghis Khan (t s Zhōnghuá Mínzú Yīngxióng Chéngjísī Hán) to commemorate the event, listing the khan as a great Chinese leader in the mold of the First Emperor, Emperor Wu, and Emperor Taizong. A few days later, the Gansu governor Zhu Shaoliang held a similar ritual before enshrining the khan's relics at the Dongshan Dafo Dian on Xinglong Mountain in Yuzhong County. The Gansu government sent soldiers and a chief official for the shrine and brought the remaining Darkhad onto the provincial government's payroll; the original 500 Darkhad were reduced to a mere seven or eight. Following this journey, the shrine remained there for ten years.
Qinghai
At the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War, the Nationalist guard at the temple fled before the Communist advance into Gansu in the summer of 1949. Plans were put forward to move the khan's shrine to the Alxa League in western Inner Mongolia or to Mount Emei in Sichuan. Ultimately, Qinghai's local warlord Ma Pufang intervened and moved it west to Kumbum Monastery near his capital Xining, consecrating it with the help of local and Mongolian lamas under Ulaan Gegen. Following the Communist conquest of Xining a few months later, the Communist general He Banyan sacrificed three sheep to the khan and offered ceremonial scarves (hadag) and a banner reading "National Hero" ( Mínzú Yīngxióng) to the temple housing his shrine.
Present-day mausoleum
Ejin Horo fell to the Communists at the end of 1949 and was controlled by their Northwest Bureau until the establishment of Suiyuan Province the next year. The district's Communists set up rituals honouring Genghis Khan in the early 1950s, but abolished the traditional religious offices surrounding them like the Jinong and controlled the cult through local committees with loyal Party cadres. Without the relics, they relied largely on singing and dancing groups. In 1953, the PRC's central government approved the recently-formed Inner Mongolian provincial government's request for 800,000 to create the present permanent structures. Early the next year, the central government permitted the return of the objects at Kumbum to the site being constructed at Ejin Horo. The region's chairman Ulanhu officiated at the first ritual after their return, decrying the Nationalists for having "stolen" them. After this ritual, he immediately held a second ceremony to break ground on a permanent temple to house the objects and the khan's cult, again approved and paid for by China's central government. By 1956, this new temple was completed, greatly expanding the purview of the original shrine. Rather than having eight separate shrines throughout Ejin Horo for the Great Khan, his wives, and his children, all were placed together; a further 20 sacred and venerated objects from around the Ordos were also brought to the new site. The government also mandated that the main ritual would be held in the summer rather than in the third lunar month, in order to make it more convenient for the headers to maintain their spring work schedules. With the Darkhads no longer liable for personally paying for maintenance of the shrine, most accepted these changes. An especially large celebration was held in 1962 to mark the 800th anniversary of Genghis Khan's birth.
In 1968, the Cultural Revolution's Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value at the shrine. For 10 years, the buildings themselves were turned into a salt depot as part of preparations for a potential war with the Soviet Union.
Following Deng Xiaoping's Opening Up Policy, the site was restored by 1982 and sanctioned for "patriotic education" as a AAAA-rated tourist attraction. Replicas of the former relics were made, and a great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989. Priests at the museum now claim that all of the Red Guards who desecrated the tomb have died in abnormal ways, suffering a kind of curse.
Inner Mongolians continued to complain about the poor state of the mausoleum. A 2001 proposal for its refurbishment was finally approved in 2004. Unrelated houses, stores, and hotels were removed from the area of the mausoleum to a separate area away and replaced with new structures in the same style as the mausoleum. The 150-million- (about $20 million) improvement plan was carried out from 2005 to 2006, improving the site's infrastructure, expanding its courtyard, and decorating and repairing its existing buildings and walls. The China National Tourism Administration named the site a AAAAA-rated tourist attraction in 2011.
On 10 July 2015, 20 tourists aged 33 to 74—10 South Africans, 9 Britons, and an Indian—were detained at Ordos Ejin Horo Airport, arrested on terrorism-related charges the next day, and ultimately deported from China after they watched a BBC documentary about Genghis Khan in their hotel rooms prior to visiting the mausoleum. Authorities had considered it "watching and spreading violent terrorist videos".
In 2017, the Genghis Khan Mausoleum averaged about 8000 visitors a day during its peak season and about 200 visitors a day at other times.
Administration
The site is overseen by the Genghis Khan Mausoleum Administration Bureau. It was headed by Chageder and then Mengkeduren in the early 2000s.
Architecture
The present Genghis Khan Mausoleum Scenic Area stretches about , covering about in total. It consists of the Sulede Altar, the Sightseeing District for the Protection of Historic Relics, the Conservation District for Ecosystem Preservation, the Development-Restricted District of Visual Spectacles, the long Sacred Pathway of Genghis Khan between the entrance and the cenotaph, the long scenic pathway around the Bayinchanghuo Prairie, a Tourist Activity Centre, a Tourist Education Centre, the Sacrificial Sightseeing District, the Mongolian Folk Custom Village, the Shenquan Ecological Tourism Region, the Nadam Equestrian Sport Centre, and the Hot Air Balloon Club.
The tomb complex consists of the Main Hall, the Imperial Burial Palace, the Western Hall, the Eastern Hall, the Western Corridor, and the Eastern Corridor.
The Main Hall (正殿) is octagonal, high, and covers about . It is shaped like a flying eagle as a symbol of the khan's bravery and adventurousness. Its plaque, reading "Mausoleum of Genghis Khan", was written by Ulanhu in 1985. The site includes a high statue of Genghis Khan and two murals about his life, including a wall map of the extent of the Mongol Empire.
The Imperial Burial Palace (寢宮) or Back Palace (後殿) is high and covers about . It has three yurts with yellow silk roofs; the central yurt houses the coffins of Genghis Khan and one of his four wives and the side yurts house the coffins of his brothers. Genghis Khan's coffin is silver decorated with engraved roses and a golden lock; weapons allegedly used by Genghis lie around it. There are also two other coffins for another two of his consorts. The site's main altar lies in front of this yurt. The cenotaph and its placement are highly unusual in China, which usually follows Han principles like feng shui in the placement of tombs, employing mountains, rivers, and forests in the belief that this increases its spiritual power.
The Eastern Hall or Palace (東殿) is high. It holds the coffin of Tolui (Genghis Khan's 4th and favourite son) and his wife Sorghaghtani.
The Western Hall or Palace (西殿) is high. It holds nine banners with holy arrows thought to house or connect with the soul of the Great Khan. They also represent 9 of Genghis's generals. It also holds Genghis's saddle and reins, some weapons, and some other objects like the khan's milk barrel. All of the items currently displayed are replicas.
The high Eastern (東廊) and Western Corridors (西廊) connecting these halls are decorated with of murals about the lives of Genghis Khan and his descendants.
The site uses a five-colour scheme of blue, red, white, gold, and green to represent the multiethnic nature of Genghis Khan's empire and also the sky, sun and fire, milk, earth, and prairie.
Worship
Genghis Khan worship is a practice of Mongolian shamanism. There are other temples dedicated to this cult in Inner Mongolia and Northern China.
The mausoleum is guarded by the Darkhad or Darqads ("Untouchables"), who also oversee its religious festivals, stop tourists from taking photographs, keep candles lit, and watch over the site's keys and books. The 30 or so official Darkhad at the mausoleum are paid about 4000 a month for their services.
Mongols gather four times annually:
21st day of the 3rd month of the Mongolian calendar, the most important
15th day of the 5th lunar month
12th day of the 9th lunar month
Goat Hide Stripes Ceremony on the 3rd day of the 10th lunar month
There is also a major ceremony in honor of the Black Sülde on the 14th day of the 7th lunar month.
They follow traditional ceremonies, such as offering flowers and food to Heaven (Tengri). The ritual sacrifice to the spirit of Genghis Khan was listed as national-level intangible cultural heritage in 2006, and the sacrifice to the Black Sülde was given similar status at the provincial level in 2007. After the ceremonies, there are Naadam competitions, primarily wrestling, horse-riding, and archery, but also singing.
Performance
The mausoleum complex is also hosts three plays concerning the khan and Mongolian culture: Proud Son of Heaven: Eternal Genghis Khan or The Mighty Genghis Khan (), The Grand Ceremony of Genghis Khan (), and An Ordos Wedding Ceremony (). There is also an annual Genghis Khan Mausoleum Tourism Cultural Week.
Notes
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External links
Official website ,&
Map of the site
Photos of the rituals on the 21st day of the 3rd lunar month, from China Daily
Photos of the mausoleum, from People's Daily
Photos of the mausoleum, from Getty Images
Buildings and structures in Ordos City
Buildings and structures completed in 1956
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Inner Mongolia
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan | [
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245202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20press | Free press | Free press or Free Press may refer to:
Freedom of the press, legal protections for public communications media
Free Press (organization), a USA media advocacy organization founded by professor Robert W. McChesney and journalist John Nichols
Free Press (publisher), an imprint of Simon & Schuster publishing
House of the Free Press, a building in Bucharest, Romania
The Free Press, Cambridge, a pub in Cambridgeshire, England
Publications
Free Press (CPBF), the journal of the Campaign for Press and Broadcasting Freedom
The Free Press Journal, an Indian daily newspaper
Columbus Free Press, a former monthly "alternative" journal published in Columbus, Ohio, now published as Free Press newspaper, Free Press Express broadsheet and on the website freepress.org
Detroit Free Press, a daily newspaper
The Free Press (Mankato), a daily newspaper in Mankato, Minnesota
The Free Press (University of Southern Maine), a weekly student newspaper at the University of Southern Maine
The Free Press (newspaper), a weekly newspaper published by The North Central Review Pty Ltd
Free Press (magazine in Malayalam), a short-lived magazine in the Malayalam language
Hong Kong Free Press
Montana Free Press
New Hampshire Free Press, a blog and bimonthly newspaper by Free State Project activists
The London Free Press, a daily newspaper based in London, Ontario, Canada
Los Angeles Free Press, an underground newspaper
Free Press (Scotland), which merged with the Aberdeen Journal in 1922 to become The Aberdeen Press and Journal
Syrian Free Press, an electronic newspaper about Syrian events
Winnipeg Free Press, a daily newspaper
Lists of newspapers | [
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245203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphenic%20number | Sphenic number | In number theory, a sphenic number (from , 'wedge') is a positive integer that is the product of three distinct prime numbers.
Definition
A sphenic number is a product pqr where p, q, and r are three distinct prime numbers. In other words, the sphenic numbers are the square-free 3-almost primes.
Examples
The smallest sphenic number is 30 = 2 × 3 × 5, the product of the smallest three primes.
The first few sphenic numbers are
30, 42, 66, 70, 78, 102, 105, 110, 114, 130, 138, 154, 165, ...
the largest known sphenic number is
(282,589,933 − 1) × (277,232,917 − 1) × (274,207,281 − 1).
It is the product of the three largest known primes.
Divisors
All sphenic numbers have exactly eight divisors. If we express the sphenic number as , where p, q, and r are distinct primes, then the set of divisors of n will be:
The converse does not hold. For example, 24 is not a sphenic number, but it has exactly eight divisors.
Properties
All sphenic numbers are by definition squarefree, because the prime factors must be distinct.
The Möbius function of any sphenic number is −1.
The cyclotomic polynomials , taken over all sphenic numbers n, may contain arbitrarily large coefficients (for n a product of two primes the coefficients are or 0).
Consecutive sphenic numbers
The first case of two consecutive sphenic integers is 230 = 2×5×23 and 231 = 3×7×11. The first case of three is 1309 = 7×11×17, 1310 = 2×5×131, and 1311 = 3×19×23. There is no case of more than three, because every fourth consecutive positive integer is divisible by 4 = 2×2 and therefore not squarefree.
The numbers 2013 (3×11×61), 2014 (2×19×53), and 2015 (5×13×31) are all sphenic. The next three consecutive sphenic years will be 2665 (5×13×41), 2666 (2×31×43) and 2667 (3×7×127) .
See also
Semiprimes, products of two prime numbers.
Almost prime
References
Integer sequences
Prime numbers | [
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245206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus%20and%20minus%20signs | Plus and minus signs | The plus and minus signs, and , are mathematical symbols used to represent the notions of positive and negative, respectively. In addition, represents the operation of addition, which results in a sum, while represents subtraction, resulting in a difference. Their use has been extended to many other meanings, more or less analogous. Plus and minus are Latin terms meaning "more" and "less", respectively.
History
Though the signs now seem as familiar as the alphabet or the Hindu-Arabic numerals, they are not of great antiquity. The Egyptian hieroglyphic sign for addition, for example, resembled a pair of legs walking in the direction in which the text was written (Egyptian could be written either from right to left or left to right), with the reverse sign indicating subtraction:
Nicole Oresme's manuscripts from the 14th century show what may be one of the earliest uses of as a sign for plus.
In early 15th century Europe, the letters "P" and "M" were generally used.
The symbols (P with overline, , for (more), i.e., plus, and M with overline, , for (less), i.e., minus) appeared for the first time in Luca Pacioli's mathematics compendium, , first printed and published in Venice in 1494.
The sign is a simplification of the (comparable to the evolution of the ampersand ). The may be derived from a tilde written over when used to indicate subtraction; or it may come from a shorthand version of the letter itself.
In his 1489 treatise, Johannes Widmann referred to the symbols and as minus and mer (Modern German ; "more"): . They weren't used for addition and subtraction in the treatise, but were used to indicate surplus and deficit; their first use in their modern sense appears in a book by Henricus Grammateus in 1518.
Robert Recorde, the designer of the equals sign, introduced plus and minus to Britain in 1557 in The Whetstone of Witte: "There be other 2 signes in often use of which the first is made thus + and betokeneth more: the other is thus made – and betokeneth lesse."
Plus sign
The plus sign, , is a binary operator that indicates addition, as in . It can also serve as a unary operator that leaves its operand unchanged ( means the same as ). This notation may be used when it is desired to emphasize the positiveness of a number, especially in contrast with the negative numbers ( versus ).
The plus sign can also indicate many other operations, depending on the mathematical system under consideration. Many algebraic structures, such as vector spaces and matrix rings, have some operation which is called, or is equivalent to, addition. It is though conventional to use the plus sign to only denote commutative operations.
The symbol is also used in chemistry and physics. For more, see .
Minus sign
The minus sign, , has three main uses in mathematics:
The subtraction operator: a binary operator to indicate the operation of subtraction, as in 5 − 3 = 2. Subtraction is the inverse of addition.
The function whose value for any real or complex argument is the additive inverse of that argument. For example, if , then , but if , then . Similarly, .
A prefix of a numeric constant. When it is placed immediately before an unsigned numeral, the combination names a negative number, the additive inverse of the positive number that the numeral would otherwise name. In this usage, '' names a number the same way 'semicircle' names a geometric figure, with the caveat that 'semi' does not have a separate use as a function name.
In many contexts, it does not matter whether the second or the third of these usages is intended: is the same number. When it is important to distinguish them, a raised minus sign is sometimes used for negative constants, as in elementary education, the programming language APL, and some early graphing calculators.
All three uses can be referred to as "minus" in everyday speech, though the binary operator is sometimes read as "take away". In American English nowadays, −5 (for example) is generally referred to as "negative five" though speakers born before 1950 often refer to it as "minus five". (Temperatures tend to follow the older usage; −5° is generally called "minus five degrees".) Further, a few textbooks in the United States encourage to be read as "the opposite of " or "the additive inverse of "—to avoid giving the impression that is necessarily negative (since itself may already be negative).
In mathematics and most programming languages, the rules for the order of operations mean that is equal to : Exponentiation binds more strongly than the unary minus, which binds more strongly than multiplication or division. However, in some programming languages (Microsoft Excel in particular), unary operators bind strongest, so in those cases is 25, but is −25.
Similar to the plus sign, the minus sign is also used in chemistry and physics. For more, see below.
Use in elementary education
Some elementary teachers use raised plus and minus signs before numbers to show they are positive or negative numbers. For example, subtracting −5 from 3 might be read as "positive three take away negative 5", and be shown as
becomes ,
or even as
becomes .
Use as a qualifier
In grading systems (such as examination marks), the plus sign indicates a grade one level higher and the minus sign a grade lower. For example, ("B minus") is one grade lower than . In some occasions, this is extended to two plus or minus signs (e.g., being two grades higher than ).
Positive and negative are sometimes abbreviated as and .
Mathematics
In mathematics the one-sided limit means approaches from the right (i.e., right-sided limit), and means approaches from the left (i.e., left-sided limit). For example, as but as .
Blood
Blood types are often qualified with a plus or minus to indicate the presence or absence of the Rh factor. For example, A+ means type A blood with the Rh factor present, while B− means type B blood with the Rh factor absent.
Music
In music, augmented chords are symbolized with a plus sign, although this practice is not universal (as there are other methods for spelling those chords). For example, "C+" is read "C augmented chord". Sometimes the plus is written as a superscript.
Uses in computing
As well as the normal mathematical usage, plus and minus signs may be used for a number of other purposes in computing.
Plus and minus signs are often used in tree view on a computer screen—to show if a folder is collapsed or not.
In some programming languages, concatenation of strings is written , and results in .
In most programming languages, subtraction and negation are indicated with the ASCII hyphen-minus character, . In APL a raised minus sign (Unicode U+00AF) is used to denote a negative number, as in . While in J a negative number is denoted by an underscore, as in .
In C and some other computer programming languages, two plus signs indicate the increment operator and two minus signs a decrement; the position of the operator before or after the variable indicates whether the new or old value is read from it. For example, if x equals 6, then increments x to 7 but sets y to 6, whereas would set both x and y to 7. By extension, is sometimes used in computing terminology to signify an improvement, as in the name of the language C++.
In regular expressions, is often used to indicate "1 or more" in a pattern to be matched. For example, means "one or more of the letter x".
There is no concept of negative zero in mathematics, but in computing −0 may have a separate representation from zero. In the IEEE floating-point standard, 1 / −0 is negative infinity () whereas 1 / 0 is positive infinity ().
Other uses
In physics, the use of plus and minus signs for different electrical charges was introduced by Georg Christoph Lichtenberg.
In chemistry, superscripted plus and minus signs are used to indicate an ion with a positive or negative charge of 1 (e.g., NH). If the charge is greater than 1, a number indicating the charge is written before the sign (as in SO). The minus sign is also used, in place of an en dash, for a single covalent bond between two atoms as in the skeletal formula.
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, subscripted plus and minus signs are used as diacritics to indicate advanced or retracted articulations of speech sounds.
The minus sign is also used as tone letter in the orthographies of Dan, Krumen, Karaboro, Mwan, Wan, Yaouré, Wè, Nyabwa and Godié. The Unicode character used for the tone letter (U+02D7) is different from the mathematical minus sign.
The plus sign sometimes represents in the orthography of Huichol.
In the algebraic notation used to record games of chess, the plus sign is used to denote a move that puts the opponent into check, while a double plus is sometimes used to denote double check. Combinations of the plus and minus signs are used to evaluate a move (+/−, +/=, =/+, −/+).
In linguistics, a superscript plus sometimes replaces the asterisk, which denotes unattested linguistic reconstruction.
In botanical names, a plus sign denotes graft-chimaera.
A plus sign written at the beginning of an international phone number is the "international prefix symbol" that "serves to remind the subscriber to dial the international prefix which differs from country to country and also serves to identify the number following as the international telephone number."
Character codes
The hyphen-minus sign, , is the original ASCII version of the minus sign, which doubles as a hyphen. It is usually shorter in length than the plus sign and often at a different height to the plus-sign's cross bar. It can be used as a substitute for the true minus sign when the character set is limited to ASCII. Most programming languages and other computer readable languages do this, since ASCII is generally available as a subset of most character encodings, while U+2212 is a Unicode feature only. Also several other software programs usable for calculations don't accept the U+2212 minus. For example, pasting =3−2 into Excel or 3−2= into the Windows calculator won't work.
As the true minus is not available on most keyboard layouts, typographers sometimes use the very similar en dash, U+2013, to represent the minus sign although it is "not preferred" in mathematical typesetting. Ways of producing the en dash are available on most computers; see .
Alternative minus signs
There is a commercial minus sign, , which is used in Germany and Scandinavia. The symbol is used to denote subtraction in Norway and Denmark.
Alternative plus sign
A Jewish tradition that dates from at least the 19th century is to write plus using the symbol . This practice was adopted into Israeli schools and is still commonplace today in elementary schools (including secular schools) but in fewer secondary schools. It is also used occasionally in books by religious authors, but most books for adults use the international symbol . The reason for this practice is that it avoids the writing of a symbol that looks like a Christian cross. Unicode has this symbol at position .
See also
En dash, a dash that looks similar to the subtraction symbol but is used for different purposes
Plus–minus sign ±
Glossary of mathematical symbols
⊕ (disambiguation)
References and footnotes
External links
Elementary arithmetic
Mathematical symbols
Addition
Subtraction
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245234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20New%20York | Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York | The Archdiocese of New York () is an ecclesiastical territory or archdiocese of the Catholic Church (particularly the Roman Catholic or Latin Church) located in New York State. It encompasses the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx and Staten Island in New York City and the counties of Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Sullivan, Ulster, and Westchester. The Archdiocese of New York is the second-largest diocese in the United States by population, encompassing 296 parishes that serve around 2.8 million Catholics, in addition to hundreds of Catholic schools, hospitals and charities. The Archdiocese also operates the well-known St. Joseph's Seminary, commonly referred to as Dunwoodie. The Archdiocese of New York is the metropolitan see of the ecclesiastical province of New York which includes the suffragan dioceses of Albany, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Rochester, Rockville Centre and Syracuse.
It publishes a bi-weekly newspaper, Catholic New York, the largest of its kind in the United States.
Prelature
The ordinary of the Archdiocese of New York is an archbishop whose cathedra is The Cathedral of St. Patrick (commonly St. Patrick's Cathedral) in Manhattan, New York. The Archbishop of New York is also the metropolitan of the larger Ecclesiastical Province of New York, which consists of the eight dioceses that comprise the State of New York with the exception of a small portion (Fishers Island) that belongs to the Province of Hartford. As such, the metropolitan archbishop possesses certain limited authority over the suffragan sees of the province (see ecclesiastical province).
R. Luke Concanen became the first Bishop of the (then) Diocese of New York in 1808. The current archbishop of New York is Timothy Michael Cardinal Dolan.
History
On November 26, 1784, Pope Pius VI erected the Apostolic Prefecture of United States of America with the territory of what was then the entire United States of America. On November 6, 1789, the same pope raised this prefecture to a diocese and changed its title to Diocese of Baltimore headed by the first American bishop, John Carroll.
At the time, there was a dearth of priests to minister to the large territory. The first Catholic Church in New York City was St. Peter's Church on Barclay Street. The land was purchased from Trinity Church with community donations and a gift of 1,000 pieces of silver from King Charles III of Spain. The church was built in the federal style. Among its regular worshippers were Saint Elizabeth Seton and Venerable Pierre Toussaint.
On April 8, 1808, Pope Pius VII erected the Diocese of Philadelphia, the Diocese of Boston, the Diocese of Bardstown, and the Diocese of New York, taking their territory from the Diocese of Baltimore. He simultaneously elevated the Diocese of Baltimore to a metropolitan archdiocese and assigned all four new sees as its suffragans. The initial territory of the Diocese of New York encompassed all of the State of New York and Sussex, Bergen, Morris, Essex, Somerset, Middlesex, and Monmouth counties in northeastern New Jersey.
The first appointed Bishop of New York could not set sail from Italy due to the Napoleonic blockade, so a Jesuit priest, Anthony Kohlmann, was chosen as administrator pending his arrival. He was instrumental in organizing the diocese and preparing for its original Cathedral of St. Patrick to be built on Mulberry Street. The difficulties faced by Catholics at the time included anti-Catholic bigotry in general and in the New York school system and a strong Nativist movement that sought to keep Catholics out of the country and to prevent those already present from advancing.
On April 23, 1847, Pope Pius IX erected the Diocese of Albany and Diocese of Buffalo, taking their initial territory from the Diocese of New York.
On July 19, 1850, the same pope elevated the Diocese of New York diocese to an archdiocese.
On July 29, 1853, the same pope erected the Diocese of Newark, with territory taken from the Diocese of New York and the Diocese of Philadelphia, and the Diocese of Brooklyn, with territory taken from the Diocese of New York.
On July 25, 1885, the same pope annexed the territory of The Bahamas to the Archdiocese of New York, establishing their first permanent Catholic presence, due to their proximity to New York's busy port. The Archdiocese of New York constructed and administered churches and schools in the Bahamas until Pope Pius XI erected the Apostolic Prefecture of Bahama) on March 21, 1929, enabled a transition. By 1932, The Bahamas were no longer under the spiritual jurisdiction of New York. This established the present territory of the Archdiocese of New York.
From 1919 to 1983, the Archbishops of New York held the collateral position of Apostolic Vicar of the Military Vicariate of the United States. Pope John Paul II terminated this arrangement, first by appointing Bishop John Joseph O'Connor as Archbishop of New York but as Apostolic Administrator of the Military Vicariate of the United States on 26 January 1984 to oversee the transition and, subsequently, by reconstituting the Military Vicariate of the United States as the present Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA, with its own archbishop and its see relocated to Washington, DC on 21 July 1986.
In 2008, the Archdiocese of New York celebrated its bicentennial anniversary of its establishment as a Diocese. To mark the occasion, Pope Benedict XVI visited The Archdiocese from April 18 to April 20. During his visit, Benedict visited St. Patrick's Cathedral, The United Nations, Ground Zero, St. Joseph's Parish in Yorkville, St. Joseph's Seminary in Yonkers and celebrated a Mass at Yankee Stadium in The Bronx.
In 2009, Timothy Dolan was named the 10th Archbishop of New York. He was made a Cardinal in February 2012.
Since the start of the 21st century, The Archdiocese of New York, like other Dioceses around the country and the world, has been dealing with a decline in priestly vocations. This has led to a number of parishes being closed and/or merged, and in some cases priests are being asked to take care of multiple parishes at once.
Archdiocesan demographics
As of 2016, the Catholic population of the archdiocese was 2,642,740. These Catholics were served by 696 archdiocesan priests and 590 priests of religious orders. Also laboring in the diocese were 319 permanent deacons, 962 religious brothers, and 2,260 nuns.
As of 2021, the Archdiocese currently has around 30 men enrolled in its priestly formation program.
For comparison, in 1929, the Catholic population of the archdiocese was 1,273,291 persons. There were 1,314 clergy ministering in the archdiocese and 444 churches. There were also 170,348 children in Catholic educational and welfare institutions.
In 1959, there were 7,913 nuns and sisters ministering in the archdiocese, representing 103 different religious orders.
Anniversaries of significance to the archdiocese
January 4 – Memorial of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton, native of New York
January 5 – Memorial of Saint John Neumann, ordained a priest of New York
March 17 – Solemnity of Saint Patrick, Patronal Feast of both the archdiocese and the cathedral
April 8 – Anniversary of the establishment of the Diocese of New York (1808)
July 14 – Memorial of Saint Kateri Tekakwitha, born near Albany in territory which was once part of the Diocese of New York
September 5 – Memorial of Saint Teresa of Calcutta, who did missionary work in the Bronx
October 5 – Anniversary of Dedication of the current Cathedral of Saint Patrick (1910)
November 13 – Memorial of Saint Frances Xavier Cabrini, missionary in New York
Leadership
Below is a list of individuals who have led the Archdiocese of New York and its antecedent jurisdictions since its founding.
Bishops of New York
R. Luke Concanen (1808–1810)
John Connolly (1814–1825)
John Dubois (1826–1842)
John Hughes (1842–1850; coadjutor bishop 1837–1842), elevated to archbishop - John McCloskey (coadjutor 1843–1847), appointed Bishop of Albany; subsequently returned as Archbishop in 1864
Archbishops of New York
John Hughes (1850–1864)
John McCloskey (1864–1885) (Cardinal in 1875)
Michael Corrigan (1885–1902; coadjutor archbishop 1880–1885)
John Farley (1902–1918)
Patrick Hayes (1919–1938)
Francis Spellman (1939–1967) - James Francis McIntyre (coadjutor 1946–1948), appointed Archbishop of Los Angeles - John Joseph Maguire (coadjutor 1965–1980), did not have right of succession
Terence Cooke (1968–1983)
John O'Connor (1984–2000)
Edward Egan (2000–2009)
Timothy Dolan (2009–present)
Auxiliary Bishops of New York
Unlike coadjutors, auxiliary bishops do not have the right of succession, per canon 975, §1 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law. Four auxiliaries went on to become Archbishop of New York.
John Farley (1895–1902), appointed Archbishop of this archdiocese
Thomas Cusack (1904–1915), appointed Bishop of Albany
Patrick Hayes (1914–1919), appointed Archbishop of this archdiocese
John Joseph Dunn (1921–1933)
Stephen Joseph Donahue (1934–1972)
James Francis McIntyre (1941–1946), appointed coadjutor archbishop of this archdiocese, then Archbishop of Los Angeles (Cardinal in 1953)
Joseph Patrick Donahue (1945–1959)
Thomas John McDonnell (1947–1951), appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Wheeling
Joseph Francis Flannelly (1948–1969)
James Henry Ambrose Griffiths (1950–1964)
Fulton J. Sheen (1951–1966), appointed Bishop of Rochester, then appointed Titular Archbishop
Walter P. Kellenberg (1953–1954), appointed Bishop of Ogdensburg, then Bishop of Rockville Centre
Edward Vincent Dargin (1953–1973)
Joseph Maria Pernicone (1954–1978)
John Michael Fearns (1957–1972)
John Joseph Maguire (1959–1965), appointed coadjutor archbishop of this archdiocese
Edward Ernest Swanstrom (1960–1978)
James Edward McManus (1963–1970), previously Bishop of Ponce, Puerto Rico
George Henry Guilfoyle (1964–1968), appointed Bishop of Camden
Terence Cooke (1965–1968), appointed Archbishop of this archdiocese
John William Comber (1966–1976)
Edwin Broderick (1967–1969), appointed Bishop of Albany
Edward Dennis Head (1970–1973), appointed Bishop of Buffalo
Patrick Vincent Ahern (1970–1994)
James Patrick Mahoney (1972–1997)
Anthony Francis Mestice (1973–2001)
Theodore Edgar McCarrick (1977–1981), appointed the first Bishop of Metuchen, then Archbishop of Newark, then Archbishop of Washington (Cardinal 2001–2018)
Austin Bernard Vaughan (1977–2000)
Francisco Garmendia (1977–2001)
Joseph Thomas O'Keefe (1982–1987), appointed Bishop of Syracuse
Emerson John Moore (1982–1995)
Edward Egan (1985–1988), appointed Bishop of Bridgeport, then returned as Archbishop of this archdiocese
William Jerome McCormack (1987–2001)
Patrick Sheridan (1990–2011)
Henry J. Mansell (1993–1995), appointed Bishop of Buffalo, then Archbishop of Hartford
Edwin Frederick O'Brien (1996–1997), appointed Archbishop for the Military Services, USA, then Archbishop of Baltimore, then Grand Master of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre (Cardinal in 2012)
Robert Anthony Brucato (1997–2006)
James Francis McCarthy (1999–2002)
Timothy A. McDonnell (2001–2004), appointed Bishop of Springfield in Massachusetts
Josu Iriondo (2001–2014)
Dominick John Lagonegro (2001–2018)
Dennis Joseph Sullivan (2004–2013), appointed Bishop of Camden
Gerald Thomas Walsh (2004–2017)
Peter John Byrne (2014–present)
John Joseph Jenik (2014–2019)
John Joseph O'Hara (2014–2021)
Edmund James Whalen (2019–present)
Gerardo Joseph Colacicco (2019–present)
Father John S. Bonnici (2022-) (elect)
Father Joseph A. Espaillat (2022-) (elect)
Other priests of the diocese who became bishops
Benedict Joseph Fenwick, appointed Bishop of Boston (1825)
William Quarter, appointed the first Bishop of Chicago (1843)
Andrew Byrne, appointed the first Bishop of Little Rock (1844)
Bernard O'Reilly, appointed Bishop of Hartford (1850)
Saint John Neumann, appointed Bishop of Philadelphia (1852)
James Roosevelt Bayley, appointed the first bishop of Newark (1853), then Archbishop of Baltimore
John Loughlin, appointed the first Bishop of Brooklyn (1853)
David William Bacon, appointed the first bishop of Portland, Maine (1855)
Francis Patrick McFarland, appointed Vicar Apostolic of Florida (1857; did not take effect) and Bishop of Hartford (1858)
John J. Conroy, appointed Bishop of Albany (1865)
William George McCloskey, appointed Bishop of Louisville (1868)
Bernard John McQuaid, appointed the first Bishop of Rochester (1868)
Francis McNeirny, appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Albany (1871), then Bishop of Albany
William Hickley Gross, appointed Bishop of Savannah (1873), then Archbishop of Oregon City
John Lancaster Spalding, appointed the first bishop of Peoria (1876)
Michael J. O'Farrell, appointed the first Bishop of Trenton (1881)
Henry P. Northrop, appointed Vicar Apostolic of North Carolina (1881) and Bishop of Charleston
Charles Edward McDonnell, appointed Bishop of Brooklyn (1892)
Thomas O'Gorman, appointed Bishop of Sioux Falls (1896)
Charles H. Colton, appointed Bishop of Buffalo (1903)
Bonaventure Broderick, appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Havana (1903)
John T. McNicholas, appointed Bishop of Duluth (1918), then Archbishop of Cincinnati
Francis Joseph Tief, appointed Bishop of Concordia, Kansas (1920)
Daniel Joseph Curley, appointed Bishop of Syracuse (1923)
John Joseph Mitty, appointed Bishop of Salt Lake City (1926), then Coadjutor Archbishop of San Francisco, then Archbishop of San Francisco
Joseph Francis Rummel, appointed Bishop of Omaha (1928), then Archbishop of New Orleans
James E. Kearney, appointed Bishop of Salt Lake City (1932), then Bishop of Rochester
Bryan Joseph McEntegart, appointed Bishop of Ogdensburg (1943), later Bishop of Brooklyn (1957)
William Scully, appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Albany (1945), then Bishop of Albany
Patrick Aloysius O'Boyle, appointed Archbishop of Washington (1947) (Cardinal in 1967)
Christopher Joseph Weldon, appointed Bishop of Springfield in Massachusetts (1950)
Philip Joseph Furlong, appointed Auxiliary Bishop for the Military Services, USA (1956)
Francis Frederick Reh, appointed Bishop of Charleston (1962), then Rector of the Pontifical North American College, then Bishop of Saginaw
Thomas Andrew Donnellan, appointed Bishop of Ogdensburg (1964), then Archbishop of Atlanta
Charles Borromeo McLaughlin, appointed auxiliary bishop of Raleigh (1964), then the first bishop of St. Petersburg
Thomas C. Kelly, appointed auxiliary bishop of Washington (1977), then Archbishop of Louisville
Joseph Thomas Dimino, appointed auxiliary bishop for the Military Services, USA (1983), then Archbishop for the Military Services, USA
Roberto González Nieves, appointed auxiliary bishop of Boston (1988), Bishop of Corpus Christi, then Archbishop of San Juan
Rrok Kola Mirdita, appointed Archbishop of Tiranë-Durrës, Albania (1993)
Emilio S. Allué, appointed auxiliary bishop of Boston (1996)
Charles Daniel Balvo, appointed an apostolic nuncio and titular archbishop (2005)
Charles John Brown, appointed an apostolic nuncio and titular archbishop (2011)
William James Muhm, appointed auxiliary bishop for the Military Services, USA (2019)
Churches
Schools
The headquarters of the archdiocesan school system is in the New York Catholic Center Terrence Cardinal Cooke Building in Midtown Manhattan.
Religious orders
Cemeteries
The following cemeteries are under the auspices of Calvary & Allied Cemeteries, Inc.:
Calvary Cemetery - Established in 1847; located in Queens. The cemetery, while located in the Diocese of Brooklyn, is property of the Archdiocese of New York as it was established before the Diocese of Brooklyn was canonically erected.
Cemetery of the Ascension - Located in Airmont in Rockland County.
Cemetery of the Resurrection - Located in Staten Island.
Gate of Heaven Cemetery - Located in Valhalla in Westchester County.
Many parishes have their own cemeteries, or their own sections in private cemeteries. An incomplete list of those cemeteries follows:
All Souls Cemetery (Pleasantville) - Belongs to Holy Innocents Church in Pleasantville.
Assumption Cemetery (Cortlandt Manor) - Belongs to Assumption Church in Peekskill.
Calvary Cemetery (Newburgh) - Belongs to St. Patrick Church in Newburgh.
Calvary Cemetery (Poughkeepsie) - Belongs to St. Martin de Porres Church in Poughkeepsie.
Holy Mount Cemetery (Eastchester) - Belongs to Immaculate Conception-Assumption Parish in Tuckahoe.
Holy Sepulchre Cemetery (New Rochelle) - Belongs to Blessed Sacrament Church in New Rochelle.
Mount Calvary Cemetery (White Plains) - Belongs to St. John the Evangelist Church in White Plains.
Sacred Heart Cemetery (Barrytown) - Belongs to St. Christopher Church in Red Hook. The parish has a mission chapel in Barrytown.
St. Anastasia Cemetery (Harriman) - Belongs to St. Anastasia Church in Harriman.
St. Denis Cemetery (Hopewell Junction) - Belongs to St. Denis Church in Hopewell Junction.
St. Francis of Assisi Cemetery (Mount Kisco) - Belongs to St. Francis of Assisi Church in Mount Kisco.
St. Joachim Cemetery (Beacon) - Belongs to St. Joachim-St. John the Evangelist Church in Beacon. The cemetery consists of an old section and a new section.
St. John Cemetery (Goshen) - Belongs to St. John the Evangelist Church in Goshen.
St. John Cemetery (Pawling) - Belongs to St. John the Evangelist Church in Pawling.
St. Joseph Cemetery (Florida) - Belongs to St. Joseph Church in Florida.
St. Joseph Cemetery (Middletown) - Belongs to St. Joseph Church in Middletown.
St. Joseph Cemetery (Millbrook) - Belongs to St. Joseph Church in Millbrook.
St. Joseph Cemetery (Wurtsboro) - Belongs to St. Joseph Church in Wurtsboro.
St. Joseph Cemetery (Yonkers) - Belongs to St. Joseph Church in Yonkers.
St. Lucy Cemetery (Cochecton) - Belongs to St. Francis Xavier Church in Narrowsburg. There was formerly a mission church in Cochecton.
St. Mary Cemetery (Bangall) - Belongs to Immaculate Conception Church in Bangall.
St. Mary Cemetery (Port Jervis) - Belongs to St. Mary Church in Port Jervis.
St. Mary Cemetery (Wappingers Falls) - Belongs to St. Mary Church in Wappingers Falls.
St. Mary Cemetery (Washingtonville) - Belongs to St. Mary Church in Washingtonville.
St. Mary Cemetery (Yonkers) - Belongs to St. Mary Church in Yonkers.
St. Patrick Cemetery (Millerton) - Belongs to Immaculate Conception Church in Amenia. The parish has a mission chapel in Millerton.
St. Patrick Cemetery (Newburgh) - Belongs to St. Patrick Church in Newburgh.
St. Peter Cemetery (Kingston) - Belongs to St. Peter Church in Kingston.
St. Peter Cemetery (Poughkeepsie) - Belongs to St. Peter Church in Hyde Park. The church was formerly located in Poughkeepsie.
St. Raymond Cemetery (The Bronx) - Belongs to St. Raymond Church in the Bronx. The cemetery consists of an old section and a new section.
St. Stephen Cemetery (Warwick) - Belongs to St. Stephen-St. Edward Church in Warwick.
St. Sylvia Cemetery (Tivoli) - Belongs to St. Sylvia Church in Tivoli.
St. Thomas Cemetery (Cornwall-on-Hudson) - Belongs to St. Thomas of Canterbury Church in Cornwall-on-Hudson.
Catholic charitable organizations
Saints, blesseds, venerables, servants of God
Elizabeth Ann Seton – founder of American branch of Sisters of Charity; first canonized saint from New York; first native-born U.S. citizen canonized a saint
Frances Xavier Cabrini – founder of Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus; first U.S. citizen canonized a saint
Isaac Jogues – Jesuit missionary, active in northern New York State before establishment of Diocese of New York
John Nepomucene Neumann – New York diocesan priest, later a Redemptorist; fourth Bishop of Philadelphia; first U.S. bishop canonized; founder of first Catholic diocesan school system in the U.S.
Kateri Tekakwitha – first Native American (U.S.) canonized a saint
Fulton Sheen – archbishop; prominent radio and television preacher
Pierre Toussaint – Haitian slave; New York businessman and philanthropist
Isaac Hecker, Servant of God – Redemptorist priest; founder of Paulist Fathers
Vincent Capodanno – Maryknoll missionary; U.S. Navy chaplain; Vietnam War hero; Medal of Honor recipient
Dorothy Day – social activist and radical; co-founder of Catholic Worker movement and newspaper
Terence Cooke – archbishop and cardinal; founder of many charitable programs
Rose Hawthorne Lathrop – founder of Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne, as Mother Mary Alphonsa
Major shrines
St. Frances Xavier Cabrini Shrine, at 701 Fort Washington Avenue in Hudson Heights, Manhattan, with a facade on Cabrini Boulevard, next to the former Mother Cabrini High School.
Shrine of St. Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton, in the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, at 7 State Street in the Financial District, Manhattan.
National Shrine of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, at 70 Carmelite Drive in Middletown, Orange County, New York.
Salesian National Shrine of Mary Help of Christians, 174 Filors Lane, Stony Point, New York.
Reports of sex abuse
In August 2018, the archdiocese reported that between 2016 and 2018, its Independent Reconciliation and Compensation Program paid nearly $60 million to 278 victims of sex abuse by clergy. On September 26, 2018, it was reported that the Archdiocese of New York, and the three other dioceses where Theodore McCarrick served as a bishop, were facing an investigation by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops for McCarrick's alleged sex abuse. On January 28, 2019, the New York state Assembly and Senate passed a law allowing prosecutors to bring criminal charges until a victim turned 28, and permitting victims to sue until age 55. New York Governor Andrew Cuomo signed the bill into law on February 14, 2019.
On April 26, 2019, the Archdiocese released a list of 120 Catholic clergy accused of committing acts of sexual abuse. Some of those on the list, which includes both male and female church workers, have been convicted and many are deceased. The list was accompanied by a letter of apology from Cardinal Timothy Dolan, who asked for forgiveness.
On August 14, 2019, James Grien, who has accused McCarrick of sexually abusing him when McCarrick was an auxiliary bishop of New York, filed a lawsuit against the Archdiocese of New York. In his lawsuit, Grien also stated that McCarrick's status as a friend of his family allowed the former New York Auxiliary Bishop to continue to visit and sexually abuse him after being transferred to New Jersey's Diocese of Metuchen and Archdiocese of Newark.
On September 30, 2019, Dolan released a report written by Barbara S. Jones, a former judge and prosecutor. Her report stated, among other things, that the Archdiocese had completed the process of removing all of its remaining accused clergy from active ministry. In the same report, Jones recommended that the Archdiocese should also hire a sex abuse "czar" to vet all complaints. Jones, who was commissioned by Dolan in 2018 to conduct the review of the church's handling of abuse allegations, also recommended hiring "a compliance officer for the Office of Priest Personnel to monitor its functions and oversee the new document management system". Dolan also backed the Jones Report and stated at a press conference that the archdiocese was expanding its sex abuse policy as well.
On October 10, 2019, it was announced that Pope Francis had accepted the resignation of Bronx-based Auxiliary Bishop John Jenik following an accusation of sex abuse. Appointed Auxiliary Bishop by Pope Francis in 2014, Jenik also served as vicar for the Northwest Bronx, appointed by Dolan's predecessor Edward Egan in 2006. Jenik, who submitted his resignation letter upon turning 75 in March 2019, had stepped out of public ministry in October 2018 after the allegation surfaced.
On May 8, 2020, Cuomo extended the 2019 New York Child Victim Act's statewide statute of limitations deadline to file sex abuse lawsuits, which was originally set for August 14, 2020, to January 14, 2021.
On July 27, 2020, it was revealed that a Catholic priest who served the Archdiocese of New York in upstate New York's Orange County was named in a new sex abuse lawsuit. In the lawsuit, eight men alleged that longtime Orange County priest Rev. George Boxelaar, who is now deceased, sexually abused them when they were children, adding their claims to those of at least three other accusers of the late Boxelaar who have sued. These three other accusers had filed lawsuits through the state Supreme Court in Orange County in late 2019, with one also naming the Archdiocese of New York and both Holy Cross and Our Lady of Mount Carmel churches as defendants. In addition to these new lawsuits, a Scarsdale Catholic school teacher identified as Edwin Gaylor also confessed to committing acts of sex abuse.
On December 3, 2020, New York City priest Fr. George Rutler, the prestigious pastor of the Church of St. Michael in Manhattan was accused by a female security guard, who worked at Rutler's parish for two shifts, of watching pornography and "aggressively" groping her. Rutler, considered a conservative icon, has made numerous appearances on EWTN and has written 30 books. Following the accusations, he maintained his innocence but offered to temporarily step down as pastor during the subsequent investigation. In May 2021, the District Attorney of Manhattan declined to bring charges, dismissing the accusations and allegedly calling them "baseless." As of December 2021, no charges against Rutler have been announced in New York.
Province of New York
See also
:Category:People of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York
John P. Chidwick – New York diocesan priest; chaplain on USS Maine
Sisters of Life – founded in 1991 by John Joseph O'Connor, Cardinal Archbishop of New York
References
External links
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York (official site)
(ny-archdiocese.org)
Catholic New York
Catholic Encyclopedia article
New York State Catholic Conference
1808 establishments in New York (state)
Religious organizations established in 1808
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245236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Patrick%27s%20Cathedral%20%28Midtown%20Manhattan%29 | St. Patrick's Cathedral (Midtown Manhattan) | St. Patrick's Cathedral is a Catholic cathedral in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is the seat of the Archbishop of New York as well as a parish church. The cathedral occupies a city block bounded by Fifth Avenue, Madison Avenue, 50th Street, and 51st Street, directly across from Rockefeller Center. Designed by James Renwick Jr., it is the largest Gothic Revival Catholic cathedral in North America.
The cathedral was constructed starting in 1858 to accommodate the growing Archdiocese of New York and to replace St. Patrick's Old Cathedral. Work was halted in the early 1860s during the American Civil War; the cathedral was completed in 1878 and dedicated on May 25, 1879. The archbishop's house and rectory were added in the early 1880s, both by James Renwick Jr., and the spires were added in 1888. A Lady chapel designed by Charles T. Mathews was constructed from 1901 to 1906. The cathedral was consecrated on October 5, 1910, after all its debt had been paid off. Extensive restorations of the cathedral were conducted several times, including in the 1940s, 1970s, and 2010s.
St. Patrick's Cathedral is clad in marble and has several dozen stained glass windows. It measures long, with a maximum width of at the transepts. The bronze doors that form the cathedral's main entrance on Fifth Avenue are flanked by towers with spires rising . The northern tower contains nineteen bells, and the interior has two pipe organs. Inside is a nave flanked by several chapels; two transepts; a chancel and apse; and a crypt. East of the apse are the rectory, Lady chapel, and archbishop's residence facing Madison Avenue. The cathedral is a New York City designated landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
History
The Diocese of New York was founded by Pope Pius VII in 1808. St. Patrick's was founded shortly afterward to serve New York City's small, but growing, Catholic population, which could no longer fit in St. Peter's Church. A site was selected on Mulberry Street in what is now Lower Manhattan, and St. Patrick's Old Cathedral was dedicated in 1815. At the time, there were 15,000 Catholics in the diocese.
Early site history
In March 1810, the Rev. Father Kohlmann bought the land on which the present cathedral stands. The site was bounded by what is now Fifth Avenue on the west, 51st Street on the north, Madison Avenue to the east, and 50th Street on the south. The Jesuit community built a college on the site, which at the time was north of New York City proper. It contained a "fine old house" which was fitted with a chapel of St. Ignatius. In 1813, the Jesuits sold the lot to the Diocese of New York. The school closed in 1814 and the diocese gave the property to Dom Augustin LeStrange, the abbot of a community of Trappists who were fleeing persecution by French authorities. In addition to a small monastic community, they looked after orphans. With the downfall of Napoleon, the Trappists returned to France in 1815, but the neighboring orphanage was maintained by the diocese into the late nineteenth century.
In 1828, trustees of St. Patrick's, St. Peter's, and St. Mary's met to discuss the feasibility of establishing a burial ground at Fifth Avenue between 50th and 51st Streets. The trustees bought the property in 1829 but did not use it as a cemetery. Bishop John Dubois reopened the chapel in 1840 for Catholics employed at the Deaf and Dumb Asylum and in the general neighborhood. A modest frame church was built for the parish of St. John the Evangelist and dedicated in 1841 by the Rev. John Hughes, administrator of the diocese. Tickets were sold to the dedication to ease the parish's debt, but the mortgage was foreclosed upon, and in 1844 the church was sold at auction. The church's pastor, the Rev. Felix Larkin, was said to have died from stress as a result. The Rev. Michael A. Curran was appointed to raise funds for the devastated parish and used an old college hall as a temporary church. Curran continued raising funds to buy back the church during the Great Famine in Ireland, eventually succeeding and taking the deed in his own name.
Planning
By the early 1840s, the number of Catholics in the Diocese of New York had increased to 200,000. As a result, several additional dioceses were created in New York state. Most of New York state's Catholics at the time were Irish. The Diocese of New York was made an archdiocese by Pope Pius IX on July 19, 1850. Bishop John Joseph Hughes was raised to the level of archbishop soon afterward. As early as 1850, Hughes determined that the growing Archdiocese of New York needed a large cathedral to replace the older cathedral in Lower Manhattan. At the time, the Fifth Avenue site was still relatively rural. The site faced the gardens of Columbia University to the west, but the surrounding area was otherwise characterized by rocks and unopened streets. Even so, Hughes believed the site would grow into a populous business area.
In 1853, Hughes announced that he had hired the firm Renwick & Rodrigue to design a cathedral on Fifth Avenue between 50th and 51st Streets. One partner in the firm, William Rodrigue, was Hughes's brother-in-law. The other partner, James Renwick Jr., was largely responsible for designing the new St. Patrick's Cathedral. Renwick spent three years in Europe to look for design influences for New York City's new Catholic cathedral. He took particular inspiration from the unfinished Cologne Cathedral. Renwick & Rodrigue originally planned a larger cathedral than the structure that was ultimately built. Hughes requested in 1857 that the firm reduce the dimensions of the new cathedral. To make way for the clergy's and archbishop's residences, the ambulatory was removed from the plans. The area behind the apse would have contained a chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, but this was removed entirely. The numerous heavy buttresses in the design were also removed.
Plans for the cathedral were finalized in 1858. To raise money for the effort, Hughes asked wealthy Catholics in the Archdiocese of New York to subscribe to a building fund for the new cathedral. One hundred and three subscribers donated $1,000 apiece, and two subscribers were non-Catholics. The first construction contracts for the new Fifth Avenue cathedral were issued in June 1858. The new St. Patrick's Cathedral was to take up the entire block bounded by Fifth and Madison Avenues between 50th and 51st Streets. The front facade on Fifth Avenue would have three large entrances, and the northwest and southwest corners of the cathedral would be topped by an octagonal spire. The interior was to be designed in a cruciform layout. The cathedral was to be built in the Gothic Revival style. In addition, an archbishop's house and a chapel would face Madison Avenue. At the time, there were numerous hospitals, asylums, and other public institutions along the nearby section of Fifth Avenue.
Construction
Initial work and hiatus
On August 15, 1858, the cornerstone was laid just south of the diocese's orphanage. A 22-year old Irish immigrant, Cormack McCall, laid the cornerstone in front of 100,000 spectators near the intersection of Fifth Avenue and 50th Street, though the precise location remains unclear. That October, the architects presented cost estimates for making the cathedral out of white marble, brown freestone, olive freestone, or granite. The white marble was the most expensive of the four options, with a projected cost of $850,000, and James Hall and William Joyce offered to supply the marble. Even so, Renwick recommended that St. Patrick's be constructed of white marble, citing its durability and beauty. The archdiocese formed a Bureau of Contracts, which first met in December 1858.
The bureau awarded the marble contract to Hall and Joyce in March 1859; at the time, the work was supposed to be finished before January 1, 1867. The cost estimate of $867,500 for the entire cathedral () was unusually low for a project of that size. Construction progressed for two years after the cornerstone was laid. The work consisted of laying stone blocks for the foundation, each weighing between one and four tons. The foundation was excavated to a maximum depth of , where it laid on solid rock. The excavations were relatively small because the underlying layer of bedrock was shallow, rising nearly to the surface near the transept on Fifth Avenue. White-marble walls were then constructed above the foundation. By January 1860, the cathedral had been erected to about above ground level. Work was slightly delayed by a stonecutters' strike that March.
The walls had reached the water table when all $73,000 in funds had been exhausted. As a result, in August 1860, Hughes decided to suspend all work on the new cathedral. When work was suspended, the walls had been built to an average height of above ground. The onset of the American Civil War in 1861 prevented the resumption of work for several years. Hughes died in January 1864 before the work could resume. John McCloskey was appointed to succeed Hughes as archbishop. McCloskey created a plan to finance the construction of the new St. Patrick's Cathedral.
Completion
By mid-1866, work had again resumed and the walls had been built to above ground. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle reported that the interior "looks like a large field" and said the cathedral would be "worthy to be regarded as one of the wonders of the Republic". Some $100,000 was spent on the Catholic cathedral in 1867, and the constituent churches of the Archdiocese of New York promised to spend $100,000 a year until the cathedral was complete. Most funding for the cathedral came from the parishioners of these churches, who were mainly poor Irish immigrants. An editorial in the New York World described the cathedral as being constructed "not of the superfluity of wealth, but for the most part out of the offerings of poverty".
The cathedral's masonry was laid during summer as the stonework could not be laid in the cold. By late 1870, the marble walls had been built to a height of and the transept was finished. The entrance on Fifth Avenue, measuring tall, had also been finished. Over a hundred workers were busy quarrying marble from Pleasantville, north of New York City. The marble was transported down to New York City via the Harlem Railroad, where a branch track led to the new cathedral's site. The construction of the new cathedral drew relatively little interest for New York City's non-Catholic population, though several commentators praised the cathedral's design. An anonymous author for the Real Estate Record and Guide wrote that the new St. Patrick's Cathedral was the "most gorgeous ecclesiastical edifice on this continent", though the critics perceived the buttresses on the north and south sides of the facade as "altogether unnecessary". A reporter for the New York World, probably Montgomery Schuyler, wrote in 1871 that the cathedral would be "one of the leading ecclesiastical structures in the world".
The trustees of St. Patrick's Cathedral borrowed $300,000 from the Emigrant Industrial Savings Bank for the new cathedral in 1874. The trustees gave the bank a first mortgage on the cathedral and site as a security for the loan. By late 1875, the roof had been covered with slate and all of the walls were finished, except for a small portion along Fifth Avenue. The trustees borrowed another $100,000 from the Emigrant Bank in 1876. Late that year, temporary scaffolding was erected so the interior could be plastered and decorated. Almost all the stained glass had been delivered and was being glazed; four of these windows had been exhibited at the Centennial Exposition. Only one worker had been killed during the construction process, according to the American Architect and Building News, due to his own carelessness. McCloskey made contracts for furnishings in 1874 and again in 1878.
On November 29, 1877, the incomplete St. Patrick's Cathedral was opened for public viewing. A one-month-long fundraiser for the cathedral commenced on October 22, 1878. In its first three weeks, the fundraiser had an average daily attendance of between ten and eleven thousand. The fair ran for 36 nights and attracted about 250,000 total visitors when it closed on November 30. Forty-five parishes of the Archdiocese of New York had exhibits at the fair. The fundraiser sought to raise $200,000 for the cathedral, but it ultimately netted $173,000. Several months elapsed before the cathedral was readied for its dedication in early 1879.
Opening and late 19th century
The new St. Patrick's Cathedral opened on May 25, 1879. Thirty-five bishops and six archbishops attended the dedication. St. Patrick's was met with a generally positive reception from the media. The Baltimore Sun, for example, called it the "finest church edifice on the American continent". Not all critics spoke of the cathedral positively; journalist Clarence Cook authored a criticism that architectural historian Robert A. M. Stern characterized as being "underpinned with religious and ethnic bigotry". Cook perceived the facade as being full of "clumsy repetition", but he wrote of the interior: "Words cannot express the paltry character of the internal finish of this vaunted structure." The new St. Patrick's Cathedral and Temple Emanu-El comprised the first non-Protestant houses of worship on the midtown section of Fifth Avenue. At the time, the cathedral was far removed from the developed portions of the city. The first bishop consecrated in the new cathedral was the Michael J. O'Farrell of Trenton, New Jersey, who became the first bishop of the Diocese of Trenton.
The cathedral's parish originally extended from Seventh Avenue to the East River between 46th and 59th Streets, and the section between Madison and Sixth Avenues extended to 42nd Street. In 1880, the section between Third Avenue and the East River was split to the parish of St. John the Evangelist. During the early 1880s, Renwick designed the archbishop's house and rectory on Madison Avenue. The Real Estate Record and Guide reported in December 1881 that Renwick had been hired to build a rectory at the southwest corner of Madison Avenue and 51st Street. Shortly afterward, Renwick filed plans for a four-story marble rectory on the site, to be built by E. D. Connoly & Son and P. Walsh. The archbishop's house was completed the same year. The rectory was completed on May 8, 1884. A critic for the Real Estate Record characterized the rectory and archbishop's house as having "absurd" dormer windows in their mansard roofs. A memorial marble pulpit was manufactured in Italy and installed in the cathedral in October 1885. The money for the pulpit came from the clergy of the archdiocese, who had offered Cardinal McCloskey $10,000 for his golden jubilee and commissioned the pulpit after he had declined the prize.
A lack of funding precluded spires from being installed when the cathedral was completed. By late 1885, spires were planned to be installed at a cost of $190,000. Renwick filed plans for the cathedral spires in September 1885, and the contract was awarded to George Mann & Co. of Baltimore. Excavation of the stone commenced in January 1886 and the spires were constructed starting that September. The last stones of the spires were erected in October 1888, at which point the cathedral was considered completed. At the time several hundred niches remained to be filled with figures, and ten chapels did not have their altars yet. At , the spires were the tallest structures in New York City. The Evening World said the construction of the spires "completes a notable ornament to the city". Within a year, the cathedral was surpassed in height by the New York World Building, whose spire rose to . The funding shortages at the building's completion had also required that a "temporary" plaster and wood ceiling be installed atop the cathedral, rather than the marble or brick ceiling that Renwick had conceived. The cathedral never replaced the plaster-and-wood ceiling.
After the spires were finished, the trustees of St. Patrick's Cathedral decided that bells should be installed in one tower. No arrangements had yet been made for the bells because parts of the project, such as interior design, remained incomplete. The cathedral tested a set of four bells in the north tower in July and August 1889 to determine the tower's acoustic properties. The altar of the Holy Family was consecrated at the cathedral in 1893. A set of bells for the cathedral was manufactured in the United States. After the archbishop consecrated them, the bells were found to be defective and were never hung in the belfry. In 1895, the cathedral ordered a second set of bells to be made by the Paccards in France. The new bells were blessed by Archbishop Michael Corrigan on August 15, 1897, though they had not been installed yet. The framework for the bells was installed in the north tower the next month. At the time of their completion, St. Patrick's bells were the largest of any church in the city; by comparison, Trinity Church had ten bells and Grace Church had nine. Also in 1897, the Spiritual Sons of De La Salle funded a new altar for the cathedral.
20th century
Lady chapel and consecration
Margaret A. Kelly, widow of banker Eugene Kelly, died in 1899 and left $200,000 to the cathedral for the construction of a Lady chapel, on the condition that the chapel not be constructed until after her death. Kelly's sons pledged additional funds for the chapel as necessary. The next year, the trustees of St. Patrick's Cathedral held an architectural design competition for the chapel, east of the cathedral's apse. The trustees received submissions from American, Canadian, French, and British architects before giving the commission to Charles T. Mathews of New York City. After traveling to Europe to study architectural influences, Mathews prepared plans for the chapel by September 1900. Work on the Lady chapel began in July 1901.
Archbishop Corrigan was simultaneously paying off the debt on the cathedral with the intention of consecrating it after all the debts were paid off in 1908. This date was the centennial of the Archdiocese of New York's founding and the 50-year anniversary of the groundbreaking ceremony. However, he died in 1902 before the consecration or the retirement of the debt. Following a construction delay of more than one year, the Lady chapel was nearly complete by early 1905. The first Mass in the Lady chapel took place in Christmas 1906, but the interior furnishings were not complete until 1908. The chapel cost $800,000 in total.
Additional changes to the cathedral took place in the first decade of the 20th century. These included the construction of an altar to St. Michael on the left side of the Lady chapel, as well as an altar to St. Joseph on the right side. By 1907, a movable bronze screen was to be installed at the transept, and the temporary wooden floor dating from the cathedral's construction was planned to be replaced with a permanent marble floor. The bronze screens were a gift to celebrate the archdiocese's centennial, which almost every archbishop in the United States celebrated at the cathedral in April 1908. The Lady chapel was originally outfitted with transparent windows, though its stained-glass windows were manufactured in Europe starting in 1909. In the first half of 1910, the cathedral's debt of $800,000 was completely paid off. St. Patrick's Cathedral was consecrated on October 5, 1910, with Archbishop John Murphy Farley officiating. By that time, the surrounding area was quickly being developed.
1920s through 1940s
Monsignor Michael J. Lavelle started raising $625,000 from the congregation in 1926 to renovate the cathedral. The next year, Robert J. Reiley was hired to conduct renovations, including replacing the wooden floor with a marble floor. The floor was replaced between April and December 1927. The old organ was also replaced and new stained-glass windows, altar, and pews were being installed in the Lady chapel. The sanctuary was extended approximately , the metal communion rail was replaced with a bronze and marble rail, and the wooden throne was replaced with one of marble. Amplifiers, wrought-iron doors, and new bronze chandeliers were installed. New pews were also installed, as were two new organs. English stained glass artist and designer Paul Vincent Woodroffe completed the Lady chapel's remaining windows by late 1930. With the construction of Rockefeller Center to the west, several trees were planted around the cathedral in 1939 to complement Rockefeller Center's trees.
The cathedral's rectory was closed in April 1940 for the first major renovation in its history, and it reopened that December. Archbishop Francis Spellman announced in February 1941 that an anonymous donor had provided funding for a new high altar, to be designed by Charles Maginnis. According to Spellman's announcement, the original high altar had been "architecturally inconsistent" with the cathedral's design ever since the Lady chapel was completed, but a lack of funds had prevented the altar's replacement for four decades. The reredos behind the original high altar blocked the view of the Lady chapel from the nave, but the cathedral's trustees wished to avoid this. The old main altar was removed in February 1942 and the new main altar of St. Patrick's Cathedral was consecrated that May. A new altar in the Lady chapel, donated by George J. Gillespie, was also consecrated in May 1942.
The George A. Fuller Company started renovating the exterior in August 1945 after blasting for a nearby building dislodged a stone from the facade. The main doorway was narrowed, and some of the projecting Gothic ornamentation was eliminated because they were prone to cracks in New York City's climate, which was characterized by abrupt temperature decreases. A bronze cross was placed atop the north tower, replacing the original stone cross there. The project involved 350 workers at its peak. Some funds for the renovation came from a 1946 bequest of $100,000 from radio personality Major Bowes. By early 1947, the project was completed except for the Lady Chapel and a set of new entrance doors. An anonymous donor gave the cathedral a $25,000 window, which was designed by Charles J. Connick Associates and unveiled in April 1947. Work began on an interior renovation in mid-1948, with 17 of the cathedral's 19 altars being replaced. Cardinal Francis Spellman blessed the new bronze doors in December 1949.
1950s to 1990s
In 1952, St. Patrick's Cathedral received five gifts. These funded the electrification of the cathedral chimes; an elevator to the main organ; kneeling cushions and guard cords in the pews; and new stained-glass windows. The windows, depicting 12 male and 12 female saints, were installed at the clerestory in 1954. These windows were funded by a bequest by Atlas Portland Cement Company president John R. Morron, who left $200,000 for the archdiocese in his will. The cathedral celebrated the 100th anniversary of its cornerstone-laying in 1958. At the time, the cathedral had over three million visitors a year. St. Patrick's celebrated the 50th anniversary of its consecration two years later.
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered designating St. Patrick's Cathedral as a New York City landmark in early 1966. Later that year, the LPC designated the cathedral as a New York City Landmark. Under Cardinal Terence Cooke's leadership, the interior of St. Patrick's Cathedral was restored starting in 1972. That June, workers placed scaffolding on the cathedral to protect it from damage due to blasting for the construction of Olympic Tower across 51st Street. Afterward, over 100 workers cleaned and painted the interior while the cathedral remained open. The $800,000 project was completed in April 1973. The cathedral close, consisting of all structures on the same block as the cathedral, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
St. Patrick's Cathedral celebrated the centennial of its opening in May 1979. The cathedral's popularity was attributed to its location in midtown, and about 6,000 people attended Mass on Sundays, ninety percent of whom were visitors. The cathedral's exterior was cleaned the same year. Further restoration began in 1984 during the episcopate of Cardinal John O'Connor. As part of the work, most of the roof was replaced, and the entrance steps, doors, and walls were also repaired. The cathedral's two organs were restored in the mid-1990s.
21st century
Under Cardinal Edward Egan, another renovation of the cathedral was planned in 2006 after chunks of rock started falling from the facade. The project was conducted between 2012 and 2015 at a cost of $177 million. The renovation was designed by Murphy Burnham & Buttrick and led by construction manager Structure Tone. The renovation involved cleaning the exterior marble, repairing stained-glass windows, painting the ceiling, and replacing the flooring and steps. In addition, the bronze doors were renovated and reinstalled. Work was completed by September 17, 2015, before Pope Francis visited the cathedral the next week. The scaffolding was removed in July 2016. The cathedral and the renovations were featured on WNET's television program Treasures of New York.
The LPC approved a garage on the 50th Street side of the cathedral in late 2015. The garage was designed to provide a secure entrance for Cardinal Timothy M. Dolan. In 2017, MBB Architects and Structure Tone, Landmark Facilities Group, and P.W. Grosser completed a new geothermal system under St. Patrick's Cathedral, believed to be the largest in New York City. The gardens adjoining the cathedral to the north and south were excavated for the system's construction, and they were replanted after installation was complete. The same October, a shrine to the Lebanese Maronite Saint Charbel Makhlouf was dedicated at St. Patrick's Cathedral. The cathedral was temporarily closed for in-person Mass in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. The pandemic severely reduced the cathedral's finances as much of its income came from donations at Mass and the archdiocese did not fund the cathedral's maintenance. It was reopened for full-capacity worship in May 2021.
Main structure
St. Patrick's Cathedral was designed by James Renwick Jr. with influences from English, French, and German Gothic architecture. It is the largest Gothic Revival Catholic cathedral in North America, as well as the first major Gothic Revival cathedral in the United States. St. Patrick's Cathedral was described by CNN in 2020 as being an "essential part of New York City's architectural heritage". The cathedral serves as the seat for the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York and as a parish church for the archdiocese within Manhattan. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, over five million people visited the cathedral each year.
The foundation stones are made of blue gneiss granite set within cement mortar. The lowest horizontal course of the facade, as well as the lowest course under all the interior columns. is made of Dix Island granite from Maine. The exterior is clad in marble quarried in Lee, Massachusetts, and Pleasantville, New York. The main section of the cathedral is made of Tuckahoe marble. Behind the marble blocks are walls made of brick and stone laid in rough masonry, with hollow gaps for ventilation. The blocks were so closely laid that, decades after the cathedral's completion, no cracks had formed in them. The side walls are between thick, and the clerestory walls above the nave are 3 feet thick. Part of the interior is made of artificial Coignet stone. The marble for the spires was sourced from Cockeysville, Maryland, and the roof has 343 finials.
There are 103 windows on the cathedral in total. The windows are glazed by two thicknesses of sash and glass, set apart, to regulate interior temperatures and prevent air drafts. The exterior sashes are glazed with figured glass in lead sash, while the interior sashes are glazed with stained glass. The windows of the clerestory were made by Morgan Brothers. The cathedral had been constructed with 57 stained-glass windows: 37 representing scenes from Scripture and 20 representing geometrical shapes. Forty-five of the original windows were manufactured by Nicholas Lorin and Henry Ely in France. Other stained glass windows were added later. Renwick's original sketches show that the tracery near each window was designed with two grooves: one for stained glass and one for protective glazing.
Location and dimensions
St. Patrick's Cathedral is in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It takes up a full city block bounded by Fifth Avenue to the west, 51st Street to the north, Madison Avenue to the east, and 50th Street to the south. Clockwise from northwest, the cathedral is directly across from Olympic Tower, 11 East 51st Street, and 488 Madison Avenue to the north; the Villard Houses and Lotte New York Palace Hotel to the east; 18 East 50th Street and the Saks Fifth Avenue flagship store to the south; and the International Building of Rockefeller Center to the west. St. Patrick's is directly across from the Atlas statue at the International Building.
St. Patrick's is oriented west–east relative to the street grid and has a cruciform plan. From west to east, the cathedral contains a nave; transepts extending to the north and south; and a sanctuary and apse. The entire structure measures long as measured along the exterior buttresses. The cathedral is wide at the transepts. The main facade is oriented west along Fifth Avenue, with two towers measuring wide and tall, flanking a central section wide. To the north and south are planted gardens, which contain ten manholes for the cathedral's subterranean geothermal system. The cathedral's total length is .
The cathedral's interior was designed to accommodate 14,000 seated guests or 19,000 total. It has a seating capacity for about 2,400 congregants. There are about 300 wooden pews ranging from wide. The underground geothermal system consists of ten wells, each deep, which could concurrently send hot and cold air to separate sections of the cathedral. The system is capable of producing of heat and of air conditioning hourly. The geothermal system uses a computer to send cool or warm air based on thermostat readings. Heat and cool air are pumped through four water loops.
Western facade
Central gable and doors
The central portion of the Fifth Avenue facade contains a gable, which leads into the narthex. The main entrance is an archway at the base of the gable, measuring wide and tall. The actual entrance portal is recessed about into the archway and contains the main doors. The top of the portal is slightly pointed, with carved spandrel panels on either side. Above is a marble transom bar as well as elaborate floral tracery. The portal is flanked by decorative jambs, which in turn are topped by foliage capitals. Atop the jambs are a set of buttresses, which converge to form pointed arches. A gablet rises over the main portal and contains tracery paneling and a shield bearing the arms of the Archdiocese of New York.
The main entrance originally contained a pair of square-headed marble doors. The current bronze doors were designed by Charles Maginnis and sculpted by John Angel, and they were installed in 1949. Each door is and weighs . The main doors are generally kept open to welcome visitors; to save energy, a second set of glass pocket doors is installed directly behind. The main doors are decorated with relief sculptures representing three men and three women, with inscriptions indicating their significance to the cathedral and with particular focus on missionary work and assistance for migrants:
St. Joseph, "patron of the Church" (top left)
St. Patrick, "patron of this Church" (top right)
St. Isaac Jogues Martyr, "first [Catholic] priest in New York" (middle left)
St. Frances X Cabrini, "mother of the immigrant" (middle right)
St. Kateri Tekakwitha, "lily of the Mohawks" (bottom left)
Mother Elizabeth Seton, "daughter of New York" (bottom right)
Above the central opening is a balustrade made of rich pierced tracery; it contains a row of niches, measuring high, for statues. These niches are decorated by columns with foliage capitals and gablets, with tracery and finials. The niches depict six archangels: Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, Raphael, Chamuel, and Jophiel. Above these niches is a rose window, measuring in diameter and designed by Charles Connick. The rose window is blue with red, green, white, and gold panels. The window depicts eight types of leaves at its center, as well as trefoils with white doves. The main gable is carried up to the roof lines, terminating at a cornice with crockets that support a foliated cross. On either side of the jambs of the central window are buttresses, terminated by pinnacles, and between these and the buttresses of the tower are rich Gothic panels, terminated by crocketed gablets.
Towers
The towers on either side of the central gable measure at the base and retain this square cross-section to a height of . The walls of the towers along Fifth Avenue are thick. The ground story of the towers has portals similar in design to that at the center, but there are shields in the central panel of each gablet. The shield in the left tower has the arms of the United States and the shield in the right tower has the arms of New York. The second story, at the same height as the rose window, has molded jambs and tracery and is topped by gablets with tracery. The third story has four small windows on each side, topped by a cornice and pierced battlement. The towers are flanked by massive buttresses decorated with tabernacles, and the tops of the towers' square portions have clustered pinnacles. Above the square cross-sections are octagonal lanterns measuring tall. Circular stone stairways and a chime of bells were installed in the towers.
The towers are topped by spires measuring high. The spires are composed of two tiers with elaborate molding and tracery; the upper tier of each tower had a foliate finial above it. The spires were also planned with octagonal cross-sections, tapering from a base measuring across to a pinnacle measuring across. Also planned within the spires were floors, constructed at intervals of .
Nave
The nave is about long as measured from the Fifth Avenue facade. It measures wide if chapels are not included, or around wide if the chapels in the side aisles are included. The nave consists of a center aisle and two side aisles running west–east. The center aisle is wide and high while the side aisles are wide and high. Internally, the nave is divided into seven bays from west to east. The westernmost bay is part of the towers along Fifth Avenue and the easternmost bay is part of the transept. The westernmost bay is wide and the other bays are wide. Just inside the entrances within the westernmost bay are busts of Pope Francis, Pope Benedict XVI, Pope John Paul II, and Pope Paul VI, all of whom have previously visited the cathedral.
Thirty-two white marble columns divide the center and side aisles. The marble columns are in diameter and are set up in sections weighing each. Each column consists of multiple smaller columns: four at the corners, measuring in diameter, and eight surrounding the central shaft, measuring in diameter. The columns are tall to the bottom of the arches that support the nave's ceiling. Above the center aisle is a series of groin vaults supported by molded ribs, with foliate bosses at the intersection of each vault. The ceiling has holes with diameters of ; ropes could be threaded through these holes to allow repairs and cleaning. The side aisles are similar to those at Saint-Ouen Abbey, Rouen, while the columns and ceiling are similar to British models such as Westminster Abbey.
The northern and southern facades are divided into five bays, with buttresses and pinnacles between each bay. The lower section of each bay contains an arched window measuring wide and wide. Mullions divide each of these windows vertically into three sections, and the top of each window has tracery. Above these windows is the triforium, which is above the nave floor. Four arches on either side of the nave support the triforium, which is tall. The clerestory level of the nave rises for above the triforium and contains six bays. Each clerestory window is wide and high. The top of the clerestory is above ground.
There are twelve chapels in the side aisles. Located under the side aisles' windowsills, the chapels each measure wide and high. The chapels have similar vaulted ceilings to the nave, and each has its their own altars. On the northern side-aisle is a dark-wood baptistery on a marble podium, The baptistery was designed by John La Farge. The chapels include one for St. Bernard and St. Bridget. Among the altars are those for Saint Elizabeth, designed by Roman artist Paolo Medici; a Saint Jean-Baptiste de La Salle altar, sculpted by Dominic Borgia; and the Saint Louis and the Saint Michael altars, designed by Tiffany & Co.
Transepts
The transepts measure from north to south. The transepts contain entrances facing north on 51st Street and south on 50th Street. These entrances are similar in design to the central gable on Fifth Avenue. As planned, the transept doorways were to measure wide and high. The large transept window over the 50th Street door represents St. Patrick, while that over the 51st Street door represents the Immaculate Conception. The transept windows measure wide by tall and are divided by mullions into six vertical sections. Over each transept window rises a paneled gablet. A row of niches crosses each of the transepts' facades at the eave line. Above this, each facade has a gable with pinnacles and pierced battlements, which in turn is topped by an octagonal pinnacle and foliated cross.
On both sides of either entrance are tall windows. The windows are similar in design to those on the side aisles of the nave. The side windows depict the Four Evangelists. These windows are flanked by octagonal buttresses, which contain spiral stairs leading to the triforium and roofs. The roof at the intersection of the nave and transept contains a central finial high, which is gilded and is decorated with foliage and flowers.
Inside the transepts are the Stations of the Cross, which are carved in stone and were manufactured by the Stoltzenberg Company in Roermond, the Netherlands. There are five Stations of the Cross in total. Three of them received prizes from the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893 before they were installed at the cathedral. In 1908, bronze screens were installed at both transept entrances, measuring tall and wide. The bronze screens were designed so the transepts' wooden doors could open directly into them. Each screen had six wrought-bronze panels with ornamentation. The south transept contained the Altar of the Sacred Heart, which was made of bronze and had an elaborate tabernacle. The north transept contained the Holy Family altar, made of white Carrara marble and dedicated in 1893.
Sanctuary
The sanctuary floor is raised six steps above the floor of the nave, connected to it via a set of gray marble steps. The sanctuary is long and measures wide. The roof is made of slate, though the clerestory roof has a metal cresting high. There is a cross at the east end of the roof, which has flowers and foliage ornaments.
Ambulatory
The ambulatory, or side aisle of the sanctuary, is divided from west to east into three bays, similar to those in the nave. The apse has a convex polygonal wall with five bays, which are divided by buttresses with pinnacles. Each bay of the apse has a window wide and high. The windows are divided by mullions into four vertical sections; they are surmounted by paneled gablets with traceries. The walls between the gablets and pinnacles are finished by pierced battlements. The south ambulatory has a marble Pietà sculpture designed by William Ordway Partridge and completed in 1905. The south ambulatory also contains St. Joseph's Altar, which is made of bronze and mosaic. The first four Cardinals' galeros, or brimmed red felt hats, are mounted at the back of the sanctuary; the Catholic Church stopped issuing galeros to its cardinals in 1969.
There are eleven windows on the sanctuary's clerestory, of which six represent sacrifice (three each on the north and south sides). The three windows on the north side represent the sacrifices of Abel, Noe, and Melchisedech, while the three on the south side represent the sacrifices of Abraham, the Paschal Lamb, and the Mount of Calvary. The five windows on the convex portion of the apse represent subjects from the history of the Lord. The apsidal windows represent the resurrection of Lazarus, the communion of St. John, the resurrection of Jesus, the giving of the keys of heaven to St. Peter, and Jesus meeting the disciples going to Emmaus.
Chancel and high altar
The original chancel and high altar, donated by Cardinal McCloskey, were three steps above the sanctuary floor and contained a platform of richly colored marble. The altar was made in Rome and designed in the Italian Gothic style. The altar steps intersected a marble tabernacle inlaid with precious stones and mosaics. Three bas-reliefs on the sides and front of the altar were carved in white marble. The archbishop's pulpit, on the north side of the altar, was made of wood. In 1885, a Gothic-style octagonal pulpit was installed at the south side of the high altar. Weighing and measuring tall, the pulpit was made mostly of Carrara marble, except for six supporting pillars, which were made of Vienna marble. A heavy marble balustrade with carved panels surrounded the main pulpit, which itself was accessed by six marble steps. The altar was compared to a wedding cake when it was first consecrated. In 1930, a marble altar rail was designed by Robert J. Reiley and installed in front of the altar. The rail had carvings of saints.
At the rear of the original high altar was a stylobate with a reredos, or altar screen, measuring long and high. The clergy of the Archdiocese of New York gifted the altar screen, which was carved from Poitiers stone in France. The reredos was divided vertically into five parts: a central portion measuring wide, flanked on either side by panels measuring and wide. The base of the reredos was made of white marble, inlaid with alabaster and decorated with a bas-relief on each side. The reredos was topped by three towers, one at the center and one on each extreme end. The center tower ascended above the sanctuary floor while the corner towers ascended above the sanctuary floor. The center spire had a statue of Christ, while the other spires had statues of St. Peter and St. Paul. Between the towers were placed six niches with angels, three on either side of the center spire.
In 1942, the original high altar was removed from St. Patrick's Cathedral and consecrated at Fordham University Church in the Bronx. It was replaced with the current high altar, which is made of gray-white Italian marble and topped by a bronze baldachin. Maginnis & Walsh designed the high altar. It lacks a tabernacle and a reredos, similarly to other high altars in cathedrals. The altar table measures deep and about long. The baldachin is supported by four piers; it slopes upward to a pinnacle with a statue of Christ the King. The statue is flanked by smaller pinnacles with angelic figures. The pulpit is along the south (right) side of the right altar.
Crypt
Under the high altar is a crypt in which notable Catholic figures that served the Archdiocese of New York are entombed. It is accessed by a set of doors behind the high altar. Originally, the entrance to the crypt was hidden by a heavy stone slab that required six people to lift. A stone staircase descended to a vault behind a set of slate doors. Large bronze letters with the names of those buried in the crypt are inscribed in the crypt doors. The crypt is about long and high, with a width of between the rows of coffins on either side. The crypt is square in plan except for a ventilating pipe at the southeast corner. It has space to bury either 24 or 42 people.
The crypt's interments include all nine past deceased Archbishops of New York:
John Joseph Hughes (Archbishop, 1850–1864; interred 1883)
John McCloskey (Archbishop, 1864–1885; interred 1885)
Michael Augustine Corrigan (Archbishop, 1885–1902; interred 1902)
John Murphy Farley (Archbishop, 1902–1918; interred 1918)
Patrick Joseph Hayes (Archbishop, 1919–1938; interred 1938)
Francis Joseph Spellman (Archbishop, 1939–1967; interred 1967)
Terence James Cooke (Archbishop, 1968–1983; interred 1983)
John Joseph O'Connor (Archbishop, 1984–2000; interred 2000)
Edward Michael Egan (Archbishop, 2000–2009; interred 2015)
Other interments include:
Michael J. Lavelle (Cathedral Rector, 1887–1939, and Vicar General; interred 1939)
Joseph F. Flannelly (Cathedral Rector, 1939–1969, and Auxiliary Bishop, 1948–1969; interred 1973)
John Maguire (Coadjutor Archbishop, 1965–1980; interred 1989)
Pierre Toussaint (interred 1990) – at the time of his interment, the only Catholic layperson to be interred at the cathedral
Fulton J. Sheen, Auxiliary Bishop of New York from 1951 to 1965 and later Bishop of Rochester, was interred in the crypt in 1979. During the late 2010s, the Archdiocese of New York and his relatives were involved in a three-year court dispute to keep his remains at St. Patrick's Cathedral. On June 27, 2019, Sheen's remains were disinterred from St. Patrick's and transferred to St. Mary's Cathedral in Peoria, Illinois, where he had been ordained.
Cathedral close
Lady chapel
The Lady chapel, designed by Charles T. Mathews, is east of the apse, facing along Madison Avenue. It was designed in a 13th-century Gothic style. The rear wall of the apse was partly removed in the first decade of the 20th century to allow the construction of an ambulatory around the choir's outer wall. The removed section of the apse's wall became part of Our Lady of Lourdes Church at that time. The chapel was designed with a roof and belfry made of green bronze, as well as walls surrounded by statues. The walls of the chapel were designed to be plain at the bottom, becoming progressively more elaborately designed at the top. Several gargoyles were designed as decoration for the chapel's exterior. The chapel contains fifteen stained-glass windows depicting the mysteries of the rosary, five each for glorious, joyful, and sorrowful scenes. The Lady chapel has nine tall windows, as well as two side chapels with three windows each.
The chapel is separated from the apse by a glass wall that rests on a glass beam. The glass wall is designed with a minimalist bronze frame. The interior of the Lady chapel was designed with carved stonework. The original altar, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, had a high carved reredos, a mosaic floor, and a blue color scheme. The altar was replaced in 1942. The new altar is reached by three brown-marble steps. It consists of a white-marble reredos, an altar table, with a multicolored inlaid marble frontal named "Annunciation" designed by Hildreth Meiere, and a statue of the Lady on top. Under the Lady chapel is a crypt for the Kelly family, which had paid for the chapel.
Rectory
The rectory (originally the Vicar General's house) is at the southwest corner with 51st Street, on the northeastern section of the cathedral close. It carries the address 460 Madison Avenue. The Gothic-style building is three and a half stories high and is clad with Tuckahoe stone and white marble. As designed, it covers a lot measuring . The basement was originally designed as the kitchen, laundry, and servants' quarters. The first floor had a hall clad with marble tiles; the reception and dining rooms were on the left and two parlors were on the right of the hall. The second and third floors were designed as bedrooms. White oak and black walnut was used throughout the building. The rectory had ceilings of on the first and second floors, on the third floor, and on the fourth. It had 30 rooms in total.
The rectory was substantially unchanged from its early-1880s construction until 1940. A new window was installed on the southern facade at ground level; new plumbing, electric wiring, an elevator, and a telephone switchboard were installed; and the curtains were replaced. The two first-floor parlors were converted into four offices and a waiting room, and the upper stories were divided into smaller bedrooms and studies. The rectory retained some original design features such as its black-walnut fireplace mantels.
In 1920, the rectory also hosted the marriage of F. Scott Fitzgerald and Zelda Fitzgerald.
Archbishop's house
The archbishop's house is at the northwest corner with 50th Street, occupying the southeastern section of the cathedral close. It carries the address 452 Madison Avenue. The archbishop's residence covers . The Gothic-style building is three and a half stories high and is also clad with white marble. A plaque commemorating Pope Paul VI's 1965 visit to the cathedral is mounted on the facade.
, Cardinal Dolan shares the archbishop's house with three other priests. On the third floor is a chapel for John the Apostle. The right-side wall has a plaque measuring with a holy water font made of silver. The Assumption of Mary, flanked by cherubs, is depicted atop the holy water font. The font was given by Pope Paul VI to Cardinal Cooke in 1971.
Staff
, Cardinal Timothy M. Dolan is the archbishop of St. Patrick's Cathedral, having served in this position since 2009. Since November 2021, Enrique Salvo serves as the rector of the cathedral. In addition, Rev. Andrew King is the master of ceremonies, and Rev. Donald Haggerty, Rev. Arthur Golino, and Rev. Ed Dougherty are also on staff. Rev. Stephen Ries serves as Cardinal Dolan's Priest Secretary.
The director of music is Jennifer Pascual. The associate directors of music, who also serve as organists, are Daniel Brondel and Michael Hey. In addition, Robert M. Evers is the Music Administrator and Programs Editor.
Bells
There are nineteen bells at St. Patrick's Cathedral. The bells were created by the firm of Messrs. Paccard in France and installed in 1897. They hang in the northern tower of St. Patrick's Cathedral above ground. Since there are fewer than 23 bells, the minimum needed to be able to ring two octaves, they hang in a chime instead of a carillon. A 1983 New York Times article reported that the chime was rung every day at 8 a.m., noon, and 6 p.m. Additionally, on Sundays, the chime was rung every 15 minutes between 10 a.m. and noon and every 15 minutes between 5 p.m. and 7 p.m.
Originally, the bells were powered by a compressed air mechanism in the basement. Pressing a key on the keyboard in the sacristy would activate an electric signal, which in turn would release the compressed air to ring each bell. According to The New York Times, St. Patrick's bells were the first to be operated by compressed air. Until 1952, the bells could also be rung using tracker action; the bell-ringer would pull a rod between the lever and clapper of each bell.
Each of the bells was donated by a different person or organization. The name of the bell, its donor, and the figure of the crucifixion is carved on each respective bell.
Organs
St. Patrick's Cathedral has two pipe organs with more than 9,000 pipes, 206 stops, 150 ranks, and 10 divisions between them. The two organs are the Gallery Organ, completed in 1930, and the Chancel Organ, completed in 1928; both were manufactured by George Kilgen & Son. Since the mid-1990s, the two organs have been able to operate as a single unit. The two organs are controlled by twin 5-manual drawknob consoles and have 207 registers, 116 stops, and 142 ranks between them.
The Chancel Organ is in the north ambulatory of the sanctuary, adjoining the Chapel of St. Joseph. It originally had three manuals, which controlled four divisions. The Chancel Organ originally had 46 registers, 18 stops, and 18 ranks. There were 1,480 pipes, placed inside an oak case with Gothic-style carvings. The Gallery Organ is in the western part of the nave below the Fifth Avenue rose window, as well as in the triforium near the south transept. The Gallery Organ had a four-manual stopkey console with 157 registers and 114 ranks. There were 7,855 pipes; the shortest measured long and the longest, long, crossed the triforia.
Organ history
The first organ was built by George Jardine & Son and installed in 1879. It was composed of four manuals, 51 stops, and 56 ranks. In 1880, J.H. & C.S. Odell installed an organ in the chancel with 2 manuals, 20 stops and 23 ranks.
George Kilgen & Son designed the two current organs after Pietro Yon was hired to the music staff in the late 1920s. The Chancel Organ was dedicated on January 30, 1928, while the Gallery Organ was dedicated on February 11, 1930. Tonal modifications were made in the 1940s and 1950s, and additional renovations occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1993, while John-Michael Caprio was music director, a major restoration of the organs commenced, and the old three-manual consoles were replaced with twin five-manual consoles. The Peragallo Pipe Organ Company removed the cathedral's organ for cleaning in early 1994. The next year, the Chancel Organ was restored. The restoration was completed after the Echo Organ in the triforium was restored. All the organs of the cathedral were removed from the cathedral during the 2012-2015 restoration, and were restored, cleaned and re-voiced by the Peragallo Company before being reinstalled in 2015.
Directors of music
In the first nine decades of St. Patrick's Cathedral's history, it only had four music directors. The first organist and director of music at the current St. Patrick's Cathedral was William F. Pecher, who had been hired at the Old Cathedral in 1862 and served at the current cathedral from 1879 to his death in 1904. Afterward, Jacques C. Ungerer served as the director of music until 1929. He was succeeded by Pietro Yon, who at the time was an assistant director. When Yon suffered a stroke in 1943, Dr. Charles Marie Courboin was temporarily appointed to Yon's position. Yon died the same year and Courboin served as music director until 1970.
The cathedral's fifth music director, John Grady, served as a music director and organist from 1970 to his death in 1990. Grady was succeeded by John-Michael Caprio, who also served until his death, in 1997. Four people served as directors over the following six years: John C. West (1997–1999), Robert Long (1999–2001), Don Stefano Concordia (2001), and Johannes Somary (2001–2003). Since 2003, Jennifer Pascual has served as the music director, being the first woman to hold this position.
Crimes and terrorism
Over the years, St. Patrick's Cathedral has been targeted by bombings and threats:
On October 13, 1914, a bomb exploded on the northwest corner of the cathedral. It tore an 18-inch hole in the floor. One injury was reported: a boy whose head was grazed by a flying piece of metal.
In March 1915, Italian anarchists Frank Abarno and Carmine Carbone of the Bresci Circle were arrested for attempting to detonate a bomb in the cathedral.
In January 1951, a letter threatened that a bomb would be set off at a Sunday Mass, but the Mass continued without any disruption. Another, telephoned bomb threat occurred in June 1953.
On April 18, 2019, just two days after a fire damaged the Notre-Dame de Paris, a 37-year-old New Jersey man carrying a pair of full two-gallon cans of gasoline, two bottles of lighter fluid, and two extended butane lighters was arrested after attempting to enter the cathedral. The man, a philosophy professor at nearby Seton Hall University, was arrested at another church in New Jersey earlier that week.
In addition, there have been numerous instances of vandalism:
In 1944, red paint was splashed on the cathedral. The paint was smeared in a pattern similar to the hammer and sickle of a communist party.
On May 30, 2020, during the nationwide protests and riots following the murder of George Floyd, Black Lives Matter protesters spray-painted pro-BLM and anti-police slogans on the facade. Two people were charged the following month for the crime.
