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244497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar%20and%20Lucinda | Oscar and Lucinda | Oscar and Lucinda is a novel by Australian author Peter Carey which won the 1988 Booker Prize and the 1989 Miles Franklin Award. It was shortlisted for The Best of the Booker.
Plot introduction
It tells the story of Oscar Hopkins, the Devonian son of a Plymouth Brethren minister who becomes an Anglican priest, and Lucinda Leplastrier, a young Australian heiress who buys a glass factory. They meet on the ship over to Australia, and discover that they are both gamblers, one obsessive, the other compulsive. Lucinda bets Oscar that he cannot transport a glass church from Sydney to a remote settlement at Bellingen, some 400 km up the New South Wales coast. This bet changes both their lives forever.
Inspiration
The novel partly takes its inspiration from Father and Son, the autobiography of the English poet Edmund Gosse, which describes his relationship with his father, Philip Henry Gosse.
Film
A film version released in 1997 was directed by Gillian Armstrong and starred Ralph Fiennes, Cate Blanchett, and Tom Wilkinson.
References
External links
Peter Carey discusses Oscar and Lucinda on the BBC World Book Club
Oscar and Lucinda at the National Film and Sound Archive
Oscar and Lucinda at IMDB
Booker Prize-winning works
1988 Australian novels
Novels by Peter Carey (novelist)
Miles Franklin Award-winning works
Novels set in New South Wales
University of Queensland Press books
Australian novels adapted into films
Fiction set in the 1830s
Fiction set in the 1840s
Fiction set in the 1850s
Fiction set in the 1860s | [
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244500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizarro | Bizarro | Bizarro () is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by writer Otto Binder and artist George Papp as a "mirror image" of Superman and first appeared in Superboy #68 (1958).
Debuting in the Silver Age of Comic Books (1956 – c. 1970), the character has often been portrayed as an antagonist to Superman, though on occasion he also takes on an anti-hero role, and has appeared in both comic books and graphic novels as well as other DC Comics-related products such as animated and live-action television series, trading cards, toys, and video games.
Publication history
Bizarro debuted in Superboy #68 (cover-dated October 1958, but on sale in August), writer Otto Binder casting the character as a Frankenstein's monster pastiche that possessed all the powers of Superboy. Shunned for his unenviable appearance, the teen version of Bizarro only appeared in a single comic book story. An adult version appeared around the same time in the Superman daily newspaper comic strip written by Alvin Schwartz, debuting in Episode 105: "The Battle With Bizarro" (strips 6147–6242: August 25, 1958 to December 13, 1958). According to comics historian Mark Evanier, Schwartz long claimed that he originated the Bizarro concept prior to the character's appearance in Superboy. The newspaper storyline introduced the strange speech patterns that became synonymous with the character, with all of Bizarro's comments meaning the opposite (e.g. "bad" means "good"). The newspaper version wore a "B" on his chest, as opposed to Superman's distinctive "S".
Schwartz stated:
Binder introduced the adult version of the character into the Superman comic book, this time wearing an "S", in Action Comics #254 (July 1959). Bizarro proved popular, and eventually starred in a Bizarro World feature in Adventure Comics for fifteen issues, running from issue #285–299 (June 1961 – August 1962), as well as in a special all-Bizarro 80-Page Giant (Superman #202, December 1967/January 1968). The character made forty appearances in the Superman family of titlesAction Comics, Superman, Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen, Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane, Adventure Comics, Secret Society of Super Villains, and DC Comics Presentsfrom 1959 to 1984, prior to a reboot of the DC Universe as a result of the limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths #1–12 (April 1985 – March 1986).
Bizarro was reintroduced into the DC Universe in a one-off appearance with characterization similar to his original Superboy appearance in Superman: The Man of Steel #5 (December 1986). He was later revived in the "Bizarro's World" serial that ran through the Superman titles in March and April 1994, and in Action Comics Annual #8 in 1996. An unrelated four-issue limited series titled A. Bizarro (July–October) was published in 1999.
Yet another version was introduced during the "Emperor Joker" storyline in September–October 2000. Remaining in DC Comics continuity, this Bizarro continued to make semi-regular guest appearances that firmly established the character as part of the Superman mythos.
Fictional character biography
Pre-Crisis Bizarro
General Zod's Bizarro Army
General Dru-Zod had originally created bizarro duplicates of himself to dominate the planet Krypton. The Bizarros had no power because they were not under a yellow sun, but they were soldiers ready to kill and die without hesitation. This was the reason why Zod was banished to the Phantom Zone for 25 Krypton sun-cycles.
Bizarro-Superboy
Some 12 years later, totally oblivious to these facts, a scientist on Earth is demonstrating his newly invented "duplicating ray" to Superboy, and an accident causes the ray to duplicate the superhero. The copy, quickly labeled "Bizarro", is a flawed imitation as it possesses chalky white skin and childlike erratic behavior. Shunned by the people of Smallville, Bizarro befriends a blind girl named Melissa, and loses all hope when he realizes that the girl did not shun or flee from him because she was blind. Superboy is eventually forced to "kill" the "less than perfect" clone, using the remains of the duplicating machine, which acts like blue kryptonite (as opposed to green kryptonite, Superboy's weakness) on the copy. The whole business proved unexpectedly easy as Bizarro deliberately destroyed himself by colliding with the duplicating machine's fragment. The ensuing explosion miraculously restores Melissa's eyesight.
Bizarro #1
Years afterward, Superman's arch-foe Lex Luthor recreates the "duplicating ray" and uses it on the hero, hoping to control the duplicate that became known as Bizarro #1. The Bizarro that is created, however, is confused, stating: "Me not human... me not creature... me not even animal! Me unhappy! Me don't belong in world of living people! Me don't know difference between right and wronggood and evil!" Luthor is arrested by Bizarro for re-creating him, but forgotten as Bizarro attempts to emulate Superman, creating havoc in the city of Metropolis and almost exposing Superman's secret identity as Clark Kent. When Bizarro falls in love with reporter Lois Lane, she uses the duplicating ray on herself to create a "Bizarro Lois", who is instantly attracted to Bizarro. In addition, he also used the duplicating ray on himself to create "New Bizarro" who later dies from exposure to Green Kryptonite. The Bizarros leave Earth together, determined to find a home where they can be themselves.
Superman encounters the couple once again, discovering that Bizarronow called Bizarro #1has used a version of the duplication ray to create an entire world of Bizarros, who now reside on a cube-shaped planet called "Htrae" (Earth spelled backwards). Bizarro #1 and Bizarro-Lois #1 also give birth to a child who, while super-powered, appears to be totally human. Considered a freak by Bizarro standards (out of resentment for the way he was treated by Earth humans, Bizarro #1 made a law that they must act the opposite of humans, causing no end of lunacy), the child is the catalyst for a brief war between Htrae and Earth. Blue Kryptonite is also invented during this war, as well as the temporary existence of Bizarro-Supergirl. Bizarro also has a series of adventures on Htrae, aiding a normal Jimmy Olsen when he is accidentally trapped there, preventing an invasion of blue kryptonite statues, and stopping the Bizarro version of Titano.
Bizarro's influence is also felt on Earth: Jimmy Olsen is inadvertently turned into a Bizarro for a while, and a new teen version of Bizarro travels to the 30th century and attempts to join the Legion of Super-Heroes. When he is rejected by the Legion, the Bizarro teen creates his own Bizarro version of the Legion, which Superboy eventually persuades him to disband.
When Bizarro encounters Superman once again, his powers are now the opposite of Superman's (such as freeze vision as opposed to heat vision and heat breath rather than freeze breath), and he attempts to kidnap Lois Lane. Bizarro also temporarily joins the Secret Society of Super Villains to battle the Justice League of America and Captain Comet.
Bizarro appears in the Alan Moore-scripted "Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?", in Superman #423 (September 1986). Bizarro goes berserk and destroys the Bizarro World and its inhabitants, then travels to Metropolis and wreaks havoc before abruptly committing suicide. This and many other deaths turn out to be the machinations of Mister Mxyzptlk, who had begun a rampage of crime. Superman is unable to undo the deaths, but kills Mxyzptlk and then uses gold kryptonite on himself.
Bizarro's final pre-Crisis appearance was in DC Comics Presents #97 (September 1986), which was also the final issue of that series. After being empowered by a hideously disfigured Phantom Zone sorcerer, Mr. Mxyzptlk destroys Zrfff and then causes the Bizarro world to implode, killing all its inhabitants. Bizarro's severed head crashes onto Clark Kent's desk and addresses Clark Kent before his simulated life ends. Bizarro does not appear in the Crisis on Infinite Earths, apparently because of this story's events.
This story directly contradicts a World's Finest story where it is revealed that sometime in the future, Htrae is transformed into a more normal world (egg-shaped rather than cubical) by the radiation from an exploding celestial body. The Bizarros are changed into normal people without powers, but still retain vestiges of their Bizarro laws (curtains hung outside the windows of a house, etc.).
Post-Crisis
Project Changeling
After the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths, Lex Luthor orders his scientific team to create a clone of Superman that was part of Project Changeling. Incorrectly starting from the assumption that Superman is a human with metahuman abilities (his alien origin had not yet been revealed), the process results in a flawed copy, which Luthor dismissively refers to as "...this bizarreOh, forget it", before ordering for the subject to be disposed of. The clone survives and, although mute and possessed of only limited intelligence and vague memories of Clark Kent's life, attempts to mimic Superman. He kidnaps Lois Lane and is finally destroyed when colliding with Superman in mid-air. Each time he exerted himself, the clone crumbled slightly. When Lois Lane's sister, who had been blinded in a terrorist attack, is exposed to Bizarro's dust, she regains her sight. While Superman had not expected this effect, he speculated that Bizarro heard the sister explain her partial recovery and may have deliberately allowed himself to be killed in order to cure her.
Bizarro II
A second Bizarro, able to speak and think better due to genetic engineering by Luthor, appears in a 5-issue substory in the clone plague story-arc titled "Bizarro's World" (beginning in Superman vol. 2 #87). Before he died, this Bizarro seriously injured Happersen, kidnapped Lois, created a ramshackle dummy version of Metropolis in a warehouse (to parody Superman's frequently rescuing Lois, he deliberately exposed her to and "rescued" her from one lethal danger after another), abducted Lana Lang, proposed to Lois and finally died in Luthor's labs. During this period, Superman also had to cope with an unending increase in his powers due to exposure to "purple kryptonite" in the climax of the Death of Superman and Reign of the Supermen story-arcs.
Dabney Donovan's Bizarro
One other Bizarro is created using Lex Luthor's clone process, by Lex Luthor's estranged wife Contessa Portenza and Dabney Donovan shortly after Superman regained his normal powers when he expended his electromagnetic ones. This Bizarro abducted Lex Luthor's baby daughter and intended to send her by rocket to another planet, emulating Kal-El's escape from Krypton. His pile of explosives and bombs, meant to launch the rocket, would have killed her instead, and Superman had to shield her when Bizarro threw the launch switch. Bizarro III, already self-destructing from a genetic booby trap encoded into him by his creator, perished in the explosion.
Joker's Bizarro/Bizarro #1
Another version of Bizarro possesses all the abilities of Superman but with a childlike mentality and method of speech. He is created by Batman's arch-enemy the Joker when the villain steals the powers of the fifth-dimensional imp Mister Mxyzptlk. Creating a twisted version of Earth called "Jokerworld"a perfect cube with Joker's image on each facetthe villain designates Bizarro to be the planet's greatest hero and leader of a reimagined "JLA" (the "Joker's League of Anarchy"). When Mxyzptlk regains his powers, the imp allows Bizarro and several other beings to remain on the restored Earth.
Bizarro suffers a setback when captured by the Pokolistanian dictator General Zod. Zod beats and tortures Bizarro, simply because the creature resembles Superman. The hero rescues Bizarro, and to help him adjust to the normal Earth rebuilds Bizarro's "Graveyard of Solitude" (the opposite of Superman's Fortress of Solitude).
During the "Infinite Crisis" storyline, Bizarro is tricked into joining the reformed Secret Society of Super Villains by Flash's foe Zoom. In a battle with the Freedom Fighters Bizarro accidentally kills the Human Bomb, repeatedly hitting the hero to see the flashes of light that are produced from the kinetic energy of the blows.
Bizarro becomes involved when Kryptonian criminals, led by General Zod, escape to Earth. Wishing to create a home for himself, Bizarro travels into deep space to a solar system occupied by a blue sun. After creating a cube shaped planet, filled with distorted versions of various buildings and locations on Earth, Bizarro is still lonely. The blue sun, however, gives Bizarro a new ability called "Bizarro Vision", which allows him to create new Bizarros. When this fails, Bizarro kidnaps Jonathan Kent, Superman's adopted father on Earth. Superman rescues his father and helps Bizarro become his world's greatest hero.
Bizarro eventually appears on the planet Throneworld, befriending and aiding Earth hero Adam Strange and allies Prince Gavyn, Captain Comet, and the Weird. Together they participate in the war between alien worlds Rann and Thanagar, and against villains Lady Styx and Synnar. Bizarro eventually visits the grave of a deceased Jonathan Kent, and is then sent (by rogue Kryptonians) with other Superman foes to the inter-dimensional prison, the Phantom Zone.
Bizarro has a series of encounters with former Secret Society ally Solomon Grundy, and during the events of Blackest Night, Bizarro confronts the Black Lantern version of Grundy. Bizarro destroys Grundy by driving him into the heart of the Sun.
Later, while investigating an object that crashes into a Metropolis park and leaves a massive crystallized crater in its center, Dr. Light and Gangbuster discover a Bizarro-like creature that resembles Supergirl. The Bizarro Supergirl takes the heroes hostage, but is defeated in battle by the real Supergirl. It is revealed that the Bizarro Supergirl is a refugee from the cube-shaped Bizarro World, and was sent to Earth by her cousin after their planet was attacked by a being known as the Godship. Dr. Light attempts to take the Bizarro Supergirl to S.T.A.R. Labs, only to be violently knocked unconscious by Supergirl, who then absconds with her doppelganger and her ship, hoping to stop the Godship and save Bizarro World. After taking Bizarro Supergirl back to Bizarro World, Bizarro Superman is reunited with Bizarro Supergirl.
The New 52
In 2011, The New 52 rebooted the DC Universe. Two versions of Bizarro first appear in the Forever Evil event.
Subject A-0
Five years ago, Lex Luthor, intending to create his personal army of Supermen, attempted to splice Superman's DNA with human DNA and injected it into a teenage test subject named Bobby. Instead, he transforms into a hulking white-skinned monster with cryonic vision, incendiary breath, and immunity to Kryptonite which is labeled "Subject A-0". Deducing his weakness, Luthor hits him with concentrated solar radiation that oversaturates his cells and kills him. Luthor then takes samples of the creature to continue his experiment, deciding to clone a purely Kryptonian body. Five years later, a capsule labeled B-0 is shown.
Subject B-0
After the Crime Syndicate takes over the world, Luthor releases Subject B-0, though his transformation is only halfway through. When he kills a security guard named Otis on Luthor's orders, Luthor is pleased and decides to use the imperfect clone in his plan to take the Syndicate down. Later, when Luthor and his team of villains pass through a tunnel, B-0 is revealed to be afraid of darkness. Luthor tries to comfort him with a story about his own fears, but ultimately wonders whether the clone was a waste of time; B-0 then speaks his first words, "Bizarro... try", much to Luthor's surprise. Though initially doubtful, Luthor grows truly fond of "Bizarro", who proves to be a powerful asset throughout the event.
During the final confrontation against the Earth-3 invaders, Bizarro battles Mazahs, the alternate version of Luthor himself; although he initially has the upper hand, Bizarro is fatally wounded and left to die. Luthor desperately tries to fix him, to no avail, and they share a sorrowful goodbye. Enraged over the death of Bizarro, Lex Luthor murders his Earth-3 counterpart, avenging Bizarro. After the battle is over, Luthor restarts the cloning process; when one of his scientists states it should take about ten years to fully develop a perfect Kryptonian clone, Luthor corrects him by saying it will take only five years, revealing he truly intends to create a perfect copy of Bizarro.
DC Rebirth
In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called "DC Rebirth", which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to "The New 52".
A clone of Bizarro is found inside of a tube in a train car stolen by Black Mask sometime after the Crime Syndicate of America incident. Red Hood and Artemis jump aboard the train car attempting to steal a weapon, not expecting it to be a clone of Superman. Bizarro eventually joins Red Hood's Outlaws. During this time, Bizarro is stricken with a sickness which causes his cells to rapidly deteriorate. After saving his teammates in the Outlaws, he dies. Lex Luthor takes his body to try to resurrect him, on the condition that he be the property of Lexcorp. This results in Bizarro becoming extremely smart, surprising his teammates.
Bizarro and Artemis briefly get trapped in a different dimension but return to Earth. Bizarro becomes the ruler of Hell after killing Trigon, and plans to be the Ruler of Hell to make sure Earth is not in danger before saying goodbye to Jason Todd and Artemis.
Powers and abilities
Generally, Bizarro's powers of strength, invulnerability, and supersonic flight are identical to Superman's with the most substantial difference being that certain powers are reversed.
“Freeze vision” unleashes twin beams of subzero light from his eyes which instantaneously freezes anything or anyone on contact; inducing frostbite and even hypothermia.
“Flame breath” allows him to breathe a superheated napalm-like substance which causes severe burns with minimal contact and even melt steel at maximum intensity.
"Vacuum breath" instead of super breath
"Bizarro telescopic vision" which allows Bizarro to see a "short distance behind his head" rather than a "long distance in front of his head"
"Bizarro microscopic vision" which makes objects "actually smaller to everyone" rather than merely "appear to be bigger to only the user"
"Bizarro X-ray vision" which allows Bizarro to "only see through lead" rather than the ability to "see through anything except lead"
"Telescopic X-ray vision" which caused Bizarro to shoot x-rays from his eyes from "fifty miles around".
Similarly, Bizarro's weaknesses are reversed: green Kryptonite has an empowering affect on him - healing his wounds and strengthening his body similar to the effects of yellow sunlight on Superman - while only blue Kryptonite (the reverse of green Kryptonite) affects Bizarro adversely in the same manner that the former does with normal Kryptonians; causing him debilitating pain and diminishing his superpowers.
Other versions
All-Star Superman
The limited series All-Star Superman (January 2006 – October 2008) features Bizarro clones from an alternative universe called the "Underverse". They can "infect" a normal human and change them into a Bizarro clone by touch. One of these creatures is called "Zibarro" and is unique in that he has intellect and a roughly human appearance, traits which he considered to be sources of scorn from his fellow Bizarros, resulting in a social isolation and loneliness he attempted to combat through artwork. When Superman was stranded in the Underverse, Zibarro helped him marshal the other Bizarros into building a rocketship that could send Kal-El home - Zibarro briefly considered taking Superman's place in the rocket, but realized he had no way of knowing he would find any more acceptance among humans than his kinsmen. Before leaving, Superman advised him that rather than an aberration, Zibarro may be evidence of increasing intelligence on the part of Bizarro-Home, and encouraged him to keep up his work; Superman had a segment of Zibarro's poetry preserved in Superlaminite within his Fortress of Solitude after returning home.
Amalgam Comics
An amalgamation of Bizarro and Carnage, Bizarnage was made through a botched experiment at Project Cadmus in an attempt to replicate alien DNA. The white, goopy creature they created went crazy and began destroying everything and everyone in its way. Then Spider-Boy arrived and battled him. Bizarnage wanted to be Spider-Boy, so he tried insanely to kill him, but was eventually defeated by getting tricked by Spider-Boy and sucked into an energy containment unit.
Superboy Comics
Bizarro appears in an issue of the tie-in comic for the late-1980s Superboy TV show, in which he is duped into acting as a student's art project. He also was featured in an issue of the Superman Adventures comic series that tied into Superman: The Animated Series in which he is brought to Earth by Lobo.
Adventure Comics
A Bizarro fantasy akin to the pre-Crisis version appears in the 1998 Adventure Comics 80-Page Giant by writer Tom Peyer and artist Kevin O'Neill. There, Bizarro demands that a technician at a SETI-like installation broadcast his diary. Having no choice, the technician looks over the diary, which tells the story of the classic cube-shaped backwards Bizarro World. Superman accidentally finds himself there and, to allay people's fears of him, goes on a "constructive rampage." The original Bizarro, a.k.a. Bizarro #1, goes to Earth and attempts to stop Superman with the help of his friends. However, when the other Bizarros try to kill Superman, #1 stops them, saying that killing is the earthly thing that they must, above all, do the opposite of. Realizing that, however strange the Bizarro World might be, its inhabitants are safer and happier than those of Earth thanks to Bizarro #1's leadership, Superman apologizes. To show his sincerity he hides a copy of the Bizarro Code where nobody will ever see it. The people hold a parade in #1's honor and with his loving wife Bizarro Lois #1 and their son, Bizarro Junior #1 at his side, Bizarro cries saying "Me am ... happiest creature in universe." When the technician finishes reading the story, he sees Bizarro is gone and, horrified, asks – what if the journal itself is no exception to the Bizarro Code? Elsewhere, the truth is revealed; Bizarro, who has no home and no family and is held in contempt by Superman, weeps because he is the most miserable creature in the universe.
Earth-Two Pre-Crisis
In Superman Family #219, Superman encountered an animated lifeless version of his Flying Tiger alter ego, which he used the previous issue to fabricate a criminal career in order to track down the supplier of Kryptonite to various crooks. Ascertaining that this Flying Tiger was an enlarged 3-dimensional version of a picture drawn of him in the Daily Star, Superman ensnared this Tiger in a trap whereby the demented duplicate was crippled by Kryptonite radiation. Superman realized that this Flying Tiger not only had his abilities but also his weaknesses, and after defeating him he tracked down his creator, Funny Face. Although Funny Face transformed Lois Lane Kent into a 2-dimensional drawing, as he had done years earlier, Superman was able to restore her to normal and transform the fake Flying Tiger back into a drawing on a page.
Trinity
In the 2004 graphic novel mini-series Trinity by Matt Wagner, Bizarro is a genetic clone of Superman that is the result of Luthorcorp's "Project Replica". The creature was then sealed away in the frozen wasteland of Antarctica, encased within ice, until it was released by Ra's al Ghul, who used him as a pawn in his plan to use nuclear warheads to decimate Gotham as well as destroy a cluster of communication satellites, causing a major communications blackout, the end goal of his mission being to incite chaos and purge the Earth of the "cancer" that is civilization. After he is injured by Batman's use of a suit of armour and solar pulse lasers, Bizarro's hand is removed by Superman's heat vision before his template throws him into a volcano. This Bizarro is presumably deceased, however, his hand is turned into red kryptonite at the bottom of the ocean.
Adventures of Superman
A story in the out-of-continuity digital-first anthology comic book Adventures of Superman from 2013 by Christos Gage and Eduardo Francisco reveals that Bizarro's penchant for opposites comes as a result of his imperfectly formed brain, a discovery which allows Superman and Professor Hamilton to make him talk and think like a regular person and pursue his desire to be heroic.
Bizarro Comics
The 2002 graphic novel Bizarro Comics is an anthology of short comics by artists of the independent scene handling various DC Comics characters in humorous tales set outside of any continuity. All the stories are bookended by Bizarro Wars, a comic written by Chris Duffy with art by Stephen DeStefano in which Mxyzptlk seeks the aid of Superman to save the fifth dimension from a cosmic conqueror named "A", but ends up with Bizarro (here introduced as a new character that neither Superman nor Mxyzptlk formerly knew of) instead. The other comics in the volume (including one short Bizarro World story written by Bizarro creator Alvin Schwartz) are presented as creations of the deranged mind of Bizarro himself. The 2005 follow-up anthology Bizarro World features the character less centrally, but includes an introductory story in which the character runs an amusement park.
Red Son
In Superman: Red Son, Lex Luthor chose to create his own version of Superman through cloning to combat and overcome the original. Luthor decided to crash Sputnik into Metropolis which will bring Superman to the event and hopefully allow Luthor to gather genetic material of Superman. As planned, Superman arrived in time to stop the deadly crash. The United States government claims the probe and Luthor obtained the samples he needs in order to create his copy which proves to be defective and was named "Superman 2." Luthor sent Superman 2 off to engage Superman who was attending a state party which Wonder Woman was also attending. Superman 2 clashed with Superman over the English Channel and the two fight. Their battle was so aggressive it accidentally caused an American nuclear missile to launch. Superman 2 proves himself to be a true genetic descendant of Superman as he sacrificed himself to save millions from the nuclear explosion.
Earth 2
On Earth 2 as part of The New 52, Darkseid and Steppenwolf created a clone of Superman which they dub Brutaal. After being snapped out of Darkseid's control by his wife Lois Lane (who in this reality inhabits the wind-manipulating robot body known as Red Tornado), Superman and Red Tornado leave for the Kent Family's farm. After a protracted battle with Earth 2's superheroes, in particular Green Lantern (Alan Scott) and a younger Kryptonian named Val-Zod, he is revealed to be scaling and decomposing. Realizing he is a Bizarro-type clone and that his power is waning, the Superman clone is destroyed by Lois using a cyclone blast from her hand.
Earth 29
On Earth 29 that is filled with Bizarros, Bizarro is a member of the Unjustice League of America. After the Unjustice League "saved" Metropolis from their world's Metallo, Superman arrived on Earth 29 and briefly fought Bizarro until it was interrupted by Metallo. Doomsday later appeared on Earth 29 and Bizarro destroyed it upon seeing it as a threat. Though this caused Bizarro to become infected and transform into Doomzarro who started to infect his world. Though Bizarro's will was strong enough to overcome Doomsday and flew into the sun to get the infection out of him. Surviving the sun, Bizarro returned to his Earth to win Lois Lane's "hate".
Bizarro of Earth 29 later formed the Terribles consisting of Mister Terrible (a Bizarro version of Mister Terrific), Disposable Man (a Bizarro version of Plastic Man), Change-O-Shape-O (a Bizarro version of Metamorpho), and Figment Girl (a Bizarro version of Phantom Girl) in his plot to destroy Prime Earth's technology through time travel.
Bizarro of Earth 29 and the Terribles are among the villains recruited by Lex Luthor to join the Legion of Doom in an all-out war with the Justice League.
Justice
In Justice, Bizarro was created by Lex Luthor, in an attempt to use early cloning technology to find a means to kill Superman. The results were less than perfect. Once fashioned, even Luthor was incapable of controlling Superman's would-be duplicate. He is shown to have freeze vision, heat breath, and loves creating destruction, but isn't as intelligent as Superman and is a member of the Legion of Doom. He's based on the Silver Age version of Bizarro.
Miscellaneous versions
Several alternative universe versions of the character exist:
A Legends of the Dead Earth story set in the far future features a former media-star Bizarro who owns an amusement park and who fights against his own obsolescence.
The Elseworlds one-shot The Superman Monster (1999), essentially a Frankenstein pastiche, features a monstrous copy of Bizarro created by a Viktor Luthor based on the remains of the infant Kal-El, who died upon arrival.
In the limited series JLA: The Nail, having found Kal-El's ship (Kal-El himself was taken in by an Amish family years ago), Lex Luthor uses DNA samples to create Bizarro-like duplicates, which he disguises as the "Liberator" robots to hunt down the supposedly rogue metahumans. While the Liberators possess Superman's powers in terms of strength and speed, their genetic structure proves to be unstable, to the point that they collapse after sustaining even minor damage in combat with metahuman foes; the League observe in the final battle that the "Liberators" relied on stealth and superior numbers to overwhelm their captives as they could never have won in prolonged combat.
Injustice: Gods Among Us
In the prequel comic to the video game, Lex Luthor comes up with the idea of creating a clone of Superman that can combat the corrupt Man of Steel. However, the clone escapes before the process can be completed, resulting in the clone having gray skin and diminished mental capacity. The clone travels to Germany where he meets a man who confuses it with Superman, making the clone assume this is his identity. Giving the clone a Superman suit with the S backwards, the clone goes on to try to establish peacebut because he lacks common sense and a basic understanding of human ways, he inadvertently wreaks havoc and kills Weather Wizard and Heatwave. The Trickster is able to take advantage of the clone's mental limitation to convince him they are friends and the "imposter" Superman is his enemy. The clone becomes known to the Regime, with Superman meeting him as Solomon Grundy is being captured. Yellow Lantern gives him the name 'Bizarro' since he proves to be an imperfect clone of Superman. Bizarro gets away before they can discover his origin. Trickster has difficulty keeping the clone in check, as the clone ends up killing an entire restaurant of civilians when he misunderstands Trickster's instructions. Trickster resolves to be more specific, but Bizarro accidentally drops him during flight, leading to Trickster's death.
Not comprehending death, Bizarro takes Trickster's corpse to the German man who helped him. The man calls the Regime for aid, so Bizarro returns to the first place he remembersLuthor's laboratory. Luthor realizes that the clone will inadvertently expose his work, so he sends Bizarro to the Fortress of Solitude, nominally for answers but in reality to be ambushed by the Luthor-controlled Doomsday. This leads to a fierce fight between the two, which is interrupted when the actual Superman arrives. The three-way battle tears across the Arctic with Luthor trying to prolong it by repeatedly switching Doomsday's assigned target, but he eventually realizes that he can't bring himself to murder even the corrupted Clark, and that Bizarro can't live to reveal Luthor's double agency. When Superman is briefly incapacitated, Luthor turns Doomsday on the unsuspecting clone and succeeds in killing him before having the monster stand down. Superman, furious, takes Bizarro's corpse to Luthor to run tests, not realizing his ally's complicity.
In other media
Television
Live action
Bizarro appears in 7 episodes of the Superboy TV series which ran from 1988 to 1992, portrayed by Barry Meyers. This Bizarro is most like the original Silver-Age Bizarro, in that he was not truly villainous, but lashed out at society considering him a dangerous freak (indeed, Superboy often expressed his reluctance to attack his "brother" as they were of like powers). He was created when an experimental duplicating ray was overcharged during a lightning storm and Superboy was accidentally exposed to it. When Superboy and Professor Peterson (the ray's inventor) gasp at what has been created, Superboy remarks "It is bizarre", to which the creation responds "Me Bizarro", so aptly named, then ran away to the outside world. While in a shopping center, Bizarro manages to cause a ruckus by scaring civilians and getting in a fight with sheriff's deputies, and mistakingly believed this was that he was undisguised. He helps himself to civilian clothes and calls himself "Kent Clark". He was in love with Lana Lang. Overreacting when a man gets fresh with Lana at a party, he violently attacks him, then kidnaps Lana and takes her to a furniture store, claiming he has found a home for them to settle in. Meanwhile, Professor Peterson warns Superboy that a Bizzaro-like flower he made during his first attempt to duplicate a rose has just exploded, and the same will soon happen to Bizarro, only delayed by his much larger mass than the flower. Superboy first attempts to stop Bizarro with kryptonite, but Bizarro's DNA is too dissimilar to be affected. The inventor then duplicates Krptonite, which is used on Bizarro, only to prevent his explosion and granting him a slightly more stable personality. The inventor then realizes being an antithesis that the duplicated kryptonite healed rather than harm. In his second appearance, Lex Luthor tricks Bizarro into attacking Superboy in exchange for a girlfriend. Luthor creates such girlfriend by duplicating Lana Lang, but the "Bizarro Lana" convinces Bizarro she cannot love one who aids wrongdoers, where Bizarro promptly defects to Superboy in thwarting Luthor. In his final episodes, Bizarro was made human by an experimental process that copied Superboy's brainwaves to his own brain. After extensive plastic surgery, Bizarro was totally human, with no super-powers, and took the name Bill Zarro. But the brainwave transfer left Superboy in a severely weakened state, and he was captured by a terrorist called Chaos, who intended to throw him off the top of a skyscraper to kill him. Bizarro was forced to reverse the process to get his powers back and save Superboy.