On New Year's Day 2021, the cathedral was vandalized again with anti-police graffiti.
Other incidents have included:
A 2020 report by the Vatican accepted earlier reports that the laicized Cardinal Theodore McCarrick committed acts of sex abuse at the cathedral between 1971 and 1972.
On September 21, 1988, a mentally ill man killed an usher and seriously injured an officer before being fatally shot.
On December 10, 1989, ACT UP, a pressure group that advocates for AIDS awareness, led a demonstration of 4,500 people outside the cathedral as part of their Stop the Church campaign. About 130 infiltrated the church and disrupted the Mass, forcing Cardinal John O'Connor to abandon his sermon.
In 2002, "shock jocks" Opie and Anthony held their third "Sex for Sam contest" that encouraged listeners of their radio show to have sex in risky places. Two listeners were caught in a vestibule of the church doing so; they were arrested, along with comedian Paul Mecurio.
See also
List of Catholic cathedrals in the United States
List of cathedrals in the United States
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York
List of Roman Catholic archbishops of New York, a list of all archbishops of St. Patrick's Cathedral
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
St. Patrick's Old Cathedral
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1878 establishments in New York (state)
19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in the United States
Cathedrals in New York City
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Fifth Avenue
Gothic Revival church buildings in New York City
Irish-American culture in New York City
James Renwick Jr. church buildings
Madison Avenue
Midtown Manhattan
National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York
Patrick New York
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1878
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1910
Roman Catholic churches in Manhattan | [
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245239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Egan | Edward Egan | Edward Michael Egan (April 2, 1932 – March 5, 2015) was an American cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Bridgeport from 1988 to 2000 and as Archbishop of New York from 2000 to 2009. He was elevated to the cardinalate in 2001.
Early life and education
The third of four children, Edward Egan was born in Oak Park, Illinois, the son of Thomas J. and Genevieve (née Costello) Egan. His father was a sales manager and his mother was a homemaker and former teacher; his parents' families were from County Mayo and County Clare, Ireland. In 1943, Egan and his older brother contracted polio, causing them to miss two years of school while convalescing at home.
Egan attended Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary in Chicago, where he was student body president and editor of the student newspaper and yearbook. After graduating from high school in 1951, he entered St. Mary of the Lake Seminary in Mundelein, Illinois where he obtained a Bachelor's degree in philosophy. Egan was then sent to the Pontifical North American College in Rome, taking his academic courses in theology at the Pontifical Gregorian University.
Priesthood
Egan was ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Martin O'Connor on December 15, 1957, for the Archdiocese of Chicago.
Egan was awarded a Licentiate of Sacred Theology from the Gregorian in 1958. After returning to Chicago, he served as associate pastor of Holy Name Cathedral,, assistant chancellor for the archdiocese, and secretary to Cardinal Cardinal Albert Meyer. During this time, Egan also taught evening classes for potential Catholic converts and served as a chaplain at Wesley Memorial Hospital in Chicago.
In 1960, Egan returned to the Gregorian University in Rome to pursue his doctorate. During his studies, he became assistant vice-rector and repetitor of moral theology and canon law at the North American College. He received his doctorate in canon law summa cum laude in 1964. Back in Chicago, Egan was appointed secretary to Cardinal John Cody. As his secretary, he "saw Cardinal Cody take the heat for good causes" such as the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation.
Egan was later appointed Secretary of the Archdiocesan Commissions on Ecumenism and Human Relations, sitting on several interfaith organizations and establishing dialogue with Jews and Protestants alike. From 1969 to 1971, he served as co-chancellor for the archdiocese. Egan returned to Rome in 1971, when Pope Paul VI named him an auditor of the Sacred Roman Rota.
While serving on the Roman Rota, Egan also served as a professor of canon law at the Gregorian University and of civil and criminal procedure at the Studio Rotale. Egan served as a commissioner of the Congregation for the Sacraments and Divine Worship and a consultor of the Congregation for the Clergy as well. In 1982, he was chosen to be one of the six canonists who reviewed the new Code of Canon Law with Pope John Paul II before its promulgation in 1983.
Episcopal career
On April 1, 1985, John Paul II appointed Egan as Auxiliary Bishop of New York and Titular Bishop of Allegheny. He received his episcopal consecration at the Basilica of Saints John and Paul in Rome on May 22, 1985, by Cardinal Bernardin Gantin, with Archbishop John O'Connor and Bishop John Keating serving as co-consecrators. He selected as his episcopal motto: "In the Holiness of the Truth" Ephesians 4:24. As an auxiliary bishop, Egan served as Vicar for Education.
Bishop of Bridgeport
On November 5, 1988, John Paul II appointed Egan as the third Bishop of Bridgeport. He was installed on December 14, 1988.
During his tenure, he oversaw the reorganization of Catholic schools. He also raised $45 million for diocesan schools through a fundraising campaign, "Faith in the Future." The diocesan Catholic Charities under his tenure became the largest private social service agency in Fairfield County, Connecticut. To support the 12 Hispanic parishes in the diocese, he brought Spanish-speaking priests to Bridgeport from Colombia. Egan also established a home for retired priests and a school for children with special needs.
Within the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Egan served as Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Pontifical North American College and of the Committee on Science and Human Values. He was also a member of the Committee on Canonical Affairs, the Committee on Education, the Committee on National Collections, and the Committee on Nominations, and served two terms on the Conference's Administrative Board.
Archbishop of New York
John Paul II appointed Egan as Archbishop of New York on May 11, 2000, a week after O'Connor's death. Egan was installed on June 19, 2000, with soprano Renée Fleming performing at the ceremony.
On becoming archbishop, Egan prioritized the encouragement of vocations to the priesthood. Besides private initiatives, each year on the Feast of St. Joseph (March 19), he offered a Mass for prospective high school and college men. Egan appointed two priests as vocation directors to aid him in promoting the priesthood, although they were unable to reverse the declining trend.
Egan was elevated to the Cardinalate by John Paul II at the Consistory of February 21, 2001, becoming the Cardinal-Priest of Ss. Ioannis et Pauli (Sts. John and Paul).
As cardinal, one of Egan's main concerns was the archdiocesan seminary in Yonkers, New York. In March 2001, he announced the restructuring of the seminary faculty. A Staten Island pastor, Peter Finn, was chosen as seminary rector. Egan also added Avery Dulles, Sara Butler, and John DiNoia to the faculty. The minor seminary, then located in Riverdale, Bronx, was moved to the campus of the major seminary. To maintain regular contact with the seminarians, Egan invited them to serve his 10:15 am Mass at Saint Patrick's Cathedral on one Sunday each month. After the mass, he would meet with them in his residence. Moreover, each year, he personally led a day of prayer and reflection for the seminary students and faculty.
Egan was a prominent influence in New York City after the September 11, 2001 attacks at the World Trade Center. According to an article in Catholic New York:"The cardinal responded to the disaster – ministering to the injured and anointing the dead at St. Vincent's Hospital and at Ground Zero itself. He planned a center for victims' families at the New School and an interfaith service at Yankee Stadium. Egan also offered Masses at St. Patrick's Cathedral in the immediate aftermath of the attacks and funerals there and around the archdiocese for months."In 2002, the "Institución del Mérito Humanitario" in Barcelona, Spain awarded Egan the "Gran Cruz al Mérito Humanitario". Also in 2002, John Paul II named Egan and five other cardinals to the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature, the church's highest court of Canon Law. In addition to English, Egan spoke French, Italian, Latin, and Spanish.
For retired priests, Egan established the John Cardinal O'Connor residence in 2003, at the previous site of the minor seminary in Riverdale. In June 2003, Egan was accused of concealing the names of priests who had been accused of child molestation, but found not guilty by the church. His spokesman argued that the innocent should be protected, while groups such as Voice of the Faithful criticized the process as being out of the public view.
Egan participated in the 2005 papal conclave that selected Pope Benedict XVI. In December 2006, Egan began hosting a weekly program on The Catholic Channel of Sirius Satellite Radio in which he discussed a variety of topics, including events in the archdiocese and issues in the church. The station also broadcast his Sunday Mass from the cathedral.
On January 19, 2007, Egan announced that ten under-utilized parishes in the archdiocese would be canonically suppressed and eleven merged with other parishes, "based on the migration of Catholics in the inner-city to the outer boroughs". He also announced the establishment of five new parishes; three in Orange County, and one each in Staten Island and Dutchess County. Building projects were also approved for nine parishes. The closures caused some discontent.
On December 15, 2007, Egan celebrated his 50th anniversary as a priest. Benedict XVI appointed him to the Congregation for the Oriental Churches on January 26, 2008. Egan then hosted the papal visit to New York during April 2008, marking the 200th anniversary of the diocese. In January 2009, Egan publicly condemned controversial statements made by Richard Williamson, an excommunicated Catholic bishop, about the reality of the Holocaust.
Resignation and final years
On April 2, 2007, Egan, offered his letter of resignation as archbishop of New York to Benedict XVI, having reached the mandatory retirement age of 75. Egan was the first archbishop of New York to retire; all previous archbishops of New York had died in office, even after the introduction of the requirement for bishops to offer their resignation from their positions of pastoral care upon reaching age 75. Egan's resignation became official on February 23, 2009, when Benedict XVI appointed Archbishop Timothy Dolan as his successor. Dolan took possession of the archdiocese on April 15, 2009.
Egan served as a member of the board of trustees at the Catholic University of America and a member of the board of governors at Ave Maria School of Law. He reached age 80 on April 2, 2012, and from then on ceased to be Cardinal-elector.
Egan was admitted to St. Vincent's Hospital on April 4, 2009, experiencing stomach pains. After testing, he was released on April 7, and was later given a pacemaker in a low-risk surgery. He was well enough to preside over major liturgical services for the April 9–12 Easter Triduum, days before the arrival of his successor.
Death and legacy
Egan died on March 5, 2015, at NYU Langone Medical Center in Manhattan of cardiac arrest. He had just finished eating lunch at his residence at the Chapel of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary when he suffered the heart attack and was transported to the hospital. Before his death, Egan was administerd the sacraments by his priest secretary, Father Douglas Crawford.
Egan was pronounced dead at 2:20 PM and his death was publicly announced by Cardinal Dolan. Many bishops released statements mourning Egan's abrupt death. From March 9 to the morning of March 10, Egan's body lay in state at St. Patrick's Cathedral, flanked by an honor guard of members of the NYPD, FDNY, Knights of Columbus, Knights and Ladies of Malta and Knights and Ladies of the Holy Sepulchre.
On March 10, a Mass of Christian Burial for Egan was celebrated by Cardinal Dolan at St. Patrick's Cathedral. After the Mass, Egan's body was interred in the crypt of the Cathedral beneath the High Altar. The mass was attended by bishops from around the United States, Cardinals William Levada, Justin Rigali, Sean O'Malley, Theodore McCarrick, Roger Mahony and Daniel Dinardo. The Apostolic Nuncio, Carlo Maria Vigano, read a letter from Pope Francis. The mass was attended by all the living Mayors of New York; Bill de Blasio, Michael Bloomberg, Rudy Giuliani and David Dinkins, along with Governor Andrew Cuomo.
Views and controversies
Abortion
In an article published next to a photo of an unborn baby in the womb, Egan compared tolerating abortions to the reasoning used by Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin to commit mass murders. Egan believed that Catholic politicians who support abortion right should be forbidden communion on grounds of public scandal. In April 2008, after newspapers had published photographs of former Mayor of New York Rudolph Giuliani receiving Communion at a Mass in St. Patrick's Cathedral offered by Benedict XVI, Egan issued a public statement:
The Catholic Church clearly teaches that abortion is a grave offense against the will of God. Throughout my years as Archbishop of New York, I have repeated this teaching in sermons, articles, addresses, and interviews without hesitation or compromise of any kind. Thus it was that I had an understanding with Mr. Rudolph Giuliani, when I became Archbishop of New York and he was serving as Mayor of New York, that he was not to receive the Eucharist because of his well-known support of abortion. I deeply regret that Mr. Giuliani received the Eucharist during the Papal visit here in New York, and I will be seeking a meeting with him to insist that he abide by our understanding.
Gay marriage
Egan assailed the notion of gay marriage and criticized Hollywood for "desecrating" marriage and destroying "something sacred and holy." Egan said the specter of legal same-sex marriage would have a devastating effect on traditional values already eroded by a crude pop culture, the New York Daily News reported.
Alleged abuse in Bridgeport
The Connecticut Supreme Court ruled in May 2009 that records detailing allegations of sexual abuse by priests in the Diocese of Bridgeport should be released. The court's 4-1 ruling covers more than 12,600 pages of documents from 23 lawsuits against six priests that have been under seal since the Roman Catholic Diocese of Bridgeport settled the cases in 2001.
In April 2002, in a letter read out at Mass, Egan apologized saying, "If in hindsight we also discover that mistakes may have been made as regards prompt removal of priests and assistance to victims, I am deeply sorry." Ten years later, in February 2012, Egan retracted his apology. In an interview with Connecticut Magazine, he said: "I never should have said that," and "I don't think we did anything wrong." He repeatedly denied that any sexual abuse happened while he was leading the Diocese of Bridgeport.
In August 2018, Father Boniface Ramsey said that he once tried to speak with Egan concerning the sexual activities of then-cardinal McCarrick, but that Egan "didn't want to hear it." McCarrick maintained his innocence but the Vatican found him guilty and dismissed him from the clergy.
In October 2019, former Connecticut Superior Court Judge Robert Holzberg released the results of his investigation, commissioned by Bishop Frank Caggiano, into the diocese's handling of accusations of sexual abuse by its priests. Holzberg found that all three of Bridgeport's bishops over forty years had consistently failed to fulfill their moral and legal responsibilities. Holzberg found that Egan took a "dismissive, uncaring, and at times threatening attitude toward survivors"; he characterized Egan's behavior as "profoundly unsympathetic, inadequate, and inflammatory". Holzberg said that Egan broke a 1971 state law by not reporting abuse allegations and that he deliberately concealed the reasons for abusive priests' transfers.
Among other findings, in a July 12, 1993 letter to diocesan counsel Renato Ottaviani, explaining his refusal to seek the involuntary laicization of serial abuser Father Raymond Pcolka, Egan wrote: "... it is obvious that there can be no canonical process either for the removal of a diocesan priest from his priestly duties or for the removal of a priest from his parish when there is serious reason to believe that the priest in question is guilty of the sexual violation of children, and especially when he has confessed such a violation to the bishop or a delegate of the bishop. For the bishop who would countenance such a process would be opening the way to the gravest of evils, among them the financial ruin of the diocese which he is to serve."
Clerical celibacy
In a radio interview given on March 10, 2009, at the end of his tenure as archbishop, Egan stated that clerical celibacy in the Latin Rite could be open to discussion. He added, "I think it has to be looked at, and I'm not so sure it wouldn't be a good idea to decide on the basis of geography and culture—not to make an across-the-board determination." He further noted that Eastern Rite priests are allowed to marry, with "no problem at all." Egan later moderated his statement, saying, "Celibacy is one of the Church's greatest blessings. I will have to be more careful about trying to explain a somewhat complicated matter in 90 seconds."
References
External links
Official biography - Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York
1932 births
2015 deaths
People from Chicago
People from Oak Park, Illinois
University of Saint Mary of the Lake alumni
Pontifical Gregorian University alumni
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
Roman Catholic bishops of Bridgeport
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
21st-century American cardinals
Cardinals created by Pope John Paul II
Catholic University of America trustees
Members of the Apostolic Signatura
Members of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches
Members of the Congregation for Bishops
People with polio
Members of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre
Catholics from Illinois
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245240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Spellman | Francis Spellman | Francis Joseph Spellman (May 4, 1889 – December 2, 1967) was an American bishop and cardinal of the Catholic Church. From 1939 until his death in 1967, he served as the sixth Archbishop of New York; he had previously served as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Boston from 1932 through 1939. He was created a cardinal in 1946.
Early life and education
Francis Spellman was born in Whitman, Massachusetts, to William Spellman (1858–1957) and Ellen (née Conway) Spellman. His father was a grocer whose own parents had emigrated to the United States from Clonmel and Leighlinbridge in Ireland. The eldest of five children, Spellman had two brothers, Martin and John, and two sisters, Marian and Helene. As a child, he served as an altar boy at Holy Ghost Church.
Spellman attended Whitman High School (now Whitman-Hanson Regional High School) because there was no local Catholic school. He enjoyed photography and baseball; he was a first baseman during his first year of high school until a hand injury forced him to stop playing, and later managed the team. Following his high school graduation, Spellman entered Fordham University in New York City in 1907. He graduated in 1911 and decided to study for the priesthood. He was then sent by Archbishop William Henry O'Connell to study at the Pontifical North American College in Rome.
During his years in Rome, Spellman befriended such figures as Gaetano Bisleti, Francesco Borgongini Duca and Domenico Tardini. He suffered from pneumonia, however, leaving his state of health so poor that the seminary administration wanted to send him home. He nevertheless remained and managed to complete his theological studies.
Priesthood
Spellman was ordained a priest by Patriarch Giuseppe Ceppetelli on May 14, 1916. Upon his return to the United States, he did pastoral work in the Archdiocese of Boston. Cardinal O'Connell, who had earlier sent Spellman to Rome, took an apparent dislike to the young priest. O'Connell referred to him as a "little popinjay" and later said, "Francis epitomizes what happens to a bookkeeper when you teach him how to read." Spellman served a series of relatively insignificant assignments.
Following the United States' entry into World War I in 1917, Spellman applied to become a military chaplain in the Army but did not meet the height requirement. Spellman's comparable application to the Navy was personally rejected, twice, by the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt. Finally, O'Connell assigned him to promote subscriptions for the archdiocesan newspaper, The Pilot, instead. He was named assistant chancellor in 1918 and in 1924 archivist of the Archdiocese. After translating into English two books written by his friend Borgongini Duca, Spellman was made the first American attaché of the Vatican Secretariat of State in 1925. He also worked with the Knights of Columbus in running children's playgrounds in Rome, and was raised to the rank of Privy Chamberlain on October 4, 1926, by Pope Pius XI.
During a trip to Germany in 1927, Spellman established a lifelong friendship with Archbishop Eugenio Pacelli, who was serving as Apostolic Nuncio. He translated Pius XI's first broadcast over Vatican Radio in 1931. Later that year, Spellman was charged with smuggling Non abbiamo bisogno, the papal encyclical condemning Benito Mussolini, out of Rome to Paris, where he then delivered it to the press; he was subsequently attacked by Italian newspapers. He also served as secretary to Cardinal Lorenzo Lauri at the 1932 International Eucharistic Congress in Dublin, and helped reform the Vatican's press office, introducing mimeograph machines and issuing press releases.
Episcopal career
Auxiliary Bishop of Boston
On July 30, 1932, Spellman was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Boston and Titular Bishop of Sila by Pope Pius XI. He had originally been considered for the Dioceses of Portland, Maine, and Manchester, New Hampshire. He received his consecration on the following September 8 from Pacelli (wearing the vestments Pacelli wore when he was consecrated by Benedict XV), with Archbishops Giuseppe Pizzardo and Francesco Borgongini Duca serving as co-consecrators, at St. Peter's Basilica. His was the first consecration of an American bishop ever held at St. Peter's. Borgongini-Duca designed for him a coat of arms incorporating Columbus's ship the Santa Maria. Pope Pius XI gave him the motto Sequere Deum (to follow God).
After his return to the United States, Spellman resided at St. John's Seminary in Brighton, Massachusetts. He was later made pastor of Sacred Heart Church in Newton Centre; there he erased the church's $43,000 debt through different fundraising activities. When his mother died in 1935, her funeral was attended by Governor James Curley, Lieutenant Governor Joseph Hurley, and many members of the clergy, with the exception of O'Connell.
In the autumn of 1936, Cardinal Pacelli came to the United States, visiting New York City, Washington, D.C., Boston, Saint Paul, MN, and Chicago. The ostensible purpose of the trip was personal; he was to be the guest of Genevieve Brady, the wealthy widow of Nicholas Brady. However, during the trip Pacelli met with Roosevelt to discuss diplomatic recognition of the sovereignty of Vatican City. Spellman was present at the meeting, which he arranged to take place at the president's boyhood home at Hyde Park, New York, on November 5, 1936, two days after his reelection to a second term.
Pacelli also looked into "the radio priest" Father Charles Coughlin of Detroit. Though an early supporter of Roosevelt, Coughlin became increasingly disenchanted with him and made increasingly sharp national radio attacks on Roosevelt and the New Deal. He also expressed sympathy for the governments of Hitler and Mussolini as opponents of Communism. The Catholic hierarchy for its part did not like Coughlin. The Vatican and the Apostolic Legation in Washington, D.C. wanted him silenced. Spellman worked with Joseph P. Kennedy and Pacelli to stop Coughlin. However, only Coughlin's superior, Bishop Michael Gallagher of Detroit, had the canonical authority to curb him, and Gallagher supported Coughlin. Coughlin was in Boston at the same time as Pacelli, but they did not meet. In 1939, Coughlin was finally forced off the air under rules adopted by the Code Committee of the National Association of Broadcasters.
Archbishop of New York
Following the death of Pope Pius XI, Pacelli was elected as Pope Pius XII, and one of his first acts was to appoint Spellman the sixth Archbishop of New York on April 15, 1939. He succeeded the late Cardinal Patrick Joseph Hayes, and was formally installed as Archbishop on the following May 23. He was painted twice in 1940 and again in 1941 by the prominent Roman Catholic Swiss-born American artist Adolfo Müller-Ury. The first regularly scheduled Masses in Spanish in New York began when Spellman gave authorization to the Redemptorists at St. Cecilia's parish in East Harlem.
In addition to his duties as diocesan bishop, he was named Apostolic Vicar for the U.S. Armed Forces on December 11, 1939. He spent many Christmases with American troops in Japan, Korea and Europe in this capacity.
During his tenure in New York, Spellman's considerable national influence in religious and political matters earned his residence the nickname of "the Powerhouse". He hosted such prominent figures as Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., Bernard Baruch, David I. Walsh, John William McCormack, and numerous other politicians, entertainers, and clergymen. In 1945, he instituted the Al Smith Dinner, an annual white tie fundraiser for Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese which is attended by prominent national figures, including presidential nominees.
Following his promotion to New York, Spellman also became a close confidant of President Roosevelt. During World War II, he was chosen by Roosevelt to act as the latter's agent and visit Europe, Africa, and the Middle East in 1943, visiting a total of 16 countries in four months. As archbishop and a military vicar, he would have greater freedom than official diplomats. Spellman also acted as a liaison between Pope Pius XII and Roosevelt in the Pope's attempts to have Rome declared an open city, in order to save it from the relentless bombing other European capitals had suffered and potentially destroying Rome's historical sites and ruins, including Vatican City. In 1946, he received The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York".
Cardinal
Pope Pius XII created him Cardinal-Priest of Santi Giovanni e Paolo in the consistory of February 18, 1946; his titular church was the same one held by Pius before his election to the papacy.
According to historian William V. Shannon, "Spellman was deeply reactionary in his theology and secular politics." Vehemently anti-Communist, Spellman once said that "a true American can neither be a Communist nor a Communist condoner" and that "the first loyalty of every American is vigilantly to weed out and counteract Communism and convert American Communists to Americanism". Spellman defended Senator Joseph McCarthy's 1953 investigations of Communist subversives in the federal government, stating at an April 1954 breakfast attended by the Senator that McCarthy had "told us about the Communists and about Communist methods" and that he was "not only against communism—but ... against the methods of the Communists". In 1949, when gravediggers at Calvary Cemetery in Queens went on strike for a pay raise, the Cardinal accused them of being Communists and recruited seminarians of the Archdiocese from St. Joseph's Seminary as strikebreakers. He described the actions of the gravediggers, who belonged to the Food, Tobacco, Agricultural, and Allied Workers Union of America, as "an unjustified and immoral strike against the innocent dead and their bereaved families, against their religion and human decency". The strike was supported by such figures as the religious activist (now Servant of God) Dorothy Day and Ernest Hemingway, who wrote a scathing letter to Spellman.
Spellman denounced the efforts of Congressman Graham Arthur Barden to provide federal funding only to public schools as "a craven crusade of religious prejudice against Catholic children", even calling Barden himself an "apostle of bigotry". The cardinal engaged later in a heated public dispute with former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt in 1949 when she expressed her opposition to providing federal funding to parochial schools in her column, My Day. In response, Spellman accused her of anti-Catholicism and called her column a "[document] of discrimination unworthy of an American mother". He eventually met with her at her Hyde Park home to quell the dispute.
Spellman frequently criticized films he perceived to be immoral or indecent. He described Two-Faced Woman as "an occasion of sin ... dangerous to public morals", The Miracle (which led to Joseph Burstyn, Inc v. Wilson) as a "vile and harmful picture ... a despicable affront to every Christian", and Baby Doll as "revolting" and "morally repellent". His condemnation of Forever Amber caused producer William Perlberg to publicly refuse to "bowdlerize the film to placate the Roman Catholic Church".
He was instrumental in getting William Brennan appointed to the Supreme Court in 1956, but would later regret the decision. Justice William O. Douglas once said, "I came to know several Americans who I felt had greatly dishonored our American ideal. One was Cardinal Spellman."
Spellman participated in the 1958 papal conclave, which elected Pope John XXIII. He was considered dismissive of Pope John and is reported to have said, "He's no Pope. He should be selling bananas." In 1959, he served as papal delegate to the Eucharistic Congress in Guatemala; during his journey, he stopped in Nicaragua and, contrary to the Pope's orders, publicly appeared with dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle.
According to Catholic journalist Raymond Arroyo's foreword written for a 2008 edition of Fulton Sheen's autobiography, Treasure in Clay: The Autobiography of Fulton J. Sheen, "It is widely believed that Cardinal Spellman drove Sheen off the air." Besides being pressured to leave television, Sheen also "found himself unwelcome in the churches of New York City. Spellman cancelled Sheen's annual Good Friday sermons at St. Patrick's Cathedral and discouraged clergy from befriending the Bishop."
Although John F. Kennedy was a Catholic, Spellman supported Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election, due to Kennedy's opposition to federal aid for parochial schools and to appointing a U.S. Ambassador to the Holy See. His support for Nixon ended a long partnership with Kennedy's father, Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Kennedy aide David Powers recalled that in 1960, Kennedy asked him "Why is Spellman against me?", to which he replied, "Spellman is the most powerful Catholic in the country. When you become president, you will be." Spellman had previously presided over the weddings of Robert, Jean, Eunice and Ted Kennedy.
Historian Pat McNamara views Spellman's outreach to the city's growing Puerto Rican community as years ahead of its time. He sent priests overseas to study Spanish, and by 1960 a quarter of all the archdiocese's parishes had an outreach to Spanish-speaking Catholics. In his years as a cardinal Spellman built 15 churches, 94 schools, 22 rectories, 60 convents, and 34 other institutions. He also visited Ecuador, where he founded three schools: Cardinal Spellman High School and Cardinal Spellman Girls' School, both in Quito; and Cardinal Spellman High School in Guayaquil. All of these schools are still currently open.
Second Vatican Council
Spellman attended the Second Vatican Council from 1962 to 1965, and sat on its Board of Presidency. The cardinal believed that predominantly liberal clergymen were being appointed to the council's commissions, and opposed the introduction of vernacular into the Mass, saying, "The Latin language, which is truly the Catholic language, is unchangeable, is not vulgar, and has for many centuries been the guardian of the unity of the Western Church." A theological conservative, he supported ecumenism on pragmatic grounds. However, in April 1963 Spellman brought to the Second Vatican Council John Courtney Murray as a peritus (expert) despite Cardinal Ottaviani's well-known animosity towards him. With Apostolic Delegate to the U.S. Archbishop Egidio Vagnozzi attempting to silence Murray, Spellman, along with Murray's Jesuit superiors, continued to shield him from most attempts at Curial interference. Murray's work helped shape the council's declaration on religious freedom.
Growing revolution
Spellman, following the death of John XXIII, participated in the conclave of 1963, which resulted in the election of Pope Paul VI. When The Deputy, a controversial play about Pius XII's actions during the Holocaust, opened on Broadway in 1964, Spellman condemned the play as "an outrageous desecration of the honor of a great and good man". The play's producer, Herman Shumlin, responded by calling Spellman's words a "calculated threat to really drive a wedge between Christians and Jews".
Although he once expressed his personal opposition to demonstrations during the civil rights movement, Spellman declined J. Edgar Hoover's requests to condemn Martin Luther King Jr., while also funding the trip of a group of New York priests and Religious Sisters to the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. He opposed racial discrimination in public housing but also the social activism of such priests as Daniel Berrigan and his brother, Philip Berrigan, as well as a young Melkite priest, David Kirk.
Lyndon Johnson and Vietnam
During the 1964 presidential election, Spellman supported Lyndon B. Johnson, whose Higher Education Facilities Act and Economic Opportunity Act had greatly benefited the Church. The Cardinal later agreed to Johnson's requests to send priests to the Dominican Republic to defuse anti-American sentiments following the invasion of 1965.
Spellman was an outspoken supporter of the Vietnam War, to the extent that the conflict became known as "Spelly's War" and the Cardinal as the "Bob Hope of the clergy". He met Ngo Dinh Diem in 1950 and, favorably impressed by his strongly Catholic and anti-Communist views, promoted his career; however, he disassociated from Diem before the latter's assassination in 1963. Fearful of Communist gains in Vietnam, Spellman had urged American intervention since late 1954, but by the 1960s his views were strongly criticized by antiwar activists and even his fellow religious leaders.
When Pope Paul VI visited the United States in October 1965, he indirectly rebuked Spellman's hawkish stance by pleading for peace before the United Nations. A group of college students protested outside his residence in December 1965 for suppressing antiwar priests, and he later spent that year's Christmas with troops in South Vietnam. While in Vietnam, Spellman quoted Stephen Decatur in declaring, "My country, may it always be right, but right or wrong, my country". He also described Vietnam as a "war for civilization" and "Christ's war against the Vietcong and the people of North Vietnam". One priest accused Spellman of "[blessing] the guns which the pope is begging us to put down". In January 1967, antiwar protestors disrupted a Mass at St. Patrick's Cathedral. His support for the Vietnam War, along with his opposition to church reform, greatly undermined Spellman's clout within the church and country.
Spellman was awarded the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, in 1967. Illustrator Edward Sorel designed a poster in 1967 titled Pass the Lord and Praise the Ammunition, showing Spellman carrying a rifle with bayonet, but the poster was never distributed because Spellman died right after it was printed.
Later life and death
In 1966, Spellman offered his resignation to Pope Paul VI after the latter instituted a policy whereby bishops retire at age 75, but Paul VI asked him to remain in his post. He led his archdiocese through an extensive period of building the Catholic infrastructure, particularly the construction of numerous churches, schools, and hospitals. He consolidated all parish building programs into his own hands, thereby getting better interest rates from bankers, and convinced Pius XII of the need to internationalize the Vatican's Italy-centered investments after World War II; for his financial skill, he was sometimes called "Cardinal Moneybags".
Spellman died in New York City on December 2, 1967, at age 78, and was interred in the crypt under the main altar at St. Patrick's Cathedral. His funeral Mass was attended by President Johnson, Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Robert F. Kennedy, Jacob Javits, Nelson Rockefeller, John Lindsay, Arthur Goldberg, and Greek Orthodox Archbishop Iakovos. To date, Spellman's twenty-eight year tenure as archbishop is the longest in the history of the Archdiocese of New York.
Homosexuality
John Cooney published a 1984 biography of Spellman entitled The American Pope. Before publication, he circulated galley proofs of the book, which included several pages arguing that Spellman had been a homosexual, based on multiple anonymous sources. This draft of the book was covered in the press. However, the final published version removed this material, replacing it with two sentences: "For years rumors abounded about Cardinal Spellman being a homosexual. As a result, many felt – and continue to feel – that Spellman the public moralist may well have been a contradiction of the man of the flesh."
Journalist Michelangelo Signorile describes Spellman as "one of the most notorious, powerful and sexually voracious homosexuals in the American Catholic Church's history." Signorile reported that Cooney's manuscript initially contained interviews with several people with personal knowledge of Spellman's homosexuality, including researcher C. A. Tripp. According to Signorile, the Catholic Church pressured Cooney's publisher, Times Books, to reduce the four pages discussing Spellman's sexuality to a single paragraph. Both Signorile and John Loughery cite a story suggesting that Spellman was sexually active and carrying on a relationship with a male member of the chorus in the Broadway revue One Touch of Venus.
Additionally, Curt Gentry, biographer of J. Edgar Hoover, says that Hoover's files also had "numerous allegations that Spellman was a very active homosexual."
Legacy
Russell Shaw states that Spellman "embodied the fusion of Americanism and Catholicism" in the mid-twentieth century. Spellman's support of John Courtney Murray contributed to Murray's significant influence on the drafting of Dignitatis humanae, the Second Vatican Council's Declaration on Religious Freedom. "Spellman's enduring accomplishments were his personal acts of kindness toward individuals and the religious and charitable institutions he founded or strengthened."
Henry Morton Robinson's novel The Cardinal (1950) was based in part on Spellman's career that was made in 1963 into a film of the same name with Tom Tryon as the eventual Cardinal.
In July 1947, a Jesuit residential building opened on the campus of Fordham University, Spellman's alma mater, named in his honor.
See also
Cardinal Spellman High School (Brockton, Massachusetts)
Cardinal Spellman High School (The Bronx, New York City)
Catholic Church hierarchy
Catholic Church in the United States
Spellman Museum of Stamps & Postal History
Historical list of the Catholic bishops of the United States
List of Catholic bishops of the United States: military service
Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops
Notes
Works cited
Cardinal Spellman High School. n.d. "An Historical Sketch of Cardinal Spellman High School".
Catholic Hierarchy (unofficial website). n.d. "Francis Joseph Cardinal Spellman".
DeMarco, Donald. "800,000 Saved by Pius XIIs Silence" . National Catholic Register, May 18, 1998.
Dugan, George. "Huge Fund to Oust McCarthy Reported". The New York Times, 1954-11-08.
Epstein, Alessandra. 2001. "Rebel with a Cause". 201 Magazine. Boston University, College of Communication.
National Portrait Gallery. Pass the Lord and Praise the Ammunition (description). Image of the satirical poster of Cardinal Spellman produced in 1967 by Edward Sorel.
Gannon, Robert I. The Cardinal Spellman Story. New York, 1962.
Loughery, John. 1998. The Other Side of Silence: Men's Lives and Gay Identities: A Twentieth Century History. Henry Holt.
Miranda, Salvador. 1998. The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church. "Spellman, Francis Joseph".
The New York Times. 1984, August 4. "New book on Cardinal Spellman stirs controversy".
O'Donnell, Edward T. "Spellman leads crusade against communism". Irish Echo Online, 82(44), November 4–10, 2009.
Quinn, Peter. "New York's Catholic Century" (essay). The New York Times, 2006-06-04.
Roosevelt, Eleanor (2004). Neal, Steve (ed.). Eleanor & Harry: The Correspondence of Eleanor Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman.
Signorile, Michelangelo. "Cardinal Spellman's Dark Legacy". New York Press, 2002-05-07.
Thornton, Francis Beauchesne. 1963. Our American Princes: The Story of the Seventeen American Cardinals. Putnam. (Chapter on Spellman pp. 201ff.)
Time. July 13, 1931. "Everything Is Promised".
Time. August 15, 1932. "Boston's Bishop".
Time. September 19, 1932. "Crosier & Mitre".
Time. June 7, 1943. "Odyssey for the Millennium".
Time. March 14, 1949. "Strike in the Graveyard".
Time. November 5, 1959. "Cardinal's Birthday".
Time. December 8, 1967. "The Master Builder" (obituary of Cardinal Spellman).
External links
Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA, official website
Archdiocese for the Military Services of the United States. GCatholic.org. Retrieved August 20, 2010.
FBI file on Cardinal Spellman
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York, official website
1889 births
1967 deaths
20th-century American cardinals
American anti-communists
American military chaplains
American Philatelic Society
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
Cardinals created by Pope Pius XII
Catholics from Massachusetts
Fordham University alumni
Knights of Malta
Participants in the Second Vatican Council
People from Whitman, Massachusetts
Pontifical North American College alumni
Pope Pius XII advisers
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
Whitman-Hanson Regional High School alumni | [
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245241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Joseph%20Hayes | Patrick Joseph Hayes | Patrick Joseph Hayes (November 20, 1867 – September 4, 1938) was an American cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of New York from 1919 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1924.
Life and career
Early life and education
Patrick Hayes was born in the Five Points section of Manhattan to Daniel Hayes and Mary Gleason. In his own words, Hayes "was born very humble and, I may say, of poor people." Both of his parents were from County Kerry, Ireland, and moved to the United States in 1864. A younger brother, John, was born in 1870. Hayes' mother died in June 1872, and his father later remarried around 1876; a half-sister, Anastasia, was also born that year. At age 15, he was sent to live with his aunt and uncle, who ran a grocery store where Hayes then worked.
After attending La Salle Academy, Hayes studied at Manhattan College, where he excelled at philosophy and the classics and obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree with high honors in 1888. At Manhattan, he also befriended George Mundelein, who would later become Archbishop of Chicago. Hayes then attended St. Joseph's Seminary in Troy.
Ordination and ministry
Hayes was ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Michael Corrigan on September 8, 1892. He was then sent for further studies at the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., earning a Licentiate of Sacred Theology in 1894.
Upon his return to New York City, Hayes was appointed Curate at St. Gabriel's Church on the Lower East Side, where he served under its pastor, John Murphy Farley (whom he would later succeed as Archbishop of New York). Hayes, following Farley's elevation to the episcopacy, served as his private secretary from 1895 to 1903, thereafter he was appointed chancellor of the Archdiocese and Rector of the Cathedral College. He was named Domestic Prelate of His Holiness on October 15, 1907.
Auxiliary Bishop of New York
On July 3, 1914, Hayes was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of New York and Titular Bishop of Thagaste by Pope Pius X. He received his episcopal consecration on the following October 28 from Cardinal Farley, with Bishops Henry Gabriels and Thomas Cusack serving as co-consecrators, at St. Patrick's Cathedral.
Bishop for the Military Services
Hayes was later named Vicar Apostolic of Military, USA, on November 24, 1917. Serving as head of the American military ordinariate during World War I, he recruited hundreds of priests as commissioned officers or chaplains. He was also one of the four episcopal members of the executive committee of the National Catholic War Council.
Archbishop of New York
Following the death of Cardinal Farley in September 1918, Hayes was appointed by Pope Benedict XV as the fifth Archbishop of New York on March 10, 1919. He was formally installed as Archbishop on the following March 19. He founded the archdiocesan Catholic Charities in 1920, and subsequently became known as "the Cardinal of Charities." In a 1921 pastoral letter, Hayes strongly condemned abortion, contraception and divorce. He had the first convention of the American Birth Control League raided, and later called its members "prophets of decadence". He welcomed the election of Éamon de Valera as President of the Irish Republic and contributed $1,000 to Sinn Féin.
Cardinal
Pope Pius XI created him Cardinal Priest of Santa Maria in Via in the consistory of March 24, 1924. It was speculated that the Pope delayed his elevation to the Sacred College of Cardinals because a group affiliated with New York's St. Patrick's Cathedral had stoned the Union Club for flying a British flag, but Pius nevertheless warmly greeted Hayes at the consistory as "dear little brother".
The cardinal opposed Prohibition, backed legislation to limit indecency on the stage, and endorsed unemployment relief during the Great Depression. Commenting on the Depression in 1931, he stated, "The American people are experiencing a return to religion following a period of carelessness and cynicism marked by the prosperity of the land...Now they are returning when they find they are in need of something greater than the material in facing adversity and stress."
After the Rev. Charles Coughlin praised the former Mayor Jimmy Walker in New York, Hayes, who had earlier denounced Walker for his perceived lack of morality, ruled that no ecclesiastical visitor might address a religious gathering without the cardinal's permission.
On June 24, 1924, he offered the invocation at the opening of the 1924 Democratic National Convention. He used his Tammany Hall connections to line up Democratic support in Congress for legislation protecting Catholic schools in the Philippines in 1932. During the Spanish Civil War, Hayes was outspoken in his support for the fascist-nationalist forces of General Franco, "claiming that 'Loyalists are controlled by radicals and communists'."
Hayes had a summer house in the Catskill Mountains, near St. Joseph's camp, maintained by the Amityville Dominican nuns; he once encountered a group of Klansmen there.
Death and legacy
In September 1938, Hayes died from a heart attack, caused by coronary thrombosis, in Monticello, New York, at age 70.
Hayes lay in state at St. Patrick's Cathedral and a Requiem Mass was celebrated on 9 September 1938. He was interred in the crypt of the Cathedral following the Mass.
Cardinal Hayes High School in The Bronx is named after him.
Images
See also
Catholic Church hierarchy
Catholic Church in the United States
Historical list of the Catholic bishops of the United States
Insignia of Chaplain Schools in the US Military
International Military Chiefs of Chaplains Conference
List of Catholic bishops of the United States
List of Catholic bishops of the United States: military service
Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops
Military chaplain
Religious symbolism in the United States military
United States military chaplains
References
External links
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York, official website
Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA, official website
Archdiocese for the Military Services of the United States. GCatholic.org. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
1867 births
1938 deaths
20th-century American cardinals
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
Catholic University of America alumni
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
Manhattan College alumni
American military chaplains
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
World War I chaplains
People from Five Points, Manhattan | [
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245242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Murphy%20Farley | John Murphy Farley | John Murphy Farley (April 20, 1842 – September 17, 1918) was an Irish-American cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of New York from 1902 until his death in 1918, and was created a cardinal in 1911.
Early life and education
John Farley was born in Newtownhamilton, County Armagh, Ireland, to Philip and Catherine (née Murphy) Farley. At age twelve, he was orphaned and went to live with his mother's family in the townland of Moyles. He received his early education under the direction of a private tutor named Hugh McGuire. He then attended St. Macartan's College in Monaghan from 1859 to 1864.
Under the auspices of an uncle, Farley emigrated to the United States at the height of the Civil War in 1864. He immediately enrolled at St. John's College in New York City, graduating in 1865. He then began his studies for the priesthood at St. Joseph's Provincial Seminary in Troy. In 1866, he was sent to continue his studies at the Pontifical North American College in Rome. He was present in Rome during the whole period of the First Vatican Council.
Priesthood
Farley was ordained a priest by Cardinal Costantino Patrizi Naro on June 11, 1870. His first assignment, following his return to New York, was as a curate at St. Peter's Church (Staten Island), where he remained for two years. Following the appointment of Francis McNeirny to the Diocese of Albany, in 1872 Farley became secretary to Archbishop John McCloskey, whom he had earlier met while in Rome. It was about this time that he changed the spelling of his name from 'Farrelly" to "Farley". He accompanied McCloskey to the 1878 papal conclave, but they arrived after the election of Pope Leo XIII had already taken place. Farley wrote the article on Cardinal McCloskey for the Catholic Encyclopedia.
From 1884 to 1902, Farley served as pastor of St. Gabriel's Church in Manhattan. During his tenure at St. Gabriel's, he freed the parish from debt, oversaw the consecration of the church, and built a parish hall. He was named a papal chamberlain in 1884 with the title of "monsignor", and raised to the rank of domestic prelate in 1892. In addition to his pastoral duties at St. Gabriel's, Farley served as vicar general for the Archdiocese of New York from 1891 to 1902. He also served as president of the Catholic school board, in which position he organized a Catholic school parade in 1892. He later organized a Catholic school exhibit in 1894. He became a protonotary apostolic in 1895.
Episcopal career
On November 18, 1895, Farley was appointed auxiliary bishop of New York and titular bishop of Zeugma in Syria by Leo XIII. He received his episcopal consecration on the following December 21 from Archbishop Michael Corrigan, with Bishops Charles Edward McDonnell and Henry Gabriels serving as co-consecrators, at St. Patrick's Cathedral. Farley became Apostolic Administrator of the archdiocese upon the death of Archbishop Corrigan on May 5, 1902, and was himself named the fourth Archbishop of New York on September 15 of that year. He was honored as an Assistant at the Pontifical Throne in 1905.
Pope Pius X created him Cardinal Priest of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in the consistory of November 27, 1911. He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 1914 papal conclave, which selected Pope Benedict XV. Following the outbreak of World War I, Farley stated, "As Catholics in America, we owe unswerving allegiance to the Government of America, and it is our sacred duty to answer with alacrity every demand our country makes upon our loyalty and devotion... I would that peace could come by arbitration and diplomacy. It seems, however, that no permanent peace can be hoped for except through the defeat of German arms in the field or the repudiation of the Prussian autocracy by the German people themselves. Criticism of the government irritates me. I consider it little short of treason." His dedication to victory in the war angered the Sinn Féin element of the New York clergy, who believed the Cardinal was bowing to anti-Irish bigots.
He made progress in Catholic education in the archdiocese the keynote of his tenure as Archbishop, and established nearly fifty new parochial schools within his first eight years; he also founded the Cathedral Preparatory Seminary. He was known to take daily walks with one of his priests down Madison or Fifth Avenue, noting, "A man never collects his thoughts so well as when he walks alone or with a congenial spirit."
Farley died in Mamaroneck, at age 76. He is buried in the crypt under the altar of St. Patrick's Cathedral.
Further reading
Thomas J. Shelley; "John Cardinal Farley and Modernism in New York" Church History, Vol. 61, 1992
Sources
The Hierarchy of the Catholic Church Retrieved 2010-04-20.
References
External links
1842 births
1918 deaths
19th-century Irish people
19th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the United States
20th-century American cardinals
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923)
People from County Armagh
Clergy from New York City
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
Contributors to the Catholic Encyclopedia
Cardinals created by Pope Pius X
American expatriates in Italy
People educated at St Macartan's College, Monaghan | [
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245243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Corrigan | Michael Corrigan | Michael Augustine Corrigan (August 13, 1839May 5, 1902) was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who served as the third archbishop of New York from 1885 to 1902.
Early life
Michael Augustine Corrigan was born August 13, 1839, in Newark, New Jersey, the fifth of nine children of Thomas and Mary English Corrigan, both of whom had emigrated from Ireland. Thomas Corrigan owned a retail grocery and liquor business in Newark, and the family's well-to-do status allowed Michael to pursue his educational interests. He attended St. Mary's College in Wilmington, Delaware, from 1853 to 1855, Mount Saint Mary's University in Emmitsburg, Maryland from 1855 to 1857, spent a year in Europe, and received his bachelor's degree from Mount Saint Mary's in 1859. He became a member of the first class at the North American College in Rome, was ordained to the priesthood in September 1863 at the Basilica of St. John Lateran, and received a doctorate of divinity in 1864.
Corrigan returned to New Jersey in 1864, where he joined the faculty at Seton Hall College and the Immaculate Conception Seminary, both in South Orange, as professor of theology and history. He soon achieved a reputation within the hierarchy for sound scholarship, and he also provided pastoral care to Catholics in the Seton Hall vicinity. When Bernard J. McQuaid left Seton Hall in 1869 to assume his duties as bishop of the Diocese of Rochester, Corrigan succeeded him as college president and also became vicar general of the Diocese of Newark.
Bishop of Newark
Corrigan succeeded James Roosevelt Bayley as bishop of Newark, becoming the second ordinary of the diocese. He was consecrated bishop on May 4, 1873. The diocese encompassed the entire state of New Jersey during Corrigan's tenure. He administered diocesan affairs during a time of rapid population growth, Roman Catholic institutional development, immigration from Ireland and Germany, and considerable urbanization in the northern part of the state.
Archbishop of New York
Corrigan was appointed Coadjutor Archbishop to John Cardinal McCloskey of New York on October 1, 1880, with the titular see of Petra, and succeeded to the archbishopric on October 10, 1885, serving as archbishop until his death.
Corrigan's career in New York proved controversial on a number of levels. He aligned himself closely with his former mentor, Bernard J. McQuaid and has been considered one of the leaders of the "conservative" movement within the American Catholic hierarchy. He proved to be a strong supporter of national parishes and parochial schools, a vocal opponent of John Ireland, James Gibbons and other bishops who advocated "Americanization" within the Catholic Church. Within the American hierarchy, he was the closest supporter of Pope Leo XIII on Testem benevolentiae nostrae. He also proved unpopular with many bishops for his involvement in backstage intrigue at the Vatican.
Within the Archdiocese of New York his most serious controversy involved his conflict with Father Edward McGlynn. During the 1886 mayoral campaign in New York City, the outspoken McGlynn supported Henry George, the candidate of the United Labor Party who proved popular with labor organizers, radicals, socialists, and Irish nationalists. Corrigan himself had been very close to Tammany Hall and ordered McGlynn to refrain from politics. McGlynn refused, continued to clash with the bishop, and ultimately was removed as pastor of St. Stephen's Church in New York. McGlynn was summoned to Rome but refused on the grounds of ill health and was excommunicated in 1887. The censure was eventually lifted in 1892. This highly public scandal took its toll on Corrigan and contributed to his poor relationships with an influential group of New York intellectual priests. His greatest accomplishment probably involved the building of a new seminary, St. Joseph's Seminary, Dunwoodie.
In 1897, Edgardo Mortara preached in St. Patrick's Cathedral New York City, but the Archbishop of New York told the Holy See that he opposed Mortara's efforts to evangelize the Jews on the grounds that such efforts might embarrass the Church in the view of the United States government.
Corrigan was rebuked by the Vatican in 1887 for neglecting the spiritual needs of the surge of Italian immigrants settling in New York and for treating them in a humiliating way. Italians were neither permitted to attend Mass at Irish churches nor construct their own churches, instead being permitted to say Mass only in the basements of Irish churches. Corrigan justified this exclusion on the grounds that the Italians were "not very clean" and would drive down revenues unless segregated from the Irish.
He also had invited Mother Cabrini to New York, but had to withdraw his invitation. By then Mother Cabrini and her missionaries had already embarked on their sea voyage to New York.
Corrigan slipped and fell when inspecting the excavation of the seminary in 1902. He contracted pneumonia during his convalescence and died. He was interred in the crypt under the altar of St. Patrick's Cathedral.
See also
Archdiocese of New York#Ordinaries
References
Sources
Joseph F. Mahoney and Peter J. Wosh, The Diocesan Journal of Michael Augustine Corrigan, Bishop of Newark, 1872–1880 (Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, 1987)
Carl D. Hinrichsen, "The History of the Diocese of Newark, 1873–1901," (Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, 1962)
Robert Emmet Curran, Michael Augustine Corrigan and the Shaping of Conservative Catholicism in America, 1878–1902 (NY: Arno Press, 1978)
Thomas Shelley, The Archdiocese of New York: A Bicentennial History, 1808–2008 (France: Editions du Signe, 2007)
1839 births
1902 deaths
19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United States
20th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United States
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
St. Mary's College (Delaware) alumni
Mount St. Mary's University alumni
Seton Hall University faculty
Clergy from New York City
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
Roman Catholic bishops of Newark | [
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245244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20McCloskey | John McCloskey | John McCloskey (March 10, 1810 – October 10, 1885) was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He was the first American born Archbishop of New York from 1864 until his death in 1885, having previously served as Bishop of Albany (1847–64). In 1875, McCloskey became the first American cardinal. He served as the first president of St. John's College, now Fordham University, beginning in 1841.
Early life and education
John McCloskey was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Patrick and Elizabeth (née Hassan) McCloskey, who had immigrated to the United States from County Londonderry, Ireland, shortly after their marriage in 1808. He was baptized by Rev. Benedict Joseph Fenwick, S.J., on May 6, 1810, at St. Peter's Church in Manhattan. At that time Brooklyn did not yet have a Catholic church, so the family would row across the East River to Manhattan to attend Mass. At age 5, he was enrolled at a boarding school for boys in Brooklyn; even in his advanced years, he attributed his distinct enunciation to his training there. He moved with his family to Manhattan in 1817, and then entered the Latin school run by Thomas Brady, father of attorney James T. Brady and Judge John R. Brady. Following his father's death in 1820, the family moved to a farm in Bedford, Westchester County, adjoining to the estate of statesman John Jay. He also became the ward of Cornelius Heeney, a wealthy merchant and family friend.
The 11-year-old McCloskey, after a brief visit with Rev. John Dubois, entered Mount St. Mary's College in Emmitsburg, Maryland, in September 1821. As a student at Mount St. Mary's, he was described as having "won the admiration and esteem of his teachers and the respect and love of his college-mates by the piety and modesty of his character, his gentleness, and sweet disposition, the enthusiasm with which he threw himself into his studies, and his prominent standing in class." In his graduating year, he delivered a speech on patriotism that doubled as a defense of Horace's phrase, "It is sweet and fitting to die for one's country". Following his graduation in 1826, he returned to his mother's farm in Bedford.
Priesthood
In a dramatic event during the spring of 1827, McCloskey was attempting to drive a team of oxen drawing a heavy load of logs when the wagon overturned and he was buried under the logs for several hours. After being discovered and taken to the house, he was completely blind and unconscious for several days. Although he regained his eyesight, he tired easily and was generally in poor health throughout the rest of his life. During his convalescence, however, McCloskey decided upon a vocation to the priesthood and later returned to Mount St. Mary's in September 1827 for his seminary training. In addition to his studies, he became a professor of Latin in 1829 and a prefect of discipline in 1831. He received the tonsure, minor orders, and subdiaconate all from Bishop Francis Kenrick.
On January 12, 1834, McCloskey was ordained a priest for the Diocese of New York by Bishop John Dubois, at St. Patrick's Old Cathedral. He thus became the first native New Yorker to enter the diocesan priesthood. He then served as a parochial vicar at St. Patrick's Cathedral and a chaplain at Bellevue Hospital until February 1834, when he became professor of philosophy and vice-president at the newly established St. Joseph's Seminary in Nyack. However, the seminary was destroyed by a fire in August of that same year.
McCloskey expressed his desire to minister to the victims of the cholera epidemic in New York City, but Bishop Dubois instead sent him to Rome to strengthen his health and to further his studies at the Pontifical Gregorian University and University of the Sapienza (1834–1837). While in Rome, he befriended the likes of Père Lacordaire and Cardinals Thomas Weld and Joseph Fesch. Abandoning his pursuit of the degree of Doctor of Divinity in Rome, and departing from there in February 1837, he visited Germany, Belgium, France and England before returning to New York that summer. From August 1837 to March 1844, McCloskey served as pastor of St. Joseph's Church in Greenwich Village. His tenure at the parish was initially a rather contentious one, with the trustees refusing to pay him a salary or furnish his house; one of his younger parishioners was Eugene Casserly, later a U.S. Senator from California. He also showed concern for the needs of the homeless children living in Greenwich Village. In addition to his duties at St. Joseph's, McCloskey was the first President of St. John's College in Fordham from 1841 to 1842.
Episcopal ministry
Coadjutor Bishop of New York
On November 21, 1843, McCloskey was appointed Coadjutor Bishop of New York and Titular Bishop of Axieri by Pope Gregory XVI. He received his episcopal consecration on March 10, 1844—his 34th birthday—from Bishop John Hughes, with Bishops Benedict Fenwick (who had baptized him as a child) and Richard Vincent Whelan serving as co-consecrators, at St. Patrick's Cathedral. Whereas Bishop Hughes was active and aggressive, his coadjutor was more meek and gentle. McCloskey busied himself primarily with a visitation of the entire diocese, and was also instrumental in the conversion of Isaac Hecker, founder of the Paulist Fathers, and of James Roosevelt Bayley, later Archbishop of Baltimore.
Bishop of Albany
McCloskey was named the first Bishop of the newly erected Diocese of Albany by Pope Pius IX on May 21, 1847. He was formally installed by Bishop Hughes on the following September 19. At the time of his arrival, the Upstate New York diocese covered , containing 60,000 Catholics, 25 churches, 34 priests, 2 orphanages, and 2 free schools. McCloskey first selected St. Mary's Church as his episcopal see but it soon proved unsuitable, leading him to construct the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, whose cornerstone was laid in July 1848 and dedication took place in November 1852.
He attended the First Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1852, convened the first diocesan synod in October 1855, and was named an Assistant at the Pontifical Throne in 1862. During his tenure, he increased the number of parishes to 113 and the number of priests to 84, and established three academies for boys and one for girls, four orphanages, fifteen parochial schools, and St. Joseph's Provincial Seminary in Troy. He also introduced the Augustinians, Jesuits, Franciscans, Capuchins, Religious of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of St. Joseph, and Christian Brothers into the diocese.
Archbishop of New York
Following the death of Archbishop Hughes in January 1864, McCloskey was widely expected to be named his successor. Distressed by the rumors, he wrote to Cardinal Karl von Reisach of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, objecting, "I possess neither the learning, nor prudence, nor energy, nor firmness, nor bodily health or strength." Nevertheless, he was appointed the second Archbishop of New York on May 6, 1864. McCloskey, following the end of the Civil War in 1865, resumed the construction of the new cathedral begun under his predecessor; he later dedicated it in May 1879. In 1866 he attended the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, where he preached the opening sermon with remarkable self-control and composure given the fact he had learned only moments before that St. Patrick's Old Cathedral had been gutted by a fire. However, the Trustees of the Cathedral immediately affirmed their intention to rebuild the Cathedral, and under the supervision of the Archbishop, the Cathedral was rebuilt sufficiently enough to celebrate Mass by Easter Sunday, April 21, 1867, just six months after the conflagration. The Cathedral rebuilding project was completed in full by March 13, 1868, and rededicated four days later on St. Patrick's Day by Archbishop McCloskey, and assisted by the pastor of the Cathedral, Father William Starrs. McCloskey participated in the First Vatican Council from 1869 to 1870, and voted in favor of papal infallibility despite his feelings that such a declaration was "untimely." In 1873, he solemnly dedicated the Archdiocese of New York to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
McCloskey was created Cardinal-Priest of S. Maria sopra Minerva by Pius IX in the consistory of March 15, 1875, thus becoming the first American cardinal. The news of his elevation was well received by Catholics and non-Catholics alike, and was viewed as a sign of the growing prestige of the United States. He received the red biretta from Archbishop Bayley in a ceremony at the rebuilt St. Patrick's Cathedral on Mott Street on the following April 27. The Cardinal declared, "Not to my poor merits but to those of the young and already vigorous and most flourishing Catholic Church of America has this honor been given by the Supreme Pontiff. Nor am I unaware that, when the Holy Father determined to confer me this honor he had regard to the dignity of the See of New York, to the merits and devotion of the venerable clergy and numerous laity, and that he had in mind even the eminent rank of this great city and the glorious American nation." Following the death of Pius IX in February 1878, McCloskey left for Rome but arrived too late to participate in the papal conclave, which elected Pope Leo XIII. The new Pope bestowed the red hat upon him on March 28, 1878.
When Thomas Ewing Sherman, son of the famed Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman, expressed his desire to become a Jesuit to his father, the elder Sherman wrote a letter to McCloskey in 1879 telling him to dissuade his son from such a course of action. However, the Cardinal encouraged the boy in his vocation after visiting with him. In response, the General condemned McCloskey in a St. Louis, Missouri newspaper in offensive terms and accused him of robbing him of a son. When pressed for comment by the newspaper's editor, McCloskey simply replied: "General Sherman's letter was marked 'personal and confidential.'" In 1880, he received Michael Corrigan, Bishop of Newark, as his coadjutor. His last major public appearance was in January 1884 for the Golden Jubilee celebration of his priestly ordination, for which Leo XIII sent him a jeweled chalice. In March 1884, with the help of President Chester A. Arthur and Secretary of State Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, the Cardinal helped save the Pontifical North American College from spoliation by the Italian government.
McCloskey's 21-year-long tenure as Archbishop of New York was a productive one. In response to the growing Catholic population in New York, he established 88 additional parishes (for a total of 229) in the Archdiocese, 25 of them in Manhattan, four in the Bronx, and one in Staten Island; the remaining were established outside the city. Among these was the first parish for African American Catholics. The number of priests also rose from 150 to 400 during his tenure. An advocate of Catholic education, at the time of his death there were 37,000 children enrolled at archdiocesan schools. He established several charitable societies for children and a hospital for the mentally ill.
Death
Throughout 1885 McCloskey suffered from bouts of fever, intense pain, loss of sight, and a recurrence of malaria that aggravated what appeared to be signs of Parkinson's disease. Within a few months, he was hospitalized and later died at 75. His funeral Mass was held at St. Patrick's Cathedral on October 25, 1885; during the eulogy, Archbishop James Gibbons described him as "a kind father, a devoted friend, a watchful shepherd, a fearless leader and, above all, an impartial judge."
References
External links
1810 births
1885 deaths
Pope Pius IX
19th-century American cardinals
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
Cardinals created by Pope Pius IX
Fordham University faculty
People from Brooklyn
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
Roman Catholic bishops of Albany
Mount St. Mary's University alumni | [
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245245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hughes%20%28archbishop%29 | John Hughes (archbishop) | John Joseph Hughes (June 24, 1797 – January 3, 1864) was an Irish-born prelate of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. He was the fourth Bishop and first Archbishop of the Archdiocese of New York, serving between 1842 and his death in 1864. In 1841, he founded St. John's College, which would later become Fordham University.
A native of Ireland, Hughes was born and raised in the south of County Tyrone. He emigrated to the United States in 1817, and became a priest in 1826 and a bishop in 1838. A figure of national prominence, he exercised great moral and social influence, and presided over a period of explosive growth for Catholicism in New York. He was regarded as "the best known, if not exactly the best loved, Catholic bishop in the country." He became known as "Dagger John," both for his following the Catholic practice wherein a bishop precedes his signature with a cross, as well as for his aggressive personality.
Early life
Hughes was born in the hamlet of Annaloghan, near Augher, in County Tyrone, part of the Province of Ulster in the north of Ireland. He was the third of seven children of Patrick and Margaret (née McKenna) Hughes. In reference to the anti-Catholic penal laws of Ireland, he later observed that, prior to his baptism, he had lived the first five days of his life on terms of "social and civil equality with the most favored subjects of the British Empire." He and his family suffered religious persecution in their native land; his late sister was denied a Catholic burial conducted by a priest, and Hughes himself was nearly attacked by a group of Orangemen when he was about 15. He was sent with his elder brothers to a day school in the nearby village of Augher, and afterwards attended a grammar school in Aughnacloy.
Patrick Hughes, a poor but respectable tenant farmer, was forced to withdraw John from school and sent him to work one of his farms. However, being disinclined to farm life, he was placed as an apprentice to Roger Toland, the gardener at Favour Royal Manor, to study horticulture. His family emigrated to the United States in 1816 and settled in Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Hughes joined them there the following year. He made several unsuccessful applications to Mount St. Mary's College in Emmitsburg, Maryland, where he was eventually hired by its Rector, the Abbé John Dubois, S.S., as a gardener. During this time he befriended Mother Elizabeth Ann Seton, who was favorably impressed by Hughes and persuaded Dubois to reconsider his admission. Hughes was subsequently admitted as a regular student of Mount St. Mary's in September 1820. In addition to his studies, he continued to supervise the garden, and served as a tutor in Latin and mathematics as well as prefect over the other students.
At that time, the president of Mount St. Mary's was the brilliant Simon Bruté, who also lectured on Sacred Scripture and taught Theology and Moral Philosophy. (Bruté would later become the first bishop of the Diocese of Vincennes, Indiana.) Hughes would on numerous occasions consult with his former teacher for advice long after he had left Emmitsburg.
Priesthood
As a seminarian, Hughes resolved to serve his home Diocese of Philadelphia, then governed by Bishop Henry Conwell. The bishop, while performing a canonical visitation of his diocese, met Hughes at his parents' home in Chambersburg and invited him to accompany him on the remainder of his visitation. On October 15, 1826, Hughes was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop Conwell at Old St. Joseph's Church in Philadelphia.
Hughes' first assignment was as a curate at St. Augustine's Church in Philadelphia, where he assisted its pastor, the Rev. Father Michael Hurley, O.E.S.A., by celebrating Mass, hearing confessions, preaching sermons, and other duties in the parish. Later that year he was sent to serve as a missionary in Bedford, where he secured the conversions of several Protestants. In January 1827, he was recalled to Philadelphia and named pastor of St. Joseph's Church. He laboured afterwards at St. Mary's Church, whose trustees were in open revolt against the bishop, and were subdued by Hughes only when he built St. John the Evangelist Church in 1832, then considered one of the finest in the country. Previous to this, in 1829, he founded St. John's Orphan Asylum.
About this time Hughes became engaged in a public controversy over Catholic beliefs with the Rev. John A. Breckinridge, a distinguished Presbyterian clergyman and son of the former Attorney General in the Jefferson Administration. Several debates ensued between the two concerning whether Catholicism was compatible with American republicanism and liberty. Though it was predicted that the Irish immigrant would be outclassed by his better educated Protestant adversary, Hughes acquitted himself very well against his opponent's attacks on his religion. The debates resulted in the pugnacious Hughes' emergence as a vigorous defender of Catholicism in America. His name was mentioned for the vacant see of Cincinnati and as a coadjutor for Philadelphia.
Episcopacy
Coadjutor bishop
Hughes was chosen by Pope Gregory XVI as the coadjutor bishop of the Diocese of New York on August 7, 1837. He was consecrated bishop at St. Patrick's Old Cathedral on January 7, 1838, with the title of the titular see of Basilinopolis, by the Bishop of New York, John Dubois, S.S., his former Rector. Although wishing Hughes no ill, many of the priests in the diocese had favored the popular Rev John Power, Vicar-General. Power had been overlooked for the position in 1826 when Dubois won the appointment as bishop. The clergy demonstrated their disappointment by not attending the consecration.
Trusteeism
One challenge Hughes took on upon arriving in New York was the dispute between the trustees of various parishes in the city, who held the control of these institutions. This practice was known as trusteeism, and the bishop challenged both the practicality and the legitimacy of it. Hughes drew upon his experience with this situation in Philadelphia and was able to get a referendum passed by the Catholics of the city in 1841 supporting the authority of the bishop.
Education
Hughes also campaigned actively on behalf of Irish immigrants, and attempted to secure state support for parochial schools; the effort failed. He protested against the standard use of the King James Bible in public schools by the Public School Society, a private organization which operated the schools of New York City. He claimed that it was an attack on Catholic constitutional rights of double taxation, because Catholics would need to pay taxes for public school and also pay for the parochial school to send their children, to avoid having their children indoctrinated by teachers following the Protestant teachings footnoted in that translation of the Bible. However, there are no footnotes in the King James Bible; nonetheless the translation itself favoured a Protestant doctrine over a Catholic one, in addition to being a translation from the Textus Receptus rather than the Catholic Latin Vulgate. When he failed to secure state support, he founded an independent Catholic school system in New York, as did other Catholic centers. The resulting parochial school systems which became an integral part of the Catholic Church's structure two decades after Hughes died, at the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884). It mandated that all parishes nationwide have a school and that all Catholic children be sent to those schools.
Bishop of New York
Hughes was appointed Apostolic Administrator of the diocese the following year, due to Dubois' failing health. As coadjutor, he automatically succeeded Dubois upon the bishop's death on December 20, 1842. He took over a diocese which covered the entire State of New York and northern New Jersey, having only some 40 priests to serve a Catholic population estimated to be about 200,000 at the time.
In 1844 anti-Catholic riots instigated by Nativist agitators threatened to spread to New York from Philadelphia, where two churches had been burned and twelve people had died. Hughes put armed guards at Catholic churches and, after learning a Nativist rally was scheduled to take place in New York, famously told the Nativist sympathizing mayor that "if a single Catholic Church were burned in New York, the city would become a second Moscow" – a reference to the Fire of Moscow. City leaders took him at his word, and the anti-Catholic faction was not allowed to conduct its rally.
Hughes founded the Ultramontane newspaper the New York Freeman to express his ideas. In 1850 he delivered an address entitled "The Decline of Protestantism and Its Causes," in which he announced as the ambition of Catholicism "to convert all Pagan nations, and all Protestant nations. . . . Our mission [is] to convert the world –including the inhabitants of the United States – the people of the cities, and the people of the country, . . . the Legislatures, the Senate, the Cabinet, the President, and all!"
Hughes held a "strong commitment to the cause of Irish freedom" but also felt that immigrants, particularly his fellow Irish immigrants, "should demonstrate their unswerving loyalty to their adopted land."
Archbishop
Hughes became an archbishop on July 19, 1850, when the diocese was elevated to the status of archdiocese by Pope Pius IX. As archbishop, Hughes became the metropolitan for the Catholic bishops serving all the dioceses established in the entire Northeastern United States. He convened the first meeting of the Ecclesiastical Province of New York in September 1854. After this he traveled to Rome, where he was present at the proclamation of the Immaculate Conception as a dogma of the Catholic Church by Pope Pius. Hughes served as President Lincoln's semiofficial envoy to the Vatican and to France in later 1861 and early 1862. Lincoln also sought Hughes' advice on the appointment of hospital chaplains.
In an address in March 1852, Hughes lionized what he referred to as the "spirit of the constitution," expressed hope that the "parties" of the republic would be completely "penetrated" by that spirit, and stated that the founders' achievements in the realm of religious freedom were "original" in history and that the constitution's "negation of all power to legislate" on "rights of conscience" made American law on that topic superior to that of other countries which had secured these rights "by some positive statute." In the same address, Hughes also expressed sentiments of religious toleration, stating that "we are indebted" to the "liberality of Protestantism," in light of the fact that the framers of the Constitution "were almost, if not altogether, exclusively Protestants," while averring that the strong leadership of Washington and the variety of opposing Protestant views were likely more influential to the framers' stance on religious freedom than Protestantism itself. Hughes also stated that "the great men who framed the Constitution saw, with keen and delicate perception, that the right to tolerate implied the equal right to refuse toleration, and on behalf of the United States, as a civil government, they denied all right to legislate in the premises, one way or the other." He affirmed the role of Catholic soldiers in American wars, declaring, "I think I shall be safe in saying that there has not been one important campaign or engagement in which Catholics have not bivouacked, fought, and fallen by the side of Protestants, in maintaining the rights and honor of their common country." Hughes also said that "It is... out of place, and altogether untrue, to assert or assume that this is a Protestant country or a Catholic country. It is neither. It is a land of religious freedom and equality; and I hope that, in this respect, it shall remain just what it now is to the latest posterity," and also that "Catholics, as such, are by no means strangers and foreigners in this land.... The Catholics have been here from the earliest dawn of the morning."
Slavery, and John Mitchel
While Hughes did not endorse slavery, he suggested that the conditions of the "starving laborers" in the Northern states were often worse than that of those held in bondage in the South. He believed the Abolitionist movement veered towards ideological excess. In 1842 Hughes had cautioned his flock against signing O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") which he regarded as unnecessarily provocative.
Against what he saw as the Protestant republican agenda promoted by the Young Irelander exile John Mitchel and his journal the Citizen, Hughes, nonetheless, took a stand on the issue. Mitchel was uncompromising in defence of slavery, denying it was a crime, "or even a peccadillo to hold slaves, to buy slaves, to keep slaves to their work by flogging or other needful correction". He, himself, might wish for "a good plantation well-stocked with healthy negroes in Alabama." At Mitchel saw it, Hughes copied the abolition press "to cast an Alabama plantation" in his "teeth”.
Death
Hughes served as archbishop until his death. He was originally buried in the old St. Patrick's Cathedral, but his remains were exhumed in 1882 and reinterred in the crypt under the altar of the new St. Patrick's Cathedral which he had undertaken to build.
Character
Monsignor Thomas Shelley in his study on Hughes described him as a very "complex character," with one side that was "impetuous and authoritarian, a poor administrator and worse financial manager, indifferent to the non-Irish members of his flock, and prone to invent reality when it suited the purposes of his rhetoric." But Shelley finds this did not detract from the effectiveness of Hughes, who established 61 new parishes along with many other institutions.
Historian Daniel Walker Howe writes that Hughes "labored to bring a largely working-class Irish community into a meaningful relationship with Catholic Christianity" while at the same time working "to conciliate middle-class Catholics and Protestant well-wishers whose financial support he needed for his amazingly ambitious program of building." Howe continues, "Although no theologian, John Hughes ranks high for political judgment and in the significance of his accomplishments among nineteenth century American statesmen, civil as well as ecclesiastical. He successfully coped with fierce party competition in New York, bitter battles over the public school system, revolutions in Europe, the rise of nativism across the United States, and soaring rates of immigration after the Great Famine of Ireland. He encouraged his people to hard work, personal discipline, and upward social mobility." "Crucially, he combined his staunch American patriotism with staunch devotion to a nineteenth-century papacy deeply suspicious of all liberalism, especially American." Hughes "succeeded in fostering a strong Irish American identity, one centered on the Catholic faith rather than on the secular radicalism of the Irish nationalists who competed with him for community leadership." This achievement, however, came "at the cost of losing to the Irish-American community the Irish Protestant immigrants."
According to his later successor, Patrick Cardinal Hayes, named archbishop of New York in 1919, Archbishop Hughes was severe of manner, and kindly of heart, but was not aggressive until assailed.
Legacy
In New York, Hughes founded St. John's College (now Fordham University) and, under his administration, invited many religious congregations to staff and administrate schools in New York, among them members of the Society of Jesus (to whom he entrusted the care of St. John's), who also established Fordham Prep and Xavier High School; the Brothers of the Christian Schools who founded Manhattan College; and he established as an autonomous congregation the Sisters of Charity of New York, in which his sister Angela was a member, who founded the Academy of Mount St. Vincent (now College of Mount Saint Vincent). All of these institutions remain active to this day.
"Hughes Hall," the first purpose-built home of Fordham Prep, was named for the archbishop in 1935. The building currently houses Fordham University's Gabelli School of Business on its Rose Hill campus. There is also a dining space on the Rose Hill campus named "Dagger John's" in honor of Hughes. In addition, each year, Fordham recognizes a graduating senior who has demonstrated achievement in the study of philosophy with an award named in honor of Hughes.
To the dismay of many in New York's Protestant upper-class, Hughes foresaw the uptown expansion of the city and began construction of the current St. Patrick's Cathedral on Fifth Avenue between 50th and 51st Street, laying its cornerstone on August 15, 1858. It was not completed until after his death. At the time, due to its remote location in a still-rural part of Manhattan, the new cathedral was initially dubbed "Hughes' Folly" by the press for many years. Ultimately, Hughes' foresight proved providential, as the rapid urban growth uptown would soon place the new cathedral in the emerging urban center of midtown Manhattan.
References
External links
1797 births
1864 deaths
People from County Tyrone
Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923)
Mount St. Mary's University alumni
19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United States
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
Fordham University faculty
Founders of Catholic religious communities
Burials at St. Patrick's Old Cathedral
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
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] |
245247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Connolly | John Connolly | John Connolly may refer to:
John Connolly (author) (born 1968), Irish author whose best-known novels revolve around former policeman Charlie Parker
John Connolly (bishop) (1750–1825), Irish-born second bishop of New York
John Connolly (blogger), Irish blogger and activist responsible for critically damaging the presidential campaign of Irish Senator David Norris
John Connolly (FBI) (born 1940), American imprisoned former FBI agent
John Connolly (hurler) (born 1948), retired Irish hurler
John Connolly (Irish footballer) (born 1971), Irish footballer
John Connolly (loyalist) (1741–1813), American doctor from Pennsylvania, agent of John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, active during the American Revolution
John Connolly (musician) (born 1968), American musician with Sevendust
John Connolly (rugby union coach) (born 1951), Australian former head coach of the Australia national rugby union team
John Connolly (Scottish footballer) (born 1950), Scottish football player and manager
John Joseph Connolly (1906–1982), Canadian parliamentarian and law professor
John L. Connolly (1871–1933), Canadian merchant and political figure in Nova Scotia, Canada
John Patrick Connolly (1894–1971), American politician convicted of bribery
John P. Connolly (businessman) (born 1950), British Chairman of Deloitte
John R. Connolly (born 1973), American city councillor at-large of Boston, Massachusetts
John W. Connolly (1911–1981), 46th Lieutenant Governor of Michigan
See also
John Connally (1917–1993), American Governor of Texas from 1963 to 1969
Johnny Connolly, Irish folk musician
Johnny Óg Connolly, Irish folk musician, son of the above
John Connelly (disambiguation)
Jack Connolly (disambiguation)
John Conolly (disambiguation)
John Conlee (born 1946), American country music singer | [
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245248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.%20Luke%20Concanen | R. Luke Concanen | Richard Luke Concanen, O.P. (December 27, 1747 – June 19, 1810), was an Irish prelate of the Roman Catholic Church, who served as the first bishop of the Diocese of New York (1808–1810).
Life
Richard Concanen was born in Kilbegnet, County Galway, then in the Kingdom of Ireland, a descendant of the Uí Díarmata dynasty. He completed his theological studies in Italy at age 17. (note, V.F. O'Daniel says he likely studied at the Dominican College in Louvain before joining the order at the age of eighteen or nineteen, and taking the name of "Luke"). He was ordained a Dominican priest on December 22, 1770, at the Lateran Basilica. He then served as a professor (and later prior) at the Dominican convent of St. Clement's in Rome, librarian of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, and secretary of the Dominican province of Great Britain, while also serving as the agent of the Irish bishops. Concanen was fluent in Italian, and also knew Irish, English, Latin, French, and German.
Pope Pius VI nominated Concanen as Bishop of Kilfenora and Apostolic Administrator of Kilmacduagh in 1798, but the latter declined due to his delicate health.
Concanen was a friend of Baltimore Archbishop John Carroll. Deeply interested in the missions of the United States, Concanen was instrumental in procuring permission for Father Edward Fenwick OP to leave England to set up a Dominican province in America. He made large contributions to St. Rose Priory in Kentucky, and bequeathed the Priory his library.
On April 8, 1808, Concanen was appointed the first bishop of the newly erected Diocese of New York by Pope Pius VII. He received his episcopal consecration on the following April 24 from Cardinal Michele di Pietro, with Archbishops Tommaso Arezzo and Benedetto Sinibaldi serving as co-consecrators. However, Concanen never stepped on American soil; due to the embargoes enacted during the Napoleonic Wars, he was unable to sail from the Port of Naples and was even detained as a British subject by the French forces in possession of the city. He administered his diocese by correspondence with the missionary priests working in New York City.
Concanen later died in Naples, aged 62, and his body rests in the Church of San Domenico Maggiore.
References
1747 births
1810 deaths
Christian clergy from County Galway
American Dominicans
Irish Dominicans
18th-century Irish Roman Catholic priests
Irish expatriates in Italy
Dominican bishops
19th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the United States
Roman Catholic bishops of New York
Burials at the Basilica of San Domenico, Naples
Irish expatriate Catholic bishops | [
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245273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erin | Erin | Erin is a Hiberno-English word for Ireland orginating from the Irish word "Éirinn". "Éirinn" is the dative case of the Irish word for Ireland, "Éire", genitive "Éireann", the dative being used in prepositional phrases such as "go hÉirinn" "to Ireland", "in Éirinn" "in Ireland", "ó Éirinn" "from Ireland".
The dative has replaced the nominative in a few regional Irish dialects (particularly Galway-Connemara and Waterford). Poets and nineteenth-century Irish nationalists used Erin in English as a romantic name for Ireland. Often, "Erin's Isle" was used. In this context, along with Hibernia, Erin is the name given to the female personification of Ireland, but the name was rarely used as a given name, probably because no saints, queens, or literary figures were ever called Erin.
According to Irish mythology and folklore, the name was originally given to the island by the Milesians after the goddess Ériu.
The phrase Erin go bragh ("Éire go brách" in standard orthography, dative "in Éirinn go brách" "in Ireland forever"), a slogan associated with the United Irishmen Rebellion of 1798, is often translated as "Ireland forever".
Usage as a given or family name
As a given name, Erin is used for both sexes, although, given its origins, it is principally used as a feminine forename. It first became a popular given name in the United States. Its US popularity for males peaked in 1974 with 321 boys registered with the name. Erin is also a name for Ireland in Welsh, and is one of the 20 most popular girls' names in Wales.
As a family name, Erin has been used as one of the many spellings of the name of the Scottish clan "Irwin"—which was involved in the Scottish Plantations of Ireland. However, that name was originally derived from the place of the same name near Dumfries, and means "green water", from Brittonic ir afon.
People
Females
Erin Andrews (born 1978), American sports reporter
Erin Anttila (born 1977), Irish-Finnish singer, better known by her mononym Erin
Erin Babcock (1981–2020), Canadian politician
Erin Bell (born 1987), Australian former netball player
Erin Bethea (born 1982), American actress
Erin Boag (born 1975), New Zealand ballroom dancer
Erin Brockovich (born 1960), American legal clerk and environmental activist and subject of the movie of the same name
Erin Burnett (born 1976), American news anchor and reporter
Erin Calipari American pharmacologist
Erin Davis Canadian Broadcaster and author
Grey DeLisle (born 1973), American voice actress and recording artist, real name Erin Grey van Oosbree
Erin Fitzgerald (born 1972) Canadian-American voice actress
Erin Gray (born 1950), American actress
Erin Gruwell (born 1969), American teacher
Erin Heatherton (born 1989), American fashion model
Erin Hunter, pseudonym used by the authors of the Warriors and Seekers series
Erin Kelly (born 1981), American actress
Erin McKean (born 1971), American lexicographer
Erin Moran (1960–2017), American actress
Erin Moriarty (born 1994), American actress
Erin Morgenstern (born 1978), American writer
Erin O'Connor (born 1978), British model
Erin Phillips (born 1985), Australian former basketball player and Australian rules footballer
Erin Pizzey (born 1939), author and founder of the first domestic violence shelter in the modern world
Erin Richards (born 1986), Welsh actress
Erin Sanders (born 1991), American actress
Erinn Smart (born 1980), American fencer
Erin Spanevello (1987–2008), Canadian fashion model
Erin Wall (1975–2020), Canadian operatic soprano
Males
Erin Henderson (born 1986), American football linebacker
Erin Clark (born 1997), Samoa league footballer
Erin Weir, Canadian Member of Parliament for the riding of Regina—Lewvan
Erin Cossey (born 1971), New Zealand Maori rugby union player
Erin O'Toole (born 1973), Canadian politician
Erin Pinheiro (born 1997), Cape Verdean footballer
Fiction
Erin, a character in 1986 American fantasy drama film The Boy Who Could Fly
Erin, a character in The Simpsons episode "Summer of 4 Ft. 2", voiced by Christina Ricci
Erin, protagonist of Nahoko Uehashi's light novel, manga, and anime series 獣の奏者エリン (Kemono no Sōja Erin)
Erin Driscoll, a character in U.S. thriller 24
Erin Esurance, formerly the Esurance mascot
Erin Hannon, a character in U.S. sitcom The Office
Erin Noble, a character in British television series Young Dracula
Erin Quinn, protagonist of Northern Irish sitcom Derry Girls
Erin Silver, a character in American television franchise Beverly Hills, 90210
Erin Strauss, the former BAU Section Chief from the U.S. drama series Criminal Minds
Erin Ulmer, a character from Final Destination 3
Erin Walton, a character from The Waltons
References
English feminine given names
Geographic history of Ireland
Given names
Irish feminine given names
Irish mythology | [
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245283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-function | L-function | In mathematics, an L-function is a meromorphic function on the complex plane, associated to one out of several categories of mathematical objects. An L-series is a Dirichlet series, usually convergent on a half-plane, that may give rise to an L-function via analytic continuation. The Riemann zeta function is an example of an L-function, and one important conjecture involving L-functions is the Riemann hypothesis and its generalization.
The theory of L-functions has become a very substantial, and still largely conjectural, part of contemporary analytic number theory. In it, broad generalisations of the Riemann zeta function and the L-series for a Dirichlet character are constructed, and their general properties, in most cases still out of reach of proof, are set out in a systematic way. Because of the Euler product formula there is a deep connection between L-functions and the theory of prime numbers.
Construction
We distinguish at the outset between the L-series, an infinite series representation (for example the Dirichlet series for the Riemann zeta function), and the L-function, the function in the complex plane that is its analytic continuation. The general constructions start with an L-series, defined first as a Dirichlet series, and then by an expansion as an Euler product indexed by prime numbers. Estimates are required to prove that this converges in some right half-plane of the complex numbers. Then one asks whether the function so defined can be analytically continued to the rest of the complex plane (perhaps with some poles).
It is this (conjectural) meromorphic continuation to the complex plane which is called an L-function. In the classical cases, already, one knows that useful information is contained in the values and behaviour of the L-function at points where the series representation does not converge. The general term L-function here includes many known types of zeta functions. The Selberg class is an attempt to capture the core properties of L-functions in a set of axioms, thus encouraging the study of the properties of the class rather than of individual functions.
Conjectural information
One can list characteristics of known examples of L-functions that one would wish to see generalized:
location of zeros and poles;
functional equation, with respect to some vertical line Re(s) = constant;
interesting values at integers related to quantities from algebraic K-theory.
Detailed work has produced a large body of plausible conjectures, for example about the exact type of functional equation that should apply. Since the Riemann zeta function connects through its values at positive even integers (and negative odd integers) to the Bernoulli numbers, one looks for an appropriate generalisation of that phenomenon. In that case results have been obtained for p-adic L-functions, which describe certain Galois modules.
The statistics of the zero distributions are of interest because of their connection to problems like the generalized Riemann hypothesis, distribution of prime numbers, etc. The connections with random matrix theory and quantum chaos are also of interest. The fractal structure of the distributions has been studied using rescaled range analysis. The self-similarity of the zero distribution is quite remarkable, and is characterized by a large fractal dimension of 1.9. This rather large fractal dimension is found over zeros covering at least fifteen orders of magnitude for the Riemann zeta function, and also for the zeros of other L-functions of different orders and conductors.
Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture
One of the influential examples, both for the history of the more general L-functions and as a still-open research problem, is the conjecture developed by Bryan Birch and Peter Swinnerton-Dyer in the early part of the 1960s. It applies to an elliptic curve E, and the problem it attempts to solve is the prediction of the rank of the elliptic curve over the rational numbers (or another global field): i.e. the number of free generators of its group of rational points. Much previous work in the area began to be unified around a better knowledge of L-functions. This was something like a paradigm example of the nascent theory of L-functions.
Rise of the general theory
This development preceded the Langlands program by a few years, and can be regarded as complementary to it: Langlands' work relates largely to Artin L-functions, which, like Hecke L-functions, were defined several decades earlier, and to L-functions attached to general automorphic representations.
Gradually it became clearer in what sense the construction of Hasse–Weil zeta functions might be made to work to provide valid L-functions, in the analytic sense: there should be some input from analysis, which meant automorphic analysis. The general case now unifies at a conceptual level a number of different research programs.
See also
Generalized Riemann hypothesis
Dirichlet L-function
Automorphic L-function
Modularity theorem
Artin conjecture
Special values of L-functions
Shimizu L-function
References
External links
Articles about a breakthrough third degree transcendental L-function | [
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245284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20of%20Sandwich | Earl of Sandwich | Earl of Sandwich is a noble title in the Peerage of England, held since its creation by the House of Montagu. It is nominally associated with Sandwich, Kent. It was created in 1660 for the prominent naval commander Admiral Sir Edward Montagu. He was made Baron Montagu of St Neots, of St Neots in the County of Huntingdon, and Viscount Hinchingbrooke, at the same time, also in the Peerage of England. The viscountcy is used as the courtesy title by the heir apparent to the earldom. A member of the prominent Montagu family, Lord Sandwich was the son of Sir Sidney Montagu, youngest brother of Henry Montagu, 1st Earl of Manchester (from whom the Dukes of Manchester descend), and Edward Montagu, 1st Baron Montagu of Boughton (from whom the Dukes of Montagu descended).
He was succeeded by his son, the second Earl. He briefly represented Dover in the House of Commons and served as Ambassador to Portugal and as Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdonshire and Cambridgeshire.
The second Earl's great-grandson was The 4th Earl of Sandwich, who was a prominent statesman and served as First Lord of the Admiralty and as Secretary of State for the Northern Department. Lord Sandwich is also remembered for sponsoring the voyages of discovery made by Captain James Cook, R.N., who named the Sandwich Islands in his honour, and as the namesake of the sandwich.
He was succeeded by his son, the fifth Earl. He sat as Member of Parliament for Brackley and Huntingdonshire and served as Vice-Chamberlain of the Household and as Master of the Buckhounds. His son, the sixth Earl, also represented Huntingdonshire in Parliament.
He was succeeded by his son, the seventh Earl. He held office in the first two Conservative administrations of the Earl of Derby as Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms and Master of the Buckhounds and was also Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdonshire. His eldest son, the eighth Earl, represented Huntingdon in the House of Commons as a Conservative and served as Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdonshire.
He was succeeded by his nephew, the ninth Earl. He was the son of Rear-Admiral the Hon. Victor Alexander Montagu, second son of the seventh Earl. Lord Sandwich was Member of Parliament for Huntingdon and Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdonshire.
His son, the tenth Earl, represented South Dorset in Parliament as a Conservative from 1941 to 1962, when he succeeded his father in the earldom and had to resign his seat in the House of Commons and enter the House of Lords. He disclaimed his peerages in 1964 but never returned to the House of Commons.
, the titles are held by his eldest son, the eleventh Earl, who succeeded in 1995. Lord Sandwich is one of the ninety elected hereditary peers that remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999, and sits as a cross-bencher.
The family seat is today at Mapperton in Dorset. From the 17th century until the 1960s, the family also owned Hinchingbrooke House in Huntingdonshire, now a school, from which the title Viscount Hinchingbrooke was derived.
Some historical papers of the family and its Hinchingbrooke estate are held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office in Huntingdon.
Earls of Sandwich (1660)
Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich (1625–1672)
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Sandwich (1644–1689)
Edward Montagu, 3rd Earl of Sandwich (1670–1729)
Edward Richard Montagu, Viscount Hinchingbrooke (1692–1722)
John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718–1792) (eponymous inventor of the sandwich)
John Montagu, 5th Earl of Sandwich (1744–1814)
George John Montagu, 6th Earl of Sandwich (1773–1818)
John William Montagu, 7th Earl of Sandwich (1811–1884)
Edward George Henry Montagu, 8th Earl of Sandwich (1839–1916)
The Honourable Victor Alexander Montagu (1841–1915)
George Charles Montagu, 9th Earl of Sandwich (1874–1962)
(Alexander) Victor Edward Paulet Montagu, 10th Earl of Sandwich (1906–1995) (disclaimed 1964)
John Edward Hollister Montagu, 11th Earl of Sandwich (b. 1943)
The heir apparent is the present holder's elder son, Luke Timothy Charles Montagu, Viscount Hinchingbrooke (b. 1969), who is married to an American entrepreneur, Julie Jean Montagu, Viscountess Hinchingbrooke. The heir apparent's heir apparent is their elder son together, The Hon. William James Hayman Montagu (b. 2004).
Line of succession (selected)
Alexander Victor Edward Paulet Montagu, 10th Earl of Sandwich (1906—1995)
John Montagu, 11th Earl of Sandwich (b. 1943)
(1) Luke Timothy Charles Montagu, Viscount Hinchingbrooke (b. 1969)
(2) The Hon. William James Hayman Montagu (b. 2004)
(3) The Hon. Nestor John Sturges Montagu (b. 2006)
(4) The Hon. Orlando William Montagu (b. 1971)
(5) Walter Frederick Montagu (b. 2005)
(6) The Hon. George Charles Robert Montagu (b. 1949)
(7) Oliver Drogo Montagu (b. 1974)
(8) Cosimo Ralph Montagu (b. 1988)
Notes
References
Leigh Rayment's Peerage Page
External links
Earldoms in the Peerage of England
Noble titles created in 1660
1660 establishments in England | [
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245286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora | Kutná Hora | Kutná Hora (; medieval Czech: Hory Kutné; ) is a town in the Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 21,000 inhabitants. The centre of Kutná Hora, including the Sedlec Abbey and its ossuary, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995 because of its outstanding architecture and its influence on subsequent architectural developments in other Central European city centres. Since 1961, the town centre is also protected by law as an urban monument reservation, the fourth largest in the country.
Administrative parts
The town is made up of twelve town parts and villages:
Kutná Hora-Vnitřní Město
Hlouška
Kaňk
Karlov
Malín
Neškaredice
Perštejnec
Poličany
Sedlec
Šipší
Vrchlice
Žižkov
History
Establishment
The earliest traces of silver have been found dating back to the 10th century, when Bohemia already had been in the crossroads of long-distance trade for many centuries. Silver dinars have been discovered belonging to the period between 982 and 995 in the settlement of Malín, which is now a part of Kutná Hora.
The town began in 1142 with the settlement of Sedlec Abbey, the first Cistercian monastery in Bohemia. The Cistercian order based in the Sedlec Monastery was brought from the Imperial immediate Cistercian Waldsassen Abbey in Bavaria, Germany, close to the border with the Czech Republic. By 1260, German miners began to mine for silver in the mountain region, which they named Kuttenberg, and which was part of the monastery property. The name of the mountain is said to have derived from the monks' cowls (the Kutten) or from the word mining (kutání in old Czech).
Middle Ages
From the 13th to 16th centuries, the town competed with Prague economically, culturally, and politically. Under Abbot , the territory greatly advanced due to the silver mines which gained importance during the economic boom of the 13th century.
In 1300, King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia issued the new royal mining code (also known as Constitutiones Iuris Metallici Wenceslai II). This was a legal document that specified all administrative as well as technical terms and conditions necessary for the operation of mines. Prague groschen were minted between 1300 and 1547/48.
In December 1402, the town was sacked by King Sigismund after the imprisonment of Wenceslaus IV. It was heavily defended by its residents. After several bloody skirmishes, Sigismund prevailed and forced the defenders to march to Kolín and kneel in subjugation. Although Sigismund was successful in his conquest, his hetman Markvart of Ulice () died after being struck by an arrow during the siege on 27 December.
The town developed with great rapidity, and at the outbreak of the Hussite Wars in 1419 was the second most important town in Bohemia after Prague, having become the favourite residence of several Bohemian kings. It was here that, on 18 January 1409, Wenceslaus IV signed the famous Decree of Kutná Hora, by which the Czech university nation was given three votes in the elections to the faculty of Prague University as against one for the three other nations.
In 1420, Sigismund made the town the base for his unsuccessful attack on the Taborites during the Hussite Wars, leading to the Battle of Kutná Hora. Kutná Hora was taken by Jan Žižka, and after a temporary reconciliation of the warring parties was burned by the imperial troops in 1422, to prevent its falling again into the hands of the Taborites. Žižka nonetheless took the place, and under Bohemian auspices it awoke to a new period of prosperity.
Around 1500, the town ceased to be German-speaking and became Czech-speaking in majority.
Modern era
Along with the rest of Bohemia, Kuttenberg (Kutná Hora) passed to the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria in 1526. In 1546, the richest mine was severely flooded. In the insurrection of Bohemia against Ferdinand I the town lost all its privileges. Repeated visitations of the plague and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War completed its ruin. Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines failed; the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devastated by fire. The mines were abandoned at the end of the 18th century.
In May 1742 during the First Silesian War, a Prussian force under Frederick the Great stopped in the town prior to the Battle of Chotusitz.
Bohemia was a crownland of the Austrian Empire in 1806, and remained controlled by the Austrian monarchy after the compromise of 1867. Until 1918, Kuttenberg was the capital of the district of the same name, one of the 94 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Bohemia. Together with the rest of Bohemia, the town became part of the newly founded Czechoslovakia after World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary.
Kutná Hora was incorporated into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia by Nazi Germany in the period 1939–1945, but was restored to Czechoslovakia after World War II. The town became part of the Czech Republic in 1993, after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
Demography
Sights
Sedlec is the site of the Gothic Church of the Assumption of Our Lady and Saint John the Baptist and the famous Sedlec Ossuary. It is estimated that the ossuary is decorated with bones of more than 40,000 skeletons.
Among the most important buildings in the town are the Gothic, five-naved St. Barbara's Church, begun in 1388, and the Italian Court, formerly a royal residence and mint, which was built at the end of the 13th century.
The Gothic Stone House, which since 1902 has served as a museum of silver, contains one of the richest archives in the country. The Gothic Church of Saint James the Great, with its tower, is another prominent building.
Other sights include:
Jesuit College
Plague Column
Church of St. John of Nepomuk
Church of Saint Ursula's Convent
Church of Saint Stephan in Malín
Notable people
Jakob Jakobeus (1591–1645), Slovak writer
Václav Bernard Ambrosi (1723–1806), painter
Jan Erazim Vocel (1803–1871), poet, archaeologist and historian
Josef Kajetán Tyl (1808–1856), dramatist and writer, author of the national anthem
Antonín Lhota (1812–1905), painter and art teacher
Felix Jenewein (1857–1905), painter and illustrator
Gabriela Preissová (1862–1946), writer and playwright
Emanuel Viktor Voska (1875–1960), intelligence agency officer
Karel Domin (1882–1953), botanist and politician
Jaroslav Vojta (1888–1970), actor
Vera Prasilova Scott (1899–1996), Czech-American photographer and sculptor
František Zelenka (1904–1944), architect, graphic, stage set and costume designer
Jiří Orten (1919–1941), poet
Zbyněk Zbyslav Stránský (1926–2016), museologist
Zdenka Neuhäuslová (1934–2021), botanist
Radka Denemarková (born 1968), writer and translator
Alena Mills (born 1990), ice hockey player
Twin towns – sister cities
Kutná Hora is twinned with:
Bingen am Rhein, Germany
Eger, Hungary
Fidenza, Italy
Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Kamianets-Podilskyi, Ukraine
Kremnica, Slovakia
Reims, France
Ringsted, Denmark
Stamford, England, United Kingdom
Tarnowskie Góry, Poland
Gallery
See also
Jáchymov – another Bohemian silver mining town
References
External links
Photo Gallery of Kutná Hora and Travel Information
World Heritage Sites in the Czech Republic
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Kutná Hora District
Mining communities in the Czech Republic | [
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245296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyte%20%28province%29 | Leyte (province) | Leyte (also Northern Leyte; Cebuano: Amihanang Leyte; ; ) is a province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region, occupying the northern three-quarters of Leyte Island. Its capital is the city of Tacloban, administered independently from the province. Leyte is situated west of Samar Island, north of Southern Leyte and south of Biliran. To the west across the Camotes Sea is the province of Cebu.
The historical name of the Philippines, "Las Islas Felipenas", named by Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos in honor of Prince Philip of Spain, used to refer to the islands of Leyte and Samar only, until it was adopted to refer to the entire archipelago.
The island of Leyte is known as Tandaya during the 16th century.
Leyte is also known as the site of the largest naval battle in modern history, the Battle of Leyte Gulf, which took place during the Second World War.
Leyte is especially prone to typhoons because it geographically faces toward the Pacific Ocean. On 8 November 2013, the province was severely affected by Super Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan). The typhoon, known internationally as Haiyan, and domestically referred to as Yolanda, killed thousands of people and garnered significant international media attention. Leyte suffered similar destruction and loss of life in 1991 from Tropical Storm Thelma.
History
Pre-colonial period
The island of Leyte was once the location of Mairete, meaning land of Ete, a historic community which was ruled by Datu Ete centered in present-day municipality of Leyte and nearby towns. It was the oldest city-state in the entire Eastern Visayas region. Before being colonized by Spain, the island was once home to indigenous animist Warays to the East and other indigenous Hindu-Buddhist Visayan groups to the west.
Spanish period
The Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, first came to the island in 1543 and named it Las Islas Felipinas. When the Spanish government established government in Cebu, Leyte and Samar became part of the province of Cebu. In 1595, the religious Jesuits established mission in Carigara which preceded the mission established in Palo in 1596 and Ormoc and Alangalang missions in 1597. In 1735, Leyte and Samar were separated from Cebu to be established as a single provincial government with Carigara as the first provincial capital. In 1768, Leyte and Samar were split into two separate provinces.
American period
Division of Leyte
On March 27, 1923, Act No 3117 was proposed to divide Leyte into Occidental Leyte and Oriental Leyte but was not proclaimed by the Governor-General of the Philippines. On May 22, 1959, Republic Act No. 2227 was passed into law that separated the third Congressional District of Leyte into a separate province of Southern Leyte.
During the World War II era, the Leyte Provincial Capitol briefly became the seat of Philippine Commonwealth Government.
Battle of Leyte Gulf
The Battle of Leyte Gulf took place in the seas surrounding this island from 23 October to 26 October 1944. It was the largest naval battle in modern history, when at least 212 Allied ships clashed with the remnants of the Imperial Japanese Navy, some 60 ships, including the super battleships Yamato and Musashi.
The First Battle of Leyte occurred on 20 October 1944. A successful Allied invasion of the island was the crucial element to the eventual Filipino and American victory in the Philippines.
Geography
Leyte covers a total area of occupying the northern and central sections of Leyte in the Eastern Visayas region. The province is situated west of Samar Island, north of Southern Leyte, south of Biliran, and east of the Camotes Sea.
Administrative divisions
Leyte comprises 40 municipalities and three cities, all clustered into 5 congressional districts.
Ormoc is an independent component city, while the capital Tacloban was declared a highly urbanized city in 2008. Both cities govern themselves independently of the province and their residents do not vote for elective provincial officials.
Baybay attained cityhood in 2007 but reverted to its municipal status when the Supreme Court declared its city charter unconstitutional in 2008. It regained its city status following the reversal of the Supreme Court decision dated December 22, 2009. In August 2010, however, a resolution had been passed reverting 16 cities, one of which was Baybay, to municipal status. It was on February 15, 2011, that the Supreme Court reversed its decision once again, allowing Baybay, along with the other 16 cities, to retain their cityhood status.
Demographics
The population of Leyte in the was people, with a density of . When Tacloban is included for geographical purposes, the population is 1,966,768 people, with a density of .
The people of Leyte are divided into two main groups, primarily by language. In the west and south are the Cebuanos, while in the north and east are the Warays.
Most Leyteños also can also speak and understand Filipino and English. Few students that study Spanish and some descendants of Spanish colonists can understand and speak Spanish.
Leyte is predominantly Roman Catholic Christian province. According to the Year 2000 census, 97% of Leyte's population is Roman Catholic Christians, one of the highest percentage in the Visayas. While the remaining 3% are adherents of other different Christian sects, denominations and churches such as the indigenous Iglesia ni Cristo, Kingdom of Jesus Christ and Members Church of God International or popularly known as Ang Dating Daan and the foreign religious groups like Mormons, Baptists, Evangelicals, Pentecostals, and Seventh-Day Adventists (Sabadistas) and other Protestant groups.
Islam is also present in the province and concentrated in the metropolitan Tacloban area. It comprised 0.3% of Tacloban City's population and all adherents are Maranao and other Moro migrants from the Mindanao region who work mostly as traders.
Official provincial seal
The upper portion is a perspective of the national Freedom Park commemorating the landing of General Douglas MacArthur and the American Liberation Forces in Leyte during World War II. The white cross represents the 2nd phase of Leyte's development when Magellan stopped here on his way to Cebu. The alphabet on the cross argent is the ancient Visayan paleographic syllabary of the letter L which stands for Leyte. The stars around the inner circle symbolize the forty-one towns of Leyte and the everlasting flame symbolizes the soldiers who died during World War II.
Economy
The economy of Leyte is a mixed agriculture, fishing, industrial, energy and mining. Rice is farmed in the lowland plains areas specifically those around Tacloban, while coconut farming, is the main cash crop in upland and mountainous areas. Sugarcane plantation is no. 1 produce in Ormoc City. Since Leyte is an island province, fishing is a major source of livelihood among coastal residents.
The province is the site of the largest geothermal power plant in Asia, making it one of the resource-rich provinces of the Philippines. Excess energy of the numerous powerplants in the geothermal valley that generate electricity is supplied to the national grid that adds to the energy demand in Luzon and Mindanao. Mining industry has started to pick up in the province with the exploration in MacArthur. The iron smelting in Isabel has been operational for more than 20 years since its inception.
Leyte ICT Park
The Leyte Information Communications Technology (ICT) Park is one of the economic zones approved by the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA). Located at Pawing, Palo, Leyte, the 6.8 facility hosts two business process outsourcing (BPO) companies, namely, the Expert Global Solutions (EGS) Company (formerly APAC Customer Services, Inc.) and ACUDATA, Inc. (a financial and data services BPO). However, EGS decided to fully close its operations after its facility was destroyed by Typhoon Haiyan in 2013.
Leyte is emerging to be an ICT-BPO Hub for Eastern Visayas.
Transportation
Leyte is connected by air with its only commercial airport located in Tacloban City. Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport, which is one of the busiest airports in the Philippines, is served by three major airlines, Philippine Airlines, Cebu Pacific and AirAsia. Tacloban Airport primarily serves connecting flights from major Philippine cities (Manila and Cebu).
Philtranco, which has a bus stop in Tacloban and Ormoc, operates a route along Manila-Maharlika highway, passing through Allen, Northern Samar in Samar Island (via ferry boat) from Matnog, Sorsogon in Bicol region.
Commercial seaport is of vital importance. Major ports of the province are located at Ormoc City, in the south and Tacloban City, in the north. Small ports are also located in Palompon, San Isidro, Bato, Hilongos and Baybay City.
See also
Manuel Artigas
Ruy López de Villalobos
References
External links
Official Website of Leyte Province
2007 Philippine Census Information
Local Governance Performance Management System
Provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1735
1735 establishments in the Philippines | [
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245298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcan%20formula | Barcan formula | In quantified modal logic, the Barcan formula and the converse Barcan formula (more accurately, schemata rather than formulas) (i) syntactically state principles of interchange between quantifiers and modalities; (ii) semantically state a relation between domains of possible worlds. The formulas were introduced as axioms by Ruth Barcan Marcus, in the first extensions of modal propositional logic to include quantification.
Related formulas include the Buridan formula.
The Barcan formula
The Barcan formula is:
.
In English, the schema reads: If every x is necessarily F, then it is necessary that every x is F. It is equivalent to
.
The Barcan formula has generated some controversy because—in terms of possible world semantics—it implies that all objects which exist in any possible world (accessible to the actual world) exist in the actual world, i.e. that domains cannot grow when one moves to accessible worlds. This thesis is sometimes known as actualism—i.e. that there are no merely possible individuals. There is some debate as to the informal interpretation of the Barcan formula and its converse.
An informal argument against the plausibility of the Barcan formula would be the interpretation of the predicate Fx as "x is a machine that can tap all the energy locked in the waves of the Atlantic Ocean in a practical and efficient way". In its equivalent form above, the antecedent seems plausible since it is at least theoretically possible that such a machine could exist. However, it is not obvious that this implies that there exists a machine that possibly could tap the energy of the Atlantic.
Converse Barcan formula
The converse Barcan formula is:
.
It is equivalent to
.
If a frame is based on a symmetric accessibility relation, then the Barcan formula will be valid in the frame if, and only if, the converse Barcan formula is valid in the frame. It states that domains cannot shrink as one moves to accessible worlds, i.e. that individuals cannot cease to exist. The converse Barcan formula is taken to be more plausible than the Barcan formula.
See also
Commutative property
References
External links
Barcan both ways by Melvin Fitting
Contingent Objects and the Barcan Formula by Hayaki Reina
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245303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess%20prodigy | Chess prodigy | The term chess prodigy refers to a young child who possesses an aptitude for the game of chess that far exceeds what might be expected at their age. Their prodigious talent will often enable them to defeat experienced adult players and even titled chess masters. Some chess prodigies have progressed to become World Chess Champion.
Early chess prodigies
Early chess prodigies included Paul Morphy (1837–1884) and José Raúl Capablanca (1888–1942), both of whom won matches against strong adult opponents at the age of 12, and Samuel Reshevsky (1911–1992), who was giving simultaneous exhibitions at the age of six. Morphy went on to be unofficial World Champion (before the official title existed), Capablanca became the third World Champion, and Reshevsky—while never attaining the title—was amongst the top few players in the world for many decades.
Arturo Pomar (1931-2016) was another to be labelled a prodigy by chess writers. He played his first international tournament (Madrid 1943) at the age of 11 and went on to become Spain's first grandmaster.
Youngest to defeat a grandmaster
There is often widespread attention when a young player defeats a Grandmaster, whether in a standard tournament game or less formal conditions.
Formal conditions
The youngest player to defeat a grandmaster under standard time controls is Awonder Liang, who in 2012 defeated Larry Kaufman at the Washington International at the age of 9 years and 111 days.
The previous record was set in 2009, when Hetul Shah defeated GM Nurlan Ibrayev at the age of nine years and six months at the Parsvnath Open.
Informal conditions
In 1999, David Howell defeated John Nunn in a blitz game at the age of eight.
In 1976, a ten-year-old Nigel Short beat Viktor Korchnoi as a participant in a simultaneous exhibition, the only game Korchnoi lost in the event.
In March 2021, 10-year-old Frederick Waldhausen Gordon, from Scotland, won against GM Bogdan Lalic in an online rapid 10+5 game in the ECF Grand Prix Rapid Event 1 held on lichess.org.
List of youngest grandmasters
Since 1950, when the Grandmaster (GM) title was introduced by FIDE, one measure of chess prodigies is the age at which they gain the GM title. Below are players who have held the record for the youngest grandmaster. The record is currently held by Abhimanyu Mishra. The age listed is the age at which they qualified for the title. This is not equal to the age at which they officially became grandmasters, because GM titles can only be awarded at FIDE congresses. The nationality listed is the player's nationality at the time of gaining the title, not their current or later nationality.
This is a list of the players who became Grandmasters before their 14th birthday.
Note: Karjakin has changed countries since attaining the grandmaster title.
List of youngest female grandmasters
Below are the holders of the record for the youngest female player to become a grandmaster (not to be confused with the lesser Woman Grandmaster title):
References
External links
Edward Winter, Chess Prodigies (2005, updated in 2006 and 2007)
Chessbase news about young Grandmasters
Youngest Chess Player in India Set World Record
Smallest Chess Player Chess Tournament Set World Record
prodigy
Giftedness
Childhood
Intelligence | [
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] |
245307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treeswift | Treeswift | Treeswifts or crested swifts are a family, the Hemiprocnidae, of aerial near passerine birds, closely related to the true swifts. The family contains a single genus, Hemiprocne, with four species. They are distributed from India and Southeast Asia through Indonesia to New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
Treeswifts are small to medium-sized swifts, ranging in length from 15 to 30 cm. They have long wings, with most of the length coming from the length of the primaries; their arms are actually quite short. They visibly differ from the other swifts in matters of plumage, which is softer, and they have crests or other facial ornaments, and long, forked tails. Anatomically they are separated from the true swifts by skeletal details in the cranium and palate, the anatomy of the tarsus, and a nonreversible hind toe that is used for perching on branches (an activity in which true swifts are unable to engage). The males have iridescent mantle plumage. They also have diastataxic wings, that is they lack a fifth secondary feather unlike swifts in the Apodini, which are eutaxic.
The treeswifts exhibit a wide range of habitat preferences. One species, the whiskered treeswift, is a species belonging to primary forest. Highly manoeuvrable, it feeds close to vegetation beneath the canopy, and only rarely ventures into secondary forests or plantations, but never over open ground. Other species are less restricted; the crested treeswift makes use of a range of habitats including humid forests and deciduous woodland, and the grey-rumped treeswift occupies almost every habitat type available from the mangrove forests to hill forests. All species feed on insects, although exact details of what prey are taken has not been studied in detail.
Nest-building responsibilities are shared by the male and female. They lay one egg in the nest, which is glued to an open tree branch. Egg colour varies from white to grey. Little information is available about incubation times, but they are thought to be longer for the larger species. Chicks hatch with a covering of grey down and are fed a bolus of regurgitated food by the parents.
Species
Crested treeswift, H. coronata
Grey-rumped treeswift, H. longipennis
Whiskered treeswift, H. comata
Moustached treeswift, H. mystacea
References
Further reading
del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1999). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 5: Barn-Owls to Hummingbirds. Lynx Edicions. | [
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245318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrie-Anne%20Moss | Carrie-Anne Moss | Carrie-Anne Moss (born August 21, 1967) is a Canadian actress. After early roles on television, she rose to international prominence for her role of Trinity in The Matrix series (1999–present). She has starred in Memento (2000) for which she won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female, Red Planet (2000), Chocolat (2000), Fido (2006), Snow Cake (2006) for which she won the Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role, Disturbia (2007), Unthinkable (2010), Silent Hill: Revelation (2012), and Pompeii (2014). She also portrayed Jeri Hogarth in several television series produced by Marvel Television for Netflix, most notably Jessica Jones (2015–2019).
Early life
Carrie-Anne Moss was born in Burnaby, British Columbia, the daughter of Barbara and Melvyn Moss. She has an older brother, Brooke. Moss's mother reportedly named her after the Hollies' 1967 hit song, "Carrie Anne", which had been released in May that year. Moss lived with her mother in Vancouver as a child. At the age of 11, she joined the Vancouver children's musical theatre and later went on to tour Europe with the Magee Secondary School Choir in her senior year.
Career
1990s and breakthrough
While living in Spain, Moss obtained a role as Tara, the clerk to Judge Bruce Marshall in the drama series Dark Justice, her first television appearance. She moved from Barcelona to Los Angeles with the series in 1992. Moss left Dark Justice before the series' third and final season and was replaced by Elisa Heinsohn as Samantha "Sam" Collins. She enrolled at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in Pasadena upon her return, and she subsequently starred in Fox's primetime soap opera Models Inc., a spin-off of Melrose Place, as a model. The series was cancelled in July 1995. She headlined a short-lived made-in-Canada series entitled Matrix. For most of the 1990s, she appeared in several television series such as Street Justice, Baywatch, F/X: The Series, and Due South, for which she scored a nomination for the Gemini Award for Best Guest Actress in a Drama. Many of her film roles in the decade were in B movies, including Flashfire (1994), The Soft Kill (1994), Tough Guy (1994), Lethal Tender (1996), Sabotage (1996), and The Secret Life of Algernon (1997).
Her breakthrough role came when she played Trinity in the science-fiction thriller The Matrix (1999). Her role demanded extreme acrobatic actions, and she underwent a three-hour physical test during casting. The film grossed over US$460 million worldwide and was highly acclaimed by critics, some of whom have considered it one of the greatest science-fiction films ever made. Moss asserted that prior to being cast in The Matrix, she had "no career". It launched Moss into international recognition and transformed her career; in a New York Daily News interview, she stated, "The Matrix gave me so many opportunities. Everything I've done since then has been because of that experience. It gave me so much." Moss was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress, and for the MTV Movie Award for Breakthrough Female Performance.
2000s
Moss had four film releases in 2000—Chocolat, Red Planet, The Crew, and Memento. In the romantic comedy Chocolat, she took on the role of Caroline Clairmont, a cold, devoutly pious woman living in a French village. As part of an overall positive response towards the film, The New York Times remarked that Moss, "as an upright widowed mother swathed in mournful baby blue, radiates glimmers of hurt; she shows it's not easy to keep up such a front." The film made US$152 million at the international box office. The science-fiction thriller Red Planet had her play the commander and leader of a rescue mission to Mars. A.V. Club felt that Moss was "largely reduced to worrying while modelling a series of tight-fitting space fashions". Despite a US$80 million budget, the film only grossed US$33 million worldwide. She appeared as detective Olivia Neal in the crime black comedy The Crew, directed by Michael Dinner.
In Christopher Nolan's neo-noir psychological thriller Memento, she portrayed a manipulative bartender who meets a man suffering from anterograde amnesia. Producer Jennifer Todd suggested Moss for the part after being impressed by her performance in The Matrix. Nolan decided to cast Moss as Natalie, saying, "She added an enormous amount to the role of Natalie that wasn't on the page". The film became a sleeper hit, being acclaimed by critics and earning US$39.7 million over a US$9 million budget. She won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female for her performance.
Moss reprised the role of Trinity in the back-to-back sequels The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions, both released in 2003. Like the original, The Matrix Reloaded received positive critical reception, and became a major box office hit, grossing US$742.1 million worldwide. The Matrix Revolutions received a lukewarm critical reception, but made US$427.3 million globally. During an interview with BBC Online, Moss expressed her pride for starring in the franchise, which she described as a "segment of [her] life": "It's deep and it's beautiful to have been part of it for so long. It's pretty spectacular". She provided voiceovers for video game and animated spin-offs of the films.
In 2005, Moss starred in the little-seen thriller Suspect Zero as FBI agent Fran Kulok, and was part of an ensemble cast in the independent dramedy The Chumscrubber, which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. Moss next appeared in the zombie comedy Fido (2006), playing a housewife in a 1950s-esque alternate universe where radiation from space has turned the dead into zombies. She noted the "very rich" and "very visual" script for the film, and became drawn to the project for its "underlying messages about control and domination". Fido was an opening night film at the Toronto International Film Festival, and received largely favourable reviews, with the Los Angeles Times calling it a "crafty mixture of George Romero and Douglas Sirk." Moss played the neighbour of an autistic woman in the small-scale romantic drama Snow Cake (2006). It was released in selected theatres, to positive reviews from critics. Moss earned a nomination for Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role.
In the Hitchcockian thriller Disturbia (2007), Moss portrayed the mother of a troubled teenager who suspects one of his neighbours is a serial killer. The film was met with a positive critical reception and made US$117.8 million around the globe. She played one of the people who are brought together in the wake of a deadly car accident in the independent drama Normal (2007), released for selected theatres. Moss appeared in the drama Fireflies in the Garden, which revolved around the inner lives and affairs of a family. The production premiered at the 2008 Berlin International Film Festival and was released theatrically in the United States in October 2011. She starred in the straight-to-DVD romantic comedy Love Hurts (2009).
2010s
In the thriller Unthinkable (2010), directed by Gregor Jordan, Moss played the leader of an FBI counter-terrorism team assigned to interrogate a man who threatens to detonate three nuclear bombs in the United States. The film was released direct-to-DVD and generated controversy over its subject matter. She took on the role of antagonist Claudia Wolf in the sequel to the 2006 horror film Silent Hill, Silent Hill: Revelation (2012). Budgeted at US$20 million, the film grossed US$52.3 million worldwide, but garnered an overwhelmingly negative reception among film critics and fans alike. Mentioning Moss in its review for the film, The New York Times remarked that the supporting actors "deserve much, much better". She voiced the character Aria in the video games Mass Effect 2 (2010) and Mass Effect 3 (2012).
She had a four-episode arc in the series Chuck between 2011 and 2012, and played the regular role of Las Vegas Assistant District Attorney Katherine O'Connell in the CBS period drama series Vegas, which premiered in September 2012, but was cancelled after its first season, despite an overall positive response. Writing for The New York Times, Mike Hale felt that Moss "feels out of place in this frontier tale, but looks great in snug wool suits". Moss obtained the role of Penelope, a California candidate for governor who runs a free health clinic, in the political thriller Knife Fight (2012), directed by Bill Guttentag. The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival and was released for a two-theater run and digital platforms. Moss headlined the psychological dark comedy Compulsion (2013), in which she played one of two people occupying neighbouring apartments, each one grappling with psychological disorders that begin to overtake their lives. The film opened for limited release. She voiced the character of Admiral Wells in the fantasy animated film The Clockwork Girl (2014).
She starred in the 3D historical disaster picture Pompeii (2014), produced and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. The film, inspired by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 that destroyed the Roman Empire city Pompeii, had her portray Aurelia, the wife of the city governor. In the independent drama Elephant Song (2014), directed by Charles Binamé, Moss starred as the wife of a psychiatrist. The film was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, and in its review for the film, Variety described her role as "a pushily self-centered second wife" and found her part to be "a poorly integrated subplot" in the film. In 2015, she voiced a widowed mother in the made-for-television animated film Pirate's Passage, was one of the narrators in the documentary Unity, and appeared as the wife of Victor Frankenstein in Frankenstein, an updated adaptation of Mary Shelley's book.
In 2015, Moss appeared in Jessica Jones as Jeri Hogarth, an attorney and potentially powerful ally to the title character. The gender of the character was changed from male to female for the series, and the character was written as a lesbian. Moss signed on to the series after reading the first two scripts, having been pitched the character by producer Jeph Loeb and screenwriter Melissa Rosenberg. She described the character by saying, "she's fierce, she's strong, she's powerful, and she likes that power". The web series premiered on Netflix, to critical acclaim. Moss has also reprised her role of Jeri Hogarth in the second-season finale of Daredevil, and has had recurring arcs in Iron Fist and The Defenders. Moss took on the lead role of Dr. Athena Morrow, an AI researcher invited to reverse engineer a consciousness program, in the second season of the science-fiction series Humans. Moss filmed a supporting part in the supernatural horror film The Bye Bye Man (2017), playing what Variety described as "the world's most soft-edged hard-bitten police detective". Despite negative reviews, the film grossed US$24 million worldwide on a budget of US$7 million.
2020s
Moss returned to the Matrix film series in the 2021 film The Matrix Resurrections, in which Moss reprises her role as Trinity. The film was released on December 22, 2021, in theaters and on HBO Max. The film overall received mixed reviews from critics, yet Moss's performance as Trinity was again praised. Moss welcomed her return to the role, stating, "Who am I if not Trinity?"
Personal life
Moss married American actor Steven Roy in 1999, and they have two sons and a daughter. They live in Los Angeles. She is the founder of Annapurna Living, a lifestyle brand designed to empower women through mindfulness, meditation, and devotion. She is vegan.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1967 births
Living people
20th-century Canadian actresses
21st-century Canadian actresses
Actresses from British Columbia
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
Canadian expatriate actresses in the United States
Canadian film actresses
Canadian television actresses
Canadian video game actresses
Canadian voice actresses
Best Actress Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
Best Supporting Actress Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female winners
People from Burnaby
People with acquired American citizenship | [
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245321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arno%C5%A1t%20of%20Pardubice | Arnošt of Pardubice | Arnošt z Pardubic (; ) (25 March 1297 probably in Hostinka near Náchod, or Glatz, County of Kladsko - 30 June 1364 in Raudnitz) was the first Archbishop of Prague (and the last bishop). He was also an advisor and diplomat to Emperor Charles IV.
Ernst inherited the town of Pardubice in 1340. He was confirmed bishop of Prague on 11 March 1343 (3 March 1343 O.S.), and was commissioned the first Archbishop of Prague on 8 May 1344 (30 April 1344 O.S.). He ordered the monks to contribute to the newly founded Charles University (14th century), hence enhancing the quality of the education in the institution.
Literature
Jaroslav Polc: Ernst vom Pardubitz. In: Ferdinand Seibt, Lebensbilder zur Geschichte der böhmischen Länder, Bd. 3, 1978
Arnestus von Pardubitz. Grafschaft Glatzer Buchring, Band 35
Franz Albert: Das Testament des Erzbischofs Ernst von Pardubitz In: Glatzer Heimatblätter 1928, 81–86
Dehio-Handbuch der Kunstdenkmäler in Polen Schlesien, Deutscher Kunstverlag 2005,
Zdeňka Hledíková: Arnošt z Pardubic, Vyšehrad 2008, , S. 13 und 17–19
Zdeňka Hlediková: Kirche und König zur Zeit der Luxemburger. In: Bohemia Sacra. Düsseldorf 1974, S. 307–314
Zdeňka Hlediková, Jana Zachová: Život Arnošta z Pardubic podle Valentina Krautwalda (Das Leben des Ernst von Pardubitz erzählt von Valentin Krautwald), Pardubice 1997,
Vilém z Hasenburka: Vita venerabilis Arnesti primi archiepiscopi ecclesie Pragensis / Život ctihodného Arnošta, prvniho arcibiskupa kostele pražskeho (lateinisch u. tschechisch), neu hg. von Česká křesťanská akademie, Prag 1994,
V Chaloupecký: Arnošt z Pardubic, první arcibiskup pražský, Prag 1946
J. K. Vyskočil, Arnošt z Pardubic a jeho doba, Prag 1947
References
Further reading
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia: The first archbishop was St. Ernst of Pardubitz, the advisor of Charles IV in his great undertakings
1297 births
1364 deaths
Christianity in Prague
Roman Catholic archbishops of Prague
14th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Bohemia
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245323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redstart | Redstart | Redstart is a name used for a number of songbirds that are not closely related to each other:
Old world flycatcher family (Muscicapidae)
Phoenicurus, 14 species found in Africa, Asia and Europe
Common redstart, a European species often known simply as "redstart"
White-bellied redstart, an Asian species not closely related to the Phoenicurus redstarts
New world warbler family (Parulidae)
Myioborus, 12 species found in North and South America, also known as "whitestarts"
American redstart, a species found in North and South America, not closely related to the genus Myioborus
Bird common names | [
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245326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flycatcher | Flycatcher | Flycatcher may refer to:
Birds
Major flycatcher families
Old World flycatchers, Muscicapidae
Tyrant flycatchers, Tyrannidae
Minor flycatcher families
Fairy flycatchers, Stenostiridae
Monarch flycatchers, Monarchidae
Silky-flycatchers, Ptiliogonatidae
Yellow flycatchers, Erythrocercidae
Other birds known as flycatchers
Flycatcher thrushes or Rufous thrushes, in the thrush family Turdidae
Flycatchers or flyrobins, in the Australasian robin family Petroicidae
Bearded flycatchers or Myiobius, in the passerine family Tityridae
Dohrn's flycatcher or Dohrn's thrush-babbler, in the warbler genus Sylvia
Other uses
HMS Flycatcher, a former UK military base.
Fly-killing device
Flycatcher (comics), a character in the Vertigo comic book Fables
Flycatcher (radar), a short range air defense fire control system
Fairey Flycatcher, a British fighter aircraft of the 1920s–1930s
"The Frog Prince", a fairy tale, some of whose versions are dubbed "Flycatcher"
Animal common name disambiguation pages | [
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245327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Marie%20Collot%20d%27Herbois | Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois | Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (19 June 1749 – 8 June 1796) was a French actor, dramatist, essayist, and revolutionary. He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror and, while he saved Madame Tussaud from the Guillotine, he administered the execution of more than 2,000 people in the city of Lyon.
Early life
Born in Paris, Collot left his home in the rue St. Jacques in his teens to join the travelling theatres of provincial France. His moderately successful career as an actor, supplemented by a vigorous outpouring of works for the stage, took him from Bordeaux in the south of France to Nantes in the west and Lille in the north and even into the Dutch Republic, where he met his wife.
In 1784 he became director of the theatre in Geneva, Switzerland, and then at the prestigious playhouse at Lyon in 1787. At the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he dropped everything and returned to Paris, where his lead actor's voice, his writing skills, and his ability to organise and direct large-scale fêtes (civic feasts) were to make him famous.
Activism
He contributed to revolutionary agitation from the very beginning; but it was not until 1791 that he became a figure of importance. With the publication of L'Almanach du Père Gérard, a book advocating a constitutional monarchy in popular terms, he suddenly acquired great popularity.
His fame was soon increased by his involvement on behalf of the Swiss of the Château-Vieux Regiment, condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. Collot d'Herbois' efforts resulted in their freedom; he went to Brest in search of them; and a civic feast was held on his behalf and theirs, which occasioned for a poem by André de Chénier.
His opinions became more and more radical. Collot d'Herbois was a member of the Paris Commune during the insurrection of 10 August 1792, and was elected deputy for Paris to the National Convention. On the first day of the Convention (21 September 1792) he was the first to demand the abolition of the French monarchy. Collot d'Herbois later voted for the death of Louis XVI "sans sursis" ("without delay").
Terror, Thermidor, Deportation and Death
He was engaged in the struggle between the Mountain and the Girondists. After François Hanriot's coup d'état of 31 May 1793, he was conspicuous in his attack on the defeated Girondist party. Along with his close friend Billaud-Varenne, he sat at the extreme left of the Convention, attacking speculators, and proposing egalitarian programmes. In June, he was made president of the Convention; and in September he joined the Committee of Public Safety, where he was active as a sort of general secretary.
After having entrusted him with several missions to Nice, Nevers, and Compiègne, the Convention sent him along with Joseph Fouché, on 30 October 1793, to punish the revolt of Lyon. There, he introduced the Reign of Terror in its most violent form, with mass executions, including more than a hundred priests and nuns, and beginning the dismantling of the city itself. His excessive behavior led the Committee of Public Safety to have Collot return to Paris as a suspect.
The month of May 1794 saw assassination attempts on both himself on the 23rd and on Maximilien Robespierre on the 25th. As Collot was accused of excessive slaughter and destruction and he suspected that he might soon be arrested and executed, he opposed Robespierre during the Thermidorian Reaction, when he presided over the Convention during the initial session. Despite this change of heart, Collot d'Herbois was accused of complicity with Robespierre, the two having previously been colleagues on the Committee of Public Safety, but was acquitted. Denounced a second time, he defended himself by pleading that he had acted for the Revolution; but, in March 1795, he was condemned with Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac and Billaud-Varenne to transportation to Cayenne, French Guiana where he exerted a brief revolutionary influence before dying of yellow fever in 1796.
Works
Beginning his literary career in 1772 with the critically acclaimed Lucie, ou les Parents imprudents and finishing in 1792 with L'Aîné et le cadet, Collot was an accomplished, if minor, dramatist in a turbulent period of the French stage.
Before the Revolution, he wrote at least fifteen plays, of which ten survive, including Lucie, an adaptation of William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor (as M. Rodomont, ou l'Amant loup-garou), and an adaptation of Pedro Calderón de la Barca's El Alcalde de Zalamea (Il y a bonne justice, ou le Paysan magistrat), all three of which kept the stage throughout France for over a decade. During the first three years of the Revolution he wrote at least seven more plays, of which six survive, juggling the tearful love themes of le drame bourgeois with political themes and messages in such plays as L'Inconnu, ou le Préjugé vaincu and Socrate (on Socrates).
In 1791, he wrote the prize-winning L'Almanach de père Gérard, a fictional account of revolutionary morality which went on to become the best-seller of the period, establishing his political credentials in the process.
He was also one of the authors of the first French republican Constitution, which was written in 1793 but never applied.
References
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, in turn, cites as a reference:
F.A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (Paris, 1885–1886), t. ii. pp. 501–512. The principal documents relative to the trial of Collot d'Herbois, Barère and Billaud-Varenne are indicated in Aulard, Recueil des actes du comité de salut public, t. i. pp. 5 and 6.
Bibliography
Much recent study has been done on Collot d'Herbois, in Australia (articles by Paul Mansfield - 'Collot d'Herbois and the Dechristianizers', Journal of Religious History, volume 14, number 4 (December, 1987), pp. 406–18; 'The Repression of Lyon, 1793-4: Origins, Responsibility and Significance', French History, volume 2, number 1 (March, 1988), pp. 74–101; 'Collot d'Herbois at the Committee of Public Safety: a revaluation', English Historical Review, volume 103, number 2 (March, 1988), pp. 565–87; 'The Management of Terror in Montagnard Lyon, Year II', European History Quarterly, volume 20, number 4 (October, 1990), pp. 467–98; 'Collot d'Herbois in the Theatre of the Old Regime: homme de lettres or "poor hack"?', Australian Journal of French Studies, volume 27, number 2 (1990), pp. 107–120); Peter Bruce's "Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois dans son théâtre pré-révolutionnaire") and in France (Michel Biard Collot d'Herbois. Légendes noires et révolution).
A more easily obtainable work is R. R. Palmer's Twelve Who Ruled, which contains a biographical account of the members of the Committee of Public Safety.
A. Kuscinski Dictionnaire des conventionnels (1916)
1749 births
1796 deaths
Male actors from Paris
Deaths from yellow fever
Deputies to the French National Convention
18th-century French dramatists and playwrights
French male essayists
French political writers
French male stage actors
Regicides of Louis XVI
Infectious disease deaths in French Guiana
Représentants en mission
People on the Committee of Public Safety
People of the Reign of Terror
Presidents of the National Convention | [
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245331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTM%20Personenvervoer | HTM Personenvervoer | HTM Personenvervoer NV (HTM, from the former name Haagsche Tramweg Maatschappij) is a public transport company in the Netherlands operating trams, lightrail and buses in The Hague, Rijswijk, Leidschendam, Voorburg, Delft, Zoetermeer, Wateringen, Pijnacker and Nootdorp, the so-called Conurbation Haaglanden. The lightrail connection (called RandstadRail, RR) to Zoetermeer is operated in coöperation with RET, the Rotterdam-public transport company, which operates the connection between The Hague Central Station and Slinge in the south of Rotterdam, thus giving a fast and easy connection between the two city-centres.
Regional transports are serviced by Connexxion, Arriva and RET.
In September 2012 it was announced that Dutch Railways (NS) wanted to acquire 49% of the shares in HTM. The initiative came from HTM and was received positively by the (then) sole shareholder in HTM, the municipality of The Hague. The House of Representatives was less positive, VVD parliament member Aukje de Vries, for example, felt that "a state-owned company should not step further into a market where it has been agreed that the market must do its job." On 5 April 2013, the city council of The Hague approved the proposal, with NS paying €45 million for the shares.
Because on 15 October 2013 the NS took over 49% of the shares in HTM and was 100% shareholder in Qbuzz, the HTMbuzz shares were again 100% owned by HTM. The NS remained co-owner of HTMbuzz, through HTM, for almost half of this shift in shares.
On 6 July 2016 it was announced that the municipality of The Hague wanted to buy back the shares of HTM from NS, which announced that it would continue to work together with the municipality and HTM on better traffic.
Since 7 December 2016, the HTM shares have been held by the municipality of The Hague again and MRDH has a share with special rights.
On this date, HTM also obtained the rail concession for public transport in the region of The Hague for the period from 2016 to 2026. On 17 May 2017, the Metropolitan Region of Rotterdam The Hague announced that it would give HTM the allocation of bus transport in the Hague region. On 8 December 2019, the bus concession officially takes effect and applies for the period 2019 - 2034.
From 9 December 2012 till 9 December 2018, citybus-services were, as mentioned, run by HTMbuzz, a joint-venture of HTM and Qbuzz, regional transports being serviced by Veolia, Arriva and RET. Fares on the network fall under the National Tariff System. Since 9 December 2018 HTMbuzz changed the name in HTM, as it used to be till 9 December 2012.
Since 2004 there is a tram tunnel with two underground tramstations (Spui and Grote Markt) in The Hague city centre; it is shared by tramline 6 and RR-lines 2, 3 and 4.
Trams & LRVs:
600 volt DC-series: 70 GTL8-trams and 40 Avenio-trams;
600 & 750 volt DC-series: 72 LRVs called RegioCitadis.
HTM once owned shares in SVD, the city bus company of Dordrecht. However, HTM has sold its shares because the ministry of transport and public works opposed the company competing for public transport concessions in tenders. In addition to this Arriva took over the service as of January 1, 2007, due to a better offer.
Tram and light rail lines
Line 1 (red)
Vehicle type: GTL-8
Line 2 (yellow)
Vehicle type: Avenio and, occasionally, RegioCitadis
Operated as R-net or, occasionally, as RandstadRail.
And Line 2: Den Haag Kraayenstein - Den Haag Laan van NOI railway station (additional trams rush hours only)
Line 3 (purple)
Vehicle type: RegioCitadis
Operated by RandstadRail as tram-trains.
And Line 3: Den Haag De Savornin Lohmanplein - Den Haag Centraal railway station (additional tramtrains rush hours only)
Line 4 (orange)
Vehicle type: RegioCitadis
Operated by RandstadRail as tram-trains.
And Line 4: Den Haag Monstersestraat - Lansingerland-Zoetermeer (additional (double) tramtrains rush hours only)
Line E
Vehicle type: RSG3
Operated by RET of Rotterdam as part of Randstadrail and the underground/subway-system of Rotterdam
Line 6 (sky blue)
Vehicle type: GTL-8
Line 9 (yellow green)
Vehicle type: Avenio
Operated as R-net.
And Line 9: Madurodam - Vrederust (additional trams rush hours only)
Line 11 (brown)
Vehicle type: Avenio
Operated as R-net.
Line 12 (pink)
Vehicle type: GTL-8
Line 15 (violet)
Vehicle type: Avenio
Operated as R-net.
Line 16 (dark brown)
Vehicle type: GTL-8
Line 17 (dark blue)
Vehicle type: Avenio
Operated as R-net.
Line 19 (dark green)
Vehicle type: RegioCitadis and, occasionally, Avenio
Operated as RandstadRail or, occasionally, as R-net.
City Bus lines
20 Den Haag Duinzigt - Den Haag Centraal railway station
21 Den Haag Vrederust - Scheveningen Noord
22 Den Haag Duindorp - Rijswijk De Schilp via Den Haag Centraal railway station
23 Den Haag Kijkduin - Scheveningen Noord via Rijswijk, Voorburg and Benoordenhout (Service between Kijkduin and Colijnplein restricted to weekends from May till September and during summer holidays)
24 Den Haag Kijkduin - Den Haag Mariahoeve railway station
25 Den Haag Grote Markt - Den Haag Vrederust
26 Den Haag Kijkduin - Den Haag HS railway station - Voorburg railway station (Restricted evening- & weekendservice between Kijkduin and The Hague HS)
27 Den Haag Randveen - Den Haag Mariahoeve railway station via Den Haag HS railway station en Den Haag Centraal railway station (Weekdays, rush hours only)
28 Den Haag Zuiderstrand - Voorburg railway station via Den Haag Centraal railway station, operated with electric buses
29 Rijswijk railway station - Den Haag Oude Waalsdorperweg (Weekdays, rush hours only)
Nightlines
N1 Centrum Binnenhof - Scheveningen via Den Haag Mariahoeve.
N2 Centrum Binnenhof - Voorburg, Leidschendam, Voorschoten & Wassenaar.
N3 Centrum Binnenhof - Den Haag Kraayenstein via Den Haag Loosduinen.
N4 Centrum Binnenhof - Rijswijk via Wateringen.
N5 Centrum Binnenhof - Delft via Ypenburg and Nootdorp; in Nootdorp connection with line B10 of the Rotterdam nightservice.
N6 Centrum Binnenhof - Zoetermeer via Den Haag Leidschenveen, Zoetermeer Centrum and Zoetermeer Rokkeveen.
The nightlines are circular and operate on Friday- and Saturdaynights only.
Equipment
See also
RandstadRail
Trams in The Hague
References
External links
HTM official website
Photographs of HTM trams & busses, old and new
Picture of the Avenio-tram
Website of Randstadrail-project
Intermodal transport authorities
Transport companies of the Netherlands
Tram transport in the Netherlands
Light rail in the Netherlands
Transport in The Hague
Companies based in The Hague | [
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245335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Found%20poetry | Found poetry | Found poetry is a type of poetry created by taking words, phrases, and sometimes whole passages from other sources and reframing them (a literary equivalent of a collage) by making changes in spacing and lines, or by adding or deleting text, thus imparting new meaning. The resulting poem can be defined as either treated: changed in a profound and systematic manner; or untreated: virtually unchanged from the order, syntax and meaning of the poem.
Concepts
The concept of found poetry is closely connected to the revision of the concept of authorship, in the 20th century, (as John Hollander put it, "anyone may 'find' a text; the poet is he who names it, 'Text). See Charles Reznikoff's Testimony, whose source material was courtroom testimonies from the Gilded Age, and whose many iterations were aimed at debunking a national U.S. narrative that denied the country's violent, discriminatory past. Types of common forms and practices of found poetry include free form excerpting and remixing, erasure, cento and cut-up.
Comparisons and predecessors
Marquive Stenzel describes the Dadaism movement with its readymade philosophy as a predecessor for the practice that later became found poetry. Dadaists like Duchamp placed everyday practical objects in an environment that was aesthetic and in so doing called into question that object as art, the observer, the aesthetic environment and the definition of what art is.
Stylistically, found poetry is similar to the visual art of "appropriation" in which two- and three-dimensional art is created from recycled items, giving ordinary/commercial things new meaning when put within a new context in unexpected combinations or juxtapositions.
Examples
An example of found poetry appeared in William Whewell's "An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics":
Hence no force, however great,
can stretch a cord, however fine,
into a horizontal line
which is accurately straight.
In 1972, Bern Porter published Found Poems via Something Else Press. It features hundreds of found poems selected from newspapers, ads and everyday printed matter, some involving collage techniques, others displayed as readymades.
In 2003, Slate writer Hart Seely found poetry in the speeches and news briefings of Donald Rumsfeld. In a transcript of a Department of Defense news briefing from February 12, 2002, Rumsfeld ruminated on "The Unknown":
As we know,
There are known knowns.
There are things we know we know.
We also know
There are known unknowns.
That is to say
We know there are some things
We do not know.
But there are also unknown unknowns,
The ones we don't know
We don't know.
Hart Seely published Rumsfeld's poetry in the book, Pieces of Intelligence: The Existential Poetry of Donald H. Rumsfeld (2003). American composer Phil Kline set Rumsfeld's lyrics to music in "Rumsfeld's Songs", a song cycle released on Zippo Songs (2004). Pianist Bryant Kong also used Rumsfeld's lyrics on his release "Poetry of Donald Rumsfeld".
In 2009, on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, the talk show host twice asked actor William Shatner to deliver the written words of former Alaskan Governor and Vice-Presidential nominee Sarah Palin in the style of beat poetry. Shatner performed Palin's farewell speech on July 27, and several of her tweets on July 29. Shatner was supported by a bongo player and contrabassist.
Another well-known example of a public figure's speech being converted into found poetry was the baseball play calls of Phil Rizzuto. Rizzuto was the announcer for the New York Yankees baseball team for some 40 years, and some of his at times rambling or disjointed commentary was collected and reformatted by Hart Seely and Tom Peyer into a collection of Rizzuto's found poetry. An example is Rizzuto's thoughts on the death of Yankees catcher Thurmon Munson in an airplane crash:
"The Man in the Moon"
The Yankees have had a traumatic four days.
Actually five days.
That terrible crash with Thurman Munson.
To go through all that agony,
And then today,
You and I along with the rest of the team
Flew to Canton for the services,
And the family...
Very upset.
You know, it might,
It might sound a little corny.
But we have the most beautiful full moon tonight.
And the crowd,
Enjoying whatever is going on right now.
They say it might sound corny,
But to me it's like some kind of a,
Like an omen.
Both the moon and Thurman Munson,
Both ascending up into heaven.
I just can't get it out of my mind.
I just saw the full moon,
And it just reminded me of Thurman Munson,
And that's it.
The website Verbatim Poetry has been publishing found poems weekly since March 2009. It emphasizes the poetry found in ordinary places, and employs traditional poetic forms such as the Shakespearean sonnet as well as free verse.
The Internet's first formal literary journal devoted to found poetry, The Found Poetry Review, debuted in 2011. Since its inception, the quarterly journal has featured traditional centos and poems taken from textbooks, Marcel Duchamp paintings, Charles Manson's trial testimony, AOL search data, Emily Post's etiquette books, Wikipedia articles, Strunk and White's The Elements of Style, Wonder Woman comics and more.
Comedian Dave Gorman frequently creates comical found poems using bizarre or humorous comments that people have left in the comment sections of online news websites on his Dave series Dave Gorman: Modern Life Is Goodish.
In a literary critic Galina Rymbu's opinion, «Bot Conversation» of Yuri Rydkin is written in the genre of found poetry. His work are screenshots of artistic dialogue with virtual interlocutor.
See also
Dictionary Stories
Found object
References
External links
Found Poetry Review examples
Poetic devices
Genres of poetry
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245342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galician-language%20literature | Galician-language literature | Galician-language literature is the literature written in Galician. The earliest works in Galician language are from the early 13th-century trovadorismo tradition. In the Middle Ages, Galego-português (Galician-Portuguese) was a language of culture, poetry (troubadours) and religion throughout not only Galicia and Portugal but also Castile.
After the separation of Portuguese and Galician, Galician was considered provincial and was not widely used for literary or academic purposes. It was with the Rexurdimento ("Rebirth"), in the mid-19th century that Galician was used again in literature, and then in politics.
Much literature by Galician authors is written in Spanish, such as by Ignacio Ramonet or Gonzalo Torrente Ballester - though such writers tend to be excluded from discussion of Galician literature and counted as Spanish-language literature.
Rosalia Castro de Murguía's Cantares Gallegos (1863; Galician Songs) was the first Galician-language book to be published in four centuries. Related to literature, Chano Pineiro's 1989 Sempre Xonxa (Forever a Woman) is regarded as the first Galician-language film. The intellectual group Xeración Nós, a name that alludes to the Irish Sinn Féin ("We Ourselves") promoted Galician culture in the 1920s. Xeración Galaxia was established to translate modern texts that would link an independent Galician culture with the European context. The Galician translation of the Bible was begun in 1968 by Editorial SEPT and published in 1989.
Authors
Main authors
Middle Ages
Alfonso X of Castile
Xohán de Cangas
Martín Codax
Mendinho
Dark Centuries
Padre Sarmiento
19th century
Rosalía de Castro
Manuel Murguía
Francisco Añón
Manuel Curros Enríquez
Eduardo Pondal
20th century
Álvaro Cunqueiro
Vicente Risco
Xohán Vicente Viqueira
Evaristo Martelo Paumán
Xesús Ferro Couselo
Celso Emilio Ferreiro
Rafael Dieste
Eduardo Blanco Amor
Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez Castelao
Fermín Bouza Brei
Carlos Casares Mouriño
Xosé Neira Vilas
Antón Vilar Ponte
Luís Seoane
Dario Xoan Cabana
Ánxel Fole
Manuel Rodriguez Lopez
Contemporary
Manuel Rivas
Suso de Toro
Xurxo Borrazás
Teresa Moure
Xosé Ramón Pena
Xosé Luís Méndez Ferrín
For a more extensive list of Galician-language writers, see Día das Letras Galegas
Other Authors
Federico García Lorca. The poet from Granada wrote "Six Galician Poems" in Galician language.
See also
Literature by Galician authors
Día das Letras Galegas ("Galician Literature Day") on May 17
Further reading
Xosé Ramón Pena. Historia da Literatura Galega I. Das orixes a 1853, Xerais, 2013. 978-84-9914-551-8
Xosé Ramón Pena. Historia da Literatura Galega II. De 1853 a 1916. O Rexurdimento, Xerais, 2014. 978-84-9914-764-2
Xosé Ramón Pena. Historia da Literatura Galega III. De 1916 a 1936. Xerais, 2016. 978-84-9121-107-5
References
Literature by language
Galician literature
European literature
Galician language | [
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245343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostalbkreis | Ostalbkreis | The Ostalbkreis is a Landkreis (district) in the east of Baden-Württemberg, Germany, on the border to Bavaria. Neighboring districts are (from the north clockwise) Schwäbisch Hall, Ansbach, Donau-Ries, Heidenheim, Göppingen and Rems-Murr.
History
The district was created in 1973, when the District of Aalen merged with most of the former District of Schwäbisch Gmünd.
Geography
The district is located in the eastern part of the Swabian Alb (Schwäbische Alb), hence its name which translates to Eastern Alb District. Main rivers in the district are the Rems, the Jagst and the Kocher, all affluents of the Neckar.
Politics
Federally, the district is part of two electoral ridings: 270 (Backnang – Schwäbisch Gmünd) and 271 (Aalen – Heidenheim). For the 2009 Election, the numeral designation was changed to 269 and 270 respectively. Both ridings are held by the CDU: Norbert Barthle (Backnang – Schwäbisch Gmünd) and Roderich Kiesewetter (Aalen - Heidenheim).
At the State level, the district also is part of two electoral ridings: 25 (Schwäbisch Gmünd) and 26 (Aalen). The last election was held on March 26, 2006 and both ridings were won by the CDU: Dr. Stefan Scheffold (Schwäbisch Gmünd) and Winfried Mack (Aalen).
The District election was held on June 7, 2009. Election results.
Partnerships
Since 1992 the district has an official partnership with the Italian Province of Ravenna. Also since the 1990s it has a friendship with the Finnish Province of Oulu.
Coat of arms
The imperial eagle to the right represents the free imperial cities in the district, especially the city of Aalen. The lion on the left is the symbol of the Staufen family, who founded the city of Schwäbisch Gmünd. These two symbols were taken from the coats of arms of the two precursor districts. The crosier in the middle represents Ellwangen Abbey, which possessed many smaller areas scattered in the district.
Towns and communities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg
Württemberg | [
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245348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esch | Esch | Esch may refer to:
Esch (surname)
Esch-sur-Alzette, the second largest city in Luxembourg
Esch-sur-Sûre, a village in Luxembourg
Esch, Bernkastel-Wittlich, a municipality in the district Bernkastel-Wittlich, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
Esch, Vulkaneifel, a municipality in the district Vulkaneifel, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
Esch, Netherlands, a former municipality now part of the municipality of Haaren
ESCH, NASDAQ symbol for Eschelon Telecom, Inc. | [
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245351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil%20Artin | Emil Artin | Emil Artin (; March 3, 1898 – December 20, 1962) was an Austrian mathematician of Armenian descent.
Artin was one of the leading mathematicians of the twentieth century. He is best known for his work on algebraic number theory, contributing largely to class field theory and a new construction of L-functions. He also contributed to the pure theories of rings, groups and fields.
Along with Emmy Noether, he is considered the founder of modern abstract algebra.
Early life and education
Parents
Emil Artin was born in Vienna to Armenian parents Emma Maria, née Laura (stage name Clarus), a soubrette on the operetta stages of Austria and Germany, and Emil Hadochadus Maria Artin, Austrian-born of mixed Austrian and Armenian descent. His Armenian last name was Artinian which was shortened to Artin. Several documents, including Emil's birth certificate, list the father's occupation as “opera singer” though others list it as “art dealer.” It seems at least plausible that he and Emma had met as colleagues in the theater. They were married in St. Stephen's Parish on July 24, 1895.
Early education
Artin entered school in September 1904, presumably in Vienna. By then, his father was already suffering symptoms of advanced syphilis, among them increasing mental instability, and was eventually institutionalized at the recently established (and imperially sponsored) insane asylum at Mauer Öhling, 125 kilometers west of Vienna. It is notable that neither wife nor child contracted this highly infectious disease. Artin's father died there July 20, 1906. Young Artin was eight.
On July 15, 1907, Artin's mother remarried to a man named Rudolf Hübner: a prosperous manufacturing entrepreneur in the German-speaking city then called Reichenberg, Bohemia (currently known as Liberec, in the Czechia). Documentary evidence suggests that Emma had already been a resident in Reichenberg the previous year, and in deference to her new husband, she had abandoned her vocal career. Hübner deemed a life in the theater unseemly—unfit for the wife of a man of his position.
In September, 1907, Artin entered the Volksschule in Strobnitz, a small town in southern Bohemia. For that year, he lived away from home, boarding on a local farm. The following year, he returned to the home of his mother and stepfather, and entered the Realschule in Reichenberg, where he pursued his secondary education until June, 1916.
In Reichenberg, Artin formed a lifelong friendship with a young neighbor, Arthur Baer, who became an astronomer, teaching for many years at Cambridge University. Astronomy was an interest the two boys shared already at this time. They each had telescopes. They also rigged a telegraph between their houses, over which once Baer excitedly reported to his friend an astronomical discovery he thought he had made—perhaps a supernova, he thought—and told Artin where in the sky to look. Artin tapped back the terse reply “A-N-D-R-O-M-E-D-A N-E-B-E-L.” (Andromeda nebula)
Artin's academic performance in the first years at the Realschule was spotty. Up to the end of the 1911–1912 school year, for instance, his grade in mathematics was merely “genügend,” (satisfactory). Of his mathematical inclinations at this early period he later wrote, “Meine eigene Vorliebe zur Mathematik zeigte sich erst im sechzehnten Lebensjahr, während vorher von irgendeiner Anlage dazu überhaupt nicht die Rede sein konnte.” (“My own predilection for mathematics manifested itself only in my sixteenth year; before that, one could certainly not speak of any particular aptitude for it.”) His grade in French for 1912 was actually “nicht genügend” (unsatisfactory). He did rather better work in physics and chemistry. But from 1910 to 1912, his grade for “Comportment” was “nicht genügend.”
Artin spent the school year 1912–1913 away from home, in France, a period he spoke of later as one of the happiest of his life. He lived that year with the family of Edmond Fritz, in the vicinity of Paris, and attended a school there. When he returned from France to Reichenberg, his academic work markedly improved, and he began consistently receiving grades of “gut” or “sehr gut” (good or very good) in virtually all subjects—including French and “Comportment.” By the time he completed studies at the Realschule in June, 1916, he was awarded the Reifezeugnis (diploma—not to be confused with the Abitur) that affirmed him “reif mit Auszeichnung” (qualified with distinction) for graduation to a technical university.
University education
Now that it was time to move on to university studies, Artin was no doubt content but to leave Reichenberg, for relations with his stepfather were clouded. According to him, Hübner reproached him “day and night” with being a financial burden, and even when Artin became a university lecturer and then a professor, Hübner deprecated his academic career as self-indulgent and belittled its paltry emolument.
In October, 1916, Artin matriculated at the University of Vienna, having focused by now on mathematics. He studied there with Philipp Furtwängler, and also took courses in astrophysics and Latin.
Studies at Vienna were interrupted when Artin was drafted in June, 1918 into the Austrian army (his Army photo ID is dated July 1, 1918). Assigned to the K.u. K. 44th Infantry Regiment, he was stationed northwest of Venice at Primolano, on the Italian front in the foothills of the Dolomites. To his great relief, Artin managed to avoid combat by volunteering for service as a translator—his ignorance of Italian notwithstanding. He did know French, of course, and some Latin, was generally a quick study, and was motivated by a highly rational fear in a theater of that war that had often proven a meat-grinder. In his scramble to learn at least some Italian, Artin had recourse to an encyclopedia, which he once consulted for help in dealing with the cockroaches that infested the Austrian barracks. At some length, the article described a variety of technical methods, concluding finally with—Artin laughingly recalled in later years—“la caccia diretta" ("the direct hunt"). Indeed, “la caccia diretta” was the straightforward method he and his fellow infantrymen adopted.
Artin survived both war and vermin on the Italian front, and returned late in 1918 to the University of Vienna, where he remained through Easter of the following year.
By June 1919, he had moved to Leipzig and matriculated at the university there as a "Class 2 Auditor" ("Hörer zweiter Ordnung"). Late the same year, Artin undertook the formality of standing for a qualifying examination by an academic board of the Oberrealschule in Leipzig, which he passed with the grade of “gut” (good), receiving for the second time the Reifezeugnis (diploma attesting the equivalence of satisfactory completion of 6 years at a Realschule). How this Leipzig Reifezeugnis differed technically from the one he had been granted at Reichenberg is unclear from the document, but it apparently qualified him for regular matriculation as a student at the university, which normally required the Abitur.
From 1919 to June 1921, Artin pursued mostly mathematical studies at Leipzig. His principal teacher and dissertation advisor was Gustav Herglotz. Additionally, Artin took courses in chemistry and various fields of physics, including mechanics, atomic theory, quantum theory, Maxwellian theory, radioactivity, and astrophysics. In June, 1921 he was awarded the Doctor of Philosophy degree, based on his “excellent” dissertation, “Quadratische Körper im Gebiete der höheren Kongruenzen“ ("On the Arithmetic of Quadratic Function Fields over Finite Fields"), and the oral examination which—his diploma affirms—he had passed three days earlier “with extraordinary success.”
In the fall of 1921, Artin moved to the University of Göttingen, considered the "Mecca" of mathematics at the time, where he pursued one year of post-doctoral studies in mathematics and mathematical physics with Richard Courant and David Hilbert. While at Göttingen, he worked closely with Emmy Noether and Helmut Hasse.
Aside from consistently good school grades in singing, the first documentary evidence of Artin's deep and lifelong engagement with music comes from the year in Göttingen, where he was regularly invited to join in the chamber music sessions hosted by Richard Courant. He played all the keyboard instruments, and was an especially accomplished flautist, although it is not known exactly by what instruction he had achieved proficiency on these instruments. He became especially devoted to the music of Johann Sebastian Bach.
Career
Professorship at Hamburg
Courant arranged for Artin to receive a stipend for the summer of 1922 in Göttingen, which occasioned his declining a position offered him at the University of Kiel. The following October, however, he accepted an equivalent position at Hamburg, where in 1923, he completed the Habilitation thesis (required of aspirants to a professorship in Germany), and on July 24 advanced to the rank of Privatdozent.
On April 1, 1925, Artin was promoted to Associate Professor (außerordentlicher Professor). In this year also, Artin applied for and was granted German citizenship. He was promoted to full Professor (ordentlicher Professor) on October 15, 1926.
Early in the summer of 1925, Artin attended the Congress of the Wandervogel youth movement at Wilhelmshausen near Kassel with the intention of gathering a congenial group to undertake a trek through Iceland later that summer. Iceland (before the transforming presence of American and British forces stationed there during World War II) was still a primitive country in 1925, with a thinly scattered population and little transportation infrastructure. Artin succeeded in finding six young men to join him in this adventure. In the second half of August, 1925, the group set out by steamer from Hamburg, first to Norway, where they boarded a second steamer that took them to Iceland, stopping at several of the small east fjord ports before arriving at their destination, Húsavík in the north of the island. Here the Wandervogel group disembarked, their initial goal, trekking down the Laxá River to Lake Mývatn. They made a circuit of the large, irregular lake, staying in farm houses, barns, and occasionally a tent as they went. When they slept in barns, it was often on piles of wet straw or hay. On those lucky occasions when they slept in beds, it could be nearly as damp on account of the rain trickling through the sod roofs. The tent leaked as well.
Artin kept a meticulous journal of this trip, making daily entries in a neat, minuscule hand. He and several of the young men had brought cameras, so that the trek is documented also by nearly 200 small photographs. Artin's journal attests to his overarching interest in the geology of this mid-Atlantic island, situated over the boundary of two tectonic plates whose shifting relation makes it geologically hyperactive.
In keeping with the Wandervogel ethos, Artin and his companions carried music with them wherever they visited. The young men had packed guitars and violins, and Artin played the harmoniums common in the isolated farmsteads where they found lodging. The group regularly entertained their Icelandic hosts, not in full exchange for board and lodging, to be sure, but for goodwill certainly, and sometimes for a little extra on their plates, or a modestly discounted tariff.
From Lake Mývatn, Artin and his companions headed west towards Akureyri, passing the large waterfall Goðafoss on the way. From Akureyri, they trekked west down the Öxnadalur (Ox Valley) intending to rent pack horses and cross the high and barren interior by foot to Reykjavík. By the time they reached the lower end of Skagafjörður, however, they were persuaded by a local farmer from whom they had hoped to rent the horses that a cross-country trek was by then impracticable; with the approach of winter, highland routes were already snow-bound and impassable. Instead of turning south, then, they turned north to Siglufjörður, where they boarded another steamer that took them around the western peninsula and down the coast to Reykjavík. From Reykjavík, they returned via Norway to Hamburg. By Artin's calculation the distance they had covered on foot through Iceland totaled 450 kilometers.
Early in 1926, the University of Münster offered Artin a professorial position; however, Hamburg matched the offer financially, and (as noted above) promoted him to full professor, making him (along with his young colleague Helmut Hasse) one of the two youngest professors of mathematics in Germany.
It was in this period that he acquired his lifelong nickname, “Ma,” short for mathematics, which he came to prefer to his given name, and which virtually everyone who knew him well used. Although the nickname might seem to imply a narrow intellectual focus, quite the reverse was true of Artin. Even his teaching at the University of Hamburg went beyond the strict boundaries of mathematics to include mechanics and relativity theory. He kept up on a serious level with advances in astronomy, chemistry and biology (he owned and used a fine microscope), and the circle of his friends in Hamburg attests to the catholicity of his interests. It included the painter Heinrich Stegemann, and the author and organ-builder Hans Henny Jahnn. Stegemann was a particularly close friend, and made portraits of Artin, his wife Natascha, and their two Hamburg-born children. Music continued to play a central role in his life; he acquired a Neupert double manual harpsichord, and a clavichord made by the Hamburg builder Walther Ebeloe, as well as a silver flute made in Hamburg by G. Urban. Chamber music gatherings became a regular event at the Artin apartment as they had been at the Courants in Göttingen.
On August 15, 1929, Artin married Natalia Naumovna Jasny (Natascha), a young Russian émigré who had been a student in several of his classes. One of their shared interests was photography, and when Artin bought a Leica for their joint use (a Leica A, the first commercial model of this legendary camera), Natascha began chronicling the life of the family, as well as the city of Hamburg. For the next decade, she made a series of artful and expressive portraits of Artin that remain by far the best images of him taken at any age. Artin, in turn, took many fine and evocative portraits of Natascha. Lacking access to a professional darkroom, their films and prints had to be developed in a makeshift darkroom set up each time (and then dismantled again) in the small bathroom of whatever apartment they were occupying. The makeshift darkroom notwithstanding, the high artistic level of the resulting photographic prints is attested to by the exhibit of Natascha's photographs mounted in 2001 by the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, and its accompanying catalogue, “Hamburg—Wie Ich Es Sah.”
In 1930, Artin was offered a professorship at ETH (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule) in Zürich, to replace Hermann Weyl, who had moved to Göttingen. He chose to remain at Hamburg, however. Two years later, in 1932, for contributions leading to the advancement of mathematics, Artin was honored—jointly with Emmy Noether—with the Ackermann–Teubner Memorial Award, which carried a grant of 500 marks.
Nazi period
In January 1933, Natascha gave birth to their first child, Karin. A year and a half later, in the summer of 1934, son Michael was born. The political climate at Hamburg was not so poisonous as that at Göttingen, where by 1935 the mathematics department had been purged of Jewish and dissident professors. Still, Artin's situation became increasingly precarious, not only because Natascha was half Jewish, but also because Artin made no secret of his distaste for the Hitler regime (he evidently signed the 1933 Vow of allegiance of the Professors of the German Universities and High-Schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic State, though he said his name had been added without his knowledge). At one point, Wilhelm Blaschke, by then a Nazi Party member, but nonetheless solicitous of the Artins’ well-being, warned Artin discreetly to close his classroom door so his frankly anti-Nazi comments could not be heard by passersby in the hallway.
Natascha recalled going down to the newsstand on the corner one day and being warned in hushed tones by the man from whom she and Artin bought their paper that a man had daily been watching their apartment from across the street. Once tipped off, she and Artin became very aware of the watcher (Natascha liked to refer to him as their “spy”), and even rather enjoyed the idea of his being forced to follow them on the long walks they loved taking in the afternoons to a café far out in the countryside.
Toying with their watcher on a fine autumn afternoon was one thing, but the atmosphere was in fact growing inexorably serious. Natascha's Jewish father and her sister, seeing the handwriting on the wall, had already left for the U.S. in the summer of 1933. As half-Jewish, Natascha's status was, if not ultimately quite hopeless, certainly not good. Hasse, like Blaschke a nationalistic supporter of the regime, had applied for Party membership, but was nonetheless no anti-Semite. Besides he was a long-time friend and colleague of Artin's. He suggested that the two Artin children—only one quarter Jewish, or in Nazi terminology, “Mischlinge zweiten Grades”—might, if a few strategic strings could be pulled, be officially “aryanized.” Hasse offered to exert his influence with the Ministry of Education (Kultur- und Schulbehörde, Hochschulwesen), and Artin—not daring to leave any stone unturned, especially with respect to the safety of his children—went along with this effort. He asked his father-in-law, by then resident in Washington D.C., to draft and have notarized an affidavit attesting to the Christian lineage of his late wife, Natascha's mother. Artin submitted this affidavit to the Ministry of Education, but to no avail.
By this time, to be precise, on July 15, 1937, because of Natascha's status as “Mischling ersten Grades,” Artin had lost his post at the university—technically, compelled into early retirement—on the grounds of paragraph 6 of the Act to Restore the Professional Civil Service (Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums) of April 7, 1933. Ironically, he had applied only some months earlier, on February 8, 1937, for a leave of absence from the university in order to accept a position offered him at Stanford. On March 15, 1937, the response had come back denying his application for leave on the grounds that his services to the university were indispensable (“Da die Tätigkeit des Professors Dr. Artin an der Universität Hamburg nicht entbehrt werden kann. . .”).
By July, when he was summarily “retired,” (“in Ruhestand versetzt”) the position at Stanford University had been filled. However, through the efforts of Richard Courant (by then at New York University), and Solomon Lefschetz at Princeton University, a position was found for him at the University of Notre Dame in South Bend, Indiana.
Emigration to the U.S.
The family must have worked feverishly to prepare for emigration to the United States, for this entailed among other things packing their entire household for shipment. Since German law forbade emigrants taking more than a token sum of money out of the country, the Artins sank all the funds at their disposal into shipping their entire household, from beds, tables, chairs and double-manual harpsichord down to the last kitchen knife, cucumber slicer, and potato masher to their new home. This is why each of their residences in the United States bore such a striking resemblance to the rooms photographed so beautifully by Natascha in their Hamburg apartment (see Natascha A. Brunswick, “Hamburg: Wie Ich Es Sah,” Dokumente der Photographie 6, Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, 2001, pp. 48–53) .
On the morning they were to board the Hamburg-Amerika line ship in Bremerhaven, October 21, 1937, daughter Karin woke with a high temperature. Terrified that should this opportunity be missed, the window of escape from Nazi Germany might close forever, Artin and Natascha chose to risk somehow getting Karin past emigration and customs officials without their noticing her condition. They managed to conceal Karin's feverish state, and without incident boarded the ship, as many left behind were tragically never able to do. When they landed a week later at Hoboken, New Jersey, Richard Courant and Natascha's father, the Russian agronomist Naum Jasny (then working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture) were on the dock to welcome the family to the United States.
Bloomington years
It was early November, 1937 by the time they arrived in South Bend, where Artin joined the faculty at Notre Dame, and taught for the rest of that academic year. He was offered a permanent position the following year 170 miles to the south at Indiana University, in Bloomington. Shortly after the family resettled there, a second son, Thomas, was born on November 12, 1938.
After moving to Bloomington, Artin quickly acquired a piano, and soon after that a Hammond Organ, a recently invented electronic instrument that simulated the sound of a pipe organ. He wanted this instrument in order primarily to play the works of J. S. Bach, and because the pedal set that came with the production model had a range of only two octaves (not quite wide enough for all the Bach pieces), he set about extending its range. Music was a constant presence in the Artin household. Karin played the cello, and then the piano as well, and Michael played the violin. As in Hamburg, the Artin living room was regularly the venue for amateur chamber music performances.
The circle of the Artins’ University friends reflected Artin's wide cultural and intellectual interests. Notable among them were Alfred Kinsey and his wife of the Psychology Department, as well as prominent members of the Fine Arts, Art History, Anthropology, German Literature, and Music Departments. For several summer semesters, Artin accepted teaching positions at other universities, viz., Stanford in 1939 and 1940, The University of Michigan at Ann Arbor in 1941 and 1951, and The University of Colorado, in Boulder, in 1953. On each of these occasions, the family accompanied him.
Artin insisted that only German be spoken in the house. Even Tom, born in the U.S., spoke German as his first language, acquiring English only from his siblings and his playmates in the neighborhood; for the first four or five years of his life, he spoke English with a pronounced German accent. Consistent with his program of maintaining the family's German cultural heritage, Artin gave high priority to regularly reading German literature aloud to the children. The text was frequently from Goethe's autobiographical "Dichtung und Wahrheit," or his poems, "Erlkönig," for instance. Occasionally, he would read from an English text. Favorites were Mark Twain's "Tom Sawyer," Charles Dickens’s “A Christmas Carol,” and Oscar Wilde’s “The Canterville Ghost.” For the Artin children, these readings replaced radio entertainment, which was strictly banned from the house. There was a radio, but (with the notable exception of Sunday morning broadcasts by E. Power Biggs from the organ at the Busch-Reisinger Museum in Cambridge, to which Artin and Natascha listened still lounging in bed) it was switched on only to hear news of the war. Similarly, the Artin household would never in years to come harbor a television set. Once the war had ended, the radio was retired to the rear of a dark closet.
As German citizens, Artin and Natascha were technically classified as enemy aliens for the duration of the war. On April 12, 1945, with the end of the war in Europe only weeks away, they applied for naturalization as American citizens. American citizenship was granted them on February 7, 1946.
On the orders of a Hamburg doctor whom he had consulted about a chronic cough, Artin had given up smoking years before. He had vowed not to smoke so long as Adolf Hitler remained in power. On May 8, 1945, at the news of Germany's surrender and the fall of the Third Reich, Natascha made the mistake of reminding him of this vow, and in lieu of a champagne toast, he indulged in what was intended to be the smoking of a single, celebratory cigarette. Unfortunately, the single cigarette led to a second, and another after that. Artin returned to heavy smoking for the rest of his life.
Princeton years
If Göttingen had been the “Mecca” of mathematics in the 1920s and early ‘30s, Princeton, following the decimation of German mathematics under the Nazis, had become the center of the mathematical world in the 1940s. In April, 1946, Artin was appointed Professor at Princeton, at a yearly salary of $8,000. The family moved there in the fall of 1946.
Notable among his graduate students at Princeton are Serge Lang, John Tate (mathematician), Harold N. Shapiro, and O. Timothy O'Meara. Emil chose also to teach the honors section of Freshman calculus each year. He was renowned for the elegance of his teaching. Frei and Roquette write that Artin’s “main medium of communication was teaching and conversation: in groups, seminars and in smaller circles. We have many statements of people near to him describing his unpretentious way of communicating with everybody, demanding quick grasp of the essentials but never tired of explaining the necessary. He was open to all kinds of suggestions, and distributed joyfully what he knew. He liked to teach, also to young students, and his excellent lectures, always well prepared but without written notes, were hailed for their clarity and beauty.” (Emil Artin and Helmut Hasse: Their Correspondence 1923–1934, Introduction.)
Whenever he was asked whether mathematics was a science, Artin would reply unhesitatingly, “No. An art.” His explanation was that: “[Mathematicians] all believe that mathematics is an art. The author of a book, the lecturer in a classroom tries to convey the structural beauty of mathematics to his readers, to his listeners. In this attempt, he must always fail. Mathematics is logical to be sure, each conclusion is drawn from previously derived statements. Yet the whole of it, the real piece of art, is not linear; worse than that, its perception should be instantaneous. We have all experienced on some rare occasion the feeling of elation in realizing that we have enabled our listeners to see at a glance the whole architecture and all its ramifications.”
During the Princeton years, Artin built a reflecting telescope to plans he found in the magazine Sky and Telescope, which he subscribed to. He spent weeks in the basement attempting to grind the mirror to specifications, without success, and his continued failure to get it right led to increasing frustration. Then, in California to give a talk, he made a side trip to the Mt. Wilson Observatory, where he discussed his project with the astronomers. Whether it was their technical advice, or Natascha's intuitive suggestion that it might be too cold in the basement, and that he should try the procedure upstairs in the warmth of his study (which he did), he completed the grinding of the mirror in a matter of days. With this telescope, he surveyed the night skies over Princeton.
In September 1955, Artin accepted an invitation to visit Japan. From his letters, it is clear he was treated like royalty by the Japanese mathematical community, and was charmed by the country. He was interested in learning about the diverse threads of Buddhism, and visiting its holy sites. In a letter home he describes his visit to the temples at Nara. “Then we were driven to a place nearby, Horiuji where a very beautiful Buddhist temple is. We were received by the abbot, and a priest translated into English. We obtained the first sensible explanation about modern Buddhism. The difficulty of obtaining such an explanation is enormous. To begin with most Japanese do not know and do not understand our questions. All this is made more complicated by the fact that there are numerous sects and each one has another theory. Since you get your information only piece wise, you cannot put it together. This results in an absurd picture. I am talking of the present day, not of its original form.”
His letter goes on to outline at length the general eschatological framework of Buddhist belief. Then he adds, “By the way, a problem given by the Zens for meditation is the following: If you clap your hands, does the sound come from the left hand or from the right?”
Return to Hamburg and personal life
The following year, Artin took a leave of absence to return to Germany for the first time since emigration, nearly twenty years earlier. He spent the fall semester at Göttingen, and the next at Hamburg. For the Christmas holidays, he travelled to his birthplace, Vienna, to visit his mother, Vienna being a city he had not seen in decades. In a letter home he described the experience of his return in a single, oddly laconic sentence: “It is kind of amusing to walk through Vienna again.” In 1957, an honorary doctorate was conferred on Artin by the University of Freiburg. That fall, he returned to Princeton for what would be his final academic year at that institution. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1957.
Artin's marriage to Natascha had by this time seriously frayed. Though nominally still husband and wife, resident in the same house, they were for all intents and purposes living separate lives. Artin was offered a professorship at Hamburg, and at the conclusion of Princeton's spring semester, 1958, he moved permanently to Germany. His decision to leave Princeton University and the United States was complicated, based on multiple factors, prominent among them Princeton's (then operative) mandatory retirement age of 65. Artin had no wish to retire from teaching and direct involvement with students. Hamburg's offer was open-ended.
Artin and Natascha were divorced in 1959. In Hamburg, Artin had taken an apartment, but soon gave it over to his mother whom he had brought from Vienna to live near him in Hamburg. He in turn moved into the apartment of the mathematician Hel Braun in the same neighborhood; though they never married, their relationship was equivalent to marriage. On January 4, 1961, he was granted German citizenship. In June, 1962, on the occasion of the 300th anniversary of the death of Blaise Pascal, the University of Clermont-Ferrand conferred an honorary doctorate on him. On December 20 of the same year, Artin died at home in Hamburg, aged 64, of a heart attack.
The University of Hamburg honored his memory on April 26, 2005 by naming one of its newly renovated lecture halls The Emil Artin Lecture Hall.
Influence and work
Artin was one of the leading algebraists of the century, with an influence larger than might be guessed from the one volume of his Collected Papers edited by Serge Lang and John Tate. He worked in algebraic number theory, contributing largely to class field theory and a new construction of L-functions. He also contributed to the pure theories of rings, groups and fields. The influential treatment of abstract algebra by van der Waerden is said to derive in part from Artin's ideas, as well as those of Emmy Noether. Artin solved Hilbert's seventeenth problem in 1927. He also developed the theory of braids as a branch of algebraic topology.
In 1955 Artin was teaching foundations of geometry at New York University. He used his notes to publish Geometric Algebra in 1957, where he extended the material to include symplectic geometry.
Artin was also an important expositor of Galois theory, and of the group cohomology approach to class ring theory (with John Tate), to mention two theories where his formulations became standard.
Conjectures
He left two conjectures, both known as Artin's conjecture. The first concerns Artin L-functions for a linear representation of a Galois group; and the second the frequency with which a given integer a is a primitive root modulo primes p, when a is fixed and p varies. These are unproven; in 1967, Hooley published a conditional proof for the second conjecture, assuming certain cases of the Generalized Riemann hypothesis.
Supervision of research
Artin advised over thirty doctoral students, including Bernard Dwork, Serge Lang, K. G. Ramanathan, John Tate, Harold N. Shapiro, Hans Zassenhaus and Max Zorn. A more complete list of his students can be found at the Mathematics Genealogy Project website (see "External Links," below).
Family
In 1932 he married Natascha Jasny, born in Russia to mixed parentage (her mother was Christian, her father, Jewish). Artin was not himself Jewish, but, on account of his wife's racial status in Nazi Germany, was dismissed from his university position in 1937. They had three children, one of whom is Michael Artin, an American algebraic geometer and professor emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His daughter, Karin Artin, was the first wife of John Tate.
Selected bibliography
Reprinted in
Reprinted in
Reprinted in
Artin, Emil. (1898–1962) Beiträge zu Leben, Werk und Persönlichkeit, eds., Karin Reich and Alexander Kreuzer (Dr. Erwin Rauner Verlag, Augsburg, 2007).
Reprints Artin's books on the gamma function, Galois theory, the theory of algebraic numbers, and several of his papers.
See also
List of things named after Emil Artin
References
Further reading
External links
"Fine Hall in its golden age: Remembrances of Princeton in the early fifties", by Gian-Carlo Rota. Contains a section on Artin at Princeton.
Author profile in the database zbMATH
1898 births
1962 deaths
20th-century American mathematicians
Algebraists
American people of Armenian descent
Austrian people of Armenian descent
Armenian scientists
Austrian emigrants to the United States
Austrian expatriates in Germany
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Indiana University faculty
Number theorists
University of Hamburg faculty
Scientists from Liberec
Princeton University faculty
Scientists from Vienna
University of Michigan faculty
University of Notre Dame faculty
Austro-Hungarian expatriates in France | [
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245353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Painting | Norman Painting | Norman George Painting (23 April 1924 – 29 October 2009) was an English actor, broadcaster and writer. He played Phil Archer in the BBC Radio 4 soap opera The Archers from the pilot episodes aired on the BBC Midlands Home Service in summer 1950, after the series went national on the Light Programme on 1 January 1951, until his death in 2009, when he was the longest-serving member of the cast. His last episode, recorded two days before he died, was broadcast on 22 November 2009. The character lived on until Phil was "found dead" in his armchair in February 2010. According to Guinness World Records, Painting held the world record for an actor playing a continuous role, a total of 59 years, which has now been surpassed by co-actor Lesley Saweard and co-star Patricia Greene.
Early life
Painting was born in Leamington Spa, the son of a railway signalman. He was educated at Leamington College and King Edward VI School, Nuneaton, but left school aged 15 to work in a library. He was found to be medically unfit for military service in the Second World War, and studied English at the University of Birmingham instead, graduating with a first-class degree. He did post-graduate research at Christ Church, Oxford, and then became a tutor in Anglo-Saxon at Exeter College, Oxford.
Radio career
He began to appear on BBC radio while at the University of Birmingham, and continued while also performing as an actor with Oxford University Dramatic Society. He left Oxford University in 1949 to work for the BBC in Birmingham.
Painting had worked as a performer, interviewer, writer and producer for the BBC before he first appeared as Philip in The Archers in 1950. He became a script writer for the series in 1966, following in the footsteps of Edward J. Mason, Geoffrey Webb, David Turner and John Keir Cross. He wrote in his memoir of the programme, Forever Ambridge (named after Ambridge, the fictional West Midlands village in which the programme is set), that he believed that Geoffrey Webb, who had died some time before, was guiding his hand as he wrote. He wrote about 1,200 episodes under the pseudonym Bruno Milna. Artistic disagreements with a then editor, plus a general disillusionment with the BBC management, led him to retire from writing scripts in 1982 and to stick to just performing them.
The character of Phil Archer developed from the lusty young romantic lead of the early episodes, working on the neighbouring Fairbrother estate, into a father and grandfather, replacing Dan Archer as the patriarch of Brookfield Farm and a senior figure in the series. Perhaps his most famous moment occurred on 22 September 1955, when his wife, Grace Archer (née Fairbrother), was killed while trying to rescue a horse, Midnight, from a burning barn – the episode being transmitted on first day of ITV broadcasts. The character survived Painting by four months, dying peacefully in March 2010.
Honour
He was appointed OBE in 1976, for services to broadcasting. He published two books on the Archers entitled Forever Ambridge (1975 and 1980, for the programme's 25th and 30th anniversaries), and a personal memoir, Reluctant Archer (1982). He was the subject of a programme in the TV series This Is Your Life in 1991.
Later life
Painting suffered from poor health in later life, with several heart attacks in 1982 and later pancreatitis, a retinal detachment, and prostate surgery. In 2000, he stated he was suffering from bladder cancer.
He remained a bachelor, and lived alone at Warmington in Warwickshire. His body was found in his home in October 2009, shortly after he had died from heart failure. His ashes were scattered at Painting's Plantation in Leamington Spa, with a memorial service at St Martin-in-the-Fields in May 2010.
He left his recordings, scripts, books, papers and letters to the University of Birmingham, and they are currently held at the Cadbury Research Library.
References
External links
BBC Obituary
Norman Painting – The Daily Telegraph obituary
1924 births
2009 deaths
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
English male radio actors
English radio writers
English male soap opera actors
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Leamington Spa
The Archers | [
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245357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool%20F.C. | Blackpool F.C. | Blackpool Football Club is a professional association football club based in the seaside town of Blackpool, Lancashire, England. The team is competing in the Championship, the second tier of the English football league system, in 2021–22, having gained promotion from League One in 2020–21.
Founded in 1887, the club played home games at Raikes Hall and the Athletic Grounds before moving to Bloomfield Road in 1901.
The club were founder members of the Lancashire League in 1889 and were invited into the Football League Second Division in 1896. They failed re-election in 1899 but had their Football League membership reinstated the following year. Blackpool remained in the Second Division until they won the league title in 1929–30, though they were relegated after three seasons in the First Division. Promoted again in 1936–37, the club entered a golden period under the stewardship of long-time manager Joe Smith. Blackpool lost the 1948 and 1951 FA Cup finals before winning the competition in 1953, in the so-called "Matthews Final", in which they beat Bolton Wanderers 4–3, overturning a 3–1 deficit in the closing stages of the game. That same year, four Blackpool players were in the England team which lost against Hungary at Wembley. In the 1950s they had four top-six finishes in the First Division, with their best position being runners-up to Manchester United in 1955–56. In 1956, Stanley Matthews was the inaugural recipient of the Ballon d'Or.
Blackpool were relegated out of the First Division in 1967 and again in 1971 after winning promotion in 1969–70. They dropped into the fourth tier after suffering relegations in 1978 and 1981, then gained promotion in 1984–85. Between 1987 and 2019, the club was owned by the Oyston family. Nine years after buying the club, Owen Oyston was jailed for the 1992 rape and indecent assault of a 16-year-old girl. His wife, Vicki, took over the chairmanship of the club during her husband's three-year prison term. The couple's son, Karl, took over in 1999 and remained in the role for 19 years. In 2018, after the Oyston family was found, in a High Court judgement, to have operated an "illegitimate stripping" of the club, paying out £26.77 million to companies they owned, Owen relieved Karl of his role and gave it to his daughter, Natalie. In June 2019, Simon Sadler, a 49-year-old Blackpool-born businessman, bought a 96.2% share in the club, completely removing the Oyston family from any involvement.
During the long years of Oyston ownership, Blackpool were relegated into the fourth tier in 1990, promoted via the play-offs in 1992, then relegated again in 2000. Blackpool reached the Premier League in 2010, after becoming the first club to gain promotion from every division of the Football League via the play-off system; they won the 2001 Third Division play-offs, 2007 League One play-offs and the 2010 Championship play-offs. They spent one season in the Premier League, under manager Ian Holloway, and later suffered a double relegation into League Two by 2016, though gained immediate promotion by winning the 2017 League Two play-off final — their sixth success in the format in eight finals.
History
Formation and early years (1877–1900)
Football had developed in Blackpool by 1877, when Victoria F.C. were founded as a church club with a ground in Caunce Street. This team disbanded a few years later but some of its members are understood to have merged with old boys from St John's School to form a new club called Blackpool St John's. The two factions remained disunited, however, and on 26 July 1887, at a meeting in the Stanley Arms public house, the members resolved to wind up St John's and form a new club to represent the whole town. It was named Blackpool Football Club.
The new club managed to win two pieces of silverware in its first season in existence, 1887–88: the Fylde Cup and the Lancashire Junior Cup.
At the conclusion of the following 1888–89 season, Blackpool became founder members of the Lancashire League. In their first season in the competition, the club finished fifth out of the 13 member clubs. They finished as runners-up over the following three seasons (to Bury twice and Liverpool once), before winning the championship themselves on their fourth attempt.