A childlike clone akin to Bizarro is seen in the episode "Vatman" of Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, played by Dean Cain. He resembles the Post Crisis origin but remains the same physically identical to Superman who Luthor raised to see Superman as his enemy. He realizes his true origin through Lois and Clark and is dying akin, Luthor has the clone kidnap Lois while engaging in a fight with Superman till the clone returns to Luthor's lab and destroys the lock of hair used to create him. He then dyes proclaiming Superman, his "brother" before flying off.
Bizarro appears in Smallville (2001–2011) played by Tom Welling. Introduced in the end of Season 6 premiere episode "Zod" and established in "Phantom", this version is presented as a wraith or Phantom of the result of a Kryptonian experiment that was imprisoned in the Phantom Zone until accidentally released by Clark Kent (alongside other inmates coined "Zoners"). The phantom wraith quickly discovered that it couldn't survive for long outside of the Phantom Zone, but it managed to survive by possessing humans. Unfortunately, a human host could only contain it for about 24 hours, before the host was destroyed and he had to find a new host. This went on for many months, until the phantom encountered Clark Kent, a Kryptonian, the only kind of body that could contain the phantom entity and give it its own form. When the entity steals a portion of Clark's Kryptonian DNA, it becomes an evil version of him, possessing all of his strengths but with an inverted version of his ability to absorb energy, its skin taking on a fragmented appearance when exposed to direct sunlight as it absorbs power from green kryptonite. The entity is defeated in the Season 7 premiere "Bizarro", when Clark is able to trap it on the sunny side of Mars with help from the Martian Manhunter. It returns in "Gemini" (attributed by the producers to the solar eclipse caused in "Blue" blocking off sunlight long enough for the clone to escape), taking an imprisoned Clark's place and falling in love with Lana Lang. After talking with Brainiac/Milton Fine to try and find a cure for its weakness to sunlight, it is destroyed by Blue Kryptonite in the episode "Persona", with Lana subjecting him to blue kryptonite overloading Bizarro just as it renders Clark powerless as Bizarro says "I love you" to Lana.
Different versions of Bizarro appear in the TV shows set in the Arrowverse.
The Supergirl version of Bizarro (Bizarro-Girl) appears in Supergirl, portrayed by Hope Lauren and Melissa Benoist. This version isn't a clone, but instead was created by genetically altering a permanently comatose human female that closely resembles Supergirl and infusing her with Supergirl's DNA which was picked up from the Red Tornado's broken arm. A total of seven girls were used by Lord for the experiment, the rest presumably discarded as failures. An unidentified woman, known only as "Jane Doe" and dubbed "Bizarro" by Cat Grant, is a brain trauma patient that was transformed by Lord Technologies into a clone of sorts of Supergirl. She first appears in the episode "Blood Bonds" as the pet project of Maxwell Lord, and later shows up in a costume similar to Supergirl's near the end of the episode "Strange Visitor From Another Planet." Bizarro picks up a vehicle from a bridge and tosses it, while the real Supergirl and her foster sister Alex Danvers watch on their TV set. Her story and origin are featured in the 12th episode titled "Bizarro". Bizarro attacks Kara on her date with Adam Foster. Her skin cracks and turns gray-white when hit by Kryptonite. She later kidnaps James Olsen but is finally stopped by Supergirl and Alex with Blue Kryptonite bullets. Supergirl takes the incapacitated Bizarro back to the DEO where she is returned to a coma state until they can find a way to help her.
Bizarro is also alluded to in the 2018 Arrowverse crossover event Elseworlds where in John Deegan's altered reality, a civilian refers to Superman as Bizarro during his battle with Deegan in a guise of a black suit Superman.
Bizarro is portrayed by Tyler Hoechlin while his armored appearance was performed by Daniel Cudmore in the second season of Superman & Lois. He is first seen in "The Ties That Bind" as a mysterious figure, who immediately attacks the workers present inside the Shuster Mines. He is somehow connected to Superman's visions and responsible for his angry outbursts. When he is freed in "The Thing in the Mines", he appears encased in a metal suit. He goes on to attack the soldiers there until engaged by Superman and John Henry Irons. He only retreated when he suffered from the same painful visions that Superman had. In the Fortress of Solitude, the figure is revealed to be a scarred, pale version of Superman; his tattered suit bears a mirror image of Superman's crest
Animation
Bizarro appears in Challenge of the Super Friends (1978), voiced by William Callaway. He appears as a member of the Legion of Doom.
Bizarro appears in Super Friends (1980–1983), voiced again by William Callway. He was featured as solo villain in the episodes "Revenge of Bizarro" (1980), "Bizarowurld" (1981), and "Video Victims" (1983). In addition, he had a silent role in "The Revenge of Doom" where the Legion of Doom has gotten back together.
Bizarro appears in The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians (1985–1986) episode "The Bizarro Super Powers Team" (1985) voiced by Danny Dark. This Bizarro resides in Bizarro World and was referred to as Bizarro #1. He travels to Earth where he uses a ray gun in his possession to create Bizarro versions of Wonder Woman, Firestorm, and Cyborg which Mister Mxyzptlk takes advantage of. Bizarro #1 later accidentally creates a Bizarro version of Mister Mxyzptlk.
Bizarro appears in the DC Animated Universe series, initially voiced by Tim Daly (the same voice actor as Superman) in Superman: The Animated Series in episodes "Identity Crisis", "Bizarro's World", and "Little Big Head Man". Lex Luthor creates a failed clone of Superman intended to be the first in an army but grew defective and through Superman's memories became in love with Lois Lane. This more sympathetic Bizarro resembles the original Silver Age version in appearance and manner to become a "hero". Bizarro later returns in Justice League Unlimited, voiced by George Newbern (once again the same voice actor as Superman). He appears in "Ultimatum" helping Giganta in an attempt to cause a prison break only to be defeated by Wonder Woman and Ultimen member Longshadow. In the final season, Bizarro appears as a member of Gorilla Grodd's extended Secret Society.
Bizarro appears in DC Nation Shorts (2012–2014) as part of the Tales of Metropolis short "Bizarro", voiced by David Kaye.
Bizarro appears in the Justice League Action episode "Booray for Bizarro," voiced again by Travis Willingham. His history of being unsuccessfully cloned from Superman by someone has been mentioned while presented as a well-meaning but absent minded person. Wanting to join the Justice League, Bizarro is shown having taken Wonder Woman on a "date" to a miniature golf course where his striking at the golf ball caused damages to the miniature golf course. When Amazo attacked the Justice League Watchtower, Bizarro followed Wonder Woman to the Justice League Watchtower to help. After Wonder Woman gets trapped by Amazo, Bizarro flies off to get the "smartest man in the galaxy" who turns out to be Space Cabbie. As Space Cabbie struggles to free the captive Justice League members so that they can cancel the message that would lure the other Justice League members into a trap, Bizarro defeats Amazo by overloading him with his backwards lifestyle. Afterwards when Bizarro wanted to join the Justice League, Batman states a condition of joining that would cause Bizarro to do the opposite by leaving the Justice League Watchtower.
A Bizarro counterpart of Supergirl appears in the DC Super Hero Girls episode "#TheGoodTheBadAndTheBizarre," voiced by Nicole Sullivan. The Bizarro Supergirl comes to Earth in hopes of proving herself a better villain than her world's version of Superman, destroying Supergirl's reputation in the process while revealed to be responsible for an incident that got Kara expelled from her previous high school.
A group of Bizarro anti-versions of the crew appear in Sealab 2021: Season 2, Episode 7. These counterparts all proclaim "Bizarro" repeatedly.
Film
Live Action
According to writer Mark Rosenthal's commentary of Superman IV: The Quest for Peace, released on the 2006 DVD, there are approximately forty-five minutes of deleted scenes cut from the film that have not been seen by the general public. Cut scenes featured a different version of Nuclear Man (portrayed by Clive Mantle) engaging Superman in battle outside the Metro Club and being destroyed by the Man of Steel. This version of Nuclear Man resembled in looks, and significantly in personality, to Bizarro.
In 2007, film director Bryan Singer reported that he wanted to use Bizarro, along with Brainiac, as an antagonist in the film Superman: The Man of Steel, the sequel for Superman Returns.
Animation
Bizarro appears in JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time (2014), voiced by Michael Donovan. He appears as a member of the Legion of Doom. Toyman, Cheetah, Solomon Grundy, and Bizarro go back in time to Smallville to send baby Kal-El back into space to prevent him from becoming Superman. They are thwarted by The Flash, Aquaman, and Cyborg.
Bizarro appears in Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League (2015), voiced again by Nolan North. Rather than his usual role as an antagonist, Bizarro is portrayed as a well-meaning klutz desperate to help Superman look after Metropolis. His origin is explained as Lex Luthor hit Superman with a duplicator ray in order to create a clone he could control. In order to prevent Bizarro from causing any more destruction, Superman takes him to a strange planet which he calls, "Bizarro World" where Bizarro defends yellow crystals with faces carved into them. When Darkseid starts collecting the yellow crystals, he returns to Earth and steals the Duplicator Ray which he uses to create Bizarro versions of Wonder Woman, Batman, Cyborg, and Guy Gardner called Bizarra, Batzarro, Cyzarro, and Greenzarro. Bizarro later created a Kryptonite bomb to help save Bizarro World. After realizing his intentions, the Justice League and Bizarro League team up and defeat Darkseid and save Bizarro World.
The Red Son version of Bizarro called "Superior Man" appears in Superman: Red Son, voiced by Travis Willingham. Like his comic origin, he's created as an "American Superman" but unlike his counterpart, this version is indistinguishable to Superman and can articulate, proclaiming repeatedly "I am Truth, I am Justice, I am the American Way". During his brawl, his power was amplified directly by Lex Luthor causing mutations and a breakdown of motor functions, resulting in the clone becoming a monster and disintegrating, before the shocked Superman's eyes. Before his death, Superior Man began speaking in broken grammar.
Video games
Bizarro appears in Superman (1999).
Bizarro appears in Superman: The Man of Steel (2002).
Bizarro appears as a playable character in Superman Returns (2006) voiced by John DiMaggio.
Bizarro appears in DC Universe Online (2011) voiced by Joe Mandia.
Bizarro appears as a bonus character in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes (2012) voiced by Travis Willingham.
Bizarro appears as a support card in Injustice: Gods Among Us (2013).
Bizarro appears via DLC as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Nolan North. His DLC map has Bizarro leading the Bizarro Justice League into saving Bizarro World's "citizens" from Darkseid's forces.
Bizarro appears in Injustice 2 (2017), voiced by Patrick Seitz. He appears as a playable character, via a premier skin for Superman. While Bizarro basically has the same moveset as Superman, certain abilities are alternated such as Heat Vision being replaced with Cold Vision and Heat Breath replaces Superman's freezing super breath. Additionally in pre-battle intro animation the handcuffs he wears have a piece of Blue Kryptonite instead of the Green Kryptonite that appears in Superman's version of said intro, though Bizarro is able to break the handcuffs just as Superman does.
Bizarro appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by Nolan North. He is obtained by completing a quest for him where he wants the player to get 10 bottles of sunscreen for him as it would let “travel safely” to Smallville.
Miscellaneous
Warner Bros. Consumer Products collaborated with Livobooks to produce the first Superman interactive motion comic Mobile app "Superman and Bizarro Save the Planet" on iOS and Android.
Bizarro is the name of a steel roller coaster at Six Flags Great Adventure.
"The Bizarro Jerry", the 137th episode of the American television sitcom Seinfeld, extensively references Bizarro. Jerry calls Elaine's friend Kevin and his acquaintances the "Bizarro" counterparts of himself, Kramer, and George. Kevin's apartment contains a statue of Bizarro, and Kevin speaks the final lines of the episode in Bizarro's characteristic grammar (i.e. with "Me" as the subject).
In Neil Gaiman's The Sandman: A Game of You, the existence of an in-universe comic book featuring "Weirdzos" is an analogy to Bizarros. "Weirdzo #1" speaks and looks like Bizarro and makes reference to events in Bizarro comics. While The Sandman series was published by DC Comics's Vertigo imprint, editors were reluctant to allow Superman-related characters to be featured in the more adult-themed Vertigo line.
See also
Bizarro World
References
External links
Superhero Database: Bizarro
Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Bizarro
Supermanica: Bizarro Supermanica entry on the Pre-Crisis Bizarro
Supermanica: Bizarro-Superboy Supermanica entry on the original Pre-Crisis character.
DC Database Bizarro disambiguation page
DC Animated Universe article on Bizarro
Smallville wiki's article about Bizarro
Animated series villains
Characters created by George Papp
Characters created by Otto Binder
Comics characters introduced in 1958
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics demons
DC Comics supervillains
Fictional clones
Fictional humanoids
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244502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet%20Napolitano | Janet Napolitano | Janet Ann Napolitano (; born November 29, 1957) is an American politician, lawyer, and university administrator who served as the 21st governor of Arizona from 2003 to 2009 and third United States Secretary of Homeland Security from 2009 to 2013, under President Barack Obama. She was named president of the University of California system in September 2013, and stepped down from that position on August 1, 2020 to join the faculty at Berkeley's Goldman School of Public Policy. She was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2018. As of , she remains the most recent Governor of Arizona from the Democratic Party.
Prior to her election as governor, she served as Attorney General of Arizona from 1999 to 2003. She was the first woman and the 23rd person to serve in that office. Napolitano had earlier served as the United States Attorney for the District of Arizona. She has been the first woman to serve in several offices, including Attorney General of Arizona, Secretary of Homeland Security, and president of the University of California.
Forbes ranked her as the world's ninth most powerful woman in 2012 and eighth most powerful woman in 2013. In 2008, she was listed by The New York Times as one of the women most likely to become the first female President of the United States.
Early life
Janet Napolitano was born on November 29, 1957, in New York City, the daughter of Jane Marie (née Winer) and Leonard Michael Napolitano, who was the dean of the University of New Mexico School of Medicine. Her father was of Italian descent and her mother had German and Austrian ancestry. Her grandfather was named Filippo Napolitano.
Napolitano is a Methodist. She is the oldest of three children, with a younger brother and sister. She was raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, where she graduated from Sandia High School in Albuquerque in 1975.
Napolitano attended Santa Clara University in Santa Clara, California, where she graduated Phi Beta Kappa, won a Truman Scholarship, and studied political science. She was named valedictorian of her graduating class. After graduation, she worked as an analyst for the United States Senate Committee on the Budget. In 1978, she studied for a term at the London School of Economics as part of Santa Clara's exchange program through IES Abroad. She then earned her Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree from the University of Virginia School of Law. After law school she served as a law clerk for Judge Mary M. Schroeder of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, then joined Schroeder's former firm, Lewis and Roca, in Phoenix. She was named a partner of the firm in 1989.
Early political career
In 1991, while a partner at Lewis and Roca LLP, Napolitano served as an attorney for Anita Hill. Hill testified in the U.S. Senate that then U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas had sexually harassed her ten years earlier when she was his subordinate at the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
In 1993, Napolitano was appointed by President Bill Clinton as United States Attorney for the District of Arizona. As U.S. Attorney, she was involved in the investigation of Michael Fortier of Kingman, Arizona, in connection with the Oklahoma City bombing. She ran for and won the position of Arizona Attorney General in 1998. During her tenure as attorney general, she focused on consumer protection issues and improving general law enforcement.
While serving as attorney general, she spoke at the 2000 Democratic National Convention just three weeks after having a mastectomy. Napolitano recalled that the pain was so unbearable that she could not stand up. "Work and family helped me focus on other things while I battled the cancer," says Napolitano. "I am very grateful for all the support I had from family, friends and Arizonans."
Governor of Arizona
In 2002, Napolitano narrowly won the gubernatorial election with 46 percent of the vote, succeeding Republican Jane Dee Hull and defeating her Republican opponent, former congressman Matt Salmon, who received 45 percent of the vote. She was Arizona's third female governor and the first female elected governor in the United States to succeed another elected female governor. She was also the first Democrat popularly elected to the governorship since Bruce Babbitt left office in 1987, and the first female governor of Arizona to be elected outright.
She spoke at the 2004 Democratic Convention, where some initially considered her to be a possible running mate for presidential candidate Sen. John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election. Kerry selected Senator John Edwards instead. In November 2005, Time magazine named her one of the five best governors in the U.S.
As Governor, Napolitano set records for total number of vetoes issued. In 2005, she set a single-session record of 58 vetoes, breaking Jane Dee Hull's 2001 record of 28. This was followed in June 2006, less than four years into her term, when she issued her 115th veto and set the all-time record for vetoes by an Arizona governor. The previous record of 114 vetoes was set by Bruce Babbitt during his nine years in office. By the time she left office, Napolitano had issued 180 vetoes.
Napolitano supported many educational initiatives. She successfully negotiated the creation of voluntary full-day kindergarten in Arizona. The state previously only funded half-day programs. She created a literacy program, and acquired funding for an increase in teacher salaries. She spearheaded significant investments in higher education, including funding a Phoenix campus for the University of Arizona College of Medicine.
She also built the state's rainy day fund to more than $650 million, at the time the highest ever. She played a leading role in the successful bid to host Super Bowl XLII in Glendale, Arizona, expanded the number of teams in the Cactus league and invested heavily in tourism and economic development initiatives. She was one of the first governors to call for the National Guard at the border after declaring a state emergency related to border security.
In November 2006, Napolitano was re-elected as governor, defeating the Republican challenger, Len Munsil, by a nearly 2:1 ratio. She was the first woman to be re-elected to that office and the first gubernatorial candidate in state history to win every county and every legislative district in Arizona. Arizona's constitution limits its governors to two consecutive terms, so Napolitano would not have been eligible to seek a third term in office in 2010.
In January 2006, Napolitano won the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service. She served as a member of the Democratic Governors Association Executive Committee. She has also served previously as chair of the Western Governors Association, and the National Governors Association. She served as NGA Chair from 2006 to 2007, and was the first female governor and first governor of Arizona to serve in that position.
Secretary of Homeland Security
In February 2006, Napolitano was named by The White House Project as one of "8 in '08", a group of eight female politicians who were suggested as possible candidates for president in 2008. On January 11, 2008, she endorsed then Illinois Senator Barack Obama as the Democratic nominee for president. On November 5, 2008, she was named to the advisory board of the Obama-Biden Transition Project.
On December 1, 2008, Barack Obama introduced Napolitano as his nominee for United States Secretary of Homeland Security. On January 20, 2009, Napolitano was confirmed, becoming the first woman appointed as Secretary in the relatively new department, and the fourth person to hold the position overall (including one acting secretary). Arizona Secretary of State Jan Brewer became governor of Arizona.
In March 2009, Napolitano told the German news site Der Spiegel that while there is always a threat from terrorism, she preferred to talk about "man-caused' disasters" as a way "to move away from the politics of fear toward a policy of being prepared for all risks that can occur."
In April 2009, in an interview defending her plans to tighten the Canada–US border, Napolitano incorrectly implied that the September 11 attack perpetrators entered the United States from Canada. This claim was made by several politicians based upon erroneous news reports in the days after the attack. Napolitano explained that she misunderstood the question and was referring to other individuals who had planned attacks and entered through Canada, but Canadian diplomats rebuked her for helping perpetuate a myth.
In response to criticism, she later said that while she knew no 9/11 terrorists entered the U.S. through Canada, "there are other instances … when suspected terrorists have attempted to enter our country from Canada to the United States... [s]ome of these are well known to the public, such as the millennium bomber, while others are not due to security reasons." There has only been one publicly reported case of terrorists coming to the United States through Canada, that of Ahmed Ressam, an Algerian citizen who was in Canada illegally and who had planned an attack on Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) as part of the 2000 millennium attack plots. Nevertheless, Napolitano later claimed that "Canada allows people into its country that we do not allow into ours" as a justification for treating the Mexican and Canadian borders equally.
H1N1 flu
As Secretary, Napolitano was a central leader in the federal response to the 2009 flu pandemic. Rather than closing schools and businesses, which would have led to wide-scale disruption, Napolitano advanced a strategy of proactive education for prevention. This included a basic virus-prevention education program. Ultimately, as a result of the programs implemented by Napolitano and others, much of the damage expected from this flu was mitigated.
Right-wing extremism memo
Napolitano was the subject of controversy after the release of a Department of Homeland Security threat assessment report that was seen as derogatory towards armed forces veterans. The report focused on potential threats from the radical right. Rightwing Extremism: Current Economic and Political Climate Fueling Resurgence in Radicalization and Recruitment was made public in April 2009. The report suggested several factors, including the election of the first black or mixed race president in Barack Obama, concerns regarding future gun control measures, illegal immigration, the economic downturn beginning in 2008, abortion controversy, and disgruntled military veterans' possible vulnerability to recruitment efforts by extremist groups as potential risk factors regarding right-wing extremism recruitment.
Napolitano made multiple apologies for offending veterans groups by the reference to veterans in the assessment, and promised to meet with those groups to discuss the issue. The Department of Homeland Security admitted a "breakdown in an internal process" by ignoring objections by the Office of Civil Rights and Civil Liberties to a portion of the document.
While the American Legion reportedly criticized the assessment, Glen M. Gardner Jr., the national commander of the 2.2 million-member Veterans of Foreign Wars, generally defended it, saying it "should have been worded differently" but served a vital purpose. "A government that does not assess internal and external security threats would be negligent of a critical public responsibility", he said in a statement.
Reaction to Northwest Airlines Flight 253
Napolitano was criticized for stating in an interview with CNN's Candy Crowley that "the system worked" with regard to an attempted terrorist attack on Northwest Airlines Flight 253 approaching Detroit on Christmas Day 2009. She said:
What we are focused on is making sure that the air environment remains safe, that people are confident when they travel. And one thing I'd like to point out is that the system worked. Everybody played an important role here. The passengers and crew of the flight took appropriate action. Within literally an hour to 90 minutes of the incident occurring, all 128 flights in the air had been notified to take some special measures in light of what had occurred on the Northwest Airlines flight. We instituted new measures on the ground and at screening areas, both here in the United States and in Europe, where this flight originated. So the whole process of making sure that we respond properly, correctly and effectively went very smoothly.
She later went on NBC's Today Show with host Matt Lauer and admitted that the security system had indeed failed. She said that her earlier statement was "taken out of context" and maintained "air travel is safe", but admitted, "our system did not work in this instance" and no one "is happy or satisfied with that". Lauer then asked her whether the system failed up until the moment the bomber had tried to blow up the plane, and Napolitano answered, "It did [fail]."
In response to the NW253 bomb attempt, Napolitano instituted emergency enhanced pat-down screening until airport security technology could be deployed that could detect non-metallic explosives. After full body scanners were deployed, the enhanced pat-downs were used selectively on passengers who triggered an alarm when passing through the detection equipment.
TSA Pre-Check and Global Entry
To reduce the time consumed by airport security checks Napolitano created the popular program TSA Pre Check, which allows travelers to provide background information about themselves to the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) in return for expedited security screening. TSA Pre-Check reduces the number of unknown passengers arriving at security screening lines in airports. She also expanded the U.S. Customs and Border Protection trusted traveler program, Global Entry, to include more American travelers and some from verified partners abroad.
Secure Communities
Secure Communities, or SComm, is a deportation program managed by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, a subdivision of Homeland Security. Napolitano came under scrutiny for contradicting herself about whether the program is voluntary or mandatory for local jurisdictions. On September 7, 2010, Napolitano said in a letter to Congresswoman Zoe Lofgren that jurisdictions that wished to withdraw from the program could do so. However, in October 2010 a Washington Post article quoted an anonymous senior ICE official saying: "Secure Communities is not based on state or local cooperation in federal law enforcement ... State and local law enforcement agencies are going to continue to fingerprint people and those fingerprints are forwarded to FBI for criminal checks. ICE will take immigration action appropriately."
Napolitano later modified her position: "What my letter said was that we would work with them on the implementation in terms of timing and the like ... But we do not view this as an opt-in, opt-out program." At the same time Arlington, Virginia passed a resolution to opt out of SComm. A DHS employee commented at a policy conference: "Have we created some of the confusion out there? Absolutely we have."
Border security
Under Napolitano's leadership, the DHS invested heavily in border security and border security technology. These investments included a border security supplement passed by Congress to fund an increase in technology and infrastructure along the southern border with Mexico. This technology was used to replace Boeing's SBI Net, which was widely criticized as expensive and dysfunctional.
Printer bomb attempt
After the 2010 transatlantic aircraft bomb plot, which used printer cartridges to conceal bombs, Napolitano issued a ban for toner and ink cartridges weighing more than one pound on passenger flights.
Walmart–DHS partnership
On December 6, 2010, Walmart announced it was partnering with the DHS. The partnership included a video message from Napolitano on TV screens in Walmart stores playing a "public service announcement" to ask customers to report suspicious activity to a Walmart manager. Napolitano compared the undertaking to "the Cold War fight against communists."
Tucson memorial
On January 12, 2011, together with President Barack Obama, Napolitano was one of the speakers selected to express sympathy to the community of Tucson, the State of Arizona, and the rest of the nation in a televised memorial for the 2011 Tucson shooting.
Discrimination lawsuit
In July 2012, Napolitano was accused of allowing discrimination against male staffers within the Department of Homeland Security. The federal discrimination lawsuit, filed in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, was filled by James Hayes Jr., at the time a special agent of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) in New York City. The suit alleged that managers Dora Schriro and Suzanne Barr mistreated male staffers, and that promotions were given to women who were friends of Napolitano. The suit also claimed that when the abuse was reported to the Equal Employment Opportunity office Napolitano launched a series of misconduct investigations against the reporting party, Hayes. This allegation was never proven. The spokesperson for ICE declined to comment on "unfounded claims".
Suzanne Barr, who was one of Napolitano's first appointments after she became secretary in 2009, went on leave after Hayes filed his lawsuit and resigned on September 1, 2012. She called the allegations in the lawsuit "unfounded." In November 2012, Hayes' attorney said that the "parties have come to an agreement in principle" to settle the case for $175,000 plus a settlement that would include other conditions, including Hayes keeping his job.
Napolitano was also sued by an Immigration and Customs Enforcement agent who claims he was pulled from his post at JFK Airport after making a series of employment-discrimination complaints.
DACA and comprehensive immigration reform
Napolitano was a long-term advocate for comprehensive immigration reform, starting with her terms as governor of Arizona. In 2012, in an effort to provide relief for the so-called DREAM Act population, or DREAMers, Napolitano used prosecutorial discretion to create the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program (DACA). DREAMers were brought to the U.S. by their parents as minors and have no experience of living in their countries of citizenship. The program deferred removal proceedings against DREAMers, providing them with the legal status to remain in the United States without fear of deportation.
DACA was announced by President Obama in a Rose Garden ceremony shortly after its creation. It was criticized by some members of Congress as an abuse of executive authority. Napolitano's successor, Jeh Johnson, later attempted to expand the program to include parents of DREAMers, but that expansion was subsequently overturned in courts. DACA remains in place and has never been found unconstitutional by a U.S. court.
University of California
In July 2013, Napolitano announced she would leave her post as Secretary of Homeland Security to become president of the University of California (UC). She was appointed the 20th president by the University of California Board of Regents on July 18, 2013, the first woman to lead the University of California, and began her tenure as president on September 30, 2013. On September 18, 2019, Napolitano announced her resignation as president, effective August 1, 2020. She plans to then teach at the Goldman School of Public Policy at University of California, Berkeley, where she is a tenured professor.
Among her first acts as president was the allocation of more support for UC's undocumented students, and expanded efforts to diversify the ranks of UC graduate students and post-doctoral researchers. She also initiated an ambitious ongoing plan for the ten-campus system to achieve carbon neutrality by 2025, saying that it was a 'moral imperative' for UC to find solutions to global climate change. In seeking to reduce UC's carbon footprint to zero, Napolitano authorized the university to register as an Electric Service Provider, allowing it to supply energy directly to some of its campuses and medical centers from an 80-MW solar farm in Fresno. In 2017, Napolitano was awarded the Pat Brown Award from the California Council for Environmental and Economic Balance for her environmental leadership.
Napolitano has used her tenure as president to encourage more students to pursue public interest careers. She created a fund for fellowships for undergraduate students to offset costs related to public service internships in Sacramento and Washington D.C. She also created the President's Public Service Law Fellowship program, which awards $4.5 million annually to law students at UC Berkeley, UC Davis, UC Irvine and UCLA to make postgraduate work and summer positions more accessible for students who wish to pursue public interest legal careers but might be forced to seek private sector jobs out of financial need.
As part of her Global Food Initiative, which was launched in 2014, Napolitano committed $3.3 million to help students at the University of California access nutritious food. At the time it was the nation's most comprehensive, systematic plan to tackle the problem of food insecurity.
Napolitano led efforts to combat sexual violence and harassment at the University of California through improvements to the system's policies and procedures. On March 7, 2014 Napolitano wrote a letter to the UC community announcing a new presidential policy prohibiting sexual harassment and violence and providing support for victims and training for faculty, staff and students. She also created a system-wide Title IX office and appointed the first system-wide Title IX coordinator in January 2017.
On October 26, 2017 the University of California announced the establishment of the National Center for Free Speech and Civic Engagement. Chaired by Napolitano, the center is devoted to research, education and advocacy on issues of free speech and civic engagement.
During Napolitano's time as president of UC, tuition for undergraduates has held steady, with one tuition increase of $282 in 2017.
Controversies
In April 2016, Napolitano placed Linda Katehi, the chancellor of UC Davis, on administrative leave following revelations that UC Davis attempted to suppress web searches relating to the UC Davis pepper-spray incident, as well as charges of nepotism and allegation of misuse of student funds.
On April 25, 2017 the California State Auditor issued a report that Janet Napolitano and her University of California Office of the President failed to disclose $175 million and engaged in misleading budget practices After an investigation, the University of California took disciplinary action against Napolitano, issuing a public admonishment. According to an independent report by retired State Supreme Justice Carlos R. Moreno, Napolitano approved a plan that pressured the ten UC campuses to change their survey responses about Napolitano's administration from negative responses to positive ones.
On September 8, 2017 the University of California and Janet Napolitano filed a lawsuit against the United States Federal Government in response to President Trump's decision to ultimately end the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals or DACA, making her the first former Secretary of Homeland Security to sue the agency she once led over a policy that she created.
In 2020, Janet Napolitano fired 82 UC Santa Cruz graduate students for withholding grades in a wildcat strike for a Cost of Living Adjustment to address living conditions. Dismissed students faced loss of tuition remission, health benefits, and living stipends and international students faced loss of student visa status.
Speculation on other appointments
Napolitano was repeatedly discussed as a contender for appointment to the U.S. Supreme Court. Some political commentators also suggested a possible candidacy in the 2016 election.
In September 2014, when Attorney General Eric Holder announced his intention to step down, there was speculation that Napolitano might be a candidate for the next United States Attorney General. Instead, Loretta Lynch replaced Holder.
Personal life
Napolitano is an avid basketball fan and regularly plays tennis and softball. Whitewater rafting and hiking are among her hobbies. She has hiked in Arizona's Superstition Mountains, New Mexico's Sandia Mountains, and the Himalayas, and has climbed Mount Kilimanjaro.
Napolitano has never married or had children; as a result, some of her political opponents have speculated about her sexual orientation. In 2002, "vote gay" fliers were posted next to her campaign signs. Napolitano responded by saying that she is "just a straight, single workaholic".
Napolitano began undergoing cancer-related treatment in August 2016. On January 17, 2017, Napolitano was hospitalized in Oakland due to complications from the cancer treatment. She was released from hospital on January 23, 2017.