Blackpool's home at that point in time was Raikes Hall (also known as the Royal Palace Gardens), which was part of a large entertainment complex that included a theatre and a boating lake, amongst other attractions. This meant that the club's average attendances were around the 2,000 mark, making the club's formative years a financial success.
After struggling to repeat the success of the 1893–94 season, the Blackpool board decided it was time to leave local football behind, so on 13 May 1896 the club became a limited company and applied for entry to the Football League.
Their application was successful, and for the club's debut season, 1896–97, they joined the 16-team Second Division. Blackpool's first-ever Football League game took place on 5 September 1896, at Lincoln City, which they lost 3–1 in front of around 1,500 spectators.
For the 1897–98 campaign, the club played their home games at the Athletic Grounds (at the present-day Stanley Park). They remained there for the first seven home games of 1898–99, before returning to Raikes Hall for the remaining 10.
After finishing third-bottom, the club were not re-elected at the end of the 1898–99 season, and spent the 1899–1900 term back in the Lancashire League. They finished third, and after the Football League's annual meeting, on 25 May 1900, were permitted back into Division Two. It was during this season out of the League that Blackpool amalgamated with local rivals South Shore and moved to Bloomfield Road.
Early 20th century (1900–1946)
During the 10 seasons that followed, Blackpool could finish no higher than 12th place. The club's top goalscorers in the league included Bob Birket (10 goals in 1900–01), Geordie Anderson (12 goals in 1901–02) and Bob Whittingham (13 in 1908–09).
At the end of 1910–11, the club found themselves in seventh place, thanks largely to Joe Clennell's haul of 18 goals.
It was a case of as-you-were, however, for the four seasons leading up to the First World War, with finishing positions of 14th, 20th, 16th and 10th. For the last of those seasons, Joe Lane netted 28 goals.
The outbreak of war forced the cancellation of League football for four years, during which time regional competitions were introduced. When normality resumed, in 1919–20, Blackpool had appointed their first full-time manager in the form of Bill Norman. Norman guided the club to fourth-placed finishes in his first two league seasons in charge (he was installed as manager during the final inter-war season), with Lane again netting close to 30 goals in the former.
The club's form nosedived in the 1921–22 season, with a finishing position of 19th, before bouncing back to a fifth-placed finish the following campaign. Harry Bedford, who had joined the club from Nottingham Forest, was the country's top league scorer, with 32 goals to his name.
Bedford repeated the feat the following season, this time under the watchful eye of new manager Frank Buckley, who replaced Bill Norman after his four years of service. Blackpool finished fourth in Buckley's first season in charge.
The 1924–25 season was not as successful; a 17th-placed finish tempered only slightly by the club's reaching the fourth round of the FA Cup for the first time. A single-goal defeat at fellow Lancastrians Blackburn Rovers ended the Seasiders' run.
Buckley guided Blackpool to top-10 finishes in his final two seasons as manager – with Billy Tremelling's 30 goals in the latter helping considerably – before he left to take the helm at Wolverhampton Wanderers.
Buckley's replacement was Sydney Beaumont, who took charge for the 1927–28 season, but he lasted only until the spring after the club finished in 19th position.
Harry Evans was installed as the new Blackpool manager, in an honorary capacity, for the 1928–29 campaign. Due in no small part to Jimmy Hampson's 40 goals, the club finished eighth. In his second season, Evans guided Blackpool to the Division Two championship (their only championship to date), finishing ahead of promotion rivals Chelsea and Oldham Athletic by three and four points respectively. Hampson had bagged 45 of the club's 98 league goals.
Blackpool lasted only three seasons in the First Division. Two third-bottom finishes were followed by a last-placed finish, and the club returned to the Second Division.
The club's relegation prompted the Blackpool board to install a recognised manager, and they opted for Sandy MacFarlane. MacFarlane occupied the Bloomfield Road hot seat for just two seasons, in which the club finished 11th and fourth. MacFarlane's final season, 1934–35, marked Jimmy Hampson's eighth successive (and final) season as Blackpool's top League goalscorer.
Joe Smith was appointed Blackpool's sixth manager in August 1935, a role in which he remained for the next 23 years.
The club finished 10th in Smith's first season, with Bobby Finan taking over from Hampson as top scorer, with 34 goals. It was Smith's second season in charge, however, that marked the starting point of the success to come. Blackpool finished the 1936–37 season as runners-up in the Second Division to Leicester City and were promoted back to the First Division.
Two seasons of Division One football were played before the Second World War intervened. Blackpool sat atop the table at the time the abandonment occurred. Regional competitions were implemented again between 1939 and 1945. For the 1945–46 season, after the war's conclusion, Blackpool spent one season in the Football League North.
Post-Second World War (1946–1967)
Scottish defender Hugh Kelly had arrived at Blackpool in 1943, as had fellow defender Tommy Garrett in 1942. Forward Stan Mortensen joined the club after the war in 1946. Mortensen went on to become Blackpool's top League goalscorer for the next nine seasons, sharing the honour with Allan Brown in 1952–53. Stanley Matthews, who became a regular source of goals for Mortensen, joined Blackpool in 1947, as did centre-forward Jackie Mudie. Goalkeeper George Farm signed in 1948, followed by outside-left Bill Perry in 1949. Kelly, Garrett, Matthews, Mudie, Farm and Perry would play with the club throughout the 1950s, the most successful decade in the club's history.
Post-war Blackpool reached the FA Cup Final on three occasions, losing to Manchester United in 1948 and Newcastle United three years later, and winning it in 1953, captained by Harry Johnston.
For the first and only time in the club's history, four Blackpool players (Johnston, Matthews, Mortensen and debutant Ernie Taylor) represented England in the infamous 6–3 defeat by Hungary at Wembley on 25 November 1953. Of the four, only Matthews would ever represent his country again.
In 1955–56, and now captained by Kelly, Blackpool attained their highest-ever finish in the Football League: runners-up to Manchester United, despite losing their final four league games. It was a feat that could not be matched or bettered over the following two seasons, with fourth and seventh-placed finishes, and Smith left Blackpool as the club's most successful and longest-serving manager.
Smith was succeeded, in May 1958, by Ron Suart, the first former Tangerine to return to the club as manager. In his first season, he led the club to eighth in the First Division and the sixth round of the FA Cup. A 23-year-old Ray Charnley topped the club's goalscoring chart with 20, in his first season as a professional, and went on to repeat the feat for seven of the eight seasons that followed.
The League Cup came into existence in 1960–61. Blackpool were knocked out in the second round, the round in which they entered. The club's First Division status came under threat, but they managed to avoid relegation by one point, at the expense of Newcastle United. Local arch-rivals Preston North End were the other club to make the drop.
In October 1961, Matthews, now aged 46, was sold back to Stoke City. Mid-table finishes in 1961–62 and 1962–63 (and an appearance in the League Cup semi-finals during the former) were offset by another lowly finish of 18th in 1963–64, with Alan Ball top-scoring with 13 goals. Much of the same ensued over the following two seasons, before relegation finally occurred in 1966–67. Blackpool finished bottom of the table, eight points adrift of fellow demotion victims Aston Villa. Suart had resigned four months before the end of the season. His replacement was another former Blackpool player, Stan Mortensen.
Late 20th century (1967–2000)
Mortensen picked up the pieces for the club's first season back in the Second Division in 30 years, guiding them to a third-placed finish. They had gone into the final game of the season at Huddersfield Town knowing that a win would likely secure a return to the First Division. They won 3–1, but once the premature celebrations had ended, they discovered that their nearest rivals, Queens Park Rangers, had scored a last-minute winner at Aston Villa. Q.P.R. were promoted by virtue of a better goal-average: 1.86, to Blackpool's 1.65.
At the end of the following 1968–69 campaign, the Blackpool board made the decision to sack Mortensen after just over two years in the job. Their decision was met by fans with shock and anger, as Mortensen was as popular a manager as he was a player.
Les Shannon, who spent the majority of his playing career with Blackpool's Lancashire rivals Burnley, was installed as manager for the 1969–70 season. In his first season, he succeeded where Mortensen had failed, by guiding the club back to the top flight as runners-up behind Huddersfield Town. Their promotion had been sealed after the penultimate game of the season, a 3–0 victory at rivals Preston North End, courtesy of a Fred Pickering hat-trick. The result effectively relegated the hosts to the Third Division.
As quickly as Shannon had taken Blackpool up, he saw them return whence they came. The club finished at the foot of the table and were relegated back to Division Two, along with Burnley. Before the season's conclusion, Shannon was briefly replaced by Jimmy Meadows as caretaker manager, who in turn was permanently replaced by Bob Stokoe. On 12 June 1971, well over a month after the conclusion of the League season, Blackpool won the Anglo-Italian Cup with a 2–1 victory over Bologna in the final. This was achieved without the services of Jimmy Armfield, who retired in May after 17 years and 627 appearances for the club.
Blackpool finished amongst the top 10 teams in the Second Division for six consecutive seasons, under three different managers: Stokoe, Harry Potts and Allan Brown. Twice Blackpool narrowly missed promotion to Division One, by two points in 1974 and 1977.
In February 1978, midway through 1977–78, Brown's second season at the helm, Blackpool were seventh in the division. Having just beaten local rivals Blackburn Rovers 5–2, on 6 February 1978, Brown was sacked by chairman Billy Cartmell for personal reasons. The team won only one more game that season, which ended with their relegation to the Division Three for the first time in their history.
On 1 April 1978, with six games to go, Blackpool were in eighth place, nine points off the third relegation slot. On 25 April, with one game to go, Blackpool were 14th, three points above Cardiff City in the third relegation slot. Four days later, Blackpool completed their programme and were 16th with 37 points – two points clear of Leyton Orient in the third relegation slot, with a vastly superior goal difference (−1, which was four better than fifth-placed Blackburn Rovers). At that point, all the teams below Blackpool still had games to play, apart from bottom placed Hull City. The bottom of the Division Two table read:
The only other team in the division with games to play was Notts County, in 14th place with 38 points.
After Millwall achieved safety by beating already-relegated Mansfield Town, the three remaining fixtures were Cardiff City v. Notts County, Leyton Orient v. Charlton Athletic, and Cardiff City v. Leyton Orient. Only one combination from the 27 possible outcomes of those three games would have resulted in all three teams getting more than 37 points and Blackpool being relegated. Inevitably, Cardiff City beat Notts County, Leyton Orient drew with Charlton and, in the final match, Leyton Orient, who up to that point had only won one away game all season, and had lost six out of their previous eight away games, with no wins, beat now-safe Cardiff City, who had lost only two home games all season and had won six out of their previous seven homes games, with no defeats. Blackpool were relegated with 37 points (the seven teams above them all having 38 ), and were not to return to the second tier for 29 years:
Bob Stokoe returned for a second stint as manager for the 1978–79 campaign, at the end of which Blackpool finished mid-table. Stokoe resigned during the summer.
Stan Ternent became Blackpool's seventh manager in nine years, only to be replaced in February 1980 by Alan Ball, the popular former Blackpool midfielder who left the club for Everton 14 years earlier. Ball himself only lasted a year in the job, and departed when the club were relegated to the League's basement division.
Allan Brown had taken over from Ball in February 1981, and he remained in charge for the following 1981–82 term. Blackpool finished twelfth in their first season in Division Four; however, unable to handle the pressure of the job, Brown resigned during the close season.
Sam Ellis took over from Brown in June 1982, three years after he finished his playing career with Watford. His first season saw Blackpool finish 21st, with Dave Bamber topping the club's goalscoring chart for the second consecutive season with 10 strikes.
It was Ellis's third season, however, that brought the success the club had been looking for. Blackpool finished second behind Chesterfield and were back in Division Three.
The club managed to finish in the top half of the table for their first three seasons in the Third Division, but slipped to 19th in Ellis's seventh and final season in charge.
On 17 April 1986, the board of directors put the club on the market after councillors rejected plans to sell Bloomfield Road for a supermarket site in a £35 million redevelopment scheme. The club was then sold to Owen Oyston for £1.
For the 1989–90 season, Blackpool appointed Jimmy Mullen as manager. Mullen's reign last only 11 months, however, and he left the club after their relegation back to Division Four.
Graham Carr replaced Mullen, but his spell in the manager's seat was even shorter – just four months. He was sacked in November 1990 with Blackpool in 18th place.
Carr's replacement was his assistant, Billy Ayre. Ayre guided the team to a fifth-placed finish and qualification for the play-offs. They lost only five of their 30 league games that remained at the time of Ayre's appointment. The run included 13 consecutive home league wins in an eventual 24–game unbeaten run at Bloomfield Road. The run was extended to 15 consecutive home wins at the start of the 1991–92 campaign, which remains the club record.
After beating Scunthorpe United in the two-legged semi-finals of the play-offs, Blackpool lost to Torquay United in the Wembley final, on penalties after the score was tied 2–2 after regular and extra time.
The following 1991–92 season finished with Blackpool in fourth place, missing out on automatic promotion by one point, which meant another play-offs experience. This time they met Barnet in the semi-finals and won 2–1 on aggregate. They returned to Wembley, where they faced Scunthorpe United in the final, the team they knocked out of the play-offs 12 months earlier. Again the score was tied at the end of regular and extra time, but Blackpool were victorious in the penalty shootout and booked their place in the new Division Two.
Blackpool struggled in their first term back in the third tier of English football but pulled to safety in 18th place by the end. In late 1993 they were as high as fourth but tumbled down the table in the second half of that season to miss the drop by a whisker in 20th, avoiding relegation by virtue of a 4–1 victory over Leyton Orient on the final day of the season. Ayre was sacked in the summer of 1994 and was replaced by Sam Allardyce.
Allardyce led Blackpool to a mid-table finish in his first season and saw the club knocked out of both cup competitions at the first hurdle. Tony Ellis was the club's top scorer with 17 league goals.
The 1995–96 season saw Blackpool finish third and claim a place in the play-offs for the third time in six seasons. In the semi-finals, Blackpool travelled to Bradford City and won 2–0. Three days later, they hosted the Yorkshiremen at Bloomfield Road and lost 3–0. Blackpool remained in Division Two, and Allardyce was sacked not long afterwards.
In 1996, owner Oyston was convicted of the rape of a 16-year-old girl.
Former Norwich City manager Gary Megson replaced Allardyce, and attained a seventh-placed finish in his only season in charge. Nigel Worthington succeeded Megson in the summer of 1997, and in the Northern Irishman's two full campaigns in the hot seat, Blackpool finished 12th and 14th. Worthington resigned towards the end of the 1999–2000 season, and his seat was filled by the former Liverpool and England midfielder Steve McMahon.
Rise to the Premier League (2001–2010)
McMahon arrived too late to save the club from relegation to the Third Division (fourth tier) after a 22nd-placed finish in the table. In his first full season in charge, Blackpool were promoted to Division Two by winning the play-offs. The following season the club received its then record outgoing transfer fee; £1.75million from Southampton for Brett Ormerod, eclipsing the £600,000 QPR paid for Trevor Sinclair eight years earlier. They also gained the first of two Football League Trophy wins in 2002 as Blackpool beat Cambridge United 4–1 at the Millennium Stadium. Their second win was in 2004, this time beating Southend United 2–0 again in Cardiff. In the summer following the Trophy win, McMahon resigned, believing he could not take the club any further with the budget he was being offered. Colin Hendry became the new manager, but was replaced by Simon Grayson in November 2005 after an unsuccessful stint which left Blackpool languishing just above the relegation zone of League One (third tier).
In the 2006–07 FA Cup Blackpool reached the fourth round for the first time in 17 years, after beating Aldershot Town 4–2 at Bloomfield Road, but were knocked out by Norwich City, 3–2 after a replay at Carrow Road. They finished in third place, and qualified for the play-offs, and as top scorers in League One with 76 goals. After beating Oldham Athletic 5–2 on aggregate in the semi-final they met Yeovil Town in the final at the new Wembley Stadium, their first appearance at England's national stadium in 15 years. Blackpool won 2–0, a club-record 10th consecutive victory, and were promoted to the Championship in their 100th overall season in the Football League. The promotion marked their return to English football's second tier for the first time in 29 years.
Blackpool knocked Premier League side Derby County out of the League Cup at the second-round stage on 28 August 2007. The match ended 1–1 after 90 minutes and 2–2 after extra time. The Seasiders won the resulting penalty shootout 7–6. On 25 September, Blackpool beat Southend United 2–1 after extra time to reach the fourth round for the first time in 35 years. They were drawn away to Premiership side Tottenham Hotspur in the last 16, a match they lost 2–0. Tottenham went on to win the competition.
Blackpool finished the 2007–08 season in 19th place, escaping relegation by two points and ensuring their safety in a 1–1 draw with Watford on the final day of the Championship season.
On 23 December 2008, Simon Grayson left the club to join League One club Leeds United after just over three years in charge at Bloomfield Road. Under the guidance of Grayson's assistant Tony Parkes, as caretaker manager, Blackpool finished the 2008–09 campaign in 16th place. Parkes left the club on 18 May 2009 after a meeting with chairman Karl Oyston about finances.
On 21 May 2009, Ian Holloway was appointed as manager, signing a one-year contract with the club with an option of a further year. On 31 July it was announced that club president Valērijs Belokoņs was setting up a new transfer fund, into which he was adding a "considerable amount" to invest in new players identified by Holloway. Four days later Blackpool broke their transfer record by signing Charlie Adam from Scottish champions Rangers for £500,000, topping the £275,000 paid to Millwall for Chris Malkin in 1996.
Blackpool finished the 2009–10 regular season in sixth place in the Championship, their highest finish in the Football League since 1970–71, and claimed a spot in the play-offs. On 2 May 2010, the 57th anniversary of Blackpool's FA Cup Final victory, Blackpool hosted Bristol City for the final League game of the season. They needed to match or better Swansea City's result in their match at home to Doncaster Rovers. Both matches ended in draws, with Swansea's Lee Trundle having a late goal disallowed for handball, which meant Blackpool secured the remaining play-off place.
On 8 May, Blackpool beat Nottingham Forest 2–1 at Bloomfield Road in the semi-final first leg. Three days later, they beat them 4–3 (6–4 on aggregate) at the City Ground in the second leg to progress to the final against Cardiff. The result meant Blackpool had beaten Forest in all four of the clubs' meetings in 2009–10.
Blackpool defeated Cardiff City 3–2 on 22 May in the Championship play-off final at Wembley Stadium to earn promotion to the Premier League. It was Blackpool's debut appearance in the Premier League in its 18-year existence and their first appearance in English football's top flight in 39 years. Blackpool had now, uniquely, been promoted through all three tiers of the Football League via the play-off system. Furthermore, they won all nine play-off games they were involved in during the 10 seasons between 2001 and 2010. The fixture was dubbed "the richest game in football", because the victorious club would receive a £90 million windfall. It was more than double the £36 million that the winners of the Champions League received.
On 24 May, a promotion parade was held along Blackpool's promenade for the club's personnel, who travelled on an open-top double-decker bus from Gynn Square down the Golden Mile to the Waterloo Headland. The police estimated that about 100,000 people lined the route. At the Headland, the manager and squad took to a stage to address the gathered mass crowd. "This is the most unbelievable moment of my life," said Ian Holloway. "I've jumped on the best ride of my life and I don't want to go home."
Premier League campaign (2010–11)
In their first-ever Premier League match on 14 August 2010, Blackpool defeated Wigan Athletic 4–0 at the DW Stadium. The result saw the Seasiders at the top of the entire English football pyramid until Chelsea's 6–0 victory over West Bromwich Albion later in the day. It was the first time they had been in such a position since they won their opening game of the 1957–58 top-flight campaign. The initial fixture list had the game being played at Bloomfield Road, but the Premier League allowed the fixture to be reversed because construction work on Bloomfield Road's East Stand had not been completed in time.
On 27 January 2011, the Premier League fined Blackpool £25,000 for fielding what they believed to be a weakened team against Aston Villa on 10 November. Ian Holloway, who initially threatened to resign if punishment was dealt, had made 10 changes to the team for the fixture. The club had 14 days to appeal against the decision but chose not to, with Karl Oyston saying that if the punishment was upheld there was a threat of a point deduction and an increase in the fine.
On 22 May 2011, exactly 365 days after their promotion, Blackpool were relegated back to the Championship after losing 4–2 at champions Manchester United on the final day of the season, though results elsewhere also impacted the final league standings. Despite predictions that they "wouldn't get 10 points," Blackpool took 39 from their 38 games, including home and away victories over Liverpool, consecutive away wins at Stoke City and Sunderland, and a home victory over Tottenham Hotspur. Seven of their 10 overall wins were obtained before the new year, and at the end of 2010 they sat in eighth place; however, seven defeats in the opening eight fixtures of 2011 saw them drop down the table. The next match, a draw at home Aston Villa, left them in 15th, their lowest placing of the campaign to date. Another run of defeats – this time five in six – put them in the relegation zone for the first time. They climbed out of the bottom three, at the expense of Wigan Athletic, with successive home draws against Newcastle United and Stoke City. Blackpool dropped back into the relegation zone after conceding a late equaliser to draw at Tottenham, switching places with Wolves; they were level on points with Wigan and three ahead of bottom club West Ham United. A victory, their first in three months, over Bolton Wanderers, in their penultimate league fixture, was not enough to change the position as Wolves won at Sunderland. Blackpool went to Old Trafford for the final match and were leading 2–1 12 minutes into the second half, but Manchester United, who were crowned champions a week earlier, took control and won 4–2 to condemn 19th-placed Blackpool to relegation along with Birmingham City and West Ham United.
Fall to the fourth tier (2011–2017)
In July 2011, Blackpool smashed their outgoing transfer record when Charlie Adam signed for Liverpool in a £7-million deal. A portion of these funds was used to bring former Scotland, Rangers, Blackburn Rovers and Birmingham captain Barry Ferguson to Bloomfield Road, where he once again assumed the armband. On 9 May 2012, Blackpool secured their place in the Championship play-off final in their second consecutive season in the division after beating Birmingham City 3–2 on aggregate in the semi-finals. They met West Ham United in the final at Wembley on 19 May, losing 2–1, conceding a last-gasp goal to the Hammers Ricardo Vaz Tê, their first play-off final reversal in 21 years.
On 3 November 2012, Ian Holloway decided to leave Blackpool after accepting an offer from fellow Championship club Crystal Palace to be their manager. He was replaced four days later by Michael Appleton, who left League One side Portsmouth to take up the position; however, after being in charge for just two months, Appleton left for Lancashire neighbours Blackburn Rovers, becoming the shortest-serving manager in Blackpool's history. On 18 February, after just over a month without an appointment, the club made former England captain Paul Ince their third manager of the campaign. It was under Ince that the club made their best-ever start to a league season. Their victory at AFC Bournemouth on 14 September 2013 gave them 16 points out of a possible 18. The sequence of results was two wins, a draw, and three wins. This was countered by a run of nine defeats in 10 games, which resulted in Ince being sacked on 21 January 2014, 11 months into his tenure.
Barry Ferguson was named caretaker manager upon Ince's dismissal. Of Ferguson's 20 league games in charge, Blackpool won just three and finished the 2013–14 season in 20th place. On 11 June 2014, almost five months after Paul Ince's dismissal, the club appointed Belgian José Riga as manager. He was Blackpool's first overseas manager.
Prior to the start of the 2014–15 season Blackpool suffered a major crisis with some 27 players leaving the club; just two weeks before the season started, the club had only eight outfield players and no goalkeeper. Riga was able to assemble a squad in time for Blackpool's first game against Nottingham Forest, but could still only name four substitutes instead of the permitted seven. Blackpool lost the match 2–0. On 27 October 2014, after 15 games in charge, Riga was sacked and replaced by Lee Clark.
On 6 April 2015, with six league fixtures remaining, Blackpool were relegated to League One. On 2 May 2015, the final match of the Championship season against Huddersfield Town was abandoned in the 48th minute following an on-pitch protest by hundreds of Blackpool supporters regarding the actions and management style of the directors and owners. The Football League subsequently declared the result the 0–0 scoreline it was at the time of abandonment, which meant Blackpool finished the season with 26 points. Following the resignation of Lee Clark on 9 May 2015, Blackpool appointed Neil McDonald as manager on 2 June.
In May 2016, a second successive relegation occurred, which put Blackpool in the bottom tier of English professional football for the first time in 15 years. Less than two weeks later, Neil McDonald was sacked as manager. He was replaced by Gary Bowyer, the club's eighth manager in three-and-a-half years.
In late 2016, as the sexual abuse scandal developed, former Blackpool player Paul Stewart alleged he had been abused by Frank Roper, a coach associated with Blackpool in the 1980s.
In May 2017, under Bowyer, Blackpool won promotion to League One after beating Exeter City 2–1 at Wembley in the play-off final. The victory meant that Blackpool became the most successful side in English play-off history, winning their fifth final.
End of the Oyston era (2017–2019)
On 10 November 2017, Blackpool was put up for sale by the Oyston family. The sale included the club itself and the properties division that owns Bloomfield Road stadium.
On 2 February 2018, Owen Oyston relieved Karl Oyston of his role as chairman and appointed his 32-year-old daughter, Natalie Christopher, in his place, just two weeks after appointing her to the club's board.
Gary Bowyer resigned in August 2018 after two years in charge, after the first game of the season for undisclosed reasons. He was replaced with his assistant Terry McPhillips as caretaker manager. McPhillips was made the permanent manager a month later.
On 13 February 2019, the football club was put into receivership by the High Court, which forced Owen Oyston to pay ex-director Valērijs Belokoņs some of the £25m he was owed. Oyston was removed from the board of the club by the receiver on 25 February 2019. The receiver was tasked with discharging some of Oyston's assets, as well as Blackpool Football Club (Properties) Ltd, which owns the football club. The ruling could have resulted in the club being deducted 12 league points; however, this was eventually ruled against by the EFL on 11 April 2019.
Under new ownership (2019–present)
On 13 June 2019, Simon Sadler was announced as the new owner of the club, officially ending the Oystons' 32-year tenure, purchasing a 96.2% stake. Sadler was born and raised in Blackpool and has worked in asset management in Hong Kong since 2007. He is the founder and Chief Investment Officer of Segantii Capital Management.
Terry McPhillips resigned as Blackpool manager on 5 July 2019, having informed the club's board that he had no long-term desire to be a manager. He was replaced by Simon Grayson, who returned for a second spell in charge; however, after a long run of defeats, he was sacked on 12 February 2020. Grayson's last game in charge was a 3–2 home loss to Gillingham. Liverpool U23s manager Neil Critchley was appointed head coach — the first such role for the club — as his replacement on 2 March 2020. After a curtailed regular season due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, Blackpool finished the 2019–20 season season in 13th position after standings were amended to reflect a points-per-game ratio.
At the end of the following campaign, Blackpool were promoted back to the second tier of English football, after a six-year absence, after winning the 2021 EFL League One play-off Final. It was Blackpool's sixth victory in a play-off final in eight such appearances.
Colours
Blackpool first began wearing tangerine for the 1923–24 season, after a recommendation from referee Albert Hargreaves, who officiated an international match between the Netherlands and Belgium and was impressed by the Dutchmen's colours.
Before changing to tangerine permanently, the team tried several different colours: blue-and-white striped shirts in the 1890s (becoming known as the Merry Stripes); a mixture of red or white shirts at the turn of the 20th century; and, during the First World War, black, yellow and red. The latter was adopted to include the colours of the flag of Belgium, a show of support for the large number of Belgian refugees that had arrived in the town. After the war, they wore white shirts and navy-blue shorts. The board introduced another change in 1934 when the team appeared in alternating dark- and light-blue stripes (which have been reintroduced several times in the mid-1990s and 2002, for Blackpool's return to the top flight in 2010 as the club's third kit, and as their away kit in 2019–20), but they bowed to public pressure in 1939 and settled on tangerine. Between 1938 and 1958 Blackpool's kit consisted of tangerine shirts, white shorts and navy blue socks. The club now uses tangerine socks, though navy was used as a secondary colour in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
Stadium
Blackpool have played their home games at Bloomfield Road since 1901. The stadium's current capacity is 17,338, all-seated.
In the summer of 2010, work was done on the stadium to prepare for the club's debut season in the Premier League. A new 5,120-capacity temporary East Stand was built, together with improvements to the floodlighting, media and medical facilities and the dugouts. Painting work was also done on the Stanley Matthews (West) Stand and the Mortensen Kop (North Stand). A new video screen was also installed. A new South Stand named after Jimmy Armfield was opened in 2010 with 3,600 seats. From the first home game in the Premier League, against Fulham on 28 August 2010, the capacity was 16,220, the highest at Bloomfield Road in 30 years.
In the 2011–12 season, the south east corner between the Armfield Stand and the temporary East Stand was filled with an additional 500 seats, the area also incorporating the BFC Hotel, which welcomed its first guests at the end of June 2012. It was officially opened on 26 July 2012, the club's 125th anniversary. The hotel has a four-star rating, although the source of the accreditation is not specified on its website. It also houses a conference centre. From the 2015–16 season to Blackpool's homecoming game against Southend United, the East Stand had been closed to fans. In the latter part of the 2018–19 EFL League One season, away fans moved to the North-East Stand. As of the 2019–20 season, away fans are now accommodated in the East Stand.
Supporters
Blackpool supporters are known by the general terms Tangerine Army or Seaside Barmy Army. Whilst Blackpool had the lowest average home attendance in the Premier League, the atmosphere generated by the home support was regarded as loud and intimidating.
After Steve McMahon resigned as Blackpool manager in 2004, he said of the Tangerine support: "During my time here, the supporters have been fantastic and are a credit to the club. Whilst they have that support, I am sure they can go a long way. I think both on and off the pitch the club is going forward in a big way and unfortunately I'm not part of that anymore." The club was promoted three years later to the Championship, and again in 2010 to the Premier League for the 2010–11 season.
In September 2009, freelance journalist Mike Whalley said after attending a game against Peterborough United: "The home fans certainly make plenty of noise. Bloomfield Road does not lack for atmosphere. Or a drummer. Every home game is played to a thumping drum beat." After Blackpool beat Newcastle United 2–1 on 16 September 2009, Scott Wilson of the Northern Echo wrote: "Almost 10,000 spectators created a hostile and intimidating atmosphere that was a throwback to footballing days gone by" while the Sky Sports match report described the Blackpool support as "boisterous".
On 28 August 2010 Blackpool played Fulham in their first-ever home Premier League game, in front of a crowd of 15,529, the largest attendance for over 30 years at Bloomfield Road. On Sky Sports' Football First programme, co-commentator Barry Horne said: "They are a fantastic crowd. I've watched a lot of Championship games here and the crowd have always been brilliant; they get behind their team." Commentator Will Cope later said: "It's deafening; deafening by the seaside. You wouldn't have thought 15,000 fans could make so much noise." After the game Fulham manager Mark Hughes also praised the home support saying that the atmosphere in the stadium would really help the team in their debut season in the Premier League.
During the 2010–11 Premier League campaign, a decibel-metre was set up three times at each stadium, and an average then taken to indicate the loudest supporters. Despite having a capacity of 16,220, the Blackpool support was ranked the fifth-loudest, at 85 decibels.
In January 2013, a supporters' group named SISA (Seasiders Independent Supporters Association) was formed. It folded in July the following year to become Blackpool Supporters Trust.
Blackpool Fans' Progress Group, a supporters' liaison group, was founded in 2015.
Rivalries
Blackpool's primary rival is Preston North End — the two clubs' grounds being seventeen miles apart — and matches between the two clubs are known as the West Lancashire derby. They have met 96 times across all four divisions of the Football League, including the old First Division, and eight times in either the FA Cup and League Cup (Blackpool having won none of the ties).
Since 2012–13, a Fylde Coast derby has developed with Fleetwood Town. Eight and a half miles separates Bloomfield Road and the Cod Armys Highbury Stadium.
According to a survey conducted in 2019, Blackpool's other significant rivalries are Bolton Wanderers, Burnley and Blackburn Rovers.
Players
First-team squad
Note: EFL clubs are limited to a squad of 22 senior players (aged 21 or over). There is no limit to the number of players who were aged 20 or younger on January 1, 2021, that the club can use.
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Out on loan
Reserve team
Up until the 2009–10 season the reserve team competed in the Central League Division One West. They have been Central League champions twice, in 1919–20 and 1949–50.
With the first team promoted to the Premier League, for the 2010–11 season the reserves competed in the Premier Reserve League. They were in North Group B, with Blackburn Rovers, Everton, Liverpool and Sunderland. At the end of the campaign, the club withdrew from reserve league football, preferring to play such games behind closed doors.
Blackpool reintroduced reserve-team football for the 2019–20 season. They joined a regional five-team Central Division.
Internationals
Blackpool have had 54 full-international representatives. Their first was Fred Griffiths, for Wales, in 1900. Their most recent was Kevin Stewart, for Jamaica, in 2022. In 1996, Northern Ireland's James Quinn became the club's first player in 16 years to be selected for a full international, the previous one being Derek Spence in 1980.
Many players won additional caps with other clubs, but the totals given below apply solely to appearances made while with Blackpool.
England
Scotland
Wales
Northern Ireland
Prior to 1924, there was only one Irish national team. In that year, the Republic of Ireland began playing separate matches, and that position is reflected here.
Republic of Ireland
Latvia
Algeria
Australia
Congo
Ghana
Costa Rica
Estonia
Iceland
Jamaica
Sierra Leone
One-club men
Nine players spent their entire professional playing careers with Blackpool:
Training facility
Blackpool's training ground is located in the Squires Gate area of Blackpool's South Shore. It has been used, with minimal upkeep, since the 1940s. It was described by Blackpool manager Ian Holloway as a "hell hole" in 2009, shortly after which chairman Karl Oyston pledged to build a new facility. "We are never going back to our training ground again," explained Holloway. "Every player this club has ever had hates it, and every player we have is frightened of it. It is a horrible environment to work in." In 2009, with the training ground frozen, Holloway attempted to train on Blackpool's beach, but that too was iced over. An initial plan was to use the facilities of Fylde Rugby Club, but training is still held at the two-pitch Squires Gate, however, and no development has come to fruition.
In August 2014, former Blackpool defender Alex Baptiste reminisced on his time at Squires Gate: "No balls in training, having to run on the beach because the pitch had been frozen for two weeks, no food after training, leaks in the Portacabins, having to buy our own weights – just random stuff like that! It was definitely an experience!"
In June 2020, the club purchased a modular building for the training ground. It includes changing facilities for players and staff, along with eating areas, meeting rooms and medical facilities.
Managers
There have been 36 full-time managers of Blackpool F.C. (including repeat appointments). The longest-serving manager was Joe Smith, who occupied the role for 23 years;
Michael Appleton, meanwhile, lasted 65 days in the role. The club has, on average, appointed a new manager just under every three years. As of March 2020, the club has had ten full-time managers in eight years.
There have been three repeat appointments: Bob Stokoe, Allan Brown and Simon Grayson.
In 2014, Jose Riga became the club's first foreign manager.
In 2020, Neil Critchley became the first appointment to be known as a head coach.
Honours
Blackpool were the first team to be promoted through all divisions of the Football League via the play-off system and the club has the most play-off trophies (6).
League
Football League Second Division / Football League Championship
Champions: 1929–30
Promoted: 1936–37, 1969–70
Play-off winners: 2010
Football League Third Division / Football League One
Play-off winners: 2007, 2021
Football League Fourth Division / Football League Two
Promoted: 1984–85
Play-off winners: 1992, 2001, 2017
Cups
Major
FA Cup
Winners: 1952–53
Minor
Anglo-Italian Cup
Winners: 1971
Football League Trophy
Winners: 2001–02, 2003–04
Lancashire Senior Cup
Winners (7): 1935–36, 1936–37, 1941–42, 1953–54, 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995–96
Football League War Cup
Winners (1): 1943
Records
Club
Highest finish: 2nd in Division One (1956)
Lowest finish: 21st in Division Four (1983)
Players
Most Football League appearances: Jimmy Armfield (569; between 27 December 1954 and 1 May 1971)
Top goalscorer: Jimmy Hampson (252; between 15 October 1927 and 8 January 1938)
Most capped player: Jimmy Armfield (43; for England)
Managers
Longest-serving manager: Joe Smith (22 years, 9 months; from 1 August 1935 to 30 April 1958)
Sponsors
1 Derek Woodman BMW sponsored the club's home shorts, while Derek Woodman Mini sponsored their away versions
2 Blackpool Leisure were the shorts sponsors
3 Tower Insurance were the shorts sponsors
Between the 2005–06 season and the 2009–10 season, Glyn Jones Estate Agents appeared in the back of their home shirts, while JMB Properties Ltd. appeared on the back of their away shirts. For the 2020–21 season, FTS became the back-of-shirt sponsor.
Tangerine TV
In August 2021, the club launched Tangerine TV as a direct replacement to the EFL's iFollow streaming service. There are four subscription levels, in addition to single-game match passes:
Basic membership: allows exclusive access to new club content
International season pass: allows overseas viewers access to live streams of each of the club's Football League matches (except those chosen for international broadcast)
Audio season pass: live audio commentary for each of the club's league matches
Audio monthly pass: one month's worth of live audio commentaries of the club's league matches
Blackpool F.C. Ladies
References
Specific
General
Further reading
(limited edition of 200 copies)
(limited edition of 250 copies)
External links
Blackpool F.C. on BBC Sport
Football clubs in England
Sport in Blackpool
Association football clubs established in 1887
Lancashire League (football)
English Football League clubs
Premier League clubs
EFL Championship clubs
FA Cup winners
EFL Trophy winners
1887 establishments in England
Football clubs in Lancashire
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom | [
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245359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberec | Liberec | Liberec (; ) is a city in the Czech Republic. It has about 104,000 inhabitants and it is the fifth-largest city in the country. It lies on the Lusatian Neisse and is surrounded by the Jizera Mountains and Ještěd–Kozákov Ridge. The town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.
Liberec was once home to a thriving textile industry and hence nicknamed the "Manchester of Bohemia". For many Czechs, Liberec is mostly associated with the city's dominant Ještěd Tower. Since the end of the 19th century, the city has been a conurbation with the suburb of Vratislavice nad Nisou and the neighbouring city of Jablonec nad Nisou. Therefore, the total area with suburbs encompasses 150,000 inhabitants.
Administrative parts
Liberec is made up of 32 city parts and one self-governing borough (Vratislavice nad Nisou).
Staré Město (Liberec I)
Nové Město (Liberec II)
Jeřáb (Liberec III)
Perštýn (Liberec IV)
Kristiánov (Liberec V)
Rochlice (Liberec VI)
Horní Růžodol (Liberec VII)
Dolní Hanychov (Liberec VIII)
Janův Důl (Liberec IX)
Františkov (Liberec X)
Růžodol I (Liberec XI)
Staré Pavlovice (Liberec XII)
Nové Pavlovice (Liberec XIII)
Ruprechtice (Liberec XIV)
Starý Harcov (Liberec XV)
Nový Harcov (Liberec XVI)
Kateřinky (Liberec XVII)
Karlinky (Liberec XVIII)
Horní Hanychov (Liberec XIX)
Ostašov (Liberec XX)
Rudolfov (Liberec XXI)
Horní Suchá (Liberec XXII)
Doubí (Liberec XXIII)
Pilínkov (Liberec XXIV)
Vesec (Liberec XXV)
Hluboká (Liberec XXVIII)
Kunratice (Liberec XXIX)
Vratislavice nad Nisou (Liberec XXX)
Krásná Studánka (Liberec XXXI)
Radčice (Liberec XXXII)
Machnín (Liberec XXXIII)
Bedřichovka (Liberec XXXIV)
Karlov pod Ještědem (Liberec XXXV)
In the early 1990s, some of parts became independent municipalities: Stráž nad Nisou (formerly Liberec XXVI-Stráž nad Nisou and Liberec XXVII-Svárov), Dlouhý Most (formerly Liberec XXXVI-Dlouhý Most), Jeřmanice (formerly Liberec XXXVII-Jeřmanice) and Šimonovice (formerly Liberec XXXVIII-Minkovice and Liberec XXXIX-Šimonovice).
Etymology
The origin of the city name was the subject of many discussions, often nationally influenced, because it was a bilingual settlement.
The oldest known names of the city are German, Reychinberch (1352) and Raichmberg (1369), meaning "rich/resourceful mountain" (reicher Berg in modern German). It was also named Reichenberg (1385) and Rychmberg (1410).
The Czech equivalent originated as a distortion: Rychberk (1545), Lychberk (1592), Libercum (1634), Liberk (1790), and finally Liberec (1845). In Czech, words starting with "R" were often dissimilated into "L". Since then, the city was known as Liberec in Czech and as Reichenberg in German.
History
Probably at the end of the 13th century, a settlement was established on the trade route from Bohemia to Lusatia. Liberec first belonged to the Bieberstein and Redern families and was first mentioned in a document of 1348. When the Redern family after the Battle of White Mountain was forced to leave Liberec, it was acquired by Albrecht von Wallenstein. After his death it belonged to the Gallas and Clam Gallas families. The cloth-making industry was introduced in 1579. The prosperous local industry was interrupted by the Thirty Years' War and a great plague in the 1680s. The Battle of Reichenberg between Austria and Prussia occurred nearby in 1757 during the Seven Years' War.
Until 1918 the city was part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, Austrian monarchy (Austrian side after the compromise of 1867), seat of the Reichenberg district, one of the 94 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Bohemia.
At one time the second city of Bohemia, the city developed rapidly at the end of the 19th century and as a result has a spectacular collection of late-19th-century buildings; the city hall, the opera house and the North Bohemian Museum are of note. The Opera House has a spectacular main curtain designed by the Austrian artist Gustav Klimt. The neighbourhoods on the hills above the city centre display beautiful homes and streets, laid out in a picturesque Romantic style similar to some central European thermal spas.
After the end of World War I Austria-Hungary fell apart. The Czechs of Bohemia joined newly established Czechoslovakia on 29 October 1918 whilst the Germans wanted to stay with Austria to form reduced German Austria on 12 November 1918, both citing Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points and the doctrine of self-determination. Reichenberg was declared the capital of the German-Austrian province of German Bohemia. Czechs however argued that these lands, though German-settled since the Middle Ages, were historically an integral part of the Duchy and Kingdom of Bohemia. On 16 December 1918 the Czechoslovak Army entered Reichenberg and the whole province remained part of Bohemia.
In the 1920s and the 1930s, Liberec became the unofficial capital of Germans in Czechoslovakia, a position was underlined by the foundation of important institutions such as Bücherei der Deutschen, a central German library in Czechoslovakia, and by failed efforts to relocate the German section of the Charles University there from Prague.
The Great Depression devastated the economy of the area with its textile, carpet, glass and other light industry. The high number of unemployed people, hunger, fear of the future and dissatisfaction with the Prague government led to the flash rise of the populist Sudeten German Party (SdP), founded by Konrad Henlein, born in the suburbs of Liberec. Whilst he declared fidelity to the Republic, he secretly negotiated with Adolf Hitler. In 1937 he radicalized his views and became Hitler's puppet in order to incorporate the Sudetenland into Germany and destabilize Czechoslovakia, which was an ally of France and one of the leading arms producers in Europe.
The city became the centre of Pan-German movements and later of the Nazis, especially after the 1935 election, despite its important democratic mayor, Karl Kostka (German Democratic Freedom Party). The final change came in Summer 1938, after the radicalization of the terror of the SdP, whose death threats forced Kostka and his family to flee to Prague.
In September 1938, after two unsuccessful attempts by the SdP to stage a pro-Nazi coup in Czechoslovakia, which were stopped by police and the army, the Munich Agreement awarded the city to Nazi Germany and it became the capital of Reichsgau Sudetenland. Until 1945, the city was administered as a part of the Regierungsbezirk Aussig of Reichsgau Sudetenland. Most of the city's Jewish and Czech population fled to the rest of Czechoslovakia or were expelled. The important synagogue was burned down. Henlein himself confiscated a villa in Liberec that had belonged to a Jewish businessman, which remained Henlein's home until 1945. During a rally in December 1938, Hitler laid out the future of the Hitler Youth.
After World War II the city again became a part of Czechoslovakia and nearly all of the city's German population was expelled following the Beneš decrees. The region was then resettled with Czechs, completely altering the traditional language and culture of the city and its region. The city continues to have an important German minority, consisting of descendants of anti-Nazi Germans who were active in the struggle against Hitler, as well as Germans from Czech–German families and their descendants. Liberec also has a Jewish minority with a newly built synagogue and a Greek minority, originating from Communist refugees who settled there after the Greek Civil War in 1949.
Climate
Demography
Transport
Liberec city transport provides bus and tram lines. The first tram was used in Liberec in 1897. Liberec shares the tramway line which connects it to its neighbouring city, Jablonec nad Nisou which is 12 km away. There are also two city lines with : The first connects Horní Hanychov (not far to the cable car to Ještěd) and Lidové Sady via Fügnerova. The second connects Dolní Hanychov and Lidové Sady via Fügnerova (only during workdays). There are also four historical trams. In the city centre there are two tracks as a memorial, in the past trams were used also on the central place in front of the city hall. A private international airport is located in the Liberec part of Ostašov.
Education and science
Technical University of Liberec was founded in 1953 as " University of Mechanical Engineering in Liberec". After the number of fields has grown, in 1995, the university was renamed. It is known especially for its research in the field of textile engineering. It has about 9,000 students in 6 faculties (Mechanical Engineering, Textile Engineering, Arts and Architecture, Mechatronics Informatics and Inter-Disciplinary Studies, Science-Humanities and Education, and Economics), and it also comprises Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation.
Regional Research Library in Liberec is a general public science library, aiming at general education in the region. Founded in 1900, based on the decision of the municipal council to establish a municipal library. It has an exceptional collection of Germano-Slavica and Sudetica (periodicals and books in German language from Bohemia). New building was completed in 2000 on the site of the Old Synagogue, which was burnt down by the Nazis in November 1938. Its building comprises also a modern New Synagogue.
Culture
Mateřinka is a theatre festival biennially held in June.
Sport
The city is home to FC Slovan Liberec, a football club founded in Liberec which plays in the Czech First League, the top tier. Slovan Liberec is one of the most successful clubs in the Czech Republic, having won three league titles. There is also SK VTJ Rapid Liberec. It is playing one of the lowest division.
The ice hockey team HC Bílí Tygři Liberec play in the Czech Extraliga, the national top tier. It plays in Home Credit Arena.
Liberec has hosted two European Luge Championships, having done so in 1914 and 1939. In 2009, it hosted the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. The Ski Jumping World Cup always comes to Liberec in January. The World Karate Championships took place in May 2011.
In 2015, from 15 to 23 August, Liberec plays host to the 2015 World Mountain Bike Orienteering Championships (WMTBOC).
Sights
Liberec's prominent buildings are the City Hall (1893), the Liberec Castle (Liberecký zámek), built in the 16th century, and the Ještěd Tower (1968) upon the Ještěd Mountain, build by architect Karel Hubáček, which became a symbol of the city. Václav Havel held a broadcast from the site of the tower in 1968; a plaque beside the tower marks this event.
Contemporary buildings of note are also to be found, primarily the work of the firm SIAL, and include the new Regional Research Library (2000) and the Česká Pojišťovna office building (1997). Neo-Renaissance F. X. Šalda theatre was built in 1871–1872. Centrum Babylon Liberec include a large water park, an amusement park, a casino, shopping court and hotel.
The North Bohemian Museum was built in 1873. It ranks among the oldest and most significant museums of nature sciences, arts and crafts in the Czech Republic. There is the sculpture of T. G. Masaryk from 2010 standing in front of the Museum.
Zoo and botanical garden
The Liberec Zoo was the first to be opened in Czechoslovakia in 1904. The zoo contains a wide variety of fauna (about 143 species on 13 ha), including large mammals like elephants, giraffes, sea lions and white tigers, which are a genetic anomaly and hence very rare. It participates in breeding activities of endangered species to help preserve the gene pool.
The Botanical Garden in Liberec (completely rebuilt from Kučera 1995 to 2000) comprises nine glasshouses for visitors (with a total area of and 13 exhibition themes), nine plantation glasshouses and a large exterior terrain. It continues the legacy of a botanical garden established in 1876 by the Verein der Naturfreunde ("Society of Friends of Nature") on a nearby site and it is therefore considered the oldest one in the Czech Republic.
Notable people
Christoph Demantius (1567–1643), composer and poet
Joachim Johann Nepomuk Spalowsky (1752–1797), naturalist
Josef Proksch (1794–1864), composer and teacher of Bedřich Smetana
Friedrich Karl Ginzel (1850–1926), astronomer
Heinrich Herkner (1863–1932), economist
Ferdinand Porsche (1875–1951), car designer
Vlasta Burian (1891–1962), actor
Edmund Nick (1891–1973), composer
Jaroslav Řídký (1897–1956), composer
Konrad Henlein (1898–1945), Nazi politician
Emil Artin (1898–1962), mathematician
Arthur Beer (1900–1980), astronomer
Harald Kreutzberg (1902–1968), dancer and choreographer
Herbert Feigl (1902–1988), philosopher
Guido Beck (1903–1989), physicist
Augustin Schramm (1907–1948), communist politician and officer
Roderich Menzel (1907–1987), tennis player
Fritz Preissler (1908–1948), luger
Egon Hartmann (1919–2009), architect
Otfried Preußler (1923–2013), writer
Markus Lüpertz (born 1941), artist
Barbara Bouchet (born 1944), actress and entrepreneur
Oldřich Kaiser (born 1955), actor
Vladimír Šlechta (born 1960), writer
Jaroslav Nedvěd (born 1969), ice hockey player
Petr Nedvěd (born 1971), ice hockey player
Martin Damm (born 1972), tennis player
Tomáš Enge (born 1976), F1 driver
Jan Víšek (born 1981), ice hockey player
Yemi A.D. (born 1981), choreographer and artist
Lukáš Derner (born 1983), ice hockey player
Pavla Havlíková (born 1983), cyclist
Zuzana Hejnová (born 1986), athlete
Martin Cikl (born 1987), ski jumper
Twin towns – sister cities
Liberec is twinned with:
Amersfoort, Netherlands
Augsburg, Germany
Nahariya, Israel
Zittau, Germany
Gallery
Closest cities, towns and villages
References
External links
Official website
Liberec tourist portal
Facebook page
Tramway Liberec
Liberec Botanical Garden
Liberec Zoo
Oblastni galerie v Liberci (Museum of art)
Unofficial Liberec Trip Planner
Oblastní galerie Liberec at Google Cultural Institute
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Liberec District
Holocaust locations in Czechoslovakia | [
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245363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1bor | Tábor | Tábor (; ) is a town in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 34,000 inhabitants. The town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation.
Administrative parts
The following villages are administrative parts of Tábor:
Čekanice
Čelkovice
Hlinice
Horky
Klokoty
Měšice
Náchod
Smyslov
Stoklasná Lhota
Větrovy
Všechov
Zahrádka
Záluží
Zárybničná Lhota
Etymology
Although the town's Czech name translates directly to "camp" or "encampment", these words were derived from the Tábor's name, and the town was named after the biblical Mount Tabor located in Israel. The town also gave its name to the Taborites, a radical wing of the Hussites. Tábor was initially called Hradiště hory Tábor ("fortified settlement of the Tábor mountain").
Geography
Tábor lies south of the capital Prague, north of the regional capital České Budějovice. It lies on the river Lužnice.
Tábor is located in the geomorphological area of Tábor Uplands. The highest point is the Hýlačka hill with an altitude of and the lowest is the surface of the river. The historical old town is situated on a hill above the river, which was used for the protection of the town.
In the middle of the town lies the Jordán Reservoir, which was created in 1492 and named after the biblical Jordan River. It was originally used for storage of water, but nowadays it is mainly used for recreation. It is the oldest reservoir in Central Europe. There are also many fish ponds in the municipal territory.
History
The area is known to have been settled since the early Iron Age (6th–5th century BC). The next permanent settlement is documented in the Middle Ages. In around 1270, a short-lived settlement called Hradiště (meaning "gord") was founded, which was destroyed most likely in a rebellion against King Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1276.
Tábor was founded in the spring of 1420, probably by Petr Hromádka of Jistebnice and other members of the most radical wing of the Hussites, who became known as the Taborites. Soon after the Taborites were victorious in the Battle of Tábor. The fortified settlement became the base from which the Hussites led their victorious expeditions. After the defeat of the Hussites in the Battle of Lipany, the Taborites reconciled with King Sigismund, and in 1437, it was promoted by Sigismund to a royal town. In 1452, the town surrendered to the troops under the command of the country's steward of George of Poděbrady.
From the end of the 15th century, the rapid development of Tábor occurred, which began to look like a real town and formed into its present form. Most of its landmarks were built in the 16th century. Great fires in 1532 and 1559 destroyed most of the citizens' houses which were usually made of wood, but the fires also became an impetus for further construction development.
In 1547, the town refused to provide military assistance to King Ferdinand I in his campaign against the German Lutherans. Ferdinand I punished Tábor by confiscation of vast lands which were the source of prosperity of the town. After the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 the town did not surrendered to the rule of King Ferdinand II and so the Imperial Army under the command of general Marradas began the half-year long siege that ended in November 1621 when the town surrendered mainly due to lack of food. In 1648, the town was stormed and looted by Swedish army. After the Thirty Years' War, a long period of peace occurred and the town recovered. In the mid-17th century, the monks from the Order of Discalced Augustinians were invited to spread the Catholic faith.
Until 1918, "Tabor – Tábor" was part of the Austrian monarchy (the Austrian side after the compromise of 1867), in the district with the same name, one of the 94 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Bohemia.
Demography
Economy
The Tábor Hospital is by far the largest employer based in the town. The largest industrial employer is BRISK Tábor a.s., producer of spark plugs. The tradition of this production in Tábor dates back to 1935.
Transport
Tábor is a significant transport hub. It lies on the mainline railway linking Prague with České Budějovice and Linz and local branch lines to Bechyně and Pelhřimov. The Tábor–Bechyně railway, built in 1903, was the first electrified railway line in Austria-Hungary.
The town also lies on the European route E55 and it will be connected with Prague, České Budějovice and the Czech–Austrian border with a highway after the building of the planned D3 motorway is finished.
Sport
After the 2019–20 season, the local football club FC MAS Táborsko was promoted into the second-level Czech National Football League.
Tábor is also equipped with a winter stadium. The local ice hockey club, HC Tábor, plays in the third-level ice hockey league.
Other sport facilities in Tábor include a swimming pool and the Komora sports complex.
Sights
Though a large part of the ancient fortifications has been demolished, Tábor still preserves many memorials of its past fame. The historical centre is formed by Žižkovo Square and adjacent streets, and is delimited by remains of the town walls. Only very narrow streets lead to it; this rendered the approach to the square more difficult in times of war. Many architecturally valuable burgher houses decorated by frescos, sgraffiti and gables are preserved, and represent almost all architectural styles.
Town fortifications
Major parts of the town fortifications, including the Kotnov Tower and the Bechyňská Gate near the tower, still exist. Kotnov Tower is the remains of a stone castle which was documented in 1370. It is a landmark on the town's skyline, and today it serves as an observation tower.
A labyrinth of tunnels lies under the houses and streets. The townspeople dug cellars under their houses, and these were subsequently interconnected; an approximately -long section of the tunnel system is open to the public and is a part of the Hussite Museum.
Main square
The largest building on the square is the Dean Church of the Transfiguration of Jesus on the Mount Tabor. It was built in 1480–1512 in the style of the Bohemian Renaissance. In the centre of the square there are a Renaissance fountain from 1567–1568, and a statue of Jan Žižka, the greatest of the Hussite leaders. The statue was created in 1884 by Josef Strachovský and replaced a defective statue from 1877 by Josef Václav Myslbek.
The Old Town Hall was built in stages from 1420 to 1521 in late Gothic style. After it was damaged in the Thirty Year's War, it was reconstructed in Baroque style, but in 1878 its late Gothic appearance was restored, and since then no major alterations have been made. Since 1960, its premises have been used for the Hussite Museum and galleries, and the largest and most representative hall is used for important cultural events. The museum contains interesting relics of the Hussite period such as the Altar Wings of Roudníky.
Ecclesiastical buildings
The second church in the historical centre is the Church of Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the complex of Discalced Augustinians Monastery. The monastery complex was built on the site of abandoned houses in 1642–1666. The church has a Classical Baroque facade. At the beginning of the 19th century the monastery was abolished and the building was converted into a prison. Today, the local museum has its headquarters and depository there, and both the monastery and the church are inaccessible.
The former Church of Saints Philip and James is located below the town walls and is the oldest sacral building in Tábor. Its existence was first mentioned in 1377. It was originally a cemetery chapel, rebuilt to a Baroque church after 1744. Today it serves cultural purposes.
The Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Klokoty is a Baroque pilgrimage church. The church was built in 1700–1714 and in the following years, cloisters and chapels were added. It is one of the most valuable cultural monuments in the region. It still serves relegious purposes. The way to it is lined with Stations of the Cross.
Other cultural sights
Měšice Castle is located in Měšice village. It was built in 1545 as a Renaissance fortress and redesigned into the Baroque style in 1699.
Natural sights
In Klokoty, there is the Pod Klokoty Geological Exposition along the Lužnice.
On the east edge of the town, there is a rock formation called Granátová skála ("Garnet Rock"). The rock is a deposit of red garnets that can be as large as hazelnuts and is protected as a natural monument. The majority of the rock was mined and used as construction material.
Tábor Zoo in Větrovy is the largest zoological garden in the South Bohemian Region. It was opened in 2015.
The botanical garden in Tábor was founded in 1866, which makes it the second oldest in the country. It belongs to the neighbouring Secondary Agricultural School. It contains more than 4,000 plants and 400 trees. The seeds from there are sent to more than 400 places in the world. Most of the garden is occupied by an arboretum. There is a small lake and a rock garden. The three glasshouses contains cacti, succulents, orchids, carnivorous plants and many other exotic plants.
Parks
Pod Kotnovem is a park that is placed next to Bechyňská gate and Kotnov tower. Originally, it was an old cemetery but in the 20th century, it was converted into a park after new cemetery was opened in 1921. Some of the gravestones remained here until present.
Husův park started to form in 1871, after the train station was built. It was not reconstructed until 1991, along with some other buildings in the surroundings. The ceremonial opening of the newly reconstructed park was in 1997. At one part of this park, there stands a big monument to Jan Hus by Czech sculptor František Bílek, made in 1928.
U Popraviště is the biggest park in Tábor. The park is built around a former gallows, which was used during World War II. There is a monument to 156 victims of repression by the German Nazi occupiers that was built in 1945–1950, which includes a bronze board with lions and bronze relief board with figures. The rest of the park rose at the end of 20th century. It contains sculptures, fountains, tree alleys, benches, flower patches and a playground.
Holečkovy sady is a park founded in the 1930s. It is a green ring around the historic core of Tábor named after a writer and translator Josef Holeček. It is located on a hill and it has many paths and stairs made from rocks, lined with large trees. Some smaller monuments are also there – a memorial to Josef Holeček, a white gazebo, cross and two small chapels.
Notable people
Johan Peter Wotapek von Ritterwald (1676–1763), judge
Oskar Nedbal (1874–1930), violinist, composer and conductor
Petr Zenkl (1884–1975), politician
Jiří Traxler (1912–2011), Czech-Canadian jazz pianist and composer
Karel Černý (1922–2014), art director; lived and died here
Bohumil Němeček (1938–2010), boxer, Olympic winner
Rudolf V. Perina (1945–2018), American diplomat
Jiří Balík (born 1953), agroscientist
Jiří Lála (born 1959), ice hockey player
Helena Fuchsová (born 1965), 400m track and field athlete
Radek Dvořák (born 1977), ice hockey player
Jan Šimák (born 1978), footballer
Jana Sedláčková (born 1993), footballer
International relations
Tábor is a part of the Commonwealth of towns with hussite past and tradition, along with other 11 Czech and 6 German municipalities.
Twin towns – sister cities
Tábor is twinned with:
Dole, France
Konstanz, Germany
Nové Zámky, Slovakia
Orinda, United States
Škofja Loka, Slovenia
Wels, Austria
Gallery
References
Further reading
Augusta, Pavel; Klínková, Hana: Tábor, (Tábor 2001).
External links
Official tourist portal
Historical photographs of the town
Hussite Museum in Tábor
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Tábor District
1420 establishments in Europe
Populated places established in the 1420s | [
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245364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophidiiformes | Ophidiiformes | Ophidiiformes is an order of ray-finned fish that includes the cusk-eels (family Ophidiidae), pearlfishes (family Carapidae), viviparous brotulas (family Bythitidae), and others. Members of this order have small heads and long slender bodies. They have either smooth scales or no scales, a long dorsal fin and an anal fin that typically runs into the caudal fin. They mostly come from the tropics and subtropics, and live in both freshwater and marine habitats, including abyssal depths. They have adopted a range of feeding methods and lifestyles, including parasitism. The majority are egg-laying, but some are viviparous.
Distribution
This order includes a variety of deep-sea species, including the deepest known, Abyssobrotula galatheae, found at in the Puerto Rico Trench. Many other species, however, live in shallow water, especially near coral reefs, while a few inhabit freshwater. Most species live in tropical or subtropical habitats, but some species are known from as far north as the coast of Greenland, and as far south as the Weddell Sea.
Characteristics
Ophidiiform fish typically have slender bodies with small heads, and either smooth scales, or none at all. They have long dorsal fins, and an anal fin that is typically united with the caudal fin. The group includes pelagic, benthic, and even parasitic species, although all have a similar body form. Some species are viviparous, giving birth to live young, rather than laying eggs. They range in size from Grammanoides opisthodon which measures just in length, to Lamprogrammus shcherbachevi at in length.
The families Ranicipitidae (tadpole cods) and Euclichthyidae (eucla cods) were formerly classified in this order, but are now preferred in Gadiformes; Ranicipitidae has been absorbed within the family Gadidae.
Timeline of genera
Classification
The order Ophidiiformes is subdivided into suborders and families as follows:
Suborder Ophidioidei
Family Carapidae Poey, 1867 — pearlfishes
Family Ophidiidae Rafinesque, 1810— cusk-eels
Suborder Bythitoidei
Family Bythitidae Gill, 1861 — viviparous brotulas
Family Aphyonidae Jordan & Evermann, 1898 — aphyonids, blind cusk-eel
Family Parabrotulidae Nielsen, 1968 — false brotulas
The suborder Ophidioidei may be a paraphyletic grouping but the suborder Bythitoidei are viviparous and seem to make up a monophyletic clade, while the Ophidioidei are oviparous.
References
Ray-finned fish orders
Taxa named by Lev Berg | [
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245366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esch-sur-Alzette | Esch-sur-Alzette | Esch-sur-Alzette (; ; or Esch an der Alzig) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second-most populous commune, with a population of 35,040 inhabitants, . It lies in the south-west of the country, on the border with France and in the valley of the Alzette, which flows through the town. The town is usually referred to as just Esch; however, the full name distinguishes it from the village and commune of Esch-sur-Sûre which lies further north. The country's capital, Luxembourg City, is roughly to the north-east. The city was selected as the European Capital of Culture for 2022, alongside Kaunas and Novi Sad.
History
For a long time Esch was a small farming village in the valley of the Uelzecht river. This changed when important amounts of iron ore were found in the area in the 1850s. With the development of the mines and the steel industry the town's population multiplied tenfold in a couple of decades. In 1911 the steel- and iron-producing company ARBED was founded. The development of the steel industry, especially in the south of the country, provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century.
In the 1970s, as a result of the steel crisis, the mines and many of the blast furnaces were shut down, the last one, in Esch-Belval, definitely halting its operations in 1997. The blast furnaces were replaced by an electric furnace that is fed with scrap metal rather than iron ore.
Today the industrial wastelands on Belval left behind by the steel industry, are being redeveloped and converted into a new, modern town quarter. New cultural buildings such as the cinema Kinepolis Belval and the Rockhal, Luxembourg's biggest concert hall.
The area around the old blast furnaces will host different structures of the University of Luxembourg, many research centres and the national archives.
Places of interest
The Lankelz miniature railway operates on Sunday afternoons and public holidays from May to mid-October.
Esch is home to the Conservatoire de Musique.
The town has the longest shopping street in Luxembourg.
Population
Government and politics
Local
Esch is governed by its communal council, consisting of 19 councillors. Elections take place to this body every 6 years, under a system of proportional representation. Currently the mayor is Vera Spautz, of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP). The governing majority on the council consists of the LSAP and The Greens.
'G' denotes parties that went on to form the governing majority.
2017 elections
The most recent elections were held on 8 October 2017; the results are listed below.
After the elections, a coalition agreement was signed between 3 parties, the CSV, the Greens, and the DP, who will form the new governing majority on the council. The designated new mayor is Tom Schlesser of Dei Lénk.
Culture
Film production
In 2001, a Luxembourg film production company had depicted a 40,000 m2 and 15 meter high backdrop built for the feature film Secret Passage with John Turturro on the Terre Rouge, a site of a former steelwork in Esch-sur Alzette. The filmset represents the contemporary Venice of the 16th century with a 600 meter long copy of the Grand Canal and 118 house facades. The "Venice-sur-Alzette" was built for around 5 million Euro and was one of the largest open-air film sets in European film history.
Between 2001 and 2007 many film productions used the gigantic filmset. Among others the feature films The Merchant of Venice with Al Pacino and The Girl with the Pearl Earring with Scarlett Johansson were shot in Esch. In the summer of 2007, the filmset was torn down because the weather was affecting the buildings.
European Capital of Culture for 2022
The city of Esch-sur-Alzette was selected as the European Capital of Culture for 2022, alongside Kaunas and Novi Sad.
Transport
Esch is connected by the bus lines 1,2,3,4,5,7,12,13,15 and 17 of the communal public transport company T.I.C.E (tramways intercommunales du canton Esch/Alzette, intercommunal tramway of the canton Esch/Alzette), which maintenance depot and headquarter is situated in Esch, and by lines 307, 312, 313 and 314 of the R.G.T.R.
Sport
Twin towns — sister cities
Esch-sur-Alzette is twinned with:
Coimbra, Portugal
Cologne, Germany
Liège, Belgium
Lille, France
Mödling, Austria
Offenbach am Main, Germany
Puteaux, France
Rotterdam, Netherlands
Turin, Italy
Velletri, Italy
Zemun, Serbia
References
External links
Official website of the town of Esch-sur-Alzette
A large private collection of pictures of the town and its surroundings — articles in German, French and Luxembourgish
HoloGuides : Esch/Alzette - photos, events, etc.
FEATS Newsletter, December 1999 - discusses quite a few matters relating to Esch
Alzette
Cities in Luxembourg
Communes in Esch-sur-Alzette (canton)
Towns in Luxembourg | [
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245368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teplice | Teplice | Teplice () (until 1948 Teplice-Šanov; or Teplitz) is a city in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 50,000 inhabitants. It is the second largest Czech spa town, after Karlovy Vary. The historic city centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.
Administrative parts
The municipal area comprises the administrative parts of Teplice proper, Hudcov, Nová Ves, Prosetice, Řetenice, Sobědruhy and Trnovany.
Geography
Teplice is located in North Bohemia in the valley of the Bílina river. It lies between the slopes of the Ore Mountains in the northwest and the Central Bohemian Uplands in the southeast, about west of Ústí nad Labem. The highest point of the municipal territory is the hill Doubravská hora with an elevation of .
History
According to the 1541 Annales Bohemorum by chronicler Wenceslaus Hajek, the thermal springs are fabled to have been discovered as early as 762; however, the first authentic mention of the baths occurred in the 16th century. The settlement of Trnovany was first documented in a 1057 deed, while Teplice proper was first mentioned in 1154, when Judith of Thuringia, queen consort of King Vladislaus II of Bohemia, founded a Benedictine convert near the hot springs, the second in Bohemia. A fortified town arose around the monastery, which was destroyed in the course of the Hussite Wars after the 1426 Battle of Aussig. In the late 15th century, queen consort Joanna of Rožmitál, wife of King George of Poděbrady, had a castle erected on the ruins. The name "Teplice" is derived from the Old Czech, meaning "hot spring".
Teplice figures in the history of the Thirty Years' War, when it was a possession of the Protestant Bohemian noble Vilém Kinský, who was assassinated together with Generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein at Cheb in 1634. The Habsburg emperor Ferdinand II thereafter enfeoffed castle and town to his general Johann von Aldringen, who nevertheless was killed in battle in the same year, and Teplice fell to his sister Anna Maria von Clary-Aldringen. Consequently, and until 1945, Teplice Castle was the primarily seat of the princely House of Clary-Aldringen. After the Thirty Years' War, the devastated town was the destination of many German settlers.
After a blaze in 1793, large parts of the town were rebuilt in a Neoclassical style. The health resort was a popular venue for wealthy bourgeois like the poet Johann Gottfried Seume, who died on his stay in 1810, or Ludwig van Beethoven, who met here with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1812; as well as for European monarchs. During the Napoleonic War of the Sixth Coalition, Teplice in August 1813 was the site where Emperor Francis I of Austria, Emperor Alexander I of Russia and King Frederick William III of Prussia first signed the triple alliance against Napoleon I of France that led to the coalition victory at the nearby Battle of Kulm.
In 1895, Teplice merged with neighbouring Lázně Šanov (Schönau). Upon the dissolution of Austria-Hungary after World War I and the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the predominantly German-speaking population found itself in newly established Czechoslovakia. According to the 1930 census there were 30 799 people living in the city (5,232 persons of Czechoslovak ethnicity, 12 persons of Hungarian ethnicity, 23 127 persons of German ethnicity and 667 of Jewish ethnicity). Right-wing political groups like the German National Socialist Worker's Party referred to themselves as Volksdeutsche and began to urge for a unification with Germany, their efforts laid the foundation for the rise of the Sudeten German Party under Konrad Henlein after 1933. With the Sudetenland, Teplice was annexed by Nazi Germany according to the 1938 Munich Agreement and incorporated into Reichsgau Sudetenland. In 1930, 3,213 Jews lived in Teplice, 10% of the population. Under the Nazi regime they faced the Holocaust in the Sudetenland. Many fled and the Teplice Synagogue was burnt during Kristallnacht.
After World War II the Czechoslovak government enacted the Beneš decrees, whereafter the German-speaking majority of the population was expelled from Teplice. In 1945, the Princes of Clary-Aldringen, lords of Teplice since 1634, were expropriated.
In 1994, Jaroslav Kubera of the ODS became mayor of Teplice and he held the position until 2018.
Demography
Economy
The largest employer based in the town is AGC Flat Glass Czech, a manufacturer of flat glass for the construction and automotive industries.
Spa
One of the most important employers is the spa. The thermal mineral springs were mentioned already in 1154, which makes the spa the oldest in the country and Central Europe. The Pravřídlo spring reaches a temperature of 41° C. The spa focuses on treatment of musculoskeletal disorders, nervous system diseases, and vascular diseases.
Sport
Teplice is home to the professional football club FK Teplice playing in the Czech First League. The stadium Na Stínadlech is one of the largest in the country and has hosted international matches.
Sights
The main landmark is Teplice Castle. It houses a regional museum with historic castle interiors and a library. In the inner courtyard of the castle, there is a unique Romanesque exposition with the remains of Queen Judith and the remains of a Romanesque basilica with a rarely preserved Romanesque crypt. Adjoining the castle is a large castle garden.
The Church of Saint John the Baptist is a baroque building from 1594, rebuilt in 1703 to its current form. Its tower is open to the public and serves as a lookout tower.
The neo-Gothic Church of Saint Bartholomew was built in 1884 for German population of Lutheran faith. After their expulsion, the church changed owners several times and ceased to serve its purpose. Today it is conserved as a cultural monument and there are expositions concerning the history of the Jewish community in Teplice, and other.
Doubravka Castle is a castle ruin located in Trnovany part of Teplice. It was built in 1483 and conquered in 1639 during the Thirty Years' War. The castle began to serve as a destination for walks and in the 19th century, a restaurant and the neo-Gothic extension were built. Today there is a restaurant and a private lookout tower.
Paleontology
Fossils of an elasmosaurid plesiosaur (large carnivorous marine reptile from the Cretaceous period) were found near Teplice at the end of the 19th century. In the village of Hudcov (a part of Teplice), plesiosaur Cimoliasaurus teplicensis was described in 1906 by Czech paleontologist Antonín Frič.
Notable people
Julius von Payer (1841–1915), arctic explorer
August Stradal (1860–1930), pianist
Karl Pohlig (1864–1928), conductor
Prince Siegfried von Clary-Aldringen (1848–1920), Austro-Hungarian diplomat
Humbert Achamer-Pifrader (1900–1945), SS Colonel
Paul Kohner (1902–1988), film producer
Frederick Kohner (1905–1986), writer
Marianne Winder (1918–2001), librarian
Felix Holzmann (1921–2001), comedian
Helmut Pfleger (born 1943), chess grandmaster
Jaromír Kohlíček (1953–2010), politician
Daniela Peštová (born 1970), model
Robert Lang (born 1970), ice hockey player
Lucie Králová (born 1982), Miss Czech Republic 2005
Residents
Adam Adamandy Kochański (1631–1700), mathematician, died here
Johann Gottfried Seume (1763–1810), poet, died here
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827), composer, began writing his Symphony No. 7 here in 1812
Novalis (1772–1801), poet and philosopher, wrote his "Teplitz Fragments" while staying here
Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont (1777–1857), Austrian diplomat and statesman, resided here at his daughter's castle
Dorothea de Ficquelmont (1804–1863), died here at her daughter's castle
Richard Wagner (1813–1883), began composing the music to his opera Tannhäuser here during a vacation in 1843
Adolf Kurrein (1846–1919), rabbi of Teplice from 1888
Count Manfred von Clary-Aldringen (1852–1928), Austro-Hungarian statesman, resided here in his family's castle
Otto Tetens (1865–1945), astronomer, died here
Oscar Straus (1870–1954) worked here as a Kapellmeister
Ruth von Mayenburg (1907–1993), writer, grew up here
Kurt Eichhorn (1908–1994), conductor, worked here
František Fajtl (1912–2006), fighter pilot in WWII and writer, studied here in 1928–1932
References
External links
Historical Maps "Herrschaft Toeplitz" & Streetmap Toeplitz with different Views (A. F. Zuerner, Amsterdam, 18th century)
Audioguide through Teplice
Populated places in Teplice District
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Spa towns in the Czech Republic
Burial sites of the Ludovingians | [
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245369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9%20Ch%C3%A9nier | André Chénier | André Marie Chénier (30 October 176225 July 1794) was a French poet of Greek and Franco-Levantine origin, associated with the events of the French Revolution of which he was a victim. His sensual, emotive poetry marks him as one of the precursors of the Romantic movement. His career was brought to an abrupt end when he was guillotined for supposed "crimes against the state", just three days before the end of the Reign of Terror. Chénier's life has been the subject of Umberto Giordano's opera Andrea Chénier and other works of art.
Life
Chénier was born in the Galata district of Constantinople. His family home, destroyed in a fire, was located on the site of the present Saint Pierre Han, in today's Karaköy neighborhood of Istanbul. His father, Louis Chénier, a native of Languedoc, after twenty years in the Levant as a cloth-merchant, was appointed to a position equivalent to that of French consul at Constantinople. His mother, Élisabeth Santi-Lomaca, whose sister was grandmother of Adolphe Thiers, was of Greek origins. When André was three years old, his father returned to France, and from 1768 to 1775 served as consul-general of France in Morocco. The family, of which André was the third son, and Marie-Joseph (see below) the fourth, remained in France and for a few years André was given his youthful freedom while living with an aunt in Carcassonne. A square in Carcassonne is named to commemorate him. He distinguished himself as a verse-translator from the classics at the Collège de Navarre in Paris.
In 1783 Chénier enlisted in a French regiment at Strasbourg, but the novelty soon wore off. He returned to Paris before the end of the year, was well received by his family, and mixed in the cultivated circle which frequented his mother's salon, including Lebrun-Pindare, Antoine Lavoisier, Jean François Lesueur, Claude Joseph Dorat, and, a little later, the painter Jacques-Louis David.
Chénier had already decided to become a poet, and worked in the neoclassical style of the time. He was especially inspired by a 1784 visit to Rome, Naples, and Pompeii. For nearly three years, he studied and experimented in verse without any pressure or interruption from his family. He wrote mostly idylls and bucolics, imitated to a large extent from Theocritus, Bion of Smyrna and the Greek anthologists. Among the poems written or at least sketched during this period were L'Oaristys, L'Aveugle, La Jeune Malode, Bacchus, Euphrosine and La Jeune Tarentine. He mixed classical mythology with a sense of individual emotion and spirit.
Apart from his idylls and his elegies, Chénier also experimented with didactic and philosophic verse, and when he commenced his Hermès in 1783 his ambition was to condense the Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot into a long poem somewhat after the manner of Lucretius. Now extant only in fragments, this poem was to treat of man's place in the universe, first in an isolated state, and then in society. Another fragment called "L'Invention" sums up Chénier's thoughts on poetry: "De nouvelles pensées, faisons des vers antiques" ("From new thoughts, let us make antique verses").
Chénier remained unpublished. In November 1787 an opportunity for a fresh career presented itself. The Chevalier de la Luzerne, a friend of the Chénier family, had been appointed ambassador to Britain. When he offered to take André with him as his secretary, André knew the offer was too good to refuse, but was unhappy in England. He bitterly ridiculed "... ces Anglais. Nation toute à vendre à qui peut la payer. De contrée en contrée allant au monde entier, Offrir sa joie ignoble et son faste grossier." Translation: "... these English. A nation for sale to whoever can pay for it. Going from country to country and out to the whole world, offering its ignoble joy and its coarse splendor." Although John Milton and James Thomson seem to have interested him, and a few of his verses show slight inspiration from Shakespeare and Thomas Gray, it would be an exaggeration to say Chénier studied English literature.
The events of 1789 and the startling success of his younger brother, Marie-Joseph, as political playwright and pamphleteer, concentrated all his thoughts upon France. In April 1790 he could stand London no longer, and once more joined his parents at Paris in the rue de Cléry. France was on the verge of anarchy. A monarchien believing in a constitutional monarchy for France, Chénier believed that the Revolution was already complete and that all that remained to be done was the inauguration of the reign of law. Though his political viewpoint was moderate, his tactics were dangerously aggressive: he abandoned his gentle idyls to write poetical satires. His prose "Avis au peuple français" (24 August 1790) was followed by the rhetorical "Jeu de paume", a somewhat declamatory moral ode occasioned by the Tennis court oath addressed to the radical painter Jacques-Louis David.
In the meantime Chénier orated at the Feuillants Club, and contributed frequently to the Journal de Paris from November 1791 to July 1792, when he wrote his scorching iambs to Jean Marie Collot d'Herbois, Sur les Suisses révoltés du regiment de Châteauvieux. The insurrection of 10 August 1792 uprooted his party, his paper and his friends, and he only escaped the September Massacres by staying with relatives in Normandy. In the month following these events his brother, Marie-Joseph, had entered the anti-monarchical National Convention. André raged against all these events, in such poems as Ode à Charlotte Corday congratulating France that "un scélérat de moins rampe dans cette fange", "one scoundrel less creeps in this mire". At the request of Malesherbes, the defense counsel to King Louis XVI, Chénier provided some arguments for the king's defense.
After the king's execution Chénier sought a secluded retreat on the Plateau de Satory at Versailles and only went out after nightfall. There he wrote the poems inspired by Fanny (Mme Laurent Lecoulteux), including the exquisite Ode à Versailles. His solitary life at Versailles lasted nearly a year. On 7 March 1794 he was arrested at the house of Mme Piscatory at Passy. Two obscure agents of the Committee of Public Safety (one of them named Nicolas Guénot) were in search of a marquise who had fled, but an unknown stranger was found in the house and arrested on suspicion of being the aristocrat they were searching for. This was Chénier, who had come on a visit of sympathy.
Chénier was taken to the Luxembourg Palace and afterwards to the Prison Saint-Lazare. During the 140 days of his imprisonment he wrote a series of iambs (in alternate lines of 12 and 8 syllables) denouncing the Convention, which "hiss and stab like poisoned bullets", and which were smuggled to his family by a jailer. In prison he also composed his most famous poem, "Jeune captive", a poem at once of enchantment and of despair, inspired by the misfortunes of his fellow captive the duchesse de Fleury, née Aimée de Coigny. Ten days before Chénier's death, the painter Joseph-Benoît Suvée completed the well-known portrait of him, shown in the box above.
Chénier might have been overlooked but for the well-meant, indignant officiousness of his father. Marie-Joseph tried, but failed, to prevent his brother's execution. Maximilien Robespierre, who was himself in dangerous straits, remembered Chénier as the author of the venomous verses in the Journal de Paris and had him hauled before the Revolutionary Tribunal, which sentenced him to death. Chénier was one of the last people executed by Robespierre.
At sundown, Chénier was taken by tumbrel to the guillotine at what is now the Place de la Nation. He was executed along with Françoise-Thérèse de Choiseul-Stainville, Princesse Joseph de Monaco, on a charge of conspiracy. Robespierre was seized and executed only three days later. Chénier, aged 31 at his execution, was buried in the Cimetière de Picpus.
Works
During Chénier's lifetime only his Jeu de paume (1791) and Hymne sur les Suisses (1792) had been published. For the most part, then, his reputation rests on his posthumously published work, retrieved from oblivion page by page.
The Jeune Captive appeared in the Décade philosophique, on 9 January 1795; La Jeune Tarentine in the Mercure de France of 22 March 1801. François-René de Chateaubriand quoted three or four passages in his Génie du Christianisme. Fayolle and Jules Lefèvre-Deumier also gave a few fragments; but it was not until 1819 that an attempt was made by Henri de Latouche to collect the poems in a substantive volume, from manuscripts retained by Marie-Joseph Chénier. Many more poems and fragments were discovered after Latouche's publication, and were collected in later editions. Latouche also wrote an account of Chénier's last moments.
Critical opinions of Chénier have varied wildly. He experimented with classical precedents rendered in French verse to a much greater extent than other 18th-century poets; on the other hand, the ennui and melancholy of his poetry recalls Romanticism. In 1828, Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve praised Chénier as a heroic forerunner of the Romantic movement and a precursor of Victor Hugo. Chénier, he said, had "inspired and determined" Romanticism. Many other critics also wrote about Chénier as modern and proto-Romantic. However, Anatole France contests Sainte-Beuve's theory: he claims that Chénier's poetry is one of the last expressions of 18th-century classicism. His work should not be compared to Hugo and the Parnassien poets, but to philosophes like André Morellet. Albert Camus in 1951's The Rebel called Chenier "the only poet of the times". Paul Morillot has argued that judged by the usual test of 1820s Romanticism (love for strange literature of the North, medievalism, novelties and experiments), Chénier would have been excluded from Romantic circles.
The poet José María de Heredia held Chénier in great esteem, saying "I do not know in the French language a more exquisite fragment than the three hundred verses of the Bucoliques" and agreeing with Sainte-Beuve's judgment that Chénier was a poet ahead of his time. Chénier has been very popular in Russia, where Alexandr Pushkin wrote a poem about his last hours based on Latouche and Ivan Kozlov translated La Jeune Captive, La Jeune Tarentine and other famous pieces. Chénier has also found favor with English-speaking critics; for instance, his love of nature and of political freedom has been compared to Shelley, and his attraction to Greek art and myth recalls Keats.
Chénier's fate has become the subject of many plays, pictures and poems, notably in the opera Andrea Chénier by Umberto Giordano, the epilogue by Sully-Prudhomme, the Stello by Alfred de Vigny, the delicate statue by Denys Puech in the Luxembourg, and the well-known portrait in the centre of Muller's Last Days of the Terror.
See also
1793 Chénier Act on "right of the author" (French alternative concept to Anglo-Saxon copyright)
Legacy
The rue André Chénier in Aix-en-Provence is named for him.
References
External links
1762 births
1794 deaths
People from Beyoğlu
French poets
French people of Greek descent
Executed writers
University of Paris alumni
French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution
French monarchists
Romantic poets
Burials at Picpus Cemetery
18th-century French poets
French male poets
18th-century French male writers
18th-century Greek poets
18th-century Greek writers
Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to France | [
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245373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachau%20%28district%29 | Dachau (district) | Dachau () is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the south and clockwise) the districts of Fürstenfeldbruck, Aichach-Friedberg, Pfaffenhofen, Freising and Munich, and by the city of Munich.
History
The district was established in 1952. There were slight changes to the territory in the administrative reform of 1972.
Geography
The district extends from the northwestern suburbs of Munich to the so-called Dachauer Land. It is a hilly countryside, which is now densely populated. The growing Munich metropolitan area is advancing more and more into the district's territory.
Coat of arms
The arms include a red zigzag line on white background, which was the heraldic figure of the Wittelsbach family during the 12th and 13th century. Although it was not used anymore from the 14th century on, it is now part of the arms of Dachau in order to symbolise, that Dachau is an old part of the Bavarian state. In the upper part of the arms the blue and white checkered pattern of Bavaria is displayed.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
(German)
Districts of Bavaria | [
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245377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Ferrone | Steve Ferrone | Steve Ferrone (born 25 April 1950) is an English drummer. He is known as a member of the rock band Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers from 1994 to 2017, replacing original drummer Stan Lynch, and as part of the "classic lineup" of the Average White Band in the 1970s. Ferrone has recorded and performed with Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Duran Duran, Stevie Nicks, Laura Pausini, Christine McVie, Rick James, Slash, Chaka Khan, Bee Gees, Scritti Politti, Aerosmith, Al Jarreau, Mick Jagger and Johnny Cash. Ferrone also hosts 'The New Guy' weekly radio show on Sirius Xm's 'Tom Petty Radio'.
Musical career
Ferrone played with the band Bloodstone, appearing on their 1975 album Riddle of the Sphinx. He then began playing with Brian Auger's band Oblivion Express, which had previously featured drummer Robbie McIntosh.
McIntosh later joined the Average White Band and had just released their first number one album when McIntosh died of a heroin overdose. Ferrone was asked to join AWB in his place and stayed with them for the next eight years, recording and playing concert tours to support several hit albums, until AWB broke up in 1982.
Since appearing on Chaka Khan's 1978 debut album, he went on to play on most of her subsequent albums in the 80s, including "Naughty" with former AWB band member Hamish Stuart. In 1985, Ferrone joined the Saturday Night Live house band and was there for the 1985–86 season. He contributed as session drummer for Duran Duran on the Notorious, Duran Duran, and Thank You albums. He also toured with Duran Duran on the Strange Behaviour Tour in support of Notorious. He also toured and recorded with Eric Clapton from 1986 to 1992. During rehearsals in London for the George Harrison tour, he played drums for Duran Duran at Abbey Road Studios and recorded "Ordinary World" In 1991, Ferrone played drums on the George Harrison tour in Japan including three nights at the Tokyo Dome.
Ferrone has also appeared on recordings by the Eric Clapton, Bee Gees, Scritti Politti, Brian May, Anita Baker, George Benson, Jonathan Butler, Cyndi Lauper, Bryan Ferry, Climie Fisher, Christine McVie, Peter Frampton, Jeff Golub, Rick James, Whitney Houston, Chaka Khan, Freddie King, Tracy Chapman, Pat Metheny, Marcus Miller, Steve Winwood, Michael W. Smith, Morrissey–Mullen, Dick Morrissey, Jeffrey Osborne, Paul Simon, Alan Frew, Laura Pausini, Bernie Worrell, Al Jarreau, Michael Jackson and Jaco Pastorius.
Ferrone substituted for Joey Kramer of Aerosmith during pre-production of the band's album Nine Lives while Kramer was grieving the loss of his father.
Ferrone met guitarist Mike Campbell of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers when the two played a show with George Harrison as part of his Hara and the Hijack band at Royal Albert Hall. He became the band's full-time drummer after the departure of original drummer Stan Lynch in 1994. Ferrone's first album with the band was Tom Petty's second solo outing Wildflowers, released that same year. His first live performance as a member of the Heartbreakers was in Louisville, Kentucky on 28 February 1995.
Ferrone thoroughly enjoyed his time with the Heartbreakers, saying that "everyone should have an experience like The Heartbreakers in their musical life: creativity, passion, honesty, integrity and a lot of fun."
In November 2002, Ferrone founded Drumroll Studios in Burbank, California with financial advisor Alan Arora and the help and technical expertise of producer John Jones, with whom he had worked since Duran Duran's "Ordinary World" in 1992. Later, they were joined by guitarist and producer Steve Postell. Together they recorded and produced albums and tracks for a wide variety of musical acts, as well as film and TV scores.
Ferrone released a live solo album titled It Up: Steve Ferrone and Friends Live at La Ve Lee in 2003.
In 2007, he played drums on the self-titled debut album by The Black and White Years, produced by Jerry Harrison of Talking Heads.
In 2010, Ferrone played on the eponymous first solo album by Slash, and joined the Italian band Pooh. He also worked on a collaborative project with composer and musician Eric Alexandrakis, guitarist and composer Warren Cuccurullo, and producer and songwriter Anthony J. Resta. Explaining the purpose of that project in a Modern Drummer news release, Alexandrakis said, "The four of us decided to create a scoring collective to pursue scoring projects in TV themes, film and advertising."
In August 2018 he was announced as drummer for Dire Straits Legacy prior to their first US tour, consisting of 10 dates.
In 2011 Ferrone began playing with old friends Alan Clark and Phil Palmer in a band made up of Dire Straits alumni called The Straits. The band also consisted of Mickey Feat on bass, Chris White on saxophone, Jaimie Squire on keyboards and vocals, and Terrence Reiss on vocals and guitar.
In July 2015, Ferrone reunited with his AWB bandmates Malcolm "Molly" Duncan and Hamish Stuart to form The 360 Band. This is in essence one half of the classic Average White Band lineup. They released an album titled Three Sixty in 2017 and have been performing live together along with supporting musicians.
In 2018, Ferrone played in the house band at a Porsche 70th anniversary event alongside fellow Heartbreaker Benmont Tench, as well as Ian Astbury, Dhani Harrison, and Brian Bell of Weezer
In 2019, Ferrone recorded session drums for Stroke 9's studio album Calafrio.
On 10 July 2019, Ferrone was inducted into the Brighton Music Walk of Fame in his hometown of Brighton, England.
On 1 Feb 2022, it was announced that Ferrone would be a part of the band for John Mayer's Sob Rock Tour.