Electoral history
See also
AHCCCS: Arizona Health Care Cost Containment System (state Medicaid program)
AIMS: Arizona's Instrument to Measure Standards (state standardized test for high school students)
Arizona-Mexico Commission
Barack Obama Supreme Court candidates
List of female United States Cabinet Secretaries
List of female state attorneys-general in the United States
Protect Arizona Now: Proposition 200
References
External links
University of California biography
Security of Homeland Security biography
NPR's Wait Wait, Don't Tell Me guest on Not My Job segment
"Pandemic Preparedness | Lessons From COVID-19" task force member, Council on Foreign Relations
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1957 births
Living people
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
American Methodists
American people of Austrian descent
American people of German descent
American politicians of Italian descent
American women lawyers
Arizona Attorneys General
Arizona Democrats
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Female interior ministers
Governors of Arizona
Lawyers from New York City
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Obama administration cabinet members
Politicians from Albuquerque, New Mexico
Politicians from New York City
Politicians from Pittsburgh
Presidents of the University of California System
Santa Clara University alumni
United States Attorneys for the District of Arizona
United States Secretaries of Homeland Security
University of California regents
University of Virginia School of Law alumni
Women in Arizona politics
Women heads of universities and colleges
Women members of the Cabinet of the United States
Women state governors of the United States
Goldman School of Public Policy faculty
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations | [
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244508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronk%20Gym | Kronk Gym | Kronk Gym is a boxing gym located in Detroit, once led by trainer Emanuel Steward. It was run out of the basement of the oldest recreation center of the City of Detroit, and became a household word in the sport of boxing and its gold shorts a magnet to young talent following the enormous success and high profile of multiple World Champion and Boxing Hall of Famer Thomas "The Hitman" Hearns in the 1980s.
The training facility opened shortly after World War I (~1920) and closed in 2006. It reopened in 2015.
History
Original Detroit gym
Kronk began to earn fame during the late 1970s, when prospects like Hilmer Kenty, Thomas Hearns and Mickey Goodwin trained there. In 1980, Kenty became Kronk's first world champion, Hearns following him months after. In 1983, Kronk fighter Milton McCrory won the WBC welterweight title vacated by Sugar Ray Leonard; Jimmy Paul beat Harry Arroyo for the International Boxing Federation's world lightweight title in 1985. Duane Thomas, another Kronk fighter, beat John Mugabi for the WBC light middleweight title in 1986. McCrory's brother, Steve McCrory, was also a world champion who as an amateur won the flyweight gold medal at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. In 1984 four Kronk team members of various weight classes were ranked world's top ten by AIBA: Steve McCrory #1 at 112 lbs, Mark Breland #1 at 147 lbs, Frank Tate #5 at 156 lbs, and Ricky Womack #3 at 178 lbs.
In the 1990s the Kronk stable included two-time WBA welterweight champion Mark Breland, top amateur prospect and future contender Tarick Salmaci, and repeat welterweight contender Oba Carr.
Among the many world champions who trained at Kronk at least once during their careers are Michael Moorer, Wilfred Benítez (in the Tucson gym), Héctor Camacho, Julio César Chávez, Naseem Hamed, Evander Holyfield, Lennox Lewis, Jermain Taylor and Tyson Fury.
Tucson gym
Kronk opened a second gym in Tucson, Arizona during the 1990s. A new host of fighters who would later become world champions arrived there, including Gerald McClellan. The Kronk "franchise" began to sell Kronk merchandise through catalog sales.
In 1998 Kronk opened Kronk Gym website, promoting the gyms and their fighters.
Detroit gym closure
In September 2006, the original gym at 5555 McGraw Avenue between 33rd and Junction Streets in Detroit closed temporarily after thieves stole copper water pipes, cutting off supply to the building. Boxers relocated to a Dearborn Gold's Gym. A "Save the Kronk" campaign aimed at keeping the facilities from closing due to budget shortfall was spearheaded by Emanuel Steward. The campaign would ultimately work toward building a new Kronk.
The gym and recreation center was officially closed by the Recreation Department on November 28, 2006 due to the prohibitive cost of repairs to the plumbing and building infrastructure.
In the past few years, the Detroit gym relocated to a new facility in a storefront on West Warren Avenue.
On October 7, 2017, the original Kronk Gym went up in flames in a suspicious fire. The roof was destroyed and the basement gym was heavily damaged.
Reopening
The new facility opened on Memorial Day weekend in 2015 at 9520 Mettetal St.
On August 20, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent restrictions on sports events, the gym hosted its first ever professional boxing event, a long-time dream held by Steward. The card was headlined by Kronk fighter Vladimir Shishkin who defeated Oscar Riojas via ninth-round technical knockout.
References
External links
Kronkgym.com official website.
Inside the abandoned Kronk Gym at Detroiturbex.com
Detroit's Legendary Kronk Gym: Down for the Count
Boxing's Most Famous Gyms
Boxing in Michigan
Boxing gyms in the United States
2006 disestablishments in Michigan 1980 Manny Steward kronk gym held the 15 years and younger Silver gloves jr Olympics,Micky Goodwyn,Milton Mccrory,Hilmer Kentay,And Duane Johnson All world champions helped host the event. Roosevelt McKinley trainer with AnnArbor / | [
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244511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barn%20owl | Barn owl | The barn owl (Tyto alba) is the most widely distributed species of owl in the world and one of the most widespread of all species of birds, being found almost everywhere in the world except for the polar and desert regions, Asia north of the Himalayas, most of Indonesia, and some Pacific Islands. It is also known as the common barn owl, to distinguish it from the other species in its family, Tytonidae, which forms one of the two main lineages of living owls, the other being the typical owls (Strigidae).
There are at least three major lineages of barn owl: the western barn owl of Europe, western Asia, and Africa; the eastern barn owl of southeastern Asia and Australasia; and the American barn owl of the Americas. Some taxonomic authorities classify barn owls differently, recognising up to five separate species; and further research needs to be done to resolve the disparate taxonomies. There is considerable variation of size and colour among the approximately 28 subspecies, but most are between in length, with wingspans ranging from . The plumage on the head and back is a mottled shade of grey or brown; that on the underparts varies from white to brown and is sometimes speckled with dark markings. The face is characteristically heart-shaped and is white in most subspecies. This owl does not hoot, but utters an eerie, drawn-out screech.
The barn owl is nocturnal over most of its range; but in Great Britain and some Pacific Islands, it also hunts by day. Barn owls specialise in hunting animals on the ground and nearly all of their food consists of small mammals, which they locate by sound, their hearing being very acute. The owls usually mate for life unless one of the pair is killed, whereupon a new pair bond may be formed. Breeding takes place at varying times of the year, according to the locality, with a clutch of eggs, averaging about four in number, being laid in a nest in a hollow tree, old building, or fissure in a cliff. The female does all the incubation, and she and the young chicks are reliant on the male for food. When large numbers of small prey are readily available, barn owl populations can expand rapidly; and globally the bird is considered to be of least conservation concern. Some subspecies with restricted ranges are more threatened.
Etymology
The barn owl was one of several species of bird first described in 1769 by the Tyrolean physician and naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in his Anni Historico-Naturales. He gave it the scientific name Strix alba. As more species of owl were described, the genus Strix (from the Greek strix "owl") came to refer solely to the wood owls in the typical-owl family Strigidae; and the barn owl became Tyto alba in the barn-owl family Tytonidae. Tyto alba literally means 'white night owl', from the onomatopoeic Ancient Greek , 'night owl' – compare English "hooter" – and Latin , 'white'.
The bird is known by many common names that refer to its appearance, call, habitat, or its eerie, silent flight: white owl, silver owl, demon owl, ghost owl, death owl, night owl, rat owl, church owl, cave owl, stone owl, monkey-faced owl, hissing owl, hobgoblin or hobby owl, dobby owl, white-breasted owl, golden owl, screech owl, straw owl, barnyard owl, and delicate owl. "Golden owl" might also refer to the related golden masked owl (T. aurantia). "Hissing owl" and, particularly in the U.K. and in India, "screech owl" refer to the piercing calls of these birds. The latter name is also applied to a different group of birds, the screech-owls in the genus Megascops.
Description
The barn owl is a medium-sized, pale-coloured owl with long wings and a short, squarish tail. There is considerable size variation across the subspecies with a typical specimen measuring about in overall length, with a wingspan of some . Adult body mass is also variable with male owls from the Galapagos weighing while male Pacific barn owls average . In general, owls living on small islands are smaller and lighter, perhaps because they have a higher dependence on insect prey and need to be more manoeuvrable. The shape of the tail is a means of distinguishing the barn owl from typical owls when seen in the air. Other distinguishing features are the undulating flight pattern and the dangling, feathered legs. The pale face with its heart shape and black eyes give the flying bird a distinctive appearance, like a flat mask with oversized, oblique black eyeslits, the ridge of feathers above the bill somewhat resembling a nose.
The bird's head and upper body typically vary between pale brown and some shade of grey (especially on the forehead and back) in most subspecies. Some are purer, richer brown instead, and all have fine black-and-white speckles except on the remiges and rectrices (main wing feathers), which are light brown with darker bands. The heart-shaped face is usually bright white, but in some subspecies it is brown. The underparts, including the tarsometatarsal (lower leg) feathers, vary from white to reddish buff among the subspecies, and are either mostly unpatterned or bear a varying number of tiny blackish-brown speckles. It has been found that at least in the continental European populations, females with more spotting are healthier than plainer birds. This does not hold true for European males by contrast, where the spotting varies according to subspecies. The bill varies from pale horn to dark buff, corresponding to the general plumage hue, and the iris is blackish brown. The toes, like the bill, vary in colour, ranging from pink to dark pinkish-grey and the talons are black.
Both leucistic and melanistic barn owls have been recorded in the wild and in captivity, with melanistic individuals estimated to occur with odds of 1 out of every 100,000 birds.
On average within any one population, males tend to have fewer spots on the underside and are paler in colour than females. The latter are also larger with a strong female T. alba of a large subspecies weighing over 550 g (19.4 oz), while males are typically about 10% lighter. Nestlings are covered in white down, but the heart-shaped facial disk becomes visible soon after hatching.
Contrary to popular belief, the barn owl does not hoot (such calls are made by typical owls, like the tawny owl or other members of the genus Strix). It instead produces a characteristic piercing shree scream, ear-shattering at close range, an eerie, long-drawn-out shriek. Males in courtship give a shrill twitter. Both young and old can hiss like a snake to scare away intruders. Other sounds produced include a purring chirrup denoting pleasure, and a "kee-yak", which resembles one of the vocalisations of the tawny owl. When captured or cornered, the barn owl throws itself on its back and flails with sharp-taloned feet, making for an effective defence. In such situations it may emit rasping sounds or clicking snaps, produced probably by the bill but possibly by the tongue.
Distribution
The barn owl is the most widespread landbird species in the world, occurring on every continent except Antarctica. Its range includes all of Europe (except Fennoscandia and Malta), most of Africa apart from the Sahara, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Australia, many Pacific Islands, and North-, Central-, and South America. In general, it is considered to be sedentary; and, indeed, many individuals, having taken up residence in a particular location, remain there even when better nearby foraging areas are available. In the British Isles, the young seem largely to disperse along river corridors; and the distance travelled from their natal site averages about .
In continental Europe the dispersal distance is greater, commonly somewhere between but exceptionally , with ringed birds from the Netherlands ending up in Spain and in Ukraine. In the United States, dispersal is typically over distances of , with the most travelled individuals ending up some from their points of origin. Dispersal movements in the African continent include from Senegambia to Sierra Leone and up to within South Africa. In Australia there is some migration as the birds move towards the northern coast in the dry season and southward in the wet season, as well as nomadic movements in association with rodent plagues. Occasionally, some of these birds turn up on Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island, or New Zealand, showing that crossing the ocean is within their capabilities. In 2008, barn owls were recorded for the first time breeding in New Zealand. The barn owl has been successfully introduced into the Hawaiian island of Kauai in an attempt to control rodents; distressingly, it has been found to also feed on native birds.
Taxonomy
The ashy-faced owl (T. glaucops) was for some time included in T. alba. Based on DNA evidence, König, Weick & Becking (2009) recognised the American barn owl (T. furcata) and the Curaçao barn owl (T. bargei) as separate species. They proposed that T. a. delicatula should be split off as a separate species, to be known as the eastern barn owl, which would include the subspecies T. d. delicatula, T. d. sumbaensis, T. d. meeki, T. d. crassirostris, and T. d. interposita. As of 2021, the International Ornithological Committee had not accepted the split of Tyto delicatula from T. alba.
Some island subspecies are occasionally treated as distinct species, a move which should await further research into barn owl phylogeography. According to Murray Bruce in Handbook of Birds of the World Volume 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds, "a review of the whole group [is] long overdue". Molecular analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows a separation of the species into two clades, an Old World alba and a New World furcata, but this study did not include T. a. delicatula, which the authors seem to have accepted as a separate species. Extensive genetic variation was found between the Indonesian T. a. stertens and other members of the alba clade, leading to the separation of stertens into Tyto javanica.
Twenty to thirty subspecies are usually recognized, varying mainly in body proportions, size, and colour. Barn owls range in colour from the almost beige-and-white nominate subspecies alba, erlangeri, and niveicauda, to the nearly black-and-brown contempta. Island forms are mostly smaller than mainland ones, and those inhabiting forests have darker plumage and shorter wings than those living in open grasslands. Several subspecies are generally considered to be intergrades between more distinct populations.
In Handbook of Birds of the World Volume 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds, the following subspecies are listed:
Behaviour and ecology
Like most owls, the barn owl is nocturnal, relying on its acute sense of hearing when hunting in complete darkness. It often becomes active shortly before dusk but can sometimes be seen during the day when relocating from one roosting site to another. In Britain, on various Pacific Islands, and perhaps elsewhere, it sometimes hunts by day. The owl's daylight hunting may depend on whether it can avoid being mobbed by other birds during that time. In Britain, some birds continue to hunt by day—even when mobbed by such birds as magpies, rooks, and black-headed gulls—possibly because the previous night has been wet, making night hunting difficult. By contrast, in southern Europe and the tropics, the birds seem to be almost exclusively nocturnal, with the few birds that hunt by day being severely mobbed.
Barn owls are not particularly territorial but have a home range inside which they forage. For males in Scotland this home range has a radius of about from the nest site and an average area of about . Female home ranges largely coincide with that of their mates. Outside the breeding season, males and females usually roost separately, each one having about three favoured sites in which to conceal themselves by day, and which are also visited for short periods during the night. Roosting sites include holes in trees, fissures in cliffs, disused buildings, chimneys, and hay sheds, and are often small in comparison to nesting sites. As the breeding season approaches, the birds move back to the vicinity of a chosen nest to roost.
The barn owl is a bird of open country, such as farmland or grassland with some interspersed woodland, usually at altitudes below but occasionally as high as in the tropics, such as in Ethiopia's Degua Tembien mountain range. This owl prefers to hunt along the edges of woods or in rough grass strips adjoining pasture. It has an effortless wavering flight as it quarters the ground, alert to the sounds made by potential prey. Like most owls, the barn owl flies silently; tiny serrations on the leading edges of its flight feathers and a hairlike fringe on the trailing edges help to break up the flow of air over the wings, thereby reducing turbulence and the noise that accompanies it. Hairlike extensions to the barbules of its feathers, which give the plumage a soft feel, also minimise noise produced during wingbeats. Behavioural and environmental preferences may differ slightly even between neighbouring subspecies, as shown in the case of the European T. a. guttata and T. a. alba, which probably evolved, respectively, in allopatric glacial refugia in southeastern Europe, and in Iberia or southern France.
Hunting and feeding
Hunting in twilight or at night, the barn owl can target its prey and dive to the ground. Its legs and toes are long and slender, which improves its ability to forage among dense foliage or beneath the snow, and gives it a wide spread of talons when attacking prey. This bird hunts by flying slowly, quartering the ground and hovering over spots that may conceal prey. It has long, broad wings that enable it to manoeuvre and turn abruptly. It has acute hearing, with ears placed asymmetrically, which improves detection of sound position and distance; the bird does not require sight to hunt. The facial disc helps with the bird's hearing, as is shown by the fact that, with the ruff feathers removed, the bird can still determine a sound source's direction, although without the disc it can't determine the source's height. It may perch on branches, fence posts, or other lookouts to scan its surroundings; and this is the main means of prey location in the oil palm plantations of Malaysia.
Rodents and other small mammals may constitute over ninety percent of the prey caught. Birds are also taken, as well as lizards, amphibians, and insects. Even when they are plentiful, and other prey scarce, earthworms do not seem to be consumed. In North America and most of Europe, voles predominate in the diet and shrews are the second most common food choice. In Ireland, the accidental introduction of the bank vole in the 1950s led to a major shift in the barn owl's diet: where their ranges overlap, the vole is now by far the largest prey item. Mice and rats are the main foodstuffs in the Mediterranean region, the tropics, subtropics, and Australia. Barn owls are usually specialist feeders in productive areas and generalists in areas where prey is scarce.
On the Cape Verde Islands, geckos are the mainstay of the diet, supplemented by birds such as plovers, godwits, turnstones, weavers, and pratincoles. On a rocky islet off the coast of California, a clutch of four young were being reared on a diet of Leach's storm petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa). On bird-rich islands, a barn owl might include birds as some fifteen to twenty percent of its diet, while in grassland it will gorge itself on swarming termites, or on Orthoptera such as Copiphorinae katydids, Jerusalem crickets (Stenopelmatidae), or true crickets (Gryllidae). Smaller prey is usually torn into chunks and eaten completely, including bones and fur, while prey larger than about —such as baby rabbits, Cryptomys blesmols, or Otomys vlei rats—is usually dismembered and the inedible parts discarded.
Compared to other owls of similar size, the barn owl has a much higher metabolic rate, requiring relatively more food. Relative to its size, barn owls consume more rodents. Studies have shown that an individual barn owl may eat one or more voles (or their equivalent) per night, equivalent to about fourteen percent of the bird's bodyweight. Excess food is often cached at roosting sites and can be used when food is scarce. This makes the barn owl one of the most economically valuable wildlife animals for agriculture. Farmers often find these owls more effective than poison in keeping down rodent pests, and they can encourage barn owl habitation by providing nesting sites.
Breeding
Barn owls living in tropical regions can breed at any time of year, but some seasonality in nesting is still evident. Where there are distinct wet and dry seasons, egg-laying usually takes place during the dry season, with increased rodent prey becoming available to the birds as the vegetation dies off. In arid regions, such as parts of Australia, breeding may be irregular and may happen in wet periods, with the resultant temporary increase in the populations of small mammals. In temperate climates, nesting seasons become more distinct; and there are some seasons of the year when no egg-laying takes place. In Europe and North America, most nesting takes place between March and June, when temperatures are increasing. The actual dates of egg-laying vary by year and by location, being correlated with the amount of prey-rich foraging habitat around the nest site. An increase in rodent populations will usually stimulate the local barn owls to begin nesting; and, consequently, two broods are often raised in a good year, even in the cooler parts of the owl's range.
Females are ready to breed at ten to eleven months of age. Barn owls are usually monogamous, sticking to one partner for life unless one of a pair dies. During the non-breeding season they may roost separately; but as the breeding season approaches, they return to their established nesting site, showing considerable site fidelity. In colder climates, in harsh weather, and where winter food supplies may be scarce, they may roost in farm buildings and in barns between hay bales; but they then run the risk that their selected nesting hole may be taken over by some other species. Single males may establish feeding territories, patrolling the hunting areas, occasionally stopping to hover, and perching on lofty eminences where they screech to attract a mate. Where a female has lost her mate but maintained her breeding site, she usually seems to attract a new spouse.
Once a pair-bond has been formed, the male will make short flights at dusk around the nesting and roosting sites and then longer circuits to establish a home range. When he is later joined by the female, there is much chasing, turning, and twisting in flight, and frequent screeches, the male's being high-pitched and tremulous and the female's lower and harsher. In later stages of courtship, the male emerges at dusk, climbs high into the sky, and then swoops back to the vicinity of the female at speed. He then sets off to forage. The female meanwhile sits in an eminent position and preens, returning to the nest a minute or two before the male arrives with food for her. Such feeding behaviour of the female by the male is common, helps build the pair-bond, and increases the female's fitness before egg-laying commences.
Barn owls are cavity nesters. They choose holes in trees, fissures in cliff faces, the large nests of other birds such as the hamerkop (Scopus umbretta), and, particularly in Europe and North America, old buildings such as farm sheds and church towers. Buildings are preferred to trees in wetter climates in the British Isles and provide better protection for fledglings from inclement weather. Tree nests tend to be in open habitats rather than in the middle of woodland, and nest holes tend to be higher in North America than in Europe, because of possible predation by raccoons (Procyon lotor). No nesting material is used as such but, as the female sits incubating the eggs, she draws in the dry furry material of which her regurgitated pellets are composed, so that by the time the chicks are hatched, they are surrounded by a carpet of shredded pellets. Oftentimes other birds such as jackdaws (Corvus monedula) nest in the same hollow tree or building and seem to live harmoniously with the owls.
Before commencing laying, the female spends much time near the nest and is entirely provisioned by the male. Meanwhile, the male roosts nearby and may cache any prey that is surplus to their requirements. When the female has reached peak weight, the male provides a ritual presentation of food and copulation occurs at the nest. The female lays eggs on alternate days and the clutch size averages about five eggs (the range being two to nine). The eggs are chalky white, somewhat elliptical, and about the size of bantam eggs. Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid. While the female is sitting on the nest, the male is constantly bringing more provisions, and they may pile up beside the female. The incubation period is about thirty days, hatching takes place over a prolonged period, and the youngest chick may be several weeks younger than its oldest sibling. In years with a plentiful supply of food, there may be a hatching success rate of about 75%. The male continues to copulate with the female when he brings food, which makes the newly hatched chicks vulnerable to injury.
The chicks are at first covered with greyish-white down and develop rapidly. Within a week they can hold their heads up and shuffle around in the nest. The female tears up the food brought by the male and distributes it to the chicks. Initially, the chicks make a "chittering" sound but this soon changes into a food-demanding "snore". By two weeks old they are already half their adult weight and look naked, as the amount of down is insufficient to cover their growing bodies. By three weeks old, quills are starting to push through the skin and the chicks stand, making snoring noises with wings raised and tail stumps waggling, begging for food items which are now given whole. Atypically among birds, barn owl chicks can "negotiate" and allow weaker ones to eat first, possibly in exchange for grooming. The male is the main provider of food until all the chicks are at least four weeks old, at which time the female begins to leave the nest and starts to roost elsewhere. By the sixth week the chicks are as big as the adults, but have slimmed down somewhat by the ninth week when they are fully fledged and start leaving the nest briefly themselves. They are still dependent on the parent birds until about thirteen weeks and receive training from the female in finding, and eventually catching, prey.
Moulting
Feathers become abraded over time and all birds need to replace them at intervals. Barn owls are particularly dependent on their ability to fly quietly and manoeuvre efficiently. In temperate areas the owls undergo a prolonged moult that lasts through three phases over a period of two years. The female starts to moult while incubating the eggs and brooding the chicks, a time when the male feeds her, so she does not need to fly much. The first primary feather to be shed is a central one, number 6, and it has regrown completely by the time the female resumes hunting. Feathers 4, 5, 7, and 8 are dropped at a similar time the following year and feathers 1, 2, 3, 9 and 10 in the bird's third year of adulthood. The secondary and tail feathers are lost and replaced over a similar timescale, again starting while incubation is taking place. In the case of the tail, the two outermost tail feathers are first shed, followed by the two central ones, the other tail feathers being shed the following year.
The male owl moults rather later in the year than the female, at a time when there is an abundance of food, the female has recommenced hunting, and the demands of the chicks are lessening. Unmated males without family responsibilities often start losing feathers earlier in the year. Their moult follows a pattern similarly prolonged as that of the female. The first sign that the male is moulting is often when a tail feather has been dropped at the roost. A consequence of moulting is the loss of thermal insulation. This is of little importance in the tropics, and barn owls there usually moult a complete complement of flight feathers annually. The hot-climate moult may still take place over a long period but is usually concentrated at a particular time of year outside the breeding season.
Predators and parasites
Predators of the barn owl include large American opossums (Didelphis), the common raccoon, and similar carnivorous mammals, as well as eagles, larger hawks, and other owls. Among the latter, the great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), in the Americas, and the Eurasian eagle-owl (B. bubo) are noted predators of barn owls. Despite some sources claiming that there is little evidence of predation by great horned owls, one study from Washington found that 10.9% of the local great horned owl's diet was made up of barn owls. In Africa, the principal predators of barn owls are Verreaux's eagle-owls (Bubo lacteus) and Cape eagle-owls (B. capensis). In Europe, although less dangerous than the eagle-owls, the chief diurnal predators are the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) and the common buzzard (Buteo buteo). About 12 other large diurnal raptors and owls have also been reported as predators of barn owls, ranging from the similar-sized Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) and scarcely larger tawny owl (Strix aluco) to huge bald (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). As a result of improved conservation measures, the populations of the northern goshawk and eagle-owls are increasing, thus increasing the incidence of hunting on barn owls where the species coexist.
When disturbed at its roosting site, an angry barn owl lowers its head and sways it from side to side, or the head may be lowered and stretched forward and the wings outstretched and drooped while the bird emits hisses and makes snapping noises with its beak. Another defensive attitude involves lying flat on the ground or crouching with wings spread out.
Barn owls are hosts to a wide range of parasites. Fleas are present at nesting sites, and externally the birds are attacked by feather lice and feather mites which chew the barbules of the feathers and which are transferred from bird to bird by direct contact. Blood-sucking flies, such as Ornithomyia avicularia, are often present, moving about among the plumage. Internal parasites include the fluke Strigea strigis, the tapeworm Paruternia candelabraria, several species of parasitic round worm, and spiny-headed worms in the genus Centrorhynchus. These gut parasites are acquired when the birds feed on infected prey. There is some indication that female birds with more and larger spots have a greater resistance to external parasites. This is correlated with smaller bursa of Fabricius, glands associated with antibody production, and a lower fecundity of the blood-sucking fly Carnus hemapterus, which attacks nestlings.
Lifespan
Unusually for a medium-sized carnivorous animal, the barn owl exhibits r-selection, producing a large number of offspring with a high growth rate, which have a low probability of surviving to adulthood. Its typical lifespan is around four years. In Scotland, the species has been recorded living up to 18 and possibly even 34 years. A significant cause of death in temperate areas is starvation, particularly during the winter, and with significant snow cover.
Collision with road vehicles is another cause of death, and may result when birds forage on mown verges. Some of these birds are in poor condition and may have been less able to evade oncoming vehicles than fit individuals. In some locations, road mortality rates can be particularly high, with collision rates being influenced by higher commercial traffic, roadside verges that are grass rather than shrubs, and where small mammals are abundant. Historically, many deaths were caused by the use of pesticides, and this may still be the case in some parts of the world. Collisions with power-lines kill some birds; and being shot accounts for others, especially in Mediterranean regions.
Status and conservation
Barn owls are relatively common throughout most of their range and not considered globally threatened. If considered as a single global species, the barn owl is the second most widely distributed of all raptors, behind only the peregrine falcon. It is wider-ranging than the also somewhat cosmopolitan osprey. Furthermore, the barn owl is likely the most numerous of all raptors, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimating, for all barn owl individuals, a population possibly as large as nearly 10 million individuals (throughout the Americas, the American barn owl species may comprise nearly 2 million). Severe local declines due to organochlorine (e.g., DDT) poisoning in the mid 20th century and rodenticides in the late 20th century have affected some populations, particularly in Europe and North America. Intensification of agricultural practices often means that the rough grassland that provides the best foraging habitat is lost. While barn owls are prolific breeders and able to recover from short-term population decreases, they are not as common in some areas as they used to be. A 1995–1997 survey put their British population at between 3,000 and 5,000 breeding pairs, out of an average of about 150,000 pairs in the whole of Europe. In the US, barn owls are listed as endangered species in seven Midwestern states (Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Missouri), and in the European Community they are considered a Species of European Concern.
In Canada, barn owls are no longer common and are most likely to be found in coastal British Columbia south of Vancouver, having become extremely rare in a previous habitat, southern Ontario. In spite of a Recovery Strategy, particularly in 2007–2010 in Ontario, only a handful of wild, breeding barn owls existed in the province in 2018. This is primarily because of disappearing grasslands where the bird hunted in the past, but according to a study, also because of "harsh winters, predation, road mortality and use of rodenticides". The species is listed as endangered overall in Canada, due to loss of habitat and a lack of nesting sites.
In the Canary Islands, a somewhat larger number of these birds still seem to exist on the island of Lanzarote, but altogether this particular subspecies (T. a. gracilirostris, the Canary barn owl) is precariously rare: perhaps fewer than two hundred individuals still remain. Similarly, the birds on the western Canary Islands, which are usually assigned to this subspecies, have severely declined; and wanton destruction of the birds seems to be significant. On Tenerife they seem relatively numerous; but on the other islands the situation looks about as bleak as on Fuerteventura. Due to the assignment to this subspecies of birds common in mainland Spain, the western Canary Islands population is not classified as threatened.
Nest boxes are used primarily when populations suffer declines. Although such declines have many causes, among them are the lack of available natural nesting sites. Early successes among conservationists have led to the widespread provision of nest boxes, which has become the most used form of population management. The barn owl accepts the provided nest boxes and sometimes prefers them to natural sites. The nest boxes are placed under the eaves of buildings and in other locations. The upper bound of the number of barn owl pairs depends on the abundance of food at nesting sites. Conservationists encourage farmers and landowners to install nest boxes by pointing out that the resultant increased barn owl population would provide natural rodent control. In some conservation projects, the use of rodenticides for pest control was replaced by the installation of nest boxes for barn owls, which has been shown to be a less costly method of rodent control.
Cultural aspects
Common names such as "demon owl", "death owl", "ghost owl", or "lich owl" (from lich, an old term for a corpse) show that rural populations in many places considered barn owls to be birds of evil omen. For example, the Tzeltal people in Mexico regard them as "disease givers". These owls don't "hoot", instead emitting raspy screeches and hissing noises, and their white face and underbelly feathers, visible as they fly overhead, make them look "ghostly". Consequently, they were often killed by farmers who were unaware of the benefits these birds bring. Negative perceptions can also be attributed to the false belief that they could eat large animals, such as chickens and cats. In South Africa, barn owls are often associated with witchcraft and are persecuted. In some South African cultures, these owls are used in 'muthi' (traditional medicine) and are believed to give special powers when consumed.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
BrainMaps: Barn owl brain images
Barn owl videos, photos and sounds—Internet Bird Collection
Barn owl—USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Barn owl species account—Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Ageing and sexing barn owls—Blasco-Zumeta, Javier; Heinze, Gerd-Michael
Barn owl feathers
Barn Owl sounds
Articles containing video clips
Birds described in 1769
Cosmopolitan birds
Falconry
Taxa named by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli
barn owl
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244516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material%20implication%20%28rule%20of%20inference%29 | Material implication (rule of inference) | In propositional logic, material implication is a valid rule of replacement that allows for a conditional statement to be replaced by a disjunction in which the antecedent is negated. The rule states that P implies Q is logically equivalent to not- or and that either form can replace the other in logical proofs. In other words, if is true, then must also be true, while if is true, then cannot be true either; additionally, when is not true, may be either true or false.
Where "" is a metalogical symbol representing "can be replaced in a proof with," and P and Q are any given logical statements. To illustrate this, consider the following statements:
: Sam ate an orange for lunch
: Sam ate a fruit for lunch
Then, to say, "Sam ate an orange for lunch" "Sam ate a fruit for lunch" (). Logically, if Sam did not eat a fruit for lunch, then Sam also cannot have eaten an orange for lunch (by contraposition). However, merely saying that Sam did not eat an orange for lunch provides no information on whether or not Sam ate a fruit (of any kind) for lunch.
Partial proof
Suppose we are given that . Then, we have by the law of excluded middle (i.e. either must be true, or must not be true).
Subsequently, since , can be replaced by in the statement, and thus it follows that (i.e. either must be true, or must not be true).
Suppose, conversely, we are given . Then if is true that rules out the first disjunct, so we have . In short, . However if is false, then this entailment fails, because the first disjunct is true which puts no constraint on the second disjunct . Hence, nothing can be said about . In sum, the equivalence in the case of false is only conventional, and hence the formal proof of equivalence is only partial.
This can also be expressed with a truth table:
Example
An example is:
We are given the conditional fact that if it is a bear, then it can swim. Then all 4 possibilities in the truth table are compared to that fact.