Discography
1974: Live Oblivion Vol. 1 - Brian Auger's Oblivion Express
1974: Straight Ahead - Brian Auger's Oblivion Express
1974: Burglar – Freddie King
1975: Riddle of the Sphinx – Bloodstone
1975: Cut the Cake – Average White Band (AWB)
1976: Soul Searching – AWB
1976: Person To Person (live) – AWB
1976: Real Thing – Real Thing
1977: Benny & Us – AWB
1977: Burnin' At The Stake – Domenic Troiano Band
1977: Up – Morrissey–Mullen
1977: The Atlantic Family Live at Montreux
1978: Warmer Communications – AWB
1978: Chaka – Chaka Khan
1978: Roberta Flack - Roberta Flack
1979: Feel No Fret – AWB
1979: Thighs and Whispers - Bette Midler
1980: Naughty – Chaka Khan
1980: Invisible Man's Band – Invisible Man's Band
1980: Shine – AWB
1980: Volume VIII – AWB
1981: What Cha' Gonna Do for Me – Chaka Khan
1981: Love All the Hurt Away - Aretha Franklin
1982: Cupid's in Fashion – AWB
1982: Changes - Keni Burke
1982: Jeffrey Osborne - Jeffrey Osborne
1982: Chaka Khan – Chaka Khan
1982: Instant Love - Cheryl Lynn
1983: Hearts and Bones - Paul Simon
1983: Stay With Me Tonight - Jeffrey Osborne
1983: In Your Eyes - George Benson
1983: Robbery - Teena Marie
1983: Emergency - Melissa Manchester
1984: I Feel For You – Chaka Khan
1984: Don't Stop - Jeffrey Osborne
1984: Christine McVie – Christine McVie
1985: Glow – Rick James
1985: Cupid & Psyche 85 – Scritti Politti ("Wood Beez (Pray Like Aretha Franklin)", "Don't Work That Hard" and "Absolute")
1985: She's the Boss - Mick Jagger
1985: Gettin' Away with Murder - Patti Austin
1985: 20/20 - George Benson
1985: Take No Prisoners - Peabo Bryson
1985: Say You Love Me - Jennifer Holliday
1986: Souliloquy – Dick Morrissey
1986: Destiny – Chaka Khan
1986: Notorious – Duran Duran
1986: L Is for Lover − Al Jarreau
1986: One to One - Howard Jones
1986: Good to Go Lover – Gwen Guthrie
1986: Back in the High Life – Steve Winwood ("Freedom Overspill")
1986: Enough Is Enough - Billy Squier
1986: Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine - Daryl Hall
1987: Red Hot Rhythm & Blues - Diana Ross
1988: Big Thing - Duran Duran
1988: Oasis - Roberta Flack
1988: Positive - Peabo Bryson
1988: The Corporate World – Gail Ann Dorsey
1988: C.K. – Chaka Khan
1989: A Night to Remember – Cyndi Lauper
1989: When All the Pieces Fit - Peter Frampton
1989: One – Bee Gees
1989: Cosmic Thing – B52's
1989: Journeyman – Eric Clapton
1989: City Streets - Carole King
1990: I'm Your Baby Tonight - Whitney Houston
1990: Making Every Moment Count - Peter Allen
1990: Composition - Anita Baker
1991: 24 Nights – Eric Clapton
1992: Unplugged – Eric Clapton
1992: Road to Freedom - Grayson Hugh
1992: Live in Japan – George Harrison with Eric Clapton and Band
1992: The Right Time - Etta James
1992: The Woman I Am - Chaka Khan
1993: Spin 1ne 2wo – Spin 1ne 2wo
1993: The Wedding Album – Duran Duran
1993: The Sun Don't Lie – Marcus Miller
1993: Tutte Storie – Eros Ramazzotti
1993: Taxi - Bryan Ferry
1993: Love Remembers - George Benson
1993: Independence - Lulu
1994: Wildflowers – Tom Petty
1994: Letters Never Sent - Carly Simon
1994: Hold On – Alan Frew
1994: Mamouna – Bryan Ferry
1994: Rhythm of Love - Anita Baker
1994: That Secret Place - Patti Austin
1995: Playback – Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
1995: Shadow Man – Sasha Gracanin featuring Mick Taylor
1995: New Beginning – Tracy Chapman
1995: HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I - Michael Jackson
1995: Thank You – Duran Duran
1996: Las Cosas Que Vives – Laura Pausini
1996: Unchained – Johnny Cash
1996: I'm Doing Fine - Dan Hill
1996: Sutras - Donovan
1996: Songs and Music from She's the One – Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
1996: Falling into You - Céline Dion
1998: One Moment in Time – John Jones
1998: Another World - Brian May
1999: Echo – Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
1999: Breakdown - Melissa Etheridge
1999: Timbre - Sophie B. Hawkins
2001: Trouble in Shangri-La – Stevie Nicks
2002: The Last DJ – Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
2002: Twisted Angel - LeAnn Rimes
2002: Escapology - Robbie Williams
2003: It Up: Steve Ferrone and Friends Live at La Ve Lee
2003: Dragonfly - Ziggy Marley
2004: Live at Shibuya Public Hall – Tokyo, Japan 1983 — George Duke Band
2004: Freak Out – Chris Catena
2004: In The Meantime – Christine McVie
2004: My Everything - Anita Baker
2006: More Head – Steve Ferrone's Farm Fur
2006: Fast Man Raider Man - Frank Black
2007 "Zen Blues Quartet" – with Tim Scott, Jeff Young and John March
2008: The Black and White Years – The Black and White Years
2009: black n white album – John Jones
2009: The Live Anthology – Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
2009 "Zen Blues Quartet, Again and Yet again" with Mike Finnigan, Tim Scott and John March
2010: Slash – Slash
2010: Mojo – Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
2010: Dove Comincia il Sole – Pooh
2010: I Feel Like Playing – Ronnie Wood
2011: In Your Dreams - Stevie Nicks
2011: Dedicated – A Salute to the 5 Royales - Steve Cropper
2014: Live – Steve Ferrone & Friends
2014: Hypnotic Eye – Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
2014: Fly Rasta - Ziggy Marley
2015: Today Is Christmas - LeAnn Rimes
2016: Ziggy Marley - Ziggy Marley
2017: Three Sixty - The 360 Band
2018: Traces - Steve Perry
References
External links
Steve Ferrone Official Website
2015 Audio Interview with Steve Ferrone from the I'd Hit That podcast
Gretsch Signature Series Drums – Current Artist Profile, Steve Ferrone
"Live" by Steve Ferrone and Friends
1950 births
Living people
Average White Band members
Black British rock musicians
Duran Duran members
English funk musicians
English people of Sierra Leonean descent
English rock drummers
People from Brighton
Saturday Night Live Band members
Scritti Politti members
Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers members | [
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245380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moschus | Moschus | Moschus (), ancient Greek bucolic poet and student of the Alexandrian grammarian Aristarchus of Samothrace, was born at Syracuse and flourished about 150 BC. Aside from his poetry, he was known for his grammatical work, nothing of which survives.
His few surviving works consist of an epyllion, the Europa, on the myth of Europa, three bucolic fragments and a whole short bucolic poem Runaway Love, and an epigram in elegiac couplets. His surviving bucolic material (composed in the traditional dactylic hexameters and Doric dialect) is short on pastoral themes and is largely erotic and mythological; although this impression may be distorted by the paucity of evidence, it is also seen in the surviving bucolic of the generations after Moschus, including the work of Bion of Smyrna. Moschus' poetry is typically edited along with other bucolic poets, as in the commonly used Oxford text by A. S. F. Gow (1952), but the Europa has often received separate scholarly editions, as by Winfried Bühler (Wiesbaden 1960) and Malcolm Campbell (Hildesheim 1991). The epigram is also normally published with the edition by Maximos Planoudes of the Greek Anthology.
The Europa, along with Callimachus' Hecale and such Latin examples as Catullus 64, is a major example of the Hellenistic phenomenon of the epyllion. Although it is hard to tell because of the fragmentary nature of the evidence, Moschus' influence on Greek bucolic poetry is likely to have been significant; the influence of Runaway Love is felt in Bion and other later bucolic poets. In later European literature his work was imitated or translated by such authors as Torquato Tasso and Ben Jonson.
Two other poems, attributed to him at one time or another but no longer thought to be his, are also commonly edited with his work. The best known is the Epitaph on Bion (i.e. Bion of Smyrna), which had a long history of influence on the pastoral lament for a poet (compare Milton's Lycidas). The other is a miniature epic on Megara (the wife of Heracles), consisting of an epic dialogue between Heracles' mother and his wife on his absence.
References
For a recent overview of Moschus see A. Porro in Eikasmos 10 (1999) 125–25.
There are English translations by J. Banks in Bohn's Classical Library (1853), and by Andrew Lang (1889), together with Bion of Smyrna and Theocritus.
See also Franz Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit. i. 231 (1891).
External links
Poems by Moschus English translations
Works of Moschus at Theoi Project translated by J.M. Edmonds, 1912
Anacreon, Bion, and Moschus, etc. translated by Thomas Stanley (1651)
Europa. Perseus Digital Library Greek
Theocritus, Bion et Moschus graece et latine. Accedunt virorum doctorum animadversiones scholia, indices, L. F. Heindorfius (ed.), Londini, sumtibus Whittaker, Treacher, et Arnot, 1829, vol. 2 pp. 35-77.
Poetae bucolici et didactici. Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, Nicander, Oppianus, Marcellus de piscibus, poeta de herbis, C. Fr. Ameis, F. S. Lehrs (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1862, pp. 77-86.
Poets of Magna Graecia
2nd-century BC poets
2nd-century BC Greek people
Ancient Syracusans
Ancient Greek bucolic poets
Ancient Greek poets
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Hellenistic poets | [
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245381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec%20%28disambiguation%29 | Aztec (disambiguation) | Aztec or Aztek may mean:
The Aztec civilization of Mesoamerica
The Aztec Empire
The Nahuatl language, also known as "Aztec"
Aztec or Aztek may also refer to:
Brands and products
Zidovudine, trade name "Aztec"
Aztec (chocolate), a chocolate bar manufactured by Cadbury plc
Pontiac Aztek, a discontinued car model
Computing
Aztec C, a C compiler for a variety of older computing platforms
Aztec Code, a two-dimensional barcode
Entertainment and media
Aztec (video game), a game for the Apple II personal computer
Aztec Adventure: The Golden Road to Paradise, a game for the Sega Master System console
Aztek (character), a character in the DC Universe
Aztec (novel), a novel by Gary Jennings
Aztec Camera, a Scottish new wave band of the 1980s and mid-1990s
Aztek Escobar, a rapper
Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs, an Australian rock band of the 1960s and 1970s
The Aztecs (Doctor Who), a serial in the Doctor Who television series
Honors
Order of the Aztec Eagle, highest honor accorded foreigners by the Mexican government
Organizations and orders
Aztec Club of 1847, an hereditary order for US Army officers who served in the Mexican–American War
Aztec Resources, merged with Mount Gibson Iron in 2006, operated the iron ore mine on Koolan Island, Western Australia
Barrio Azteca, a Mexican-American gang
Places
Aztec, New Mexico, a city in the United States
Sports
Los Angeles Aztecs, a soccer team that competed in the North American Soccer League from 1974 to 1981
San Diego State Aztecs, the collegiate athletics and sports teams for San Diego State University
Transportation
Piper Aztec, a small twin-engine aircraft
Pontiac Aztek, a sport utility vehicle
Aztec GT, Aztec II, Aztec 7, kit car models made by Fiberfab
See also
Azteca (disambiguation) | [
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245382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20B%C3%BCcheler | Franz Bücheler | Franz Bücheler (3 June 18373 May 1908) was a German classical scholar, was born in Rheinberg, and educated at Bonn, where he was a student of Friedrich Ritschl (1806–1876).
Biography
In 1856 Bücheler graduated from the University of Bonn with a dissertation on linguistic studies of the Emperor Claudius. He held professorships successively at Freiburg (associate professor in 1858, full professor in 1862), Greifswald (from 1866), and Bonn (1870 to 1906). At Bonn, he worked closely with Hermann Usener (1834–1905).
Both as a teacher and as a commentator he was extremely successful. His research spanned the entirety of Greco-Roman antiquity, from poetry and sciences to the mundane aspects of everyday life. In 1878 he became joint-editor of the Rheinisches Museum für Philologie.
Among his editions are:
Frontini de aquis urbis Romae (Leipzig, 1858)
Pervigilium Veneris (Leipzig, 1859)
Petronii satirarum reliquiae (Berlin, 1862; 3rd ed., 1882)
Grundriss der lateinischen Deklination (1866)
Hymnus Cereris Homericus (Leipzig, 1869)
Q. Ciceronis reliquiae (1869)
Des Recht von Gortyn (Frankfort, 1885, with Ernst Zitelmann 1852-1923)
Herondae mimiambi (Bonn, 1892)
Petronii saturae et liber priapeorum (Berlin, 1904)
He also supervised the third edition (1893) of Otto Jahn's Persii, Juvenalis, Sulpiciae saturae.
References
1837 births
1908 deaths
German classical scholars
University of Bonn faculty
University of Greifswald faculty
University of Freiburg faculty
German classical philologists
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) | [
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245383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap%20d%27Agde | Cap d'Agde | Cap d'Agde () is a seaside resort on France's Mediterranean coast. It is located in the commune of Agde, in the Hérault department within the region of Occitanie. Cap d'Agde was planned by architect Jean Le Couteur as part of one of the largest state-run development schemes in French history. In the 1960s, the only buildings at the Cap were small houses that were typically used by locals over the weekends. It is now one of the largest leisure ports on the French Mediterranean.
Agde can be reached by TGV SNCF train direct from Paris or Lille whilst the closest airports are Béziers-Cap d'Agde en Languedoc, with direct budget airline services to the UK and Scandinavia, or Montpellier-Fréjorgues. Public transport (taxi or bus) is available between Agde and Cap d'Agde.
The Musée de l'Ephèbe houses the bronze nude statue known as "l'Ephèbe d'Agde" ("the Youth of Agde"). The statue was discovered in the river Hérault and was housed in the Louvre Museum prior to suitable facilities being made available in Cap d'Agde to house it.
Village Naturiste
Cap d'Agde has a large family-style naturist resort. The Village Naturiste () is a large fenced-off part at the north-eastern edge of Cap d'Agde, although it is accessible along the public beach from the east. It is a self-contained town (sometimes referred to as the "Naked City"), where nudity is legal and common in the whole resort. In the evening, when it gets colder, more people are dressed, sometimes in revealing clothes. A local tourist tax is charged per person, per day.
At the far end of naturism ethics, the village is also becoming a hotspot for swingers and libertines.
The Naturist Village is a town by itself, with a beach, a large marina, 2,500 campsites, apartment complexes, hotel, shops, restaurants, night clubs, bars, post office, bank and ATMs, launderettes, hairdressers and other facilities.
A history of naturism at Cap d'Agde
The land adjoining the long sandy beach at Cap d'Agde was owned for many years by the Oltra family who farmed the olive groves behind the sand dunes adjoining the beach. After the Second World War the brothers Oltra noticed that people were coming in increasing numbers to camp on their land, and that many of these people liked to bathe and to sunbathe nude.
The Oltra brothers began to formalise arrangements for campers on their land, and this subsequently led to the creation of the Oltra Club which is a caravanning and camping resort. The camp grew increasingly popular, especially with young families. German and Dutch tourists were particularly numerous.
In the early 1970s the government of Georges Pompidou drew up plans for the development of the Languedoc-Roussillon coastline. Naturism initially had no part in these proposals, but Paul René Oltra, one of the brothers, persuaded the authorities to include plans for a naturist resort at Cap d'Agde. In 1973 the beach was officially designated as a naturist beach. Regulations for the new resort were also promulgated. The Naturist Village would be a place where voyeurs and exhibitionists would not be welcome.
Early developments
The first developments were at Port Nature and Port Ambonne where flats, shops and pools were constructed. Later, Heliopolis and Port Venus were built and Port Nature was considerably extended. The flats were sold and the owners often let them when they did not require them for their own use. The Naturist Village became a controlled zone during the season with regulated access. Everyone entering was informed of the regulations and required to comply with them.
The 1980s
By the early 1980s, the Naturist Village was reaching the limit of its development. Many shops and commercial premises remained empty, ready for sale or lease. The election of the government of François Mitterrand was to herald a cooling off of the French economy which lasted well into the following decade. During this time the Naturist Village continued to prove a popular resort and it developed an easy and pleasant atmosphere. There were so many German visitors that the Post Office even had a designated postbox for letters and postcards being sent to Germany.
The present position
The naturist village is also becoming a hotspot for swingers and libertines, with sex-shops and swinger clubs. The swingers are also active on the naturist beaches, which makes numerous naturist tourists change destination to another truly family naturist resort.
The naturist village has rules requiring nudity as the norm, which ban photography, the wearing of provocative clothing and the display of indecent items. Signs on the beach in 2008 warned against lewd behaviour. There are clubs and smaller venues including shops and bars. The nightlife centres on clubs and venues. Many open only at certain times of the year. On 23 November 2008 the British newspaper The Sunday Times suggested fires at three swinger clubs were the work of hardline naturists or 'nudist mullahs' who oppose the echangistes or libertines.
In 2009, René Oltra, the company which bears the name of the original promoter of the resort, required visitors to its campsite and villas and flats which it lets to belong to a naturist organisation. However, because of abuses the Cap d'Agde is no longer agreed or supported by the Fédération Française de Naturisme.
In December 2009 the local authority proposed to renovate making the village almost traffic-free constructing tree-lined walkways and promenades, a high-level promenade by the beach, and a hotel. Work was to start in early 2012. Other plans included the renovation of buildings and the construction of new façades.
The naturist village creates employment and revenue in a region of France less affluent than others. It creates income for the local authority through property taxes and admission prices.
In September 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic it was reported that a testing station outside the village found 30% of 800 naturists tested positive for COVID-19. Under normal circumstances at the time—much reduced during the pandemic–the village itself held 10,000 campsite pitches and 15,000 beds, a population density seven times greater than nearby Montpellier.
The naturist beach
The naturist beach (where nudity is technically mandatory) has a length of about and is about wide. Sand and water are of good quality and between . Two security posts feature police and medical facilities. Lifeguards are on duty at several stations, during most of the day. Six restaurants border the southern end of the nude beach. Only one restaurant is available towards the northern end. Even though Cap d'Agde is in France, most of the service staff speak English.
Marina
The marina has about 60 places for boats up to and a large boat yard.
See also
Euronat (naturist resort)
Levant Island
CHM Montalivet
Naturism in France
List of French naturist beaches (In French)
List of social nudity places in France, Europe
Platais Island
Agde
Naturism
Wreck of Rochelongue
Notes and references
External links
Naturism in Cap d’Agde (in English and French)
Official brochure
Cap d'Agde UK fans page
Club Helios
Peng Travel's Cap d'Agde Site
An excerpt from The Naked Truth About Cap d'Agde
Naturism in the Cap d’Agde
Landforms of Hérault
Naturist resorts
Beaches of Metropolitan France
Tourist attractions in Occitania (administrative region) | [
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245389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menin%20Gate | Menin Gate | The Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing is a war memorial in Ypres, Belgium, dedicated to the British and Commonwealth soldiers who were killed in the Ypres Salient of World War I and whose graves are unknown. The memorial is located at the eastern exit of the town and marks the starting point for one of the main roads out of the town that led Allied soldiers to the front line. Designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield and built by the Imperial War Graves Commission (since renamed the Commonwealth War Graves Commission), the Menin Gate Memorial was unveiled on 24 July 1927.
Background
In medieval times, the original narrow gateway on the eastern wall of Ypres was called the Hangoartpoort, "poort" being the Dutch word for gate. During the 17th and 18th centuries, while under the occupation of the Habsburgs and the French, the city was increasingly fortified. Major works were completed at the end of the 17th century by the French military engineer Sebastien Le Prestre, Seigneur de Vauban. At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, the eastern exit simply cut through the remains of the ramparts and crossed a moat. The gateway was by this time known as the Menenpoort, or Menin Gate in English, because the road leading through the gateway led to the small town of Menen.
Ypres occupied a strategic position during the First World War because it stood in the path of Germany's planned sweep across the rest of Belgium, as had been called for in the Schlieffen Plan. By October 1914, the much battered Belgian Army broke the dykes on the Yser River to the north of the City to keep the western tip of Belgium out of German hands. Ypres, being the centre of a road network, anchored one end of this defensive feature and was also essential for the Germans if they wanted to take the Channel Ports through which British support was flooding into France. For the Allies, Ypres was also important because it eventually became the last major Belgian town that was not under German control.
The importance of the town is reflected in the five major battles that occurred around it during the war. During the First Battle of Ypres the Allies halted the German Army's advance to the east of the city. The German army eventually surrounded the city on three sides, bombarding it throughout much of the war. The Second Battle of Ypres marked a second German attempt to take the city in April 1915. The third battle is more commonly referred to as Passchendaele, but this 1917 battle was a complex five-month engagement. The fourth and fifth battles occurred during 1918.
British and Commonwealth soldiers often passed through the Menenpoort on their way to the front lines with some 300,000 of them being killed in the Ypres Salient. 90,000 of these soldiers have no known graves.
From September to November 1915, the British 177th Tunnelling Company built tunnelled dugouts in the city ramparts near the Menin Gate. These were the first British tunnelled dugouts in the Ypres Salient.
The carved limestone lions adorning the original gate were damaged by shellfire, and were donated to the Australian War Memorial by the Mayor of Ypres in 1936. They were restored in 1987, and currently reside at the entrance to that Memorial, so that all visitors to the Memorial pass between them. Replicas of the original Menin gate lions now sit at the entrance of the original gate in Ypres, a gift by the Australian government in recognition of the 100th anniversary of Australians serving in Flanders during the First World War.
Memorial
Reginald Blomfield's triumphal arch, designed in 1921, is the entry to the barrel-vaulted passage for traffic through the mausoleum that honours the Missing, who have no known graves. The patient lion on the top is the lion of Britain but also the lion of Flanders. It was chosen to be a memorial as it was the closest gate of the town to the fighting, and so Allied Troops would have marched past it on their way to fight. Actually, most troops passed out of the other gates of Ypres, as the Menin Gate was too dangerous due to shellfire.
Its large Hall of Memory contains names on stone panels of 54,395 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the Salient but whose bodies have never been identified or found. On completion of the memorial, it was discovered to be too small to contain all the names as originally planned. An arbitrary cut-off point of 15 August 1917 was chosen and the names of 34,984 UK missing after this date were inscribed on the Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing instead. The Menin Gate Memorial does not list the names of the missing of New Zealand and Newfoundland soldiers, who are instead honoured on separate memorials.
The inscription inside the archway is similar to the one at Tyne Cot, with the addition of a prefatory Latin phrase: "Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam, a centuries-old traditional text meaning 'To the greater glory of God'. – Here are recorded names of officers and men who fell in Ypres Salient, but to whom the fortune of war denied the known and honoured burial given to their comrades in death". This inscription, proposed by Rudyard Kipling, is matched by the main overhead inscription on both the east- and west-facing façades of the arch, which he personally composed. On the opposite side of the archway to that inscription is the shorter dedication: "They shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth not away". There are also Latin inscriptions set in circular panels either side of the archway, on both the east and west sides: "Pro Patria" and "Pro Rege" ('For Country' and 'For King'). A French inscription mentions the citizens of Ypres: "Erigé par les nations de l'Empire Britannique en l'honneur de leurs morts ce monument est offert aux citoyens d'Ypres pour l'ornement de leur cité et en commémoration des jours où l'Armée Britannique l'a défendue contre l'envahisseur", which translated into English means: "Erected by the nations of the British Empire in honour of their dead, this monument is offered to the citizens of Ypres for the ornament of their city and in commemoration of the days where the British Army defended it against the invader."
Reaction to the Menin Gate, the first of the Imperial (now Commonwealth) War Graves Commission's Memorials to the Missing, ranged from its condemnation by the war poet Siegfried Sassoon, to praise by the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig. Sassoon described the Menin Gate in his poem 'On Passing the New Menin Gate', saying that the dead of the Ypres Salient would "deride this sepulchre of crime". Zweig, in contrast, praised the simplicity of the memorial, and lack of overt triumphalism, and said that it was "more impressive than any triumphal arch or monument to victory that I have ever seen". Blomfield himself said that this work of his was one of three that he wanted to be remembered by.
To this day, the remains of missing soldiers are still found from time to time in the countryside around the town of Ypres. Typically, such finds are made during building work or road-mending activities. Any human remains discovered receive a proper burial in one of the war cemeteries in the region. If the remains can be identified, the relevant name is removed from the Menin Gate.
Notable commemoratees
Eight recipients of the Victoria Cross are commemorated on this memorial, listed under their respective regiments:
Lance Corporal Frederick Fisher VC (Irish-Canadian)
Brigadier-General Charles FitzClarence VC (highest ranking commemorated)
Company Sergeant Major Frederick William Hall VC (Canadian)
Second Lieutenant Denis George Wyldbore Hewitt VC
Lieutenant Hugh McKenzie VC (Canadian)
Captain John Vallentin VC
Private Edward Warner VC
Second Lieutenant Sidney Woodroffe VC
Others listed include:
Lieutenant George Archer-Shee, original for the title character in Terence Rattigan's play The Winslow Boy
Lieutenant Aidan Chavasse, brother of Captain Noel Chavasse VC and Bar.
Second Lieutenant Harold Bache, English first-class cricketer
Sergeant Harry Band, reputed victim of the alleged "Crucified Canadian" atrocity
Captain Percy Banks, English first-class cricketer
Captain Frank Bingham, English first-class cricketer
Second Lieutenant William (Billy) Geen, Wales rugby international
Private James Hastie, Scottish footballer
Lieutenant Walter Lyon, poet
Captain Basil Maclear, Ireland rugby international
Lieutenant Colonel Edgar Mobbs, England rugby international
Captain The Hon. Arthur O'Neill, first British Member of Parliament (MP) killed in World War I
Second Lieutenant Clyde Bowman Pearce, first Australian born winner of the Australian Golf Open (1908)
Lance-Sergeant Leonard Sutton, English first-class cricketer (serving with Canadians)
Private Arthur Wilson, English rugby international.
"Last Post" ceremony
Following the Menin Gate Memorial opening in 1927, the citizens of Ypres wanted to express their gratitude towards those who had given their lives for Belgium's freedom. Hence every evening at 20:00, buglers from the Last Post Association close the road which passes under the memorial and sound the "Last Post". Except for the occupation by the Germans in World War II when the daily ceremony was conducted at Brookwood Military Cemetery, in Surrey, England, this ceremony has been carried on uninterrupted since 2 July 1928. On the evening that Polish forces liberated Ypres in the Second World War, on 6 September 1944 the ceremony was resumed at the Menin Gate despite the fact that heavy fighting was still taking place in other parts of the town.
During an extended version of the ceremony, individuals or groups may lay a wreath to commemorate the fallen. Bands and choirs from around the world may also apply to participate in the ceremonies. This extended version of the ceremony also starts at 20:00, but lasts longer than the normal ceremony, when only the Last Post is played. The Last Post Association is an independent, voluntary, non-profit-making organisation. It was the Association that first founded the Last Post Ceremony back in 1928, and it is the Association that is still responsible for the day-to-day organisation of this unique act of homage. It also administers the Last Post Fund, which provides the financial resources necessary to support the ceremony. It is a tradition that the Buglers of the Association should wear the uniform of the local volunteer Fire Brigade, of which they are all required to become members.
The Last Post was a bugle call played in the British Army (and in the armies of many other lands) to mark the end of the day's labours and the onset of the night's rest. In the context of the Last Post ceremony (and in the broader context of remembrance), it has come to represent a final farewell to the fallen at the end of their earthly labours and at the onset of their eternal rest.
Similarly, the Reveille was a bugle call played at the beginning of the day, to rouse the troops from slumber and to call them to their duties. In the context of the Last Post ceremony (and in the broader context of remembrance), the Reveille symbolises not only a return to daily life at the end of the act of homage, but also the ultimate resurrection of the fallen on the Day of Judgement. Schedules are available on the Last Post website.
In art
Menin Gate at Midnight (also known as Ghosts of Menin Gate) is a 1927 painting by Australian artist Will Longstaff. The painting depicts a host of ghostly soldiers marching across a field in front of the Menin Gate war memorial. The painting is part of the collection of the Australian War Memorial in Canberra.
Other memorials
On the city walls near the Menin Gate are further memorials to Allied soldiers who fought and died at Ypres, the most notable being those to the Gurkhas and Indian soldiers.
See also
List of Commonwealth War Graves Commission World War I memorials to the missing in Belgium and France
References
External links
The Official Last Post Website
Tom Morgan, "The Menin Gate, Ypres", with an excerpt from Lord Plumer's moving dedicatory address
Siegfried Sassoon On Passing the new Menin Gate
Menenpoort (Belgian heritage register)
Menin Gate poem 'Man-at-Arms' authorship uncovered
World War I memorials in Belgium
Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in Belgium
Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials
Triumphal arches in Belgium
Buildings and structures completed in 1927
1927 sculptures
Buildings and structures in Ypres
Tourist attractions in West Flanders
Cemeteries and memorials in West Flanders | [
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245390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth%20game | Stealth game | A stealth game is a type of video game in which the player primarily uses stealth to avoid or overcome opponents. Games in the genre typically allow the player to remain undetected by hiding, sneaking, or using disguises. Some games allow the player to choose between a stealthy approach or directly attacking antagonists, but rewarding the player for greater use of stealth. The genre has employed espionage, counter-terrorism, and rogue themes, with protagonists who are special forces operatives, special agents, spies, thieves, ninjas, or assassins. Some games have also combined stealth elements with other genres, such as first-person shooters and platformers.
Elements of "stealth" gameplay, by way of avoiding confrontation with enemies, can be attributed to a diverse range of games, including Pac Man (1980). Early maze games have been credited with spawning the genre, including Manbiki Shounen (1979), Lupin III (1980), Castle Wolfenstein (1981), 005 (1981) and Metal Gear (1987). The genre became a mainstream success in 1998, with Tenchu: Stealth Assassins, Metal Gear Solid, and Thief: The Dark Project. They were followed by later releases, like Hitman and Splinter Cell.
Definition
Unlike most action games, stealth games challenge the player to avoid alerting enemies altogether. The core gameplay elements of the modern stealth game are to avoid combat, minimize making noise, and strike enemies from the shadows and behind. Completing objectives without being detected by any enemy, sometimes referred to as "ghosting" is a common approach to stealth games. Avoiding detection may be the only way to successfully complete a game, but there are usually multiple ways to achieve a goal with different pathways or styles of play. Players can hide behind objects or in shadows, and can strike or run past an enemy when the enemy is facing the other way. If the player attracts the attention of enemies, they may be able to hide and wait until the enemies abandon their search. Thus, planning becomes important, as does trial-and-error. Some stealth games put more emphasis on physical combat skill when the player is spotted. Some games offer a choice between killing or merely knocking out an enemy. When ghosting is optional, or not well-supported by a game, players may still attempt to avoid combat for moral reasons or as a demonstration of skill. Early on in the development of the stealth genre these games were referred to as sneak 'em up games.
Game design
When hiding in the dark is a gameplay element, light and shadow become important parts of the level design. Usually the player is able to disable certain light sources. Stealth games also emphasize the audio design when players must be able to hear the subtle sound effects that may alert enemies to their actions; noise will often vary as the player walks on different surfaces such as wood or metal. Players who move recklessly will make more noise and attract more attention.
In order for a game to include stealth gameplay, the knowledge of the artificial intelligence (AI) must be restricted to make it ignorant to parts of the game world. The AI in stealth games takes into specific consideration the enemies' reactions to the effects of the player's actions, such as turning off the lights, as opposed to merely reacting to the player directly. Enemies typically have a line of sight which the player can avoid by hiding behind objects, staying in the shadows or moving while the enemy is facing another direction. Enemies can also typically detect when the player touches them or moves within a small, fixed distance. Overall, stealth games vary in what player actions the AI will perceive and react to, with more recent games offering a wider range of enemy reactions. Often, the AI's movements are predictable and regular, allowing the player to devise a strategy to overcome their adversaries.
One staple of many stealth games is an alarm phase or an alert phase, in which enemies more aggressively seek out the player character. Players can evade capture or engage in combat. This mechanic can also be used to increase difficulty over the course of the game, with missions that end immediately when the alarm phase is activated.
Players are often given limited methods of engaging opponents directly in stealth games, either by restricting the player to ineffective or non-lethal weapons, equipping adversaries with far superior equipment and numbers, or providing the player with a limited amount of health that makes most combat scenarios extremely dangerous. Stealth games sometimes overlap with the survival horror genre, in which players are forced to hide from and evade supernatural or occasionally mundane enemies as they attempt to track down the player.
While early stealth games relied on small maps and simple hitboxes, 3D stealth games have introduced more complex environments. Modern stealth games often give players the ability to quickly climb or maneuver objects, take cover with hotkeys, or mark a series of enemies for attack.
History
Early developments: 1979–1997
According to Retro Gamers John Szczepaniak, the first stealth game was Manbiki Shounen (Shoplifting Boy), published in November 1979. The PET 2001 personal computer game was developed by Hiroshi Suzuki and involves a boy entering a convenience store and attempting to shoplift by stealing "$" symbols while avoiding the line-of-sight detection of the owner. If caught, the player is led away by the police. Suzuki presented the game to developer Taito, which used it as inspiration for their similar stealth arcade game, Lupin III (based on the manga and anime of the same name), released in April 1980. In November 1980, Suzuki developed a sequel, Manbiki Shoujo (Shoplifting Girl).
Castle Wolfenstein, originally available in 1981, employed stealth elements as a focus of the gameplay. Players were charged with traversing the levels of Castle Wolfenstein, stealing secret plans and escaping. Players could acquire uniforms to disguise themselves and walk by guards undetected. Beyond Castle Wolfenstein, released in 1984, included some additions to its predecessor, such as a dagger for close-range kills and a greater emphasis on disguising in enemy uniform. id Software's updated 1992 remake Wolfenstein 3D was originally going to feature some of the original's stealth gameplay, such as body hiding, but this was cut to make the game faster paced. As a result of these changes, Wolfenstein would instead pave the way for later 3D action games, specifically first-person shooters.
In 1981, Sega released an arcade game called 005 in which the player's mission is to take a briefcase of secret documents to a waiting helicopter while avoiding enemy flashlights and use boxes as hiding spots. 005 holds the Guinness World Record for being the first stealth game. In 1985, Durell Software released Saboteur, a game in which the player controls a ninja who has to infiltrate a facility and find a disk while avoiding or defeating security cameras, guards, and dogs. Retro Gamer has called this "the original stealth game". Mindscape's Infiltrator, released in 1986, combined a flight simulator with a stealth-based "ground mission". In this ground mission, the protagonist attempts to sneak into enemy territory using false IDs to avoid detection and knock-out gas to incapacitate enemies. The goal of this mission is to photograph secret documents while avoiding alarms.
Hideo Kojima's Metal Gear, released in 1987 for the MSX2 and the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1988, utilized stealth elements within an action-adventure framework, and was the first mainstream stealth game to be released on consoles. Since the MSX2 was not available in North America, only the NES version was released there. Metal Gear placed a greater emphasis on stealth than other games of its time, with the player character Solid Snake beginning without any weapons (requiring him to avoid confrontation until weapons are found) and having limited ammunition for each weapon. Enemies are able to see Snake from a distance (using a line-of-sight mechanic) and hear gunshots from non-silenced weapons; security cameras and sensors are placed at various locations, and a security alarm sounds whenever Snake is spotted and causes all enemies on screen to chase him. Snake could also disguise himself in enemy uniform or a cardboard box, and use his fists to fight enemies. In 1988, Infogrames published Hostages, sometimes known as Rescue: The Embassy Mission. One of the game's three main segments required players to evade searchlights by rolling and ducking into doorways. Gamestop has observed that the game "set important grounds and ideas for future stealth/tactical shooters," noting the game's use of time limits, cover mechanics, and tests of reflexes.
The sequel Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake was released in 1990 for the MSX2. It further evolved the stealth gameplay of its predecessor and introduced most of the gameplay elements present in Metal Gear Solid, including the three-dimensional element of height, allowing players to crouch and crawl into hiding spots and air ducts and underneath desks. The player could also distract guards by knocking on surfaces and use a radar to plan ahead. The enemies had improved AI, including a 45-degree field of vision, turning their heads left and right to see diagonally, the detection of various different noises, being able to move from screen to screen (they were limited to a single screen in earlier games), and a three-phase security alarm (where reinforcements are called in to chase the intruder, then remain on the lookout for some time after losing sight of the intruder, and then leave the area). The game also had a complex storyline and improved graphics.
Establishing a genre: 1998–2002
Although stealth gameplay had appeared in previous games, 1998 is seen as a turning point in gaming history because of the release of Tenchu: Stealth Assassins, Metal Gear Solid, and Thief: The Dark Project. The ninja-themed Tenchu: Stealth Assassins was the first 3D stealth based-game. Months later, the highly anticipated Metal Gear Solid transformed its modestly successful franchise into a mainstream success. The increased power of the PlayStation console over previous platforms allowed for greater immersion in terms of both story and game environment. Metal Gear Solid has been credited with popularizing the stealth genre. Thief: The Dark Project is also credited as a pioneer of the genre. It was the first stealth game using the first-person perspective, dubbed a "first-person sneaker", or "sneak-em-up", and the first to use darkness and shadows as the mode of concealment. Another of Thief's most noteworthy contributions to the genre was the use of sound as a central mechanic. The robust simulation of sound meant players had to be mindful of the sounds they made, including what kind of surface they were traversing, lest they draw attention to them. Conversely, it meant guards could be heard from a distance and the surfaces they moved on could be identified based on the sounds they made.
With further releases, many games in the genre drifted towards action by allowing the option of direct confrontations. The Hitman series, the first installment of which was released in 2000, allowed this play style, but rewarded the player for stealthy and elaborate assassination of antagonists. Hitman: Codename 47, the first of the series, was the first 3D game to employ the genre's device of disguises. No One Lives Forever, an espionage themed parody also released in 2000, again allowed the player to combine or choose between stealth and overt violence. In 2000, the first-person action role-playing game Deus Ex also allowed the player the choice of taking a stealth approach. A USA Today reviewer found "At the easiest difficulty setting, your character is pureed again and again by an onslaught of human and robotic terrorists until you learn the value of stealth."
1998 also saw the release of Commandos: Behind Enemy Lines, a real-time strategy game with heavy stealth gameplay. Players control a team of several soldiers, each with different limited sets of abilities. Missions are completed by navigating or clearing densely layered enemies patrols with "vision cones", similar to the Soliton radar in Metal Gear Solid. The game is recognized for its difficulty, demanding precision and memorization of hot keys. Commandos gave rise to other sequels along with third-party clones such as the Desperados series and Robin Hood: The Legend of Sherwood.
Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, released 2001 for the PlayStation 2, further evolved the stealth gameplay series. It featured an array of new abilities, including "leaping over and hanging off of railings, opening and hiding in storage lockers," and sneaking up behind enemies to "hold them at gunpoint for items and ammunition." Metal Gear Solid 2 holds a Guinness World Record for being the first stealth game to feature collective artificial intelligence. Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty sold 7 million units in sales, followed by Metal Gear Solid with 6 million units.
Later developments: 2002–2012
After the mainstream success of the genre, stealth elements became increasingly incorporated into a wide range of video games, with numerous action games using stealth elements in some way or another. In 2002, the first installment of the Tom Clancy licensed Splinter Cell series was released, which attempted to add more realism to the stealth genre both in terms of graphics and in-game equipment. If the player is discovered in Splinter Cell, the guards will often raise a general alarm which can cause a difficulty spike or even result in automatic mission failure. Clint Hocking, who worked as a level designer for Splinter Cell, noted that this mechanic was in place at this point because the gameplay developers could not easily implement alternative player actions in the case of such detection; for example, on detection, a real agent may react by subduing the agent that found them, but this was not possible to program in at this point in time. Hocking recognized this would be frustrating to the player and would remain an issue with stealth games for about a decade. In addition, Splinter Cell was notable for its state of the art graphics, including dynamic lighting and shadows. Like Thief, Splinter Cell featured a visibility meter which determined how much light was falling on the character. These effects not only contributed to the atmosphere of the game, but dynamically affected in which areas the player could hide. The 2004 sequel, Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow, added a multiplayer component to the stealth genre.
The growth of the genre also led to the production of a number of E-rated stealth platformers aimed at younger audiences, most notably Sly Cooper, a cel-shaded game released in 2002. Other related games include 2001 Looney Tunes game Sheep, Dog 'n' Wolf and the 2000 movie tie-in game The Grinch. Later, in 2005, Ape Escape 3 featured a mini-game based on the Metal Gear Solid series.
Developers continued to meld stealth with other genres. 2003's Siren combined the survival horror genre with the stealth genre. In the same year, Manhunt employed a snuff movie theme and allowed the player to kill antagonists with varying levels of violence, dependent on how much time was spent sneaking behind them. It was the first to show visual executions in the genre. The following year, Konami's Metal Gear Acid combined the stealth gameplay of the Metal Gear series with turn-based strategy and tactical role-playing game elements as well as card battle elements from Konami's own Yu-Gi-Oh! games.
In 2004, Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater introduced camouflage to the genre. Set in a jungle, the game emphasized infiltration in a natural environment, along with survival aspects such as food capture, healing and close-quarters combat. The game was also notable for its infamous stealth battle with a sniper, in which the player confronts the nearly invisible enemy in a boss fight that can take hours to complete. The following year, the updated version Metal Gear Solid 3: Subsistence added an online multiplayer mode to the game with stealth elements.
Another 2004 release was The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape From Butcher Bay, based on the Chronicles of Riddick series of movies. The game follows the character of Riddick as he attempts to escape from prison. Action and stealth gaming are combined seamlessly by allowing the character to hide, sneak, or fight his way past most situations. The game was critically acclaimed, and was followed with The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena in 2009.
In 2007, Assassin's Creed employed a social element to the stealth game, where the player is able to hide among crowds of civilians by taking care to blend in. Stealth elements were incorporated into Crytek's open world first-person shooter Crysis, multiplayer first-person shooter Team Fortress 2, and first-person role-playing game Fallout 3. In 2008, Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots (PlayStation 3) introduced a battlezone element, where the stealth gameplay is incorporated into a battlefield fought between two armies, both of which can be infiltrated by Solid Snake. In 2009, Assassin's Creed II broadened its predecessor's elements of stealth by allowing the player to blend among any group of civilians, rather than specific ones. Assassin's Creed II also allowed the player to distract guards by tossing coins or by hiring thieves and courtesans, and also featured a notoriety level, which made the player more recognizable until they paid off officials or tore down wanted posters. The same year, Uncharted 2: Among Thieves and Batman: Arkham Asylum incorporated stealth elements in different segments of the games. The multiplayer modes of Aliens vs. Predator in 2010 and Killzone 3 in 2011 also incorporated stealth elements.
Also in 2007, Ben Yahtzee Croshaw published Trilby: The Art of Theft, one of the first indie stealth games. The game features a rudimentary engine built in Adventure Game Studio. Because of this restricted approach, the game's maps are largely static building cutaways. Trilby's graphical style, combined with its stealth gameplay, has drawn comparisons to 1990's Bonanza Bros. In turn, Trilby likely influenced later indie stealth games such as 2013's Gunpoint and 2015's Master Spy.
In 2009, independent developers began to work on a recreation of Thief called The Dark Mod. The project began as a mod of Doom 3 but became a standalone project as of 2013. It features approximately 150 community-built missions and is one of the only open-source stealth games in development.
Recent developments: 2012-Present
The 2012 game Dishonored tried to incorporate stealth elements that were influenced by Thief, such as the importance of lighting and shadows. The developers later abandoned that system citing realism as a factor. The game instead relies on a system of "occlusion-based" stealth, using the vision cones of the enemies, obstacles, and special abilities which determines whether or not the character is visible. Additionally, while other games had implemented such systems, Dishonored was recognized for having a forgiving stealth system compared with Splinter Cell, in that if detected, the player had several options available to either attack those enemies that detected them, distract them, or flee and outrun them by using parkour, rather than immediately reaching a "game over". Forbes called Dishonored one of the best stealth games of 2012, along with Hitman: Absolution and Mark of the Ninja.
Mark of the Ninja put a twist on the stealth genre in that it is a 2D side-scroller. This posed some unique factors, such as the lack of corners for the character to hide behind, and the visibility presented in a side-scroller; the developers overcame this by adding 'fog' that prevents the player from seeing things that the character can not see, visually representing enemy line-of-sight and even visualizing the noise made by the character, including how far that noise travels. After the completion of the game, the player has access to a harder difficulty called "New Game Plus", which further decreases visibility by adding fog behind the player and removes noise visualizations and enemy line of sight indicators.
Throughout the 2010s, stronger technology allowed for larger environments and spurred the development of next-gen entries in existing stealth franchises. 2015's Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain concluded the main Metal Gear series, introducing an open-world for the first time in the franchise. In 2016, Deus Ex: Mankind Divided took a similar approach with a semi-open world designed around city hubs. 2016's Hitman reboot also drastically increased the size of its game maps.
2013's Splinter Cell: Blacklist was considered a return to form after 2010's controversial entry, Splinter Cell: Conviction, which departed from the series formula by forcing combat. Blacklist retained some of the modern conventions of the previous entry, most notably context actions, and was recognized for balancing action gameplay and with pure stealth options.
Between 2013 and 2016, République reunited some of the developers and cast of the Metal Gear series in an episodic point-and-click stealth game. The game's unique play style required users to hack doors and surveillance systems from a bird's eye view in order to navigate their character through the environment.
In 2014, Creative Assembly released Alien: Isolation, a stealth game which emphasized survival-horror. In this game, the protagonist is trapped on a space station with an alien xenomorph which they must avoid for the majority of the game, being unable to kill it. The game also uses feedback from the player's microphone to enhance gameplay as the alien is able to hear noises made by the player and can use them to detect their location.
2014's Styx: Master of Shadows was recognized by many reviewers as a "pure stealth" game that discouraged combat. It also provided a distinctive scouting game mechanic through the use of clones.
The 2019 Untitled Goose Game by Australian developer House House utilized stealth as a major mechanic alongside the otherwise comedic tone of the game, leading to comparisons to Metal Gear Solid.
2016 saw a comeback of Commandos-like stealth games with the release of Shadow Tactics: Blades of the Shogun, published nine years after the previous Commandos-style game Helldorado. In 2020 Shadow Tactics developer Mimimi produced a new entry in the Desperados series, titled Desperados III. In 2021 the developer announced a standalone expansion to Shadow Tactics called Aiko's Choice.
Recent years have also seen procedurally generated and randomized stealth games including 2015's turn-based Invisible Inc, and 2017's top-down action stealth game Heat Signature.
In 2019, Asobo Studio's A Plague Tale: Innocence and FromSoftware's Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice were recognized for their stealth elements.
References
Stealth video games
Video game genres
Video game terminology | [
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245391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Heinrich%20Ludolf%20Ahrens | Franz Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens | Franz Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens (6 June 1809, Helmstedt – 25 September 1881, Hanover) was a German philologist.
He was born in Helmstedt. After studying at the University of Göttingen (1826-1829) under Karl Otfried Müller and Georg Ludolf Dissen, he worked as schoolteacher at the Pädagogium in Ilfeld (from 1831). In 1845 he was appointed director of the gymnasium in Lingen, and in 1849 succeeded GF Grotefend as director of the Lyceum at Hanover, a post which he filled with great success for thirty years.
His most important work was "De Graecae Linguae Dialectis" (1839-1843), a study of Aeolic and Doric dialects that became a standard treatise on the subject. He also published "Bucolicorum Graecorum Reliquiae" (1855-1859); studies on the dialects of Homer and the Greek lyrists; on Aeschylus ("De causis quibusdam Aeschyli Nondum satis emendati"); and some excellent school textbooks. A volume of his minor works (edited by Carl Ernst Christian Häberlin) was published in 1891, which also contains a complete list of his writings.
Selected works
De Athenarum statu politico et literario inde ab Achaici foederis interitu usque ad Antoninorum tempora, 1829.
De causis quibusdam Aeschyli nondum satis emendati commentatio, 1832.
De Graecae Linguae Dialectis. Lib. 1, 2, Gottingae, apud Vandenhoek et Ruprecht, 1839–43.
"Lib. I. De dialectis aeolicis et pseudaeolicis", 1839.
"Lib. II. De dialecto dorica", 1843.
Griechisches Elementarbuch aus Homer, 1850 – Greek primer on Homer.
Griechische Formenlehre des Homerischen und Attischen Dialektes, etc., 1852 – Greek morphology on Homeric and Attican dialects.
"An Elementary Greek Reader, from Homer" [being the Odyssey, Book IX. 39 to End]; with Grammatical Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. By Dr. H.L. Ahrens. ... First Course. edited by T.K. Arnold; London, 1852 - 101 pages.
Epitaphius Adonidis, 1854.
Bucolicorum Græcorum Theocriti, Bionis, Moschi Reliquiæ, 1855.
Studien zum Agamemnon des Aeschylus, 1860 – Studies of Agamemnon and Aeschylus.
Beiträge zur griechischen und lateinischen Etymologie, 1879 – On Greek and Latin etymology.
Kleine Schriften (edited by Carl Haeberlin), 1891 – Smaller works.
References
1809 births
1881 deaths
People from Helmstedt
German philologists
People from the Duchy of Brunswick
University of Göttingen alumni
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Members of the First Chamber of the Diet of the Kingdom of Hanover | [
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245392 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellynose%20fish | Jellynose fish | The jellynose fishes or tadpole fishes are the small order Ateleopodiformes. This group of ray-finned fish is monotypic, containing a single family Ateleopodidae. It has about a dozen species in four genera, but these enigmatic fishes are in need of taxonomic revision.
The scientific name means "Ateleopus-shaped", from Ateleopus (the type genus) + the standard fish order suffix "-formes". It ultimately derives from Ancient Greek atelēs (ἀτελής, "imperfect") + pous (πούς, "foot") + Latin forma ("external form"), the Greek part in reference to the reduced pectoral and ventral fins of the jellynoses.
Description and ecology
Jellynoses are deep-water, bottom-dwelling, marine fishes. They are known from the Caribbean Sea, eastern Atlantic, the western and central Indopacific, and the Pacific coast of Central America.
Their skeletons are largely cartilage (hence "jellynose"), although they are true teleosts and not at all related to Chondrichthyes. The heads are large, with a bulbous nose, and the (usually) elongated body tapers towards the tail. Their caudal fins are very small, and except for Guentherus, it is merged with the long anal fin (which has 70 fin rays or more). The pelvic fins of juveniles have up to 10 rays, but in adults this is reduced to a single elongated ray at the throat. Again, Guentherus is an exception, retaining several fins as adults and having ventral fins that are located behind (not below) the pectoral fins. Dorsal fins tend to be high, with a rather short base (9-13 rays, but in some as few as three); they are placed just behind the head. They have seven branchiostegal rays. The species have a range of sizes, the longest reaching .
Most of the species are poorly known, but the highfin tadpole fish (Guentherus altivelis) is of potential interest for commercial fishing.
Systematics
Together with their relatives, the Stomiiformes, the jellynoses are often placed in the teleost superorder Stenopterygii. Whether it is indeed justified to accept such a small group is doubtful; it may well be that the closest living relatives of the "Stenopterygii" are found among the superorder Protacanthopterygii, and that the former would need to be merged in the latter. In some classifications, the "Stenopterygii" are kept separate but included with the Protacanthopterygii and the monotypic superorder Cyclosquamata in an unranked clade called Euteleostei. That would probably require splitting two additional monotypic superorders out of the Protacanthopterygii, and is probably not ideal due to the profusion of very small taxa it would create. In fact, in some treatments, the jellynose fishes are even placed in yet another monotypic superorder, the Ateleopodomorpha.
The Ateleopodidae have also been placed in the Lampriformes or Myctophiformes, which otherwise constitute additional superorders. The relationships of these to the taxa mentioned before is still not well resolved at all, and regardless whether one calls them Protacanthopterygii sensu lato or Euteleostei, the phylogeny of this group of moderately advanced Teleostei is in need of further study.
References
Diogo, Rui (2008): On the cephalic and pectoral girdle muscles of the deep sea fish Alepocephalus rostratus, with comments on the functional morphology and phylogenetic relationships of the Alepocephaloidei (Teleostei). Anim. Biol. 58(1): 23–29.
FishBase (2000): Order Ateleopodiformes. Version of 2000-OCT-17. Retrieved 2009-SEP-28.
Glare, P.G.W. (ed.) (1968-1982): Oxford Latin Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Olney, John E. (1998): Ateleopodiformes. In: : Encyclopedia of Fishes: 158. Academic Press, San Diego.
Nelson, Joseph S. (2006): Fishes of the World (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Woodhouse, S.C. (1910): English-Greek Dictionary - A Vocabulary of the Attic Language. George Routledge & Sons Ltd., Broadway House, Ludgate Hill, E.C. Searchable JPEG fulltext
External links
National Geographic News, "Bizarre Fish Found In Brazil", September 22, 2009 (includes video of a possible new species of Jellynose) | [
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245393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore%20CDTV | Commodore CDTV | The CDTV (from Commodore Dynamic Total Vision, later treated as a backronym for Compact Disc Television) is a home multimedia entertainment and video game console – convertible into a full-fledged personal computer by the addition of optional peripherals – developed by Commodore International and launched in April 1991.
Description
The CDTV is essentially a Commodore Amiga 500 home computer with a CD-ROM drive and remote control. With the optional keyboard, mouse, and floppy disk drive, it gained the functionality of the regular Amiga. Commodore marketed the machine as an all-in-one multimedia appliance. As such, it targeted the same market as the Philips CD-i. The expected market for multimedia appliances did not materialize, and neither machine met with any real commercial success. Though the CDTV was based entirely on Amiga hardware, it was marketed strictly as a CDTV, with the Amiga name omitted from product branding.
Commodore announced the CDTV at the summer 1990 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago, promising to release it before the end of the year with 100 software titles. The product debuted in North America in March 1991 (CES Las Vegas) and in the UK (World of Commodore 1991 at Earls Court, London). It was advertised at £499 for the CDTV unit, remote control and two software titles. The device was released in the United States for $999.
In 1990 Computer Gaming World stated that Commodore had a poor reputation among consumers and developers, citing "abysmal record of customer and technical support in the past". The company chose Amiga-enthusiast magazines as its chief advertising channel, but the Amiga community on the whole avoided the CDTV in the expectation of an add-on CD-ROM drive for the Amiga, which eventually came in the form of the A570. This further hurt sales of the CDTV, as an A570-equipped A500 was electronically the same as a CDTV and, consequently, could run CDTV software, so there was very little motivation for an Amiga owner to buy a CDTV. However, Nolan Bushnell, one of the chief endorsers of the CDTV, argued the system's high price alone was enough to explain its market failure: "... it's very difficult to sell significant numbers of anything at more than $500. ... I felt that I could sell a hundred thousand of something that costs $800 standing on my head. I thought that it would be a no-brainer. And I can tell you that the number of units that we sold in the U.S. at $800 you could put in your eye and not draw tears."
The CDTV was supplied with AmigaOS 1.3, rather than the more advanced and user-friendly 2.0 release that was launched at around the same time. Notably, the CDXL motion video format was primarily developed for the CDTV, making it one of the earliest consumer systems to allow video playback directly from CD-ROM.
By 1994 Computer Gaming World described the CDTV as a "fiasco" for Commodore. Though the company later developed an improved and cost-reduced CDTV-II, it was never released. Commodore discontinued the CDTV in 1993 with the launch of the Amiga CD32, which again was substantially based on Amiga hardware (in this case the newer Amiga 1200) but explicitly targeted the games market.
In December 2021 an unofficial free ROM update was released for CDTV (2.35), which brings compatibility with 68030 accelerator boards and 32-bit Fast RAM, allows non-CDTV titles to boot, fixes bugs and restores several features that were lost in the 2.7 and 2.30 ROMs. Because of copyright reasons the custom ROM is distributed in patch form.
Design
The CDTV was intended as a media appliance rather than a mainstream personal computer. As such, its housing had dimensions and styling that were fairly comparable to most household stereo system components of the period, and it came with an infrared remote control. Similarly, it was initially sold without a keyboard or a mouse (which could be added separately, and were later bundled with the machine). The CDTV was based on the same technology as earlier Amiga systems, but featured a single-speed CD-ROM drive and no floppy disk drive as standard.
Technical specifications
Notes
<li>North American model
<li>UK model
<li>European model
Official upgrades
The CDTV is compatible with many Amiga peripherals from the same period. In addition, official CDTV peripherals and upgrades included:
Wireless infrared mouse (CD1252)
Wireless trackball
Black styled keyboard
SCSI controller providing both an internal and external SCSI connector for hard disk drives and other SCSI devices
External black styled hard disk drive
External black styled floppy disk drive (CD1411, an FB-354C)
Proprietary memory cards with a capacity of 64 or 256 kB (CD1401/CD1405) allowing storage of game scores and progress
Genlocks for NTSC or PAL (CD1300/CD1301) to overlay video signal with a secondary video source
Versions
CDTV: CDTV unit and remote control/gamepad
Pro pack: CDTV unit, remote control/gamepad, keyboard, mouse and floppy disk drive, along with Almathera CDPD Public domain software compilation on CD-ROM
Market competition
High-end A/V (primary market)
(multi-purpose audio/video systems)
Philips' CD-i
Pioneer's LaserActive
Tandy Video Information System
Video gaming (secondary market)
NEC PC Engine with Super CD-ROM expansion
Nintendo's SNES
Sega Mega Drive with CD-ROM expansion
The 3DO Company's 3DO Interactive Multiplayer
See also
Amiga A570
Amiga CD32
Amiga models and variants
References
External links
1990s toys
68k architecture
Amiga
CBM hardware
CD-ROM-based consoles
Computer-related introductions in 1991
Fourth-generation video game consoles
Home video game consoles
Products introduced in 1991 | [
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245395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underworld%20%28novel%29 | Underworld (novel) | Underworld is a 1997 novel by the American writer Don DeLillo. The novel is centered on the efforts of Nick Shay, a waste management executive who grew up in the Bronx, to trace the history of the baseball that won the New York Giants the pennant in 1951, and encompasses numerous subplots drawn from American history in the second half of the twentieth century. Described as both postmodernist and a reaction to postmodernism, it examines themes of nuclear proliferation, waste, and the contribution of individual lives to the course of history.
A best-seller that was nominated for the National Book Award and shortlisted for the Pulitzer Prize, Underworld is often regarded as DeLillo's supreme achievement. In 2006, a survey of eminent authors and critics conducted by The New York Times named Underworld as the runner-up for the best work of American fiction of the past 25 years, behind only Toni Morrison's Beloved.
Background
Following the publication of the well-regarded novels White Noise (1985), Libra (1988), and Mao II (1991), DeLillo made few public appearances and published little for several years while writing Underworld, besides the folio short story Pafko at the Wall which was incorporated into the prologue of Underworld with minor changes.
According to DeLillo, the novel's title came to him as he thought about radioactive waste buried deep underground and about Pluto, the god of death.
Plot summary
The prologue is a fictionalized account of The Shot Heard 'Round the World, a home run by Bobby Thomson on October 3, 1951, that won the National League pennant for the New York Giants against their cross-town rivals, the Brooklyn Dodgers. In DeLillo's account, the game-winning ball is caught by a young black fan named Cotter Martin, while J. Edgar Hoover, watching in the stands, is informed in the middle of the game of the first Soviet test of the hydrogen bomb.
The remainder of the novel, comprising six parts and an epilogue, is a reverse chronological account of the life of Nick Shay, the man who ultimately ends up with the baseball, from his undirected existence as an executive of a waste management company in Arizona in the 1990s back to his childhood in the Bronx in the 1950s, though the non-linear narrative includes a large number of digressions and ancillary subplots.
Part 1 takes place in 1992. Nick Shay lives in Arizona with his wife, Marian, who is having an affair with his colleague, Brian Glassic. Nick visits an art installation of painted B-52 aircraft in the desert by Klara Sax, with whom Nick is later revealed to have had an affair forty years earlier. It is revealed that Nick killed a man when he was a teenager, and that Nick's father disappeared when Nick was a child after going out to get a pack of Lucky Strikes. Nick prefers to imagine that he was killed by the Mafia. In a flashback to 1951, Cotter Martin's father takes the baseball from his son with the intention of selling it.
In Part 2, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Marian begins her affair with Brian, while Nick acquires the baseball from an avid baseball memorabilia collector named Marvin Lundy after Brian meets Lundy on a trip to New York City to see the Fresh Kills Landfill. Elsewhere, in the Bronx, a pessimistic, germophobic nun named Sister Edgar, who was Nick Shay's Catholic school teacher in the 1950s, works among the unbelieving poor and sick. A videotape of a serial killer nicknamed the Texas Highway Killer is described.
In Part 3, in the spring of 1978, Nick attends a waste management conference in the Mojave Desert and meets a swinger named Donna, while Marvin Lundy traces the baseball to San Francisco.
Part 4, in the summer of 1974, mainly concerns Klara Sax, who is working as an artist in New York City, and Matt Shay, Nick's brother, a former chess prodigy, who is a scientist in the nuclear weapons program in New Mexico.
Part 5 encompasses the 1950s and 1960s, beginning with Nick Shay in juvenile detention, following Nick's relationship with a woman named Amy and later with his future wife Marian, and Matt's courtship of his wife Janet. Lenny Bruce's comedy routines on the Cuban Missile Crisis are mentioned several times. In another flashback, Cotter Martin's father sells his baseball to Charles Wainright, a white fan standing in line with his son outside of Yankee Stadium.
Part 6, from the fall of 1951 to the summer of 1952, relates how Nick Shay, running loose after his father left his family, accidentally kills his friend George Manza.
In the epilogue, Nick and Brian travel to Kazakhstan to watch a demo of a new waste disposal system that incinerates the waste with a nuclear explosion. Nick confronts Brian about his affair with Marian, but decides to stay with Marian. Esmeralda, a feral girl in the Bronx whom the Catholic nuns were trying to save, is raped and murdered. Her image then miraculously appears on a billboard. Sister Edgar dies shortly after witnessing the miracle.
Literary significance and reception
Underworld received high acclaim from literary critics, particularly for DeLillo's prose and ambition. David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle declaring it DeLillo's "best novel and perhaps that most elusive of creatures, a Great American Novel." Many have described the book as emotionally powerful. David Foster Wallace wrote DeLillo a letter in 1997, praising the novel and DeLillo's talent. He described "the book as an organic thing" and stated that This novel is (1) a great and significant piece of art fiction; (1a) not like any novel I've read; (2) your best work ever, so far; (3) a huge reward for someone who's read all your previous stuff because it seems to be at once a synthesis and a transfiguration – a transcendence – of your previous stuff; (4) a book in which nothing is skimped or shirked or tossed off or played for the easy laugh, and where (it seems to me) you've taken some truly ballsy personal risks and exposed parts of yourself and hit a level of emotion you've never even tried for elsewhere (at least as I've read your work).He also remarked on the phonetics of the novel, telling Delillo "you use these Saxonic devices heavily and over and over and yet the prose never seems heavy or straining; in fact just the opposite: it always seems exquisitely controlled, sober, poised rather than lunging."
Other critics, however, praised DeLillo's prose but found the novel overlong and argued it could have benefited from more editing. On Salon.com, Laura Miller wrote that "Nick's secret, the one that supposedly provides the book's suspense, proves anticlimactic."
In May 2006, The New York Times Book Review named Underworld as a runner up for the best work of American fiction of the previous 25 years. It garnered 11 of 125 votes, losing to Toni Morrison's Beloved by four votes.
The literary critic Harold Bloom, although also expressing reservations about the book's length, has said Underworld is "the culmination of what [DeLillo] can do" and one of the few contemporary American works of fiction that "touched what I would call the sublime," along with works by Cormac McCarthy (Blood Meridian), Philip Roth (American Pastoral and Sabbath's Theater), and Thomas Pynchon (Mason & Dixon, Gravity's Rainbow and The Crying of Lot 49).
Underworld was a finalist for the 1997 National Book Award, as well as for the 1998 Pulitzer Prize. The novel won the 2000 William Dean Howells Medal.
Allusions and references
The novel has J. Edgar Hoover utterly intrigued by The Triumph of Death, a painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Hoover first sees the painting while at the baseball game; the painting was reproduced in Life and pieces of it fall on him when someone in the stands above tears up the magazine and tosses the pieces. Later in the book he obtains a print of the painting.
Several segments of the novel are named in homage to other works. Das Kapital is Karl Marx's magnum opus, "Long Tall Sally" is a song by Little Richard also famous as a cover by The Beatles, and "Cocksucker Blues" is an infamous unreleased Rolling Stones song and film. "Better Things for Better Living Through Chemistry" was an advertising slogan for DuPont, while "The Cloud of Unknowing" is an anonymous work of Christian mysticism written in Middle English in the latter half of the 14th century. The section titled "Arrangement in Grey and Black" refers to a James McNeill Whistler painting better known as Whistler's Mother.
The novel incorporates a number of historical events. The prologue is about "The Shot Heard 'Round the World" and the whereabouts of the ball hit by Thomson are a recurrent element of the book. The book also employs Lenny Bruce’s reaction to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Soviet Union's atomic weapons program (including their testing grounds in Kazakhstan). The novel also describes a commercial screening of the Zapruder film. Numerous characters attend Truman Capote's famous Black and White Ball. The main character also finds himself walking through New York during a power outage amid the Northeast blackout of 1965.
Other references include a historical and biographical account of the building of the Watts Towers. There are also frequent references to The Honeymooners.
DeLillo has said that the front page of The New York Times on October 4, 1951, inspired Underworld.
Adaptation
The novel was at one point optioned by producer Scott Rudin for a film adaptation before it lapsed.
In 2002, Robert Greenwald held the rights and was in discussions for turning it into a television miniseries.
In 2020, Uri Singer acquired the rights to the novel. In September 2021, it was announced that Netflix will be adapting the novel into a feature film with Theodore Melfi as writer and director and Singer as producer.
See also
Hysterical realism
Postmodern literature
References
External links
"Underworld by Don DeLillo" by Ted Gioia
"Underworld by Don DeLillo" by Ted Burke
1997 American novels
Ambassador Book Award-winning works
Novels by Don DeLillo
Novels set in New York City
The Bronx in fiction
Postmodern novels
Charles Scribner's Sons books
American Book Award-winning works
Cultural depictions of Lenny Bruce
Cultural depictions of J. Edgar Hoover
Nonlinear narrative novels | [
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245396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponce%20Denis%20%C3%89couchard%20Lebrun | Ponce Denis Écouchard Lebrun | Ponce Denis Écouchard Lebrun (11 August 1729 – 31 August 1807) was a French lyric poet.
Biography
Lebrun was born in Paris at the house of the prince de Conti, to whom his father was valet. Among Lebrun's school friends was a son of Louis Racine, whose disciple he became. In 1755 he published an Ode sur les désastres de Lisbonne. In 1759 he married Marie Anne de Surcourt, addressed in his Élégies as Fanny. In the early years of his marriage he produced his poem, Nature. His wife suffered much from his violent temper, and when in 1774 she brought an action against him to obtain a separation, she was supported by Lebrun's own mother and sister.
Lebrun had been secrétaire des commandements to the prince de Conti, and on his patron's death he lost this position. He also lost financially as a result of the bankruptcy of the prince de Guemene. To this period belongs a long poem, the Veillées des Muses, which remained unfinished, and his ode to Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, which ranks among his best works.
Dependent on government pensions he changed his politics with the times. He praised Calonne, comparing him with the great Sully, and likened Louis XVI to Henry IV of France, but he ended up as the Reign of Terror's official poet. He occupied rooms in the Louvre, and fulfilled his obligations by shameless attacks on the king and queen. His excellent ode on the Vengeur and the Ode nationale contre l'Angleterre on the occasion of the projected invasion of Britain were written in honour of the power of Napoleon.
This "versatility" damaged Lebrun's reputation, making it difficult to appreciate his real merit. He had a genius for epigram, and the quatrains and dizains directed against his many enemies have a verve generally lacking in his odes. The one directed against La Harpe is called by Sainte-Beuve the "queen of epigrams."
La Harpe has said that the poet, called by his friends, perhaps with a spice of irony, Lebrun-Pindare, had written many fine strophes but not one good ode. The critic exposed mercilessly the obscurities and unlucky images which occur even in the ode to Buffon, and advised the author to imitate the simplicity and energy that adorned Buffon's prose. His works were published by his friend PL Ginguené in 1811. The best of them are included in Prosper Poitevin's "Petits poètes français," which forms part of the "Panthéon littéraire".
References
1729 births
1807 deaths
Writers from Paris
French poets
Members of the Académie Française
French male poets | [
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245399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hradec%20Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9 | Hradec Králové | Hradec Králové (; ) is a city of the Czech Republic. It has about 93,000 inhabitants. It is the capital of the Hradec Králové Region. The historic centre of Hradec Králové is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation, the wider centre is protected as an urban monument zone.
Administrative parts
Hradec Králové is made up of 21 city parts:
Březhrad
Hradec Králové
Nový Hradec Králové
Kukleny
Malšova Lhota
Malšovice
Moravské Předměstí
Piletice
Plácky
Plačice
Plotiště nad Labem
Pouchov
Pražské Předměstí
Roudnička
Rusek
Slatina
Slezské Předměstí
Svinary
Svobodné Dvory
Třebeš
Věkoše
Geography
Hradec Králové lies at the confluence of the Elbe and the Orlice rivers. It is located in the eastern part of the Polabí lowlands. The municipal territory is rich in small fish ponds. The highest point is the hill Slatina with an elevation of .
History
The original name of one of the oldest settlements in the Czech Republic was Hradec (the Castle); Králové (of the queen) was affixed when it became one of the dowry towns of Elisabeth Richeza of Poland (1286–1335), who lived there for thirty years, having been the second wife of two Bohemian Kings, Wenceslaus II and then Rudolph I of Habsburg. In Latin, the Castle of the Queen was called Grecz Reginae, the original German Königingrätz was shortened to Königgrätz by 1800. It remained a dowry town until 1620.
Königgrätz was the first town to declare for the national cause during the Hussite Wars in the first half of the 15th century. After the Battle of White Mountain (1620), a large segment of the Protestant population left the area. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by the Swedes. Several churches and convents were pulled down to make way for fortifications erected under Joseph II.
The Battle of Königgrätz, the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War, took place on 3 July 1866 near Hradec Králové. This event is commemorated in the famous "Königgrätzer Marsch". Moreover, the battle put an end to the age of fortifications, which were finally destroyed in 1884.
The city is situated in the centre of a very fertile region called the Golden Road, at the confluence of the Elbe and the Orlice, and contains many buildings of historical and architectural interest. The Cathedral of the Holy Spirit was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, and the church of St. John, built in 1710, stands on the ruins of the old castle. During the 1920s and 1930s the city grew rapidly, thanks to decisions made by the heads of the city to develop a modern city, which included razing the fortress and opening the town for expansion. During this era many buildings of modern architecture were built, and Hradec Králové became known as the Salon of the Republic. This nickname was given to the city by its citizens, who were enamored by the architecture of Josef Gočár and Jan Kotěra.
Demography
Economy
The city's economy is based on food-processing technology, photochemical, electronics manufacturing services (EMS) and IT. Traditional industries include musical instrument manufacturing – the best known being Petrof pianos.
Transport
Hradec Králové Airport is a public domestic and private international airport located about from the city centre. There are currently no scheduled flights operating to the airport. It is sometimes used by private jet traffic.
Education
The University of Hradec Králové is located in the city, the University of Defense has its only medical faculty in Hradec Králové and Charles University in Prague also has its Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Pharmacy there.
Culture
Throughout the year, there are a number of festivals and events. These may include a range of Music Festivals during Summer months, or other traditional Czech festivals that are celebrated across the country.
Theatre
Every May, an Air Ambulance Show is held for both the general public and Air Ambulance personnel. Every June the Theatre of European regions, an international theatre festival, takes place.
Music
Since 2004 the city hosts Hip Hop Kemp, one of the biggest European hip hop festivals, in August.
Since 2007 the city hosts Rock for People, the biggest rock festival in the Czech Republic, in July.
"Jazz goes to town", an international jazz festival, is held in Hradec Králové every October.
The city's museum currently holds one of the oldest surviving collections of Czech Renaissance polyphony, the Codex Speciálník manuscript.
The city is home to one of the Czech Republic's leading orchestras, the Hradec Králové Philharmonic Orchestra.
Sport
The ice hockey club of Hradec Králové is Mountfield HK, which plays in the Czech Extraliga.
The most successful football club is FC Hradec Králové, which plays in the Czech First League.
The women's basketball team, Hradecké Lvice, plays in the national women basketball league.
Notable people
Jan Šindel (1370s–c.1456), scientist and professor
Bohuslav Balbín (1621–1688), writer, historian and geographer
Václav Kliment Klicpera (1792–1859), dramatist, writer and poet
Carl von Rokitansky (1804–1878), physiologist, pathologist
Antonín Petrof (1839–1915), piano maker
František Plesnivý (1845–1918), architect
Viktor Mucha (1877–1933), dermatologist
Josef Gočár (1880–1945), architect
Josef Čapek (1887–1945), painter, writer, poet
Otakar Vávra (1911–2011), film director
Avigdor Dagan (1912–2006), Israeli diplomat
Jiří Horák (1924–2003), politician, first chairman of ČSSD
Václav Snítil (1928–2015), violinist
Jiří Petr (1931–2014), agroscientist, Rector Emeritus, Czech University of Agriculture Prague
Dušan Salfický (born 1972), ice hockey player
Sonja Vectomov (born 1979), Czech-Finnish electronic musician
Vít Jedlička (born 1983), politician and publicist
Kateřina Siniaková (born 1996), tennis player
Twin towns – sister cities
Hradec Králové is twinned with:
Alessandria, Italy
Arnhem, Netherlands
Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
Chernihiv, Ukraine
Giessen, Germany
Kaštela, Croatia
Kronstadt, Russia
Metz, France
Wałbrzych, Poland
Wrocław, Poland
Cooperation agreements
Hradec Králové cooperates with:
Montana, Bulgaria
Székesfehérvár, Hungary
See also
Biskupské gymnázium Bohuslava Balbína
Cathedral of the Holy Spirit
New Hradec, North Dakota
References
External links
Virtual show
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Hradec Králové District | [
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245401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9-Maria%20de%20Heredia | José-Maria de Heredia | José-Maria de Heredia (22 November 1842 – 3 October 1905) was a Cuban-born French Parnassian poet. He was the fifteenth member elected for seat 4 of the Académie française in 1894.
Biography
Early years
Heredia was born at Fortuna Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba, to Domingo de Heredia Mieses Pimentel Guridi native of Santo Domingo and his second wife, French Louise Girard d'Houville. At the age of eight he went from the West Indies to France, returning then to Havana at age seventeen, and finally making France his home not long afterwards. He received his classical education with the priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after his visit to Havana he studied at the Ecole des Chartes at Paris. During the later 1860s, with François Edouard Joachim Coppée, René François Armand Sully-Prudhomme, Paul Verlaine and others less distinguished, he was one of the poets who associated with Charles Leconte de Lisle, and were given the name of "Parnassiens".
Career
To this new school, form – the technical part of their art – was of supreme importance, and, as a reaction against the influence of Alfred de Musset, they repressed in their work the expression of personal feeling and emotion. "True poetry," said M. de Heredia in his discourse on entering the Academy, "dwells in nature and in humanity, which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day, however great." De Heredia wrote very little, and published even less, but his sonnets were circulated in manuscript form, and gave him a reputation before they were published in 1893, together with a few longer poems, as a volume, with the title Les Trophées. In the original work, he called to his great friend, the artist Ernest Jean-Marie Millard de Bois Durand, to illustrate his book of original watercolors.
He was granted French nationality in 1893 and was subsequently elected to the Académie française on 22 February 1894, in the place of Charles de Mazade the publicist. Few purely literary men can have entered the Academy with so few credentials. A small volume of verse; a translation, with introduction, of Diaz del Castillo's History of the Conquest of New Spain (1878–1881); a translation of the life of the nun Alferez (1894), Thomas de Quincey's "Spanish Military Nun"; one or two short pieces of occasional verse; and an introduction or so – this is but small literary output. But the sonnets are of their kind among the most skilled of modern literature. "A Légende des siècles in sonnets" M. François Coppée termed them. In 1901 de Heredia became librarian of the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal at Paris. He died at the Château de Bourdonné in Seine-et-Oise on 3 October 1905, having completed his critical edition of André Chénier's works.
See also
José María Heredia y Campuzano Cuban poet
Severiano de Heredia Cuban-born politician naturalized as French
References
External links
1842 births
1905 deaths
People from Santiago de Cuba Province
Cuban people of Dominican Republic descent
French people of Cuban descent
19th-century French poets
Symbolist poets
Members of the Académie Française
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
École Nationale des Chartes alumni
Cuban emigrants to France
Cuban people of French descent
Cuban male writers
French male poets
French-language writers
Members of the Ligue de la patrie française
19th-century French male writers
English–Spanish translators
French–Spanish translators
Latin–Spanish translators
Spanish–French translators
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245404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion%20Popcorn%20Festival | Marion Popcorn Festival | The Marion Popcorn Festival is held every year in downtown Marion, Ohio, United States. The festival was established in 1981 and is held annually during the first weekend after Labor Day in September. Marion was once an epicenter of popcorn manufacturing, made by such companies as Wyandot Snacks and Orville Redenbacher's (currently made by ConAgra). Wyandot Snacks was once the largest exporter of popcorn in the United States, and Cracker Jack was manufactured in Marion for almost a decade. In 1982, the second year of the festival, Wyandot Snacks presented a 40 foot long bag of popcorn, which they submitted to the Guinness Book of World Records for consideration as the largest bag of popcorn in the world.
Festival organizers schedule nationally known acts like Ernest Borgnine, Gloria Estefan, REO Speedwagon, Styx, Lorrie Morgan, The Neville Brothers, and native son Huey Lewis and the News to perform at the festival. It is said to be the biggest popcorn festival in the world, attracting crowds of over 250,000.
In 2004, the Travel Channel came to the festival and recorded parts of the festival as part of Taste of America with Mark DeCarlo.
In 2016 Kelli Pickler and Skid Row performed. In 2017 The Georgia Satellites and the Gin Blossoms performed.
In 2019 Frankie Ballard and Hinder performed.
The 2020 Festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
References
External links
The Marion Popcorn Festival Online
Festivals in Ohio
Popcorn Festival
Popcorn
Food and drink festivals in the United States
Marion, Ohio | [
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245406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein | Klein | Klein may refer to:
People
Klein (surname)
Klein (musician)
Places
Klein (crater), a lunar feature
Klein, Montana, United States
Klein, Texas, United States
Klein (Ohm), a river of Hesse, Germany, tributary of the Ohm
Klein River, a river in the Western Cape province of South Africa
Business
Klein Bikes, a bicycle manufacturer
Klein Tools, a manufacturer
S. Klein, a department store
Klein Modellbahn, an Austrian model railway manufacturer
Arts
Klein + M.B.O., an Italian musical group
Klein Award, for comic art
Yves Klein, French artist
Mathematics
Klein bottle, an unusual shape in topology
Klein geometry
Klein configuration, in geometry
Klein cubic (disambiguation)
Klein graphs, in graph theory
Klein model, or Beltrami–Klein model, a model of hyperbolic geometry
Klein polyhedron, a generalization of continued fractions to higher dimensions, in the geometry of numbers
Klein surface, a dianalytic manifold of complex dimension 1
Other uses
Kleins, Lineman's pliers, a hand tool used by electricians and others
Klein Technique, a movement/dance technique developed by Susan Klein and studied by Garry Stewart
See also
Kleine, a surname
Kline (disambiguation)
Cline (disambiguation) | [
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245407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20feeding%20behaviours | List of feeding behaviours | Feeding is the process by which organisms, typically animals, obtain food. Terminology often uses either the suffixes -vore, -vory, or -vorous from Latin vorare, meaning "to devour", or -phage, -phagy, or -phagous from Greek φαγεῖν (), meaning "to eat".
Evolutionary history
The evolution of feeding is varied with some feeding strategies evolving several times in independent lineages. In terrestrial vertebrates, the earliest forms were large amphibious piscivores 400 million years ago. While amphibians continued to feed on fish and later insects, reptiles began exploring two new food types, other tetrapods (carnivory), and later, plants (herbivory). Carnivory was a natural transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods, requiring minimal adaptation (in contrast, a complex set of adaptations was necessary for feeding on highly fibrous plant materials).
Evolutionary adaptations
The specialization of organisms towards specific food sources is one of the major causes of evolution of form and function, such as:
mouth parts and teeth, such as in whales, vampire bats, leeches, mosquitos, predatory animals such as felines and fishes, etc.
distinct forms of beaks in birds, such as in hawks, woodpeckers, pelicans, hummingbirds, parrots, kingfishers, etc.
specialized claws and other appendages, for apprehending or killing (including fingers in primates)
changes in body colour for facilitating camouflage, disguise, setting up traps for preys, etc.
changes in the digestive system, such as the system of stomachs of herbivores, commensalism and symbiosis
Classification
By mode of ingestion
There are many modes of feeding that animals exhibit, including:
Filter feeding: obtaining nutrients from particles suspended in water
Deposit feeding: obtaining nutrients from particles suspended in soil
Fluid feeding: obtaining nutrients by consuming other organisms' fluids
Bulk feeding: obtaining nutrients by eating all of an organism.
Ram feeding and suction feeding: ingesting prey via the fluids around it.
By mode of digestion
Extra-cellular digestion: excreting digesting enzymes and then reabsorbing the products
Myzocytosis: one cell pierces another using a feeding tube, and sucks out cytoplasm
Phagocytosis: engulfing food matter into living cells, where it is digested
By food type
Polyphagy is the ability of an animal to eat a variety of food, whereas monophagy is the intolerance of every food except of one specific type (see generalist and specialist species).
Another classification refers to the specific food animals specialize in eating, such as:
Carnivore: the eating of animals
Araneophagy: eating spiders
Avivore: eating birds
Corallivore: Eating Coral
Durophagy: eating hard-shelled or exoskeleton bearing organisms
Egg predation: eating eggs (but also see "Intrauterine cannibalism" below), also Ovivore
Haematophagy/Sanguivory: eating blood
Insectivore: eating insects
Myrmecophagy: eating ants and/or termites
Invertivore: eating invertebrates
Keratophagy or Ceratophagy: eating horny material, such as wool by cloths moths, or snakes eating their own skin after ecdysis.
Lepidophagy: eating fish scales
Molluscivore: eating molluscs
Mucophagy: eating mucus
Ophiophagy: eating snakes
Piscivore: eating fish
Anurophagy: eating frogs
Spongivore: eating sponges
Teuthophagore: eating mainly squid and other cephalopods
Vermivore: eating worms
Zooplanktonivore: eating zooplankton
Herbivory: the eating of plants
Exudativory: eating plant and/or insect exudates (gum, sap, lerp, etc.)
Gumivore: eating tree gum
Folivory: eating leaves
Florivory: eating flower tissue prior to seed coat formation
Frugivory: eating fruits
Graminivory: eating grasses
Granivory: eating seeds
Nectarivory: eating nectar
Palynivory: eating pollen
Phytoplanktonivory: eating phytoplankton
Xylophagy: eating wood
Omnivore: the eating of both plants, animals, fungi, bacteria etc. The term means "all-eater".
By amount of meat in diet
Hypercarnivore: more than 70% meat
Mesocarnivore: 30–70% meat
Hypocarnivore: less than 30% meat
Fungivore: the eating of fungus
Bacterivore: the eating of bacteria
The eating of non-living or decaying matter:
Coprophagy: eating faeces
Detritivore: eating decomposing material
Geophagy: eating inorganic earth
Osteophagy: eating bones
Saprophagy: eating decaying organic matter
Scavenger: eating carrion
There are also several unusual feeding behaviours, either normal, opportunistic, or pathological, such as:
Cannibalism: feeding on members of the same species
Anthropophagy: the practice of eating human flesh
Intrauterine cannibalism
Oophagy or Ovophagy: the embryo/foetus eats sibling eggs
Embryophagy: the foetus eats sibling embryos
Filial cannibalism
Self-cannibalism: feeding on parts of one's own body (see also autophagy)
Sexual cannibalism: cannibalism after mating
Kleptoparasitism: stealing food from another animal
Kleptopharmacophagy: act of stealing chemical compounds for consumption
Lignophagia: eating wood, typically a pathological condition in some domestic animals
Paedophagy: eating young animals
Pica: appetite for largely non-nutritive substances, e.g. clay or hair, sometimes in pregnancy or in pathological states, typically a medical or veterinary concern.
Placentophagy: eating placenta
Trophallaxis: eating food regurgitated by another animal
Zoopharmacognosy: self-medication by eating plants, soils, and insects to treat and prevent disease.
An opportunistic feeder sustains itself from a number of different food sources, because the species is behaviourally sufficiently flexible.
Storage behaviours
Some animals exhibit hoarding and caching behaviours in which they store or hide food for later use.
Others
Alcohol – it is widely believed that some animals eat rotting fruit for this to ferment and make them drunk, however, this has been refuted in the case of at least elephants.
See also
Consumer-resource systems
Dinosaur diet and feeding
List of abnormal behaviours in animals
Ingestive behaviors, the physiological behaviors of feeding
References
Notes
Ethology
af:Voeding
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245408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD32 | CD32 | CD32 (cluster of differentiation 32), also known as FcγRII or FCGR2, is a surface receptor glycoprotein belonging to the Ig gene superfamily. CD32 can be found on the surface of a variety of immune cells. CD32 has a low-affinity for the Fc region of IgG antibodies in monomeric form, but high affinity for IgG immune complexes. CD32 has two major functions: cellular response regulation, and the uptake of immune complexes. Cellular responses regulated by CD32 include phagocytosis, cytokine stimulation, and endocytic transport. Dysregulated CD32 is associated with different forms of autoimmunity, including systemic lupus erythematosus. In humans, there are three major CD32 subtypes: CD32A, CD32B, and CD32C. While CD32A and CD32C are involved in activating cellular responses, CD32B is inhibitory.
Structure and signaling
CD32 is a type I transmembrane protein with a helical transmembrane region. Whereas the extracellular region consists of three immunoglobulin domains (roughly 100 a.a. in length), the cytosolic region varies by subtype. CD32A and CD32C possess an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM), while CD32B has an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM). Both motif types rely upon interactions with SH2 domain-containing proteins to transduce signals upon binding to an IgG immune complex. When an ITIM is phosphorylated, it activates effector proteins that dephosphorylate the downstream targets of the ITAM signal cascade, such as MAP kinases.
CD32 receptors bind to the lower hinge region of IgG via an extracellular domain. Additionally, all CD32 subtypes readily bind IgG1 and IgG3 immune complexes, but differ in their binding affinities for IgG2 and IgG4. CD32A binds IgG2 immune complexes, but not IgG4. CD32B and CD32C bind IgG4 immune complexes, but not IgG2. The usage of monoclonal antibodies can distinguish between CD32A and CD32B; however, the high degree of homology between the extracellular domains of CD32A and CD32C make differentiation difficult.
Functions and locations
CD32A
CD32A is an activating subtype of CD32 that can be found on a variety of immune cells - notably, CD32A is found on platelets, neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs). On platelets, it is known to aid in the internalization of IgG-opsonized Escherichia coli, and it is more generally implicated in mediating bacterial-activated platelet responses. CD32A also plays an important role in platelet activation, adhesion, and aggregation in response to injured blood vessels. When bound to an IgG immune complex, the cytosolic ITAM can promote phagocytic activity and cytokine secretion in neutrophils and macrophages. CD32A is known to aid in the activation of clathrin coat-mediated endocytosis on various cell types. On DCs, CD32A plays an important role in maturation and the upregulation of costimulatory molecules on the cell surface, strengthening the DC's ability to present antigen to T cells. CD32A activation is necessary and sufficient to produce T cell anti-tumor cellular immunity. CD32A is also linked to autoimmunity; for example, the production of antibodies against platelet factor 4 (PF4) bound to CD32A is linked to the development of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.
CD32A is also found on Langerhans cells, mast cells, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, megakaryocytes, and a subpopulation of activated CD4+ T cells. CD32A is unique to primates.
CD32B
CD32B is an inhibitory surface receptor that is part of a large population of B cell co-receptors, which act to modulate signaling. Activated CD32B has the ability to cross-link with B cell receptors (BCRs), which increases the threshold for B cell activation and downregulates antibody production in the presence of IgG. This feedback loop lowers the production of IgG by B cells when there is a surplus of IgG in the body. CD32B is also found on the surface of follicular dendritic cells (FDCs), which utilize CD32B for the retention and recycling of immune complexes that they later present to B cells. Thus, CD32B plays an important role in both antibody and memory immune responses.
The balance between CD32B and its activating counterparts is crucial to appropriate cell function. Having too little CD32B has been associated with dysregulated antibody function, as well as increased antibody-dependent inflammatory cell responses. Some individuals inheriting mutated, inactivate CD32B genes have a reduced risk of contracting malaria; this is attributed to an enhancement of FcR-dependent phagocytic functions. CD32B imbalance is also associated with autoimmunity. CD32B-deficient mice have been found to be more susceptible to immune-complex-mediated autoimmunity. Likewise, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in humans is associated with a decrease in CD32B on the surface of memory B cells. A decrease on dendritic cells is often found in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The therapeutic usage of monoclonal antibodies against CD32B can be effective for inducing cytotoxicity against B cell lymphoma cells.
CD32B is also found on basophils, neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages.
Non-immune system locations
CD32B can be found on airway smooth muscle cells, as well as liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and salivary gland epithelial cells.
CD32C
CD32C is expressed in ~20% of the human population, and is not well-understood. It can be found on B cells and natural killer (NK) cells. When expressed, CD32C plays an important role in the activation of antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC). Animal studies have linked CD32C to augmentation of pathological inflammatory responses.
See also
FCGR2A
FCGR2B
FCGR2C
Fc-gamma receptors
References
External links
Clusters of differentiation
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245423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNITA | UNITA | The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA, ) is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought alongside the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the Angolan War for Independence (1961–1975) and then against the MPLA in the ensuing civil war (1975–2002). The war was one of the most prominent Cold War proxy wars, with UNITA receiving military aid initially from People's Republic of China from 1966 until October 1975 and later from the United States and apartheid South Africa while the MPLA received support from the Soviet Union and its allies, especially Cuba.
Until 1996, UNITA was funded through Angolan diamond mines in both Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul along the Cuango River valley, especially the Catoca mine, which was Angola's only Kimberlite mine at that time.
Valdemar Chidondo served as Chief of Staff in the government of UNITA, pro-Western rebels, during the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002). Jonas Savimbi, leader of UNITA, allegedly ordered Chidondo's assassination.
Savimbi's successor as president of UNITA was Isaías Samakuva. Following Savimbi's death, UNITA abandoned armed struggle and participated in electoral politics. The party won 51 out of 220 seats in the 2017 parliamentary election. Samakuva resigned as party leader in November 2019, being replaced by Adalberto Costa Júnior.
Founding
Jonas Savimbi and Antonio da Costa Fernandes founded UNITA on 13 March 1966 in Muangai in Moxico province in Portuguese Angola (during the Estado Novo regime). 200 other delegates were present in the event. UNITA launched its first attack on Portuguese colonial authorities on 25 December 1966.
Savimbi was originally affiliated with Holden Roberto's National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). UNITA later moved to Jamba in Angola's southeastern province of Cuando Cubango. UNITA's leadership was drawn heavily from Angola's majority Ovimbundu ethnic group and its policies were originally Maoist, perhaps influenced by Savimbi's early training in China. They aimed at rural rights and recognized ethnic divisions. During the 1980s, however, UNITA became more aligned with the United States under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush and apartheid South Africa, espousing support for capitalism in Angola. After the 1992 Angolan general election, UNITA lost its support from the United States and was only supported by apartheid South Africa.
Independence and civil war
After the Portuguese withdrawal from Angola in 1974–75 and the end of their colonial rule, the MPLA and UNITA splintered, and civil war began as the movements clashed militarily and ideologically. MPLA leader Agostinho Neto became the first president of post-colonial Angola. Backed by Soviet and Cuban money, weapons and troops, the MPLA defeated the FNLA militarily and forced them largely into exile. UNITA also was nearly destroyed in November 1975, but it managed to survive and set up a second government, the Democratic People's Republic of Angola, in the provincial capital of Huambo. UNITA was hard-pressed but recovered with South African aid and then was strengthened considerably by U.S. support during the 1980s. The MPLA's military presence was strongest in Angolan cities, the coastal region and the strategic oil fields. But UNITA controlled much of the highland's interior, notably the Bié Plateau, and other strategic regions of the country. Up to 300,000 Angolans died in the civil war.
Guerrilla movement
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Savimbi sought out vastly expanded relations with the U.S. He received considerable guidance from The Heritage Foundation, an influential conservative research institute in Washington, D.C. that maintained strong relations with both the Reagan administration and the U.S. Congress. Michael Johns, the Heritage Foundation's leading expert on Africa and Third World Affairs issues, visited Savimbi in his clandestine southern Angolan base camps, offering the UNITA leader both tactical military and political advice. Through the lobbying efforts of Paul Manafort and his firm Black, Manafort, Stone and Kelly which was paid $600,000 each year from Savimbi beginning in 1985, UNITA gained strong backing from the Reagan administration.
In 1986, U.S. conservatives convinced President Ronald Reagan to meet with Savimbi at the White House. While the meeting itself was confidential, Reagan emerged from it with support and enthusiasm for Savimbi's efforts, stating that he could envision a UNITA "victory that electrifies the world," suggesting that Reagan saw the outcome of the Angolan conflict as critical to his entire Reagan Doctrine foreign policy, consisting of support for anti-communist resistance movements in Central America, Southeast Asia, and elsewhere.
Under Savimbi's leadership, UNITA proved especially effective militarily before and after independence, becoming one of the world's most effective armed resistance movements of the late 20th century. According to the U.S. State Department, UNITA came to control "vast swaths of the interior (of Angola)". Savimbi's very survival in Angola in and of itself was viewed as an incredible accomplishment, and he came to be known as "Africa's most enduring bush fighter" given assassination attempts, aided by extensive Soviet, Cuban, and East German military troops, advisors and support, that he survived.
As Savimbi gained ground despite the forces aligned against him, American conservatives pointed to his success, and that of Afghan mujahideen and the Nicaraguan contras, all of which, with U.S. support, were successfully opposing Soviet-sponsored governments, as evidence that the U.S. was beginning to gain an upper hand in the Cold War conflict and that the Reagan Doctrine was working. Critics, on the other hand, responded that the support given to UNITA, the contras, and the Afghan mujahideen was inflaming regional conflicts at great expense to these nations. Furthermore, UNITA, like the Angolan government it fought, was criticized for human rights abuses.
1980s
UNITA gained some international notoriety in 1983 after abducting 66 Czechoslovak civilians and detaining a third of them for about 15 months. Belgium eventually negotiated the release of the civilians. Fighting in Angola continued until 1989, when, with UNITA advancing militarily, Cuba withdrew its support, removing several thousand troops that it had dispatched to Angola to fight Savimbi's UNITA. With many commentators and foreign policy specialists seeing that the Cold War might be drawing to an end, Savimbi's U.S. support, which had been strong, began to be questioned, with some in Congress urging the end of U.S. support for UNITA. Matters were further complicated by repeated reports that Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev had raised U.S. support for UNITA in several formal and informal summit meetings with President George H. W. Bush, placing further pressure on the U.S. to end its support for UNITA.
As the war began to include both military and diplomatic components, Johns and leading U.S. conservatives urged Savimbi to make a ceasefire contingent on the MPLA's agreement to "free and fair elections." When the UNITA demand was originally rebuffed by the MPLA, Savimbi vastly intensified his military pressure, while alleging that the MPLA was resisting free and fair elections because they feared a UNITA electoral victory. Meanwhile, an agreement was reached that provided for the removal of foreign troops from Angola in exchange for the independence of Namibia from South Africa. In Angola, however, Savimbi told Johns and conservative leader Howard Phillips that he had not felt adequately consulted on the negotiations or agreement and was in opposition to it. "There are a lot of loopholes in that agreement. The agreement is not good at all," Johns reported Savimbi telling both of them during a March 1989 visit with Savimbi in Angola."
A ceasefire ultimately was negotiated and MPLA leader José Eduardo dos Santos and the MPLA's Central Committee rejected its Marxist past and agreed to Savimbi's demand for free and fair elections, though UNITA and its supporters viewed the promises skeptically, especially because the MPLA's relations with the Soviet Union remained strong.
1990s
Following the 1991 Bicesse Accords, signed in Lisbon, United Nations-brokered elections were held, with both Savimbi and dos Santos running for president in 1992. Failing to win an overall majority in the first round of balloting, and then questioning the election's legitimacy, Savimbi and UNITA returned to armed conflict. Fighting resumed in October 1992 in Huambo, quickly spreading to Angola's capital, Luanda. It was here that Jeremias Chitunda, UNITA's long-time vice-president and other UNITA officials were killed while fleeing the city culminating in the Halloween Massacre. Following Chitunda's death, UNITA defensively moved their base from Jamba to Huambo. Savimbi's 1992 decision to return to combat ultimately proved a costly one, with many of Savimbi's U.S. conservative allies urging Savimbi to contest dos Santos electorally in the run-off election. Savimbi's decision to forego the run-off also greatly strained UNITA's relations with U.S. President George H. W. Bush.
As Savimbi resumed fighting, the U.N. responded by implementing an embargo against UNITA through United Nations Security Council Resolution 1173. The UN-commissioned Fowler Report detailed how UNITA continued to finance its war effort through the sales of diamonds (later to be known as blood diamonds) and resulted in further sanctions in the form of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1295 and action to end to the trade in blood diamonds through the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. In late 1992 following the general elections, the U.S. government, which had never recognized the legitimacy of the MPLA, finally recognized the Angolan government and stopped supporting UNITA, further alienating Savimbi. After failed talks in 1993 to end the conflict, another agreement, the Lusaka Protocol, was implemented in 1994 to form a government of national unity. In 1995, U.N. peacekeepers arrived. But UNITA broke away from the Lusaka agreement in 1998, citing violations of it by the MPLA. In late 1998, a militant group calling itself UNITA Renovada broke away from mainstream UNITA, when several UNITA commanders dissatisfied with the leadership of Jonas Savimbi ended their allegiance to his organization. Thousands more deserted UNITA in 1999 and 2000.
In 1999, a MPLA military offensive damaged UNITA considerably, essentially destroying UNITA as a conventional military force and forcing UNITA to return to more traditional guerilla tactics.
2000s
The Angolan civil war ended only after the death of Savimbi, who was killed in an ambush on 22 February 2002. His death was shocking to many Angolans, many of whom had grown up during the Angolan civil war and witnessed Savimbi's ability to successfully evade efforts by Soviet, Cuban and Angolan troops to kill him.
Six weeks following Savimbi's death, in April 2002, UNITA agreed to a ceasefire with the government. Under an amnesty agreement, UNITA soldiers and their families, comprising roughly 350,000 people, were gathered in 33 demobilisation camps under the "Program For Social and Productive Reintegration of Demobilized and War Displaced People". In August 2002, UNITA officially gave up its armed wing, and UNITA placed all of its efforts on the development of its political party. Despite the ceasefire, deep political conflict between UNITA and the MPLA remains.
Savimbi was immediately succeeded by António Dembo, who died shortly after Savimbi. Following Dembo, in elections contested by General Paulo Lukamba, Dinho Chingunji and Isaías Samakuva, Samakuva won the UNITA election and emerged as UNITA's new president.
In November 2019, Isaias Samakuva resigned as president and was replaced by Adalberto Costa Júnior with Arlete Leona Chimbinda as the new vice-president.
Foreign support
UNITA received support from several governments in Africa and around the world, including Bulgaria, Egypt, France, Israel, Morocco, the People's Republic of China, Saudi Arabia, Zaire, and Zambia.
United States
During the Reagan administration high ranking security officials met with UNITA leaders. Central Intelligence Agency Director William J. Casey, National Security Advisor Richard Allen, and Secretary of State Alexander Haig, on 6 March met with Unita leaders in Washington, D.C. Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Walker met with Savimbi in March in Rabat, Morocco. Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger, his assistant for International Security Matters Francis West, Deputy Defense Secretary Frank Carlucci, Deputy Director of the CIA Bobby Inman, and Director of the Defense Intelligence Agency James Williams met with Savimbi between November 1981 and January 1982. Although the Clark Amendment forbid U.S. involvement in the civil war, Secretary Haig told Savimbi in December 1981 that the U.S. would continue to provide assistance to UNITA.
The U.S. government "explicitly encouraged" the governments of Israel, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, and Zaire to aid UNITA. In 1983 the U.S. and South African governments agreed to ship weapons from the Honduras, Belgium and Switzerland to South Africa and then to UNITA in Angola. The U.S. also traded weapons with South Africa for intelligence on the civil war.
Savimbi benefited from the support of influential American conservatives, including The Heritage Foundation's Michael Johns and other U.S. conservative leaders, who helped elevate Savimbi's stature in Washington and promoted the transfer of American weapons to his war.
Johns and other American conservatives met regularly with Savimbi in remote Jamba, culminating in the "Democratic International" in 1985. Savimbi later drew the praise of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who hailed him as a freedom fighter and spoke of Savimbi winning a victory that "electrifies the world" while others hinted at a much darker regime, dismissing Savimbi as a power-hungry propagandist.
After the 1992 Angolan general election, UNITA lost its support from the United States and was only supported by South Africa.
Electoral history
Presidential elections
National Assembly elections
See also
African independence movements
Blood Diamonds
David Chingunji
Jorge Sangumba
Kafundanga Chingunji
Notes
References
Further reading
Didier Péclard, "Les incertitudes de la nation en Angola: Aux racines sociales de l'Unita", Paris: Karthala, (2015).
Hoekstra, Quint. "The effect of foreign state support to UNITA during the Angolan War (1975–1991)." Small Wars & Insurgencies 29.5-6 (2018): 981–1005.
Pearce, Justin. "From Rebellion to Opposition: UNITA’s Social Engagement in Post-War Angola." Government and Opposition 55.3 (2020): 474–489.
Wright, George. The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy Towards Angola Since 1945 (1997)
External links
Unita campaign website
French interview of Jonas Savimbi in 1978
List of attacks attributed to Unita on the START terrorism database, Profile on START
Angolan nationalism
Military history of Angola
Political parties in Angola
Separatism in Angola
Separatism in Portugal
Former Marxists | [
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245424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Barbe | Jane Barbe | Jane Barbe ( ; July 29, 1928 – July 18, 2003) was an American voice actress and singer. She was known as the "Time Lady" for the recordings she made for the Bell System and other phone companies. The ubiquity of her recordings eventually made her a pop-culture figure, and her death drew national attention.
Career
Barbe was born Millicent Jane Schneider in Winter Haven, Florida, and raised in Atlanta, Georgia. She studied drama at the University of Georgia.
After graduating, Barbe worked as a copywriter, though due to her poor spelling, she opted to read her first commercial out loud to her boss instead of submitting it in writing. He asked her to record the commercial herself. In 1963, she began recording messages for the Audichron Company, announcing time, temperature and weather, as well as recordings for early voice mail systems. In the 1970s and 1980s, she regularly recorded the intercept messages used when a number is disconnected or number dial errors, and started sharing recording duties with AT&T voice Pat Fleet in 1981, who eventually took over Barbe's role.
Barbe was selected to be the first voice on the Octel Communications voice mail systems and retained that role for many years. Her voice was used on all the prompts (which numbered in the thousands). People often referred to the voice on Octel systems as "Jane", and Barbe and her husband John were named honorary life employees of Octel in 1992. Over 150 million people used Octel systems prior to the company being acquired in 1997 by Lucent Technologies. By 2000, Barbe's voice was heard by about 300 million people each week. Through the years, Barbe's voice became well-known through the phone companies' use of her recordings, as well as her messages recorded for customized greetings for various corporations who bought Octel voice mail systems. The time announcements she recorded for NBS (now NIST) are still used on radio station WWVH. Her voice was also heard on hotel wake up calls and commercial elevator messages.
Recordings with her voice are also used in Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, and other countries. Although her native dialect was Southern, she learned to adopt her trademark "General American" speech while studying drama. When asked to record 1500 time and temperature messages for Telecom Australia, she perfected an Australian accent by listening to recordings of Australian speakers.
Other work
Barbe was also a former professional singer, meeting her husband while touring with the Buddy Morrow Orchestra, and gained a bit of notoriety in later years, appearing in commercials and on television shows based on her recognition as the "Time Lady". As a result of her extensive work, she was an early member and a board member of the Atlanta branch of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists.
Barbe and her husband created several hundred singing commercials (jingles). She performed on many of them. She also did voice-over work on TV and films, including the voice of Southern author Margaret Mitchell in the 1988 documentary The Making of a Legend: Gone With the Wind.
On September 26, 2015, both she and her husband were inducted into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame.
Death
Barbe died from cancer in Roswell, Georgia, on July 18, 2003. She was 74 years old. She was survived by her husband John Barbe, her daughter Susan Stubin, her son David Barbe, and seven grandchildren.
References
External links
Information from Electronic Tele-Communications, Inc.
The Jane Barbe Collection from Telephone World
Jane Barbe sample recordings
.
.
Rare outtake recording of Jane Barbe from PatFleet.com.
1928 births
2003 deaths
American voice actresses
Bell System
Actresses from Atlanta
People from Winter Haven, Florida
University of Georgia alumni
People from Roswell, Georgia
Telephone voiceover talent
Deaths from cancer in Georgia (U.S. state)
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women | [
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245430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Leray | Jean Leray | Jean Leray (; 7 November 1906 – 10 November 1998) was a French mathematician, who worked on both partial differential equations and algebraic topology.
Life and career
He was born in Chantenay-sur-Loire (today part of Nantes). He studied at École Normale Supérieure from 1926 to 1929. He received his Ph.D. in 1933. In 1934 Leray published an important paper that founded the study of weak solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations. In the same year, he and Juliusz Schauder discovered a topological invariant, now called the Leray–Schauder degree, which they applied to prove the existence of solutions for partial differential equations lacking uniqueness.
From 1938 to 1939 he was professor at the University of Nancy. He did not join the Bourbaki group, although he was close with its founders.
His main work in topology was carried out while he was in a prisoner of war camp in Edelbach, Austria from 1940 to 1945. He concealed his expertise on differential equations, fearing that its connections with applied mathematics could lead him to be asked to do war work.
Leray's work of this period proved seminal to the development of spectral sequences and sheaves. These were subsequently developed by many others, each separately becoming an important tool in homological algebra.
He returned to work on partial differential equations from about 1950.
He was professor at the University of Paris from 1945 to 1947, and then at the Collège de France until 1978.
He was awarded the Malaxa Prize (Romania, 1938), the Grand Prix in mathematical sciences (French Academy of Sciences, 1940), the Feltrinelli Prize (Accademia dei Lincei, 1971), the Wolf Prize in Mathematics (Israel, 1979), and the Lomonosov Gold Medal (Moscow, 1988).
See also
Leray spectral sequence
Leray cover
Leray's theorem
Leray–Hirsch theorem
References
External links
"Jean Leray (1906–1998)", by Armand Borel, Gennadi M. Henkin, and Peter D. Lax, Notices of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 47, no. 3, March 2000.
Jean Leray Short biography
1906 births
1998 deaths
20th-century French mathematicians
Mathematical analysts
Topologists
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Wolf Prize in Mathematics laureates
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
PDE theorists
Nancy-Université faculty
French prisoners of war in World War II | [
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245432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoplanetary%20disk | Protoplanetary disk | A protoplanetary disk is a rotating circumstellar disc of dense gas and dust surrounding a young newly formed star, a T Tauri star, or Herbig Ae/Be star. The protoplanetary disk may also be considered an accretion disk for the star itself, because gases or other material may be falling from the inner edge of the disk onto the surface of the star. This process should not be confused with the accretion process thought to build up the planets themselves. Externally illuminated photo-evaporating protoplanetary disks are called proplyds.
In July 2018, the first confirmed image of such a disk, containing a nascent exoplanet, named PDS 70b, was reported.
Formation
Protostars form from molecular clouds consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen. When a portion of a molecular cloud reaches a critical size, mass, or density, it begins to collapse under its own gravity. As this collapsing cloud, called a solar nebula, becomes denser, random gas motions originally present in the cloud average out in favor of the direction of the nebula's net angular momentum. Conservation of angular momentum causes the rotation to increase as the nebula radius decreases. This rotation causes the cloud to flatten out—much like forming a flat pizza out of dough—and take the form of a disk. This occurs because centripetal acceleration from the orbital motion resists the gravitational pull of the star only in the radial direction, but the cloud remains free to collapse in the vertical direction. The outcome is the formation of a thin disc supported by gas pressure in the vertical direction. The initial collapse takes about 100,000 years. After that time the star reaches a surface temperature similar to that of a main sequence star of the same mass and becomes visible.
It is now a T Tauri star. Accretion of gas onto the star continues for another 10 million years, before the disk disappears, perhaps being blown away by the young star's stellar wind, or perhaps simply ceasing to emit radiation after accretion has ended. The oldest protoplanetary disk yet discovered is 25 million years old.
Protoplanetary disks around T Tauri stars differ from the disks surrounding the primary components of close binary systems with respect to their size and temperature. Protoplanetary disks have radii up to 1000 AU, and only their innermost parts reach temperatures above 1000 K. They are very often accompanied by jets.
Protoplanetary disks have been observed around several young stars in our galaxy. Observations by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown proplyds and planetary disks to be forming within the Orion Nebula.
Protoplanetary disks are thought to be thin structures, with a typical vertical height much smaller than the radius, and a typical mass much smaller than the central young star.
The mass of a typical proto-planetary disk is dominated by its gas, however, the presence of dust grains has a major role in its evolution. Dust grains shield the mid-plane of the disk from energetic radiation from outer space that creates a dead zone in which the magnetorotational instability (MRI) no longer operates.
It is believed that these disks consist of a turbulent envelope of plasma, also called the active zone, that encases an extensive region of quiescent gas called the dead zone. The dead zone located at the mid-plane can slow down the flow of matter through the disk which prohibits achieving a steady state.
Planetary system
The nebular hypothesis of solar system formation describes how protoplanetary disks are thought to evolve into planetary systems. Electrostatic and gravitational interactions may cause the dust and ice grains in the disk to accrete into planetesimals. This process competes against the stellar wind, which drives the gas out of the system, and gravity (accretion) and internal stresses (viscosity), which pulls material into the central T Tauri star. Planetesimals constitute the building blocks of both terrestrial and giant planets.
Some of the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are believed to have formed from smaller, circumplanetary analogs of the protoplanetary disks. The formation of planets and moons in geometrically thin, gas- and dust-rich disks is the reason why the planets are arranged in an ecliptic plane. Tens of millions of years after the formation of the Solar System, the inner few AU of the Solar System likely contained dozens of moon- to Mars-sized bodies that were accreting and consolidating into the terrestrial planets that we now see. The Earth's moon likely formed after a Mars-sized protoplanet obliquely impacted the proto-Earth ~30 million years after the formation of the Solar System.
Debris disks
Gas-poor disks of circumstellar dust have been found around many nearby stars—most of which have ages in the range of ~10 million years (e.g. Beta Pictoris, 51 Ophiuchi) to billions of years (e.g. Tau Ceti). These systems are usually referred to as "debris disks". Given the older ages of these stars, and the short lifetimes of micrometer-sized dust grains around stars due to Poynting Robertson drag, collisions, and radiation pressure (typically hundreds to thousands of years), it is thought that this dust is from the collisions of planetesimals (e.g. asteroids, comets). Hence the debris disks around these examples (e.g. Vega, Alphecca, Fomalhaut, etc.) are not truly "protoplanetary", but represent a later stage of disk evolution where extrasolar analogs of the asteroid belt and Kuiper belt are home to dust-generating collisions between planetesimals.
Relation to abiogenesis
Based on recent computer model studies, the complex organic molecules necessary for life may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains surrounding the Sun before the formation of the Earth. According to the computer studies, this same process may also occur around other stars that acquire planets. (Also see Extraterrestrial organic molecules).
Gallery
See also
Accretion disk
Debris disk
Disrupted planet
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Herbig–Haro object
Nebular hypothesis
Q-PACE, a spacecraft mission to study accretion
Planetary system
References
Further reading
.
Protoplanetary disk
Articles containing video clips | [
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245434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proplyd | Proplyd | A proplyd, a syllabic abbreviation of an ionized protoplanetary disk, is an externally illuminated photoevaporating disk around a young star. Nearly 180 proplyds have been discovered in the Orion Nebula. Images of proplyds in other star-forming regions are rare, while Orion is the only region with a large known sample due to its relative proximity to Earth.
History
In 1979 observations with the Lallemand electronic camera at the Pic-du-Midi Observatory showed six unresolved high-ionization sources near the Trapezium Cluster. These sources were not interpreted as proplyds, but as partly ionized globules (PIGs). The idea was that these objects are being ionized from the outside by M42. Later observations with the Very Large Array showed solar-system-sized condensations associated with these sources. Here the idea appeared that these objects might be low-mass stars surrounded by an evaporating protostellar accretion disk.
Proplyds were clearly resolved in 1993 using images of the Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Camera and the term "proplyd" was used.
Characteristics
In the Orion Nebula the proplyds observed are usually one of two types. Some proplyds glow around luminous stars, in cases where the disk is found close to the star, glowing from the star's luminosity. Other proplyds are found at a greater distance from the host star and instead show up as dark silhouettes due to the self-obscuration of cooler dust and gases from the disk itself. Some proplyds show signs of movement from solar irradiance shock waves pushing the proplyds. The Orion Nebula is approximately 1,500 light-years from the Sun with very active star formation. The Orion Nebula and the Sun are in the same spiral arm of the Milky way Galaxy.
A proplyd may form new planets and planetesimal systems. Current models show that the metallicity of the star and proplyd, along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star, are keys to planet and planetesimal formation. To date, the Solar System, with 8 planets, 5 dwarf planets and 5 planetesimal systems, is the largest planetary system found. Most proplyds develop into a system with no planetesimal systems, or into one very large planetesimal system.
Proplyds in other star-forming regions
Photoevaporating proplyds in other star forming regions were found with the Hubble Space Telescope. NGC 1977 currently represents the star-forming region with the largest number of proplyds outside of the Orion Nebula, with 7 confirmed proplyds. It was also the first instance where a B-type star, 42 Orionis is responsible for the photoevaporation. In addition, 4 clear and 4 candidate proplyds were discovered in the very young region NGC 2024, two of which have been photoevaporated by a B star. The NGC 2024 proplyds are significant because they imply that external photoevaporation of protoplanetary disks could compete even with very early planet formation (within the first half a million years).
Another type of photoevaporating proplyd was discovered with the Spitzer Space Telescope. These cometary tails represent dust being pulled away from the disks. Westerhout 5 is a region with many dusty proplyds, especially around HD 17505. These dusty proplyds are depleted of any gas in the outer regions of the disk, but the photoevaporation could leave an inner, more robust, and possibly gas-rich disk component of radius 5-10 astronomical units.
The proplyds in the Orion Nebula and other star-forming regions represent proto-planetary disks around low-mass stars being externally photoevaporated. These low-mass proplyds are usually found within 0.3 parsec (60,000 astronomical units) of the massive OB star and the dusty proplyds have tails with a length of 0.1 to 0.2 parsec (20,000 to 40,000 au). There is a proposed type of intermediate massive counterpart, called proplyd-like objects. Objects in NGC 3603 and later in Cygnus OB2 were proposed as intermediate massive versions of the bright proplyds found in the Orion Nebula. The proplyd-like objects in Cygnus OB2 for example are 6 to 14 parsec distant to a large collection of OB stars and have tail lengths of 0.11 to 0.55 parsec (24,000 to 113,000 au). The nature of proplyd-like objects as intermediate massive proplyds is partly supported by a spectrum for one object, which showed that the mass loss rate is higher than the mass accretion rate. Another object did not show any outflow, but accretion.
Gallery
See also
Wiki commons photos: Bright and dark proplyds in the Orion Nebula
Grand tack hypothesis
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Nice model
Planetary migration
Late Heavy Bombardment
Photoevaporation
References
Astronomy
Orion (constellation) | [
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245437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Christopher | Saint Christopher | Saint Christopher (, Ágios Christóforos) is venerated by several Christian denominations as a martyr killed in the reign of the 3rd-century Roman emperor Decius (reigned 249–251) or alternatively under the emperor Maximinus Daia (reigned 308–313). There appears to be confusion due to the similarity in names "Decius" and "Daia". Churches and monasteries were named after him by the 7th century.
His most famous legend tells that he carried a child, who was unknown to him, across a river before the child revealed himself as Christ. Therefore, he is the patron saint of travelers, and small images of him are often worn around the neck, on a bracelet, carried in a pocket, or placed in vehicles by Christians.
Historicity
Probably the most important source of the historicity of Christophorus is a stone inscription published by Louis Duchesne in 1878.
The copy of the stone inscription and the first publication took place on 7 April 1877 by Matthieu Paranikas in the Anatolia magazine in Constantinople.
The stone of the size of 2 x 1 m was found in the ruins of a church in the ancient Chalcedon.
The inscription bears witness to the laying of the foundation stone, the construction and the consecration of a church in the name of ‘Saint Christopher’s Martyrdom.’
The inscription also bears witness to the chronological dates from the laying of the foundation stone to the consecration of the church; the construction of this Christophorus church dates back exactly to the time of the 4th Ecumenical Council, the Council of Chalcedon.
The inscription also mentions the names of the state ministers of the Byzantine Empire and those church ministers who were involved in the laying of the foundation stone, the construction or the consecration of the church.
The inscription reads as follows:
The German archaeologist Carl Maria Kaufmann writes:
Not far from the Church of St Christopher, which was under construction at the time, was the Basilica of St Euphemia, in which the Council took place; the consuls Protogenes and Sporacius, mentioned in the stone inscription, are mentioned in the Council Acts.
This inscription attests to the veneration of Christophorus in the 5th century in Chalcedony and, consequently, the existence of Christophorus, who probably in the period of the Great Persecution in the 4th century suffered the martyrdom.
Then for the year 553 a bishop of Arkadiopolis in Lydia is testified, who had taken the name Christophorus. A nunnery in Galatia was consecrated to Saint Christopher around the year 600.
Legend
Legends about the life and death of Saint Christopher first appeared in Greece in the 6th century and had spread to France by the 9th century. The 11th-century bishop and poet Walter of Speyer gave one version, but the most popular variations originated from the 13th-century Golden Legend.
According to the legendary account of his life Christopher was initially called . He was a Canaanite, 5 cubits () tall and with a fearsome face. While serving the king of Canaan, he took it into his head to go and serve "the greatest king there was". He went to the king who was reputed to be the greatest, but one day he saw the king cross himself at the mention of the devil. On thus learning that the king feared the devil, he departed to look for the devil. He came across a band of marauders, one of whom declared himself to be the devil, so Christopher decided to serve him. But when he saw his new master avoid a wayside cross and found out that the devil feared Christ, he left him and enquired from people where to find Christ. He met a hermit who instructed him in the Christian faith. Christopher asked him how he could serve Christ. When the hermit suggested fasting and prayer, Christopher replied that he was unable to perform that service. The hermit then suggested that because of his size and strength Christopher could serve Christ by assisting people to cross a dangerous river, where they were perishing in the attempt. The hermit promised that this service would be pleasing to Christ.
After Christopher had performed this service for some time, a little child asked him to take him across the river. During the crossing, the river became swollen and the child seemed as heavy as lead, so much that Christopher could scarcely carry him and found himself in great difficulty. When he finally reached the other side, he said to the child: "You have put me in the greatest danger. I do not think the whole world could have been as heavy on my shoulders as you were." The child replied: "You had on your shoulders not only the whole world but Him who made it. I am Christ your king, whom you are serving by this work." The child then vanished.
Christopher later visited Lycia and there comforted the Christians who were being martyred. Brought before the local king, he refused to sacrifice to the pagan gods. The king tried to win him by riches and by sending two beautiful women to tempt him. Christopher converted the women to Christianity, as he had already converted thousands in the city. The king ordered him to be killed. Various attempts failed, but finally Christopher was beheaded.
The Greek name means "Christ bearer".
Veneration and patronage
Eastern Orthodox liturgy
The Eastern Orthodox Church venerates Christopher of Lycea (or Lycia) with a Feast Day on May 9. The liturgical reading and hymns refer to his imprisonment by Decius who tempts Christopher with harlots before ordering his beheading. The Kontakion in the Fourth Tone (hymn) reads:
Thou who wast terrifying both in strength and in countenance, for thy Creator's sake thou didst surrender thyself willingly to them that sought thee; for thou didst persuade both them and the women that sought to arouse in thee the fire of lust, and they followed thee in the path of martyrdom. And in torments thou didst prove to be courageous. Wherefore, we have gained thee as our great protector, O great Christopher.
Roman Catholic liturgy
The Roman Martyrology remembers him on 25 July. The Tridentine Calendar commemorated him on the same day only in private Masses. By 1954 his commemoration had been extended to all Masses, but it was dropped in 1970 as part of the general reorganization of the calendar of the Roman rite as mandated by the motu proprio, Mysterii Paschalis. His commemoration was described to be not of Roman tradition, in view of the relatively late date (about 1550) and limited manner in which it was accepted into the Roman calendar, but his feast continues to be observed locally and in parishes and shrines throughout the world dedicated to his patronage.
Relics
The Museum of Sacred Art at Saint Justine's Church (Sveta Justina) in Rab, Croatia claims a gold-plated reliquary holds the skull of St. Christopher. According to church tradition, a bishop showed the relics from the city wall in 1075 in order to end a siege of the city by an Italo-Norman army.
Medals
Devotional medals with St. Christopher's name and image are commonly worn as pendants, especially by travelers, to show devotion and as a request for his blessing. Miniature statues are frequently displayed in automobiles. In French a widespread phrase for such medals is "Regarde St Christophe et va-t-en rassuré" ("Look at St Christopher and go on reassured", sometimes translated as "Behold St Christopher and go your way in safety"); Saint Christopher medals and holy cards in Spanish have the phrase "Si en San Cristóbal confías, de accidente no morirás" ("If you trust St. Christopher, you won't die in an accident").
General patronage
St. Christopher is a widely popular saint, especially revered by athletes, mariners, ferrymen, and travelers. He is revered as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. He holds patronage of things related to travel and travelers—against lightning and pestilence—and patronage for archers; bachelors; boatmen; soldiers; bookbinders; epilepsy; floods; fruit dealers; fullers; gardeners; a holy death; mariners; market carriers; motorists and drivers; sailors; storms; surfers; toothache; mountaineering; and transportation workers.
Patronage of places
Christopher is the patron saint of many places, including: Baden, Germany; Barga, Italy; Brunswick, Germany; Mecklenburg, Germany; Rab, Croatia; Roermond, The Netherlands; Saint Christopher's Island (Saint Kitts); Toses in Catalonia, Spain; Mondim de Basto, Portugal; Agrinion, Greece; Vilnius, Lithuania; Riga, Latvia; Havana, Cuba; San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic; Paete, Laguna, Philippines and Tivim, Goa, India
Depictions in art
Because St. Christopher offered protection to travelers and against sudden death, many churches placed images or statues of him, usually opposite the south door, so he could be easily seen. He is usually depicted as a giant, with a child on his shoulder and a staff in one hand. In England, there are more wall paintings of St. Christopher than of any other saint; in 1904, Mrs. Collier, writing for the British Archaeological Association, reported 183 paintings, statues, and other representations of the saint, outnumbering all others except for the Virgin Mary.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, certain icons covertly identify Saint Christopher with the head of a dog. Such images may carry echoes of the Egyptian dog-headed god, Anubis. Christopher pictured with a dog's head is not generally supported by the Orthodox Church, as the icon was proscribed in the 18th century by Moscow.
The roots of that iconography lie in a hagiographic narrative set during the reign of the Emperor Diocletian, which tell of a man named Reprebus, Rebrebus or Reprobus (the "reprobate" or "scoundrel") being captured by Roman forces fighting against tribes dwelling to the west of Egypt in Cyrenaica and forced to join the Roman numerus Marmaritarum or "Unit of the Marmaritae", which suggests an otherwise-unidentified "Marmaritae" (perhaps the same as the Marmaricae Berber tribe of Cyrenaica). He was reported to be of enormous size, with the head of a dog instead of a man, both apparently being typical of the Marmaritae. He and the unit were later transferred to Syrian Antioch, where bishop Peter of Attalia baptised him and where he was martyred in 308. It has also been speculated that this Byzantine depiction of St. Christopher as dog-headed may have resulted from a misreading of the Latin term Cananeus (Canaanite) as caninus, that is, "canine".
According to the medieval Irish Passion of St. Christopher, "This Christopher was one of the Dog-heads, a race that had the heads of dogs and ate human flesh." It was commonly accepted at the time that there were several types of races, the Cynocephalus, or dog-headed people, being one of many believed to populate the world.
The German bishop and poet Walter of Speyer portrayed St. Christopher as a giant of a cynocephalic species in the land of the Chananeans who ate human flesh and barked. Eventually, Christopher met the Christ child, regretted his former behavior, and received baptism. He, too, was rewarded with a human appearance, whereupon he devoted his life to Christian service and became an athlete of God, one of the soldier saints.
Paintings
In popular culture
See Saint Christopher in popular culture
Honours
St. Christopher Island in Antarctica is named after the saint.
Many places are named after the saint in other languages like Saint-Christophe, a very common place name particularly in France.
See also
Acts of Andrew and Bartholomew
Cynocephaly
List of saints
Statue of Saint Christopher, Charles Bridge
Cedalion for a slightly similar classical myth.
References
Further reading
External links
Saint Christopher—Website with information and references about St. Christopher
"The Life of Saint Christopher", The Golden Legend or Lives of the Saints, Temple Classics, 1931 (Compiled by Jacobus de Voragine, translated by William Caxton) at the Fordham University Medieval Sourcebook
Saint Christopher at the Christian Iconography web site
St. Christopher in the Golden Legend: Latin original, English translation (Caxton)
Irish "Passion of St. Christopher"
Saint Christopher engraved by E. Sadeler from the De Verda Collection
Understanding the dog headed Icon of Saint Christopher at Orthodox Arts Journal.
251 deaths
3rd-century Christian martyrs
Dogs in religion
Fourteen Holy Helpers
Giants
Military saints
Mythological human hybrids
People whose existence is disputed
Saints from the Holy Land | [
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245439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20%28disambiguation%29 | Christopher (disambiguation) | Christopher is a masculine given name.
Christopher may also refer to:
People
Christopher (singer) (born 1992), Danish singer
Christopher of Bavaria (1416–1448), union king of Denmark (1440–1448), Sweden (1441–1448), and Norway (1442–1448)
Christopher of Prague (born 1953), primate-elect of the Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia
Christopher of Werle (died 1425), Prince of the Wends
Prince Christopher of Greece and Denmark (1888–1940), son of George I, King of Greece
Saint Christopher (died 251), saint venerated by Catholics and Orthodox Christians
People with the surname
Alfred Christopher (1820–1913), British clergyman and cricketer
Brian Christopher (born 1987), American lacrosse player
Brian Christopher (full name Brian Christopher Lawler, 1972–2018), American professional wrestler
Dennis Christopher (born 1958), American actor
Sir Robin Christopher (diplomat) (born 1944), British ambassador
Robin Christopher (born 1965), American actress
Sybil Christopher (1929–2013), Welsh actress
Warren Christopher (1925–2011), American diplomat and politician
William Christopher (1932–2016), American actor
Places
In the United States
Christopher, Georgia, a ghost town
Christopher, Illinois, a city
Christopher, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
Christopher, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Christopher, Washington, a former community
In Canada
Christopher Lake, Saskatchewan, a village
Christopher Lake, lake in Saskatchewan
Events
Murders of Channon Christian and Christopher Newsom, a 2007 crime that occurred in Tennessee
Art, entertainment, and media
Fictional characters
Christopher "Chris" Halliwell, character in Charmed
Christopher Moltisanti, a fictional character on the HBO series The Sopranos
Christopher Pike (Star Trek), captain of the USS Enterprise in the first Star Trek pilot ("The Cage") and in Star Trek (2009 film)
Christopher Robin, character in the Winnie-the-Pooh books by A. A. Milne
Music
Christopher (Sleep album)
Christopher (The Ruby Suns album)
Television
"Christopher" (The Sopranos), an episode of the American TV series The Sopranos
See also
Chris
Christoph (disambiguation)
Christophe (disambiguation)
Christophers
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245440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davenport | Davenport | Davenport may refer to:
Places
Australia
Davenport, Northern Territory, a locality
Hundred of Davenport, cadastral unit in South Australia
Davenport, South Australia, suburb of Port Augusta
District Council of Davenport, former local government area near Port Augusta
Corporate Town of Davenport, former local government municipality near Port Augusta
Electoral district of Davenport, in South Australia
Canada
Davenport (electoral district), a federal electoral district
Davenport (provincial electoral district), in Ontario
Davenport, Toronto, a neighbourhood and former village in Toronto
Davenport Road, Toronto
United Kingdom
Davenport, Greater Manchester
United States
Davenport, Iowa, the largest city of that name in the US
Davenport, California
Davenport, Florida
Davenport, Nebraska
Davenport, New York
Davenport Center, New York
Davenport, North Dakota
Davenport, Oklahoma
Davenport, Virginia
Davenport, Washington
Davenport Creek, a stream in Utah
Davenport Glacier, in North Cascades National Park, Washington
Davenport Lake, a lake in Georgia
Davenport Municipal Airport (Washington)
Davenport Neck, a peninsula in New York
Education
Davenport College, a residential college at Yale University
Davenport University, a college in Michigan
Furniture
Davenport (sofa), a series of sofas, now a genericized trademark for "sofa"
Davenport desk, an antique desk form
Music
Davenport (band), an experimental music project in Wisconsin, formed in 2002
The Davenports, a rock band from New York, formed in 2000
People
Davenport (surname), a list of people with the name
Characters
Achilles Davenport, a character from the video game Assassin's Creed III
Davenport, the surname of several characters from the T.V. series Lab Rats
Lucas Davenport, created by novelist John Sandford
Lieutenant Colonel Alvin H. "Chopper" Davenport, a character from the video game Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War
Ashley Davenport, a character in Revenge (TV series)
Cooter Davenport, a character in the American TV series The Dukes of Hazzard
Dave Davenport, a character from the online webcomic Narbonic
Dawn Davenport, the main character played by Divine in the John Waters film, Female Trouble
Donald John Davenport, Adventist physician and entrepreneur
Gemma Davenport, a character from British soap opera Coronation Street
Henry Davenport, a character from the comedy series Drop the Dead Donkey
Mrs. Davenport, a character from the animated cartoon Jimmy Neutron
Davenport, a character from the McElroy family's podcast The Adventure Zone
Hubert Davenport, a character from the British children's comedy Rentaghost
Science and mathematics
Davenport constant
Davenport diagram, a graphical tool used in acid base physiology
Davenport rotations, a mathematical decomposition of a matrix as a set of chained rotations
Other uses
Davenport Locomotive Works, an American locomotive manufacturer
Davenport Pottery, a manufacturer of pottery in Longport, Staffordshire in the Nineteenth Century
USS Davenport (PF-69), a Tacoma-class frigate
See also
Devonport (disambiguation)
Davenport Hotel (disambiguation) | [
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245453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Reilly | Thomas Reilly | Thomas Francis Reilly (born February 14, 1942) is an American attorney and politician who served as the 45th Massachusetts Attorney General. He was born in Springfield, Massachusetts to Irish immigrant parents.
He was one of three candidates who sought the Democratic nomination for governor of Massachusetts in the 2006 election. Former U.S. Assistant Attorney General Deval Patrick won the party's nomination and the general election, defeating Reilly and businessman Chris Gabrieli.
Early life
A native of Springfield, Massachusetts, he described himself as a "misguided youth" the year his father, Mortimer "Murty" Reilly, was found dead at home from a heart attack when Reilly was 16. He was arrested for public drunkenness when he was 20. By age 22, he was focused with driving ambition, much to the credit of his friend Wayne Budd's father, an ex-Marine turned policeman in Springfield who took him under his wing and encouraged him to go to school.
Education
Reilly attended Cathedral High School in Springfield, Massachusetts. He graduated in 1959. After graduating high school, he went off to college in Nova Scotia at St. Francis Xavier University. He stayed there only a year, transferring to American International College in Springfield, Massachusetts, where he graduated on June 7, 1964. He received a Bachelor of Arts in Economics.
Personal life
In July 1966, Reilly married Ruth Gammons (b. 1941), now a retired schoolteacher. The couple have three children.
Later life & legal career
He moved to Washington, D.C. and worked for two years with the Central Intelligence Agency. For one year, Reilly lived in Dearborn, Michigan, where he worked with the Ford Motor Company as a Labor Relations Representative until 1967. He attended Boston College Law School and received his JD in June 1970.
Reilly worked for two years as a prosecutor in the state Attorney General's civil rights division. He worked for four years as a Suffolk County prosecutor. In 1976, Reilly and Budd formed "Budd and Reilly", a Boston-based law firm. The firm became the largest minority-dominated firm in New England.
Political career
From 1978 to 1985 he served on the Watertown Licensing Board in Watertown, Massachusetts.
He left the law firm in 1983 to work in Middlesex County District Attorney Scott Harshbarger's administration as First Assistant District Attorney. In 1990, Reilly was elected Middlesex County District Attorney. He was reelected for a second term.
He ran for attorney general in 1998 against state Senator Lois Pines and won the Democratic Primary. He defeated Republican Brad Bailey in the November election.
In the winter of 2001–02, he conducted a "very public investigation" into the sale of the Boston Red Sox to a group led by John W. Henry. Reilly made "negative comments about the process, Major League Baseball's involvement in the sale, and threatened to block the transaction. Eventually the Red Sox limited partners, the Henry/Werner group, and Reilly negotiated a settlement, in which Reilly agreed to allow the sale to proceed, the Henry/Werner group agreed to create their own charitable foundation, and the Red Sox limited partners agreed to give $10 million more to the Yawkey Foundation." The existence of "higher bids from Charles F. Dolan ($750 million), chairman of Cablevision, and a group headed by Miles Prentice ($755 million)" were the apparent pretext for Reilly's involvement, as the winning bid from Henry's group only totalled $660 million.
He was reelected for a second term in 2002.
On November 30, 2005 he said that he was conducting an investigation of Sony BMG over their use of the XCP Digital Rights Management DRM on Sony audio CDs.
In January 2006, he came under fire for allegedly impeding an investigation into an October 2005 automobile crash which left two Southborough, Massachusetts teens dead, and another teen injured.
He has come under fire from gun rights advocates for allegedly abusing his regulatory authority for political purposes.
On January 24, 2006, Reilly officially kicked off his first gubernatorial campaign in Springfield at his alma mater American International College. He finished third in the primary on September 19, 2006. His opponent, Deval Patrick, went on to win the general election.
Post-political career
He served as President and later a member of the board of directors of the Watertown Boys & Girls Club. He now serves as special counsel with the law firm of Hunton Andrews Kurth.
In 2018 he was handpicked by the Massachusetts State Police to lead an investigation into a car crash that occurred on August 24, 2017 in Reading, Massachusetts.
References
1942 births
Living people
Boston College Law School alumni
American people of Irish descent
Massachusetts Attorneys General
District attorneys in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Massachusetts Democrats
20th-century American lawyers
21st-century American lawyers
American International College alumni | [
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245454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baiji%20%28city%29 | Baiji (city) | Baiji (; also spelled Bayji) is a city of about 173,677 inhabitants in northern Iraq. It is located some 130 miles (209 km) north of Baghdad, on the main road to Mosul. It is a major industrial centre best known for its oil refinery, the biggest in Iraq, and has a large power plant. With regards to transport in the area, Baiji is a junction of the national railway network.
History
After the invasion of Kuwait in 1990, dozens of British civilians taken captive in Kuwait were held at the Baiji oil refinery, apparently as human shields. The city was bombed during the 1991 Gulf War and about 80% of the oil refinery was destroyed. It was quickly rebuilt and was back in action only a couple of months after the war's end. However, a lack of maintenance and spare parts resulting from the United Nations trade embargo against Iraq caused the deterioration of the city's oil refinery, which by the late 1990s was in a very poor condition and was seriously polluting the surrounding area.
Iraq War (2003–11)
Baiji was captured with little or no fighting during the 2003 US invasion of Iraq. It was briefly thought in late April 2003 that barrels of chemicals found in a storage area near the town contained the nerve agent cyclosarin. Soon afterwards, United States troops discovered an underground oil refinery at Baiji which was initially suspected to be a chemical weapons plant. Both leads eventually proved to be false alarms in the search for Iraqi weapons of mass destruction.
Following the invasion, Baiji subsequently became the scene of a number of insurgent attacks. The town is at one end of the "Sunni Triangle" region which provided the bedrock of Saddam Hussein's support. The sprawling oil refinery and pipelines have been particularly difficult to protect against guerrillas. There have been repeated attacks on the oil pipelines and other elements of the oil infrastructure.
In October 2003, violent riots broke out in the town in protest against the US-backed police force, which was accused of corruption. US troops restored order, wounding four Iraqis in the process, and sacked the town's police chief, replacing him with a local man elected by tribal elders. A US soldier was killed in the town on October 12. US troops subsequently conducted a number of raids in the town to root out guerrillas, who were publicly supported by some of Baiji's clergy. It was also thought that Saddam Hussein might be hiding in Baiji, prompting raids to find him, before he was eventually captured in December 2003 in the nearby village of ad-Dawr.
In May 2007, a Joint Security Station (JSS) was established in Baiji named "JSS Arvanitis-Sigua" after two US Paratroopers who lost their lives in combat in Bayji.
In April 2009, the Joint Coordination Center (JCC) opened within the JSS. The function of the JCC is to enable the coordination of Iraqi municipal agencies thereby building the Government's capacity to provide essential services to the approximately 250,000 residents of the greater Baiji area.
2014 ISIS offensive
On 11 June 2014, ISIL insurgents advanced into Baiji, seizing the main court house and police station and setting them on fire. The militants, who were travelling in a group of around 60 vehicles, also took control of the Baiji prison and freed all the inmates within. Local residents told members of the media that ISIS sent a group of local tribal chiefs ahead of them to convince the 250 guards at the oil plant to withdraw, while soldiers and police had been warned to leave as well. Later in the day, militants reportedly retreated from Baiji either due to persuasion from local tribal leaders or due to reinforcements from the Iraqi Army's Fourth Armored Division arriving in the city. However, the next day it was confirmed ISIL was still in control of the town, except the refinery which was surrounded.
On 18 June, ISIL attacked the refinery with mortars and machine guns. An official from inside the refinery stated the militants had captured 75 percent of the facility, while a military spokesman claimed the attack had been repelled with 40 insurgents being killed.
On 19 June, Iraqi government forces claimed to have regained full control of the Baiji oil refinery, after heavy fighting with that left 100 militants dead. An Iraqi witness who drove past the Baiji refinery told the Associated Press that ISIL had hung their banners from the watch towers and created checkpoints surrounding the facility, despite government claims of control.
On 20 June, the town was still under complete control of the militants while the oil refinery was surrounded by ISIL forces and had once again come under attack.
2014 Army counteroffensive
On 7 November 2014, Iraqi forces retook control of most of the strategic city Baiji from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. So now government troops hold more than 70 percent of the city—including neighborhoods in the south, east and north—and are battling to capture the rest.
On 14 November 2014, Iraqi officials say their forces have driven out ISIL fighters from the oil refinery town of Baiji, 209 km (130 miles) north of Baghdad. Gen Abdul-Wahab al-Saadi told Iraqi state TV that the town "had been completely liberated". There were still reports of heavy fighting around the oil refinery, which is Iraq's largest.
Geography
Climate
Baiji as a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Baiji is . About of precipitation falls annually.
See also
Battle of Baiji (2014–15)
List of places in Iraq
Railway stations in Iraq
References
External links
Iraq Image - Baiji Satellite Observation
Populated places in Saladin Governorate
Populated places on the Tigris River
District capitals of Iraq
Cities in Iraq | [
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245463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20Luxembourg | Cinema of Luxembourg | The Luxembourg film industry is quite small. However, many films have been made in the country, both by native filmmakers and by people from other countries.
In 1993, Dammentour by Paul Scheuer (AFO-Productions) and Hochzäitsnuecht (Paul Cruchten) won awards at the Max Ophüls Festival in Saarbrücken.
Since 2003, the Luxembourg Film Award is awarded for the best productions of Luxembourgian cinema.
List of native feature films made in Luxembourg (selection)
(1970) directed by Philippe Schneider
(1981) directed by Paul Scheuer, Georges Fautsch and Maisy Hausemer
(1981) directed by Andy Bausch (8 mm)
(1984) directed by Menn Bodson and Marc Olinger starring Josiane Peiffer and René Pütz
(1983) directed by Paul Scheuer starring Josiane Peiffer and Paul Scheuer
(1985) directed by Menn Bodson, Gast Rollinger and Marc Olinger starring Fernand Fox
(1986) directed by Andy Bausch starring Géraldine Karier and Thierry van Werveke
(1986) directed by Paul Kieffer and Fränk Hoffmann starring Mathias Kniesbeck and André Jung
(1988) directed by Andy Bausch starring Thierry van Werveke and Jochen Senf
(1989) directed by Menn Bodson, Gast Rollinger and Marc Olinger starring André Jung
(1989) directed by Paul Scheuer, Georges Fautsch and Maisy Hausemer starring Josiane Peiffer
(1989) directed by Andy Bausch starring Désirée Nosbusch, Sabine Berg and Thierry van Werveke
(1990) directed by Paul Kieffer and Fränk Hoffmann starring André Jung, Paul Greisch and Myriam Muller
Hochzäitsnuecht (1992) directed by Pol Cruchten starring Myriam Muller and Thierry van Werveke
(1992) directed by Paul Scheuer, Georges Fautsch and Maisy Hausemer starring Josiane Peiffer and Germain Wagner
(1993) directed by Andy Bausch starring Thierry van Werweke, Udo Kier, Eddie Constantine and Désirée Nosbusch
Back in Trouble (1997) directed by Andy Bausch starring Thierry van Werveke and Moritz Bleibtreu
(2001) directed by Andy Bausch starring Thierry van Werveke, André Jung and Myriam Muller
Rendolepsis (2003) directed by Marc Barnig
(2003) starring Carlo Pallucca, Thierry Stoffel
(2004) directed by Andy Bausch starring Thierry van Werveke, André Jung and Sascha Ley
(2005) directed by Patrick Ernzer & Mike Tereba
Perl oder Pica (2006) directed by Pol Cruchten
E Liewe laang [lb] (1991) directed by Marc Olinger
Who's Quentin? (2006) directed by Sacha Bachim
(2009) directed by Adolf El Assal
The Treasure Knights and the Secret of Melusina (2012)
(2014) directed by Sacha Bachim
(2015) directed by
Baby(a)lone (2015) directed by Donato Rotunno
(2015) directed by Christophe Wagner
Voices from Chernobyl (2016) directed by Pol Cruchten
Kropemann [lb] (2016) directed by Patrick Ernzer
(2017) directed by Andy Bausch
Gutland (2017) directed by Govinda Van Maele
(2018) directed by Félix Koch
Péitruss [lb] (2019) directed by Max Jacoby
(2019) directed by Luc Feit
List of native documentary films made in Luxembourg (selection)
(1937) directed by René Leclère
Hamilius: Hip Hop Culture in Luxembourg (2010)
List of foreign films made in Luxembourg (selection)
Canada
Falling Through (2000) - directed by Colin Bucksey and starring James West and Marjo Baayen
France
Une liaison pornographique (1999) - directed by Frédéric Fonteyne and starring Nathalie Baye and Sergi López
Elles (1997) directed by Luis Galvão Teles starring Miou-Miou, Marthe Keller and Marisa Berenson
United Kingdom
8½ Women (1999) - directed by Peter Greenaway and starring John Standing and Matthew Delamere
Dog Soldiers (2002) - directed by Neil Marshall and starring Kevin McKidd and Sean Pertwee
United States
The Diva of Mars (1980) - directed by Andy Chagny
A House in the Hills (1993) - directed by Ken Wiederhorn and starring Michael Madsen and Helen Slater
An American Werewolf in Paris (1997) - directed by Anthony Waller and starring Tom Everett Scott and Julie Delpy
The First 9½ Weeks (1998) - directed by Alex Wright and starring Paul Mercurio, Clara Bellar, and Malcolm McDowell
Fortress 2 (1999) - directed by Geoff Murphy and starring Christophe Lambert
The New Adventures of Pinocchio (1999) - directed by Michael Anderson
New World Disorder (1999) - directed by Richard Spence and starring Rutger Hauer, Andrew McCarthy, and Tara FitzGerald
Wing Commander (1999) - directed by Chris Roberts and starring Freddie Prinze, Jr., Saffron Burrows, and Matthew Lillard
Shadow of the Vampire (2000) - directed by E. Elias Merhige and starring John Malkovich and Willem Dafoe
CQ (2001) - directed by Roman Coppola and starring Jeremy Davies and Angela Lindvall
The Girl with a Pearl Earring (2003) - directed by Peter Webber and starring Scarlett Johansson, Colin Firth, Tom Wilkinson and Cillian Murphy
The Merchant of Venice (2004) - directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino, Jeremy Irons and Joseph Fiennes
Retrograde (2004) starring Dolph Lundgren. FIlm was shot in Italy but partly produced in Luxembourg.
See also
List of Luxembourgish submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film
Cinema of the world
World cinema
References
External links
Luxembourg - a film country
Samsa Film luxembourgish production company
lucil luxembourgish production company
Delux Film luxembourgish production company
Luxembourg Film Fund
Troublemaker - a review and a biography of Andy Bausch
european-films.net - Reviews, trailers, interviews, news and previews of new and upcoming European films (in English) | [
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245466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheaf%20%28mathematics%29 | Sheaf (mathematics) | In mathematics, a sheaf is a tool for systematically tracking data (such as sets, abelian groups, rings) attached to the open sets of a topological space and defined locally with regard to them. For example, for each open set, the data could be the ring of continuous functions defined on that open set. Such data is well behaved in that it can be restricted to smaller open sets, and also the data assigned to an open set is equivalent to all collections of compatible data assigned to collections of smaller open sets covering the original open set. (Intuitively, every piece of data is the sum of its parts.)
Sheaves are understood conceptually as general and abstract objects. Their correct definition is rather technical. They are specifically defined as sheaves of sets or sheaves of rings, for example, depending on the type of data assigned to the open sets.
There are also maps (or morphisms) from one sheaf to another; sheaves (of a specific type, such as sheaves of abelian groups) with their morphisms on a fixed topological space form a category. On the other hand, to each continuous map there is associated both a direct image functor, taking sheaves and their morphisms on the domain to sheaves and morphisms on the codomain, and an inverse image functor operating in the opposite direction. These functors, and certain variants of them, are essential parts of sheaf theory.
Due to their general nature and versatility, sheaves have several applications in topology and especially in algebraic and differential geometry. First, geometric structures such as that of a differentiable manifold or a scheme can be expressed in terms of a sheaf of rings on the space. In such contexts, several geometric constructions such as vector bundles or divisors are naturally specified in terms of sheaves. Second, sheaves provide the framework for a very general cohomology theory, which encompasses also the "usual" topological cohomology theories such as singular cohomology. Especially in algebraic geometry and the theory of complex manifolds, sheaf cohomology provides a powerful link between topological and geometric properties of spaces. Sheaves also provide the basis for the theory of D-modules, which provide applications to the theory of differential equations. In addition, generalisations of sheaves to more general settings than topological spaces, such as Grothendieck topology, have provided applications to mathematical logic and number theory.
Definitions and examples
In many mathematical branches, several structures defined on a topological space (e.g., a differentiable manifold) can be naturally localised or restricted to open subsets : typical examples include continuous real-valued or complex-valued functions, times differentiable (real-valued or complex-valued) functions, bounded real-valued functions, vector fields, and sections of any vector bundle on the space. The ability to restrict data to smaller open subsets gives rise to the concept of presheaves. Roughly speaking, sheaves are then those presheaves, where local data can be glued to global data.
Presheaves
Let be a topological space. A presheaf of sets on consists of the following data:
For each open set of , a set . This set is also denoted . The elements in this set are called the sections of over . The sections of over are called the global sections of .
For each inclusion of open sets , a function . In view of many of the examples below, the morphisms are called restriction morphisms. If , then its restriction is often denoted by analogy with restriction of functions.
The restriction morphisms are required to satisfy two additional (functorial) properties:
For every open set of , the restriction morphism is the identity morphism on .
If we have three open sets , then the composite
Informally, the second axiom says it doesn't matter whether we restrict to W in one step or restrict first to V, then to W. A concise functorial reformulation of this definition is given further below.
Many examples of presheaves come from different classes of functions: to any , one can assign the set of continuous real-valued functions on . The restriction maps are then just given by restricting a continuous function on to a smaller open subset , which again is a continuous function. The two presheaf axioms are immediately checked, thereby giving an example of a presheaf. This can be extended to a sheaf of holomorphic functions and a sheaf of smooth functions .
Another common class of examples is assigning to the set of constant real-valued functions on U. This presheaf is called the constant presheaf associated to and is denoted .
Sheaves
Given a presheaf, a natural question to ask is to what extent its sections over an open set are specified by their restrictions to smaller open sets of an open cover of . A sheaf is a presheaf that satisfies both of the following two additional axioms:
(Locality) Suppose is an open set, is an open cover of , and are sections. If for all , then .
(Gluing) Suppose is an open set, is an open cover of , and is a family of sections. If all pairs of sections agree on the overlap of their domains, that is, if for all , then there exists a section such that for all .
The section whose existence is guaranteed by axiom 2 is called the gluing, concatenation, or collation of the sections si. By axiom 1 it is unique. Sections and satisfying the agreement precondition of axiom 2 are often called compatible; thus axioms 1 and 2 together state that any collection of pairwise compatible sections can be uniquely glued together. A separated presheaf, or monopresheaf, is a presheaf satisfying axiom 1.
The presheaf consisting of continuous functions mentioned above is a sheaf. This assertion reduces to checking that, given continuous functions which agree on the intersections , there is a unique continuous function whose restriction equals the . By contrast, the constant presheaf is usually not a sheaf: if is a disjoint union of two open subsets, and take different values, then there is no constant function on U whose restriction would equal these two (different) constant functions.
Presheaves and sheaves are typically denoted by capital letters, F being particularly common, presumably for the French word for sheaf, faisceau. Use of calligraphic letters such as is also common.
It can be shown that to specify a sheaf, it is enough to specify its restriction to the open sets of a basis for the topology of the underlying space. Moreover, it can also be shown that it is enough to verify the sheaf axioms above relative to the open sets of a covering. This observation is used to construct another example which is crucial in algebraic geometry, namely quasi-coherent sheaves. Here the topological space in question is the spectrum of a commutative ring R, whose points are the prime ideals p in R. The open sets form a basis for the Zariski topology on this space. Given an R-module M, there is a sheaf, denoted by on the Spec R, that satisfies
the localization of M at f.
Further examples
Sheaf of sections of a continuous map
Any continuous map of topological spaces determines a sheaf on by setting
Any such is commonly called a section of , and this example is the reason why the elements in are generally called sections. This construction is especially important when is the projection of a fiber bundle onto its base space. For example, the sheaves of smooth functions are the sections of the trivial bundle. Another example: the sheaf of sections of
is the sheaf which assigns to any the set of branches of the complex logarithm on .
Given a point x and an abelian group S, the skyscraper sheaf Sx defined as follows: If U is an open set containing x, then Sx(U) = S. If U does not contain x, then Sx(U) = 0, the trivial group. The restriction maps are either the identity on S, if both open sets contain x, or the zero map otherwise.
Sheaves on manifolds
On an n-dimensional -manifold M, there is a number of important sheaves, such as the sheaf of j-times continuously differentiable functions (with ). Its sections on some open are the -functions . For , this sheaf is called the structure sheaf and is denoted . The nonzero functions also form a sheaf, denoted . Differential forms (of degree p) also form a sheaf . In all these examples, the restriction morphisms are given by restricting functions or forms.
The assignment sending to the compactly supported functions on is not a sheaf, since there is, in general, no way to preserve this property by passing to a smaller open subset. Instead, this forms a cosheaf, a dual concept where the restriction maps go in the opposite direction than with sheaves. However, taking the dual of these vector spaces does give a sheaf, the sheaf of distributions.
Presheaves that are not sheaves
In addition to the constant presheaf mentioned above, which is usually not a sheaf, there are further examples of presheaves that are not sheaves:
Let be the two-point topological space with the discrete topology. Define a presheaf as follows: The restriction map is the projection of onto its first coordinate, and the restriction map is the projection of onto its second coordinate. is a presheaf that is not separated: A global section is determined by three numbers, but the values of that section over {x} and {y} determine only two of those numbers. So while we can glue any two sections over {x} and {y}, we cannot glue them uniquely.
Let be the real line, and let be the set of bounded continuous functions on . This is not a sheaf because it is not always possible to glue. For example, let Ui be the set of all x such that |x| < i. The identity function f(x) = x is bounded on each Ui. Consequently we get a section si on Ui. However, these sections do not glue, because the function f is not bounded on the real line. Consequently F is a presheaf, but not a sheaf. In fact, F is separated because it is a sub-presheaf of the sheaf of continuous functions.
Motivating sheaves from complex analytic spaces and algebraic geometry
One of the historical motivations for sheaves have come from studying complex manifolds, complex analytic geometry, and scheme theory from algebraic geometry. This is because in all of the previous cases, we consider a topological space together with a structure sheaf giving it the structure of a complex manifold, complex analytic space, or scheme. This perspective of equipping a topological space with a sheaf is essential to the theory of locally ringed spaces (see below).
Technical challenges with complex manifolds
One of the main historical motivations for introducing sheaves was constructing a device which keeps track of holomorphic functions on complex manifolds. For example, on a compact complex manifold (like complex projective space or the vanishing locus of a homogeneous polynomial), the only holomorphic functionsare the constant functions. This means there could exist two compact complex manifolds which are not isomorphic, but nevertheless their ring of global holomorphic functions, denoted , are isomorphic. Contrast this with smooth manifolds where every manifold can be embedded inside some , hence its ring of smooth functions comes from restricting the smooth functions from . Another complexity when considering the ring of holomorphic functions on a complex manifold is given a small enough open set , the holomorphic functions will be isomorphic to . Sheaves are a direct tool for dealing with this complexity since they make it possible to keep track of the holomorphic structure on the underlying topological space of on arbitrary open subsets . This means as becomes more complex topologically, the ring can be expressed from gluing the . Note that sometimes this sheaf is denoted or just , or even when we want to emphasize the space the structure sheaf is associated to.
Tracking submanifolds with sheaves
Another common example of sheaves can be constructed by considering a complex submanifold . There is an associated sheaf which takes an open subset and gives the ring of holomorphic functions on . This kind of formalism was found to be extremely powerful and motivates a lot of homological algebra such as sheaf cohomology since an intersection theory can be built using these kinds of sheaves from the Serre intersection formula.
Operations with sheaves
Morphisms
Morphisms of sheaves are, roughly speaking, analogous to functions between them. In contrast to a function between sets, which have no additional structure, morphisms of sheaves are those functions which preserve the structure inherent in the sheaves. This idea is made precise in the following definition.
Let F and G be two sheaves on X. A morphism consists of a morphism for each open set of , subject to the condition that this morphism is compatible with restrictions. In other words, for every open subset V of an open set U, the following diagram is commutative.
For example, taking the derivative gives a morphism of sheaves on R:
Indeed, given an (n-times continuously differentiable) function (with U in R open), the restriction (to a smaller open subset V) of its derivative equals the derivative of .
With this notion of morphism, sheaves on a fixed topological space X form a category. The general categorical notions of mono-, epi- and isomorphisms can therefore be applied to sheaves. A sheaf morphism is an isomorphism (resp. monomorphism) if and only if each is a bijection (resp. injective map). Moreover, a morphism of sheaves is an isomorphism if and only if there exists an open cover such that are isomorphisms of sheaves for all . This statement, which also holds for monomorphisms, but does not hold for presheaves, is another instance of the idea that sheaves are of a local nature.
The corresponding statements do not hold for epimorphisms (of sheaves), and their failure is measured by sheaf cohomology.
Stalks of a sheaf
The stalk of a sheaf captures the properties of a sheaf "around" a point x ∈ X, generalizing the germs of functions.
Here, "around" means that, conceptually speaking, one looks at smaller and smaller neighborhoods of the point. Of course, no single neighborhood will be small enough, which requires considering a limit of some sort. More precisely, the stalk is defined by
the direct limit being over all open subsets of X containing the given point x. In other words, an element of the stalk is given by a section over some open neighborhood of x, and two such sections are considered equivalent if their restrictions agree on a smaller neighborhood.
The natural morphism F(U) → Fx takes a section s in F(U) to its germ at x. This generalises the usual definition of a germ.
In many situations, knowing the stalks of a sheaf is enough to control the sheaf itself. For example, whether or not a morphism of sheaves is a monomorphism, epimorphism, or isomorphism can be tested on the stalks. In this sense, a sheaf is determined by its stalks, which are a local data. By contrast, the global information present in a sheaf, i.e., the global sections, i.e., the sections on the whole space X, typically carry less information. For example, for a compact complex manifold X, the global sections of the sheaf of holomorphic functions are just C, since any holomorphic function
is constant by Liouville's theorem.
Turning a presheaf into a sheaf
It is frequently useful to take the data contained in a presheaf and to express it as a sheaf. It turns out that there is a best possible way to do this. It takes a presheaf F and produces a new sheaf aF called the sheafification or sheaf associated to the presheaf F. For example, the sheafification of the constant presheaf (see above) is called the constant sheaf. Despite its name, its sections are locally constant functions.
The sheaf aF can be constructed using the étalé space of F, namely as the sheaf of sections of the map
Another construction of the sheaf aF proceeds by means of a functor L from presheaves to presheaves that gradually improves the properties of a presheaf: for any presheaf F, LF is a separated presheaf, and for any separated presheaf F, LF is a sheaf. The associated sheaf aF is given by LLF.
The idea that the sheaf aF is the best possible approximation to F by a sheaf is made precise using the following universal property: there is a natural morphism of presheaves so that for any sheaf G and any morphism of presheaves , there is a unique morphism of sheaves such that . In fact a is the left adjoint functor to the inclusion functor (or forgetful functor) from the category of sheaves to the category of presheaves, and i is the unit of the adjunction. In this way, the category of sheaves turns into a Giraud subcategory of presheaves. This categorical situation is the reason why the sheafification functor appears in constructing cokernels of sheaf morphisms or tensor products of sheaves, but not for kernels, say.
Subsheaves, quotient sheaves
If K is a subsheaf of a sheaf F of abelian groups, then the quotient sheaf Q is the sheaf associated to the presheaf ; in other words, the quotient sheaf fits into an exact sequence of sheaves of abelian groups;
(this is also called a sheaf extension.)
Let F, G be sheaves of abelian groups. The set of morphisms of sheaves from F to G forms an abelian group (by the abelian group structure of G). The sheaf hom of F and G, denoted by,
is the sheaf of abelian groups where is the sheaf on U given by (Note sheafification is not needed here). The direct sum of F and G is the sheaf given by , and the tensor product of F and G is the sheaf associated to the presheaf .
All of these operations extend to sheaves of modules over a sheaf of rings A; the above is the special case when A is the constant sheaf .
Basic functoriality
Since the data of a (pre-)sheaf depends on the open subsets of the base space, sheaves on different topological spaces are unrelated to each other in the sense that there are no morphisms between them. However, given a continuous map f : X → Y between two topological spaces, pushforward and pullback relate sheaves on X to those on Y and vice versa.
Direct image
The pushforward (also known as direct image) of a sheaf on X is the sheaf defined by
Here V is an open subset of Y, so that its preimage is open in X by the continuity of f.
This construction recovers the skyscraper sheaf mentioned above:
where is the inclusion, and S is regarded as a sheaf on the singleton (by .
For a map between locally compact spaces, the direct image with compact support is a subsheaf of the direct image. By definition, consists of those whose support is proper map over V. If f is proper itself, then , but in general they disagree.
Inverse image
The pullback or inverse image goes the other way: it produces a sheaf on X, denoted out of a sheaf on Y. If f is the inclusion of an open subset, then the inverse image is just a restriction, i.e., it is given by for an open U in X. A sheaf F (on some space X) is called locally constant if by some open subsets such that the restriction of F to all these open subsets is constant. One a wide range of topological spaces X, such sheaves are equivalent to representations of the fundamental group .
For general maps f, the definition of is more involved; it is detailed at inverse image functor. The stalk is an essential special case of the pullback in view of a natural identification, where i is as above:
More generally, stalks satisfy .
Extension by zero
For the inclusion of an open subset, the extension by zero of a sheaf of abelian groups on U is defined as
if and otherwise.
For a sheaf on X, this construction is in a sense complementary to , where is the inclusion of the complement of U:
for x in U, and the stalk is zero otherwise, while
for x in U, and equals otherwise.
These functors are therefore useful in reducing sheaf-theoretic questions on X to ones on the strata of a stratification, i.e., a decomposition of X into smaller, locally closed subsets.
Complements
Sheaves in more general categories
In addition to (pre-)sheaves as introduced above, where is merely a set, it is in many cases important to keep track of additional structure on these sections. For example, the sections of the sheaf of continuous functions naturally form a real vector space, and restriction is a linear map between these vector spaces.
Presheaves with values in an arbitrary category C are defined by first considering the category of open sets on X to be the posetal category O(X) whose objects are the open sets of X and whose morphisms are inclusions. Then a C-valued presheaf on X is the same as a contravariant functor from O(X) to C. Morphisms in this category of functors, also known as natural transformations, are the same as the morphisms defined above, as can be seen by unraveling the definitions.
If the target category C admits all limits, a C-valued presheaf is a sheaf if the following diagram is an equalizer for every open cover
of any open set :
Here the first map is the product of the restriction maps
and the pair of arrows the products of the two sets of restrictions
and
If C is an abelian category, this condition can also be rephrased by requiring that there is an exact sequence
A particular case of this sheaf condition occurs for U being the empty set, and the index set I also being empty. In this case, the sheaf condition requires to be the terminal object in C.
Ringed spaces and sheaves of modules
In several geometrical disciplines, including algebraic geometry and differential geometry, the spaces come along with a natural sheaf of rings, often called the structure sheaf and denoted by . Such a pair is called a ringed space. Many types of spaces can be defined as certain types of ringed spaces. Commonly, all the stalks of the structure sheaf are local rings, in which case the pair is called a locally ringed space.
For example, an n-dimensional Ck manifold M is a locally ringed space whose structure sheaf consists of -functions on the open subsets of M. The property of being a locally ringed space translates into the fact that such a function, which is nonzero at a point x, is also non-zero on a sufficiently small open neighborhood of x. Some authors actually define real (or complex) manifolds to be locally ringed spaces that are locally isomorphic to the pair consisting of an open subset of (resp. ) together with the sheaf of Ck (resp. holomorphic) functions. Similarly, Schemes, the foundational notion of spaces in algebraic geometry, are locally ringed spaces that are locally isomorphic to the spectrum of a ring.
Given a ringed space, a sheaf of modules is a sheaf such that on every open set U of X, is an -module and for every inclusion of open sets V ⊆ U, the restriction map is compatible with the restriction map O(U) → O(V): the restriction of fs is the restriction of f times that of s for any f in O(U) and s in F(U).
Most important geometric objects are sheaves of modules. For example, there is a one-to-one correspondence between vector bundles and locally free sheaves of -modules. This paradigm applies to real vector bundles, complex vector bundles, or vector bundles in algebraic geometry (where consists of smooth functions, holomorphic functions, or regular functions, respectively). Sheaves of solutions to differential equations are D-modules, that is, modules over the sheaf of differential operators. On any topological space, modules over the constant sheaf are the same as sheaves of abelian groups in the sense above.
There is a different inverse image functor for sheaves of modules over sheaves of rings. This functor is usually denoted and it is distinct from . See inverse image functor.
Finiteness conditions for sheaves of modules
Finiteness conditions for module over commutative rings give rise to similar finiteness conditions for sheaves of modules: is called finitely generated (resp. finitely presented) if, for every point x of X, there exists an open neighborhood U of x, a natural number n (possibly depending on U), and a surjective morphism of sheaves (respectively, in addition a natural number m, and an exact sequence .) Paralleling the notion of a coherent module, is called a coherent sheaf if it is of finite type and if, for every open set U and every morphism of sheaves (not necessarily surjective), the kernel of φ is of finite type. is coherent if it is coherent as a module over itself. Like for modules, coherence is in general a strictly stronger condition than finite presentation. The Oka coherence theorem states that the sheaf of holomorphic functions on a complex manifold is coherent.
The étalé space of a sheaf
In the examples above it was noted that some sheaves occur naturally as sheaves of sections. In fact, all sheaves of sets can be represented as sheaves of sections of a topological space called the étalé space, from the French word étalé , meaning roughly "spread out". If is a sheaf over , then the étalé space of is a topological space together with a local homeomorphism such that the sheaf of sections of is . The space is usually very strange, and even if the sheaf arises from a natural topological situation, may not have any clear topological interpretation. For example, if is the sheaf of sections of a continuous function , then if and only if is a local homeomorphism.
The étalé space is constructed from the stalks of over . As a set, it is their disjoint union and is the obvious map that takes the value on the stalk of over . The topology of is defined as follows. For each element and each , we get a germ of at , denoted or . These germs determine points of . For any and , the union of these points (for all ) is declared to be open in . Notice that each stalk has the discrete topology as subspace topology. Two morphisms between sheaves determine a continuous map of the corresponding étalé spaces that is compatible with the projection maps (in the sense that every germ is mapped to a germ over the same point). This makes the construction into a functor.
The construction above determines an equivalence of categories between the category of sheaves of sets on and the category of étalé spaces over . The construction of an étalé space can also be applied to a presheaf, in which case the sheaf of sections of the étalé space recovers the sheaf associated to the given presheaf.
This construction makes all sheaves into representable functors on certain categories of topological spaces. As above, let be a sheaf on , let be its étalé space, and let be the natural projection. Consider the overcategory of topological spaces over , that is, the category of topological spaces together with fixed continuous maps to . Every object of this category is a continuous map , and a morphism from to is a continuous map that commutes with the two maps to . There is a functorsending an object to . For example, if is the inclusion of an open subset, thenand for the inclusion of a point , thenis the stalk of at . There is a natural isomorphism,which shows that (for the étalé space) represents the functor .
is constructed so that the projection map is a covering map. In algebraic geometry, the natural analog of a covering map is called an étale morphism. Despite its similarity to "étalé", the word étale has a different meaning in French. It is possible to turn into a scheme and into a morphism of schemes in such a way that retains the same universal property, but is not in general an étale morphism because it is not quasi-finite. It is, however, formally étale.
The definition of sheaves by étalé spaces is older than the definition given earlier in the article. It is still common in some areas of mathematics such as mathematical analysis.
Sheaf cohomology
In contexts, where the open set U is fixed, and the sheaf is regarded as a variable, the set F(U) is also often denoted
As was noted above, this functor does not preserve epimorphisms. Instead, an epimorphism of sheaves is a map with the following property: for any section there is a covering where of open subsets, such that the restriction are in the image of . However, g itself need not be in the image of . A concrete example of this phenomenon is the exponential map
between the sheaf of holomorphic functions and non-zero holomorphic functions. This map is an epimorphism, which amounts to saying that any non-zero holomorphic function g (on some open subset in C, say), admits a complex logarithm locally, i.e., after restricting g to appropriate open subsets. However, g need not have a logarithm globally.
Sheaf cohomology captures this phenomenon. More precisely, for an exact sequence of sheaves of abelian groups
(i.e., an epimorphism whose kernel is ), there is a long exact sequenceBy means of this sequence, the first cohomology group is a measure for the non-surjectivity of the map between sections of and .
There are several different ways of constructing sheaf cohomology. introduced them by defining sheaf cohomology as the derived functor of . This method is theoretically satisfactory, but, being based on injective resolutions, of little use in concrete computations. Godement resolutions are another general, but practically inaccessible approach.
Computing sheaf cohomology
Especially in the context of sheaves on manifolds, sheaf cohomology can often be computed using resolutions by soft sheaves, fine sheaves, and flabby sheaves (also known as flasque sheaves from the French flasque meaning flabby). For example, a partition of unity argument shows that the sheaf of smooth functions on a manifold is soft. The higher cohomology groups for vanish for soft sheaves, which gives a way of computing cohomology of other sheaves. For example, the de Rham complex is a resolution of the constant sheaf on any smooth manifold, so the sheaf cohomology of is equal to its de Rham cohomology.
A different approach is by Čech cohomology. Čech cohomology was the first cohomology theory developed for sheaves and it is well-suited to concrete calculations, such as computing the coherent sheaf cohomology of complex projective space . It relates sections on open subsets of the space to cohomology classes on the space. In most cases, Čech cohomology computes the same cohomology groups as the derived functor cohomology. However, for some pathological spaces, Čech cohomology will give the correct but incorrect higher cohomology groups. To get around this, Jean-Louis Verdier developed hypercoverings. Hypercoverings not only give the correct higher cohomology groups but also allow the open subsets mentioned above to be replaced by certain morphisms from another space. This flexibility is necessary in some applications, such as the construction of Pierre Deligne's mixed Hodge structures.
Many other coherent sheaf cohomology groups are found using an embedding of a space into a space with known cohomology, such as , or some weighted projective space. In this way, the known sheaf cohomology groups on these ambient spaces can be related to the sheaves , giving . For example, computing the coherent sheaf cohomology of projective plane curves is easily found. One big theorem in this space is the Hodge decomposition found using a spectral sequence associated to sheaf cohomology groups, proved by Deligne. Essentially, the -page with termsthe sheaf cohomology of a smooth projective variety , degenerates, meaning . This gives the canonical Hodge structure on the cohomology groups . It was later found these cohomology groups can be easily explicitly computed using Griffiths residues. See Jacobian ideal. These kinds of theorems lead to one of the deepest theorems about the cohomology of algebraic varieties, the decomposition theorem, paving the path for Mixed Hodge modules.
Another clean approach to the computation of some cohomology groups is the Borel–Bott–Weil theorem, which identifies the cohomology groups of some line bundles on flag manifolds with irreducible representations of Lie groups. This theorem can be used, for example, to easily compute the cohomology groups of all line bundles on projective space and grassmann manifolds.
In many cases there is a duality theory for sheaves that generalizes Poincaré duality. See Grothendieck duality and Verdier duality.
Derived categories of sheaves
The derived category of the category of sheaves of, say, abelian groups on some space X, denoted here as , is the conceptual haven for sheaf cohomology, by virtue of the following relation:
The adjunction between , which is the left adjoint of (already on the level of sheaves of abelian groups) gives rise to an adjunction
(for ),
where is the derived functor. This latter functor encompasses the notion of sheaf cohomology since for .
Like , the direct image with compact support can also be derived. By virtue of the following isomorphism parametrizes the cohomology with compact support of the fibers of :
This isomorphism is an example of a base change theorem. There is another adjunction
Unlike all the functors considered above, the twisted (or exceptional) inverse image functor is in general only defined on the level of derived categories, i.e., the functor is not obtained as the derived functor of some functor between abelian categories. If and X is a smooth orientable manifold of dimension n, then
This computation, and the compatibility of the functors with duality (see Verdier duality) can be used to obtain a high-brow explanation of Poincaré duality. In the context of quasi-coherent sheaves on schemes, there is a similar duality known as coherent duality.
Perverse sheaves are certain objects in , i.e., complexes of sheaves (but not in general sheaves proper). They are an important tool to study the geometry of singularities.
Derived categories of coherent sheaves and the Grothendieck group
Another important application of derived categories of sheaves is with the derived category of coherent sheaves on a scheme denoted . This was used by Grothendieck in his development of intersection theory using derived categories and K-theory, that the intersection product of subschemes is represented in K-theory aswhere are coherent sheaves defined by the -modules given by their structure sheaves.
Sites and topoi
André Weil's Weil conjectures stated that there was a cohomology theory for algebraic varieties over finite fields that would give an analogue of the Riemann hypothesis. The cohomology of a complex manifold can be defined as the sheaf cohomology of the locally constant sheaf in the Euclidean topology, which suggests defining a Weil cohomology theory in positive characteristic as the sheaf cohomology of a constant sheaf. But the only classical topology on such a variety is the Zariski topology, and the Zariski topology has very few open sets, so few that the cohomology of any Zariski-constant sheaf on an irreducible variety vanishes (except in degree zero). Alexandre Grothendieck solved this problem by introducing Grothendieck topologies, which axiomatize the notion of covering. Grothendieck's insight was that the definition of a sheaf depends only on the open sets of a topological space, not on the individual points. Once he had axiomatized the notion of covering, open sets could be replaced by other objects. A presheaf takes each one of these objects to data, just as before, and a sheaf is a presheaf that satisfies the gluing axiom with respect to our new notion of covering. This allowed Grothendieck to define étale cohomology and ℓ-adic cohomology, which eventually were used to prove the Weil conjectures.
A category with a Grothendieck topology is called a site. A category of sheaves on a site is called a topos or a Grothendieck topos. The notion of a topos was later abstracted by William Lawvere and Miles Tierney to define an elementary topos, which has connections to mathematical logic.
History
The first origins of sheaf theory are hard to pin down – they may be co-extensive with the idea of analytic continuation. It took about 15 years for a recognisable, free-standing theory of sheaves to emerge from the foundational work on cohomology.
1936 Eduard Čech introduces the nerve construction, for associating a simplicial complex to an open covering.
1938 Hassler Whitney gives a 'modern' definition of cohomology, summarizing the work since J. W. Alexander and Kolmogorov first defined cochains.
1943 Norman Steenrod publishes on homology with local coefficients.
1945 Jean Leray publishes work carried out as a prisoner of war, motivated by proving fixed-point theorems for application to PDE theory; it is the start of sheaf theory and spectral sequences.
1947 Henri Cartan reproves the de Rham theorem by sheaf methods, in correspondence with André Weil (see De Rham–Weil theorem). Leray gives a sheaf definition in his courses via closed sets (the later carapaces).
1948 The Cartan seminar writes up sheaf theory for the first time.
1950 The "second edition" sheaf theory from the Cartan seminar: the sheaf space (espace étalé) definition is used, with stalkwise structure. Supports are introduced, and cohomology with supports. Continuous mappings give rise to spectral sequences. At the same time Kiyoshi Oka introduces an idea (adjacent to that) of a sheaf of ideals, in several complex variables.
1951 The Cartan seminar proves theorems A and B, based on Oka's work.
1953 The finiteness theorem for coherent sheaves in the analytic theory is proved by Cartan and Jean-Pierre Serre, as is Serre duality.
1954 Serre's paper Faisceaux algébriques cohérents (published in 1955) introduces sheaves into algebraic geometry. These ideas are immediately exploited by Friedrich Hirzebruch, who writes a major 1956 book on topological methods.
1955 Alexander Grothendieck in lectures in Kansas defines abelian category and presheaf, and by using injective resolutions allows direct use of sheaf cohomology on all topological spaces, as derived functors.
1956 Oscar Zariski's report Algebraic sheaf theory
1957 Grothendieck's Tohoku paper rewrites homological algebra; he proves Grothendieck duality (i.e., Serre duality for possibly singular algebraic varieties).
1957 onwards: Grothendieck extends sheaf theory in line with the needs of algebraic geometry, introducing: schemes and general sheaves on them, local cohomology, derived categories (with Verdier), and Grothendieck topologies. There emerges also his influential schematic idea of 'six operations' in homological algebra.
1958 Roger Godement's book on sheaf theory is published. At around this time Mikio Sato proposes his hyperfunctions, which will turn out to have sheaf-theoretic nature.
At this point sheaves had become a mainstream part of mathematics, with use by no means restricted to algebraic topology. It was later discovered that the logic in categories of sheaves is intuitionistic logic (this observation is now often referred to as Kripke–Joyal semantics, but probably should be attributed to a number of authors).
See also
Coherent sheaf
Gerbe
Stack (mathematics)
Sheaf of spectra
Perverse sheaf
Presheaf of spaces
Constructible sheaf
Notes
References
(oriented towards conventional topological applications)
(updated edition of a classic using enough sheaf theory to show its power)
(advanced techniques such as the derived category and vanishing cycles on the most reasonable spaces)
(category theory and toposes emphasised)
(concise lecture notes)
(pedagogic treatment)
Topological methods of algebraic geometry
Algebraic topology | [
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245471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child%20prodigy | Child prodigy | A child prodigy is defined in psychology research literature as a person under the age of ten who produces meaningful output in some domain to the level of an adult expert. The term is also applied more broadly to young persons who are extraordinarily talented in some field.
The term Wunderkind (from German Wunderkind; literally "wonder child") is sometimes used as a synonym for child prodigy, particularly in media accounts. Wunderkind also is used to recognize those who achieve success and acclaim early in their adult careers.
Examples
Memory capacity of prodigies
PET scans performed on several mathematics prodigies have suggested that they think in terms of long-term working memory (LTWM). This memory, specific to a field of expertise, is capable of holding relevant information for extended periods, usually hours. For example, experienced waiters have been found to hold the orders of up to twenty customers in their heads while they serve them, but perform only as well as an average person in number-sequence recognition. The PET scans also answer questions about which specific areas of the brain associate themselves with manipulating numbers.
One subject never excelled as a child in mathematics, but he taught himself algorithms and tricks for calculatory speed, becoming capable of extremely complex mental math. His brain, compared to six other controls, was studied using the PET scan, revealing separate areas of his brain that he manipulated to solve the complex problems. Some of the areas that he and presumably prodigies use are brain sectors dealing in visual and spatial memory, as well as visual mental imagery. Other areas of the brain showed use by the subject, including a sector of the brain generally related to childlike "finger counting", probably used in his mind to relate numbers to the visual cortex.
Working memory/cerebellum theory
Noting that the cerebellum acts to streamline the speed and efficiency of all thought processes, Vandervert explained the abilities of prodigies in terms of the collaboration of working memory and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum. Citing extensive imaging evidence, Vandervert first proposed this approach in two publications which appeared in 2003. In addition to imaging evidence, Vandervert's approach is supported by the substantial award-winning studies of the cerebellum by Masao Ito.
Vandervert provided extensive argument that, in the prodigy, the transition from visual-spatial working memory to other forms of thought (language, art, mathematics) is accelerated by the unique emotional disposition of the prodigy and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum. According to Vandervert, in the emotion-driven prodigy (commonly observed as a "rage to master") the cerebellum accelerates the streamlining of the efficiencies of working memory in its manipulation and decomposition/re-composition of visual-spatial content into language acquisition and into linguistic, mathematical, and artistic precocity.
Essentially, Vandervert has argued that when a child is confronted with a challenging new situation, visual-spatial working memory and speech-related and other notational system-related working memory are decomposed and re-composed (fractionated) by the cerebellum and then blended in the cerebral cortex in an attempt to deal with the new situation. In child prodigies, Vandervert believes this blending process is accelerated due to their unique emotional sensitivities which result in high levels of repetitious focus on, in most cases, particular rule-governed knowledge domains. He has also argued that child prodigies first began to appear about 10,000 years ago when rule-governed knowledge had accumulated to a significant point, perhaps at the agricultural-religious settlements of Göbekli Tepe or Cyprus.
Development
Some researchers believe that prodigious talent tends to arise as a result of the innate talent of the child, and the energetic and emotional investment that the child ventures. Others believe that the environment plays the dominant role, many times in obvious ways. For example, László Polgár set out to raise his children to be chess players, and all three of his daughters went on to become world-class players (two of whom are grandmasters), emphasizing the potency a child's environment can have in determining the pursuits toward which a child's energy will be directed, and showing that an incredible amount of skill can be developed through suitable training.
But on the other hand George Frideric Handel was an example of the natural talent ... "he had discovered such a strong propensity to music, that his father who always intended him for the study of the Civil Law, had reason to be alarmed. He strictly forbade him to meddle with any musical instrument but Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately convey'd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep". Despite his father's opposition, Handel became a skillful performer on the harpsichord and pipe organ.
Prodigiousness in childhood is not always maintained into adulthood. Some researchers have found that gifted children fall behind due to lack of effort. Jim Taylor, professor at the University of San Francisco, theorizes that this is because gifted children experience success at an early age with little to no effort and may not develop a sense of ownership of success. Therefore, these children might not develop a connection between effort and outcome. Some children might also believe that they can succeed without effort in the future as well. Dr. Anders Ericcson, professor at Florida State University, researches expert performance in sports, music, mathematics, and other activities. His findings demonstrate that prodigiousness in childhood is not a strong indicator of later success. Rather, the number of hours devoted to the activity was a better indicator.
Rosemary Callard-Szulgit and other educators have written extensively about the problem of perfectionism in bright children, calling it their "number one social-emotional trait". Gifted children often associate even slight imperfection with failure, so that they become fearful of effort, even in their personal lives, and in extreme cases end up virtually immobilized.
See also
List of child prodigies
Chess prodigy
List of child music prodigies
List of fictional child prodigies
Genius
Gifted education
Intellectual giftedness
Late bloomer
Malleability of intelligence
Polymath
Savant syndrome
References
Further reading
External links
, "CBS News Online", 26 February 2010.
Childhood
Intelligence | [
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245472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbear%20Bosin | Blackbear Bosin | Blackbear Bosin (June 5, 1921 – August 9, 1980) was a self-taught Comanche/Kiowa sculptor, painter, and commercial artist. He is also known by his Kiowa name, Tsate Kongia, which means "black bear."
Early life (1921–1946)
Francis Blackbear Bosin was born June 5, 1921, in Cyril, Oklahoma, near Anadarko. His father, Frank Blackbear, was Kiowa, and his mother, Ada Tivis Bosin, was of the Quahadis, or antelope-eater band, of the Comanche Nation. His Kiowa name, Tsate Kongia, means "Blackbear" and belongs to his paternal grandfather, a Kiowa chief. As the oldest male child, he was sent to live with his maternal, Comanche grandparents as soon as he was able to walk. He attended St. Patrick's Mission School in Anadarko where he was exposed to the paintings of the Kiowa Six.
Bosin briefly studied Anadarko High School before leaving to attend Cyril High School. At the age of 17, Bosin married Ruth Johnson (Caddo), and the pair had two daughters together, Rowena and Patricia. He was offered an arts scholarship to the University of Oklahoma after graduating high school, but due to his new responsibilities as a husband and a father, he turned it down. Instead, he chose to attend the Chilocco Indian Agricultural School where he trained to work with sheet metal. In 1940, Bosin and Johnson moved to Wichita, Kansas, with their daughters. It was here that the couple had two sons, Francis Jr. and Niles.
To support his family, Bosin enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps and was trained as a machine gunner. In November 1943, while stationed in Maui, Hawaii, he fell ill and had to be hospitalized at Aiea Heights Naval Hospital in Honolulu, Hawaii. It was here that he took up painting again. Before his discharge in 1945, the hospital hosted a one-man exhibition of his works. Prior to leaving the military, Bosin briefly returned to Wichita to sign divorce papers, which marked the end of his marriage with Johnson. Bosin permanently returned to Wichita in 1946, where he worked as a color separator and plate maker for Western Lithograph and then as an industrial designer and production illustrator for Boeing.
Art career (1946–1967)
After returning to Wichita in 1946, Bosin continued to paint. In the same year, he entered the Philbrook Art Center's first Indian Artists Annual, where he won an honorable mention for Green Corn Dance. After his success at the Philbrook, Bosin continued to enter art competitions there and at other galleries, art centers, and museums. Between 1947 and 1948, his work was included in exhibitions at the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts and the Detroit Institute of Arts. In 1951, Bosin entered an Indian art competition held by the Denver Museum of Art, where he was awarded the Purchase Prize.