1st: If it is a bear, then it can swim — T
2nd: If it is a bear, then it can not swim — F
3rd: If it is not a bear, then it can swim — T because it doesn’t contradict our initial fact.
4th: If it is not a bear, then it can not swim — T (as above)
Thus, the conditional fact can be converted to , which is "it is not a bear" or "it can swim",
where is the statement "it is a bear" and is the statement "it can swim".
References
Rules of inference
Theorems in propositional logic | [
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244517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibia | Tibia | The tibia (; ), also known as the shinbone or shankbone, is the larger, stronger, and anterior (frontal) of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates (the other being the fibula, behind and to the outside of the tibia), and it connects the knee with the ankle bones. The tibia is found on the medial side of the leg next to the fibula and closer to the median plane or centre-line. The tibia is connected to the fibula by the interosseous membrane of leg, forming a type of fibrous joint called a syndesmosis with very little movement. The tibia is named for the flute tibia. It is the second largest bone in the human body next to the femur. The leg bones are the strongest long bones as they support the rest of the body.
Structure
In human anatomy, the tibia is the second largest bone next to the femur. As in other vertebrates the tibia is one of two bones in the lower leg, the other being the fibula, and is a component of the knee and ankle joints.
The ossification or formation of the bone starts from three centers; one in the shaft and one in each extremity.
The tibia is categorized as a long bone and is as such composed of a diaphysis and two epiphyses. The diaphysis is the midsection of the tibia, also known as the shaft or body. While the epiphyses are the two rounded extremities of the bone; an upper (also known as superior or proximal) closest to the thigh and a lower (also known as inferior or distal) closest to the foot. The tibia is most contracted in the lower third and the distal extremity is smaller than the proximal.
Upper extremity
Condyles of tibia
The proximal or upper extremity of the tibia is expanded in the transverse plane with a medial and lateral condyle, which are both flattened in the horizontal plane. The medial condyle is the larger of the two and is better supported over the shaft. The upper surfaces of the condyles articulate with the femur to form the tibiofemoral joint, the weightbearing part of the kneejoint.
The medial and lateral condyle are separated by the intercondylar area, where the cruciate ligaments and the menisci attach. Here the medial and lateral intercondylar tubercle forms the intercondylar eminence. Together with the medial and lateral condyle the intercondylar region forms the tibial plateau, which both articulates with and is anchored to the lower extremity of the femur. The intercondylar eminence divides the intercondylar area into an anterior and posterior part. The anterolateral region of the anterior intercondylar area are perforated by numerous small openings for nutrient arteries.
The articular surfaces of both condyles are concave, particularly centrally. The flatter outer margins are in contact with the menisci. The medial condyles superior surface is oval in form and extends laterally onto the side of medial intercondylar tubercle. The lateral condyles superior surface is more circular in form and its medial edge extends onto the side of the lateral intercondylar tubercle. The posterior surface of the medial condyle bears a horizontal groove for part of the attachment of the semimembranosus muscle, whereas the lateral condyle has a circular facet for articulation with the head of the fibula.
Beneath the condyles is the tibial tuberosity which serves for attachment of the patellar ligament, a continuation of the quadriceps femoris muscle.
Facets
The superior articular surface presents two smooth articular facets.
The medial facet, oval in shape, is slightly concave from side to side, and from before backward.
The lateral, nearly circular, is concave from side to side, but slightly convex from before backward, especially at its posterior part, where it is prolonged on to the posterior surface for a short distance.
The central portions of these facets articulate with the condyles of the femur, while their peripheral portions support the menisci of the knee joint, which here intervene between the two bones.
Intercondyloid eminence
Between the articular facets in the intercondylar area, but nearer the posterior than the anterior aspect of the bone, is the intercondyloid eminence (spine of tibia), surmounted on either side by a prominent tubercle, on to the sides of which the articular facets are prolonged; in front of and behind the intercondyloid eminence are rough depressions for the attachment of the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments and the menisci.
Surfaces
The anterior surfaces of the condyles are continuous with one another, forming a large somewhat flattened area; this area is triangular, broad above, and perforated by large vascular foramina; narrow below where it ends in a large oblong elevation, the tuberosity of the tibia, which gives attachment to the patellar ligament; a bursa intervenes between the deep surface of the ligament and the part of the bone immediately above the tuberosity.
Posteriorly, the condyles are separated from each other by a shallow depression, the posterior intercondyloid fossa, which gives attachment to part of the posterior cruciate ligament of the knee-joint. The medial condyle presents posteriorly a deep transverse groove, for the insertion of the tendon of the semimembranosus.
Its medial surface is convex, rough, and prominent; it gives attachment to the medial collateral ligament.
The lateral condyle presents posteriorly a flat articular facet, nearly circular in form, directed downward, backward, and lateralward, for articulation with the head of the fibula. Its lateral surface is convex, rough, and prominent in front: on it is an eminence, situated on a level with the upper border of the tuberosity and at the junction of its anterior and lateral surfaces, for the attachment of the iliotibial band. Just below this a part of the extensor digitorum longus takes origin and a slip from the tendon of the biceps femoris is inserted.
Shaft
The shaft or body of the tibia is triangular in cross-section and forms three borders: An anterior, medial and lateral or interosseous border. These three borders form three surfaces; the medial, lateral and posterior.
The forward flat part of the tibia is called the fibia, often confused with the fibula.
Borders
The anterior crest or border, the most prominent of the three, commences above at the tuberosity, and ends below at the anterior margin of the medial malleolus. It is sinuous and prominent in the upper two-thirds of its extent, but smooth and rounded below; it gives attachment to the deep fascia of the leg.
The medial border is smooth and rounded above and below, but more prominent in the center; it begins at the back part of the medial condyle, and ends at the posterior border of the medial malleolus; its upper part gives attachment to the tibial collateral ligament of the knee-joint to the extent of about 5 cm., and insertion to some fibers of the popliteus muscle; from its middle third some fibers of the soleus and flexor digitorum longus muscles take origin.
The interosseous crest or lateral border is thin and prominent, especially its central part, and gives attachment to the interosseous membrane; it commences above in front of the fibular articular facet, and bifurcates below, to form the boundaries of a triangular rough surface, for the attachment of the interosseous ligament connecting the tibia and fibula.
Surfaces
The medial surface is smooth, convex, and broader above than below; its upper third, directed forward and medialward, is covered by the aponeurosis derived from the tendon of the sartorius, and by the tendons of the Gracilis and Semitendinosus, all of which are inserted nearly as far forward as the anterior crest; in the rest of its extent it is subcutaneous.
The lateral surface is narrower than the medial; its upper two-thirds present a shallow groove for the origin of the Tibialis anterior; its lower third is smooth, convex, curves gradually forward to the anterior aspect of the bone, and is covered by the tendons of the Tibialis anterior, Extensor hallucis longus, and Extensor digitorum longus, arranged in this order from the medial side.
The posterior surface presents, at its upper part, a prominent ridge, the popliteal line, which extends obliquely downward from the back part of the articular facet for the fibula to the medial border, at the junction of its upper and middle thirds; it marks the lower limit of the insertion of the Popliteus, serves for the attachment of the fascia covering this muscle, and gives origin to part of the Soleus, Flexor digitorum longus, and Tibialis posterior. The triangular area, above this line, gives insertion to the Popliteus. The middle third of the posterior surface is divided by a vertical ridge into two parts; the ridge begins at the popliteal line and is well-marked above, but indistinct below; the medial and broader portion gives origin to the Flexor digitorum longus, the lateral and narrower to part of the Tibialis posterior. The remaining part of the posterior surface is smooth and covered by the Tibialis posterior, Flexor digitorum longus, and Flexor hallucis longus. Immediately below the popliteal line is the nutrient foramen, which is large and directed obliquely downward.
Lower extremity
The distal end of the tibia is much smaller than the proximal end and presents five surfaces; it is prolonged downward on its medial side as a strong pyramidal process, the medial malleolus. The lower extremity of the tibia together with the fibula and talus forms the ankle joint.
Surfaces
The inferior articular surface is quadrilateral, and smooth for articulation with the talus. It is concave from before backward, broader in front than behind, and traversed from before backward by a slight elevation, separating two depressions. It is continuous with that on the medial malleolus.
The anterior surface of the lower extremity is smooth and rounded above, and covered by the tendons of the Extensor muscles; its lower margin presents a rough transverse depression for the attachment of the articular capsule of the ankle-joint.
The posterior surface is traversed by a shallow groove directed obliquely downward and medialward, continuous with a similar groove on the posterior surface of the talus and serving for the passage of the tendon of the Flexor hallucis longus.
The lateral surface presents a triangular rough depression for the attachment of the inferior interosseous ligament connecting it with the fibula; the lower part of this depression is smooth, covered with cartilage in the fresh state, and articulates with the fibula. The surface is bounded by two prominent borders (the anterior and posterior colliculi), continuous above with the interosseous crest; they afford attachment to the anterior and posterior ligaments of the lateral malleolus.
The medial surface -- see medial malleolus for details.
Fractures
Ankle fractures of the tibia have several classification systems based on location or mechanism:
Medial malleolus - Herscovici classification
Posterior malleolus - Haruguchi classification
Mechanism - Lauge-Hansen classification
Blood supply
The tibia is supplied with blood from two sources: A nutrient artery, as the main source, and periosteal vessels derived from the anterior tibial artery.
Joints
The tibia is a part of four joints; the knee, ankle, superior and inferior tibiofibular joint.
In the knee the tibia forms one of the two articulations with the femur, often referred to as the tibiofemoral components of the knee joint. This is the weightbearing part of the knee joint.
The tibiofibular joints are the articulations between the tibia and fibula which allows very little movement.
The proximal tibiofibular joint is a small plane joint. The joint is formed between the undersurface of the lateral tibial condyle and the head of fibula. The joint capsule is reinforced by anterior and posterior ligament of the head of the fibula.
The distal tibiofibular joint (tibiofibular syndesmosis) is formed by the rough, convex surface of the medial side of the distal end of the fibula, and a rough concave surface on the lateral side of the tibia.
The part of the ankle joint known as the talocrural joint, is a synovial hinge joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus. The articulation between the tibia and the talus bears more weight than between the smaller fibula and the talus.
Development
The tibia is ossified from three centers; a primary center for the diaphysis (shaft) and a secondary center for each epiphysis (extremity). Ossification begins in the center of the body, about the seventh week of fetal life, and gradually extends toward the extremities.
The center for the upper epiphysis appears before or shortly after birth at close to 34 weeks gestation; it is flattened in form, and has a thin tongue-shaped process in front, which forms the tuberosity; that for the lower epiphysis appears in the second year.
The lower epiphysis fuses with the tibial shaft at about the eighteenth, and the upper one fuses about the twentieth year.
Two additional centers occasionally exist, one for the tongue-shaped process of the upper epiphysis, which forms the tuberosity, and one for the medial malleolus.
Function
Muscle attachments
Strength
The tibia has been modeled as taking an axial force during walking that is up to 4.7 bodyweight. Its bending moment in the sagittal plane in the late stance phase is up to 71.6 bodyweight times millimetre.
Clinical significance
Fracture
Fractures of the tibia can be divided into those that only involve the tibia; bumper fracture, Segond fracture, Gosselin fracture, toddler's fracture, and those including both the tibia and fibula; trimalleolar fracture, bimalleolar fracture, Pott's fracture.
Society and culture
In Judaism, the tibia, or shankbone, of a goat is used in the Passover Seder plate.
Other animals
The structure of the tibia in most other tetrapods is essentially similar to that in humans. The tuberosity of the tibia, a crest to which the patellar ligament attaches in mammals, is instead the point for the tendon of the quadriceps muscle in reptiles, birds, and amphibians, which have no patella.
Additional images
See also
Shin splints
Squatting facets
References
External links
Bones of the lower limb
Long bones | [
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244518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodge%20conjecture | Hodge conjecture | In mathematics, the Hodge conjecture is a major unsolved problem in algebraic geometry and complex geometry that relates the algebraic topology of a non-singular complex algebraic variety to its subvarieties.
In simple terms, the Hodge conjecture asserts that the basic topological information like the number of holes in certain geometric spaces, complex algebraic varieties, can be understood by studying the possible nice shapes sitting inside those spaces, which look like zero sets of polynomial equations. The latter objects can be studied using algebra and the calculus of analytic functions, and this allows one to indirectly understand the broad shape and structure of often higher-dimensional spaces which can not be otherwise easily visualized.
More specifically, the conjecture states that certain de Rham cohomology classes are algebraic; that is, they are sums of Poincaré duals of the homology classes of subvarieties. It was formulated by the Scottish mathematician William Vallance Douglas Hodge as a result of a work in between 1930 and 1940 to enrich the description of de Rham cohomology to include extra structure that is present in the case of complex algebraic varieties. It received little attention before Hodge presented it in an address during the 1950 International Congress of Mathematicians, held in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Hodge conjecture is one of the Clay Mathematics Institute's Millennium Prize Problems, with a prize of $1,000,000 for whoever can prove or disprove the Hodge conjecture.
Motivation
Let X be a compact complex manifold of complex dimension n. Then X is an orientable smooth manifold of real dimension , so its cohomology groups lie in degrees zero through . Assume X is a Kähler manifold, so that there is a decomposition on its cohomology with complex coefficients
where is the subgroup of cohomology classes which are represented by harmonic forms of type . That is, these are the cohomology classes represented by differential forms which, in some choice of local coordinates , can be written as a harmonic function times
(See Hodge theory for more details.)
Taking wedge products of these harmonic representatives corresponds to the cup product in cohomology, so the cup product with complex coefficients is compatible with the Hodge decomposition:
Since X is a compact oriented manifold, X has a fundamental class, and so X can be integrated over.
Let Z be a complex submanifold of X of dimension k, and let be the inclusion map. Choose a differential form of type . We can integrate over Z using the pullback function ,
.
To evaluate this integral, choose a point of Z and call it . The inclusion of z in X means we can choose local coordinates on X such that Z is a subset of . If , then must contain some where pulls back to zero on Z. The same is true with if . Consequently, this integral is zero if .
On the other hand, the integral can be written as the cap product of the homology class of Z and the cohomology class represented by . By Poincaré duality, the homology class of Z is dual to a cohomology class which we will call [Z], and the cap product can be computed by taking the cup product of [Z] and α and capping with the fundamental class of X.
Because [Z] is a cohomology class, it has a Hodge decomposition. By the computation we did above, if we cup this class with any class of type , then we get zero. Because , we conclude that [Z] must lie in .
The Hodge conjecture then (loosely) asks:
Which cohomology classes in come from complex subvarieties Z?
Statement of the Hodge conjecture
Let:
We call this the group of Hodge classes of degree 2k on X.
The modern statement of the Hodge conjecture is:
Hodge conjecture. Let X be a non-singular complex projective manifold. Then every Hodge class on X is a linear combination with rational coefficients of the cohomology classes of complex subvarieties of X.
A projective complex manifold is a complex manifold which can be embedded in complex projective space. Because projective space carries a Kähler metric, the Fubini–Study metric, such a manifold is always a Kähler manifold. By Chow's theorem, a projective complex manifold is also a smooth projective algebraic variety, that is, it is the zero set of a collection of homogeneous polynomials.
Reformulation in terms of algebraic cycles
Another way of phrasing the Hodge conjecture involves the idea of an algebraic cycle. An algebraic cycle on X is a formal combination of subvarieties of X; that is, it is something of the form:
The coefficients are usually taken to be integral or rational. We define the cohomology class of an algebraic cycle to be the sum of the cohomology classes of its components. This is an example of the cycle class map of de Rham cohomology, see Weil cohomology. For example, the cohomology class of the above cycle would be:
Such a cohomology class is called algebraic. With this notation, the Hodge conjecture becomes:
Let X be a projective complex manifold. Then every Hodge class on X is algebraic.
The assumption in the Hodge conjecture that X be algebraic (projective complex manifold) cannot be weakened. In 1977, Steven Zucker showed that it is possible to construct a counterexample to the Hodge conjecture as complex tori with analytic rational cohomology of type , which is not projective algebraic. (see appendix B of )
Known cases of the Hodge conjecture
Low dimension and codimension
The first result on the Hodge conjecture is due to . In fact, it predates the conjecture and provided some of Hodge's motivation.
Theorem (Lefschetz theorem on (1,1)-classes) Any element of is the cohomology class of a divisor on . In particular, the Hodge conjecture is true for .
A very quick proof can be given using sheaf cohomology and the exponential exact sequence. (The cohomology class of a divisor turns out to equal to its first Chern class.) Lefschetz's original proof proceeded by normal functions, which were introduced by Henri Poincaré. However, the Griffiths transversality theorem shows that this approach cannot prove the Hodge conjecture for higher codimensional subvarieties.
By the Hard Lefschetz theorem, one can prove:
Theorem. If the Hodge conjecture holds for Hodge classes of degree , for all , then the Hodge conjecture holds for Hodge classes of degree .
Combining the above two theorems implies that Hodge conjecture is true for Hodge classes of degree . This proves the Hodge conjecture when has dimension at most three.
The Lefschetz theorem on (1,1)-classes also implies that if all Hodge classes are generated by the Hodge classes of divisors, then the Hodge conjecture is true:
Corollary. If the algebra is generated by , then the Hodge conjecture holds for .
Hypersurfaces
By the strong and weak Lefschetz theorem, the only non-trivial part of the Hodge conjecture for hypersurfaces is the degree m part (i.e., the middle cohomology) of a 2m-dimensional hypersurface . If the degree d is 2, i.e., X is a quadric, the Hodge conjecture holds for all m. For , i.e., fourfolds, the Hodge conjecture is known for .
Abelian varieties
For most abelian varieties, the algebra Hdg*(X) is generated in degree one, so the Hodge conjecture holds. In particular, the Hodge conjecture holds for sufficiently general abelian varieties, for products of elliptic curves, and for simple abelian varieties of prime dimension. However, constructed an example of an abelian variety where Hdg2(X) is not generated by products of divisor classes. generalized this example by showing that whenever the variety has complex multiplication by an imaginary quadratic field, then Hdg2(X) is not generated by products of divisor classes. proved that in dimension less than 5, either Hdg*(X) is generated in degree one, or the variety has complex multiplication by an imaginary quadratic field. In the latter case, the Hodge conjecture is only known in special cases.
Generalizations
The integral Hodge conjecture
Hodge's original conjecture was:
Integral Hodge conjecture. Let be a projective complex manifold. Then every cohomology class in is the cohomology class of an algebraic cycle with integral coefficients on
This is now known to be false. The first counterexample was constructed by . Using K-theory, they constructed an example of a torsion cohomology class—that is, a cohomology class such that for some positive integer —which is not the class of an algebraic cycle. Such a class is necessarily a Hodge class. reinterpreted their result in the framework of cobordism and found many examples of such classes.
The simplest adjustment of the integral Hodge conjecture is:
Integral Hodge conjecture modulo torsion. Let be a projective complex manifold. Then every cohomology class in is the sum of a torsion class and the cohomology class of an algebraic cycle with integral coefficients on
Equivalently, after dividing by torsion classes, every class is the image of the cohomology class of an integral algebraic cycle. This is also false. found an example of a Hodge class which is not algebraic, but which has an integral multiple which is algebraic.
have shown that in order to obtain a correct integral Hodge conjecture, one needs to replace Chow groups, which can also be expressed as motivic cohomology groups, by a variant known as étale (or Lichtenbaum) motivic cohomology. They show that the rational Hodge conjecture is equivalent to an integral Hodge conjecture for this modified motivic cohomology.
The Hodge conjecture for Kähler varieties
A natural generalization of the Hodge conjecture would ask:
Hodge conjecture for Kähler varieties, naive version. Let X be a complex Kähler manifold. Then every Hodge class on X is a linear combination with rational coefficients of the cohomology classes of complex subvarieties of X.
This is too optimistic, because there are not enough subvarieties to make this work. A possible substitute is to ask instead one of the two following questions:
Hodge conjecture for Kähler varieties, vector bundle version. Let X be a complex Kähler manifold. Then every Hodge class on X is a linear combination with rational coefficients of Chern classes of vector bundles on X.
Hodge conjecture for Kähler varieties, coherent sheaf version. Let X be a complex Kähler manifold. Then every Hodge class on X is a linear combination with rational coefficients of Chern classes of coherent sheaves on X.
proved that the Chern classes of coherent sheaves give strictly more Hodge classes than the Chern classes of vector bundles and that the Chern classes of coherent sheaves are insufficient to generate all the Hodge classes. Consequently, the only known formulations of the Hodge conjecture for Kähler varieties are false.
The generalized Hodge conjecture
Hodge made an additional, stronger conjecture than the integral Hodge conjecture. Say that a cohomology class on X is of co-level c (coniveau c) if it is the pushforward of a cohomology class on a c-codimensional subvariety of X. The cohomology classes of co-level at least c filter the cohomology of X, and it is easy to see that the cth step of the filtration NH(X, Z) satisfies
Hodge's original statement was:
Generalized Hodge conjecture, Hodge's version.
observed that this cannot be true, even with rational coefficients, because the right-hand side is not always a Hodge structure. His corrected form of the Hodge conjecture is:
Generalized Hodge conjecture. NH(X, Q) is the largest sub-Hodge structure of H(X, Z) contained in
This version is open.
Algebraicity of Hodge loci
The strongest evidence in favor of the Hodge conjecture is the algebraicity result of . Suppose that we vary the complex structure of X over a simply connected base. Then the topological cohomology of X does not change, but the Hodge decomposition does change. It is known that if the Hodge conjecture is true, then the locus of all points on the base where the cohomology of a fiber is a Hodge class is in fact an algebraic subset, that is, it is cut out by polynomial equations. Cattani, Deligne & Kaplan (1995) proved that this is always true, without assuming the Hodge conjecture.
See also
Tate conjecture
Hodge theory
Hodge structure
Period mapping
References
Available from the Hirzebruch collection (pdf).
.
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.
Reprinted in .
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.
External links
Popular lecture on Hodge Conjecture by Dan Freed (University of Texas) (Real Video) (Slides)
Burt Totaro, Why believe the Hodge Conjecture?
Claire Voisin, Hodge loci
Algebraic geometry
Conjectures
Hodge theory
Homology theory
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244519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byron%20De%20La%20Beckwith | Byron De La Beckwith | Byron De La Beckwith Jr. (November 9, 1920 – January 21, 2001) was an American white supremacist and Klansman from Greenwood, Mississippi, who assassinated the civil rights leader Medgar Evers on June 12, 1963. Two trials in 1964 on that charge, with all-white Mississippi juries, resulted in hung juries. In 1994, he was tried by the state in a new trial based on new evidence, convicted of the murder by a mixed jury, and sentenced to life in prison.
Early life and career
De La Beckwith was born in Colusa, California, the son of Byron De La Beckwith Sr., who was the town's postmaster and Susan Southworth Yerger. His father died of pneumonia when he was 5. One year later, he and his mother settled in Greenwood, Mississippi, to be near family. His mother died of lung cancer when he was 12 years old, leaving him orphaned. He was raised by his maternal uncle William Greene Yerger and his wife. He was related by marriage to the socialist author Upton Sinclair, and attended the prestigious southern prep school in Bell Buckle, Tennessee called The Webb School.
In January 1942, De La Beckwith enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps, serving as a machine gunner in the Pacific theater of World War II. He fought in the Battle of Guadalcanal and was shot in the waist during the Battle of Tarawa. He was honorably discharged in August 1945.
After serving in the Marine Corps, De La Beckwith moved to Providence, Rhode Island, where he married Mary Louise Williams. The couple relocated to Mississippi, where they settled in his hometown of Greenwood. They had a son together, Delay De La Beckwith. De La Beckwith and Williams divorced, and he later married Thelma Lindsay Neff.
De La Beckwith worked as a salesman for most of his life, selling tobacco, fertilizer, wood stoves, and other goods. In 1954, following the United States Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated public schools were unconstitutional, he joined his local White Citizens' Council, and was also a member of the Ku Klux Klan.
Assassination of Medgar Evers
On June 12, 1963, at age 42, De La Beckwith murdered NAACP and civil rights leader Medgar Evers shortly after the activist arrived home in Jackson. Beckwith had positioned himself across the street with a rifle, and he shot Evers in the back. Evers died an hour later, aged 37. Myrlie Evers, his wife, and his three children, James, Reena, and Darrell Evers, were home at the time of the assassination. Their son Darrell recalled the night: "We were ready to greet him, because every time he came home it was special for us. He was traveling a lot at that time. All of a sudden, we heard a shot. We knew what it was." Darrell and the other children fled to the bathroom to hide in the bathtub. All three children had been taught by their parents and forced to practice drills for safety prior to their father's death because of threats made against him and two previous attacks on the house.
From that point on his wife and their children practiced safety drills and knew to hide whenever they heard of or heard nearby danger.
Trials
The state twice prosecuted De La Beckwith for murder in 1964, but both trials ended with hung juries. Mississippi had effectively disenfranchised black voters since 1890, so they were effectively excluded from serving on juries, whose members were drawn from voter rolls. During the second trial, Ross Barnett, Democratic Governor of Mississippi at the time of the assassination, shook hands with De La Beckwith in the courtroom. The White Citizens' Council paid De La Beckwith's legal expenses in both his 1964 trials.
In January 1966, De La Beckwith, along with a number of other members of the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was subpoenaed by the House Un-American Activities Committee to testify about Klan activities. Although De La Beckwith gave his name when asked by the committee (other witnesses, such as Samuel Bowers, invoked the Fifth Amendment in response to that question), he answered no other substantive questions. In the following years, De La Beckwith became a leader in the segregationist Phineas Priesthood, an offshoot of the white supremacist Christian Identity movement. The group was known for its hostility toward African Americans, Jews, Catholics, and foreigners.
According to Delmar Dennis, who acted as a key witness for the prosecution at the 1994 trial, De La Beckwith boasted of his role in the death of Medgar Evers at several Ku Klux Klan rallies and similar gatherings in the years following his mistrials. In 1967, he unsuccessfully sought the Democratic Party's nomination for Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi.
In 1969, De La Beckwith's previous charges were dismissed. In 1973, informants alerted the Federal Bureau of Investigation that he planned to murder A.I. Botnick, director of the New Orleans-based B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation League. The attack was a racially motivated retaliation for comments that Botnick had made about white Southerners and race relations. Following several days of surveillance, New Orleans Police Department officers stopped De La Beckwith as he was traveling by car on the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway Bridge to New Orleans. Among the contents of his vehicle were several loaded firearms, a map with highlighted directions to Botnick's house, and a dynamite time bomb. On August 1, 1975, De La Beckwith was convicted of conspiracy to commit murder; he served nearly three years at the Angola Prison in Louisiana from May 1977 until he was paroled in January 1980. Just before entering prison to serve his sentence, De La Beckwith was ordained by Reverend Dewey "Buddy" Tucker as a minister in the Temple Memorial Baptist Church, a Christian Identity congregation in Knoxville, Tennessee.
In the 1980s, the Jackson Clarion-Ledger published reports on its investigation of De La Beckwith's trials in the 1960s. It found that the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, a state agency supported by residents' taxes and purportedly protecting the image of the state, had assisted De La Beckwith's attorneys in his second trial. The commission had worked against the civil rights movement in numerous ways. In this case, it used state resources to investigate members of the jury pool during voir dire to aid the defense in picking a sympathetic jury. These findings of illegality contributed to a retrial of De La Beckwith by the state in 1994.
1994 trial for Evers murder
Myrlie Evers, who later became the third woman to chair the NAACP, refused to abandon her husband's case. When new documents showed that jurors in the previous case were investigated illegally and screened by a state agency, she pressed authorities to reopen the case. In the 1980s, the reporting by the Jackson Clarion-Ledger about the earlier Beckwith trials resulted in the state mounting a new investigation. It ultimately initiated a third prosecution, based on this and other new evidence.
By this time, De La Beckwith was living in Walden, Tennessee, just outside Signal Mountain, Tennessee, a suburb of Chattanooga, Tennessee. He was extradited to Mississippi for trial at the Hinds County Courthouse in Jackson. Before his trial, the 71-year-old white supremacist had asked the justices to dismiss the case against him on the grounds that it violated his rights to a speedy trial, due process and protection from double jeopardy. The Mississippi Supreme Court ruled against his motion by a 4–3 vote, and the case was scheduled to be heard in January 1994.
During this third trial, the murder weapon was presented, an Enfield .30-06 caliber rifle, with Beckwith's fingerprints. Beckwith claimed that the gun was stolen from his house. He listed his health problems, high blood pressure, lack of energy and kidney problems, saying, "I need a list to recite everything I suffer from, and I hate to complain because I'm not the complaining type". On February 5, 1994, a jury composed of eight African-Americans and four whites, convicted De La Beckwith of first-degree murder for killing Medgar Evers and sentenced him to life in prison. New evidence included testimony that during the three decades since the crime had occurred, De La Beckwith had boasted of having committed the murder on multiple occasions-including at a Klan rally. The physical evidence was essentially the same as that presented during the first two trials.
De La Beckwith appealed against the guilty verdict, but the Mississippi Supreme Court upheld the conviction in 1997. The court said that the 31-year lapse between the murder and De La Beckwith's conviction did not deny him a fair trial. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for first-degree murder without the possibility of parole. De La Beckwith sought judicial review in the United States Supreme Court, but his petition for certiorari was denied.
On January 21, 2001, De La Beckwith died after he was transferred from prison to the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi. He was 80 years old. He had suffered from heart disease, high blood pressure, and other ailments for some time.
Representation in other media
Where Is the Voice Coming From? (1963), a short story by Eudora Welty, was published in The New Yorker on July 6, 1963. Welty, who was from Jackson, Mississippi, later said: "Whoever the murderer is, I know him: not his identity, but his coming about, in this time and place. That is, I ought to have learned by now, from here, what such a man, intent on such a deed, had going on in his mind. I wrote his story—my fiction—in the first person: about that character's point of view." It was published before De La Beckwith's arrest. So accurate was her portrayal that the magazine changed several details in the story before publication for legal reasons.
Byron De La Beckwith was the subject of the 1963 Bob Dylan song "Only a Pawn in Their Game", which deplores Evers' murder and attempts to minimize De La Beckwith as "only a pawn in the game" as a poor white man manipulated by Southern politicians.
In 1991, the murder of Evers and first trials of Beckwith were the basis of the episode titled "Sweet, Sweet Blues", written by author William James Royce for the NBC television series In the Heat of the Night. In the episode, actor James Best plays a character based on De La Beckwith, an aging Klansman who appears to have gotten away with murder.
The feature film Ghosts of Mississippi (1996) tells the story of the murder and 1994 trial. James Woods' performance as De La Beckwith was nominated for an Academy Award.
In 2001, Bobby DeLaughter published his memoir of the case and trial, Never Too Late: A Prosecutor’s Story of Justice in the Medgar Evers Trial.
References
Further reading
Never Too Late: A Prosecutor's Story of Justice in the Medgar Evers Case. New York: Simon and Schuster. 2001-09-16. . Retrieved June 13, 2013.
External links
See also
Robert Edward Chambliss
Bobby Frank Cherry
Thomas Edwin Blanton Jr.
Herman Frank Cash
1920 births
2001 deaths
1963 murders in the United States
American assassins
American criminal snipers
American people convicted of murder
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
United States Marines
Ku Klux Klan crimes in Mississippi
Ku Klux Klan members
People from Colusa, California
People from Greenwood, Mississippi
People from Jackson, Mississippi
Military personnel from California
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
B
American people who died in prison custody
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Mississippi
Prisoners who died in Mississippi detention
People convicted of murder by Mississippi
People extradited within the United States
People from Signal Mountain, Tennessee
Mississippi Democrats
American members of the clergy convicted of crimes
American white supremacists
20th-century American clergy
Far-right politicians in the United States | [
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244520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siquijor | Siquijor | (/sɪkiˈhɔr/, Tagalog: /sikiˈhor/), officially the Province of (; ), is an island in the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region. Its capital is the municipality also named Siquijor. To the north of Siquijor is Cebu, to the west is Negros, northeast is Bohol, and to the south, across the Bohol Sea, is Mindanao.
During the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines, the Spaniards called the island (Island of Fire). Siquijor is commonly associated with mystic traditions that the island's growing tourism industry capitalizes on.
History
Creation of the island
A Siquijor legend tells of a great storm which once engulfed the region. Then there came a strong earthquake that shook the earth and sea. Amidst the lightning and thunder arose an island from the depths of the ocean's womb which came to be known as the island. Despite being a legend, modern times highland farmers have unraveled giant shell casings under farm plots, supporting the theory that Siquijor is indeed an island that rose from the sea.
Precolonial Era
Prior to colonization, the island polity was home to the Kingdom (Kedatuan) of Katugasan, from tugas, the molave trees that cover the hills, which abounded the island along with fireflies.
The tugas or molave trees were used by the ancient dwellers of the island in making posts or haligi of their houses because of its strength and durability that could withstand and struggle against strong typhoons and habagat and was proven by the house of Totang built near the artesian well of Cang-igdot. Most of the patriarchs of the island made the tugas trees to a wooden plow or tukod to cultivate the rocky soil for farming using mainly toro or male cattle to pull it through the sticky and hard rocky soil. However, before the discovery of making tugas as the foundations of their house, the primitive Siquijodnons dwelt in the caves as evidenced by the pottery and old tools like stone grinder or liligsan excavated by Mitring from the three caves of Sam-ang.
During this time, the people of the kingdom was already in contact with Chinese traders, as seen through archaeological evidence including Chinese ceramics and other objects. The art of traditional healing and traditional witchcraft belief systems also developed within this period. During the arrival of the Spanish, the monarch of the island was Datu Kihod, as recorded in Legazpi's chronicles.
Spanish era
The island was first sighted by the Spaniards in 1565 during Miguel López de Legazpi's expedition. The Spaniards called the island ("Island of Fire"), because the island gave off an eerie glow, from the great swarms of fireflies that lived in the numerous molave trees on the island. Esteban Rodríguez of the Legazpi expedition led the first Spaniards to discover the island. He was captain of a small party that left Legazpi's camp in Bohol to explore the nearby islands which are now called Pamilican, Siquijor, and Negros.
The island, along with the rest of the archipelago, was subsequently annexed to the Spanish Empire. Founded in 1783 under the administration of secular clergymen, Siquijor became the first municipality as well as the first parish to be established on the island. Siquijor was, from the beginning, administered by the Diocese of Cebu. As for civil administration, Siquijor was under Bohol since the province had its own governor. The first Augustinian Recollect priest arrived in Siquijor in 1794. Several years later, a priest of the same order founded the parishes of Larena (initially called ), Lazi (formerly Tigbawan), San Juan (Makalipay), and Maria (). With the exception of Enrique Villanueva, the other five municipalities were established as parishes in 1877. From 1854 to 1892, Siquijor was part of the province of Negros Oriental, and became a sub-province in 1901.
American rule and World War II
At the turn of the century, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States of America with the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish–American War. Siquijor island felt the presence of American rule when a unit of the American Cavalry Division came and stayed for sometime. The American Military Governor in Manila appointed James Fugate, a scout with the California Volunteers of the U.S. Infantry, to oversee and to implement the organization and development programs in Siquijor Island. Governor Fugate stayed for 16 years as lieutenant governor of Siquijor.
While it was not at the center of military action, Siquijor was not spared by World War II. Imperial Japanese detachments occupied the island between 1942 and 1943, announcing their arrival on the island with heavy shelling. At the outbreak of the war, Siquijor was a sub-province of Negros Oriental, headed by Lieutenant Governor Nicolas Parami. Refusing to pledge allegiance to the Japanese forces, Lt. Governor Parami was taken by Japanese soldiers from his residence at Poo, Lazi one evening and brought to the military headquarters in Larena. He was never heard from again. On 10 November 1942, Japanese warships started shelling Lazi from Cangabas Point. In Lazi, a garrison was established in the old Home Economics Building of the Central School. Filipino guerrillas engaged in sabotage and the interaction during this time caused havoc on the Japanese lives and properties.
During this period, Siquijor was briefly governed by Shunzo Suzuki, a Japanese civilian appointed by the Japanese forces until he was assassinated in October 1942 by the guerrilla forces led by Iluminado Jumawanin, of Caipilan, Siquijor. Mamor Fukuda took control of Siquijor from June 1943 until the Japanese forces abandoned the island when the liberation forces came in 1944. In 1943, the Japanese puppet government appointed Sebastian Monera of San Juan as Governor of Siquijor. His administration however was cut short when he was executed, presumably by Filipino guerrillas operating in the mountains of Siquijor.
On 30 September 1943, the United States submarine USS Bowfin (SS-287) delivered supplies to the people of Siquijor and evacuated people from the island.
On 21 February 1945, the destroyer USS Renshaw (DD-499), part of Task Unit 78.7.6, was escorting a convoy of about 50 various landing ships with 12 other escorts. At 10:59, Renshaw was attacked by a Japanese midget submarine off the coast of Siquijor, which caused extensive damage to the ship and killed 19 of the crew.
In mid-1945, local Filipino soldiers and officers under the 7th, 75th and 76th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army arrived, and alongside recognized guerrilla fighter groups, liberated Siquijor.
After 1945
For a time Siquijor was a subprovince of Negros Oriental, but it became an independent province on 17 September 1971, by virtue of Republic Act 6398. The move was supported by the people of Siquijor as they have a distinct culture from those of Negros Oriental, while Marcos used the movement as a means to secure support from the people of the island to pave martial law acceptance the following year. The capital, formerly Larena, was transferred to the municipality of Siquijor in 1972 by Proclamation No. 1075, under martial law.
In 2006, the Lazi Church was added by the government as an extension to the Baroque Churches of the Philippines UNESCO World Heritage Site. The inscription of the church has been pending since.
Geography
Siquijor is an island province in Central Visayas. It lies southeast from Cebu and Negros across Cebu Strait (also called Bohol Strait) and southwest from Bohol. Panglao Island, which is part of Bohol province, has a similar composition of the soil which is found throughout the whole island of Siquijor.
With a land area of and a coastline long, Siquijor is the third smallest province of the Philippines, both in terms of population as well as land area: (after Camiguin and Batanes).
Topography
The island lies about east of the nearest point on southern Negros, southeast of Cebu, southwest of Bohol, and north of Zamboanga del Norte in Mindanao. It is predominantly hilly and in many places the hills reach the sea, producing precipitous cliffs. At the center, Mount Malabahoc (locally known as Mount Bandilaan) reaches about in elevation, the highest point on the island. Three marine terraces can be roughly traced especially in the vicinity of Tagibo on the southwestern part of the island, a barrio of San Juan municipality from the seacoast up into the central part.
Siquijor is a coralline island, and fossils of the giant clam tridacna are often encountered in the plowed inland fields. On the hilltops there are numerous shells of the molluscan species presently living in the seas around the island. Siquijor was probably formed quite recently, geologically speaking. The ocean depths between Siquijor and Bohol and Mindanao are in the neighborhood of .
Climate
Siquijor has two different climates, dominated by Am. All climate is within Coronas climate type IV, characterised by not very pronounced maximum rainfall with a short dry season from one to three months and a wet season of nine to ten months. The dry season starts in February and lasts through April sometimes extending to midMay.
Five of the municipalities have significant rainfall most months of the year, with a short dry season that has little effect. This location is classified as Am (tropical monsoon climate) by Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. The average annual temperature in Siquijor is , with variation throughout the year less than 2 degrees Celsius ( deg F). The precipitation about varies between the driest month and the wettest month, with the average rainfall or less.
The municipality Lazi has a significant amount of rainfall during the year. This is true even for the driest month. According to Köppen and Geiger, this climate is classified as Af (tropical rainforest climate). In a year, the average rainfall is .
Administrative division
Siquijor (province) comprises 6 municipalities. Siquijor (municipality) is the capital and most important port.
18th Congress of the Philippines
The Lone district of Siquijor is the representation of the province in various national legislatures. The current representative is Jake Vincent S. Villa.
Demographics
According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 95,984. The average annual growth rate between 2000 and 2015 was , lower than the national growth rate of for the same period.
Languages
The main language spoken in the island province is Cebuano, with Tagalog and English often used as second languages. The former is understood and used as the national lingua franca, but it is rarely used in everyday conversation among locals.
Religion
95% of the island's residents belong to the Catholic Church, while the remainder belong to various other Christian churches. Despite the province's Catholic affinities, almost all of the residents continue to adhere to traditional practices that were used prior the 15th century, albeit these practices have also adopted Christian belief systems as well. Due to the ingrained and indispensable traditional belief systems, majority of residents have continued to possess a high respect for the natural environment which was revered by the ancestors of the people. Siquijor is known for its unique Philippine culture of blending Catholicism with traditional religious practices – a major part of its people's cultural heritage and identity.
Education
The literacy rate of 92.5% is one of the highest in the country.
Economy
Tourism
Siquijor's long-time reputation as a place of magic and sorcery both attracts and repulses visitors. Siquijor is also well known for its festivals that focus on healing rituals where incantations are sung while the old folks make potions out of herbs, roots, insects and tree barks.
Among the many attractions are the beaches, caves, waterfalls, Bandilaan natural park and butterfly sanctuary. The most popular of them are the Cambugahay Falls and the old Balete tree, both located in Lazi.
The coral reefs ringing the island offer some of the best diving in the Philippines for snorkelers and scuba divers. Dive courses are conducted by several dive operators on the island in version of PADI, CMAS* and NAUI. Siquijor was declared a marine visitor arrivals among the three provinces in Region VII.
Transportation
The island of Siquijor has two seaports capable of servicing cargo and passenger sea crafts. Siquijor also has an airfield located near Siquijor capable of handling smaller and mostly airplanes.
Gallery
Notable people
Datu Kihod - the last reigning monarch of the Kingdom of Katugasan, who reigned during the 16th century
See also
Provinces of the Philippines
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Siquijor island - information
Provinces of the Philippines
Island provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1971
1971 establishments in the Philippines
Bohol Sea
Former sub-provinces of the Philippines | [
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244525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Trippe | Juan Trippe | Juan Terry Trippe (June 27, 1899 – April 3, 1981) was an American commercial aviation pioneer, entrepreneur and the founder of Pan American World Airways, one of the iconic airlines of the 20th century. He was involved in the development and production of the Boeing 314 Clipper, which opened trans-Pacific airline travel, the Boeing Stratoliner which helped to pioneer cabin pressurization, the Boeing 707 and the Boeing 747 which introduced the era of jumbo jets. Trippe's signing of the 747 contract coincided with the 50th anniversary of Boeing.
Early years
Trippe was born in Sea Bright, New Jersey, on June 27, 1899, the great-great-grandson of Lieutenant John Trippe, captain of the . Because he was named "Juan", he is widely assumed to have been of Hispanic descent, but his family was actually Northern European in ancestry and settled in Maryland in 1664. He was named after Juanita Terry, the Venezuelan wife of his great uncle. Trippe attended the Bovea School and graduated from The Hill School in 1917.
He enrolled at Yale University but left when the United States entered World War I to apply for flight training with the United States Navy. After completing training in June 1918, he was designated as a Naval Aviator and was commissioned as an Ensign in the United States Navy Reserve. However, the end of World War I precluded him from flying in combat. Demobilized from active duty, he returned to Yale, graduating in 1921. While there, he was a member of St. Anthony Hall and of the Skull and Bones society. Trippe was treasurer at the first meeting of the National Intercollegiate Flying Association in 1920.
Career
After graduation from Yale, Trippe began working on Wall Street, but soon became bored. In 1922 he raised money from his old Yale classmates, selling them stock in his new airline, an air-taxi service for the rich and powerful called Long Island Airways. Once again tapping his wealthy friends from Yale, Trippe invested in an airline named Colonial Air Transport, which was awarded a new route and an airmail contract on October 7, 1925. Interested in operating to the Caribbean, Trippe created the Aviation Corporation of the Americas. Based in Florida, the company would evolve into the unofficial United States flag carrier, Pan American Airways, commonly known as Pan Am.
Pan Am's first flight took off on October 19, 1927, from Key West, Florida, to Havana, Cuba, in a hired Fairchild FC-2 floatplane being delivered to West Indian Aerial Express in the Dominican Republic. The return flight from Havana to Key West, in a Pan Am Fokker F.VII, took place October 29, being delayed from October 28 by rain.
Later, Trippe bought the China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC) to provide domestic air service in the Republic of China, and became a partner in Panagra. In the 1930s. Pan Am became the first airline to cross the Pacific Ocean with the famous China Clipper.
Trippe served as the chairman of the board of directors of the airline for all but about two years between the founding of the company and World War II. "Sonny" Whitney, a stockholder, managed to seize this position. He later regretted his action and allowed Trippe to retake it. For a long time Trippe refused to pardon Whitney. At one point, he even agreed to meet Whitney for lunch for a reconciliation, but changed his mind and turned around shortly after departing from his office in the Chrysler Building.
Pan Am continued to expand worldwide throughout World War II. Trippe is responsible for several innovations in the airline world. A firm believer in the idea of air travel for all, Trippe is credited as the father of the tourist class in the airline industry, and was the driving force behind Pan Am's formation of the InterContinental hotel group.
Trippe quickly recognized the opportunities presented by jet aircraft and ordered several Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 airplanes. Pan Am's first scheduled jet flight was operated on October 26, 1958 by 707 Clipper America from Idlewild International Airport (now JFK) to Le Bourget Airport, Paris. The new jets allowed Pan Am to cut the flight time nearly in half, introduce lower fares, and fly more passengers in total.
In 1965, Trippe asked his friend Bill Allen at Boeing to produce an airplane much larger than the 707. The result was the Boeing 747, and Pan Am was the first customer. Originally, Trippe believed the 747 would ultimately be destined to haul cargo only and would be replaced by faster, supersonic aircraft which were then being developed. The supersonic airliners failed to materialize, with the exception of the Concorde and Tupolev Tu-144, and the 747 became the iconic image of international travel. In 1965, Trippe received the Tony Jannus Award for his distinguished contributions to commercial aviation.
Trippe gave up the presidency of the airline in 1968. He continued to attend meetings of the board of directors and maintained an office in the company's Park Avenue office tower.
Personal life
Trippe was a member of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in Scotland and president of the Maidstone Club in East Hampton, New York, from 1940 to 1944.
Trippe married Elizabeth "Betty" Stettinius Trippe (1904–1983), the sister of United States Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr., in 1928. They had four children, Elizabeth ("Betsy"), John Terry, Charles White, and Edward Stettinius Trippe, who now resides in Tucker's Town, Bermuda, where he is executive director of the Tucker's Point Club and serves on Bermuda International Airport's advisory board. The couple remained married until Trippe's death in 1981.
Death and legacy
Trippe suffered a stroke in September 1980, which forced him to cut back on his workload; he died after suffering a second stroke at his New York City home on April 3, 1981, at the age of 81. He is buried in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn.
In 1985, Trippe was posthumously awarded the Medal of Freedom by United States President Ronald Reagan. Trippe was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1990. An endowed chair at the Yale University School of Management is the "Juan Trippe Professor in the Practice of International Trade, Finance, and Business".
In 1982, Trippe was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.
Trippe is widely regarded as the last of the greatest aviation pioneers along with industry titans such as American Airlines' C. R. Smith, United Airlines' William A. "Pat" Patterson, Eastern Airlines' Eddie Rickenbacker, and Delta Air Lines' Collett E. Woolman. Under his control, Pan American World Airways became one of the premier international airlines in the world. He is also credited as playing an instrumental role in the development of an intercontinental version of the Boeing 707 and the Douglas DC-8 as Trippe's determination to get a jet that could cross the Atlantic was instrumental not only in Douglas developing a long-range DC-8, but also Boeing's famed 707 as they had to redesign it in order to stay competitive with Douglas.
In popular culture
A character based on Trippe was played by Pat O'Brien in Ray Enright's 1936 film The China Clipper. Trippe was played by Alec Baldwin in Martin Scorsese's 2004 film The Aviator.
References
External links
Time, Dec. 07, 1998, JUAN TRIPPE: Pilot Of The Jet Age
Inc. Magazine profile of Juan Trippe
Popular Science, November 1941, Here's My Story
PBS profile of Juan Trippe
National Aviation Hall of Fame enshrinees biography
1899 births
1981 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
Airline founders
American airline chief executives
American aviation businesspeople
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
Businesspeople in tourism
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
InterContinental Hotels Group people
Medal for Merit recipients
Military personnel from New Jersey
Pan Am people
People from Sea Bright, New Jersey
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
The Hill School alumni
United States Naval Aviators
Yale University alumni | [
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244533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budugu | Budugu | "Budugu" is a fictional character created by Mullapudi Venkata Ramana of Andhra Pradesh in India. "Budugu" was the childhood nickname of Ramana. His sister was called "Budigi".
Budugu is a precocious and bratty child, characterized by his inimitably childish Telugu. Mullapudi describes the world as seen through his eyes with humor. Budugu has an opinion about everything. He talks about culture, raising children, politicians and the 13th table. His lifetime ambition is to become a tange-wala(टंगे वाला ) (horse cart driver) or a train driver.
Budugu's immediate family include his parents Radha and Gopalam, his grandmother Bamma, and his unmarried uncle Baabai. His neighbors include Laavupaati Pakkinti Pinnigaru and her husband and Budugu's child love C Gaana Pasoonamba.
Budugu – Chichula Pidugu is the name of the serial (published by Andhra Pathrika) in which Mullapudi introduces Budugu. The work is autobiographical in nature, where the author describes his childhood thoughts and happenings. The rest is all in the spirit of imagination. This collection later appeared in two volumes.
The drawings of Budugu are by Bapu, a maker of Telugu films. Bapu focuses on capturing the characters' expressions.
Budugu is a pet name for the child and was later used for a whole generation of children in Andhra Pradesh.
Characters
Family members
Father (Gopalam)
Mother (Radha)
Grandmother (Baamma): She calls him "Haari Piduga". She backs and protects Budugu.
Uncle (Baabai)
Other characters
Rendu Jadalla Seeta (Seeta with two plaits)
Pakkinti Lavupati Pinnigaru (Neighboring fat lady who often comes to Budugu's house)
Tutor (Budugu doesn't like him and other tutors in general)
Sii Gaana Pesunaamba (Budugu has a crush on her, who is a year younger and always teases him)
References
External links
Budugu
Fictional Indian people
Characters in British novels | [
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244535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullapudi%20Venkata%20Ramana | Mullapudi Venkata Ramana | Mullapudi Venkata Ramana (28 June 1931 – 24 February 2011) was an Indian writer known for his work in Telugu language. Noted for his humorous and metaphorical style of writing, Mullapudi received Raghupathi Venkaiah Award from the Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1986 for his contributions to Telugu cinema and he also won six Nandi Awards.
Mullapudi is noted for his association with Bapu, who both worked together as Bapu–Ramana. The director–writer duo went onto make many successful films such as Bangaru Pichika (1968), Andala Ramudu (1973), Sampoorna Ramayanam (1973), Mutyala Muggu (1975), Pelli Pustakam (1993), Mister Pellam (1995), and Radha Gopalam (2005). He is also an essayist and cartoonist who is known for creating Budugu, a character considered as a corner stone for Telugu children's literature.
Early life
Mullapudi Venkata Ramana was born in middle-class traditional family and his childhood mostly spent in a tiny village called Dowleswaram near Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh. Mullapudi had one elder sister and a younger brother. It was a happy family with no troubles until his father expired when Mullapudi was 9 years old. This turned their status upside down and they shifted to Chennai (called Madras in those days) for better opportunities. Mullapudi's mother Mrs. Adilakshmi took all the pains to raise the family in such situation. Mullapudi's education and career happened in Madras. During his study days, he had shown penchant for literature in Telugu and inclination in writing up short, effective storylines.
During the same period, he got a good friend in 'Bapu'. Their friendship was unconditional and mutually expending talents as Mullapudi is good at write-ups whereas Bapu is good at painting and caricature drawing. Soon they excelled in their talents and gave some of the most admirable Telugu films later in their life.
Katha Ramaneeyam' Part-1 having around 40 stories off 8 chapters each of them representing one of Navarasams (Nine emotions each human has). Some of them were made Films later viz. Seetha Kalyanam, Bhogimanta, Swayamvaram etc..
Katha Ramaneeyam' Part-2 having about 45 stories some of which representing Indian middle-class' tryst with life in hilarious way. While others pointing out the superstitions in our society, treatment of underprivileged in society which are definitely thought provoking.
Runanandalahiri is representation of average Indians, leading life in the times of inflation, joblessness, less privileged society and their tryst with their lives' problems. Mullapudi himself suffered such upsets in his life and even frank enough that some characters inspired from his own sufferings but dealt with in a humorous way.
Career
After completing SSLC in Madras, Mullapudi had to do many odd jobs before starting as a reporter for then-popular newspaper Andhra Patrika in 1953. Here he got the opportunity to interact with eminent writers of Telugu literature like Nanduri Ramamohana Rao, Pilaka Ganapati Sastri, Surampudi Seetaram etc. who were working for the same newspaper.
Sri. Mullapudi was first working for the "Daily" section of the newspaper and then shifted to "Weekly" section. While working here, his stories for children in the name of 'Budugu' (lil kid) were published and became very popular. He authored these stories to present the views of the little kids off their elders in the family. These stories are humorous, informative, knowledgeable to children and at the same time helping the elderly to know the thought process of their kids. Later, these stories were published in the form of a book, which was well received.
While writing for the "Cinema Page" section in the paper, Mullapudi's short and crisp writing helped him to gain popularity for his film reviews. That was the same time when he got introduced to film industry and befriended the famous stars of film fraternity. He got introduced to some great directors of those times, Adurthi SubbaRao and Dundi, who encouraged him to work for films. RakthaSambandam was his first break as a writer; since then he never lagged in his progress as story, screenplay, dialogue writer.
Films
Mullapudi's writing talent highlighted with his movie reviews and stories he wrote for films. Some of the initial films for story, screenplay dialogue Velugu needalu, Kanney manasulu were runaway hits, that has kept Mullapudi in good stead. Mooga manasulu, Bharya Bharthalu, Velugu Needalu and Teney manasulu have firmly established him as story writer. Some of these films had ANR (Akkineni NageswarRao) in the lead and their association brought their talent to the fore.
Soon, he became sought after film story writer and gave up his journalist job at Andhra Patrika. He partnered with his childhood friend Bapu and co-produced their first film Sakshi featuring actor Krishna which got accolades for its storyline and direction.
Bhakta Kannappa (great disciple of 'Lord Siva') with actor Krishnam Raju, who was till then doing villain roles, was a huge hit and gave him stardom. However, the milestone in his career is Sampurna Ramayanam (Ramayan epic) which featured Shoban Babu as Lord Rama turned out to be a major hit and is a masterpiece of Telugu films which is the best representation of the epic 'Ramayana' till today. The music of this film is ever popular and is played in festivals and functions.
Association with Bapu
Mullapudi's association with Bapu has a 60-year career plan. They first met in 1942 in P.S. High School, Madras where they studied V and VI level and then continued schooling at Kesari High School. Mullapudi's first short story "Amma Maata Vinakapothe" was published in 1945 in Bala, a children's magazine published by Radio Annayya (Nyayapathi Raghava Rao). He was 14 then. Bapu illustrated the story. His paintings were liked and that was the beginning of their long-standing association.
While Bapu achieved much of his fame sticking to a subtle style of artistic elegance, Mullapudi announced his entry through a bunch of talkative characters, who try to make no sense out of the sensible world around them, because of their askew point of view. Beginning as an illustrator-story writer team and then turning into a film-director-writer duo, they have contributed immensely to the enrichment of Telugu cultural ethos through literature and cinema
Mullapudi provided an able foil, providing script/dialogue that suited Bapu's visuals and this celebrated friendship and professional association made some very meaningful social films that were decent hits like Radha Kalyanam, Vamsa Vruksham, Pelli Pustakam, Mr. Pellam, Sundarakanda, and Radhaagopalam.
MuthyalaMuggu is one of the path-breaking films of yesteryear as the characters and story are even relevant today. This film launched Ravu Gopalarao in a negative role who soon became most sought-after actor in negative roles for next 20 years. The dialogues by Mullapudi were a runaway hit with all generations alike and popular even now.
Mullapudi translated the Thiruppavai written by the Tamil Vaishnavite saint Andal into Telugu as Melupalukula Melukolupu. This translation used Bapu's illustrations for each translated verse.
Television
During the years 1985–90, Mullapudi and Bapu made videos for school subjects for children on television. At the behest of then the chief minister of Andhra Pradesh Dr. N.T RamaRao, Bapu-Ramana made these education videos which were aired by Doordarshan in Telugu were very popular. The same were later dubbed and aired by National Doordarshan. A.R. Rahaman, the present day music maestro, was then an upcoming drummer, providing background music for few of these videos.
In this millennium, the magic of the Bapu-Ramana combination provided their expertise for the mega mythology serial Bhagavatham on ETV. Etv Sri Bhagavatam serial cast : Arun Govil as Dasavatara and Maha Vishnu, Sunil Kumar Sharma as Rama and Krishna, Gargi Roy Chaudhury as Sita and Rukhmini, Sharmilee Raj as SatyaBhama and Bhudevi, Bhavana as Jambavati, Sana as Yashodha, AVS as Narada, etc.,. It was well received by audience and firmly scaled up TRPs for the channel. Also directed Sri Venkateswara Vaibhavam for SVBC-TTD Channel by Bapu Ramana with SaiKiran, Mounica, Ashmita.
Autobiography
Kothi Kommachi, Inkothi Kommachi and Mukkothi Kommachi are Mullapudi's three-volume autobiography in books and audio forms. Just like the titles, the story keep hopping timelines and incidents. To put it in Mullapudi's own words, "it is like a monkey hopping from one branch to another branch."
Awards
Though Mullapudis' career has many faces – journalist, story teller, film critic, film story writer, dialogue writer and a popular film personality who represented a genre that produced the finest work in film arts, literature, journalism – many are dissatisfied that he hasn't been nominated for Padma awards, instituted by Government of India. His humble background and disinclination to associate with any political party could have been the reason for this.
However, he received endless appreciation of the Telugu people for his excellent work and has made a respectable place in their hearts. He is one of those who kept the flag of Telugu pride flying high.
He was felicitated with Raghupathi Venkaiah Award for excellence in Films in 1986 instituted by the state of A.P.
Received Honorary Doctorate awarded by Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
He was awarded the Raja-Lakshmi Literary Award for 1995 from Sri Raja-Lakshmi Foundation, Chennai.
Nandi Awards
Second Best Story Writer - Poola Rangadu (1967)
Best Story Writer - Kathanayakudu (1969)
Second Best Story Writer - Andala Ramudu (1973)
Best Dialogue Writer - Pelli Pusthakam (1991)
Second Best Feature Film - Silver - Pelli Pusthakam (1991)
Second Best Story Writer - Mister Pellam (1993)
Death
Mullapudi died of old-age related illness in Chennai on 24 February 2011. At the time of the death, he just completed the work for another mythological film Sri RamaRajyam.
Filmography
This is partial list of his films. Kindly help expanding it.
See also
Raghupathi Venkaiah Award
References
External links
Bapu Ramana
Idlebrain Article
Kothi Kommachi
1931 births
2011 deaths
Telugu-language lyricists
Telugu people
Telugu writers
Telugu screenwriters
People from East Godavari district
Indian male screenwriters
Screenwriters from Andhra Pradesh
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian male writers | [
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244540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20William%20Waterhouse | John William Waterhouse | John William Waterhouse (6 April 184910 February 1917) was an English painter known for working first in the Academic style and for then embracing the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood's style and subject matter. His artworks were known for their depictions of women from both ancient Greek mythology and Arthurian legend.
Born in Rome to English parents who were both painters, Waterhouse later moved to London, where he enrolled in the Royal Academy of Art. He soon began exhibiting at their annual summer exhibitions, focusing on the creation of large canvas works depicting scenes from the daily life and mythology of ancient Greece. Many of his paintings are based on authors such as Homer, Ovid, Shakespeare, Tennyson, or Keats.
Waterhouse's work is currently displayed at several major British art galleries, and the Royal Academy of Art organised a major retrospective of his work in 2009.
Biography
Early life
Waterhouse was born in the city of Rome to the English painters William and Isabella Waterhouse in 1849, in the same year that the members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Everett Millais and William Holman Hunt, were first causing a stir in the London art scene. The exact date of his birth is unknown, though he was baptised on 6 April, and the later scholar of Waterhouse's work, Peter Trippi, believed that he was born between 1 and 23 January. His early life in Italy has been cited as one of the reasons many of his later paintings were set in ancient Rome or based upon scenes taken from Roman mythology.
In 1854, the Waterhouses returned to England and moved to a newly built house in South Kensington, London, which was near to the newly founded Victoria and Albert Museum. Waterhouse, or 'Nino' as he was nicknamed, coming from an artistic family, was encouraged to become involved in drawing, and often sketched artworks that he found in the British Museum and the National Gallery. In 1871 he entered the Royal Academy of Art school, initially to study sculpture, before moving on to painting.
Early career
Waterhouse's early works were not Pre-Raphaelite in nature, but were of classical themes in the spirit of Alma-Tadema and Frederic Leighton. These early works were exhibited at the Dudley Gallery, and the Society of British Artists, and in 1874 his painting Sleep and his Half-brother Death was exhibited at the Royal Academy summer exhibition. The painting was a success and Waterhouse would exhibit at the annual exhibition every year until 1916, with the exception of 1890 and 1915. He then went from strength to strength in the London art scene, his 1876 piece After the Dance being given the prime position in that year's summer exhibition. Perhaps due to his success, his paintings typically became larger and larger in size.
Later career
In 1883, Waterhouse married Esther Kenworthy, the daughter of an art schoolmaster from Ealing who had exhibited her own flower-paintings at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. In 1895 Waterhouse was elected to the status of full Academician. He taught at the St. John's Wood Art School, joined the St John's Wood Arts Club, and served on the Royal Academy Council.
One of Waterhouse's best known subjects is The Lady of Shalott, a study of Elaine of Astolat as depicted in the 1832 poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who dies of a mysterious curse after looking directly at the beautiful Lancelot. He actually painted three different versions of this character, in 1888, 1894, and 1916. Another of Waterhouse's favorite subjects was Ophelia; the most familiar of his paintings of Ophelia depicts her just before her death, putting flowers in her hair as she sits on a tree branch leaning over a lake. Like The Lady of Shalott and other Waterhouse paintings, it deals with a woman dying in or near water. He may also have been inspired by paintings of Ophelia by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais. He submitted his 1888 Ophelia painting in order to receive his diploma from the Royal Academy. (He had originally wanted to submit a painting titled A Mermaid, but it was not completed in time.) After this, the painting was lost until the 20th century. It is now displayed in the collection of Lord Lloyd-Webber. Waterhouse would paint Ophelia again in 1894 and 1909 or 1910, and he planned another painting in the series, called Ophelia in the Churchyard.
Waterhouse could not finish the series of Ophelia paintings because he was gravely ill with cancer by 1915. He died two years later, and his grave can be found at Kensal Green Cemetery in London.
Gallery
In total, he produced 118 paintings. See List of paintings by John William Waterhouse for an almost complete list.
1870s
1880s
1890s
1900s
1910s
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
.
.
External links
John William Waterhouse.net
John William Waterhouse (The Art and Life of JW Waterhouse);
John William Waterhouse (Comprehensive Painting Gallery)
John William Waterhouse (1849–1917)
John William Waterhouse Style and Technique
Waterhouse at Tate Britain
Echo and Narcissus (1903)
Ten Dreams Galleries
John William Waterhouse in the "History of Art"
Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
Findagrave burial record
1849 births
1917 deaths
19th-century English painters
20th-century English painters
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Artists' Rifles soldiers
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
English male painters
Neo-Pompeian painters
Orientalist painters
01
Artists from London
People of the Victorian era
Pre-Raphaelite painters
Royal Academicians
Members of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours | [
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244541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank%20of%20an%20abelian%20group | Rank of an abelian group | In mathematics, the rank, Prüfer rank, or torsion-free rank of an abelian group A is the cardinality of a maximal linearly independent subset. The rank of A determines the size of the largest free abelian group contained in A. If A is torsion-free then it embeds into a vector space over the rational numbers of dimension rank A. For finitely generated abelian groups, rank is a strong invariant and every such group is determined up to isomorphism by its rank and torsion subgroup. Torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 have been completely classified. However, the theory of abelian groups of higher rank is more involved.