Bosin's career as an artist began to take off in the early 1950s, beginning with the Philbrook’s Indian Art Annual in 1952 where he was awarded first prize for Death Bird. He secured first place again the next year with Prairie Fire, the piece that brought him international recognition. The acclaimed painting was purchased by the Philbrook and later featured in the May 1955 issue of National Geographic.
While working at Boeing, Bosin met Nola Simmonds, an art teacher who would later become his wife. The two were married in 1953, after which they moved in together and Bosin became stepfather to David, Simmonds only child. Bosin's daughters lived with the family in Wichita until they both graduated high school, and one of his sons, Francis Jr., lived with them up until the sixth grade.
In 1955, Wind Spirit, the companion piece to Prairie Fire, was shown at the DeYoung Museum in San Francisco and then won the Purchase Prize at the Philbrook's Indian Annual. After the competition, the Philbrook invited Bosin to participate in a one-man exhibition.
Bosin opened the Great Plains Studio in 1959 to expand his studio space and display his art alongside the works of other Indigenous artists. The same year, he was commissioned by the Hotel Broadview in downtown Wichita to design a mosaic mural for the Crystal Ballroom. Constructed entirely from semi-opaque glass chips and measuring an incredible 1,500 square feet, The Advance of Civilization in Kansas is the largest continuous mural in Kansas.
His paintings continued to be awarded by art institutions. In 1960, Bosin entered the All-Indian Show in New York, where he won both the First and Grand Prize. The following year he travelled to Kreuzlingin, Switzerland, to receive honors after he was elected Fellow of the International Institution of Arts and Letters. In the same year, two of his former entries in the Philbrook's Indian Artist Annual were purchased by the Arts and Crafts Board of the Department of the Interior. In 1963, the Philbrook hosted another one-man show of Bosin's work and four of his pieces were included in the Heard Museum's Gallery of Indian Art's inaugural exhibition.
Two years later, in 1965, Bosin proceeded to win first place and the Grand Prize at the Philbrook's Indian Artists Annual. The same year, the Wichita Art Museum hosted a showing of 24 of Bosin's works. The museum later commissioned him to do a painting titled, Wichita, My Son, which represents the relationship between Wichita and the local Indigenous communities. Bosin also participated in an exhibition at the Whitney Gallery of Western Art at the Buffalo Bill Cody complex in Cody, Wyoming.
Bosin was the only Native American artist to participate in the 1965 White House Festival of the Arts, where Prairie Fire was displayed. The beaded bowtie and cummerbund he wore were made by his mother and attracted the attention of Lady Bird Johnson, who requested that Bosin be moved to sit at her table.
The Department of the Interior commissioned a series of paintings from Bosin, known as the Kiowa Series, that was devoted to displaying the historical and religious heritage of the Kiowa. The series consisted of three works, Of the Owls Telling, Taime Man, and The Ten Grandmothers. Bosin completed the first two paintings between 1965 and 1966, but the final work was not finished until 1973 and the series was not publicly displayed until 1976. He was awarded a Certificate of Appreciation by the Indian Arts and Crafts Board of the Department of the Interior in 1966.
In 1967, Bosin was awarded the Victory Trophy at the 22nd Indian Annual hosted by the Philbrook. After receiving this award, he made the decision to step back from entering art competitions altogether because he believed it was time for younger artists to gain recognition.
Later years and death (1967–1980)
Bosin had been experiencing health issues, starting in 1960 when he was diagnosed with diabetes, but his health worsened significantly in 1968. He had to be hospitalized for a period and his doctors advised that he slow down his work. A year later, Bosin suffered his first heart attack.
While in the hospital, Elmer Hall, a friend of Bosin and employee of the KG&E plant in Wichita, asked Bosin if he would design a large-scale statue as tribute to the Indigenous peoples in the area. The sculpture, titled The Keeper of the Plains is a 44-foot Cor-Ten steel sculpture situated at the confluence of the Arkansas and Little Arkansas rivers. Construction of the sculpture began in 1970 and was finally completed in 1974, after multiple financial setbacks. A ceremony with performances and blessings by local Indigenous peoples, including a blessing in the Winnebago language by Etta Hunter, was held for the official unveiling of the sculpture. Two 10-foot replicas of the sculpture were installed in Wichita's sister cities, Tlalnepantla, Mexico, and Orleans, France, in 1975.
In the early months of 1971, Bosin held a show at the Wichita Art Association and was commissioned by the Farm Credit Bank of Wichita to paint a large-scale mural. Months later in September, Bosin had to undergo open heart surgery, which severely set back the progress of the mural. His recovery was lengthy, and he suffered loss of sight in both eyes that left wide, horizontal fields of darkness across his vision. The quality of Bosin's painting did not decline because of his vision loss, but it did make the work more difficult for him. To complete the mural on time, his wife and office staff helped paint the basic areas of the work while he filled in the details.
Bosin was commissioned to create ten designs for a series of fifty sterling silver medals produced by the Franklin Mint for The Medallic History of the American Indian in 1975. The double-sided coins recorded historical events ranging from prehistoric migration from Asia to North America to the completion of the transcontinental railroad, featuring the “traditional view” of the event on one side and the “Indian interpretation” on the other.
In 1976, Bosin was honored at the American Indian National Achievement Awards in the Traditional Indian Painting category. He was also included in Songs from the Earth, an important exhibition of Indigenous art, and appointed to the Kansas Arts Commission Board.
The state of Kansas awarded Bosin the Distinguished Service Award in 1977. He was later appointed as Governor's Artist by Robert F. Bennett, Kansas's governor at the time.
Bosin began restricting the showing of his work in 1978, but he did show in the Oklahoma Museum of Art and the New Britain Museum of American Art during that year. Due to the toll his loss of vision took on his ability to paint quickly, Bosin had to give up gouache in favor of acrylics. While the acrylics dried less quickly than gouache, they did not have the same layered effect as Bosin's earlier works. He produced his final painting, Reflections of Rainy Mountains, using acrylics.
In the later years of his life, Bosin began to dance at regional powwows with his close friends. He wore traditional regalia that was adorned with his mother's intricate beadwork. Bosin led a dance to the rhythm of a song that was passed on to him by his father when he had been inducted into the Kiowa Gourd Society and O-Ho-Mahs Lodge Society years before.
In March 1980, Bosin's mother died while living with him and his wife. Stricken by grief, Bosin struggled to complete his final commissions.
Five months later, on August 9, 1980, Bosin died from heart problems and complications stemming from a severe gall bladder infection. He was survived by his second wife, Nola Davidson Simmonds, his four children, Rowena, Patricia, Francis Jr., and Niles, and stepson, David Simmonds.
In 2012, David Simmonds published a biography detailing Bosin's life and accomplishments, titled Blackbear Bosin: Keeper of the Indian Spirit.
Art style and practice
Bosin began practicing art while attending St. Patrick's Mission School in Anadarko, where he was able to study Kiowa and European art through the school's collections. It was through his observations of historical art forms that he learned how to manipulate bodily proportions, create anatomically correct figures, and emulate the style of the Kiowa Six. He was also heavily influenced by his mother, who was an accomplished bead worker.
A self-taught artist, Bosin attributed his distinctive artistic style to his lack of formal arts training and relative isolation from other practicing artists. His work became increasingly complex and dynamic, reflecting the influence of surrealists and his incorporation of culturally specific scenes and subject matter. Watercolors and gouache allowed Bosin to create a controlled layering effect that gave his canvasses their distinctive look. He was known to make several drafts of each painting, sometimes making up to ten sketches before transferring the image onto the canvas, to ensure that the composition was correct. Bosin also began to include increasingly detailed backgrounds in his paintings that set the tone of the piece and constructed a sense of space.
Although he was able to paint in the European style of realism, Bosin found no reason to do so. In a 1975 interview he stated, “I find it empty. I simply don’t care for it. I would rather stay within the limitations of Traditional Indian paintings, going on to explain that adapting and reshaping traditional styles better represents the transient, poetic experience he is trying to capture in his work.
Bosin also frequently sketched, filling his sketchbooks with caricatures, drawings, and cartoons, all of which he signed as “Chief.” The first and only time his cartoons were exhibited was in 1979 at the New Britain Museum of American Art in Connecticut.
Commercial art
Bosin also worked as a production illustrator and commercial artist. In 1952 when he left Boeing to work in the training aids and arts department at McConnel Air Force Base, Bosin produced visual training materials for pilots. His instructional booklet, JetRock Jock, took a humorous approach to advising pilots of the various mishaps and dangers of flying. The booklet gained popularity and was distributed to other pilot training programs across the United States.
In 1955, Bosin left the civil service sector to pursue art fulltime. He partnered with A.E. “Waddy” Wadsworth to open a small commercial art studio where they produced visuals for local movie theaters and small businesses.
Bosin also designed the logos for the Mid-America All-Indian Center in Wichita and the Wolf Creek Nuclear power plant in Burlington, Kansas.
Awards and honors
Certificate of Merit, the Philbrook Indian Art Annual, 1946
Purchase Prize, the Denver Museum of Art Indian Art Competition, 1951
First Prize, the Philbrook Indian Art Annual, 1952
Grand Prize, the Philbrook Indian Art Annual, 1953
Purchase Prize, the Philbrook Indian Art Annual, 1955
Grand and First Prize, the All-Indian Show, 1960
Fellow of the International Institute of Arts and Letters, Kreuzlingin, Switzerland, 1961
Grand Prize and First Prize, the Philbrook Indian Art Annual, 1965
Certificate of Appreciation, the Indian Arts and Crafts Board, 1966
Victory Trophy, the Philbrook American Indian Artists Exhibition, 1967
Award for Traditional Indian Painting, the American Indian National Achievement Awards, 1976
Distinguished Service Award, the State of Kansas, 1977
Governor's Artist, Governor Robert F. Bennett of Kansas, 1977
Public collections
Buffalo Bill Historical Center, Cody, Wyoming
Bureau of Indian Affairs, United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Denver Art Museum
Eiteljorg Museum of American Indians & Western Art, Indianapolis
Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Heard Museum, Phoenix
Indian Arts and Crafts Board, United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Philbrook Museum of Art, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Wichita Art Association Gallery, Wichita, Kansas
Wichita Art Museum, Kansas.
Private Collection, Stevan Allen, Morgan Hill, California
Private Collection, Anonymous, Wichita, Kansas
Mid-America All-Indian Center, Wichita, Kansas
See also
Kiowa Six
Native American art
References
External links
"Blackbear Bosin (1921-1980)", Mid-American All Indian Center
1921 births
1980 deaths
Comanche people
Kiowa people
Native American painters
Native American sculptors
Native American United States military personnel
People from Caddo County, Oklahoma
Artists from Wichita, Kansas
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
United States Marines
20th-century American sculptors
American male sculptors
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Native American male artists | [
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245481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job%20rotation | Job rotation | Job rotation is a technique used by some employers to rotate their employees' assigned jobs throughout their employment. Employers practice this technique for a number of reasons. It was designed to promote flexibility of employees and to keep employees interested into staying with the company/organization which employs them. There is also research that shows how job rotations help relieve the stress of employees who work in a job that requires manual labor.
Objectives
Employee Learning
Rotation making employees more versatile
Gives employees a broader understanding of the business allowing them to be better prepared to be promoted to management.
Employer Learning
Using job rotation employers can learn their individual worker's strengths
Employers receive a flexible and knowledgeable workforce that can be sourced throughout the company or agency.
Employee Motivation
Rotation reduces boredom
More knowledge of the company as a whole may lead to more promotions.
Along with the company providing the opportunities and training for job rotation, the employees who participate in job rotation learn more than the one job specification deemed to them, benefiting them in the long run in case of an open position on moving up in the company or a position opening up in another firm. Along with employees benefiting, companies benefit as well. The business can hire fewer people since the majority of their staff will be able to be versatile in the job functions that the company may demand, saving the company more money and possibly giving the current employees a better salary.
Job rotation is beneficial to the company in terms of productivity and reducing the leave of absence workers take throughout the year. A study was conducted to see what motivates employees in their job performance. Job security was among the least motivators. Employees wanted a sense of responsibility and pride in their tasks performed. Job rotation was created for small crews to see if the company could produce a greater employee satisfaction, desire to become comfortable in their job functions, and decrease the desire to avoid their overtime duty.
Some employees are paid more for they are presenting that they are worth a greater amount since they can perform more than one job function and thus makes a higher incentive for more employees to be able to perform better in the workplace.
It is a common perception to see that employees who normally opt into the program of job rotation that these individuals tend to have "higher perceived skills" and are more likely to be promoted.
Sometimes job rotation is practiced for the individual worker's health benefit. This practice helps rotates the individual tasks and muscle movements. It reduces the stress of an average workday so that the workers do not feel the tension in their muscles as well as can keep up in their demanding workplace. There has been electromyographic studies on this technique from mining to assembly lines.
Job rotation also gives a firm a back-up plan in the case a work-gap is created in the firm.
Job rotation in action
Semco Partners
Semco is a Brazilian firm known for implementing job rotation in order to discourage key people from keeping trade secrets which might get lost should they leave, and because it forces the company to develop more than one expert in any particular field.
Toyo Kogyo Company
Toyo Kogyo Company is the Japanese firm that now produces Mazda automobiles. Toyo Kogyo has been practicing job rotation for over 20 years as a direct result of the oil embargo of the 1960s. Toyo looked to job rotation to fill gaps in experience due to the cutbacks needed during a downturn in the economy. This has resulted in company with a very efficient workforce that is more knowledgeable than their more specialized competitors.
Intel Corporation
Intel Corporation now uses job rotation as a means to fill temporary positions from within their own organization. In 11 months Intel filled about 1300 jobs lasting from weeks to years. These positions were available in various fields such as HR, Marketing, Finance and Product development. These assignments are meant to rein in restless workers as well as giving opportunities to employees to learn new technologies and strategies that they may not have been familiar with before. Many employees who experience this form of job rotation are given looks into fields that may be foreign letting them have a greater understanding of the company as a whole.
Virgin America
Virgin America has experimented with a one-year employee exchange program with Virgin Australia. The two companies traded flight attendants between each other to create excitement and energy among its employees. While trades are not as beneficial as job rotation among skill employees the short term benefits may help customer service and the general mood of the employees working for the airline.
Unilever
Unilever now enables job rotation for its employees for the purpose of personal growth. With the help of an internal talent mobilization tool, the company empowers employees with the visibility to relevant career opportunities within the organization and reduces voluntary turnover. In parallel, managers enjoy a better access to internal talent, which enables them to quickly fill in professional vacancies in a fraction of the usual hiring costs.
Workers
Benefits
Job rotation may also be used to alleviate the physical and mental stresses endured by employees when working at the same position, year after year. By allowing employees to rotate to other positions, the risk factors for some types of musculoskeletal disorders may be reduced. Job Rotation is also believed to have the ability to decrease the amount of boredom and monotony experienced by employees who work the same position for extended periods of time. Job rotation caters to the employee's preferences in a variety of tasks, letting them be more flexible in their positions while endowing workers with a wide range of skills. This also allows the worker job security by developing multiple skills instead of specializing in one aspect. In times of urgency or emergency employees in job rotation are prepared to deal with unusual operations other more specialized workers may not be able to.
Drawbacks
There are some negative attributes associated with job rotation. Firstly, some positions within a company may not be eligible for rotation. There may be positions within a company that may be specialized due to technology or may require highly skilled workers. These positions may not fit the profile for rotation opportunities because of the costs involved to train the workers. Another problem faced by companies is that some employ unionized workers that may be resistant to job rotation due to standard union practices.
Private sector
Benefits
Employers are able to evaluate employees not only for their output but also for their personality traits and team work skills. "Output measures may easily be translated into attributes such as leadership abilities, technical competence, relations with others and judgement." Job rotation benefits the private sector by allowing workers to become flexible in skills needed throughout the company not just in one section or division, this allows companies to benefit through lower costs of needing to train new employees to do the same job. There are different reasons a company may choose to use job rotation such as using job rotation as a learning mechanism. Research suggests that there are significant benefits that may out weigh the costs involved with training employees for diversified positions. This employment opportunity has an effect of boosting morale and self efficacy. The company may benefit from using job rotation by having the ability to staff key positions within a company that are needed at the moment instead of having to train a specialist to fill an urgent position. This practice may allow a company to run more efficiently, and as a result, become more productive and profitable.
Drawbacks
Cost of job rotation
The cost of job rotation can be directly linked to the productive gains made through specialization.
Theory determining the benefit to specialization-
(1) Y=f(XuX2)."We will refer to the inputs as "jobs" that must be performed in order to produce the output. Suppose the firm employees two (initially) identical workers, each of whom is capable of performing both jobs. Thus in a two-period model, each worker could produce the same amount in the first period. By assuming the workers are identical in their intrinsic skills, we focus on the effect of the organization of work related skills. According to a well-known principle spelled out by Adam Smith, a specialized worker improves his or her skill over time by repetitively performing the same task. The gain from specializations thus arises in the second period if workers remain in the same job for both periods. In that case, we assume that the workers can produce more in the second period. By contrast, if the workers switch jobs in the second period, then each produces in the second period the same output that his or her counterpart had produced in the first period. To capture this we let Y1 denote the total output in the first period, and Y2, and Y2, denote the output in the second period under rotation and specialization respectively. When workers rotate jobs in the second period, Y2,= Y1; when the specialize and remain in the same job, Y2>Y1. Specialization thus yields greater output over the two periods by the amount Y2−Y2. This differential represents the cost of job rotation in terms of forgone output."A problem faced by companies is the possibility of having to pay incentives to workers for cooperation with the job rotation implementation which can lead towards inequality. The utilization of job rotation may have the effect of reducing a workforce due to the cross-training involved; a company may not be required to hire additional staff to cover positions and may cause a layoff of current employees no longer considered necessary.
Public sector
Benefits
Job rotation in the public sector can be used to create communication networks between agencies. This is a benefit for agencies this in times of interagency involvement, or times of emergency."Interagency assignments can promote networks among personnel from the host and home agencies. Job rotation programs can be designed with a formal component to encourage networking, or networks can be established informally through day-to-day interactions between the individual and his or her peers at the host agency.""Depending on the assignment, an individual can build specific skills needed for interagency collaboration, such as how to plan, lead, and execute interagency efforts. Several experts contend that the best way to teach people to lead in a collaborative environment is to provide them with an opportunity to do so."
Drawbacks
Drawbacks from Job Rotation in the public sector are often affected the most by lack of cooperation between the agencies involved. Each agency must come into the project fully or the project is likely to fail; making these projects often hard to create or manage. Uneven exchanged in workforce talent can occur when one agency sends skilled personnel to another agency only to receive lower skilled personnel in return. This not only affects the consistency of work coming out of the first agency, but also has the effect of making managers more apprehensible to the aspect of future programs. Employees in these situations oftentimes feel that their careers are put on hold the moment they participate in rotation. Employees feel their contributions at other agencies will not be valued as much by their home agency. Employees feel they will be looked over and miss future opportunities due to lack of recognition and difference in location.
"These programs are not easy to design and manage effectively, and can impose significant costs on the individuals and organizations involved. Cultural differences that exist among different agencies, funding streams, and authorities that flow toward a single agency rather than toward enterprise-level goals are additional factors that complicate agencies’ abilities to work together to design a win-win program."
References
Black, S. E., Lynch, L. M., & Krivelyova, A. (2004). How Workers Fare When Employers Innovate. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy & Society, 43(1), 44–66.
Hsieh, A., & Chao, H. (2004). A reassessment of the relationship between job specialization, job rotation and job burnout: Example of Taiwan's high-technology industry. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15(6), 1108–1123.
Jaturanonda, C., Nanthavanij, S., & Chongphaisal, P. (2006). A survey study on weights of decision criteria for job rotation in Thailand: Comparison between public and private sectors. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(10), 1834–1851.
Jorgensen, M., Davis, K., Kotowski, S., Aedla, P., & Dunning, K. (2005). Characteristics of job rotation in the Midwest US manufacturing sector. Ergonomics, 48(15), 1721–1733.
Ortega, J. (2001). Job rotation as a learning mechanism. Management Science, 47(10), 1361–1370.
Ronnie E.S. Santos, Fabio Q.B. da Silva, Maria Teresa Baldassarre, Cleyton V.C. de Magalhães, Benefits and limitations of project-to-project job rotation in software organizations: A synthesis of evidence, Information and Software Technology, Volume 89, 2017, Pages 78–96, ISSN 0950-5849, https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2017.04.006.
Vocational education
Human resource management
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245488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomutov | Chomutov | Chomutov (; ) is a city in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 48,000 inhabitants. There are almost 80,000 inhabitants in the city's wider metropolitan area. The city centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.
Administrative parts
Chomutov is made up of one administrative part and is the only such Czech city.
Geography
Chomutov is located on the river Chomutovka, at the foot of the Ore Mountains. The surface is mostly flat with some hills in the north and southeast of the city. The highest point of the municipal area is Hůrka , a hill on the northwestern border of the municipality.
History
The first written mention of Chomutov is a deed of gift from 1252, when it came into the possession of the Teutonic Order. The Gothic church of St. Catherine built during that era still stands to this day. In 1396 Chomutov received a town charter, and in 1416 the knights sold both the town and the lordship to Wenceslaus IV.
On March 16, 1421, the town was stormed, sacked and burned by the Taborites. After several upheavals and changes of ownership, Chomutov was taken by Popel of Lobkowitz in 1588, who established Jesuit rule, leading to trouble between the Protestant citizens and the town's new overlord. In 1594 the feudal lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town purchased its freedom and was made a royal city. After the Thirty Years' War, Chomutov stagnated. Rapid development did not come until the second half of the 19th century, with advances in the mining and heavy industries.
By 1938 Chomutov had over 30,000 inhabitants. Part of the Sudetenland, it had a population comprising about 95% ethnic Germans. A very small Jewish population, (444 in 1930 – 1.3% of the total population), came under increasing pressure, and Chomutov was declared "Judenrein" on September 23, 1938 by the increasingly pro-Nazi administration. A week later, Chomutov and its surrounding districts were occupied by Nazi Germany as a result of the 1938 Munich Agreement. This broader, north-western border area of what is the modern-day Czech Republic was annexed by Germany and reorganized as the Reichsgau Sudetenland.
After 1945, the previous population, German by a large majority, was expelled. Industrial facilities and large high-rise housing projects were then built to redevelop the area. In the late 1970s an urban settlement was built, linking Chomutov with its neighbouring Jirkov. Following the Velvet Revolution of 1989, the heavy industry significantly decreased its activity, but the environment in and around the town has been visibly improved. The leisure facilities of the area were emphasised, notably Alum Lake, the Zoopark Chomutov and the Bezručovo Valley recreational area.
Since 1 July 2006, Chomutov has been a statutory city.
Demography
Sights
Since 1992, the historical city centre has been urban monument zone. The historical centre is in the shape of an oblong, and is surrounded by arcades. The 1. máje Square with its Baroque Pillar of Trinity by Ambrož Laurentis from 1697 is banked by seven statues of saints built between 1725 and 1732.
The city hall is situated in the northwest side and it used to be a commendam until 1607. The city hall is situated next to the Church of St. Catherine built in early Gothic style and finished in 1281.
On the opposite side there is the Church of Assumption of the Virgin Mary, built in late Gothic style between 1518 and 1542. The church is situated next to the tall dominant of the city, the City Tower. The tower was renovated after the fire in 1525 and rebuilt to Neogothic style in 1874. Nowadays it is used as an observation tower.
At the end of the south side there is the Baroque Church of St. Ignatz with two towers on the north frontage. The church was built for Jesuits by Carlo Lurago between 1663 and 1668. The building called Špejchar from the 17th century was used by Jesuits as earlier church and it adjoins the east side of the Church of St. Ignatz. Nowadays it is used as a gallery.
There is a Jesuitical dormitory south of the Church of St. Ignatz from the 16th and 17th century which is nowadays a settlement of the city museum. The most important building from the Gothic residential houses is the late Gothic house no. 9, which is at the bottom of the northeast side of the square.
Alum Lake is frequently visited in the summer months. The high content (about 1%) of alum in the water prevents the lake from the growth of weed.
The Zoopark Chomutov borders with the Alum Lake on its north side. The zoo is focused mostly on breeding European and mainly domestic wild animals (wolf, european bison, etc.). The zoo is the largest in the country by area, with an area of .
Bezručovo Valley is a long and deep woody valley on the river Chomutovka in the northwestern side of the city and it is a popular place for trips.
Strážiště Hill rises over the northern edge of Chomutov and on its peak there is a hotel with a former observation tower.
Transport
Roads through Chomutov:
no.: 7 (Prague–Slaný–Louny–Chomutov–Hora Svatého Šebestiána)
no.: 13 (Karlovy Vary–Ostrov–Klášterec nad Ohří–Chomutov–Most–Teplice–Děčín–Nový Bor)
Railways in Chomutov:
no.: 120 (Prague–Kladno–Žatec–Chomutov)
no.: 130 (Ústí nad Labem–Bílina–Most–Chomutov)
no.: 133 (Chomutov–Jirkov)
no.: 137 (Chomutov–Vejprty–Bärenstein)
no.: 140 (Chomutov–Kadaň–Karlovy Vary–Sokolov–Cheb)
Public transport
Transport around Chomutov is operated by buses since 1995 and also by trolleybuses. The trolleybus net connects Chomutov with neighboring Jirkov. The towns jointly operate a transport company (Dopravní podnik měst Chomutova a Jirkova).
Notable people
Matthäus Aurogallus (1490–1543), scholar
Franz Josef von Gerstner (1756–1832), mathematician
Ernst Fischer (1899–1972), Austrian politician, writer
Hans Goldmann (1899–1991), Austrian-Swiss ophthalmologist and inventor, rector of the University of Bern
Erich Heller (1911–1990), British philosopher and literary scholar
Marian Korn (1914–1987), printmaker
Ruth Maria Kubitschek (born 1931), German actress
Uschi Nerke (born 1944), German TV host
Petr Klíma (born 1964), ice hockey player
Pavla Hamáčková-Rybová (born 1978), pole vaulter
Simona Kubová (born 1991), swimmer
Twin towns – sister cities
Chomutov is twinned with:
Annaberg-Buchholz, Germany
Bernburg, Germany
Trnava, Slovakia
Gallery
References
External links
Culture, sport and amusement in Chomutov
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Chomutov District
Towns in the Ore Mountains | [
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245496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneida%20Limited | Oneida Limited | Oneida Limited () is an American manufacturer and seller of tableware and cutlery. Oneida is one of the world’s largest designers and sellers of stainless steel and silverplated cutlery and tableware for the consumer and foodservice industries. It is also the largest supplier of dinnerware to the foodservice industry in North America. The company operates in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Europe, and Asia, marketing and distributing tabletop products, which include flatware, dinnerware, crystal stemware, glassware and kitchen tools and gadgets. The factory in upstate NY was sold to Liberty Tabletop, who is the sole manufacturer of US made flatware. The company originated in the late-nineteenth century in Oneida, New York.
History
Origins
The company arose out of the utopian Oneida Community, which was established in Oneida, New York, in 1848. The Oneida Association (later Oneida Community) was founded by a small group of Christian Perfectionists led by John Humphrey Noyes, Jonathan Burt, George W. Cragin, Harriet A.Noyes, George W. Noyes, John L. Skinner and a few others. In 1880, after more than 30 years operating as a commune, the Oneida Community voted to transfer much of the common property to a joint-stock company to be known as Oneida Community Ltd. effective January 1, 1881.
Oneida Community Ltd. was one of the earliest joint-stock companies in the United States. Its founders' religious philosophy helped inform the early development of the company, in which members of the former Oneida Community became shareholders in the company. Its progressive nature also allowed for a woman, Harriet Joselyn, to sit on the board of directors — a departure from the norm for the time.
Oneida Community started production of silver-plated flatware and hollow-ware in 1899 using the "Community Plate" mark. Oneida Community purchased the Wm A. Rogers and 1881 Rogers companies in 1929 and started producing a somewhat lower-quality line of products using those companies’ marks. In 1935, Oneida Community changed its name to Oneida Ltd.
Post-war growth
Oneida Limited successfully adapted to the difficult economic conditions of the First World War and Second World War. Throughout both of these world economic upheavals, Oneida adapted its manufacturing capabilities. During the First World War, it produced ammunition clips, lead-plated gas shells, combat knives, and surgical instruments; during World War II, the company added army trucks, aircraft survival kits, and even jet engine parts to its manufacturing repertoire.
The company then managed an innovative transition to the manufacture of stainless steel flatware in 1961, which eventually dwarfed its production of silver-plated flatware. In 1971, Oneida purchased the Camden Wire Co., Inc., a major manufacturer of industrial wire products.
By the 1980s, Oneida made at least half of all flatware purchased in the United States. In 1983, the company acquired Rena-Ware, a Bellevue-based kitchenware manufacturer with a majority international operations. Oneida sold Rena-ware three years later. In 1984, it acquired D.J. Tableware, a flatware and china manufacturer that targeted the foodservice industry.
Modern era
At the end of the 1990s, the company encountered tough economic times, however it still tried to hold on to its mantle as the last remaining US-based manufacturer of flatware, knives, forks, and spoons. The events surrounding 9/11 negatively affected the hospitality and consumer tableware markets, and in November 2003, Oneida sold its 100-year-old Buffalo China plant and four overseas factories in Mexico, China, and Italy. In February 2004, it sold off more assets to BC Acquisition Co. LLC for $5.5 million. Eventually, the manufacturing facilities in Sherrill, New York were sold to Sherrill Manufacturing on March 22, 2005.
In 1996, Oneida Limited acquired THC Systems, Inc., including its team of professionals, which operated under the name Rego China.
Oneida Limited transitioned from its manufacturing history and focused on design and marketing of its products that are globally sourced. Sales, marketing, advertising, procurement, customer service, legal and operational support is also still based in Oneida, New York. The company was taken private in 2006. Oneida no longer operates manufacturing in the United States.
Partly as a consequence of the economic blowback from 9/11, Oneida Limited's sales fell more than $157 million. In 2006, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. After stabilizing financially and reducing its debt load, the company was purchased by a group of hedge funds led by Monarch Alternative Capital.
Oneida announced at the beginning of 2009 they were transitioning away from company-owned outlet stores due to poor financial results but retaining the original outlet store in Sherrill, New York. In September 2010, Oneida launched a new website, Oneida.com.
In November 2011, Oneida Limited was acquired by Monomoy Capital Partners, a mid-sized New York City equity fund. In 2012 Monomoy merged Oneida with Anchor Hocking and created EveryWare Global. In January 2014, EveryWare Global announced its plans to close its regional office and the Oneida outlet store, both in Sherrill, NY, with the process starting in April.
The original Oneida outlet store in Sherrill, New York, was closed April 26, 2014. EveryWare Global filed for bankruptcy in 2015. EveryWare Global was renamed The Oneida Group in 2017.
Operations
Manufacturing
Oneida has had a variety of manufacturing facilities and capabilities throughout its existence. In addition to tableware, the company started out by manufacturing silk, traps, and chains. It gradually ceased these enterprises as they became less profitable for the company. In 1916, Oneida opened its first international factory in Niagara Falls, Ontario.
During World War II, Oneida purchased a factory in Canastota, New York, to manufacture army trucks, aircraft survival kits, and jet engine parts.
Throughout the 1960s and 70s, Oneida's workforce grew from 2,000 to 3,000 workers, and it transitioned into manufacturing stainless steel flatware. Starting in 1977, and continuing throughout the 80s and 90s, Oneida acquired orthogonal manufacturing companies making such things as wire, flatware, and china. To compete with international manufacturing, Oneida implemented high-volume manufacturing lines in its factories. It also opened new factories throughout the world: a dinnerware factory in Juarez, Mexico; flatware factory in Toluca, Mexico; holloware factory in Shanghai, China; holloware factory in Vercelli, Italy. In 2004, it closed those factories.
Since its acquisition by Monomoy Capital Partners, Oneida has manufactured its products across North America, South America, Asia, and Europe by means of 50 manufacturing contracts.
Advertising
Starting in 1899, Coles Phillips illustrated dozens of ads for the company, which was then known as Oneida Community. Maxfield Parrish, John Whitcomb also illustrated advertisements for the Oneida's products
Oneida also focused on print advertisements in home, fashion, bridal, and epicurean publications. It was also one of the first to employ celebrity spokespeople such as Bob Hope. Oneida inaugurated the practice by employing Irene Castle to promote its wares.
During the 1960s, Deutsch Inc. worked on Oneida's advertising. More recently, Oneida's advertising campaigns have won several Clio Awards.
Brands
Oneida Limited serves various customer segments by selling different brands of banquetware, flatware, glassware, and tableware. Its foodservice industry brands are Schonwald, Sant'Andrea, Oneida, and Buffalo. Its consumer products include the Oneida, Westminster and Stanley Rogers brands.
Schonwald
Oneida Limited is the exclusive American marketer and distributor of Schonwald foodservice dinnerware. The line is known for its trendsetting designs, advanced technology, and high quality. Schonwald is the company's 5-star luxury brand of foodservice dinnerware.
Sant'Andrea
Oneida Limited established the European-based Sant'Andrea brand in 1990. The line focuses on premium stainless steel or traditional silverplate flatware. Oneida, through its Italian subsidiary, Sant'Andrea, S.r.l., acquired Table Top Engineering & Design, S.r.l. in 1998. TTE&D had been the primary manufacturer of its Sant'Andrea line of fine foodservice dinnerware.
Oneida
Oneida Limited's main line has been available since the company's very beginning. The Oneida line is broken up into three sub-lines: Oneida Flatware, Oneida Holloware, and Oneida Dinnerware. The Oneida line of flatware and dinnerware is used by fine dining establishments, family restaurants, and hotels.
Buffalo
In 1983, Oneida Limited purchased Buffalo China, Inc., at the time one of the country's largest makers of commercial chinaware. After Oneida's 2004 series of factory closings and sales, Buffalo China ceased manufacturing, but Oneida retained the Buffalo China trademark and logos; it also retained the Buffalo China warehouse in Buffalo, New York. The Buffalo Collection is Oneida's casual line of dinnerware, focusing on durability, practicality, and detail.
References
External links
Oneida website
Oneida Foodservice
Oneida Community Mansion House
Sherrill website
Companies based in Oneida County, New York
Oneida, New York
Design companies established in 1880
Privately held companies based in New York (state)
Manufacturing companies of the United States
1880 establishments in New York (state)
Manufacturing companies established in 1880 | [
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245508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanremo | Sanremo | Sanremo (; or , ) or San Remo is a city and comune on the Mediterranean coast of Liguria, in northwestern Italy. Founded in Roman times, it has a population of 55,000, and is known as a tourist destination on the Italian Riviera. It hosts numerous cultural events, such as the Sanremo Music Festival and the Milan–San Remo cycling classic.
Name
The name of the city is a phonetic contraction of Sant'Eremo di San Romolo, which refers to Romulus of Genoa, the successor to Syrus of Genoa. It is often stated in modern folk stories that Sanremo is a translation of "Saint Remus", a deceased Saint. In Ligurian, his name is San Rœmu. The spelling San Remo is on all ancient maps of Liguria, the ancient Republic of Genoa, Italy in the Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Italy. It was used in 1924 in official documents under Mussolini. This form of the name appears still on some road signs and, more rarely, in unofficial tourist information. It has been the most widely used form of the name in English at least since the 19th century.
History
Once the Roman settlement of Matutia or Villa Matutiana, Sanremo expanded in the Early Middle Ages when the population moved to the high grounds. The nobility built a castle and the walled village of La Pigna to protect the town from Saracen raids.
At first subjected to the countship of Ventimiglia, the community later passed under the dominion of the Genoese bishops. In 1297 they sold it to the Doria and De Mari families. It became a free town in the second half of the 15th century, after which it expanded to the Pigna hill and at Saint Syrus Cathedral. The almost perfectly preserved old village remains.
Sanremo remained independent of the Genoese Republic. In 1753, after 20 years of fierce conflicts, it rose against Genoese hegemonical attempts. At that time Genoa built the fortress of Santa Tecla, situated on the beach near the port. The fortress was used as a prison until 2002. It is now used as a museum.
After the French domination and the Savoy restoration in 1814, Sanremo was annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia. From the middle of the 18th century the town grew rapidly, in part due to the development of tourism, which saw the first grand hotels built and the town extended along the coast. The Empress "Sissi" of Austria, Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, and Emperor Nicholas II of Russia vacationed in Sanremo, while Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel made it his permanent home.
The San Remo conference, 19–26 April 1920, of the post-World War I Allied Supreme Council determined the allocation of Class "A" League of Nations mandates for administration of the former Ottoman-ruled lands of the Middle East by the victorious powers. The most notable of these was the British Mandate of Palestine.
Economy
Sanremo's Mediterranean climate and attractive seacoast setting on the Italian Riviera make it a popular tourist destination. Besides tourism, the city is active in the production of extra virgin-grade olive oil, whose regional "designation of origin" is protected (D.O.P., Denominazione di Origine Protetta). It is one of the agricultural commodities in western Liguria and in particular within the province of Imperia. Sanremo is known as the City of Flowers (la Città dei Fiori), this being another important aspect of the economy of the city. The nearby towns of Arma di Taggia, Bordighera and Ospedaletti are also involved in the cultivation of flowers for the international flower market of Sanremo.
The Municipal Casino, built in 1905, is an example of Art Nouveau building. The Ariston Theatre offers annual series of concerts, operas and theatre plays. The Symphony Orchestra is one of twelve symphony orchestras recognized by the state of Italy; it performs some 120 concerts throughout the year, most in the Municipal Casino's Opera Theatre.
Transportation
The city is connected to Genoa and to Ventimiglia, the border city with France, by the A10 motorway, whose last part is also known as the Autostrada dei Fiori ("Motorway of Flowers"). It has a large number of elevated sections with viaducts that give a panoramic view of the coast. The A10 joins the French A8 highway at the border between Ventimiglia and Menton. Together these national routes are part of the European route E80. The A10 motorway is a toll road, and the A8 demands a toll in sections, and some sections are free of charge. When travelling from Italy into France, one does not pay until after the towns of Menton and Monaco.
Other roads of importance are the SS1, the "Aurelia Bis", which connects Sanremo to Taggia. This is a non-toll bypass route. The coast road is the via Aurelia or SS1 and follows the route of a Roman road. This can be heavily congested when it passes through towns, as it has only one lane in either direction for most of way around Sanremo. A trolleybus line along the via Aurelia links Sanremo with both Taggia and Ventimiglia.
The closest airport to Sanremo is in France, the Côte d'Azur International Airport in Nice, 45 minutes away by car. The railway connects the city to the other Ligurian cities like Imperia, Genoa and to Nice, Milan, Turin and Rome.
The railway line used to be along the coast, running close to the sea, and providing a view for travellers. The line has been moved further north and underground, which allows for faster trains; Sanremo railway station was relocated next to the City Hall. The city has refurbished the old railway line and converted it into a bike route and pedestrian area. There are several bike hire kiosks along the route and a choice of beaches to visit in either direction from San Remo. The path stretches between Ospedaletti in the west and San Lorenzo al Mare in the east.
Geography
Climate
Sanremo experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa).
Culture
Music festival
The Ariston Theatre hosts the celebrated annual Sanremo Music Festival, a very popular song contest held in the city since 1951. This festival inspired the Eurovision Song Contest, which started in 1956, and for years the Sanremo festival selected the Italian entry. The internationally notable song Nel blu dipinto di blu, also known as Volare, was performed at this festival for the first time by Domenico Modugno in 1958. The festival is so popular among Italians that it is often referred to simply as "Il Festival" (The Festival). Other events include the Tenco Prize (autumn), a song contest for authors dedicated to the memory of Luigi Tenco; the Flowers Parade in January/February in which every city of the Italian Riviera presents an original composition of flowers displayed on a Carnival/Mardi-Gras style moving car; and the summer Firework International Contest in the second week of August also called Ferragosto.
Cuisine
The culinary specialities of Sanremo and environs include Sardenara, Focaccia, Focaccia alle Cipolle, Torta Verde, Farinata and Taggiasca olives.
Gambling
The Sanremo Casino (Casino Municipale di Sanremo) opened in 1905 and has operated continuously since then with the exception of the years of World War II. For much of its history, the casino was tolerated or granted exceptions to Italian gambling laws in order to allow the resort to compete with the casino towns in nearby France and Monaco.
Sanremo hosts an annual poker tournament as part of the European Poker Tour. The city is widely accepted as the origin of the five-card stud variant telesina.
Sports
The Rallye Sanremo is a rally competition that was part of the FIA World Rally Championship from 1973 to 2003, when it was replaced by Rally d'Italia Sardegna on the island of Sardinia, in hosting the Italian round of the WRC. It is now part of European Rally Championship. Formerly a mixed surface event (tarmac and gravel), the rally has later been an all-tarmac event and takes place around the mountains.
Sanremo is the finish of the classic Milan–San Remo cycle race. It is considered to be a "monument" - one of the five most important one-day races of the cycling season. Milan – San Remo is traditionally held in March and is one of the first major fixtures on the cycling season. At long, it is the longest professional one-day race in cycling, giving the race a unique character.
The famous local football club is the Sanremese that has played also in Serie B and in Serie C.
Notable people
Mercurial Italian tennis player Fabio Fognini.
The Venerable Giorgio Baldassarre Oppezzi, a monk who died in 1525, and whose body was later discovered to be incorrupt, is buried here in the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli.
Italian singer Luigi Tenco died in Sanremo shortly after his performance at the 1967 Italian Song Festival.
Empress Maria Alexandrovna, consort of Alexander II of Russia, spent the winter of 1874 in Sanremo and as a gift to the city she donated the palms along the seaside walk of Corso Imperatrice (Empress Avenue).
Alfred Nobel bought a villa in Sanremo in 1891 and died there in 1896. Since 2002 it has housed a permanent exhibit on the most important discoveries of the 19th century including the research interests of Nobel himself. Sanremo continues to maintain its ties with Nobel, long after his death. Each 10 December (the date that Nobel died in 1896) large quantities of flowers sent by the province of Imperia, the city of Sanremo and the Board for Tourist Promotion of the Riviera dei fiori adorn the annual Nobel Prize Award Ceremony and Banquet in Stockholm.
Italian writer Italo Calvino spent his youth in Sanremo and many of his novels, including Il Barone Rampante, are reminiscent of his attachment to the city.
Edward James, British poet known for his patronage of the surrealist art movement, died in Sanremo on December 2, 1984.
Edward Lear, English artist, illustrator and writer known for his nonsense poetry and limericks, lived and died in Sanremo. His tombstone is in the Foce Cemetery.
The Italian actor and comedian Carlo Dapporto was born in Sanremo and became a household name in post-war Italy.
The Sicilian playwright and Nobel Prize winner Luigi Pirandello lived in Sanremo in 1933-34 and was appointed artistic director of the Casino.
The writer Tobias Smollett stayed a few days in Sanremo in 1765 and described it thus: "St. Remo is a pretty considerable town, well-built upon the declivity of a gently rolling hill...There is very little plain ground in this neighbourhood; but the hills are covered with oranges, lemons, pomegranates and olives....The women of St. Remo are much more handsome and better tempered than those of Provence." Travels through France and Italy (1766)
Italian director and cinematographer Mario Bava was born in Sanremo in 1914.
Italian-born sculptor Giuseppe Moretti lived in Sanremo in his final years and died here in February 1935. Moretti designed the world's largest cast iron statue, of the Roman god Vulcan (56 ft or 17 m), which stands atop Red Mountain in Birmingham, Alabama (USA). The statue is the symbol of the city.
Italian progressive-impressionist painter Demetrio (Dino) Rosa lived in Sanremo during his youth and part of his adult life.
Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, died in Sanremo on May 16, 1926.
Fausto Zonaro, last Court Painter to the Ottoman Empire, died in San Remo on the 19th of July 1929. He was buried with public honours in La Foce cemetery. On his gravestone, underneath an Ottoman tughra, it states that Zonaro was the court painter of the Ottoman Empire.
Juan Manuel Fangio won his first European Grand Prix in Sanremo-Ospedaletti in 1949.
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar, Shah of Persia from 1907 to 1909, died in Sanremo on April 5, 1925.
Alex Liddi, who was born in Sanremo, became the first native Italian to play Major League Baseball, in 2011 with the Seattle Mariners.
Giovanni Ermiglia, Italian nonviolent activist.
Giotto Maraghini, Italian admiral (1882-1946).
Twin towns – sister cities
Sanremo is twinned with:
Atami, Japan (1976)
Helsingør, Denmark
Karlskoga, Sweden
See also
Sanremo railway station
Sanremo railway station (1872)
U.S. Sanremese Calcio
Sanremo Festival
References
External links
Sanremo official website
Sanremo Festival
Saint Sirus's Cathedral
Video and events from Sanremo
New Sanremo cycle path
Sanremo images - old port and sanctuary
All about the events in Sanremo
Cities and towns in Liguria
Coastal towns in Liguria
Italian Riviera
Seaside resorts in Italy
Spa towns in Italy | [
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245515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin%20Peaks%3A%20Fire%20Walk%20with%20Me | Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me | Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is a 1992 psychological horror<ref>[https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/awards/9373666/oscar-winner-hildur-gudnadottir-favorite-film-scores/ Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me: Angelo Badalamenti created the music for David Lynch's psychological horror film from 1992.']' – billboard.com</ref> film directed by David Lynch and written by Lynch and Robert Engels. It serves as a prequel to the television series Twin Peaks (1990–1991), created by Mark Frost and Lynch, who were also executive producers. It revolves around the investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks (Pamela Gidley) and the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee), a popular high school student in the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks. Unlike the series, which was an uncanny blend of detective fiction, horror, the supernatural, offbeat humor, and soap opera tropes, the film has a much darker, less humorous tone.
Most of the television cast reprised their roles, though the majority of their scenes were cut and restored in Twin Peaks: The Missing Pieces. A few notable cast members, including Lara Flynn Boyle, Sherilyn Fenn, and Richard Beymer, did not reappear for various reasons. Boyle's character Donna Hayward was recast with Moira Kelly. Kyle MacLachlan, who starred as Special Agent Dale Cooper in the series, was reluctant to return out of fear of being typecast, which resulted in a smaller presence in the film than originally planned.Fire Walk with Me polarized critics in the United States but has received more positive appreciation in subsequent years, with some critics considering the film one of Lynch's major works. Although it has long been reported that it received boos and jeers from the audience at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival, where it was nominated for the Palme d'Or, co-writer Robert Engels denies this happened. The film was a box office failure in the United States, but fared much better in Japan. Its two planned sequels were cancelled, but 91 minutes worth of deleted scenes were released in 2014 through the compilation Twin Peaks: The Missing Pieces, and the story's narrative continued through the 2017 miniseries Twin Peaks: The Return.
Plot
The film follows three narratives: a prologue set in Deer Meadow, Washington in 1988, concerning the investigation into the murder of teenage drifter Teresa Banks; the main narrative set in Twin Peaks, Washington in 1989, concerning the final seven days of Laura Palmer's life; and an epilogue taking place in the Red Room.
Deer Meadow prologue
Teresa Banks' body floats down a river, wrapped in plastic. FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole sends agents Chester Desmond and Sam Stanley to the small town of Deer Meadow, Washington, to investigate. They meet at a small airport where Lil, a woman wearing a red dress with a blue rose pinned to the chest, performs a cryptic "dance." Desmond later explains to Stanley this contains coded information about the case, but refuses to explain the rose.
The agents meet the local law enforcement, Sheriff Cable and Deputy Cliff, who are hostile to the FBI. The agents examine Teresa's body at the morgue. They notice that a ring is missing from her finger, and find a small piece of paper with the letter "T" inserted under the fingernail. Past 3 AM, the agents interview the elderly owner of Hap's Diner, then the decrepit waitress, Irene. They order coffee, which Stanley spills onto his lap. Irene recalls that Teresa's arm went numb before she died. At dawn, the agents visit Fat Trout Trailer Park and awaken the manager, Carl Rodd, to inspect Teresa's trailer. Inside, Desmond notices a photo of Teresa wearing a strange ring, and the three share coffee. Later, the agents arrange for Teresa's body to be taken to Portland, defying Sheriff Cable. At dusk, Desmond returns to Fat Trout alone and finds Teresa's ring on a mound under a trailer. He reaches out to take it.
At FBI headquarters in Philadelphia, Agent Dale Cooper tells Cole of his foreboding dream, while Agent Albert Rosenfield sits nearby. Their long-lost colleague, Agent Phillip Jeffries, materializes out of the elevator and marches into Cole's office, where he insanely rants about a meeting he witnessed involving mysterious spirits. A vision of these spirits—The Jumping Man, The Man from Another Place, Killer BOB, Mrs. Chalfont and her grandson—appears briefly before Jeffries vanishes. Albert reports from the front desk that Jeffries was never there and Desmond has disappeared. Cole sends Cooper to Deer Meadow after Desmond. Aside from finding Desmond's abandoned vehicle at Fat Trout, he learns nothing.
The Last Seven Days of Laura Palmer
One year later in Twin Peaks, high school homecoming queen Laura Palmer and her best friend Donna Hayward attend school. Laura is using cocaine and cheating on her boyfriend Bobby Briggs with biker James Hurley. Laura discovers that pages are missing from her secret diary, and gives the rest of the diary to her agoraphobic friend Harold Smith for safekeeping.
Outside the Double-R Diner, Mrs. Chalfont and her grandson appear to Laura. They present a small framed picture for her wall, and warn her that the "man behind the mask" is in her bedroom. Laura runs home, where she sees BOB behind her dresser. She rushes outside in terror and sees her father, Leland, emerge from the house. That evening before dinner, Leland accusingly questions Laura about her romances and screams at her to wash her hands. At bedtime, he offers her a tearful apology.
At bedtime, Laura hangs the picture on her wall. She has a dream about entering the Lodge. Cooper and the Man from Another Place appear in her dream. The Man from Another Place identifies himself as the arm and offers Teresa's ring to Laura. Cooper tells her not to take it. Laura sees Annie Blackburn next to her in bed, covered in blood. Annie tells Laura to write in her diary that "the good Dale is in the Lodge and cannot leave," then disappears. Laura sees the ring in her hand, but when she wakes up, it is gone.
That night, Laura goes to The Roadhouse, a bar in Twin Peaks, where pimp and bartender Jacques Renault points two adult men, Buck and Tommy, to her to buy sex. Laura is an underage prostitute. Jacques, Laura and the two men relocate to The Power and Glory, a bar just over the border in Canada. Donna, who is naive to prostitution and hard drug use, follows Laura there and crashes the group. Laura is disturbed and upset once she spots Donna is still present. Ronette Pulaski, another underage prostitute like Laura, joins them there. Ronette remembers Teresa Banks' murder and discusses it with the group. When Laura sees a drugged and topless Donna making out with her "John" (a sex buyer), she drags her off and begs Donna not to become like her.
The next morning, while Leland and Laura are driving to breakfast, Philip Gerard, the one-armed man possessed by the spirit MIKE, pulls up alongside Leland's car and shows Teresa's ring to Laura while accosting Leland about canned corn. Leland remembers his affair with Teresa. He had asked Teresa to set up a foursome with her friends, but fled after glimpsing Laura among them. Teresa realized who he was and plotted to blackmail him, but Leland murdered her. Laura watches as her father and MIKE yell and rev their car engines, producing screeching noise and burning the rubber of their car tires. Laura appears greatly disturbed and ultimately screams at them to stop. MIKE peels off and drives away.
That night, Bobby and Laura are alone together in a forest, waiting for Jacques' drug contact. They are approached by Deputy Cliff, who produces a package of white powder. He fumbles to draw a gun, but Bobby shoots first, splattering Cliff's brains and killing him.
The next night at bedtime, while Laura is high on cocaine, the spirit BOB comes through Laura's window and rapes her. She asks, "Who are you?" and sees that BOB is her father.
Laura attends school in distress. Later, Bobby decides Laura is using him for cocaine access and breaks up with her. Laura is increasingly erratic and disturbed. At night, she meets with James in the forest and they engage in a cryptic and distressed conversation. After ending her relationship with him, she jumps off his motorcycle and escapes to a cabin in the woods, where Ronette, Jacques, and Leo Johnson are waiting. The four take cocaine and have sex. In the process, Jacques ties Laura up against her will. She is screaming and wants to leave, but Jacques rapes her. Leland shows up and beats Jacques unconscious. Leo flees. Leland takes Laura and Ronette to an abandoned train car. Laura asks Leland if he is going to kill her. BOB tells her that he wants to be her. BOB pummels Ronette unconscious. MIKE, having tracked Leland to the train, rescues Ronette and tosses Teresa's ring into the train car. Laura wears it. Enraged, BOB kills Laura. BOB-possessed Leland sends Laura's body, wrapped in plastic, floating down a river, then enters a circle of saplings. He passes into the Red Room, where he encounters MIKE and the Man from Another Place. Together they demand their "garmonbozia" from BOB, as a separated Leland floats beside, unaware.
Epilogue
Laura's dead body is discovered and unwrapped by the residents of Twin Peaks. Agent Cooper stands beside and comforts Laura in the Red Room. Laura sees her angel floating above and cries tears of joy.
Cast
The * denotes actors whose scenes were cut from the theatrical version but later compiled in Twin Peaks: The Missing Pieces. After the Cannes showing, Lynch commented on having to cut characters from the theatrical version: "It was a little bit of a sadness, [...] You'd like to have everybody there, but their characters didn't have a bearing on the life of her [Laura Palmer]."Production
Aaron Spelling Productions wanted to produce a third season of Twin Peaks, but ABC cancelled the series due to declining ratings and high production cost. Lynch and Spelling Productions decided to conclude the series as a film trilogy, quickly securing a $75 million three-film deal with the French company Ciby 2000 and announcing the first film just a month after the series' cancellation. Lynch and co-creator Mark Frost, whose relationship soured during the second season, disagreed on whether to make the project a conventional sequel or a non-linear prequel. Frost ultimately left and directed his own film Storyville.
Lynch wanted to make a Twin Peaks film because, as he claimed in an interview, "I couldn't get myself to leave the world of Twin Peaks. I was in love with the character of Laura Palmer and her contradictions: radiant on the surface but dying inside. I wanted to see her live, move and talk. I was in love with that world and I hadn't finished with it. But making the movie wasn't just to hold onto it; it seemed that there was more stuff that could be done", and that he was "not yet finished with the material".Actress Sheryl Lee, who played Laura Palmer, echoed these sentiments. "I never got to be Laura alive, just in flashbacks; it allowed me to come full circle with the character." According to Lynch, the movie is about "the loneliness, shame, guilt, confusion and devastation of the victim of incest. It also dealt with the torment of the father – the war within him."
The film was originally going to begin filming in August 1991. But on July 11, 1991, Ken Scherer, CEO of Lynch/Frost productions, announced that the film was not going to be made because series star Kyle MacLachlan did not want to reprise his role of Special Agent Dale Cooper to avoid typecasting. MacLachlan's reluctance was also caused by a decline of quality in the second season of the show. He said "David and Mark [Frost] were only around for the first season... I think we all felt a little abandoned. So I was fairly resentful when the film, Fire Walk with Me, came around." A month later, MacLachlan agreed to appear and pre-production resumed. As a compromise MacLachlan demanded a smaller role, only appearing for five days of shooting. Lynch and co-writer Robert Engels rewrote the screenplay so that Teresa Banks's murder was investigated by Agent Chester Desmond and not by Cooper as originally planned.
The film was made without Twin Peaks series regulars Lara Flynn Boyle, Sherilyn Fenn, and Richard Beymer. At the time, these absences were attributed to scheduling conflicts, but in a 1995 interview, Fenn said that her real reason was that she "was extremely disappointed in the way the second season got off track. As far as Fire Walk with Me, it was something that I chose not to be a part of." In a 2014 interview, however, Fenn said that it was a scheduling conflict with Of Mice and Men that prevented her from committing to the film. In a September 2007 interview, Beymer claimed that he did not appear in any scenes shot for the film, although his character, Benjamin Horne, appeared in the script. Fenn's character was cut from the script, Moira Kelly was cast as Donna, and Beymer's scenes were not filmed.
Principal photography began on September 5, 1991 in Snoqualmie, Washington, and lasted until October of the same year, with four weeks dedicated to locations in Washington and another four weeks of interiors and additional locations in Los Angeles, California. When shooting went over schedule in Seattle, Washington, Laura's death in the train car had to be shot in Los Angeles on soundstage during the last day of shooting, October 31. The production progressed very quickly. David Bowie expressed disappointment with his role in the film, saying "[t]hey crammed me. I did all my scenes in four or five days, because I was in rehearsals for the 1991 Tin Machine tour. I was there for only a few days."
Several Twin Peaks regulars filmed scenes but were cut from the final version. These actors included Michael Ontkean (Harry S. Truman), Warren Frost (Will Hayward), Mary Jo Deschanel (Eileen Hayward), Everett McGill (Ed Hurley), Wendy Robie (Nadine Hurley), Jack Nance (Pete Martell), Joan Chen (Jocelyn Packard), Kimmy Robertson (Lucy Moran), Harry Goaz (Andy Brennan), Michael Horse (Tommy "Hawk" Hill), Russ Tamblyn (Dr. Jacoby), Don S. Davis (Garland Briggs), and Charlotte Stewart (Betty Briggs). Their scenes are among The Missing Pieces, included on the Twin Peaks Blu-ray box set. After the Cannes showing, Lynch said "It was a little bit of a sadness, [...] You'd like to have everybody there, but their characters didn't have a bearing on the life of her [Laura Palmer]".
ReleaseTwin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me received a reaction quite the contrary to the television series. The film was entered into the 1992 Cannes Film Festival, where it was met with a polarized response. There is a persistent story that the film was met with boos and hisses from the Cannes audience, though co-writer Robert Engels denies that this event ever happened and a contemporary news report only says there were some "hoots and whistles" during a screening for critics and journalists.
According to Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun-Times, the film was met with two extremes, one side being overall positive, while the other side being the exact opposite. Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino, who was also in attendance, said in a 1992 interview, "After I saw Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me at Cannes, David Lynch had disappeared so far up his own ass that I have no desire to see another David Lynch movie until I hear something different. And you know, I loved him. I loved him."
According to Lynch, Francis Bouygues (then head of CIBY) was not well-liked in France and this only added to the film's demise at the festival.
U.S. distributor New Line Cinema released the film in America on August 28, 1992. It grossed a total of US$1.8 million in 691 theaters in its opening weekend and went on to gross a total of $4.2 million in North America.
Despite its mixed critical and poor commercial response, Fire Walk with Me gained attention at awards time. The film was nominated for five Saturn Awards and two Independent Spirit Awards, including Sheryl Lee being nominated for Best Actress. The only awards won by the film were for Angelo Badalamenti's musical score, which won a Spirit Award, a Saturn Award and a Brit Award.
Reception
Initial reviews
Upon its release, the film received polarized reviews from American critics. Among the negative reviews, Janet Maslin from The New York Times wrote, "Mr. Lynch's taste for brain-dead grotesque has lost its novelty". Fellow Times film critic Vincent Canby concurred, "It's not the worst movie ever made; it just seems to be". In his review for Variety magazine, Todd McCarthy said, "Laura Palmer, after all the talk, is not a very interesting or compelling character and long before the climax has become a tiresome teenager". USA Today gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it, "dark and depressing". Rolling Stone magazine's Peter Travers wrote, "though the movie ups the TV ante on nudity, language and violence, Lynch's control falters. But if inspiration is lacking, talent is not. Count Lynch down but never out". In her review for The Washington Post, Rita Kempley described the film as a "perversely moving, profoundly self-indulgent prequel". An exception among American reviews at the time of the film's release came from novelist Steve Erickson, who defended the film in the L.A. Weekly and challenged its reception; in 1998, critic Manohla Dargis, writing in the same publication, called it "one of the bravest pieces of film criticism I've read."
More positive reviews came from British film critics. Kim Newman from the British magazine Sight & Sound stated: "The film's many moments of horror [...] demonstrate just how tidy, conventional and domesticated the generic horror movie of the 1980s and 1990s has become". However, not all British film critics were praising. Barry Norman declared it "baffling", whilst praising Lynch as "a very original filmmaker, and since there are so few of those about, we ought perhaps to give him the benefit of the doubt, and indulge him a little."
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 64% based on 75 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "For better or worse, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me is every bit as strange and twisted as you'd expect from David Lynch." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 45 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
Reappraisal
Later retrospective analysis of the film has also trended more positive, with critic Mark Kermode writing in 2007 that many have come to consider the film a "masterpiece". In a 2002 review, Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine gave the film a four out of four stars, and the following year, the publication included it in a list of "100 essential films." Appearing on the podcast The Cinephiliacs in 2015, filmmaker James Gray called it "an incredible film," "a masterpiece," and "a classic example of how the critics get it wrong." Further speaking of the film, he said, "I've never seen a movie that's been made in the last 30 years [...] in America, which so asks us to understand and be in the shoes of a person suffering so profoundly. It's a thing of beauty."
In the book Lynch on Lynch, Chris Rodley described the film as "brilliant but excoriating", writing that "by the time Lynch unveiled Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me in 1992, critical reaction had become hostile, and only now is the movie enjoying a degree of cautious but sympathetic critical re-evaluation. It is, undoubtedly, one of Lynch's cruellest, bleakest neighbourhood visions, and even managed to displease die-hard fans of the series. [...] In exposing the very heart of the television series, Lynch was forced to accept that he was unlikely to return to the town of Twin Peaks again."
Writer Lindsay Hallam, author of a forthcoming book about the film, attributes the initial negative reaction to the film as being due to the following: "Lynch does not let [the audience] off the hook – we are taken so far into Laura's experience, without any respite and with none of the humour associated with the series".
In an article for The Guardian published in 2017, critic Martyn Conterio wrote of the film's reappraisal: "A quarter of a century on, the film is being rightly rediscovered by fans and critics as Lynch's unsung masterwork. It took a long time, and it took its toll on its maker, but Fire Walk With Me has finally come in from the cold."
Home media
Lynch originally shot more than five hours of footage that was subsequently cut down to two hours and fourteen minutes. The footage nearly appeared on New Line Cinema's Special Edition DVD in February 2002, but was nixed over budgetary and running-time concerns. The film was released on DVD in several other regions in the early 2000s as well, including the United Kingdom (Region 2) in 2001 and Australia (Region 4) in 2005.
Most of the deleted scenes feature additional characters from the television series who ultimately did not appear in the finished film. Lynch has said that "I had a limit on the running time of the picture. We shot many scenes that—for a regular feature—were too tangential to keep the main story progressing properly. We thought it might be good sometime to do a longer version with these other things in, because a lot of the characters that are missing in the finished movie had been filmed. They're part of the picture, they're just not necessary for the main story." According to Lynch, had the film included these scenes, it "wouldn't have been quite so dark. To me it obeyed the laws of Twin Peaks. But a little bit of the goofiness had to be removed."
In 2007, DVDrama.com reported that MK2 was in final negotiations with Lynch about a new two-disc special edition that would include seventeen deleted scenes hand-picked by the director himself. It had been tentatively scheduled for release on October 17, 2007, but MK2 subsequently opted instead to re-release a bare-bones edition of Fire Walk with Me, citing a new version including the deleted scenes has been put on hold indefinitely. In November 2008, Lynch said the following regarding the deleted scenes:
Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is owned by a company called MK2 in France. And I spoke to them a couple of months ago. [...] I've spoke to them several times about this. [...] I think it will happen, but maybe the financial crisis is [...] affecting that in some way. I'm not sure what's going on. I'm pretty sure there's seventeen scenes in that at least but it's been a while since we've looked into that.
Paramount Pictures, which has DVD distribution rights to the TV series, acquired the rights in Germany and most of the world excluding the US, UK, France and Canada. Paramount released their DVD in 2007. The DVD was a port straight from the MK2 French edition.Fire Walk with Me was released on Blu-ray in France on November 3, 2010 by MK2.
The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in Australia by Madman Entertainment on February 8, 2012, marking the 20th anniversary of the film's theatrical release.
The film was also released on Blu-ray on June 4, 2012 in the UK by Universal UK Home Video, although it has been reported that the release suffers from defects in the audio track. The film has been released on Blu-ray in North America on July 29, 2014, as part of the Twin Peaks entire mystery Blu-ray collection, and contains more than 90 minutes of deleted and extended scenes from the film.
The film premiered on Showtime on March 1, 2017, in honor of the series continuation.
The film was released as part of the Criterion Collection (whose parent company, Janus Films, currently owns the North American rights), on both DVD and Blu-Ray Disc, on 17 October 2017.
The Criterion version of the film was re-released as part of Twin Peaks: From Z to A, a 21-disc limited edition Blu-ray box set, which aside from the film also includes all three television seasons in their entirety, The Missing Pieces, previously released special features, six hours of new behind-the-scenes content, and 4K versions of the original pilot and episode 8 from The Return, released on December 10, 2019. However, this collection lacks two Criterion-exclusive interviews that were on their release of the film.
Legacy
According to cinematographer Ron Garcia, the film was popular in Japan, in particular with women, as Martha Nochimson wrote in her book on Lynch's work, "he surmises that the enthusiasm of the Japanese women comes from a gratification of seeing in Laura some acknowledgment of their suffering in a repressive society." Released under the title Twin Peaks: The Last Seven Days of Laura Palmer, it was greeted with long lines of moviegoers at theaters.
In retrospect, Lynch has said, "I feel bad that Fire Walk with Me did no business and that a lot of people hated the film. But I really like the film. But it had a lot of baggage with it. It's as free and as experimental as it could be within the dictates it had to follow."
Mary Sweeney, the film's editor, said, "They so badly wanted it to be like the TV show, and it wasn't. It was a David Lynch feature. And people were very angry about it. They felt betrayed."
Sheryl Lee is very proud of the film, saying, "I have had many people, victims of incest, approach me since the film was released, so glad that it was made because it helped them to release a lot."
Twin Peaks: The Return
The film contains a dream sequence in which Annie says the line “The good Dale is in the lodge and can’t leave. Write it in your diary.” This was originally intended to set up two more films in which Laura's diary entry was discovered, continuing and then concluding the series' narrative in a non-linear style going across time. However, the two planned sequels were cancelled because of the poor performance of the film. By 2001, Lynch said that the Twin Peaks franchise is "dead as a doornail." In 2014, however, it was announced that the series would continue with Lynch involved. Lynch confirmed that Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me would be significant to the events of the miniseries. In 2017, the Twin Peaks: The Return was released. It serves as the third season of the series and depicts events which happen 25 years after the conclusion of the second season, and uses many elements introduced in Fire Walk with Me.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack to Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me was released on Warner Bros. Records on August 11, 1992. It includes music by Angelo Badalamenti, who had composed and conducted the music on the television series and its original soundtrack.
In addition to his instrumental compositions, Fire Walk with Mes soundtrack features vocal accompaniment to Badalamenti's songs by jazz vocalist Jimmy Scott and dream pop singer Julee Cruise. Badalamenti performs vocals on "A Real Indication" and "The Black Dog Runs at Night", two songs by the Thought Gang, a musical project between Badalamenti and David Lynch. Lynch wrote the lyrics for several of the soundtrack's songs, including "Sycamore Trees", "Questions in a World of Blue", "A Real Indication" and "The Black Dog Runs at Night", and was the soundtrack's producer alongside Badalamenti.
Upon its release, Fire Walk with Mes soundtrack charted in the United States, peaking at number 173 on the Billboard 200. It was nominated for, and later received, the Best Music at the 1992 Saturn Awards and Best Original Score at the Independent Spirit Awards. In March 2011, British music publication NME placed Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me''s soundtrack at number 1 on their list of the 50 Best Film soundtracks Ever, describing it as "combining plangent beauty with a kind of clanking evil jazz, this is one of those endlessly evocative soundtracks that takes up residence in your subconscious and never leaves."
Awards and nominations
References
Sources
External links
Twin Peaks
1992 films
1992 horror films
1990s avant-garde and experimental films
1990s psychological horror films
American avant-garde and experimental films
American films
American psychological horror films
English-language films
Films about the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Filicide in fiction
Films about dreams
Films based on television series
Films directed by David Lynch
Films scored by Angelo Badalamenti
Films set in 1988
Films set in 1989
Films set in fictional populated places
Films set in Philadelphia
Films set in Portland, Oregon
Films set in Washington (state)
Films shot in Washington (state)
Films with screenplays by David Lynch
French avant-garde and experimental films
French films
English-language French films
French psychological horror films
Incest in film
New Line Cinema films
Prequel films | [
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245520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peacemakers%20%28book%29 | Peacemakers (book) | Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War (2001) is a historical narrative about the events of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. It was written by the Canadian historian Margaret MacMillan with a foreword by the American diplomat Richard Holbrooke. The book has also been published under the titles Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World and Peacemakers: Six Months That Changed the World.
Peacemakers describes the six months of negotiations that took place in Paris, France, following World War I. The book focuses on the "Big Three", who are photographed together on its cover (left to right): Prime Minister David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of France, and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States.
The author argues that the conditions imposed on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles did not lead to the rise of Adolf Hitler and asks whether the Great War "an unmitigated catastrophe in a sea of mud", or "about something". She concludes, "It is condescending and wrong to think they were hoodwinked".
During the later part of the war, the British prime minister was David Lloyd George, the author's great-grandfather.
Reception
The book was first published in Britain. It won the £5,000 Duff Cooper Prize for an outstanding literary work in the field of history, biography or politics, the £3,000 Hessell-Tiltman Prize for History, the BBC Samuel Johnson Prize for the best work of non-fiction published in the United Kingdom, and the 2003 Governor General's Literary Award in Canada.
The book was adapted as a 2009 docudrama film entitled "Paris 1919", by Paul Cowan, produced by the National Film Board of Canada. MacMillan recorded a related series of fourteen lectures for the audiobook Six Months That Changed the World: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 (Recorded Books, The Modern Scholar series, 2003).
Editions
UK Hardbound Edition (2001)
US Hardbound Edition (2002) as Paris 1919: Six months that changed the world
US Paperback Edition (2003) as Paris 1919: Six months that changed the world
, UK Paperback Edition (2003)
References
External links
Booknotes interview with MacMillan on Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World, December 29, 2002.
2002 non-fiction books
History books about World War I
Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)
Canadian non-fiction books
Non-fiction books about diplomacy
Governor General's Award-winning non-fiction books | [
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245523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight%20function | Weight function | A weight function is a mathematical device used when performing a sum, integral, or average to give some elements more "weight" or influence on the result than other elements in the same set. The result of this application of a weight function is a weighted sum or weighted average. Weight functions occur frequently in statistics and analysis, and are closely related to the concept of a measure. Weight functions can be employed in both discrete and continuous settings. They can be used to construct systems of calculus called "weighted calculus" and "meta-calculus".
Discrete weights
General definition
In the discrete setting, a weight function is a positive function defined on a discrete set , which is typically finite or countable. The weight function corresponds to the unweighted situation in which all elements have equal weight. One can then apply this weight to various concepts.
If the function is a real-valued function, then the unweighted sum of on is defined as
but given a weight function , the weighted sum or conical combination is defined as
One common application of weighted sums arises in numerical integration.
If B is a finite subset of A, one can replace the unweighted cardinality |B| of B by the weighted cardinality
If A is a finite non-empty set, one can replace the unweighted mean or average
by the weighted mean or weighted average
In this case only the relative weights are relevant.
Statistics
Weighted means are commonly used in statistics to compensate for the presence of bias. For a quantity measured multiple independent times with variance , the best estimate of the signal is obtained by averaging all the measurements with weight and the resulting variance is smaller than each of the independent measurements The maximum likelihood method weights the difference between fit and data using the same weights
The expected value of a random variable is the weighted average of the possible values it might take on, with the weights being the respective probabilities. More generally, the expected value of a function of a random variable is the probability-weighted average of the values the function takes on for each possible value of the random variable.
In regressions in which the dependent variable is assumed to be affected by both current and lagged (past) values of the independent variable, a distributed lag function is estimated, this function being a weighted average of the current and various lagged independent variable values. Similarly, a moving average model specifies an evolving variable as a weighted average of current and various lagged values of a random variable.
Mechanics
The terminology weight function arises from mechanics: if one has a collection of objects on a lever, with weights (where weight is now interpreted in the physical sense) and locations then the lever will be in balance if the fulcrum of the lever is at the center of mass
which is also the weighted average of the positions
Continuous weights
In the continuous setting, a weight is a positive measure such as on some domain , which is typically a subset of a Euclidean space , for instance could be an interval . Here is Lebesgue measure and is a non-negative measurable function. In this context, the weight function is sometimes referred to as a density.
General definition
If is a real-valued function, then the unweighted integral
can be generalized to the weighted integral
Note that one may need to require to be absolutely integrable with respect to the weight in order for this integral to be finite.
Weighted volume
If E is a subset of , then the volume vol(E) of E can be generalized to the weighted volume
Weighted average
If has finite non-zero weighted volume, then we can replace the unweighted average
by the weighted average
Bilinear form
If and are two functions, one can generalize the unweighted bilinear form
to a weighted bilinear form
See the entry on orthogonal polynomials for examples of weighted orthogonal functions.
See also
Center of mass
Numerical integration
Orthogonality
Weighted mean
Linear combination
Kernel (statistics)
Measure (mathematics)
Riemann–Stieltjes integral
Weighting
References
Mathematical analysis
Measure theory
Combinatorial optimization
Functional analysis
Types of functions | [
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245524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Guandu | Battle of Guandu | The Battle of Guandu was fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao in 200 AD in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Cao Cao's decisive victory against Yuan Shao's numerically superior forces marked the turning point in their war. The victory was also the point at which Cao Cao became the dominant power in northern China, leading to the establishment of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period.
Background
The inevitability of military conflict between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao had become apparent by 196. Yuan Shao held control of the lands north of the Yellow River, namely the Hebei region, while Cao Cao controlled most of the lands south of the Yellow River after he defeated Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi in 199 and kept Emperor Xian with him in the new capital city of Xu. The warlords saw each other as the obvious impediment to their individual ambitions to conquer and rule China.
Some years before the battle, Yuan Shao's advisors Ju Shou and Tian Feng warned that Cao Cao would become a threat to their lord in his ambition to dominate China. They advised Yuan Shao to attack Cao Cao when the latter was still building up his forces, but Yuan Shao ignored their advice as Cao Cao was still nominally an ally. Tension between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao increased after Cao Cao moved Emperor Xian from the old capital Luoyang.
Prelude
The geographical position of Guandu (官渡; northeast of present-day Zhongmu County, Henan) made it a strategically vital position. It was near Yan Ford (延津; north of present-day Yanjin County, Henan) on the Yellow River and lay on the road leading to the capital city Xu. Cao Cao recognized its strategic importance and in the autumn of 199, he stationed troops there and prepared fortifications. Other deployments along the frontline included Liu Yan () at Boma (白馬; near present-day Hua County, Henan), Yu Jin at Yan Ford, Cheng Yu at Juancheng (鄄城; near present-day Juancheng County, Shandong), and Xiahou Dun at Meng Ford (孟津; present-day Mengjin County, Henan). At the same time, Cao Cao sent Zang Ba to harass Qing Province (), which was governed by Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan, to prevent his eastern flank from coming under attack.
In the first month of 200, Liu Bei rebelled against Cao Cao and seized Xu Province after killing Che Zhou (), Cao Cao's appointed Inspector () of Xu Province. Cao Cao, in an unexpected move, left his northern front exposed to Yuan Shao and turned east to retake Xu Province. Yuan Shao tried to use the opportunity to start a campaign south, but was daunted by Yu Jin, the defender of Yan Ford.
When Cao Cao returned to Guandu after his victory over Liu Bei, who sought refuge under Yuan Shao afterwards, Yuan Shao decided to renew the campaign against Cao Cao. The aide-de-camp () Tian Feng, who had urged Yuan Shao to attack Cao Cao while he was away, advised against such a campaign, reasoning that they had lost their chance and must wait. Yuan Shao ignored Tian Feng's repeated remonstrations and imprisoned him under charges of demoralizing the army.
Shortly after, Yuan Shao had Chen Lin draft a document condemning Cao Cao in what was essentially a declaration of war, and marched his main army toward the forward base of Liyang (黎陽; northwest of present-day Xun County, Henan) north of the river. At the time, Yuan Shao's army boasted of numbers up to 110,000, including 10,000 cavalry.
Skirmishes along the Yellow River
Yuan Shao's general Yan Liang crossed the Yellow River and besieged Cao Cao's fort at Boma. Heeding his advisor Xun You's advice, Cao Cao led a battalion toward Yan Ford as a feint to trick Yuan Shao into believing that Cao Cao would attack his camp on the other side of the river. Yuan Shao split off his troops from Liyang to counter Cao Cao's attack, leaving Yan Liang without any support at Boma. Cao Cao then struck eastward to lift the siege on Boma. In the ensuing battle, Yan Liang was killed by Guan Yu and Yuan Shao's army was routed.
Cao Cao decided to abandon the fort and evacuate its occupants to the south. Taking advantage of the situation, Wen Chou and Liu Bei led 6,000 horsemen in pursuit. Cao Cao anticipated the attack and prepared a distraction tactic. He ordered his troops to discard their steeds, weapons and other valuables along the way. Yuan Shao's forces broke their ranks to grab the valuables lying ahead. Just as they were claiming the items, 600 of Cao Cao's elite cavalry that had been lying in ambush attacked them. Yuan Shao's commander Wen Chou was killed and Liu Bei fled. Having lost two of their generals in these relatively minor skirmishes prior to the primary conflict at Guandu resulted in a crushing blow to the morale of Yuan Shao's army.
The advance on Yangwu and flanking attempts
Despite having won the preliminary battles, Cao Cao was still outnumbered. He abandoned the forward bases along the Yellow River in preparation for a determined defence at Guandu. Cao Cao also ordered his officials in charge of his lands in his absence to govern with lenience, so as to minimise chances of chaos within the civilian community that could affect his army's morale.
After the engagements at the river, Yuan Shao's army pushed to Yangwu (陽武; near present-day Yuanyang County, Henan), directly north of Guandu, and began constructing earthen fortifications. He ignored Cheng Yu's bastion of 700 men at Juancheng and missed an opportunity to attack Cao Cao's eastern flank, exactly as Cheng Yu's predicted earlier when he guessed that Yuan Shao would ignore a position with so few men. Yuan Shao's Attendant Officer () Ju Shou had reservations about concentrating all of the main army at Yangwu, and suggested leaving a garrison at Yan Ford as a precaution in case the attack on Guandu did not go well. Yuan Shao ignored the suggestion again. Ju Shou, in despair, tried to excuse himself by claiming to be ill, but Yuan Shao became annoyed at him and would not grant him leave. Instead, he divested Ju Shou's men and divided them under the commands of Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong.
Yuan Shao reorganized his forces and sent Liu Bei with an army to support the rebellions against Cao Cao in Yinjiang (㶏疆; southwest of present-day Xuchang), just 20 li south of the capital. Although Cao Cao was concerned about such developments in his rear, his cousin Cao Ren observed that Liu Bei could not have too much control over his new men given by Yuan Shao. So Cao Cao sent Cao Ren to deal with the rebellion. Cao Ren succeeded, killing the rebel leader Liu Pi and routing Liu Bei. Yuan Shao also tried to cut off Cao Cao from the west by sending Han Meng () southwest. Cao Ren again responded to the threat by defeating Han Meng at Mount Jiluo (雞洛山; 50 li northeast of present-day Xinmi, Henan). Yuan Shao did not send any detached force into Cao Cao's territory after this.
At Yangwu, several war plans were presented to Yuan Shao. Ju Shou observed that Cao Cao's men were running out of grain, and thus it would be proper to enter a war of attrition, denying Cao Cao a decisive battle. Another advisor, Xu You suggested that Yuan Shao should maintain the front at Guandu but at the same time send men to circle around and capture the emperor in Xu. Yuan Shao accepted neither plan, saying he preferred to capture the emperor with a direct advance.
The siege of Guandu
In the eighth month, Yuan Shao's army slowly advanced southward from Yangwu and engaged Cao Cao's men in trench warfare, behind the earthen embankments that both sides made. Both sides harassed each other with engines of war. Yuan Shao had erected siege-ramps and high platforms which allowed his men to rain arrows onto Cao Cao's forces. In response, Cao Cao's men had to carry their shields above their heads, and retaliated with traction trebuchets that destroyed the archer platforms. Yuan Shao also tried to tunnel under Cao Cao's fort, but Cao Cao had a large ditch dug within his lines to block the tunnels. Subsequently, neither side could overcome each other as Cao Cao and Yuan Shao became locked in a stalemate.
Before long, Cao Cao's army began to run short of supplies and Cao Cao was in a dilemma on whether to retreat in order to lure Yuan Shao deeper into his territory. Xun Yu, the defender of the capital Xu, sent Cao Cao a letter dissuading him from retreat. He wrote, drawing historical examples from the Chu–Han Contention:
Cao Cao followed this advice and held fast to his ground. In the ninth month, Xun Yu pointed out that Yuan Shao had been storing supplies at a depot in the village of Gushi (故市; southwest of present-day Yanjin County, Henan), guarded by Han Meng. Cao Cao sent out small cavalry units led by Xu Huang and Shi Huan () to attack this position. They succeeded, routing Han Meng, disrupting Yuan Shao's supply lines, and burning his grain carts. Yuan Shao was forced to call for relief supplies in response to this raid.
The raid on Wuchao
In the tenth month, Yuan Shao's general Chunyu Qiong returned with an army of 10,000 from Hebei escorting large reserves of food supplies. Yuan Shao ordered Chunyu to escort the supplies to Wuchao (烏巢; in present-day Yanjin County, Henan), a place 40 li away from Guandu near Gushi, and placed him in charge of guarding the supplies there. Yuan Shao's advisor Ju Shou argued that Wuchao, being their important supply depot, was too lightly guarded and insisted that Yuan Shao should send the general Jiang Qi () to serve as a perimeter guard to Chunyu Qiong and cut off any potential raids. Yuan Shao, again, did not heed Ju Shou's advice.
Shortly after, Yuan Shao's advisor Xu You, who had harboured dissatisfaction against Yuan Shao for not following his plan and having his wife arrested by Shen Pei, defected over to Cao Cao. He understood Cao Cao's shortage of supplies and alerted Cao Cao to Yuan Shao's exploitable weakness at Wuchao. Cao Cao's generals were suspicious of this piece of intelligence, but his advisors Xun You and Jia Xu urged Cao Cao to put Xu You's plan to action. Thus at night, Cao Cao led 5,000 infantry and cavalry to attack Wuchao after leaving Cao Hong and Xun You in charge of his main camp at Guandu. Cao Cao's army disguised itself as a reinforcement unit from Yuan Shao and attacked Wuchao. Chunyu Qiong's initial defences were overrun, and he retreated to hold his forts, which Cao Cao attacked and set on fire.
When Yuan Shao's camp received the news that Wuchao was under attack, Zhang He urged Yuan Shao to send reinforcements to Wuchao to save the supplies, on which the fate of the campaign hinged. Guo Tu, however, advocated the opposite: attack Cao Cao's base at Guandu with the hope that Cao Cao will abandon the raid on Wuchao. Yuan Shao used Guo Tu's idea and sent Zhang He and Gao Lan to lead his main army to attack Cao Cao's main camp at Guandu, while only sending a small cavalry unit to reinforce Wuchao.
Cao Cao ignored pleas to split off his force to deal with the reinforcements and readied his men to fight to the death. The raid on Wuchao was a great success, inflicting over a thousand casualties. Yuan Shao's officers Lü Weihuang (), Han Juzi (), Sui Yuanjin (), and Zhao Rui () were decapitated; Chunyu Qiong was captured by Yue Jin and had his nose cut off. Almost all of Yuan Shao's food supplies at Wuchao were burnt.
By dawn, Wuchao had turned into an inferno and the morale of Yuan Shao's army plummeted sharply due to the loss of food supplies. Cao Cao also cut off the noses of the dead, mixed them with noses and lips of oxen and horses, and showed them to Yuan Shao's men, as a form of intimidation.
Meanwhile, at Guandu, Yuan Shao's army led by Zhang He and Gao Lan failed to break through the enemy lines. Affected by the news of the defeat in Wuchao and rumors of Guo Tu making slanderous remarks about them, Zhang He and Gao Lan surrendered to Cao Hong and destroyed their weapons. Cao Cao's forces seized the opportunity to launch the full attack on Yuan's army. Yuan Shao's numerous armies were destroyed and much of his supplies were captured by Cao Cao. Yuan Shao himself fled north across the Yellow River with only about 800 cavalry, which was what was left of his army. Order was restored only when Yuan Shao reached the camp of his general Jiang Yiqu (), from where he gathered his straggling troops.
Some of Yuan Shao's men could not cross the Yellow River in time and were captured by Cao Cao, including Ju Shou. Some of these men had feigned surrender so they could escape later, thus Cao Cao had these men buried alive. In his proclamation of victory to Emperor Xian, Cao Cao claimed to have killed 70,000 enemy troops.
Aftermath
Cao Cao's victory at the Battle of Guandu was a decisive one and marked the turn of the tide in his struggle for power with Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao died two years later and his youngest son Yuan Shang was made his successor. His oldest son Yuan Tan was furious with the succession and fought with his younger brother. This resulted in internal conflict within Yuan Shao's forces. Yuan Shao's pool of talented advisors and generals were also divided into two factions by the conflict – one supported Yuan Shang and the other supported Yuan Tan. Cao Cao seized the opportunity to launch an attack on Yuan Tan's base at Liyang. Though Cao Cao eventually withdrew, Yuan Tan came to resent Yuan Shang even more during course of the battle, which led to open warfare between the brothers. Yuan Tan eventually allied with to Cao Cao against Yuan Shang, but Cao Cao accused him of violating some terms of the alliance and killed him in battle. On the other hand, Yuan Shang suffered defeats at the hands of Cao Cao and fled north to join his second brother Yuan Xi. Cao Cao's forces pursued them and defeated the Wuhuan tribe, the Yuan brothers' ally, in the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to Liaodong to seek shelter under the warlord Gongsun Kang in 207, but Gongsun killed them instead and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By then, most of northern China was unified under Cao Cao's control, and Cao Cao could begin to turn his attention to the south.
Legacy and analysis
Throughout the ages, Cao Cao's impressive victory at Guandu, the climactic event of his life, has drawn analysis by both historical commentators and militarists hoping to imitate his success.
The Song dynasty historian Sima Guang, compiler of the chronicle Zizhi Tongjian, remarked that while Yuan Shao was generous, elegant and able, he was also obstinate, self-satisfied, and seldom heeded reasonable advice. These negative attributes were the cause of his defeat.
In more recent times, both the Chinese Nationalists and Communists have picked up on this battle and made their own interpretations, in various degrees of objectivity.
The Nationalists followed traditional Chinese historiography in that they judged the battle in terms of personalities, rather than the situations and the tactics involved. For example, Cao Cao was seen as capable, decisive, and far-sighted, while Yuan Shao was derided as mediocre, slow, arrogant, and unable to employ men properly.
The Communist leader Mao Zedong, in his writings about strategic retreat, used the Battle of Guandu along with the Battle of Chenggao, Battle of Kunyang, Battle of Red Cliffs, Battle of Xiaoting, and Battle of Fei River to illustrate the concept. In all of these battles, he wrote, "...the contestants were unequal in strength, and the weaker one yielding a step at first, pinned down the stronger one through delayed action and defeated him." Mao's words attracted some attention to the battle, and many papers were written to analyze the Battle of Guandu in Maoist terms. The Maoist interpretation, while taking note of Yuan Shao's serious errors of judgement, advocates that the strong enemy will make fateful errors, while the weaker opponent need only to await their appearance. The Marxist interpretation portrays Yuan Shao as the representative of the great landlord-official class, and Cao Cao as of the middle and small landlord class. The battle was thus a product of class conflict in which Yuan Shao's fall was inevitable.
The historian Carl Leban attributes Cao Cao's victory to one single strategic decision — the defender's choice of location. Leban asserts that Cao Cao chose Guandu as the place to make his stand because of his superior understanding of the relation between topography, logistics, and tactics over Yuan Shao. It was the issue about logistics that prompted Cao Cao to abandon the defence at the Yellow River. By luring Yuan Shao far south into Guandu, Cao Cao had forcibly extended Yuan Shao's supply lines and was thus able to pounce on his logistical disadvantage to gain a decisive victory.
The Australian sinologist Rafe de Crespigny is skeptical of the traditional viewpoint and questions Yuan Shao's supposed advantage over Cao Cao. De Crespigny argues that Yuan Shao's hold on his nominal territories were not as secure as Cao Cao, who had aggressively campaigned to stabilize his surroundings. Taking note that Yuan Shao took ten years to eliminate the isolated Gongsun Zan, de Crespigny suggests that it was not due to indecisiveness that Yuan Shao did not take advantage of Cao Cao's temporal weaknesses, but that Yuan Shao might not have had the men to spare for such ventures. From such a perspective, Yuan Shao, faced with the ever-growing threat of his former ally Cao Cao, concentrated his force in a direct approach to Cao Cao's headquarters in hope that such a strike would overwhelm his enemy. Though he was outwitted and defeated by Cao Cao, Yuan Shao's decisions might not have been so foolish as numerous traditional historians and commentators have said.
In popular culture
The battle is featured as a playable stage in Koei's video game series Dynasty Warriors as one of the highlights of Cao Cao's story mode. In the fifth installment Boma, Yan Ford, and Guandu are defended by Cao Cao, Xiahou Dun, and Cao Pi respectively. In the seventh installment, the battle clearly focuses on Cao Pi's point of view, where he leads the attack on Wuchao, defeating and recruiting Zhang He (who'd been its defender instead of attacking Cao Cao's camp as in history). The battle, including the raid on Wuchao is usually portrayed all in one battle, thus, usually taking place at night, even though most of the battle took place at day.
Notes
References
Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms.
de Crespigny, Rafe (1996). "To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 189 to 220 AD as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi Tongjian of Sima Guang". Volume 1. Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. .
Leban, Carl (1971). Ts'ao Ts'ao and the Rise of Wei: The Early Years. Columbia University.
Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, Volume 63.
200
Guandu 200
History of Zhengzhou
Guandu | [
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245529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory%20labelling | Mandatory labelling | Mandatory labelling or labeling (see spelling differences) is the requirement of consumer products to state their ingredients or components. This is done to protect people with allergies, and so that people can practice moral purchasing. Mandatory labelling is mandated in most developed nations and increasingly also in developing nations, especially for food products, e.g. "Grade A" meats. With regard to food and drugs, mandatory labelling has been a major battleground between consumer advocates and corporations since the late 19th century.
Because of past scandals involving deceptive labelling, countries like the United States and Canada require most processed foods to have a nutrition facts label on the label, and the table's formatting and content must conform to strict guidelines. The European Union equivalent is the slightly different nutrition information table, which may also be supplemented with standardized icons indicating the presence of allergens. In China, all clothing is labelled with the factory of origin, including telephone and fax numbers, although this information is not available to buyers outside China, who see only a generic Made in China tag.
The development genetically modified food has led to one of the most persistent and divisive debates about mandatory labelling, which is one of the central topics in genetically modified food controversies. Advocates of such labelling claim that the consumer should make the choice whether to expose themselves to any possible health risk from consuming such foods. Detractors point to studies that conclude genetically modified food is safe, and point out that for many commodity products, the identity of the grower and the custody chain are not known.
Voluntary labelling and co-marketing of products deemed desirable is another matter usually carried out by entirely different means, e.g. Slow Food. There has been increased regulatory interest in substantiating these claims, and in some jurisdictions, food labels require regulatory approval before use. An interesting halfway is those labels that are considered mandatory by one buying population and effectively preclude purchase if they are not there, e.g. kosher, vegan, and the aforementioned GMO-free label now seen on many organic products.