The term rank has a different meaning in the context of elementary abelian groups.
Definition
A subset {aα} of an abelian group A is linearly independent (over Z) if the only linear combination of these elements that is equal to zero is trivial: if
where all but finitely many coefficients nα are zero (so that the sum is, in effect, finite), then all summands are 0. Any two maximal linearly independent sets in A have the same cardinality, which is called the rank of A.
The rank of an abelian group is analogous to the dimension of a vector space. The main difference with the case of vector space is a presence of torsion. An element of an abelian group A is classified as torsion if its order is finite. The set of all torsion elements is a subgroup, called the torsion subgroup and denoted T(A). A group is called torsion-free if it has no non-trivial torsion elements. The factor-group A/T(A) is the unique maximal torsion-free quotient of A and its rank coincides with the rank of A.
The notion of rank with analogous properties can be defined for modules over any integral domain, the case of abelian groups corresponding to modules over Z. For this, see finitely generated module#Generic rank.
Properties
The rank of an abelian group A coincides with the dimension of the Q-vector space A ⊗ Q. If A is torsion-free then the canonical map A → A ⊗ Q is injective and the rank of A is the minimum dimension of Q-vector space containing A as an abelian subgroup. In particular, any intermediate group Zn < A < Qn has rank n.
Abelian groups of rank 0 are exactly the periodic abelian groups.
The group Q of rational numbers has rank 1. Torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 are realized as subgroups of Q and there is a satisfactory classification of them up to isomorphism. By contrast, there is no satisfactory classification of torsion-free abelian groups of rank 2.
Rank is additive over short exact sequences: if
is a short exact sequence of abelian groups then rk B = rk A + rk C. This follows from the flatness of Q and the corresponding fact for vector spaces.
Rank is additive over arbitrary direct sums:
where the sum in the right hand side uses cardinal arithmetic.
Groups of higher rank
Abelian groups of rank greater than 1 are sources of interesting examples. For instance, for every cardinal d there exist torsion-free abelian groups of rank d that are indecomposable, i.e. cannot be expressed as a direct sum of a pair of their proper subgroups. These examples demonstrate that torsion-free abelian group of rank greater than 1 cannot be simply built by direct sums from torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1, whose theory is well understood. Moreover, for every integer , there is a torsion-free abelian group of rank that is simultaneously a sum of two indecomposable groups, and a sum of n indecomposable groups. Hence even the number of indecomposable summands of a group of an even rank greater or equal than 4 is not well-defined.
Another result about non-uniqueness of direct sum decompositions is due to A.L.S. Corner: given integers , there exists a torsion-free abelian group A of rank n such that for any partition into k natural summands, the group A is the direct sum of k indecomposable subgroups of ranks . Thus the sequence of ranks of indecomposable summands in a certain direct sum decomposition of a torsion-free abelian group of finite rank is very far from being an invariant of A.
Other surprising examples include torsion-free rank 2 groups An,m and Bn,m such that An is isomorphic to Bn if and only if n is divisible by m.
For abelian groups of infinite rank, there is an example of a group K and a subgroup G such that
K is indecomposable;
K is generated by G and a single other element; and
Every nonzero direct summand of G is decomposable.
Generalization
The notion of rank can be generalized for any module M over an integral domain R, as the dimension over R0, the quotient field, of the tensor product of the module with the field:
It makes sense, since R0 is a field, and thus any module (or, to be more specific, vector space) over it is free.
It is a generalization, since any abelian group is a module over the integers. It easily follows that the dimension of the product over Q is the cardinality of maximal linearly independent subset, since for any torsion element x and any rational q
See also
Rank of a group
References
Abelian group theory | [
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244543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frieza | Frieza | , also known as Freeza in Funimation's English subtitles and Viz Media's release of the manga, is a supervillain in the Dragon Ball manga series created by Akira Toriyama. He makes his debut in Chapter #247: , first published in Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine on October 24, 1989, as a galactic tyrant feared as the most powerful being in the universe.
Despite not appearing until the manga's second half, Frieza is considered to be the most iconic villain from the Dragon Ball franchise. He effectively served as the catalyst of many of the events depicted in the story, due to the destruction of the Saiyan homeworld Planet Vegeta at his hands. Frieza later appears as the primary villain in the theatrical film Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F' and as a recurring character in Dragon Ball Super. However, Frieza's revival and quest for revenge resulted in negative commentary for lacking his menacing traits and due to his inability to deal with his nemesis on his own.
Creation and conception
Frieza, a broker who forcibly takes over planets to resell them, often rendering the planet's population extinct first, was created around the time of the Japanese economic bubble and was inspired by real estate speculators, whom Toriyama called the "worst kind of people." Toriyama purposely does not draw bad guys so unscrupulous that it affects one psychologically, although he admits Frieza is close. Therefore, he paid special attention to how Frieza spoke; because villains typically speak rudely, he gave him polite speech making for an unsettling contrast with his cruelty. The character's name is a pun on freezer, and because of this, his minions and the members of the Ginyu Force are named after fruits and dairy products, items one would normally put in a refrigerator. The Shenlong Times issue #2, a bonus pamphlet given to some buyers of the Daizenshuu 2: Story Guide guidebook, says that Frieza was modeled after Toriyama's editor at the time, Yū Kondō.
Toriyama had the idea to bring Frieza back while attending a concert by the metal band Maximum the Hormone. It came to him while watching them perform their 2008 song "F", which is about the fictional character.
Frieza so far possesses five transformation forms, each one being quite different and more powerful from the previous ones. It is implied that Frieza's fourth form is actually his basic one, with the other three being transformations that suppress his power in order to conserve it, while the fifth one unleashes his true power. Toriyama revealed that he did not think to have Frieza transform until about midway through. He said he has a habit of making characters gradually more tough and complex-looking, until finally making them very sleek, as it is a pain to draw them if their appearance is too complex. The author confirmed this is why Frieza's third and most intricate form is only shown for a short time, and joked that three transformations might be one too many.
Voice actors
In the original Japanese version, Frieza is voiced by Ryūsei Nakao in every single piece of Dragon Ball media.
In English, Frieza was voiced by Pauline Newstone in the Ocean dub of Dragon Ball Z.
In Funimation's in house English dub, Frieza was voiced by Linda Young in the Dragon Ball Z series and continued playing him in all subsequent media up until the first episode of Dragon Ball Z Kai. Christopher Ayres voiced the character in later episodes of Kai and all subsequent media through Dragon Ball Super. Due to being diagnosed with end-stage COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and requiring a double lung transplant, Ayres was forced to step down from the role in 2018. He briefly reprised the role in 2019 for Dragon Ball Super: Broly and the home media releases of the Universal Survival Saga of Dragon Ball Super before passing away in 2021. Ayres' understudy Daman Mills assumed the role beginning with the television broadcast of the Universal Survival Saga, and has voiced Frieza in all subsequent appearances with the exception of Broly.
Appearances
Dragon Ball Z
Before the start of the series, Frieza destroys Planet Vegeta, after Beerus' authorization, out of both fear of a potential uprising by the Saiyans due to their increasing power and the prophecy of the coming of the legendary Super Saiyan. Frieza spares only Vegeta, Nappa, and Raditz, who were away on a mission when he blew Planet Vegeta up, after telling them it was struck by a meteor. However, when Bardock made a final stand when Frieza destroyed Planet Vegeta, he did not notice the Saiyan's second son being sent to Earth where he became known as Goku.
Frieza makes his official appearance in the story after Vegeta's defeat on Earth at Goku's hands, having traveled to Planet Namek to find the seven Namekian Dragon Balls to wish for immortality. He and his men massacre Namekian villages one after another, until Gohan, Krillin, and Vegeta begin to hamper his efforts in their own way. Though Frieza manages to gain the Dragon Balls, with the Ginyu Force dealing with the interlopers, his inability to speak Namekian forces him to find the Great Elder of Namek. Frieza ends up fighting Namekian warrior Nail, whom he beats repeatedly until Nail reveals that their fight was only to buy time for Dende to give the words needed to activate the Namekian Dragon Balls, for the warriors from Earth. With his entire army killed by Vegeta and the Ginyu Force defeated by Goku, Frieza intercepts Vegeta and the others personally.
Enraged to find he is too late, as the Dragon Balls have become inert on Guru's death, Frieza briefly battles Vegeta, with the Saiyan Prince goading him into transforming and revealing his true power. Frieza transforms into his second form, and during the battle he finally admits to be the one who had destroyed the planet where the Saiyans had settled. After defeating Vegeta, Frieza takes on Piccolo, who has at this point fused with Nail. Although Piccolo appears to be even with him, he transforms into his third form and dominates the powerful Namekian. Following a brief tussle with Gohan, Frieza decides to transform into his final form. He kills Dende to stop him from healing the others and mortally wounds Vegeta just as Goku arrives, who just recovered following his fight with the Ginyu Force. Frieza fights Goku and the two seem evenly matched, but Frieza powers up to 50% of his maximum power and brutally beats him; however, Goku manages to seriously wound the tyrant with a Spirit Bomb. In retaliation, Frieza critically injures Piccolo and kills Krillin, which sends Goku into a rage, consequently assuming Super Saiyan form for the first time. Goku takes the upper hand and viciously pummels Frieza, who damages the core of Namek in an act of desperation, knowing he can survive in vacuum of space. The tyrant then uses 100% of his power and briefly regains the advantage, but his power level begins to drop and he is again outclassed by Goku and ultimately sliced in half by one of his own attacks. Though Goku spares the crippled Frieza while leaving for his ship to escape the planet's destruction, Frieza attempts to blast Goku from behind, prompting Goku to retaliate with his own attack that apparently destroys Frieza.
However, Frieza survives both the attack and Namek's explosion, and drifts through space until he is found by his father , who has him rebuilt with cybernetic prosthetics, increasing his strength significantly. A year later, Frieza and King Cold travel to Earth in order to exact revenge on Goku and his friends, but they are confronted by Trunks, Vegeta and Bulma's son from the future. After a brief battle, Frieza is sliced to pieces by Trunks and his remains blasted into oblivion, with his father following shortly afterwards. Though finally gone, Frieza's cells are used as a catalyst for the future villain Cell. Cell is eventually destroyed by Gohan, thereby destroying the last traces of Frieza's biological tissue.
Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F' / Dragon Ball Super
Ending up in Earth's Hell after being killed by Future Trunks, Frieza spends the next fourteen years being tortured by playful antics of an overly saccharine cadre of angels and fairies while reliving the memories of his defeats at the hands of Goku and Trunks. But Frieza is resurrected by Sorbet, who saw Frieza's return as essential to restore the Frieza Force to its former glory, and his right hand, Tagoma. The two then bring Frieza's diced Mecha Frieza form to their ship, where they use their advanced medical technology to restore him to his full organic form. After learning that Goku defeated Majin Buu and fought Beerus to a stalemate, both being the two figures his father warned him never to cross, Frieza decides to undergo four months of intensive training. This led to him achieving a new form which he dubs "Golden Frieza" before setting off for Earth with his army. The Z Fighters hold back Tagoma and Frieza's minions long enough for Goku and Vegeta to return from their training session on Beerus's planet. Frieza executes his defeated army for their incompetence just as Goku, Vegeta, Beerus, and Whis arrive. Goku reveals his new Super Saiyan Blue form, although Frieza overpowers him yet lacked the stamina for a prolonged fight in his powered state. He then has Sorbet shoot Goku, forcing Vegeta to take up his place. Vegeta nearly kills Frieza who instead causes his death by destroying Earth. but Whis rewinds time so Goku can quickly kill off Frieza before he destroys the planet. Frieza returns to Hell, where he is once more tormented by the angels. Frieza appears in the manga adaption omake alongside Sorbet and Susami in Hell.
Frieza later returns in the Universal Tournament Arc as a replacement member for the Seventh Universe team after Majin Buu is ineligible to fight due to having fallen into a deep sleep from which nobody could wake him, revealed to have mentally trained himself to maintain his Golden form. When approached by Goku, who is arranging for him to be temporarily revived by Fortuneteller Baba for a day, Frieza accepts the offer on the condition of being fully resurrected by the Dragon Balls after the tournament. Upon being revived, Frieza slaughters a group of assassins hired by the deities of the Ninth Universe to kill him while trapping Goku in a Destroyer-based energy attack meant for him. He then attempted to offer his services to the Ninth Universe deities in return for a place in their universe until Beerus and Whis appear. Despite Beerus's reservations, Goku vouches for him as they join the rest of their team.
As the tournament commences, Frieza meets his Sixth Universe counterpart , a con artist who posed as a hero until a previous contest between the Seventh and Sixth Universes exposed his criminal activities and forced him into hiding. Frieza tricks Frost into believing they have forged an alliance to take out the Saiyans, proceeding to take out both the Ninth Universe's Roselle and the Tenth Universe's Murichim as the tournament commences. After eliminating Frost when he appears to commence their arrangement, Frieza eventually ends up being one of the four remaining combatants alongside Goku, Android 17, and Jiren of the Eleventh Universe. Frieza unexpectedly teams up with Goku to force Jiren out in a triple elimination with 17 declared the winner, resurrected soon after by Whis at Beerus's behest as a reward for his efforts. Frieza then takes his leave to begin rebuilding his empire but is warned by Goku that he will be destroyed if he ever torments the universe again.
During the events of the film Dragon Ball Super: Broly, Frieza starts to rebuild his forces while deciding to use Earth's Dragon Balls to make a wish to increase his height by five centimeters, having become disillusioned with the idea of eternal life. Frieza recruits the Saiyan Broly and his father Paragus, who accompany him to Earth for the last Dragon Ball, realizing the former's potential as he matched Goku and Vegeta in their Super Saiyan Blue forms. This inspires Frieza to kill Paragus to force Broly's transformation into a Super Saiyan, only to be caught in Broly's rampage after the latter quickly defeats Goku. Frieza is saved at the last second by Gogeta, a merged warrior between Goku and Vegeta created when they perform the fusion dance technique, who thwarts his attempt to kill off his former subordinates Chilai and Lemo when they use the Dragon Balls to save Broly's life by wishing him off the planet. Frieza falls back while vowing revenge against Goku.
Abilities
Frieza is capable of moving at superhuman speeds and flying, and has quick reflexes. Like most characters in the series, he can harness a supernatural energy known as Ki and manipulate it into powerful and devastating concussive beams of said energy, with which he is able to destroy planets with relative ease. Some of Frieza's signature ki techniques include the , a sharp piercing beam from his finger, and the , a large energy sphere he used to destroy planet Namek and previous to that, Planet Vegeta. He is capable of surviving in the vacuum of space, and also seems to possess some form of telekinesis, being able to lift opponents without touching them and cause them to explode.
Frieza's power was so great over time, that his body could not comfortably contain it and a series of physical transformations were developed that limit his actual strength. While changing shape from his "first-form", each alteration builds on the previous. In all, Frieza has three transformed states, each with increasing power, some larger than others and each resulting in different physical attributes, although the two transformed states (along with his first form) were merely to suppress Frieza's power, and that his fourth transformed state is actually his true form, while a fifth further transformation (Golden Frieza) that he discovered after his four months of training actually increases his power drastically and lets out most of his latent strength.
First form
In his weakest form, Frieza is a relatively short humanoid with a large chestnut-shaped skull and two horns. He also has a tail with a spiked end, as well as having three talon-like toes. Frieza wears the same upper-body armor and shorts that many of his subordinates are shown to wear, and while traveling, often gives the appearance of weakness by exclusively using his hoverchair for transportation, leaving his henchmen to do his "dirty work". Though frail in comparison with his succeeding forms, Frieza still boasts sufficient force to destroy planets. While shifting to his next stage, Frieza breaks his battle-jacket, revealing a natural white armor covering his chest and shoulders.
Frieza's 6th Universe counterpart, Frost, also initially appears in this form.
Second form
His second form is much larger, both in height and muscle mass. He grows longer horns, which now instead of protruding sideways from his head curve sharply upwards into near right angles. In this form, Frieza does not have any trouble taking out Vegeta, Krillin, and Gohan. However, Frieza notices that Piccolo's power level is about equal to his own level, leaving Frieza with no choice but to transform again. This form largely resembles his father, King Cold.
Frieza's 6th Universe counterpart Frost also takes on a second form, however it bears a greater resemblance to Frieza's third form and is said to be the equivalent of it by Piccolo.
Third form
Frieza's third form is again more brutish, with an extremely elongated skull (like an Alien). His facial features contort and change, with his nose melding into his mouth to form a crude beak. His original horns recede and are now white in color, erupting in pairs along the length of his head. Despite his increased bulk, Frieza's speed is significantly higher in this form, easily outpacing Piccolo even after the Namek fighter removed his weighted training clothes. His tail tip, which had been cut off by Krillin, did not regenerate and he now has a slight hunch. Although his tail was surprisingly not regenerated, the rest of his wounds disappeared as if nothing ever touched him.
Fourth form
Drastically differing from his previous transformations, in his final, true form, Frieza's third form (being more like a shell for this final form) cracks and shatters open, revealing a shorter and less bulky appearance. His horns and spikes disappear with his physique becoming entirely streamlined and his skin is now a pure, solid white with purple sections on his head, shoulders, forearms, chest and shins. All injuries taken in other forms are healed. This is the form that allows him to release his full potential. Frieza is also able to attain 100% power of this form, his muscle mass becoming engorged compared to his previously sleek frame. This is the peak of Frieza's natural potential, and the maximum amount of power his body can output. At 100%, Frieza's power increases immensely, to the point that he is able to overpower even Super Saiyan Goku, during some moments of their fight. However while in this form Frieza's body is subjected to a muscle strain that slowly starts draining his energy until he loses most of his speed to be able to maintain his strength while in this form. Becoming slower and less resilient, at the end of the fight Frieza is no match for Super Saiyan Goku anymore who gets the upperhand on him, which results in Frieza's defeat. Being aware of this weakness of his, Frieza had tried to finish the fight as quickly as possible by destroying Planet Namek.
Frieza's 6th Universe counterpart, Frost, also briefly uses this form during the Tournament of Power.
Mecha Frieza
After being cut in half by his own attack and being caught in Namek's huge explosion, what remains of the still-living Frieza is salvaged and rebuilt with cybernetic enhancements by scientists under the order of King Cold; this form is referred to as in video games. The whole of the lower half of his body and right side of his face are replaced, as is his left arm from the shoulder down, with scarring and metal accoutrements covering what little was left of his organic self. It is stated that these enhancements have made him even more powerful. However, he was never able to unleash his full power in this form, since he was quickly destroyed by Trunks.
Golden Frieza
Frieza attains another transformation in the 2015 film Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F' and Dragon Ball Super. According to Frieza, his sixth transformation is achieved after undergoing intensive training for four months, enabling him to gain the strength to progress even further beyond his previous transformations by drawing out all of his latent power (as he had never trained a day in his life beforehand).<ref>Dragon Ball Z: Fukkatsu no F manga, chapter April 1 issue of 2015 V-Jump February 21, 2015</ref> In this form, Frieza's physique is similar to his previous fourth form except his skin is now a golden color as opposed to white, with purple sections on his head, chest, forearms and shins, thus he is known as in this form. In this form at peak power, Frieza is able to overpower Goku in his Super Saiyan Blue form with relative ease. However, much like when he used 100% of his power in his sixth form, the transformation quickly drains Frieza's energy and stamina due to him not training himself further to become accustomed to the form, and thus is unsuitable for prolonged combat, as he soon finds himself unable to compete with Goku and Vegeta in their Super Saiyan Blue forms. After his second revival in the Tournament of Power Saga, Frieza reveals he mastered his Golden form due to intense meditation while in hell. This "True Golden Frieza" can be used indefinitely without any drain on Frieza's stamina or even while he is barely conscious. Frieza's Japanese voice actor, Ryūsei Nakao jokingly placed Golden Frieza's power level at “one hundred quintillion” (or 1.2 billion times stronger than the Fourth form).
Appearances in other media
In numerous filler episodes of the anime and Dragon Ball GT, Frieza makes numerous cameo appearances, usually as comic relief, causing trouble in Hell, having somehow been permitted to keep his body despite his wrongdoings. In Hell, he is defeated and sent to prison by Goku and Pikkon along with Cell, his father and the Ginyu Force, and he is later seen watching Goku's final battle with Majin Buu in a crystal ball, comically hoping for Goku to lose (this appearance is later contradicted in Resurrection "F" and its Dragon Ball Super adaptation, where Frieza is depicted as unaware that Goku fought and defeated Buu, although for flashback sequences and such, Super alludes to Dragon Ball Z Kai, where most filler material has been cut). In Dragon Ball Z: Fusion Reborn, Frieza briefly escapes from Hell with an army of villains to attack Earth, but he is swiftly defeated by Gohan. In Dragon Ball GT, when Goku is sent to Hell by accident, Frieza and Cell confront him, their bodies having been rendered temporarily immortal due to the unbalance between the two worlds. Using a joint attack, Frieza and Cell send Goku to a lower level where he is frozen by a witch, but the two villains end up frozen themselves when they foolishly venture downwards to gloat at Goku. Goku accidentally breaks the ice holding Frieza and Cell and it shatters to pieces, implying that Frieza and Cell have been erased from existence. However, in a future scene, Frieza and Cell are seen being taken away in a jail cell with tape over their mouths and appear in the live action GT show where he and Cell gained new forms to track down Goku. He appeared in a TV ad for Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods, as he makes a non-speaking appearance in the film.
He also appears in a chapter of Toriyama's Neko Majin manga, published in August 2003, which also introduces Frieza's son, . He briefly appears in the 2006 Dragon Ball crossover chapter, , of Osamu Akimoto's manga Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo. Frieza appears in Naho Ōishi's 2011 Dragon Ball spin-off manga Episode of Bardock, but it predominately features his ancestor . He also appears in Toriyama's 2014 Dragon Ball Minus: The Departure of the Fated Child special.
Frieza has made numerous appearances in other media. The Japanese nu metal/hardcore punk band Maximum the Hormone released the song "F" as part of a double A-side single on July 9, 2008. The entirety of the song references Frieza, with the single itself rising as high as number two on the Oricon music chart. The song was the source of reference used by Toriyama for the title of the film Fukkatsu no F and is featured in the movie. Seikima-II frontman Demon Kakka wrote and performed the song that appeared in two episodes of Dragon Ball Kai and on the 2009 Dragon Ball Kai Song Collection album.
In the manga Black Cat, the character Sven Vollfied is often seen using his cell phone with a wrist strap of a miniature-sized badge of Frieza's head. A caricature of Frieza mixed with a grey alien was parodied as a mech pilot in an episode of Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi. The anime Yakitate!! Japan featured a spoof re-enactment of the fight between Goku and Frieza, with a character clad in a refrigerator representing the latter. The Cartoon Network show Codename: Kids Next Door had a parody of their own of the climactic fight and the Frieza character, with the Delightful Children From Down the Lane portraying him as a multi-headed monstrosity.
Video games
Frieza has been featured in many of the video games based on the series. Often, he's both a playable character and boss, though more frequently the latter. He is also usually able to transform into his many different forms.
Frieza appears in the Famicom game (and later Playdia remake) Dragon Ball Z Gaiden: Saiyajin Zetsumetsu Keikaku. Frieza seems to be somehow resurrected, and he and other past villains start attacking Goku and his friends. Once it's revealed these are merely ghost-warriors meant to distract the heroes, however, the false Frieza and his allies are easily dealt with. Other games highlight Frieza in alternate story paths; including those where he successfully attains immortality and goes on to threaten Earth such as Dragon Ball Z: Budokai, and Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2 where Frieza and Cell are resurrected and controlled by Bobbidi as a distraction for the player.
Frieza also appears as a playable character in the crossover fighting games Jump Ultimate Stars, Battle Stadium D.O.N, J-Stars Victory Vs and Jump Force.
Reception
Yū Kondō, Toriyama's second editor from the Saiyan arc until the appearance of Perfect Cell, and Fuyuto Takeda, his third editor from Perfect Cell until the end of the series, said that Dragon Ball hit its peak in popularity during the Frieza arc. In a one-thousand ballot popularity poll held in Weekly Shōnen Jump, Dragon Ball received 815 of them. In 2004, fans of the series voted Frieza the ninth most popular character for a poll in the book Dragon Ball Forever. Frieza topped a poll of Dragon Ball antagonists by fan vote, the results of which was published by the March 2018 issue of V Jump.
Frieza was mentioned as one of the "most beloved characters" in an article by GamePro. The casting and direction of his English voices has often been criticized over the years, with IGN's Ramsey Isler writing that, coupled with the ambiguous physical features, the "old lady" voice lead to some gender confusion with fans. The Ledger's December 8, 1999 paper names him as one of the reasons that Dragon Ball Z was listed as a violent show for children, stating, "In one recent episode, beads of sweat form on the brow of a character named Vegeta, as he is nearly strangled to death by an evil foe named Frieza. In another, Frieza uses the horns on his head to impale a good guy named Krillin through the chest." The paper also comments on Frieza's appearance: "Little Gohan is abruptly in the icy metallic grip of one of his arch-nemeses, Frieza, a silvery androgynous giant who looks like a cross between the monster in Alien and Batman's Mr. Freeze." Comic Book Resources regarded Frieza's role in the original series as the reason why his arc is one of the darkest ever in the franchise due to the violence in fights, deaths and resolution of his fight against Goku, giving it an improvement in retrospect. Both Kotaku and Den of Geek regarded Frieza as the series' most entertaining villain in the entire series which led to the staff to revive him multiple times in order to appeal to returning fans.
Response to Frieza's revival in Resurrection F has been mixed to negative. DVD Talk enjoyed the rematch between Frieza and Goku in Resurrection F but still lamented that its length was too much when compared with other subplots. IGN was more positive in regards Frieza's new powers and rivalry with Goku. Anime News Network lamented Frieza's role as he felt that he barely gave a decent fight in the movie as the writing fails to portray him as a menacing villain with the new powers of Goku and Vegeta easily surpassing him alongside other plot devices like the healing beans. In regards to the voice actors "Ayres’ brand of childish pompousness is a lot less threatening in a story where Frieza isn't in a position of power from the get-go. Ryusei Nakao's slightly more adult tone works a little better in this instance." Den of Geek found the fight between Goku's allies and Frieza's army as the best part of the movie in contrast to the lead's fights which he felt was "standard" to the point it gets "boring".
For the final arc of Dragon Ball Super, Anime News Network had mixed feelings about the second return of Frieza to have him teamed up with Universe 7. He felt that while Frieza might be turning into a Dragon Ball cliche where villains before heroes, his actions were still ambiguous and it was satisfying to see him engage with Goku on a one-on-one to settle their rules in the Tournament of Power. Hobby Consolas commented that Frieza was overpowered by Jiren so many times that it became tiring to see. However, Frieza's team up with Goku in order to force their enemy out of the tournament's arena was found surprising for how such characters who have hated each other's for years have decided to join forces to the point even Vegeta is shocked at seeing this. IGN noted that Frieza was absent through so many episodes of the final arc and praised his team up with Goku not only due to their differences but also animation highlights. However, the fact that Frieza is not only revived but also given his own empire back left the reviewer in a dilemma in regards to the impact it might give the franchise in the future due to whether or not he will keep being evil as he kept interacting with Goku for a long time. Cine Premiere agreed that Frieza's future actions might be up to debate.
Bibliography Dragon Ball Z manga, Volume 5 — Dragon Ball Z manga, Volume 6 — Dragon Ball Z manga, Volume 7 — Dragon Ball Z manga, Volume 8 — Dragon Ball Z manga, Volume 9 — Dragon Ball Z manga, Volume 10 — Dragon Ball Z manga, Volume 11 — Dragon Ball Z'' manga, Volume 12 —
References
Animated series villains
Anime and manga characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength
Dragon Ball characters
Comics characters introduced in 1989
Comics villains
Extraterrestrial supervillains
Fictional extraterrestrial characters
Fictional amputees
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional child killers
Fictional cyborgs
Fictional dictators
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional mutants
Fictional telekinetics
Fictional torturers
Fictional warlords
Fictional regicides
Galactic emperors
Male characters in anime and manga
Shapeshifter characters in comics
Video game bosses
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244549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsunaga%20Hisahide | Matsunaga Hisahide | Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide (松永 弾正 久秀 1508 – November 19, 1577) was a daimyō and head of the Yamato Matsunaga clan in Japan during the Sengoku period of the 16th century.
Biography
He was a retainer of Miyoshi Nagayoshi from the 1540s. He directed the conquest of the province of Yamato in the 1560s and by 1564 had built a sufficient power-base to be effectively independent. It is believed that he was conspiring against Nagayoshi during this period, from 1561 to 1563 three of Nagayoshi's brothers and his son Yoshioki died. This left Miyoshi Yoshitsugu the adopted heir when Nagayoshi died in 1564, too young to rule. Three men shared his guardianship – Miyoshi Nagayuki, Miyoshi Masayasu, and Iwanari Tomomichi.
He then invaded the shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiteru's palace, who then committed suicide.
His brother Ashikaga Yoshiaki fled and the shōgun was replaced by his young cousin, Yoshihide.
In 1566, fighting started between Hisahide and the Miyoshi. Initially the forces of Hisahide were unsuccessful and his apparent destruction of the Buddhist Tōdai-ji in Nara was considered an act of infamy.
In 1568 Oda Nobunaga, with the figurehead Yoshiaki, attacked Hisahide. Nobunaga captured Kyoto in November and Hisahide was forced to submit.
Yoshiaki was made shōgun, a post he held only until 1573 when he attempted to remove himself from Nobunaga's power. Hisahide kept control of the Yamato and served Nobunaga in his extended campaigns against the Miyoshi and others, for a while. In 1573 Hisahide briefly allied with the Miyoshi, but when the hope for successes were not achieved he returned to Nobunaga to fight the Miyoshi.
In 1577 Nobunaga besieged him at Shigisan Castle. Defeated but defiant Hisahide committed suicide. A noted tea master, he destroyed his tea bowl denying it to his enemies.
He ordered his head destroyed to prevent it becoming a trophy (in which his son, Matsunaga Kojiro grabbed Hisahide's head and jumped off the castle wall with his sword through his throat). His son, Hisamichi, also committed suicide in siege.
Hisahide often appears as a shriveled and scheming old man.
Honours
Senior Fourth Rank, Lower Grade (conferred on January 4, 1561)
In popular culture
See People of the Sengoku period in popular culture.
Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide is featured as a character in Sengoku Basara 2: Heroes, in which he is depicted as a man of treachery who enjoys any course of action that would subsequently present to him a greater sum of pleasure. He takes a primary role in Katakura Kojūrō's story; and by the end of such a scenario he sets aflame his initial base with explosives as a showing of defeat. Hisahide was announced as one of 14 characters to be made playable in the upcoming expansion to Sengoku Basara: Samurai Heroes.
Hisahide Matsunaga appears as a character in the Samurai Warriors series. Prior to becoming playable in Samurai Warriors 4, Matsunaga appeared as a "fire ninja" bodyguard character in Samurai Warriors 2 and later reappeared in Samurai Warriors 3 as a generic non-playable character. Following his aforementioned playable debut, Matsunaga also appeared as a playable character in Warriors Orochi 4.
In Samurai Warriors 5, Matsunaga returns as a playable character voiced by Kouji Ishii.
in Sengoku Basara, he also appears during the challenge, involving his mercenaries to destroy two gates. If the player repulsed all attempts, he appears. If failed, he was shown waving his sword as it explodes. He excels in sword fights, mixing it with his fascination in explosives and fire-based techniques.