Areas in which mandatory labelling is being discussed include:
genetically modified food—see genetically modified food controversies
spraying of meat with bacteriophages
in the United States, fresh meat was added to the list of products which require mandatory country of origin labels (mCOOL) in 2002, however this was the subject of a challenge in the World Trade Organization by Canada, which Canada won in 2011
See also
Ecolabel
Label
List of food labeling regulations
Packaging and labeling
References
Brand management
Business law
Ecolabelling
Packaging
Product management
Food packaging
Consumer protection | [
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245530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized%20Fourier%20series | Generalized Fourier series | In mathematical analysis, many generalizations of Fourier series have proved to be useful. They are all special cases of decompositions over an orthonormal basis of an inner product space. Here we consider that of square-integrable functions defined on an interval of the real line, which is important, among others, for interpolation theory.
Definition
Consider a set of square-integrable functions with values in or ,
which are pairwise orthogonal for the inner product
where is a weight function, and represents complex conjugation, i.e., for .
The generalized Fourier series of a square-integrable function , with respect to Φ, is then
where the coefficients are given by
If Φ is a complete set, i.e., an orthogonal basis of the space of all square-integrable functions on [a, b], as opposed to a smaller orthogonal set,
the relation becomes equality in the L2 sense, more precisely modulo (not necessarily pointwise, nor almost everywhere).
Example (Fourier–Legendre series)
The Legendre polynomials are solutions to the Sturm–Liouville problem
and because of Sturm-Liouville theory, these polynomials are eigenfunctions of the problem and are solutions orthogonal with respect to the inner product above with unit weight. So we can form a generalized Fourier series (known as a Fourier–Legendre series) involving the Legendre polynomials, and
As an example, let us calculate the Fourier–Legendre series for f(x) = cos x over [−1, 1]. Now,
and a series involving these terms
which differs from cos x by approximately 0.003, about 0. It may be advantageous to use such Fourier–Legendre series since the eigenfunctions are all polynomials and hence the integrals and thus the coefficients are easier to calculate.
Coefficient theorems
Some theorems on the coefficients cn include:
Bessel's inequality
Parseval's theorem
If Φ is a complete set,
See also
Banach space
Eigenfunctions
Fractional Fourier transform
Function space
Hilbert space
Least-squares spectral analysis
Orthogonal function
Orthogonality
Topological vector space
Vector space
Fourier analysis | [
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245532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabin%20Fever%20%28TV%20series%29 | Cabin Fever (TV series) | Cabin Fever is an RTÉ reality TV show which was meant to have been broadcast over eight weeks starting on 3 June 2003. Disaster struck however two weeks into the broadcast when, on Friday 13 June 2003, the ship ran aground off Tory Island off the north-west coast near County Donegal.
Cabin Fever consisted of a group of eleven contestants chosen specially for the show, most of whom had no sailing experience (though they had received a quick course in sailing technique prior to setting sail), who were to be put on the 27.4 metre (90 foot), two-masted schooner with a professional crew of two. The wind-powered sailing ship would then sail around the Irish coast. Each week one contestant was scheduled to quite literally "walk the plank" after being voted off the ship by TV viewers. The final surviving contestant was to be considered the winner and would receive €100,000.
The show was named after cabin fever, the claustrophobic reaction that takes place when a person or group is isolated and/or shut in a small space, with nothing to do, for an extended period.
The ships
The Cabin Fever was built in 1947 in France. It was heavily refurbished for the programme.
The Cabin Fever II was brought from Dartmouth. It was registered as the Johanna Lucretia.
The contestants
The contestants — six men and five women — were selected from among 6,724 applicants.
Placings:
Elaine Power (30), Dunmore East, County Waterford
Cat Sheridan (26), Midleton
Fiona McGonnell (29), Cavan
David Yaffe (29), Rathfarnham
Andrew Fowler (27), Dublin
Marie Walsh (45), Castleisland, County Kerry
Lee Gooch (30), Letterkenny
Ciara Dunne (23), Carlow
Stevie Greene (43), Limerick
Nuala Carey (36), Dublin
Noel Hogan (27), Ennis (quit on July 3rd)
The show
Disaster
Disaster struck however two weeks into the broadcast when, on 13 June 2003, the ship ran aground off Tory Island, a small island off the north-west coast near County Donegal. All the 9 remaining contestants1 and two crew were rescued by the nearby Arranmore Lifeboat, but the wooden sailing ship broke up on the rocks. Ironically the accident was not filmed by the RTÉ film crew; they had left the ship some hours earlier to catch some sleep after 15 hours continuous filming. The incident was however filmed by a local man who happened to have been recording the schooner's movements at the moment she ran aground. The Irish media made much tongue-in-cheek mention of the fact that the disaster occurred on Friday the 13th, a date often linked to supposed curses and disasters and also the fact that the ship's name had been changed for the programme: sailing lore suggests that any ship which is renamed prior to setting sail will meet with disaster.
Stuart Switzer, a Coco Television Productions producer responsible for the programme said: “The back of the boat has broken. It is actually in two pieces, and the waves are knocking the planks and timber around. There is debris all over the water and all over the shore.”
Aftermath
RTÉ and the programme makers, Coco TV, announced that all money earned from phone-in votes in the previous week (and which, due to the disaster, would not now lead to some contestant leaving the ship on 16 June as planned), would be donated to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, which supplies lifeboat coverage around the Irish coast.
RTÉ and Coco TV hired a second boat. The captain, Peter Culleton, was replaced and the show began again, though three of the original team declined to come back. They were replaced by two new contestants. The series was further hit when the boat experienced engine trouble and required a new gearbox but the problem was ultimately solved. Partly due to the controversies, the series regularly topped the TAM ratings on RTÉ.
Reaction
Barry Andrews, a politician from the then governing Fianna Fáil party, questioned "the wisdom of sending out 11 people with no sailing experience with just two qualified sailors." He said the destruction of the ship "shows that so-called reality television has gone too far, with people being asked to carry out challenges that are too dangerous."
Report
Almost two years later, in March 2005, a report on the ship's sinking was published by the Marine Casualty Investigation Board. The report stated that the schooner breached its operating licence and had no effective watchkeeping. It also found that the contestants were fatigued at the time of the accident.
Footnotes
1 One contestant of the original ten had already "walked the plank" the previous week.
References
External links
Cabin Fever website
Scannal documentary
Associated Press report on the accident
"Irish Reality Show gets too real" CBS News coverage
2003 Irish television series endings
2003 Irish television seasons
Irish reality television series
RTÉ original programming
COCO Television
2003 Irish television series debuts
Tory Island | [
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245535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven%20Pillars%20of%20Wisdom | Seven Pillars of Wisdom | Seven Pillars of Wisdom is the autobiographical account of the experiences of British Army Colonel T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia"), of serving as a military advisor to Bedouin forces during the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Turks of 1916 to 1918.
It was completed in February 1922, but first published in December 1926.
Title
The title comes from the Book of Proverbs (): "Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars" (King James Version). Prior to the First World War, Lawrence had begun work on a scholarly book about seven great cities of the Middle East, to be titled Seven Pillars of Wisdom. When war broke out, it was still incomplete and Lawrence stated that he ultimately destroyed the manuscript although he remained keen on using his original title Seven Pillars of Wisdom for his later work. The book had to be rewritten three times, once following the loss of the manuscript on a train at Reading. From Seven Pillars, "...and then lost all but the Introduction and drafts of Books 9 and 10 at Reading Station, while changing trains. This was about Christmas, 1919." (p. 21)
Seven Pillars of Wisdom is an autobiographical account of his experiences during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918, when Lawrence was based in Wadi Rum in Jordan as a member of the British Forces of North Africa. With the support of Emir Faisal and his tribesmen, he helped organise and carry out attacks on the Ottoman forces from Aqaba in the south to Damascus in the north. Many sites inside the Wadi Rum area have been named after Lawrence to attract tourists, although there is little or no evidence connecting him to any of these places, including the rock formations near the entrance now known as "The Seven Pillars".
Speculation surrounds the book's dedication, a poem written by Lawrence and edited by Robert Graves, concerning whether it is to an individual or to the whole Arab race. It begins, "To S.A.", possibly meaning Selim Ahmed, a young Arab boy from Syria of whom Lawrence was very fond. Ahmed died, probably from typhus, aged 19, a few weeks before the offensive to liberate Damascus. Lawrence received the news of his death some days before he entered Damascus.
I loved you, so I drew these tides of
Men into my hands
And wrote my will across the
Sky in stars
To earn you freedom, the seven
Pillared worthy house,
That your eyes might be
Shining for me
When I came
Death seemed my servant on the
Road, 'til we were near
And saw you waiting:
When you smiled and in sorrowful
Envy he outran me
And took you apart:
Into his quietness
Love, the way-weary, groped to your body,
Our brief wage
Ours for the moment
Before Earth's soft hand explored your shape
And the blind
Worms grew fat upon
Your substance
Men prayed me that I set our work,
The inviolate house,
As a memory of you
But for fit monument I shattered it,
Unfinished: and now
The little things creep out to patch
Themselves hovels
In the marred shadow
Of your gift.
A variant last line of that first stanza—reading, "When we came"—appears in some editions; however, the 1922 Oxford text (considered the definitive version; see below) has "When I came". The poem originated as prose, submitted by letter to Graves, who edited the work heavily into its current form, rewriting an entire stanza and correcting the others.
Manuscripts and editions
Lawrence kept extensive notes throughout the course of his involvement in the Revolt. He began work on a clean narrative in the first half of 1919 while in Paris for the Peace Conference and, later that summer, while back in Egypt. By December 1919, he had a fair draft of most of the ten books that make up the Seven Pillars of Wisdom but lost it (except for the introduction and final two books) when he misplaced his briefcase while changing trains at Reading railway station. National newspapers alerted the public to the loss of the "hero's manuscript", but to no avail; the draft remained lost. Lawrence refers to this version as "Text I" and says that had it been published, it would have been some 250,000 words in length.
In early 1920, Lawrence set about the daunting task of rewriting as much as he could remember of the first version. Working from memory alone (he had destroyed many of his wartime notes upon completion of the corresponding parts of Text I), he was able to complete this "Text II", 400,000 words long, in three months. Lawrence described this version as "hopelessly bad" in literary terms, but historically it was "substantially complete and accurate". This manuscript, titled by Lawrence "The Arab Revolt," is held by the Harry Ransom Center with a letter from Lawrence's brother authenticating it as the earliest surviving manuscript of what would become Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
With Text II in front of him, Lawrence began working on a polished version ("Text III") in London, Jeddah, and Amman during 1921. Lawrence completed this text comprising 335,000 words in February 1922.
To eliminate any risk of losing the manuscript again, and to have copies that he could show privately to critics, he considered having the book typed out. However, he discovered that it would be cheaper to get the text typeset and printed on a proofing press at the Oxford Times printing works. Just eight copies were produced, of which six survive. In bibliographical terms the result was the first "edition" of Seven Pillars (because the text was reproduced on a printing press). In legal terms, however, these substitutes for a typescript were not "published". Lawrence retained ownership of all the copies and chose who was allowed to read them. The proof-printing became known as the "Oxford Text" of Seven Pillars. As a text it is unsatisfactory because Lawrence could not afford to have the proof corrected. It therefore contains innumerable transcription errors, and in places lines and even whole paragraphs are missing. He made corrections by hand in five of the copies and had them bound. (In 2001, the last time one of these rough printings came on to the market, it fetched almost US$1 million at auction.) Instead of burning the manuscript, Lawrence presented it to the Bodleian Library in Oxford.
By mid-1922, Lawrence was in a state of severe mental turmoil: the psychological after-effects of war were taking their toll, as were his exhaustion from the literary endeavours of the past three years, his disillusionment with the settlement given to his Arab comrades-in-arms, and the burdens of being in the public eye as a perceived "national hero". It was at this time that he re-enlisted in the armed forces under an assumed name, for the most part in the Royal Air Force, as described in his book The Mint with the byline "by 352087 A/c Ross", with a period in the Royal Tank Corps as "Private Shaw". Concerned over his mental state and eager for his story to be read by a wider public, his friends persuaded him to produce an abridged version of Seven Pillars, to serve as both intellectual stimulation and a source of much-needed income. In his off-duty evenings, he set to trimming the 1922 text down to 250,000 words for a subscribers' edition.
The Subscribers' Edition – in a limited print run of about 200 copies, each with a unique, sumptuous, hand-crafted binding – was published in late 1926, with the subtitle A Triumph. It was printed in London by Roy Manning Pike and Herbert John Hodgson, with illustrations by Eric Kennington, Augustus John, Paul Nash, Blair Hughes-Stanton and his wife Gertrude Hermes. Copies occasionally become available in the antiquarian trade and can easily command prices of up to US$100,000. Unfortunately, each copy cost Lawrence three times the thirty guineas the subscribers had paid.
The Subscribers' Edition was 25% shorter than the Oxford Text, but Lawrence did not abridge uniformly. The deletions from the early books are much less drastic than those of the later ones: for example, Book I lost 17% of its words and Book IV lost 21%, compared to 50% and 32% for Books VIII and IX. Critics differed in their opinions of the two editions: Robert Graves, E. M. Forster and George Bernard Shaw preferred the 1922 text (although, from a legal standpoint, they appreciated the removal of certain passages that could have been considered libellous, or at least indiscreet), while Edward Garnett preferred the 1926 version.
Literary merits aside, however, producing the Subscribers' Edition had left Lawrence facing bankruptcy. He was forced to undertake an even more stringent pruning to produce a version for sale to the general public: this was the 1927 Revolt in the Desert, a work of some 130,000 words: "an abridgement of an abridgement," remarked George Bernard Shaw, not without disdain. Nevertheless, it received wide acclaim by the public and critics alike, the vast majority of whom had never seen or read the unabridged Subscribers' Edition.
After the 1926 release of the Subscribers' Edition, Lawrence stated that no further issue of Seven Pillars would be made during his lifetime. Lawrence was killed in a motorcycle accident in May 1935, at the age of 46, and within weeks of his death, the 1926 abridgement was published for general circulation. The unabridged Oxford Text of 1922 was not published until 1997, when it appeared as a "best text" edited by Jeremy Wilson from the manuscript in the Bodleian Library and Lawrence's amended copy of the 1922 proof printing. Wilson made some further minor amendments in a new edition published in 2003.
Critical comments
Charles Hill has called Seven Pillars "a novel traveling under the cover of autobiography," capturing Lawrence's highly personal version of the historical events described in the book.
Winston Churchill quoted in an advertisement for the 1935 edition said "It ranks with the greatest books ever written in the English language. As a narrative of war and adventure it is unsurpassable."
In popular culture
The book was adapted into the film Lawrence of Arabia (1962).
"Seven Pillars of Wisdom" is a song by heavy metal group Sabaton about T. E. Lawrence, released in July 2019 on the album The Great War.
In Tony Parsons’ novel, The Murder Bag (2014), The Seven Pillars is referenced as part of the curriculum at Potters Field school. The book has a formative influence on a group of former pupils.
Editions in print
Seven Pillars of Wisdom, 1922, unabridged Oxford text.
Seven Pillars of Wisdom, 1926, Subscribers' Edition text.
Revolt in the Desert, 1927, abridgement.
Seven Pillars of Wisdom, 1935, Jonathan Cape (London and Toronto) edition published shortly after Lawrence's death. Review saying "published this day" published 29 July 1935
Notes
References
External links
T. E. Lawrence
1922 non-fiction books
1926 non-fiction books
1927 non-fiction books
Autobiographies adapted into films
British autobiographies
British non-fiction literature
English-language books
History books about World War I
Personal accounts of World War I
Military autobiographies
Books about the Middle East
Books about the Ottoman Empire | [
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245536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Maxwell%20%28actor%29 | James Maxwell (actor) | James Maxwell (23 March 1929 – 18 August 1995) was an American-born British actor, theatre director and writer, particularly associated with the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester.
Early life
He was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, United States, but spent most of his career in the United Kingdom and died in London. He came to Britain at the age of 20 to train at the Old Vic theatre school. While there he met fellow students Casper Wrede and Richard Negri (co-founders of the Royal Exchange 25 years later).
Work in the theatre
After seasons at the Bristol Old Vic and the Piccolo Theatre in Manchester he started to collaborate with the directors Michael Elliott and Casper Wrede, initially with the 59 Theatre Company. He translated Georg Büchner's Danton's Death (original title: Dantons Tod) for the opening production at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith. Elliott and Wrede went on to run the Old Vic company and Maxwell joined them to act in several of the productions including The Merchant of Venice and Measure for Measure.
The group then joined with Braham Murray in Manchester to form the 69 Theatre Company. Maxwell adapted Daniel Deronda; directed by Elliott and starring Vanessa Redgrave it was subsequently televised. He acted in many productions for the company including Prospero in The Tempest in 1969 and Thomas More in A Man for All Seasons in 1975. He also directed Arms and the Man with Tom Courtenay, Jenny Agutter and Brian Cox in 1973.
Based upon the success of this collaboration the group started to look for a permanent theatre in Manchester and eventually a new theatre was built inside the disused Royal Exchange with Maxwell as one of the founding artistic directors. He appeared in both the opening productions: Kleist's The Prince of Homburg (original title: Der Prinz von Homburg) and Sheridan's The Rivals and remained an artistic director until his death in 1995. As well as acting in many productions over the course of 20 years, he adapted several novels including The Count of Monte Cristo, Pride and Prejudice and The Moonstone. He also directed over 20 productions. As Braham Murray recalled. "As an artist he was multi-talented and practised each of his skills with discretion. As a writer, he translated many works; as a director he was particularly skilful at comedy. He loved to make people laugh, but it was as an actor that he would want to be remembered."
Theatre Productions at the Royal Exchange
The productions directed by Maxwell during his time as artistic director include:
Present Laughter by Noël Coward with Albert Finney (1977)
The Skin of Our Teeth by Thornton Wilder. Directed by Richard Negri and James Maxwell with Olive McFarland and Lee Montague (1977)
The Schoolmistress by Arthur Wing Pinero with Patricia Routledge (1979)
The Corn is Green by Emlyn Williams with Avril Elgar and Alan Parnaby (1981)
Treasure Island adapted by James Maxwell with Clive Duncan and Ronald Forfar (1981)
While the Sun Shines by Terence Ratigan with Paul Barber, Mick Ford and Caroline Goodall (1983)
Hay Fever by Noël Coward with Richard McCabe, Dilys Hamlett and Marsha Hunt (1985)
Zack by Harold Brighouse with Tim Healy and Bridget Turner (1986)
Among Barbarians by Michael Wall. World premiere with Dominic Keating, Tariq Yunus and Avril Elgar (1989)
She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith with Una Stubbs, Ewan Hooper, Andy Serkis and Lorraine Ashbourne (1990)
Pride and Prejudice. World premiere adapted and directed by James Maxwell with Avril Elgar, Melanie Thaw, Rufus Sewell, Ben Daniels and Helen McCrory (1991)
The Doctor's Dilemma by George Bernard Shaw with Jeremy Clyde, Trevor Baxter and Clive Owen (1991)
Blithe Spirit by Noël Coward with Miranda Foster and Susie Blake (1991)
Sidewalk Sidney by Rhandi McWilliams. World premiere with Eddie Osei and Charlie Caine (1992)
An Ideal Husband by Oscar Wilde with Brenda Blethyn, Robert Glenister, Una Stubbs and Tom Chadbon (1992)
The Moonstone. Adapted and directed by James Maxwell with Struan Rodger (1993)
The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde with Sam West, Neil Dudgeon and Avril Elgar (1994)
The Count of Monte Cristo adapted by James Maxwell and Jonathon Hackett. World premiere directed by Braham Murray with David Threlfall and Colin Prockter (1994)
Absurd Person Singular by Alan Ayckbourn with Trevor Cooper, Margo Gunn, Denys Hawthorne, Patrick O'Kane and Amanda Boxer (1994)
Work in television and film
Although the theatre was always his first love he appeared in television and film. His best-known television role was as King Henry VII in a BBC2 drama series, The Shadow of the Tower, but it did not have the same level of success as The Six Wives of Henry VIII (1970), which was its predecessor drama. His other television credits include a prominent role in the Doctor Who story Underworld (1978). He also appeared as Osmond in a television serial of Henry James' The Portrait of a Lady (1968), Frontier (1968), The Avengers, Doomwatch: The Iron Doctor (1971),Thriller and The Saint. He played General-Major von Wittke in an episode of Enemy at the Door titled "Treason" (ep. 10, season 1, aired March 25, 1978).
He was also seen in the films Private Potter (1962), The Evil of Frankenstein (1964), Otley (1968) and One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1970). The first and last of these directed by his friend and colleague Casper Wrede.
Personal life
He married the actress Avril Elgar in 1952 and the couple had two sons. They met at the Old Vic theatre school and she appeared in many of Maxwell's productions. He died in 1995.
James Maxwell was referenced in the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester episode of Most Haunted (S8,07) when psychic medium David Wells allegedly received a message from Maxwell's spirit. His career was touched upon as a founding member of the theatre.
Selected filmography
Subway in the Sky (1959) – Officer
Girl on Approval (1961) – John Howland
Design for Loving (1962) – Joe
The Traitors (1962) – Ray Ellis
The Damned (1962) – Mr. Talbot
Private Potter (1962) – Lt. Colonel Harry Gunyon
The Third Secret (1964) – Mark
The Evil of Frankenstein (1964) – Priest
Far from the Madding Crowd (1967) – Doctor (uncredited)
Otley (1969) – Rollo
Connecting Rooms (1970) – Principal of Art College
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1970) – Captain
Ransom (1974) – Bernhard
Four Friends (1981) – Hippie
References
External links
1929 births
1995 deaths
Male actors from Worcester, Massachusetts
American male film actors
American male television actors
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American theatre directors
Artistic directors
20th-century American male actors | [
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245551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baiji%20%28disambiguation%29 | Baiji (disambiguation) | Baiji may refer to:
Baiji, the Yangtze River dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer)
Baiji, Iraq, a city
Baiji District, Iraq
Baiji Township, Xiuning County (), Anhui, China
Baiji Township, Nanning (), in Yongning District, Nanning, Guangxi, China
An ancient kingdom in the southern Korean peninsula, called Baekje in Korean
See also
Bahjí
Baijiu | [
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245552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian%20function | Gaussian function | In mathematics, a Gaussian function, often simply referred to as a Gaussian, is a function of the form
for arbitrary real constants , and non-zero . It is named after the mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. The graph of a Gaussian is a characteristic symmetric "bell curve" shape. The parameter is the height of the curve's peak, is the position of the center of the peak, and (the standard deviation, sometimes called the Gaussian RMS width) controls the width of the "bell".
Gaussian functions are often used to represent the probability density function of a normally distributed random variable with expected value and variance . In this case, the Gaussian is of the form
Gaussian functions are widely used in statistics to describe the normal distributions, in signal processing to define Gaussian filters, in image processing where two-dimensional Gaussians are used for Gaussian blurs, and in mathematics to solve heat equations and diffusion equations and to define the Weierstrass transform.
Properties
Gaussian functions arise by composing the exponential function with a concave quadratic function:
where
The Gaussian functions are thus those functions whose logarithm is a concave quadratic function.
The parameter is related to the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the peak according to
The function may then be expressed in terms of the FWHM, represented by :
Alternatively, the parameter can be interpreted by saying that the two inflection points of the function occur at .
The full width at tenth of maximum (FWTM) for a Gaussian could be of interest and is
Gaussian functions are analytic, and their limit as is 0 (for the above case of ).
Gaussian functions are among those functions that are elementary but lack elementary antiderivatives; the integral of the Gaussian function is the error function. Nonetheless, their improper integrals over the whole real line can be evaluated exactly, using the Gaussian integral
and one obtains
This integral is 1 if and only if (the normalizing constant), and in this case the Gaussian is the probability density function of a normally distributed random variable with expected value and variance :
These Gaussians are plotted in the accompanying figure.
Gaussian functions centered at zero minimize the Fourier uncertainty principle.
The product of two Gaussian functions is a Gaussian, and the convolution of two Gaussian functions is also a Gaussian, with variance being the sum of the original variances: . The product of two Gaussian probability density functions (PDFs), though, is not in general a Gaussian PDF.
Taking the Fourier transform (unitary, angular-frequency convention) of a Gaussian function with parameters , and yields another Gaussian function, with parameters , and . So in particular the Gaussian functions with and are kept fixed by the Fourier transform (they are eigenfunctions of the Fourier transform with eigenvalue 1).
A physical realization is that of the diffraction pattern: for example, a photographic slide whose transmittance has a Gaussian variation is also a Gaussian function.
The fact that the Gaussian function is an eigenfunction of the continuous Fourier transform allows us to derive the following interesting identity from the Poisson summation formula:
Integral of a Gaussian function
The integral of an arbitrary Gaussian function is
An alternative form is
where f must be strictly positive for the integral to converge.
Relation to standard Gaussian integral
The integral
for some real constants a, b, c > 0 can be calculated by putting it into the form of a Gaussian integral. First, the constant a can simply be factored out of the integral. Next, the variable of integration is changed from x to :
and then to :
Then, using the Gaussian integral identity
we have
Two-dimensional Gaussian function
In two dimensions, the power to which e is raised in the Gaussian function is any negative-definite quadratic form. Consequently, the level sets of the Gaussian will always be ellipses.
A particular example of a two-dimensional Gaussian function is
Here the coefficient A is the amplitude, x0, y0 is the center, and σx, σy are the x and y spreads of the blob. The figure on the right was created using A = 1, x0 = 0, y0 = 0, σx = σy = 1.
The volume under the Gaussian function is given by
In general, a two-dimensional elliptical Gaussian function is expressed as
where the matrix
is positive-definite.
Using this formulation, the figure on the right can be created using A = 1, (x0, y0) = (0, 0), a = c = 1/2, b = 0.
Meaning of parameters for the general equation
For the general form of the equation the coefficient A is the height of the peak and (x0, y0) is the center of the blob.
If we set
then we rotate the blob by a clockwise angle (for counterclockwise rotation, invert the signs in the b coefficient). This can be seen in the following examples:
Using the following Octave code, one can easily see the effect of changing the parameters:
A = 1;
x0 = 0; y0 = 0;
sigma_X = 1;
sigma_Y = 2;
[X, Y] = meshgrid(-5:.1:5, -5:.1:5);
for theta = 0:pi/100:pi
a = cos(theta)^2 / (2 * sigma_X^2) + sin(theta)^2 / (2 * sigma_Y^2);
b = -sin(2 * theta) / (4 * sigma_X^2) + sin(2 * theta) / (4 * sigma_Y^2);
c = sin(theta)^2 / (2 * sigma_X^2) + cos(theta)^2 / (2 * sigma_Y^2);
Z = A * exp(-(a * (X - x0).^2 + 2 * b * (X - x0) .* (Y - y0) + c * (Y - y0).^2));
surf(X, Y, Z);
shading interp;
view(-36, 36)
waitforbuttonpress
end
Such functions are often used in image processing and in computational models of visual system function—see the articles on scale space and affine shape adaptation.
Also see multivariate normal distribution.
Higher-order Gaussian or super-Gaussian function
A more general formulation of a Gaussian function with a flat-top and Gaussian fall-off can be taken by raising the content of the exponent to a power :
This function is known as a super-Gaussian function and is often used for Gaussian beam formulation. In a two-dimensional formulation, a Gaussian function along and can be combined with potentially different and to form an elliptical Gaussian distribution:
or a rectangular Gaussian distribution:
Multi-dimensional Gaussian function
In an -dimensional space a Gaussian function can be defined as
where is a column of coordinates, is a positive-definite matrix, and denotes matrix transposition.
The integral of this Gaussian function over the whole -dimensional space is given as
It can be easily calculated by diagonalizing the matrix and changing the integration variables to the eigenvectors of .
More generally a shifted Gaussian function is defined as
where is the shift vector and the matrix can be assumed to be symmetric, , and positive-definite. The following integrals with this function can be calculated with the same technique:
where
Estimation of parameters
A number of fields such as stellar photometry, Gaussian beam characterization, and emission/absorption line spectroscopy work with sampled Gaussian functions and need to accurately estimate the height, position, and width parameters of the function. There are three unknown parameters for a 1D Gaussian function (a, b, c) and five for a 2D Gaussian function .
The most common method for estimating the Gaussian parameters is to take the logarithm of the data and fit a parabola to the resulting data set. While this provides a simple curve fitting procedure, the resulting algorithm may be biased by excessively weighting small data values, which can produce large errors in the profile estimate. One can partially compensate for this problem through weighted least squares estimation, reducing the weight of small data values, but this too can be biased by allowing the tail of the Gaussian to dominate the fit. In order to remove the bias, one can instead use an iteratively reweighted least squares procedure, in which the weights are updated at each iteration.
It is also possible to perform non-linear regression directly on the data, without involving the logarithmic data transformation; for more options, see probability distribution fitting.
Parameter precision
Once one has an algorithm for estimating the Gaussian function parameters, it is also important to know how precise those estimates are. Any least squares estimation algorithm can provide numerical estimates for the variance of each parameter (i.e., the variance of the estimated height, position, and width of the function). One can also use Cramér–Rao bound theory to obtain an analytical expression for the lower bound on the parameter variances, given certain assumptions about the data.
The noise in the measured profile is either i.i.d. Gaussian, or the noise is Poisson-distributed.
The spacing between each sampling (i.e. the distance between pixels measuring the data) is uniform.
The peak is "well-sampled", so that less than 10% of the area or volume under the peak (area if a 1D Gaussian, volume if a 2D Gaussian) lies outside the measurement region.
The width of the peak is much larger than the distance between sample locations (i.e. the detector pixels must be at least 5 times smaller than the Gaussian FWHM).
When these assumptions are satisfied, the following covariance matrix K applies for the 1D profile parameters , , and under i.i.d. Gaussian noise and under Poisson noise:
where is the width of the pixels used to sample the function, is the quantum efficiency of the detector, and indicates the standard deviation of the measurement noise. Thus, the individual variances for the parameters are, in the Gaussian noise case,
and in the Poisson noise case,
For the 2D profile parameters giving the amplitude , position , and width of the profile, the following covariance matrices apply:
where the individual parameter variances are given by the diagonal elements of the covariance matrix.
Discrete Gaussian
One may ask for a discrete analog to the Gaussian;
this is necessary in discrete applications, particularly digital signal processing. A simple answer is to sample the continuous Gaussian, yielding the sampled Gaussian kernel. However, this discrete function does not have the discrete analogs of the properties of the continuous function, and can lead to undesired effects, as described in the article scale space implementation.
An alternative approach is to use the discrete Gaussian kernel:
where denotes the modified Bessel functions of integer order.
This is the discrete analog of the continuous Gaussian in that it is the solution to the discrete diffusion equation (discrete space, continuous time), just as the continuous Gaussian is the solution to the continuous diffusion equation.
Applications
Gaussian functions appear in many contexts in the natural sciences, the social sciences, mathematics, and engineering. Some examples include:
In statistics and probability theory, Gaussian functions appear as the density function of the normal distribution, which is a limiting probability distribution of complicated sums, according to the central limit theorem.
Gaussian functions are the Green's function for the (homogeneous and isotropic) diffusion equation (and to the heat equation, which is the same thing), a partial differential equation that describes the time evolution of a mass-density under diffusion. Specifically, if the mass-density at time t=0 is given by a Dirac delta, which essentially means that the mass is initially concentrated in a single point, then the mass-distribution at time t will be given by a Gaussian function, with the parameter a being linearly related to 1/ and c being linearly related to ; this time-varying Gaussian is described by the heat kernel. More generally, if the initial mass-density is φ(x), then the mass-density at later times is obtained by taking the convolution of φ with a Gaussian function. The convolution of a function with a Gaussian is also known as a Weierstrass transform.
A Gaussian function is the wave function of the ground state of the quantum harmonic oscillator.
The molecular orbitals used in computational chemistry can be linear combinations of Gaussian functions called Gaussian orbitals (see also basis set (chemistry)).
Mathematically, the derivatives of the Gaussian function can be represented using Hermite functions. For unit variance, the n-th derivative of the Gaussian is the Gaussian function itself multiplied by the n-th Hermite polynomial, up to scale.
Consequently, Gaussian functions are also associated with the vacuum state in quantum field theory.
Gaussian beams are used in optical systems, microwave systems and lasers.
In scale space representation, Gaussian functions are used as smoothing kernels for generating multi-scale representations in computer vision and image processing. Specifically, derivatives of Gaussians (Hermite functions) are used as a basis for defining a large number of types of visual operations.
Gaussian functions are used to define some types of artificial neural networks.
In fluorescence microscopy a 2D Gaussian function is used to approximate the Airy disk, describing the intensity distribution produced by a point source.
In signal processing they serve to define Gaussian filters, such as in image processing where 2D Gaussians are used for Gaussian blurs. In digital signal processing, one uses a discrete Gaussian kernel, which may be defined by sampling a Gaussian, or in a different way.
In geostatistics they have been used for understanding the variability between the patterns of a complex training image. They are used with kernel methods to cluster the patterns in the feature space.
See also
Normal distribution
Lorentzian function
Radial basis function kernel
References
External links
Mathworld, includes a proof for the relations between c and FWHM
Haskell, Erlang and Perl implementation of Gaussian distribution
Bensimhoun Michael, N-Dimensional Cumulative Function, And Other Useful Facts About Gaussians and Normal Densities (2009)
Code for fitting Gaussians in ImageJ and Fiji.
Exponentials
Articles containing proofs
Articles with example MATLAB/Octave code | [
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245558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lopburi%20province | Lopburi province | Lopburi (, , ) is a province in the central region of Thailand. The province is divided into 11 administrative districts, and Mueang Lopburi District is the capital. With over 750,000 people, the province is Thailand's 36th largest area and 32nd most populous. There are eight neighboring provinces, Phetchabun, Chaiyaphum, Nakhon Ratchasima, Saraburi, Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya, Ang Thong, Sing Buri, and Nakhon Sawan.
Lopburi is a significant province historically, where many historical structures, artifacts, and prehistoric settlements have been discovered. In the past, Lopburi was called by the name Lavo, after the Lavapuri, (present day Lahore) city named after the second son of Ram.The kingdom had been ruled by an absolute monarch.
Etymology
It was originally known as Lavo or Lavapura, meaning "city of Lava" in reference to the ancient South Asian city of Lavapuri (present-day Lahore, Pakistan).
History
Known as Lavo during much of its history, Lopburi probably dates to prehistoric times. The name Lavo originated in the Mon Kingdom of Dvaravati period (6th–11th century CE). The conquering Khmer would build many impressive temples in the city during its rule. Lopburi may even have liberated itself for a time, as it sent independent embassies to China in 1115 and 1155. In 1289 it sent another embassy to China, but soon became part of the Thai kingdom of Sukhothai and later Ayutthaya.
During the Ayutthaya period, King Ramathibodi I sent Phra Ramesuan (later King Ramesuan) as the Uparaja to reign in Lopburi. In 1666 King Narai the Great ordered a new palace built on the east bank of the Lopburi River and made Lopburi the second capital of the country, as Ayutthaya was threatened by the Dutch. After King Narai died, the city was almost abandoned and fell into ruin.
In 1856 King Mongkut of the Chakri dynasty ordered King Narai's palace to be renovated. The city finally regained its importance in 1937, when Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram chose Lopburi to be the largest military base in Thailand and once was decide to be new capital city of Thailand after the end of World War II.
Geography
Lopburi is on the east side of the Chao Phraya River valley, between the Lopburi River and Pa Sak Rivers. Thirty percent of the area of the province, including most of Tha Wung district, the southwestern parts of Mueang Lopburi and Ban Mi districts are a very low alluvial plain. The other 70 percent is mixed plains and hills, with the Phetchabun Mountains forming the eastern boundary of the province towards the Khorat Plateau. The total forest area is or 14.8 percent of provincial area.
Climate
Lopburi province has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification category Aw). Winters are dry and warm. Temperatures rise until May. Monsoon season runs from May through October, with heavy rain and somewhat cooler temperatures during the day, although nights remain warm. Climatic statistics: Its maximum temperature is 41.4 °C (106.5 °F) in April and the lowest temperature is 10.2 °C (50.4 °F) in December. The highest average temperature is 36.8 °C (98.2 °F) and the minimum average temperature is 20.6 °C (69.1 °F). Annual average rainfall is 1,125 millimeters with mean rainy days is 17.6 in September. Maximum daily rainfall is 203.4 millimeters in October.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows Vishnu in front of the Khmer temple Phra Prang Sam Yod.
The escutcheon of Lopburi shows Phra Narai and in the background Phra Prang Sam Yod, the "Sanctuary with the Three Towers". It refers to King Narai who in 1664 fortified the city to be used as an alternative capital when Ayutthaya was threatened by a Dutch naval blockade.
The provincial tree as well as the provincial flower is the bullet wood.
The slogan of the province is National treasures of King Narai's palace and Phra Kan Shrine, famous Prang Sam Yot, city of Din So Phong Marl, well-known Pa Sak Cholasit Dam and golden land of King Narai the Great.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is subdivided into 11 districts (amphoe). The districts are further subdivided into 122 sub-districts (tambon) and 1,126 villages (muban).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Lopburi Provincial Administrative Organization () and 23 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Lopburi, Khao Sam Yot and Ban Mi have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 20 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 102 Subdistrict Administrative Organizations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Transportation
Rail
Lopburi railway station is a station of the State Railway of Thailand's Northern Line, the end of Bangkok's suburban service.
Roads
The main road through Lobpuri is Route 1 (Phahonyothin Road), which starts in Bangkok, and continues through Lopburi, Chai Nat, Nakhon Sawan, Kamphaeng Phet, Tak, Lampang, Chiang Rai, and the border with Burma at Mae Sai. Route 311 leads west to Sing Buri, and Route 3196 leads south-west to Ang Thong.
Air
Khok Kathiam Air Force Base is north of the town. It has no commercial flights.
Education
Thepsatri Rajabhat University
Kasetsart University, Lopburi Campus
Ramkhamhaeng University, Lopburi Campus
Pibul Wittayalai School
Events and festivals
King Narai Reign Fair (งานแผ่นดินสมเด็จพระนารายณ์): Event held annually, it is considered the greatest fair of the province. The objective is to honour King Narai the Great, who used to live here. The highlight is that all Lopburi people are dressed in traditional Thai clothes throughout the province and there is a sound and light performance at the King Narai's Palace in the evening. This fair is promoted by Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT).
Monkey Buffet Festival (เทศกาลโต๊ะจีนลิง): Annually buffet held during November for herd of macaques that live at ancient Khmer temple, Phra Prang Sam Yot and nearby Phra Kan Shrine in the centre of province, which they are like a symbol of the province. It was first organized in the year 1989.
Climbing Up Khao Wong Phra Chan Festival (ประเพณีขึ้นเขาวงพระจันทร์): Pilgrimage inscription by climbing up 3,790 steps of Khao Wong Phrachan (crescent moon hill), the province's highest hill that located in Khok Samrong district for pay homage to replica of the Lord Buddha's footprint and Buddha statues that enshrined on the top of the hill. This festival is usually held on the Chinese New Year period and has been very popular, especially from Thai people of Chinese descent.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
References
External links
Website of province (Thai)
Lopburi provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp
Provinces of Thailand | [
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245560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric%20integral | Trigonometric integral | In mathematics, trigonometric integrals are a family of integrals involving trigonometric functions.
Sine integral
The different sine integral definitions are
Note that the integrand is the sinc function, and also the zeroth spherical Bessel function.
Since is an even entire function (holomorphic over the entire complex plane), is entire, odd, and the integral in its definition can be taken along any path connecting the endpoints.
By definition, is the antiderivative of whose value is zero at , and is the antiderivative whose value is zero at . Their difference is given by the Dirichlet integral,
In signal processing, the oscillations of the sine integral cause overshoot and ringing artifacts when using the sinc filter, and frequency domain ringing if using a truncated sinc filter as a low-pass filter.
Related is the Gibbs phenomenon: If the sine integral is considered as the convolution of the sinc function with the heaviside step function, this corresponds to truncating the Fourier series, which is the cause of the Gibbs phenomenon.
Cosine integral
The different cosine integral definitions are
where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Some texts use instead of .
is the antiderivative of (which vanishes as ). The two definitions are related by
is an even, entire function. For that reason, some texts treat as the primary function, and derive in terms of .
Hyperbolic sine integral
The hyperbolic sine integral is defined as
It is related to the ordinary sine integral by
Hyperbolic cosine integral
The hyperbolic cosine integral is
where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.
It has the series expansion
Auxiliary functions
Trigonometric integrals can be understood in terms of the so-called "auxiliary functions"
Using these functions, the trigonometric integrals may be re-expressed as
(cf. Abramowitz & Stegun, p. 232)
Nielsen's spiral
The spiral formed by parametric plot of is known as Nielsen's spiral.
The spiral is closely related to the Fresnel integrals and the Euler spiral. Nielsen's spiral has applications in vision processing, road and track construction and other areas.
Expansion
Various expansions can be used for evaluation of trigonometric integrals, depending on the range of the argument.
Asymptotic series (for large argument)
These series are asymptotic and divergent, although can be used for estimates and even precise evaluation at .
Convergent series
These series are convergent at any complex , although for , the series will converge slowly initially, requiring many terms for high precision.
Derivation of Series Expansion
Maclaurin Series Expansion:
Relation with the exponential integral of imaginary argument
The function
is called the exponential integral. It is closely related to and ,
As each respective function is analytic except for the cut at negative values of the argument, the area of validity of the relation should be extended to (Outside this range, additional terms which are integer factors of appear in the expression.)
Cases of imaginary argument of the generalized integro-exponential function are
which is the real part of
Similarly
Efficient evaluation
Padé approximants of the convergent Taylor series provide an efficient way to evaluate the functions for small arguments. The following formulae, given by Rowe et al. (2015), are accurate to better than for ,
The integrals may be evaluated indirectly via auxiliary functions and , which are defined by
For the Padé rational functions given below approximate and with error less than 10−16:
See also
Logarithmic integral
Tanc function
Tanhc function
Sinhc function
Coshc function
References
Further reading
External links
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SineIntegral.html
Trigonometry
Special functions
Special hypergeometric functions
Integrals | [
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245564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitromethane | Nitromethane | Nitromethane, sometimes shortened to simply "nitro", is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is the simplest organic nitro compound. It is a polar liquid commonly used as a solvent in a variety of industrial applications such as in extractions, as a reaction medium, and as a cleaning solvent. As an intermediate in organic synthesis, it is used widely in the manufacture of pesticides, explosives, fibers, and coatings. Nitromethane is used as a fuel additive in various motorsports and hobbies, e.g. Top Fuel drag racing and miniature internal combustion engines in radio control, control line and free flight model aircraft.
Preparation
Nitromethane is produced industrially by combining propane and nitric acid in the gas phase at 350–450 °C (662–842 °F). This exothermic reaction produces the four industrially significant nitroalkanes: nitromethane, nitroethane, 1-nitropropane, and 2-nitropropane. The reaction involves free radicals, including the alkoxyl radicals of the type CH3CH2CH2O, which arise via homolysis of the corresponding nitrite ester. These alkoxy radicals are susceptible to C—C fragmentation reactions, which explains the formation of a mixture of products.
Laboratory methods
It can be prepared in other methods that are of instructional value. The reaction of sodium chloroacetate with sodium nitrite in aqueous solution produces this compound:
ClCH2COONa + NaNO2 + H2O → CH3NO2 + NaCl + NaHCO3
Uses
The principal use of nitromethane is as a stabilizer for chlorinated solvents, which are used in dry cleaning, semiconductor processing, and degreasing. It is also used most effectively as a solvent or dissolving agent for acrylate monomers, such as cyanoacrylates (more commonly known as "super-glues"). It is also used as a fuel in some forms of racing.
It can be used as an explosive, when gelled with several percent of gelling agent. This type of mixture is called PLX. Other mixtures include ANNM and ANNMAl – explosive mixtures of ammonium nitrate, nitromethane and aluminium powder.
As an organic solvent, it is considered to be highly polar (εr = 36 at 20 °C and μ = 3.5 Debye) but is aprotic and possesses very low Lewis basicity. Thus, it is a rare example of a polar solvent that is also weakly coordinating. This makes it useful for dissolving positively charged, strongly electrophilic species. However, its relatively high acidity and explosive properties (see below) limit its applications.
Reactions
Acid-base properties
Nitromethane is a relatively acidic carbon acid. It has a pKa of 17.2 in DMSO solution. This value indicates an aqueous pKa of about 11. The reason of that being so acidic is due to the resonance structure below:
It is slow to deprotonate. Protonation of the conjugate base O2NCH2−, which is nearly isosteric with nitrate, occurs initially at oxygen.
Organic reactions
In organic synthesis nitromethane is employed as a one carbon building block. Its acidity allows it to undergo deprotonation, enabling condensation reactions analogous to those of carbonyl compounds. Thus, under base catalysis, nitromethane adds to aldehydes in 1,2-addition in the nitroaldol reaction. Some important derivatives include the pesticides chloropicrin (Cl3CNO2), beta-nitrostyrene, and tris(hydroxymethyl)nitromethane, ((HOCH2)3CNO2). Reduction of the latter gives tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, (HOCH2)3CNH2, better known as tris, a widely used buffer. In more specialized organic synthesis, nitromethane serves as a Michael donor, adding to α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds via 1,4-addition in the Michael reaction.
As an engine fuel
Nitromethane is used as a fuel in motor racing, particularly drag racing, as well as for radio-controlled model power boats, cars, planes and helicopters. In this context, nitromethane is commonly referred to as "nitro fuel" or simply "nitro", and is the principal ingredient for fuel used in the "Top Fuel" category of drag racing.
The oxygen content of nitromethane enables it to burn with much less atmospheric oxygen than conventional fuels. During nitromethane combustion, nitric oxide (NO) is one of the major emission products along with CO and HO. Nitric oxide contributes to air pollution, acid rain, and ozone layer depletion. Recent (2020) studies suggest the correct stoichiometric equation for the burning of nitromethane is:
4 CH3NO2 + 5 O2 → 4 CO2 + 6 H2O + 4 NO
The amount of air required to burn of gasoline is , but only of air is required for 1 kg of nitromethane. Since an engine's cylinder can only contain a limited amount of air on each stroke, 8.6 times as much nitromethane as gasoline can be burned in one stroke. Nitromethane, however, has a lower specific energy: gasoline provides about 42–44 MJ/kg, whereas nitromethane provides only 11.3 MJ/kg. This analysis indicates that nitromethane generates about 2.3 times the power of gasoline when combined with a given amount of oxygen.
Nitromethane can also be used as a monopropellant, i.e., a fuel that burns without added oxygen. The following equation describes this process:
2 CH3NO2 → 2 CO + 2 H2O + H2 + N2
Nitromethane has a laminar combustion velocity of approximately 0.5 m/s, somewhat higher than gasoline, thus making it suitable for high-speed engines. It also has a somewhat higher flame temperature of about . The high heat of vaporization of 0.56 MJ/kg together with the high fuel flow provides significant cooling of the incoming charge (about twice that of methanol), resulting in reasonably low temperatures.
Nitromethane is usually used with rich air–fuel mixtures because it provides power even in the absence of atmospheric oxygen. When rich air–fuel mixtures are used, hydrogen and carbon monoxide are two of the combustion products. These gases often ignite, sometimes spectacularly, as the normally very rich mixtures of the still burning fuel exits the exhaust ports. Very rich mixtures are necessary to reduce the temperature of combustion chamber hot parts in order to control pre-ignition and subsequent detonation. Operational details depend on the particular mixture and engine characteristics.
A small amount of hydrazine blended in nitromethane can increase the power output even further. With nitromethane, hydrazine forms an explosive salt that is again a monopropellant. This unstable mixture poses a severe safety hazard and the Academy of Model Aeronautics does not permit its use in competitions.
In model aircraft and car glow fuel, the primary ingredient is generally methanol with some nitromethane (0% to 65%, but rarely over 30%, and 10–20% lubricants (usually castor oil and/or synthetic oil). Even moderate amounts of nitromethane tend to increase the power created by the engine (as the limiting factor is often the air intake), making the engine easier to tune (adjust for the proper air/fuel ratio).
Explosive properties
Nitromethane was not known to be a high explosive until a railroad tanker car loaded with it exploded on . After much testing, it was realized that nitromethane was a more energetic high explosive than TNT, although TNT has a higher velocity of detonation (VoD) and brisance. Both of these explosives are oxygen-poor, and some benefits are gained from mixing with an oxidizer, such as ammonium nitrate. Pure nitromethane is an insensitive explosive with a VoD of approximately , but even so inhibitors may be used to reduce the hazards. The tank car explosion was speculated to be due to adiabatic compression, a hazard common to all liquid explosives. This is when small entrained air bubbles compress and superheat with rapid rises in pressure. It was thought that an operator rapidly snapped shut a valve creating a "hammer-lock" pressure surge.
Nitromethane can also be mixed with ammonium nitrate, which is used as an oxidizer, to form an explosive mixture known as ANNM.
Nitromethane is used as a model explosive, along with TNT. It has several advantages as a model explosive over TNT, namely its uniform density and lack of solid post-detonation species that complicate the determination of equation of state and further calculations.
Nitromethane reacts with solutions of sodium hydroxide or methoxide in alcohol to produce an insoluble salt of nitromethane. This substance is a sensitive explosive which reverts to nitromethane under acidic conditions and decomposes in water to form another explosive compound, sodium methazonate, which has a reddish-brown color:
2 CH3NO2 + NaOH → HON=CHCH=NO2Na + 2 H2O
Nitromethane's reaction with solid sodium hydroxide is hypergolic.
Nitromethane exhaust
Exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine whose fuel includes nitromethane will contain nitric acid vapour, which is corrosive, and when inhaled causes a muscular reaction making it impossible to breathe. The condensed nitric acid-based residue left over in a glow-fueled model engine after a model-flight session can also corrode their internal components, usually mandating use of a combination of kerosene to neutralize the residual nitric acid, and an "after-run oil" (often the lower-viscosity "air tool oil" variety of a popular preservative oil) for lubrication to safeguard against such damage, when such an engine is placed into storage.
Purification
Nitromethane is a popular solvent in organic and electroanalytical chemistry. It can be purified by cooling below its freezing point, washing the solid with cold diethyl ether, followed by distillation.
See also
Top Fuel
Adiabatic flame temperature, a thermodynamic calculation of the flame temperature of nitromethane
Dinitromethane
Model engine
Trinitromethane
Tetranitromethane
RE factor
References
Cited sources
External links
WebBook page for nitromethane
History of Nitromethane
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Nitroalkanes
Nitro solvents
Fuels
Rocket fuels
Liquid explosives
Explosive chemicals
Fuel additives
Drag racing
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
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245568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex%20function | Convex function | In mathematics, a real-valued function is called convex if the line segment between any two points on the graph of the function does not lie below the graph between the two points. Equivalently, a function is convex if its epigraph (the set of points on or above the graph of the function) is a convex set. A twice-differentiable function of a single variable is convex if and only if its second derivative is nonnegative on its entire domain. Well-known examples of convex functions of a single variable include the quadratic function and the exponential function . In simple terms, a convex function refers to a function whose graph is shaped like a cup , while a concave function's graph is shaped like a cap .
Convex functions play an important role in many areas of mathematics. They are especially important in the study of optimization problems where they are distinguished by a number of convenient properties. For instance, a strictly convex function on an open set has no more than one minimum. Even in infinite-dimensional spaces, under suitable additional hypotheses, convex functions continue to satisfy such properties and as a result, they are the most well-understood functionals in the calculus of variations. In probability theory, a convex function applied to the expected value of a random variable is always bounded above by the expected value of the convex function of the random variable. This result, known as Jensen's inequality, can be used to deduce inequalities such as the arithmetic–geometric mean inequality and Hölder's inequality.
Definition
Let be a convex subset of a real vector space and let be a function.
Then is called if and only if any of the following equivalent conditions hold:
For all and all :
The right hand side represents the straight line between and in the graph of as a function of increasing from to or decreasing from to sweeps this line. Similarly, the argument of the function in the left hand side represents the straight line between and in or the -axis of the graph of So, this condition requires that the straight line between any pair of points on the curve of to be above or just meets the graph.
For all and all such that :
The difference of this second condition with respect to the first condition above is that this condition does not include the intersection points (e.g., and ) between the straight line passing through a pair of points on the curve of (the straight line is represented by the right hand side of this condition) and the curve of the first condition includes the intersection points as it becomes or at or or In fact, the intersection points do not need to be considered in a condition of convex using because and are always true (so not useful to be a part of a condition).
The second statement characterizing convex functions that are valued in the real line is also the statement used to define that are valued in the extended real number line where such a function is allowed to (but is not required to) take as a value. The first statement is not used because it permits to take or as a value, in which case, if or respectively, then would be undefined (because the multiplications and are undefined). The sum is also undefined so a convex extended real-valued function is typically only allowed to take exactly one of and as a value.
The second statement can also be modified to get the definition of , where the latter is obtained by replacing with the strict inequality
Explicitly, the map is called if and only if for all real and all such that :
A strictly convex function is a function that the straight line between any pair of points on the curve is above the curve except for the intersection points between the straight line and the curve.
The function is said to be (resp. ) if ( multiplied by -1) is convex (resp. strictly convex ).
Alternative naming
The term convex is often referred to as convex down or concave upward, and the term concave is often referred as concave down or convex upward. If the term "convex" is used without an "up" or "down" keyword, then it refers strictly to a cup shaped graph . As an example, Jensen's inequality refers to an inequality involving a convex or convex-(up), function.
Properties
Many properties of convex functions have the same simple formulation for functions of many variable as for functions of one variable. See below the properties for the case of many variables, as some of them are not listed for functions of one variable.
Functions of one variable
Suppose is a function of one real variable defined on an interval, and let (note that is the slope of the purple line in the above drawing; the function is symmetric in means that does not change by exchanging and ). is convex if and only if is monotonically non-decreasing in for every fixed (or vice versa). This characterization of convexity is quite useful to prove the following results.
A convex function of one real variable defined on some open interval is continuous on admits left and right derivatives, and these are monotonically non-decreasing. As a consequence, is differentiable at all but at most countably many points, the set on which is not differentiable can however still be dense. If is closed, then may fail to be continuous at the endpoints of (an example is shown in the examples section).
A differentiable function of one variable is convex on an interval if and only if its derivative is monotonically non-decreasing on that interval. If a function is differentiable and convex then it is also continuously differentiable.
A differentiable function of one variable is convex on an interval if and only if its graph lies above all of its tangents: for all x and y in the interval.
A twice differentiable function of one variable is convex on an interval if and only if its second derivative is non-negative there; this gives a practical test for convexity. Visually, a twice differentiable convex function "curves up", without any bends the other way (inflection points). If its second derivative is positive at all points then the function is strictly convex, but the converse does not hold. For example, the second derivative of is , which is zero for but is strictly convex.
This property and the above property in terms of "...its derivative is monotonically non-decreasing..." are not equal since if is non-negative on an interval then is monotonically non-decreasing on while its converse is not true, for example, is monotonically non-decreasing on while its derivative is not defined at some points on .
If is a convex function of one real variable, and , then is superadditive on the positive reals, that is for positive real numbers and .
A function is midpoint convex on an interval if for all This condition is only slightly weaker than convexity. For example, a real-valued Lebesgue measurable function that is midpoint-convex is convex: this is a theorem of Sierpinski. In particular, a continuous function that is midpoint convex will be convex.
Functions of several variables
A function valued in the extended real numbers is convex if and only if its epigraph is a convex set.
A differentiable function defined on a convex domain is convex if and only if holds for all in the domain.
A twice differentiable function of several variables is convex on a convex set if and only if its Hessian matrix of second partial derivatives is positive semidefinite on the interior of the convex set.
For a convex function the sublevel sets and with are convex sets. A function that satisfies this property is called a and may fail to be a convex function.
Consequently, the set of global minimisers of a convex function is a convex set: - convex.
Any local minimum of a convex function is also a global minimum. A convex function will have at most one global minimum.
Jensen's inequality applies to every convex function . If is a random variable taking values in the domain of then where denotes the mathematical expectation. Indeed, convex functions are exactly those that satisfies the hypothesis of Jensen's inequality.
A first-order homogeneous function of two positive variables and (that is, a function satisfying for all positive real ) that is convex in one variable must be convex in the other variable.
Operations that preserve convexity
is concave if and only if is convex.
If is any real number then is convex if and only if is convex.
Nonnegative weighted sums:
if and are all convex, then so is In particular, the sum of two convex functions is convex.
this property extends to infinite sums, integrals and expected values as well (provided that they exist).
Elementwise maximum: let be a collection of convex functions. Then is convex. The domain of is the collection of points where the expression is finite. Important special cases:
If are convex functions then so is
Danskin's theorem: If is convex in then is convex in even if is not a convex set.
Composition:
If and are convex functions and is non-decreasing over a univariate domain, then is convex. As an example, if is convex, then so is . because is convex and monotonically increasing.
If is concave and is convex and non-increasing over a univariate domain, then is convex.
Convexity is invariant under affine maps: that is, if is convex with domain , then so is , where with domain
Minimization: If is convex in then is convex in provided that is a convex set and that
If is convex, then its perspective with domain is convex.
A function defined on a vector space is convex and satisfies if and only if for any and any non-negative real numbers that satisfy
Strongly convex functions
The concept of strong convexity extends and parametrizes the notion of strict convexity. A strongly convex function is also strictly convex, but not vice versa.
A differentiable function is called strongly convex with parameter if the following inequality holds for all points in its domain:
or, more generally,
where is any norm. Some authors, such as refer to functions satisfying this inequality as elliptic functions.
An equivalent condition is the following:
It is not necessary for a function to be differentiable in order to be strongly convex. A third definition for a strongly convex function, with parameter m, is that, for all x, y in the domain and
Notice that this definition approaches the definition for strict convexity as m → 0, and is identical to the definition of a convex function when m = 0. Despite this, functions exist that are strictly convex but are not strongly convex for any m > 0 (see example below).
If the function is twice continuously differentiable, then it is strongly convex with parameter m if and only if for all x in the domain, where I is the identity and is the Hessian matrix, and the inequality means that is positive semi-definite. This is equivalent to requiring that the minimum eigenvalue of be at least m for all x. If the domain is just the real line, then is just the second derivative so the condition becomes . If m = 0, then this means the Hessian is positive semidefinite (or if the domain is the real line, it means that ), which implies the function is convex, and perhaps strictly convex, but not strongly convex.
Assuming still that the function is twice continuously differentiable, one can show that the lower bound of implies that it is strongly convex. Using Taylor's Theorem there exists
such that
Then
by the assumption about the eigenvalues, and hence we recover the second strong convexity equation above.
A function is strongly convex with parameter m if and only if the function
is convex.
The distinction between convex, strictly convex, and strongly convex can be subtle at first glance. If is twice continuously differentiable and the domain is the real line, then we can characterize it as follows:
convex if and only if for all .
strictly convex if for all (note: this is sufficient, but not necessary).
strongly convex if and only if for all .
For example, let be strictly convex, and suppose there is a sequence of points such that . Even though , the function is not strongly convex because will become arbitrarily small.
A twice continuously differentiable function on a compact domain that satisfies for all is strongly convex. The proof of this statement follows from the extreme value theorem, which states that a continuous function on a compact set has a maximum and minimum.
Strongly convex functions are in general easier to work with than convex or strictly convex functions, since they are a smaller class. Like strictly convex functions, strongly convex functions have unique minima on compact sets.
Uniformly convex functions
A uniformly convex function, with modulus , is a function that, for all x, y in the domain and , satisfies
where is a function that is non-negative and vanishes only at 0. This is a generalization of the concept of strongly convex function; by taking we recover the definition of strong convexity.
It is worth noting that some authors require the modulus to be an increasing function, but this condition is not required by all authors.
Examples
Functions of one variable
The function has , so is a convex function. It is also strongly convex (and hence strictly convex too), with strong convexity constant 2.
The function has , so is a convex function. It is strictly convex, even though the second derivative is not strictly positive at all points. It is not strongly convex.
The absolute value function is convex (as reflected in the triangle inequality), even though it does not have a derivative at the point x = 0. It is not strictly convex.
The function for is convex.
The exponential function is convex. It is also strictly convex, since , but it is not strongly convex since the second derivative can be arbitrarily close to zero. More generally, the function is logarithmically convex if is a convex function. The term "superconvex" is sometimes used instead.
The function with domain [0,1] defined by for is convex; it is continuous on the open interval (0, 1), but not continuous at 0 and 1.
The function x3 has second derivative 6x; thus it is convex on the set where x ≥ 0 and concave on the set where x ≤ 0.
Examples of functions that are monotonically increasing but not convex include and .
Examples of functions that are convex but not monotonically increasing include and .
The function has which is greater than 0 if x > 0, so is convex on the interval . It is concave on the interval .
The function with , is convex on the interval and convex on the interval , but not convex on the interval , because of the singularity at x = 0.
Functions of n variables
LogSumExp function, also called softmax function, is a convex function.
The function on the domain of positive-definite matrices is convex.
Every real-valued linear transformation is convex but not strictly convex, since if is linear, then . This statement also holds if we replace "convex" by "concave".
Every real-valued affine function, i.e., each function of the form , is simultaneously convex and concave.
Every norm is a convex function, by the triangle inequality and positive homogeneity.
The spectral radius of a nonnegative matrix is a convex function of its diagonal elements.
See also
Concave function
Convex analysis
Convex conjugate
Convex optimization
Geodesic convexity
Hermite–Hadamard inequality
Invex function
Jensen's inequality
K-convex function
Kachurovskii's theorem, which relates convexity to monotonicity of the derivative
Karamata's inequality
Logarithmically convex function
Pseudoconvex function
Quasiconvex function
Subderivative of a convex function
Notes
References
Borwein, Jonathan, and Lewis, Adrian. (2000). Convex Analysis and Nonlinear Optimization. Springer.
Hiriart-Urruty, Jean-Baptiste, and Lemaréchal, Claude. (2004). Fundamentals of Convex analysis. Berlin: Springer.
External links
Types of functions
Convex analysis
Generalized convexity | [
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245579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Allen%20%28executioner%29 | Harry Allen (executioner) | Harry Bernard Allen (5 November 1911 – 14 August 1992) was one of Britain's last official executioners, officiating between 1941 and 1964. He was chief executioner at 41 executions and acted as assistant executioner at 53 others, at various prisons in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Channel Islands and Cyprus. He acted as assistant executioner for 14 years, mostly to Albert Pierrepoint from 1941 to 1955.
In October 1955 Allen was appointed as Chief Executioner alongside Pierrepoint, although he did not execute anyone in this role until 10 May 1956, when he hanged two EOKA members in Cyprus. Pierrepoint was no longer available because he had resigned in February 1956. Allen's most controversial hanging came in April 1962, when James Hanratty was hanged for murder, despite efforts to clear his name. Hanratty was proven guilty in 2002 by DNA. Allen also assisted in the execution of Derek Bentley in 1953, and he performed one of the last two executions in Britain, in August 1964.
Early life
Born in Denaby Main, near Conisbrough
in the West Riding of Yorkshire on 5 November 1911, Allen was brought up in Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, and was educated at St Anne's Roman Catholic School in Burlington Street, Ashton. His first job was in the Transport Department at Park Bridge Iron Works, before he became a bus driver with Ashton Corporation, a job he continued to hold after he became an assistant hangman in 1941.
Career as an executioner
Allen applied for a job in the Prison Service in the 1930s but was turned down. He successfully applied to be put on the Home Office list of executioners and was often employed as an assistant executioner to Tom Pierrepoint, the uncle of Albert Pierrepoint. As a preliminary step, he witnessed his first execution at the age of 29 – that of William Cooper – on 26 November 1940 at Bedford Prison, describing it as a "very good, clean job, not as gruesome as I expected".
Allen became a publican in Farnworth, Lancashire in the 1940s, combining his role as executioner with running the pub, which he ran until the early 1950s when he took over another pub, the Junction Inn, on Higher Lane in Whitefield.
In 1945, five German prisoners of war were hanged for murdering a fellow German soldier, Sergeant-Major Wolfgang Rosterg, whom they suspected of having betrayed their escape plan. It seems to have been this crime and ultimate execution that made the deepest impression on Allen. He wrote, "It was a foul murder. They staged a mock trial, kicking the victim to death and dragging him by the neck to the toilet where they hung his lifeless body on a waste pipe. These five prisoners are the most callous men I have ever met so far but I blame the Nazi doctrine for that. It must be a terrible creed." A 21-year-old, Erich Palme-König, was the first of the soldiers to be hanged at Pentonville Prison, swearing allegiance to the last to Nazi Germany.
On 28 January 1953 Allen assisted at the controversial execution of Derek Bentley, who was hanged for a murder committed by a friend and accomplice during an attempted robbery, and for which Bentley received a posthumous pardon 45 years later. Contrary to some accounts Allen was not present at the execution of Ruth Ellis, the last woman to be hanged in the UK, in 1955: the assistant to Albert Pierrepoint on that occasion was Royston Rickard.
Following the resignation of Albert Pierrepoint and the death of Stephen Wade in 1956, Allen and Robert Leslie Stewart jointly became Chief Executioners. However, the Homicide Act 1957 reduced the number of condemned criminals by 75%, from an average of 15 a year in the early 1950s to about four a year in the late 1950s. As Chief Executioner, on 11 July 1958 Allen hanged American-born Scottish serial killer Peter Manuel at Barlinnie prison, Glasgow. He also hanged Guenther Podola on 5 November 1959, a German-born petty thief, and the last man to be hanged in the UK for killing a police officer.
His most controversial case was that of James Hanratty, hanged on 4 April 1962 at Bedford Prison for the "A6 murder" case. Efforts to clear Hanratty's name continued until 2001, when DNA testing matched Hanratty to the crime scene.
Some newspapers claim that Allen's son Brian assisted his father at five hangings, a claim which is rejected by Allen's biographer Stewart McLaughlin. In Charles Duff's book A Handbook on Hanging, an article in the Daily Sketch (26 May 1960) quotes Brian as saying that he had quit as assistant hangman because his fiancé would not marry him "unless you stop helping to hang people". Brian Allen said "I'd been in two minds about quitting the job, but when Angela asked me to drop it, that decided me ... Of course, Dad and I don't talk about the hangman's job. I know it is supposed to run in families, but I've decided it is "out" for me – though someone has to do it". However, a report in The Spokesman Review (8 May 1961) headlined "Hangman Quits To Save Lives" stated that he had quit because of a "conflict of loyalties" – he had recently qualified as a mental health nurse and had taken a vow to "do all in my power to save and preserve life".
Allen performed the last execution in Northern Ireland in December 1961, when he hanged Robert McGladdery at Crumlin Road Gaol in Belfast. He also performed the last hanging in Scotland, when Henry Burnett was hanged at Craiginches Prison in Aberdeen on 15 August 1963 for the murder of Thomas Guyan. He hanged Russell Pascoe, one of the third-last prisoners to be hanged in a British prison , at Bristol's Horfield Prison on 17 December in the same year. He also performed one of the two final executions in the UK, when at 8.00 am on 13 August 1964 Gwynne Owen Evans was hanged at Strangeways Prison in Manchester for the murder of John Alan West. This occurred simultaneously with the execution of Evans's accomplice Peter Anthony Allen, who was hanged at Walton Gaol in Liverpool by Robert Leslie Stewart.
Allen always wore a bow tie during executions as a sign of respect. Of his job, Allen said, "I never felt a moment's remorse and always slept peacefully on the nights before and after a hanging."
A second man also answering to the name "Harry Allen", Herbert Allen, an ice cream salesman from the West Midlands, was also on the official list of executioners for a period in the early 1950s, having graduated from the same training group as Syd Dernley. The two Harry Allens are known to have worked together as assistants on at least two double hangings.
Executions performed by Allen as head executioner
23 July 1957 – John Wilson Vickers (HMP Durham)
4 December 1957 – Dennis Howard (HMP Winson Green, Birmingham)
11 July 1958 – Peter Thomas Manuel (HMP Barlinnie, Glasgow)
12 August 1958 – Matthew Kavanagh (Winson Green, Birmingham)
3 September 1958 – Frank Stokes (Durham)
10 February 1959 – Ernest Raymond Jones (HMP Armley, Leeds)
28 April 1959 – Joseph Chrimes (HMP Pentonville, London)
8 May 1959 – Ronald Henry Marwood (Pentonville, London)
14 August 1959 – Bernard Hugh Walden (Armley, Leeds)
9 October 1959 – Francis Joseph Huchet (Newgate Street prison, Saint Helier, Channel Islands)
9 November 1959 – Guenther Fritz Erwin Podola (HMP Wandsworth, London)
1 September 1960 – John Louis Constantine (HMP Lincoln)
10 November 1960 – Francis George Forsyth (Wandsworth, London)
22 December 1960 – Anthony Joseph Miller (Barlinnie, Glasgow)
27 January 1961 – Wasyl Gnypiuk (Lincoln)
9 February 1961 – George Riley (HMP Shrewsbury)
29 March 1961 – John Day (HMP Bedford)
25 May 1961 – Victor John Terry (Wandsworth, London)
29 June 1961 – Zsiga Pankotia (Armley, Leeds)
6 July 1961 – Edwin Albert Bush (Pentonville, London)
25 July 1961 – Samuel McLaughlin (HMP Crumlin Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland)
8 September 1961 – Henryck Niemascz (Wandsworth, London)
20 December 1961 – Robert Andrew McGladdery (Crumlin Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland)
4 April 1962 – James Hanratty (HMP Bedford)
20 November 1962 – Oswald Augustine Grey (Winson Green, Birmingham)
28 November 1962 – James Smith (HMP Strangeways, Manchester)
15 August 1963 – Henry John Burnett (HMP Craiginches, Aberdeen)
17 December 1963 – Russell Pascoe (HMP Horfield, Bristol)
13 August 1964 – Gwynne Owen Evans (HMP Strangeways, Manchester)
In addition to these, Allen also performed the 9 executions of EOKA members which took place at the Central Jail of Nicosia, Cyprus in 1956 and 1957. The remains of the hanged men are buried within the walls of the prison, in the "Imprisoned Graves" section. Their names are:
Michalis Karaolis – executed 10 May 1956
Andreas Dimitriou – executed 10 May 1956
Iakovos Patatsos – executed 9 August 1956
Andreas Zakos – executed 9 August 1956
Harilaos Michael – executed 9 August 1956
Michael Koutsoftas – executed 21 September 1956
Stelios Mavrommatis – executed 21 September 1956
Andreas Panagidis – executed 21 September 1956
Evagoras Pallikaridis – executed 14 March 1957
Following the Independence of Cyprus in 1960, Allen performed the final three executions at the Central Jail of Nicosia for the new Cypriot government, assisted by John Underhill. All 3 executions took place on 13 June 1962:
Hambis Zacharia – killed a man in a Limassol vineyard in 1958
Michael Hiletikos – shot a man dead outside a Limassol nightclub in 1961. Fled to UK and was extradited to Cyprus to stand trial
Lazaris Demetriou – shot a man dead outside a Limassol nightclub in 1961. The accomplice of Michael Hiletikos
Personal life and diaries
Allen's first wife was Marjorie Clayton whom he married in 1933. She left him on the day that he was hanging Peter Manuel. Allen's second wife was Doris Dyke, whom he married in 1963.
In October 2008 it was revealed that Allen had kept a diary which included a precise log of the prisoners and how they died. He recorded each prisoner's age, weight, height and calculations for the length of rope needed to hang them. The diary and other belongings were sold at auction in Knutsford, Cheshire on behalf of his widow in November 2008 for £17,200.
Allen always publicly maintained that hanging was a "swift and humane business". In his diaries he revealed that the execution of one prisoner, Peter Griffiths, who was convicted at Lancaster assizes of murdering a three-year-old child, June Anne Devaney, in the grounds of Queens Park Hospital in Blackburn on 15 May 1948, took 30 seconds, which would have been the time from Allen's entering the condemned cell to the moment of the drop. Many other executions were faster than this, but death itself was always practically instantaneous. Griffiths was 22 years old, 5' 10" tall, weighed 10st 8lbs, and was given a drop of 7 feet 6 inches on 15 November 1948 at Walton Gaol. Of another hanging he noted, "Very good job, but should have had another two or three inches – very strong."
His granddaughter Fiona Allen is a comedian and actress, who rose to fame on the comedy sketch show Smack the Pony. She said of him, "It's as if I had two grandfathers. One was the sweet, lovely man who took me for walks on the beach, bought me sweets and toys and always had me laughing and giggling. The other one was the man employed to take lives for the Government. When I was a kid, everyone in the area knew what he did. I remember going round to my first boyfriend's house for the first time and I tried to impress his dad by telling him I wanted to go on the stage. He looked up from his paper and said, 'Going on the stage are you, lass? Well keep away from the trapdoor!.
Later life
Under the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, capital punishment in the UK for murder was suspended, before finally being abolished in 1969 (It was abolished in 1973 in Northern Ireland). Although the death penalty remained for other crimes such as treason and piracy with violence, no further executions took place in the UK, although a working gallows was kept in service and regularly tested at Wandsworth Prison until 1998. It was dismantled when the death penalty for treason and piracy was abolished by the Crime and Disorder Act 1998.
Allen moved to Fleetwood with his wife Doris in 1977, to escape the continued publicity, and worked there as a cashier at Fleetwood Pier. He died on 14 August 1992, just a month after Albert Pierrepoint, who had died on 10 July in Southport.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Newspaper article with image from a page of Harry Allen's diary about the execution of Peter Griffiths
1911 births
1992 deaths
People from Conisbrough
English executioners
People from Ashton-under-Lyne
English Roman Catholics | [
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] |
245581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Leslie%20Stewart | Robert Leslie Stewart | Robert Leslie Stewart (April 1918 – 30 April 1988), from Edinburgh, Scotland, also known as Jock Stewart, was one of the last executioners in the United Kingdom, officiating between 1950 and 1964.
Brought up in Dundee Street in Edinburgh, 3 miles from Saughton Prison, Stewart completed the Prison Commissioners' Assistant Executioner training course in September 1950 at Pentonville Prison in London. His name first appeared on the Home Office list in 1950, with his first engagement occurring at Norwich on 19 July 1951, assisting Stephen Wade at the execution of Alfred Reynolds.
Stewart was active on the Home Office list between 1950 and the suspension of capital punishment for murder in 1965, carrying out 21 executions as assistant. On the 1957 printing of the list, Stewart and Harry Allen were both promoted to the role of executioner in the wake of the resignation of Albert Pierrepoint and the death of Wade, both in 1956. In this capacity, Stewart carried out six executions. He also assisted Harry Allen at the execution of Anthony Miller, the last teenager to be executed in the United Kingdom.
Stewart performed one of the last executions in the United Kingdom at 8 am on 13 August 1964, when he hanged Peter Anthony Allen at Walton Prison. Allen had been convicted of the murder of John Alan West; Allen's accomplice, Gwynne Owen Evans, was hanged at Strangeways Prison in Manchester, at the same time by Harry Allen. Stewart also carried out the last execution in Wales, that of Vivian Teed at Swansea Prison in May 1958, for the murder of a postmaster during a robbery in Swansea.
Stewart died in South Africa in 1988 at the age of 70. He had emigrated there after the abolition of capital punishment to work as an airline engineer.
Executions performed by Stewart as chief executioner
6 May 1958 – Vivian Teed (HMP Swansea)
17 December 1958 – Brian Chandler (HMP Durham)
14 May 1959 – Michael George Tatum (HMP Winchester)
10 November 1960 – Norman Harris (HMP Pentonville, London)
17 December 1963 - Dennis Whitty (HMP Winchester)
13 August 1964 – Peter Anthony Allen (HMP Liverpool)
References
Notes
Bibliography
1918 births
1988 deaths
Scottish executioners
People from Edinburgh
Scottish emigrants to South Africa | [
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245583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicity | Publicity | In marketing, publicity is the public visibility or awareness for any product, service, person or organization (company, charity, etc.). It may also refer to the movement of information from its source to the general public, often (but not always) via the media. The subjects of publicity include people of public interest, goods and services, organizations, and works of art or entertainment.
A publicist is someone that carries out publicity, while public relations (PR) is the strategic management function that helps an organization establish and maintain communication with the public. This can be done internally, without the use of popular media. From a marketing perspective, publicity is one component of promotion and marketing. The other elements of the promotional mix are advertising, sales promotion, direct marketing and personal selling.
Organizations will sometimes organize events designed to attract media coverage, and subsequently, provide positive publicity; these events are known as publicity stunts.
History
Publicity originates from the French word publicité (advertisement). Publicity as a practice originates in the core of Paris, where shopping, tourism and the entertainment industry met commercialised print media and a burgeoning publishing industry. Among the urban society, scenes of consumption and new consumer identities were circulated through advertisement. La Maison Aubert shaped the emerging discipline of publicity. In early 19th century Paris, the advertisements and publicity campaigns for consumer items, such as cashmere shawls, and retailers such as perfumeries soon attracted regulation on flyposting.
19th century US companies included not only pro-sales messages in their publicity, but also explanations, demonstrations and exaggerations. Patent medicine and cosmetics manufacturers in the US frequently described or even showed consumers before and after the usage of the product. The Blair Manufacturing Company was among the US companies that advertised its products by comparing old-fashioned consumers who did not use the advertised product with the progressive customers who did. Before-after-changes became common in advertisement from 1910 onwards.
In the early 20th century, American Albert Lasker, developed the used of advertising for appealing to consumers' psychology.
The contemporary economist Thorstein Veblen criticised the relative benefit of publicity. He argued that vendibility is not utility, and that publicity had "no traceable relation to any benefit which the community may derive." Veblen estimated how much the publicity campaigns of companies added to the price consumers were paying. He argued that the publicity overhead for over-the-counter pharmaceuticals and cosmetics was more than half the retail price.
Public relations
Publicity is often referred to as the result of public relations, in terms of providing favourable information to media and any third party outlets; these may including bloggers, mainstream media, as well as new media forms such as podcasts. This is done to provide a message to consumers without having to pay for direct time or space. This in return creates awareness and achieves greater credibility. After the message has been distributed, the publicist in charge of the information will lose control of how the message is used and interpreted, in contrast to the way it works in advertising. According to Grunig, public relations is often reduced to publicity. He also states how publicity is a form of activity in which should be associated with the sales promotion effort of a company, in order to help aid advertising and personal salesmanship as well. Kent also stated that the doing of publicity can help attract attention whilst also supplying information regarding a specific organization or individual client and any event, activity or attribute associated with them.
The use of publicity is also known to be an important strategic element and promotional tool due to its effect of intentional exposure on a consumer. This helps publicity gain an advantage over other forms of marketing, such as advertising, often in order to boost credibility. Favourable publicity is also created through reputation management, in which organizations try strive to control via the web. Furthermore, despite the fact that publicity, both good or bad, can be beneficial for an organization, company or individual, much of it is paid for despite claims that publicity is often free.
Despite publicity being an influential benefit within the marketing sector, one disadvantage which highly affects publicity is the lack of ability in which publicity cannot be repeated, in comparison to paid advertising.
Publicists
A publicist is a person whose job is to generate and manage publicity for a company, product, public figure (especially a celebrity), or work such as a book, movie, or band. Though there are many aspects to a publicist's job, their main function is to persuade the news media to report about their client in the most positive way possible. Publicists identify newsworthy aspects of products and personalities to offer to media outlets as possible reportage ideas. A variant of this practice which relies on linking a brand to a breaking news story has been dubbed "newsjacking". Publicists are also responsible for shaping reportage about their clients in a timely manner that fits within a media outlet's news cycle. They attempt to present a newsworthy story in a way that influences editorial coverage in a certain, usually positive, direction. This is what is generally referred to as spin.
A publicist generally serves as a bridge between a client and the public. Although day-to-day duties vary depending on what each clients needs consist of, the main focal point for a publicist is promotion. With regard to a crisis situation, publicists often attempt to use the situation as an opportunity to get their organization's or client's name into the media.
A press agent, or flack, is a professional publicist who acts on behalf of his or her client on all matters involving public relations. Press agents are typically employed by public personalities and organizations such as performers and businesses. A press agent will provide information to the media such as upcoming public events, interview opportunities, and promotional dates, and will work with the media in getting in touch with an appropriate client or resource. Press agents are occasionally required to act as "spin doctors, to put into the best light their clients' public actions. While press agents have traditionally worked with newspapers and television, they may also be conversant with newer media forms such as blogs and podcasts.
Professor Elizabeth L. Toth describes how press agents are willing to intrigue mainstream media and web blogs with "bad news" (celebrity drug addictions, divorces, scandals, sordid affairs etc.) in order to "sell" a story and help gain further coverage for their clients. This is supported by the press agentry/publicity model which is often used within the fashion, sporting, and entertainment industries, following the presumption that even bad news can be good publicity.
Negative publicity
Publicity can also create a negative effect for those being publicized. One of the most important factors in relation to influencing a consumer's buying decision is how a company, brand, or individual deals with negative publicity. Negative publicity may result in major loss of revenue or market shares within a business. It can also play a part in damaging a consumer's perception of a brand or its products. Negative publicity's high credibility and greater influence compared to other company-controlled communications play a part in the potential damage it may have on a corporate image. Crises involved with an organization may also result in negative publicity.
Furthermore, negative publicity affects everything from the evaluation of a brand and product to the present. Often, when awareness of a company, brand, or individual is high, negative publicity is deemed to hurt possible sales. In contrast, companies, brands, and individuals who are not widely known may use the negative publicity in order to increase brand awareness among the public.
The extensive range of media outlets, including both traditional and new media, provide opportunities for companies to market their products or services. This, however, restricts or reduces the ability to manage negative publicity, as their message may be spread across media outlets. In order for organizations to try salvage any negative publicity surrounding their brand, corporate social responsibility (CSR) is one solution which can help protect the image of a company or help reverse the damage. Companies must adopt the CSR approach early for it to be effective, or potential risks such as falsified intentions may develop within a consumer's perception.
Despite the damaging effect negative publicity may cause, negative publicity may not always have the expected effect. There is a possibility that negative publicity may in fact gain more attention as opposed to positive publicity. Regardless of the nature of negative publicity and its ability to turn most people away, any slight hint of negative publicity can in fact build interest amongst the consumer. As stated by Monga & John, negative publicity is not always harmful, and consumers whom identify a brand with strong attitudes are highly unlikely to be affected by the negative publicity formed.
See also
Earned media
Photo op
Publicity stunt
Succès de scandale
Viral marketing
References
Promotion and marketing communications
Public relations | [
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245584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20subscriber%20line%20access%20multiplexer | Digital subscriber line access multiplexer | A digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM, often pronounced DEE-slam) is a network device, often located in telephone exchanges, that connects multiple customer digital subscriber line (DSL) interfaces to a high-speed digital communications channel using multiplexing techniques. Its cable internet (DOCSIS) counterpart is the Cable modem termination system.
Path taken by data to DSLAM
Customer premises: DSL modem terminating the ADSL, SHDSL or VDSL circuit and providing a LAN or interface to a single computer or LAN segment.
Local loop: the telephone company wires from a customer to the telephone exchange or to a serving area interface, often called the "last mile" (LM).
Telephone exchange:
Main distribution frame (MDF): a wiring rack that connects outside subscriber lines with internal lines. It is used to connect public or private lines coming into the building to internal networks. At the telco, the MDF is generally in proximity to the cable vault and not far from the telephone switch.
xDSL filters: DSL filters are used in the telephone exchange to split voice from data signals. The voice signal can be routed to a plain old telephone service (POTS) provider, digital telephone exchange or left unused whilst the data signal is routed to the ISP DSLAM via the HDF (see next entry).
Handover distribution frame (HDF): a distribution frame that connects the last mile provider with the service provider's DSLAM
DSLAM: a device for DSL service. The DSLAM port where the subscriber local loop is connected converts analog electrical signals to data traffic (upstream traffic for data upload) and data traffic to analog electrical signals (downstream for data download).
Role of the DSLAM
The DSLAM equipment collects the data from its many modem ports and aggregates their voice and data traffic into one complex composite "signal" via multiplexing. Depending on its device architecture and setup, a DSLAM aggregates the DSL lines over its Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), frame relay, and/or Internet Protocol network, i.e., an IP-DSLAM using Packet Transfer Mode - Transmission Convergence (PTM-TC) protocol(s) stack.
The aggregated traffic is then directed to a telco's backbone switch, via an access network (AN), also called a Network Service Provider (NSP), at up to 10 Gbit/s data rates.
The DSLAM acts like a network switch since its functionality is at Layer 2 of the OSI model. Therefore, it cannot re-route traffic between multiple IP networks, only between ISP devices and end-user connection points. The DSLAM traffic is switched to a Broadband Remote Access Server where the end-user traffic is then routed across the ISP network to the Internet. Customer-premises equipment that interfaces well with the DSLAM to which it is connected may take advantage of enhanced telephone voice and data line signaling features and the bandwidth monitoring and compensation capabilities it supports.
A DSLAM may or may not be located in the telephone exchange, and may also serve multiple data and voice customers within a neighborhood serving area interface, sometimes in conjunction with a digital loop carrier. DSLAMs are also used by hotels, lodges, residential neighborhoods, and other businesses operating their own private telephone exchange.
In addition to being a data switch and multiplexer, a DSLAM is also a large collection of modems. Each modem on the aggregation card communicates with a single subscriber's DSL modem. This modem functionality is integrated into the DSLAM itself instead of being done via an external device like a 20th-century voiceband modem.
Like traditional voice-band modems, a DSLAM's integrated DSL modems are usually able to probe the line and to adjust themselves to electronically or digitally compensate for forward echoes and other bandwidth-limiting factors in order to move data at the maximum possible connection rate.
This compensation capability also takes advantage of the better performance of "balanced line" DSL connections, providing capabilities for LAN segments longer than physically similar unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Ethernet connections, since the balanced line type is generally required for its hardware to function correctly. This is due to the nominal line impedance (measured in Ohms but comprising both resistance and inductance) of balanced lines being somewhat lower than that of UTP, thus supporting 'weaker' signals (however the solid-state electronics required to construct such digital interfaces are more costly).
Bandwidth versus distance
Balanced pair cable has higher attenuation at higher frequencies. Therefore, the longer the wire between DSLAM and subscriber, the slower the maximum possible data rate due to the lower frequencies being used to limit the total attenuation (or due to the higher number of errors at higher frequencies, effectively lowering the overall frequency/data rate). The following is a rough guide to the relation between wire distance (based on 0.40 mm copper and ADSL2+ technology) and maximum data rate. Local conditions may vary, especially beyond 2 km, often necessitating a closer DSLAM to bring acceptable bandwidths:
25 Mbit/s at 1,000 feet (~300 m)
24 Mbit/s at 2,000 feet (~600 m)
23 Mbit/s at 3,000 feet (~900 m)
22 Mbit/s at 4,000 feet (~1.2 km)
21 Mbit/s at 5,000 feet (~1.5 km)
19 Mbit/s at 6,000 feet (~1.8 km)
16 Mbit/s at 7,000 feet (~2.1 km)
8 Mbit/s at 10,000 feet (~3 km)
3 Mbit/s at 15,000 feet (4.5 km)
1.5 Mbit/s at 17,000 feet (~5.2 km)
Hardware details
Customers connect to the DSLAM through ADSL modems or DSL routers, which are connected to the PSTN network via typical unshielded twisted pair telephone lines. Each DSLAM has multiple aggregation cards, and each such card can have multiple ports to which the customers' lines are connected. Typically a single DSLAM aggregation card has 24 ports, but this number can vary with each manufacturer.
The most common DSLAMs are housed in a telco-grade chassis, which are supplied with (nominal) 48 volts DC. Hence a typical DSLAM setup may contain power converters, DSLAM chassis, aggregation cards, cabling, and upstream links.
On the upstream trunk (ISP) side many early DSLAMs used ATM—and this approach was standardized by the DSL Forum—with Gigabit Ethernet support appearing sometime later. Today, the most common upstream links in these DSLAMs use Gigabit Ethernet or multi-gigabit fiber optic links.
IP-DSLAM
IP-DSLAM stands for Internet Protocol Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer. User traffic is mostly IP based.
Traditional 20th century DSLAMs used Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) technology to connect to upstream ATM routers/switches. The DSLAM simply extracted the ATM signals from the DSL signal, and passed the ATM signal to ATM routers, which then extract the IP traffic and pass it on to an IP router in an IP network. This division of work was thought to be sensible because DSL itself is based on ATM, and could theoretically carry data other than IP in that ATM stream. In contrast, an IP-DSLAM extracts the IP traffic in the DSLAM itself and passes it on to an IP router. The advantages of IP-DSLAM over a traditional ATM DSLAM are that the merged equipment is less expensive to make and operate and can offer a richer set of features.
See also
Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL)
Broadband Internet access
Broadband Remote Access Server (BRAS)
ISDN digital subscriber line (IDSL)
Multi-service access node (MSAN)
Symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL)
Symmetric high-speed digital subscriber line (SHDSL)
Triple play (telecommunications)
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL)
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line 2 (VDSL2)
References
External links
What Is DSLAM? Complete guide to understanding DSLAM
Technical whitepaper on merging fiber with DSLAM
Cisco PPPoA Baseline Architecture (with diagrams)
Multiplexing
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245586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoplanet | Protoplanet | A protoplanet is a large planetary embryo that originated within a protoplanetary disc and has undergone internal melting to produce a differentiated interior. Protoplanets are thought to form out of kilometer-sized planetesimals that gravitationally perturb each other's orbits and collide, gradually coalescing into the dominant planets.
In the case of the Solar System, it is thought that the collisions of planetesimals created a few hundred planetary embryos. Such embryos were similar to Ceres and Pluto with masses of about 1022 to 1023 kg and were a few thousand kilometers in diameter. Over the course of hundreds of millions of years, they collided with one another. The exact sequence whereby planetary embryos collided to assemble the planets is not known, but it is thought that initial collisions would have replaced the first "generation" of embryos with a second generation consisting of fewer but larger embryos. These in their turn would have collided to create a third generation of fewer but even larger embryos. Eventually, only a handful of embryos were left, which collided to complete the assembly of the planets proper.
Early protoplanets had more radioactive elements, the quantity of which has been reduced over time due to radioactive decay. Heating due to radioactivity, impact, and gravitational pressure melted parts of protoplanets as they grew toward being planets. In melted zones their heavier elements sank to the center, whereas lighter elements rose to the surface. Such a process is known as planetary differentiation. The composition of some meteorites show that differentiation took place in some asteroids.
According to the giant impact hypothesis the Moon formed from a colossal impact of a hypothetical protoplanet called Theia with Earth, early in the Solar System's history.
In the inner Solar System, the three protoplanets to survive more-or-less intact are the asteroids Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta. Psyche is likely the survivor of a violent hit-and-run with another object that stripped off the outer, rocky layers of a protoplanet. The asteroid Metis may also have a similar origin history to that of Psyche. The asteroid Lutetia also has characteristics that resemble a protoplanet. Kuiper-belt dwarf planets have also been referred to as protoplanets. Because iron meteorites have been found on Earth, it is deemed likely that there once were other metal-cored protoplanets in the asteroid belt that since have been disrupted and that are the source of these meteorites.
In February 2013 astronomers made the first direct observation of a protoplanet forming in a disk of gas and dust around a distant star.
See also
Accretion (astrophysics)
Fusor (astronomy)
Mesoplanet
Planetesimal
References
External links
Thread on the definition of a protoplanet (Minor Planet Mailing List : July 15, 2011)
Types of planet | [
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