In The Ambition of Oda Nobuna, Matsunaga Hisahide is played by a girl who is also known as the Venomous Scopion. She a co-conspirator of the Miyoshi Three who removed the Ashikaga Shogunate from power but later betrays them and is eventually forced out of Kyoto by Oda. She is the Daimyo of the Yamato Province and a notorious turncoat, frequently allying herself with one group, betraying them, manipulating them, and rejoining them at her convenience. Matsunaga Hisahide is voiced by Masumi Asano in Japanese and by Shelley Calene-Black in English.
In the 2014 anime Nobunaga Concerto, and its 2015 film adaptation, Matsunaga Hisahide is depicted a Yakuza member before being transported to the past, Hisahide relishes the chaos of the Sengoku period, believing it to be a battle where only the strongest win. Meeting Nobunaga after his rejection of the Shogun's letter to attack the Oda, Hisahide offers his loose loyalty to Nobunaga until the time he can rebel. In the anime he is voiced by Takaya Kuroda and played by Arata Furuta in the film adaption.
In the 2014 Taiga drama, Gunshi Kanbei, Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide is played by actor Mickey Curtis.
In the 2020 anime television series Oda Cinnamon Nobunaga, voiced by Ryūsei Nakao. Reincarnated as a chihuahua in modern day Japan.
In the 2020 Taiga drama, Kirin ga Kuru, Matsunaga Hisahide is played by actor Kōtarō Yoshida. This Taiga's narrative was that Hisahide left his alliance with Nobunaga after Tsutsui Junkei, his rival, was chosen as protector of the Yamata Province. Nobunaga's son, Oda Nobutada, with Akechi Mitsuhide, would defeat Hisahide at the Siege of Shigisan. If Hisahide had surrendered, Nobunaga would have given him a small fiefdom.
In Nioh, Matsunaga Hisahide makes an appearance in the game and is shown as a spirit residing in an ethereal teapot and referring to himself as "Danjo".
In Nioh 2, Matsunaga Hisahide appears in the main storyline and within the game's events he dies and serves the same purpose as the game before it.
References
1508 births
1577 deaths
Daimyo
Matsunaga clan
Miyoshi clan
Samurai
Yamato Province | [
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244551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coq%20au%20vin | Coq au vin | Coq au vin (; , "rooster/cock with wine") is a French dish of chicken braised with wine, lardons, mushrooms, and optionally garlic.
A red Burgundy wine is typically used, though many regions of France make variants using local wines, such as coq au vin jaune (Jura), coq au riesling (Alsace), coq au pourpre or coq au violet (Beaujolais nouveau), coq au Champagne, etc.
History
Various legends trace coq au vin to ancient Gaul and Julius Caesar, but the recipe was not documented until the early 20th century; it is generally accepted that it existed as a rustic dish long before that. A somewhat similar recipe, poulet au vin blanc, appeared in an 1864 cookbook.<ref>Cookery for English Households, by a French Lady. 1864.</ref>
Julia Child included coq au vin in her 1961 cookbook Mastering the Art of French Cooking, and she prepared it twice on the PBS cooking show The French Chef. This exposure helped to increase the visibility and popularity of the dish in the United States, and coq au vin was seen as one of Child's signature dishes.
Preparation
Although the word coq in French means "rooster" or "cock", and tough birds with much connective tissue benefit from braising, coq au vin'' may be made with any poultry, most commonly chicken.
Standard recipes call for red wine (often Burgundy) for braising, lardons, button mushrooms, onions, often garlic, and sometimes brandy. Recipes with vin jaune may specify morels instead of white mushrooms. The preparation is similar in many respects to beef bourguignon. The chicken is seasoned, sometimes floured, seared in fat and slowly simmered in wine until tender. The usual seasonings are salt, pepper, thyme, parsley, and bay leaf, usually in the form of a bouquet garni. The juices are thickened either with a roux or by adding blood at the end.
See also
Fujian red wine chicken
List of chicken dishes
List of stews
Wine sauce
References
External links
Blood dishes
French chicken dishes
French stews
Wine dishes | [
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244559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20integrator | Water integrator | The Water Integrator ( Gidravlicheskiy integrator) was an early analog computer built in the Soviet Union in 1936 by Vladimir Sergeevich Lukyanov. It functioned by careful manipulation of water through a room full of interconnected pipes and pumps. The water level in various chambers (with precision to fractions of a millimeter) represented stored numbers, and the rate of flow between them represented mathematical operations. This machine was capable of solving inhomogeneous differential equations.
The first versions of Lukyanov's integrators were rather experimental, made of tin and glass tubes, and each integrator could be used to solve only one problem. In the 1930s it was the only computer in the Soviet Union for solving partial differential equations.
In 1941, Lukyanov created a hydraulic integrator of modular design, which made it possible to assemble a machine for solving various problems. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional hydraulic integrators were designed.
In 1949–1955, an integrator in the form of standard unified units was developed at the NIISCHETMASH Institute. In 1955, the Ryazan plant of calculating and analytical machines began the serial production of integrators with the factory brand name “IGL” (russian: Интегратор Гидравлический Лукьянова - integrator of the Lukyanov hydraulic system). Integrators were widely distributed, delivered to Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria and China.
A water integrator was used in the design of the Karakum Canal in the 1940s, and the construction of the Baikal–Amur Mainline in the 1970s. Water analog computers were used in the Soviet Union until the 1980s for large-scale modelling. They were used in geology, mine construction, metallurgy, rocket production and other fields.
Currently, two hydraulic integrators are kept in the Polytechnic Museum in Moscow.
See also
History of computing hardware
MONIAC Computer
Fluidics
References
External links
MIT water computer
Translated article from Russian Magazin "Science and Life" about water integrators in the Soviet Union
Translation of an archived article from O. V. Solovyov on the former webpage of the Polytechnic Museum in Moscow
Hydraulic Analog Computer Technical Reports. A "collection of technical reports from the USACE (US Army Corps of Engineers) that was written by the Civil and Sanitary Engineering Department at MIT as part of a contract to create a Hydraulic Computer for solving diffusion-type Partial Differential Equations" from 1953
One-of-a-kind computers
Early computers
Analog computers
Soviet inventions | [
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244566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Content%20License | Open Content License | The Open Content License is a share-alike public copyright license by Open Content Project in 1998. The license can be applied to a work to make it open content. It is one of the earliest non-software free content licenses.
History and reception
The Open Content License, dated July 14, 1998, predates the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) and other non-software public licenses. Though discussions were held between David A. Wiley, creator of the Open Content License, and Richard Stallman, leader of the Free Software Foundation, who created the GNU General Public License for software and would create the GFDL. The license text is titled "OpenContent License (OPL)". "OPL" stood for OpenContent Principles and License.
This license is not compatible with most other licenses (beside permissive licenses) in that it requires derivative works to be licensed under the Open Content License (Viral license). With the exception of media and handling costs, it forbids charging for copies of a licensed work, but does not otherwise forbid commercial use.
Another license released a year later, also by the Open Content Project, is called the Open Publication License. The OpenContent as well as the Open Publication license were succeeded by the Creative Commons licenses in 2003.
A project licensed under the OPL is Open Icecat, which was launched in 2005 as a global open catalogue for e-commerce, and is embraced by the tech sector.
References
Public copyright licenses
1998 introductions
Open content | [
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244568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective%20cogenerator | Injective cogenerator | In category theory, a branch of mathematics, the concept of an injective cogenerator is drawn from examples such as Pontryagin duality. Generators are objects which cover other objects as an approximation, and (dually) cogenerators are objects which envelope other objects as an approximation.
More precisely:
A generator of a category with a zero object is an object G such that for every nonzero object H there exists a nonzero morphism f:G → H.
A cogenerator is an object C such that for every nonzero object H there exists a nonzero morphism f:H → C. (Note the reversed order).
The abelian group case
Assuming one has a category like that of abelian groups, one can in fact form direct sums of copies of G until the morphism
f: Sum(G) →H
is surjective; and one can form direct products of C until the morphism
f:H→ Prod(C)
is injective.
For example, the integers are a generator of the category of abelian groups (since every abelian group is a quotient of a free abelian group). This is the origin of the term generator. The approximation here is normally described as generators and relations.
As an example of a cogenerator in the same category, we have Q/Z, the rationals modulo the integers, which is a divisible abelian group. Given any abelian group A, there is an isomorphic copy of A contained inside the product of |A| copies of Q/Z. This approximation is close to what is called the divisible envelope - the true envelope is subject to a minimality condition.
General theory
Finding a generator of an abelian category allows one to express every object as a quotient of a direct sum of copies of the generator. Finding a cogenerator allows one to express every object as a subobject of a direct product of copies of the cogenerator. One is often interested in projective generators (even finitely generated projective generators, called progenerators) and minimal injective cogenerators. Both examples above have these extra properties.
The cogenerator Q/Z is useful in the study of modules over general rings. If H is a left module over the ring R, one forms the (algebraic) character module H* consisting of all abelian group homomorphisms from H to Q/Z. H* is then a right R-module. Q/Z being a cogenerator says precisely that H* is 0 if and only if H is 0. Even more is true: the * operation takes a homomorphism
f:H → K
to a homomorphism
f*:K* → H*,
and f* is 0 if and only if f is 0. It is thus a faithful contravariant functor from left R-modules to right R-modules.
Every H* is pure-injective (also called algebraically compact). One can often consider a problem after applying the * to simplify matters.
All of this can also be done for continuous modules H: one forms the topological character module of continuous group homomorphisms from H to the circle group R/Z.
In general topology
The Tietze extension theorem can be used to show that an interval is an injective cogenerator in a category of topological spaces subject to separation axioms.
References
Category theory | [
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244576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile%20Command | Missile Command | {{Infobox video game
|title = Missile Command
|image = Missile Command flyer.jpg
|caption = North American arcade flyer
|developer = Atari, Inc.
|publisher = Arcade Game Boy
|designer = Dave Theurer
|programmer = Rich AdamDave Theurer
|composer = Rich Adam
|released = ArcadeAtari 2600Atari 8-bitAtari 5200Atari STGame Boy|genre = Shoot 'em up
|modes = Up to 2 players, alternating turns
|platforms = Arcade, Atari 2600, Atari 5200, Atari 8-bit, Atari ST, Game Boy, Lynx
}}Missile Command' is a 1980 shoot 'em up arcade video game developed and published by Atari, Inc. and licensed to Sega for Japanese and European releases. It was designed by Dave Theurer, who also designed Atari's vector graphics game Tempest from the same year. Released during the Cold War, the player uses a trackball to defend six cities from intercontinental ballistic missiles by launching anti-ballistic missiles from three bases.
Atari brought the game to its home systems beginning with the 1981 Atari VCS port by Rob Fulop which sold over 2.5 million copies. Numerous contemporaneous clones and modern remakes followed. Missile Command is built into the Atari XEGS released in 1987, an Atari 8-bit family computer repackaged as a game console.
Plot
The player's six cities are being attacked by an endless hail of ballistic missiles, some of which split like multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles. New weapons are introduced in later levels: smart bombs that can evade a less-than-perfectly targeted missile, and bomber planes and satellites that fly across the screen launching missiles of their own. As a regional commander of three anti-missile batteries, the player must defend six cities in their zone from being destroyed.
Gameplay
The game is played by moving a crosshair across the sky background via a trackball and pressing one of three buttons to launch a counter-missile from the appropriate battery. Counter-missiles explode upon reaching the crosshair, leaving a fireball that persists for several seconds and destroys any enemy missiles that enter it. There are three batteries, each with ten missiles; a missile battery becomes useless when all its missiles are fired, or if the battery is destroyed by enemy fire. The missiles of the central battery fly to their targets at much greater speed; only these missiles can effectively kill a smart bomb at a distance.
The game is staged as a series of levels of increasing difficulty; each level contains a set number of incoming enemy weapons. The weapons attack the six cities, as well as the missile batteries; being struck by an enemy weapon results in the destruction of the city or missile battery. Enemy weapons are only able to destroy three cities during one level. A level ends when all enemy weaponry is destroyed or reaches its target. A player who runs out of missiles no longer has control over the remainder of the level. At the conclusion of a level, the player receives bonus points for any remaining cities (50 points times scoring level, 1 to 6, first 254 levels; 256, levels 255 & 256) or unused missiles (5 points times scoring level, 1 to 6, first 254 levels; 256, levels 255 & 256). Between levels missile batteries are rebuilt and replenished; destroyed cities are rebuilt only at set point levels (usually per 8,000 to 12,000 points).
The game inevitably ends when all six cities are destroyed, unless the player manages to score enough points to earn a bonus city before the end of the level. Like most early arcade games, there is no way to "win" the game; the game keeps going with ever-faster and more prolific incoming missiles. The game, then, is just a contest in seeing how long the player can survive. On conclusion of the game, the screen displays "The End", rather than "Game Over", signifying that "in the end, all is lost. There is no winner". This conclusion is skipped, however, if the player makes the high score list and the game prompts the player to enter their initials.
Bugs
Upon scoring 810,000 (and per 1,000,000 points thereafter), a large number of cities are awarded (176 cities plus the continuing accrual of bonus cities) and it is possible to carry on playing for several hours. At some later stage the speed of missiles increases greatly for a few screens. On the 255th and 256th yellow screens, the scoring increases by 256 times the base value. For good players these two stages can earn over a million points.
Development
When the game was originally designed, the six cities were meant to represent six cities in California: Eureka, San Francisco, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and San Diego. Later in development the names of the cities varied depending on the game level being played, but eventually city names were removed completely.
While programming Missile Command, the lead programmer, Dave Theurer, suffered from nightmares of these cities being destroyed by a nuclear blast.Extra Credits: Narrative Mechanics
PortsMissile Command was ported to the Atari 2600 in 1981. The game's instruction manual describes a war between two planets: Zardon (the defending player) and Krytol. The original arcade game contains no reference to these worlds. On level 13, if the player uses all of his or her missiles without scoring any points, at the end of the game the city on the right will turn into "RF" — the initials of the programmer Rob Fulop. This Easter egg is originally documented in Atari Age (Volume 1, Issue 2) in a letter to the editor by Joseph Nickischer, and is the second one publicly acknowledged by Atari.Missile Command was released for the Atari 8-bit family in 1981 and an identical version for the Atari 5200 in 1982. The same Atari 8-bit port was later used in the 1987 Atari XEGS as a built-in game that boots up if there isn't a cartridge or keyboard in the console.
ReceptionMissile Command is considered one of the great classic video games from the Golden Age of Arcade Games. The game is also interesting in its manifestation of the Cold War's effects on popular culture, in that the game features an implementation of National Missile Defense and parallels real life nuclear war.
The game sold nearly 20,000 arcade cabinets. Missile Command was a commercial success for Sega in Japan, where it was among the top ten highest-grossing arcade video games of 1980.
In 1983, Softline readers named Missile Command for the Atari 8-bit family eighth on the magazine's Top Thirty list of Atari programs by popularity.
Legacy
Re-releasesMissile Command has also been included in the compilations Atari Arcade Hits 1, Atari Anniversary Edition, and Atari: 80 Classic Games in One!. It was released as part of the original Microsoft Arcade for the PC in 1993. It was also included in some compilations on Sega consoles: Arcade Smash Hits on the Master System, Arcade Classics on Game Boy Retails 4 Published by Nintendo, Arcade Classics on Game Gear and Arcade Classics on Genesis.
Sequels
In late 1980, a two-player sequel Missile Command 2 was field tested but never released, although at least one prototype appeared in an arcade in Santa Clara, California. This game was similar to the original except that each player had their own set of cities and missile batteries and the players could cooperate to save each other's cities from the onslaught. In 1992, Atari developed a prototype of an arcade game called Arcade Classics for their 20th anniversary, which included Missile Command 2 and Super Centipede.
In 1981, an enhancement kit was made by General Computer Corp. to convert Missile Command into Super Missile Attack. This made the game even harder, and added a UFO to the player's enemies.
In 1982 Atari released a game called Liberator, which was seen by some as being a sequel to Missile Command with the situation essentially reversed; in Liberator, the player is the one attacking planetary bases from orbit.
Updated versions
Enhanced versions of Missile Command were released for the Atari Lynx and Game Boy.
An updated version called Missile Command 3D was released for the Atari Jaguar in 1995. It contains three versions of the game: Classic (a straight port of the arcade game), 3D (graphically upgraded and with a rotating viewpoint), and Virtual. It is the only game that works with the virtual reality helmet from Virtuality.
Hasbro Interactive released a 3D remake of Missile Command for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation in 1999.Missile Command with high-definition graphics was released via Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360 on July 4, 2007.Missile Command was released for the iPhone and iPod Touch for US$5 on September 23, 2008. It includes two gameplay modes ("Ultra" and "Classic").
On March 26, 2020, Atari released a new remake, Missile Command: Recharged, on mobile platforms. On May 27, the remake also made it to Nintendo Switch as well as home computers via Steam, later on released as a launch title on the Atari VCS.
An updated version of the game was announced in 2018 for the Intellivision Amico.
Clones
Contemporary Missile Command clones include Missile Defense (1981) for the Apple II, Stratos (1982) for the TRS-80, Repulsar (1983) for the ZX Spectrum, and Barrage (1983) for the TI-99/4A. Silas Warner programmed the 1980 clone ABM for the Apple II several years before writing Castle Wolfenstein. Similarly, John Field programmed the Missile Command-like game ICBM (1981), then went on to create Axis Assassin, one of the first five games published by Electronic Arts.Atomic Command, a clone of Missile Command, is playable on the Pip-Boy interface in the Fallout 4 video game.
In popular culture
Missile Command was referenced in the 1980 episode "Call Girl" of the TV sitcom Barney Miller, which features a detective who is hooked on the game.
In the 1991 film Terminator 2: Judgment Day, John Connor plays the game in an arcade, echoing the film's theme of a future global nuclear war.
The documentary High Score (2006) follows William Carlton, a Portland, Oregon gamer, on his quest to beat the Missile Command high score record for Marathon settings.
In the 2010 open world survival horror video game, Deadly Premonition, the game is mentioned by the protagonist Francis York Morgan, while driving.
In the 2008 episode "Chuck Versus Tom Sawyer" of the NBC show Chuck, a weapons satellite access code is hidden in the (fictitious) kill screen of Missile Command by its programmer, Mr. Morimoto (Clyde Kusatsu).
In the 1982 movie Fast Times at Ridgemont High, Missile Commands "The End" screen is used to help illustrate the film's ending.
Film
In February 2010, Atari announced that it was talking with several studios to find one that would turn Missile Command into a movie. In January 2011, 20th Century Fox acquired the rights to bring Missile Command to film. In May 2016, Emmett/Furla/Oasis Films closed a deal to partner with Atari to produce and finance both Centipede and Missile Command.
World records
Two types of world records are monitored for the arcade version of Missile Command: Marathon settings and Tournament settings. Both settings allow the player to start with six cities. Marathon settings award bonus cities, while in tournament mode bonus cities are not awarded at any point in the game.
Marathon settings
In 1981, Floridian Jody Bowles played a Missile Command'' arcade game for 30 hours at The Filling Station Eatery in Pensacola. Bowles scored 41,399,845 points with one quarter using Marathon settings, besting the previous known record, according to Atari spokesman Mike Fournell. The record was broken when Victor Ali of the United States scored 80,364,995 points in 1982.
Beginning on March 15, 2013, Victor Sandberg of Sweden scored 81,796,035 points live on Twitch after 56 hours of play. On December 27 of the same year, Sandberg started a 71-hour and 41 minute game with a score of 103,809,990—10 points short of getting an additional 176 cities.
Tournament settings
On July 3, 1985, Roy Shildt of Los Angeles set a world record in tournament-set Missile Command, with a score of 1,695,265, as verified by Twin Galaxies. This score, as well it earning his induction into the Video Game Hall of Fame, were published in the 1986 Guinness Book of World Records.
After more than 20 years, on March 9, 2006, UK-based gamer Tony Temple set a new world record of 1,967,830 points, also with Tournament settings as confirmed by Twin Galaxies. Temple's score was published in the 2008 Guinness Book of World Records Gamer's Edition, although Guinness noted that the score was controversial due to Temple playing on game settings that increased cursor speed and was therefore easier than those of Roy Shildt, the previous record holder. Tony Temple increased his world record on two occasions, culminating in a score of 4,472,570 in 2 hours and 57 minutes–verified on September 9, 2010. This is the first verified time that a player passed wave 256 under tournament settings; the game difficulty starts over at wave 1 again.
See also
Golden age of video arcade games
References
External links
Missile Command at the Arcade History database
Missile Command software disassembly and analysis
1980 video games
Arcade video games
Atari 2600 games
Atari 5200 games
Atari 8-bit family games
Atari arcade games
Atari Lynx games
Game Boy games
Nintendo games
Video games about nuclear war and weapons
Game Boy Color games
IOS games
PlayStation (console) games
PlayStation Network games
Trackball video games
Windows games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
Video games developed in the United States
Cold War video games | [
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244577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Milburn | Alan Milburn | Alan Milburn (born 27 January 1958) is a British Labour politician who was Member of Parliament (MP) for Darlington from 1992 to 2010. He served for five years in the Cabinet, first as Chief Secretary to the Treasury from 1998 to 1999, and subsequently as Secretary of State for Health until 2003, when he resigned. He briefly rejoined the Cabinet as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in order to manage Labour's 2005 re-election campaign. He did not seek re-election in the 2010 election.
Milburn was Chair of the Social Mobility Commission from 2012 to 2017. Since 2015, he has been Chancellor of Lancaster University.
Early life and career
Milburn was born in Birmingham, and brought up in the village of Tow Law in County Durham and in Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
He was educated at John Marlay School in Newcastle and, after his mother married, Stokesley Comprehensive School in North Yorkshire. He went on to Lancaster University, where he lived in Morecambe and Galgate, graduating in 1979 with a Bachelor of Arts degree with Upper Second Class Honours in History. After leaving university, he returned to Newcastle where, with Martin Spence, he operated a small radical bookshop in the Westgate Road, called Days of Hope (the shop was given the spoonerised nickname Haze of Dope). He also studied for a PhD at Newcastle University, but did not complete his thesis. In 1981 he married future Labour MEP Mo O'Toole, but the couple split up in the late 1980s.
Milburn was Co-ordinator of the Trade Union Studies Information Unit (TUSIU) from the mid-1980s onwards.
From 1988, Milburn co-ordinated a campaign to defend shipbuilding in Sunderland, and was elected as Chairman of Newcastle-upon-Tyne Central Constituency Labour Party. In 1990 he was appointed as a Business Development Officer for North Tyneside Borough Council and elected as President of the North East Region of the Manufacturing Science and Finance (MSF) Trade Union. Meanwhile, he won the seat of Darlington in the 1992 general election.
Member of Parliament
In Parliament, Milburn allied himself with the Blairite modernisers in the Labour Party, becoming close to Tony Blair who sat for the next-door constituency of Sedgefield. Later the political editor of the New Statesman wrote that "Alan Milburn is regarded by most in Labour as the epitome of Blairite centrism and moderation."
In government
In 1997 he was appointed as Minister of State at the Department of Health, an important post in which he had responsibility for driving through Private Finance Initiative deals on hospitals. In the reshuffle caused by Peter Mandelson's resignation on 23 December 1998, Milburn was promoted to the Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury.
He became Secretary of State for Health in October 1999, with responsibility for continuing the reduction in waiting times and delivering modernisation in the National Health Service (NHS). In 2002 Milburn introduced NHS foundation trusts, originally envisaged as a new form of not-for-profit provider and "described at the time as a sort of halfway house between the public and private sectors". Milburn later described his reforms as "getting the private sector into the NHS to work alongside the public sector. We gave more choice to patients. We paid more for the hospitals that were doing more rather than paying everyone the same."
Milburn was thought to be a candidate for promotion within the Government, but on the day of a reshuffle (12 June 2003) he announced his resignation. He cited the difficulties combining family life in North-East England with a demanding job in London as his reason for quitting.
While on the backbenches he continued to be a strong supporter of Tony Blair's policies, especially his continued policy of increased private involvement in public service provision. Following his resignation as Secretary of State for Health (to spend more time with his family), Milburn took a post for £30,000 a year as an advisor to Bridgepoint Capital, a venture capital firm heavily involved in financing private health-care firms moving into the NHS, including Alliance Medical, Match Group, Medica and the Robinia Care Group.
He returned to government in September 2004, with the title of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He was brought back to lead the Labour Party's campaign in the 2005 general election, but the unsuccessful start to the campaign led to Milburn taking a back seat, with Gordon Brown returning to take a very prominent role.
Backbenches
On election night in 2005, he announced he would be leaving the Cabinet for a second time, although rumours persisted that he would challenge Gordon Brown for the succession. On 27 June 2007, Brown subsequently assumed the prime ministerial role unopposed. On 8 September 2006, after Tony Blair had announced his intention to step down within a year, Charles Clarke suggested Milburn as leader in place of Brown. On 28 February 2007, he and Clarke launched The 2020 Vision, a website intended to promote policy debate in the Labour Party.
He was the honorary president of the political organisation Progress, which was founded by Derek Draper. In 2007, Milburn worked as an advisor to Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and again in 2010 acted as an advisor to the election campaign of Julia Gillard.
Between January and July 2009, Milburn chaired a governmental commission on social mobility, the Panel on Fair Access to the Professions. The Panel reported in July 2009 with recommendations to improve social mobility by acting at every life stage – including through schools, universities, internship practices and recruitment processes.
In 2007, Milburn became a paid advisor to PepsiCo and sat on its nutritional advisory board. By the time he stood down from parliament, Milburn had an income at least £115,000 a year from five companies.
In June 2009, he told his local party he would not be standing at the 2010 general election, saying: "Standing down as an MP will give me the chance to balance my work and my family life with the time to pursue challenges other than politics."
Later career
Despite the change of government following the May 2010 general election, it was reported in August 2010 that Milburn had been offered a role in the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition as "social mobility tsar". Although not officially politically-affiliated, the role would involve advising the government on how to break down social barriers for people from disadvantaged backgrounds, and help people who feel they are barred from top jobs on grounds of race, religion, gender or disability. Milburn provoked criticism from former Cabinet colleague John Prescott, and his former ally Andy Burnham, for advising the government. However, David Miliband defended Milburn claiming that he was serving the country and was not working for the Coalition Government.
In 2011, Milburn was asked by Andrew Lansley to chair the new clinical commissioning board, as part of the Coalition Government's health reforms but he rejected the offer labelling the reforms as "privatization", "cuts" and a "car crash".
In 2011, Milburn contributed to The Purple Book (alongside other key figures in the Labour Party such as Ed Miliband, Peter Mandelson, Jacqui Smith, Liam Byrne, Tessa Jowell, Tristram Hunt, Stephen Twigg, Rachel Reeves and Liz Kendall). In the book, he called for the Labour Party to adopt a policy of "educational credit", a system whereby lower and middle-income families whose children attend failing schools can withdraw their children and get funding, worth 150% the cost of education at the failing school, in order to pay for a place at a higher achieving school for the child, with the money coming from the budget of the failing school. The policy was rejected by the leftwing MP Michael Meacher but was welcomed by Labour's Shadow Education Secretary Stephen Twigg and other shadow cabinet members.
In 2012, a senior Number 10 adviser called for Andrew Lansley to be "taken out and shot" for introducing the Health and Social Care bill despite widespread opposition, and that Alan Milburn should be ennobled and join the coalition government as Secretary of State for Health. This was rejected by David Cameron and it is understood that Milburn rejected such offer and remained in the Labour Party. He wrote in The Times attacking the reforms, but calling for the left to give an alternative.
In July 2012, Milburn was appointed as Chair of the Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission. He served until his resignation in December 2017.
In 2013 Milburn joined PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) as Chair of PwC's UK Health Industry Oversight Board, whose objective is to drive change in the health sector, and assist PwC in growing its presence in the health market. Milburn continued to be Chairman of the European Advisory Board at Bridgepoint Capital, whose activities include financing private health care companies providing services ito the NHS, and continued as a member of the Healthcare Advisory Panel at Lloyds Pharmacy. As of 2022 he remains a Senior Adviser to PwC.
In 2015, Milburn became Lancaster University’s third Chancellor, taking over from the mountaineer Chris Bonington.
Early in 2015, Milburn intervened in the British election campaign to criticise Labour's health plans, which would limit private sector involvement in the NHS. Milburn was criticised for doing so while having a personal financial interest in the private health sector. In 2017, Milburn was touted as a possible leader of a pro-EU movement after Brexit.
References
External links
Guardian Unlimited Politics – Ask Aristotle: Alan Milburn MP
TheyWorkForYou.com – Alan Milburn MP
Alan Milburn on BBC One's This Week
Alan Milburn gives his career story on the non-profit website icould.
|-
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|-
1958 births
Living people
Alumni of Lancaster University
British Secretaries of State
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People associated with Lancaster University
People from Tow Law
Secretaries of State for Health (UK)
British Trotskyists
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
People from Birmingham, West Midlands | [
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244585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosive%20substance | Corrosive substance | A corrosive substance is one that will damage or destroy other substances with which it comes into contact by means of a chemical reaction.
Etymology
The word corrosive is derived from the Latin verb corrodere, which means to gnaw, indicating how these substances seem to "gnaw" their way through flesh or other materials.
Chemical terms
The word corrosive refers to any chemical that will dissolve the structure of an object. They can be acids, oxidizers, or bases. When they come in contact with a surface, the surface deteriorates. The deterioration can happen in minutes, e.g. concentrated hydrochloric acid spilled on skin; or slowly over days or years, e.g. the rusting of iron in a bridge.
Sometimes the word caustic is used as a synonym for corrosive when referring to the effect on living tissues.
At low concentrations, a corrosive substance is called an irritant, and its effect on living tissue is called irritation. At high concentrations, a corrosive substance causes a chemical burn, a distinct type of tissue damage. Corrosives are different from poisons in that corrosives are immediately dangerous to the tissues they contact, whereas poisons may have systemic toxic effects that require time to become evident. Colloquially, corrosives may be called poisons but the concepts are technically distinct. However, there is nothing which precludes a corrosive from being a poison; there are substances that are both corrosives and poisons.
Corrosion of non-living surfaces such as metals is a distinct process. For example, a water-air electrochemical cell corrodes iron to rust, corrodes copper to patina, and corrodes copper, silver, and other metals to tarnish.
In the international system of symbolic chemical labels, both rapid corrosion of metals and chemical corrosion of skin qualify for the corrosive symbol.
Effects on living tissue
Common corrosives are either strong acids, strong bases, or concentrated solutions of certain weak acids or weak bases. They can exist as any state of matter, including liquids, solids, gases, mists or vapors.
Their action on living tissue (e.g. skin, flesh and cornea) is mainly based on acid-base reactions of amide hydrolysis, ester hydrolysis and protein denaturation. Proteins (chemically composed of amide bonds) are destroyed via amide hydrolysis while lipids (which have ester bonds) are decomposed by ester hydrolysis. These reactions lead to chemical burns and are the mechanism of the destruction posed by corrosives.
Some corrosives possess other chemical properties which may extend their corrosive effects on living tissue. For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) at a high concentration is also a strong dehydrating agent, capable of dehydrating carbohydrates and liberating extra heat. This results in secondary thermal burns in addition to the chemical burns and may speed up its decomposing reactions on the contact surface. Some corrosives, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, are strong oxidizing agents as well, which significantly contributes to the extra damage caused. Hydrofluoric acid does not necessarily cause noticeable damage upon contact, but produces tissue damage and toxicity after being painlessly absorbed. Zinc chloride solutions are capable of destroying cellulose and corroding through paper and silk since the zinc cations in the solutions specifically attack hydroxyl groups, acting as a Lewis acid. This effect is not restricted to acids; so strong a base as calcium oxide, which has a strong affinity for water (forming calcium hydroxide, itself a strong and corrosive base), also releases heat capable of contributing thermal burns as well as delivering the corrosive effects of a strong alkali to moist flesh.
In addition, some corrosive chemicals, mostly acids such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, are volatile and can emit corrosive mists upon contact with air. Inhalation can damage the respiratory tract.
Corrosive substances are most hazardous to eyesight. A drop of a corrosive may cause blindness within 2–10 seconds through opacification or direct destruction of the cornea.
Ingestion of corrosives can induce severe consequences, including serious damage of the gastrointestinal tract, which can lead to vomiting, severe stomach aches, and death.
Common types
Common corrosive chemicals are classified into:
Acids
Strong acidsthe most common are sulfuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (H2SO4, HNO3 and HCl, respectively).
Some concentrated weak acids, for example formic acid, acetic acid, and phosphoric acid
Strong Lewis acids such as anhydrous aluminum chloride and boron trifluoride
Lewis acids with specific reactivity; e.g., solutions of zinc chloride
Extremely strong acids (superacids)
Bases
Caustics or alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and calcium hydroxide
Alkali metals in the metallic form (e.g. elemental sodium), and hydrides of alkali and alkaline earth metals, such as sodium hydride, function as strong bases and hydrate to give caustics
Extremely strong bases (superbases) such as alkoxides, metal amides (e.g. sodium amide) and organometallic bases such as butyllithium
Fully alkalized salts of weak acids such as trisodium phosphate
Some concentrated weak bases, such as ammonia when anhydrous or in a concentrated solution
Dehydrating agents such as concentrated sulfuric acid, phosphorus pentoxide, calcium oxide, anhydrous zinc chloride, also elemental alkali metals
Strong oxidizers such as concentrated hydrogen peroxide
Electrophilic halogens: elemental fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, and electrophilic salts such as sodium hypochlorite or N-chloro compounds such as chloramine-T; halide ions are not corrosive, except for fluoride
Organic halides and organic acid halides such as acetyl chloride and benzyl chloroformate
Acid anhydrides
Alkylating agents such as dimethyl sulfate
Some organic materials such as phenol ("carbolic acid")
Personal protective equipment
Use of personal protective equipment, including items such as protective gloves, protective aprons, acid suits, safety goggles, a face shield, or safety shoes, is normally recommended when handling corrosive substances. Users should consult a safety data sheet for the specific recommendation for the corrosive substance of interest. The material of construction of the personal protective equipment is of critical importance as well. For example, although rubber gloves and rubber aprons may be made out of a chemically resistant elastomer such as nitrile rubber, neoprene, or butyl rubber, each of these materials has different resistance to different corrosives and they should not be substituted for each other.
Uses
Some corrosive chemicals are valued for various uses, the most common of which is in household cleaning agents. For example, most drain cleaners contain either acids or alkalis due to their capabilities of dissolving greases, proteins or mineral deposits such as limescale inside water pipes.
In chemical uses, high chemical reactivity is often desirable, as the rates of chemical reactions depend on the activity (effective concentration) of the reactive species. For instance, catalytic sulfuric acid is used in the alkylation process in an oil refinery: the activity of carbocations, the reactive intermediate, is higher with stronger acidity, and thus the reaction proceeds faster. Once used, corrosives are most often recycled or neutralized. However, there have been environmental problems with untreated corrosive effluents or accidental discharges.
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244587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%99e%C5%A1%C5%A5 | Třešť | Třešť (; ) is a town in Jihlava District in the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 5,700 inhabitants. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.
Administrative parts
Villages of Buková, Čenkov and Salavice are administrative parts of Třešť.
History
The first written mention is from 1349, when the Church of Saint Martin was documented. Třešť was originally a small parish village on the crossroads of two trade routes. Since its establishment, the Jewish community has been in Třešť.
Třešť was known for crafts and in the 19th century for its industry. The production of furniture and matches was established and textile and engineering industry flourish. The industrial boom was the work of Jewish entrepreneurs. The Jewishj community declined in the first half of the 20th century, and disappeared during the Holocaust.
Until 1901, Třešť was the largest market town in Moravia. In 1901, it was promoted to a town.
Economy
Since 1931, the textile company VÝVOJ has been operating in the town. Uniforms for the papal Swiss Guard are made by this company.
Sights
The Church of Saint Martin was founded in the 13th century and is the oldest monument in the town. Its current appearance is result of Baroque reconstructions.
The Church of Saint Catherine of Siena was founded in the 16th century as a Lutheran church. After it was damaged by fire, it was renewed in 1842.
Třešť Castle was created by reconstruction of a fortress from 1513. It has a large English style park. Nowadays it serves as a hotel.
The Jewish community is commemorated by the Empire style building of former synagogue from 1824, by Jewish cemetery founded in the early 18th century, and by Monument to the Jewish Victims.
Notable people
Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), Austrian political economist
Jaroslav Rošický (1884–1942), army officer
Otto Šimánek (1925–1992), actor
Twin towns – sister cities
Třešť is twinned with:
Obergünzburg, Germany
Třešť also has friendly relations with Raabs an der Thaya in Austria.
References
External links
Třešť in the Jewish Encyclopedia
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Jihlava District | [
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244588 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism | Heliocentrism | Heliocentrism is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Universe. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the third century BC by Aristarchus of Samos, who had been influenced by a concept presented by Philolaus of Croton (c. 470 – 385 BC). In the 5th century BC the Greek Philosophers Philolaus and Hicetas had the thought on different occasions that our earth was spherical and revolving around a "mystical" central fire, and that this fire regulated the universe. In medieval Europe, however, Aristarchus' heliocentrism attracted little attention—possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the Hellenistic period.
The Indian mathematician Aryabhata, in the 5th century CE, correctly insisted that the earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the earth, contrary to the then-prevailing view, that the sky rotated. This is indicated in the first chapter of the Aryabhatiya, where he gives the number of rotations of the earth in a yuga, and made more explicit in his gola chapter.
It was not until the sixteenth century that a mathematical model of a heliocentric system was presented by the Renaissance mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric, Nicolaus Copernicus, leading to the Copernican Revolution. In the following century, Johannes Kepler introduced elliptical orbits, and Galileo Galilei presented supporting observations made using a telescope.
With the observations of William Herschel, Friedrich Bessel, and other astronomers, it was realized that the Sun, while near the barycenter of the Solar System, was not at any center of the Universe.
Ancient and medieval astronomy
While the sphericity of the Earth was widely recognized in Greco-Roman astronomy from at least the 4th century BC, the Earth's daily rotation and yearly orbit around the Sun was never universally accepted until the Copernican Revolution.
While a moving Earth was proposed at least from the 4th century BC in Pythagoreanism, and a fully developed heliocentric model was developed by Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, these ideas were not successful in replacing the view of a static spherical Earth, and from the 2nd century AD the predominant model, which would be inherited by medieval astronomy, was the geocentric model described in Ptolemy's Almagest.
The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy.
Ptolemy himself, in his Almagest, points out that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used.
However, he rejected the idea of a spinning Earth as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. His planetary hypotheses were sufficiently real that the distances of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits' celestial spheres as contiguous realities. This made the stars' distance less than 20 Astronomical Units, a regression, since Aristarchus of Samos's heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier necessarily placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.
Problems with Ptolemy's system were well recognized in medieval astronomy, and an increasing effort to criticize and improve it in the late medieval period eventually led to the Copernican heliocentrism developed in Renaissance astronomy.
Classical antiquity
Pythagoreans
The non-geocentric model of the Universe was proposed by the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus (d. 390 BC), who taught that at the center of the Universe was a "central fire", around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets revolved in uniform circular motion. This system postulated the existence of a counter-earth collinear with the Earth and central fire, with the same period of revolution around the central fire as the Earth. The Sun revolved around the central fire once a year, and the stars were stationary. The Earth maintained the same hidden face towards the central fire, rendering both it and the "counter-earth" invisible from Earth. The Pythagorean concept of uniform circular motion remained unchallenged for approximately the next 2000 years, and it was to the Pythagoreans that Copernicus referred to show that the notion of a moving Earth was neither new nor revolutionary. Kepler gave an alternative explanation of the Pythagoreans' "central fire" as the Sun, "as most sects purposely hid[e] their teachings".
Heraclides of Pontus (4th century BC) said that the rotation of the Earth explained the apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere. It used to be thought that he believed Mercury and Venus to revolve around the Sun, which in turn (along with the other planets) revolves around the Earth. Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (AD 395–423) later described this as the "Egyptian System," stating that "it did not escape the skill of the Egyptians," though there is no other evidence it was known in ancient Egypt.
Aristarchus of Samos
The first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system was Aristarchus of Samos . Like his contemporary Eratosthenes, Aristarchus calculated the size of the Earth and measured the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon. From his estimates, he concluded that the Sun was six to seven times wider than the Earth, and thought that the larger object would have the most attractive force.
His writings on the heliocentric system are lost, but some information about them is known from a brief description by his contemporary, Archimedes, and from scattered references by later writers. Archimedes' description of Aristarchus' theory is given in the former's book, The Sand Reckoner. The entire description comprises just three sentences, which Thomas Heath translates as follows:
Aristarchus presumably took the stars to be very far away because he was aware that their parallax would otherwise be observed over the course of a year. The stars are in fact so far away that stellar parallax only became detectable when sufficiently powerful telescopes had been developed.
No references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are known in any other writings from before the common era. The earliest of the handful of other ancient references occur in two passages from the writings of Plutarch. These mention one detail not stated explicitly in Archimedes' account—namely, that Aristarchus' theory had the Earth rotating on an axis. The first of these reference occurs in On the Face in the Orb of the Moon:
Only scattered fragments of Cleanthes' writings have survived in quotations by other writers, but in Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laërtius lists A reply to Aristarchus (Πρὸς Ἀρίσταρχον) as one of Cleanthes' works, and some scholars have suggested that this might have been where Cleanthes had accused Aristarchus of impiety.
The second of the references by Plutarch is in his Platonic Questions:
The remaining references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are extremely brief, and provide no more information beyond what can be gleaned from those already cited. Ones which mention Aristarchus explicitly by name occur in Aëtius' Opinions of the Philosophers, Sextus Empiricus' Against the Mathematicians, and an anonymous scholiast to Aristotle. Another passage in Aëtius' Opinions of the Philosophers reports that Seleucus the astronomer had affirmed the Earth's motion, but does not mention Aristarchus.
Seleucus of Seleucia
Since Plutarch mentions the "followers of Aristarchus" in passing, it is likely that there were other astronomers in the Classical period who also espoused heliocentrism, but whose work was lost. The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who is known to have supported Aristarchus' heliocentric model was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), a Hellenistic astronomer who flourished a century after Aristarchus in the Seleucid empire. Seleucus was a proponent of the heliocentric system of Aristarchus. Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used early trigonometric methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus. A fragment of a work by Seleucus has survived in Arabic translation, which was referred to by Rhazes (b. 865).
Alternatively, his explanation may have involved the phenomenon of tides, which he supposedly theorized to be caused by the attraction to the Moon and by the revolution of the Earth around the Earth and Moon's center of mass.
Late Antiquity
There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. In Roman Carthage, the pagan Martianus Capella (5th century A.D.) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the Early Middle Ages by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.
Ancient India
The Ptolemaic system was also received in Indian astronomy. Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), propounded a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. His immediate commentators, such as Lalla, and other later authors, rejected his innovative view about the turning Earth. He also made many astronomical calculations, such as the times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata's model included Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.
The Aitareya Brahmana (dated to 500 BCE or older) states that "The sun does never set nor rise. When people think the sun is setting (it is not so)."
Medieval Islamic world
For a time, Muslim astronomers accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model, which were used by to show that the distance between the Sun and the Earth varies. In the 10th century, accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis. According to later astronomer al-Biruni, al-Sijzi invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries that the apparent motion of the stars was due to the Earth's movement, and not that of the firmament. Islamic astronomers began to criticize the Ptolemaic model, including Ibn al-Haytham in his 'alā Baṭalamiyūs ("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy", c. 1028), who branded it an impossibility.
Al-Biruni discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and orbited the Sun, but in his Masudic Canon (1031), he expressed his faith in a geocentric and stationary Earth. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, it would be consistent with his astronomical observations, but considered it a problem of natural philosophy rather than one of mathematics.
In the 12th century, non-heliocentric alternatives to the Ptolemaic system were developed by some Islamic astronomers, such as Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji, who considered the Ptolemaic model mathematical, and not physical. His system spread throughout most of Europe in the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued to the 16th century.
The Maragha school of astronomy in Ilkhanid-era Persia further developed "non-Ptolemaic" planetary models involving Earth's rotation. Notable astronomers of this school are Al-Urdi (d. 1266) Al-Katibi (d. 1277), and Al-Tusi (d. 1274).
The arguments and evidence used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion.
The criticism of Ptolemy as developed by Averroes and by the Maragha school explicitly address the Earth's rotation but it did not arrive at explicit heliocentrism.
The observations of the Maragha school were further improved at the Timurid-era Samarkand observatory under Qushji (1403–1474).
Later medieval period
European scholarship in the later medieval period actively received astronomical models developed in the Islamic world and by the 13th century was well aware of the problems of the Ptolemaic model. In the 14th century, bishop Nicole Oresme discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in his Learned Ignorance asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world (machina mundi) will quasi have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere," recalling Hermes Trismegistus.
Medieval India
In India, Nilakantha Somayaji (1444–1544), in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed a computational system for a geo-heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the system later proposed by Tycho Brahe. In the Tantrasamgraha (1501), Somayaji further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and Copernican models, but did not propose any specific models of the universe. Nilakantha's planetary system also incorporated the Earth's rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics seem to have accepted his planetary model.
Renaissance-era astronomy
European astronomy before Copernicus
Some historians maintain that the thought of the Maragheh observatory, in particular the mathematical devices known as the Urdi lemma and the Tusi couple, influenced Renaissance-era European astronomy, and thus was indirectly received by Renaissance-era European astronomy and thus by Copernicus.
Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources.
Furthermore, the exact replacement of the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the Commentariolus was found in an earlier work by Ibn al-Shatir (d. c. 1375) of Damascus. Copernicus' lunar and Mercury models are also identical to Ibn al-Shatir's.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) wrote "Il sole non si move." ("The Sun does not move.")
The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricae Novae Planetarum (printed in 1472 by Regiomontanus). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus.
While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by Averroes on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the
Maragha school, postulated by Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957, remains an open question. Since the Tusi couple was used by Copernicus in his reformulation of mathematical astronomy, there is a growing consensus that he became aware of this idea in some way. It has been suggested that the idea of the Tusi couple may have arrived in Europe leaving few manuscript traces, since it could have occurred without the translation of any Arabic text into Latin. One possible route of transmission may have been through Byzantine science, which translated some of al-Tusi's works from Arabic into Byzantine Greek. Several Byzantine Greek manuscripts containing the Tusi couple are still extant in Italy. Other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the "Islamic Golden Age" (10th to 12th centuries) in De Revolutionibus: Albategnius (Al-Battani), Averroes (Ibn Rushd), Thebit (Thabit Ibn Qurra), Arzachel (Al-Zarqali), and Alpetragius (Al-Bitruji), but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school.
It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from Proclus's Commentary on the First Book of Euclid, which Copernicus cited.
Another possible source for Copernicus's knowledge of this mathematical device is the Questiones de Spera of Nicole Oresme, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi.
Copernican heliocentrism
Nicolaus Copernicus in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ("On the revolution of heavenly spheres", first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg), presented a discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy in the 2nd century had presented his geocentric model in his Almagest.
Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. In reality, Copernicus's system did not predict the planets' positions any better than the Ptolemaic system. This theory resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than real: it was a parallax effect, as an object that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric Tychonic system; the latter, however, while eliminating the major epicycles, retained as a physical reality the irregular back-and-forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a "pretzel".
Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of De Revolutionibus (which still survives), stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by Cicero he had found an account of the theories of Hicetas and that Plutarch had provided him with an account of the Pythagoreans, Heraclides Ponticus, Philolaus, and Ecphantus. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun.
Reception in Early Modern Europe
Circulation of Commentariolus (published before 1515)
The first information about the heliocentric views of Nicolaus Copernicus was circulated in manuscript completed some time before May 1, 1514. In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals.
In 1539, Martin Luther said:
This was reported in the context of a conversation at the dinner table and not a formal statement of faith. Melanchthon, however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years.
Publication of De Revolutionibus (1543)
Nicolaus Copernicus published the definitive statement of his system in De Revolutionibus in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, the published form contained an unsigned preface by Osiander defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be heretical during the next 60 years. There was an early suggestion among Dominicans that the teaching of heliocentrism should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time.
Some years after the publication of De Revolutionibus John Calvin preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the order of nature" by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns".
Tycho Brahe's geo-heliocentric system (c. 1587)
Prior to the publication of De Revolutionibus, the most widely accepted system had been proposed by Ptolemy, in which the Earth was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it. Tycho Brahe, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, advocated against Copernicus's heliocentric system and for an alternative to the Ptolemaic geocentric system: a geo-heliocentric system now known as the Tychonic system in which the Sun and Moon orbit the Earth, Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun inside the Sun's orbit of the Earth, and Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun outside the Sun's orbit of the Earth.
Tycho appreciated the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The Aristotelian physics of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, whereas it could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort substance called aether that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system "... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that." Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Aristarchus and Copernicus had assumed in order to explain the lack of any visible parallax. Tycho had measured the apparent sizes of stars (now known to be illusory), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (much larger than the sun; the size of Earth's orbit or larger). Regarding this Tycho wrote, "Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption [of the motion of the earth] by inference." He also cited the Copernican system's "opposition to the authority of Sacred Scripture in more than one place" as a reason why one might wish to reject it, and observed that his own geo-heliocentric alternative "offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture".
The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho's system; the most prominent, Clavius, commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have Mars lower than the Sun." However, after the advent of the telescope showed problems with some geocentric models (by demonstrating that Venus circles the Sun, for example), the Tychonic system and variations on that system became popular among geocentrists, and the Jesuit astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli would continue Tycho's use of physics, stellar astronomy (now with a telescope), and religion to argue against heliocentrism and for Tycho's system well into the seventeenth century.
Giordano Bruno (d. 1600) is the only known person to defend Copernicus's heliocentrism in his time. Using measurements made at Tycho's observatory, Johannes Kepler developed his laws of planetary motion between 1609 and 1619. In Astronomia nova (1609), Kepler made a diagram of the movement of Mars in relation to Earth if Earth were at the center of its orbit, which shows that Mars' orbit would be completely imperfect and never follow along the same path. To solve the apparent derivation of Mars' orbit from a perfect circle, Kepler derived both a mathematical definition and, independently, a matching ellipse around the Sun to explain the motion of the red planet.
Between 1617 and 1621, Kepler developed a heliocentric model of the Solar System in Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae, in which all the planets have elliptical orbits. This provided significantly increased accuracy in predicting the position of the planets. Kepler's ideas were not immediately accepted, and Galileo for example ignored them. In 1621, Epitome astronomia Copernicanae was placed on the Catholic Church's index of prohibited books despite Kepler being a Protestant.
Galileo Galilei and 1616 ban against Copernicanism
Galileo was able to look at the night sky with the newly invented telescope. He published his discoveries that Jupiter is orbited by moons and that the Sun rotates in his Sidereus Nuncius (1610) and Letters on Sunspots (1613), respectively. Around this time, he also announced that Venus exhibits a full range of phases (satisfying an argument that had been made against Copernicus). As the Jesuit astronomers confirmed Galileo's observations, the Jesuits moved away from the Ptolemaic model and toward Tycho's teachings.
In his 1615 "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina", Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to Holy Scripture. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally when the scripture in question is in a Bible book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the Sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the Earth's rotation which gives the impression of the Sun in motion across the sky.
In February 1615, prominent Dominicans including Thomaso Caccini and Niccolò Lorini brought Galileo's writings on heliocentrism to the attention of the Inquisition, because they appeared to violate Holy Scripture and the decrees of the Council of Trent. Cardinal and Inquisitor Robert Bellarmine was called upon to adjudicate, and wrote in April that treating heliocentrism as a real phenomenon would be "a very dangerous thing," irritating philosophers and theologians, and harming "the Holy Faith by rendering Holy Scripture as false."
In January 1616, Msgr. Francesco Ingoli addressed an essay to Galileo disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the ban against Copernicanism that followed in February. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli had probably been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provided the "chief direct basis" for the ban. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from the arguments of Tycho Brahe, and it notedly mentioned the problem that heliocentrism requires the stars to be much larger than the Sun. Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself." Ingoli included four theological arguments in the essay, but suggested to Galileo that he focus on the physical and mathematical arguments. Galileo did not write a response to Ingoli until 1624.
In February 1616, the Inquisition assembled a committee of theologians, known as qualifiers, who delivered their unanimous report condemning heliocentrism as "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." The Inquisition also determined that the Earth's motion "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith." Bellarmine personally ordered Galileo
In March 1616, after the Inquisition's injunction against Galileo, the papal Master of the Sacred Palace, Congregation of the Index, and the Pope banned all books and letters advocating the Copernican system, which they called "the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to Holy Scripture." In 1618, the Holy Office recommended that a modified version of Copernicus' De Revolutionibus be allowed for use in calendric calculations, though the original publication remained forbidden until 1758.
Pope Urban VIII encouraged Galileo to publish the pros and cons of heliocentrism. Galileo's response, Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems (1632), clearly advocated heliocentrism, despite his declaration in the preface that,
I will endeavour to show that all experiments that can be made upon the Earth are insufficient means to conclude for its mobility but are indifferently applicable to the Earth, movable or immovable...
and his straightforward statement,
I might very rationally put it in dispute, whether there be any such centre in nature, or no; being that neither you nor any one else hath ever proved, whether the World be finite and figurate, or else infinite and interminate; yet nevertheless granting you, for the present, that it is finite, and of a terminate Spherical Figure, and that thereupon it hath its centre...
Some ecclesiastics also interpreted the book as characterizing the Pope as a simpleton, since his viewpoint in the dialogue was advocated by the character Simplicio. Urban VIII became hostile to Galileo and he was again summoned to Rome. Galileo's trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching" and "holding and defending as true". For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was forced to recant Copernicanism and was put under house arrest for the last few years of his life. According to J. L. Heilbron, informed contemporaries of Galileo's "appreciated that the reference to heresy in connection with Galileo or Copernicus had no general or theological significance."
In 1664, Pope Alexander VII published his Index Librorum Prohibitorum Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus (Index of Prohibited Books, published by order of Alexander VII, P.M.) which included all previous condemnations of heliocentric books.
Age of Reason
René Descartes' first cosmological treatise, written between 1629 and 1633 and titled The World, included a heliocentric model, but Descartes abandoned it in the light of Galileo's treatment. In his Principles of Philosophy (1644), Descartes introduced a mechanical model in which planets do not move relative to their immediate atmosphere, but are constituted around space-matter vortices in curved space; these rotate due to centrifugal force and the resulting centripetal pressure. The Galileo affair did little overall to slow the spread of heliocentrism across Europe, as Kepler's Epitome of Copernican Astronomy became increasingly influential in the coming decades. By 1686, the model was well enough established that the general public was reading about it in Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, published in France by Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and translated into English and other languages in the coming years. It has been called "one of the first great popularizations of science."
In 1687, Isaac Newton published Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which provided an explanation for Kepler's laws in terms of universal gravitation and what came to be known as Newton's laws of motion. This placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation, although Newton's heliocentrism was of a somewhat modern kind. Already in the mid-1680s he recognized the "deviation of the Sun" from the center of gravity of the Solar System. For Newton it was not precisely the center of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this center of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line". Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the center, wherever it was, was at rest.
Meanwhile, the Catholic Church remained opposed to heliocentrism as a literal description, but this did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar observatories called meridiane; i.e., they were turned into "reverse sundials", or gigantic pinhole cameras, where the Sun's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral's lantern onto a meridian line.
In the mid-eighteenth century the Catholic Church's opposition began to fade. An annotated copy of Newton's Principia was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two Catholic mathematicians, with a preface stating that the author's work assumed heliocentrism and could not be explained without the theory. In 1758 the Catholic Church dropped the general prohibition of books advocating heliocentrism from the Index of Forbidden Books. The Observatory of the Roman College was established by Pope Clement XIV in 1774 (nationalized in 1878, but re-founded by Pope Leo XIII as the Vatican Observatory in 1891). In spite of dropping its active resistance to heliocentrism, the Catholic Church did not lift the prohibition of uncensored versions of Copernicus's De Revolutionibus or Galileo's Dialogue. The affair was revived in 1820, when the Master of the Sacred Palace (the Catholic Church's chief censor), Filippo Anfossi, refused to license a book by a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, because it openly treated heliocentrism as a physical fact. Settele appealed to pope Pius VII. After the matter had been reconsidered by the Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office, Anfossi's decision was overturned. Pius VII approved a decree in 1822 by the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition to allow the printing of heliocentric books in Rome. Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue were then subsequently omitted from the next edition of the Index when it appeared in 1835.
Three apparent proofs of the heliocentric hypothesis were provided in 1727 by James Bradley, in 1838 by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, and in 1851 by Léon Foucault. Bradley discovered the stellar aberration, proving the relative motion of the Earth. Bessel proved that the parallax of a star was greater than zero by measuring the parallax of 0.314 arcseconds of a star named 61 Cygni. In the same year Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve and Thomas Henderson measured the parallaxes of other stars, Vega and Alpha Centauri. Experiments like those of Foucault were performed by V. Viviani in 1661 in Florence and by Bartolini in 1833 in Rimini.
Reception in Judaism
Already in the Talmud, Greek philosophy and science under general name "Greek wisdom" were considered dangerous. They were put under ban then and later for some periods.
The first Jewish scholar to describe the Copernican system, albeit without mentioning Copernicus by name, was Maharal of Prague, his book "Be'er ha-Golah" (1593). Maharal makes an argument of radical skepticism, arguing that no scientific theory can be reliable, which he illustrates by the new-fangled theory of heliocentrism upsetting even the most fundamental views on the cosmos.
Copernicus is mentioned in the books of David Gans (1541–1613), who worked with Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Gans wrote two books on astronomy in Hebrew: a short one "Magen David" (1612) and a full one "Nehmad veNaim" (published only in 1743). He described objectively three systems: Ptolemy, Copernicus and of Tycho Brahe without taking sides.
Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (1591–1655) in his "Elim" (1629) says that the arguments of Copernicus are so strong, that only an imbecile will not accept them. Delmedigo studied at Padua and was acquainted with Galileo.
An actual controversy on the Copernican model within Judaism arises only in the early 18th century. Most authors in this period accept Copernican heliocentrism, with opposition from David Nieto and Tobias Cohn. Both of these authors argued against heliocentrism on grounds of contradictions to scripture. Nieto merely rejected the new system on those grounds without much passion, whereas Cohn went so far as to call Copernicus "a first-born of Satan", though he also acknowledged that he would have found it difficult to counter one particular objection based on a passage from the Talmud.
In the 19th century two students of the Hatam sofer wrote books that were given approbations by him even though one supported heliocentrism and the other geocentrism. The one, a commentary on Genesis Yafe’ah le-Ketz written by R. Israel David Schlesinger resisted a heliocentric model and supported geocentrism. The other, Mei Menuchot written by R. Eliezer Lipmann Neusatz encouraged acceptance of the heliocentric model and other modern scientific thinking.
Since the 20th century most Jews have not questioned the science of heliocentrism. Exceptions include Shlomo Benizri and R. M.M. Schneerson of Chabad who argued that the question of heliocentrism vs. geocentrism is obsolete because of the relativity of motion. Schneerson's followers in Chabad continue to deny the heliocentric model.
Modern science
Over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the status of the Sun as merely one star among many became increasingly obvious. By the 20th century, even before the discovery that there are many galaxies, it was no longer an issue.
The concept of an absolute velocity, including being "at rest" as a particular case, is ruled out by the principle of relativity, also eliminating any obvious "center" of the universe as a natural origin of coordinates. Even if the discussion is limited to the Solar System, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather approximately at one focus of the elliptical orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the Solar System is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly Jupiter, amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.) Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an extrasolar planet would observe a small "wobble" in the Sun's motion.
Modern use of geocentric and heliocentric
In modern calculations, the terms "geocentric" and "heliocentric" are often used to refer to reference frames. In such systems the origin in the center of mass of the Earth, of the Earth–Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire Solar System, can be selected. Right ascension and declination are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth-based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations. This leads to such terms as "heliocentric velocity" and "heliocentric angular momentum". In this heliocentric picture, any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of mechanical energy because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller body (either artificial or natural) may gain heliocentric velocity due to gravity assist – this effect can change the body's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric" or "heliocentric" frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or scientific model. From the point of view of general relativity, inertial reference frames do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space-time, which can have higher or lower precision. Some forms of Mach's principle consider the frame at rest with respect to the distant masses in the universe to have special properties.
See also
Copernican principle
Copernican Revolution (metaphor)
References
Footnotes
Citations
Works cited
Baker, A. and Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", Philosophia Islamica.
A searchable online copy is available on the Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence, and a brief overview of Le Opere is available at Finn's fine books, and here.
Available from the .
Koyré, Alexandre (1957). From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Pr.
. Original edition by Desclee (New York, NY, 1966)
External links
The Heliocentric Pantheon: An Interview with Walter Murch
Ancient Greek astronomy
Early scientific cosmologies
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244592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac%20%28novel%29 | Zodiac (novel) | Zodiac: An Eco-Thriller (1988) is a novel by American writer Neal Stephenson. His second novel, it tells the story of an environmentalist, Sangamon Taylor, uncovering a conspiracy involving industrialist polluters in Boston Harbor. The "Zodiac" of the title refers to the brand of inflatable motor boats the hero uses to get around the city efficiently. His opponents attempt to frame him as an ecoterrorist.
The protagonist is inspired by environmental chemist Marco Kaltofen. Taylor is a recreational user of nitrous oxide, justifying his choice of drug by the eponymous Sangamon's principle: "the simpler the molecule, the better the drug".
Plot
In the novel, Taylor is a chemist working for GEE, a fictional environmental activism group which stages both protests and direct actions plugging toxic waste pipes. Taylor becomes involved with Basco Industries, a fictional corporation which produced Agent Orange and is a major supplier of organic chlorine compounds. Basco experiments with genetic engineering to develop chemical producing microbes, driving Taylor's efforts to expose their crimes and preserve Boston Harbor.
A number of the later events of the novel take place on Boston Harbor's Spectacle Island which at the time of publication was almost entirely composed of garbage. In the story it is frequented by drugged-out and reputedly Satanic groupies of the "two-umlaut" heavy metal music band, Pöyzen Böyzen, who are too intoxicated with angel dust to realize they are poisoning themselves with the toxic waste that was dumped there.
Taylor's projects involve sampling the concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls in Boston Harbor with the help of the Gallaghers, a fishing family who record the location of the lobsters they catch. While gathering evidence which GEE will use to expose Basco's crimes, Taylor is flummoxed by the fact that the toxins have suddenly disappeared. He eventually discovers that Basco has acquired a bioengineering firm, where his high school nemesis is employed as a genetic engineer, to create a bacterium that is able to digest toxins, cleaning up the harbor instantly. However, Basco had been forced to release the bacteria into the wild without full testing because of their imminent exposure by GEE. Depending on the equilibrium state of the harbor, the new bacteria are also able to create toxins.
To stop Taylor meddling with their plans, Basco discredits him by planting a bomb in his house and framing him as a terrorist trying to assassinate their president. He escapes with the help of a Native American tribe and eventually returns in secret to steal one of their ships containing a large amount of toxins which they are planning to release into the ocean.
Release details
1988, US, Atlantic Monthly Press (), Pub date ? May 1988, paperback (First edition)
1988, UK, Bloomsbury (), Pub date ? October 1988, paperback
1995, US, Spectra Books (), Pub date ? June 1995, paperback
1997, US, Signet Books (), Pub date 29 May 1997, paperback
1997, UK, Penguin Books (), Pub date 7 August 1997, paperback
2001, UK, Arrow Books (), Pub date 24 May 2001, paperback
2002, France, Denoël (), Pub date 4 September 2002, paperback
References
External links
1988 American novels
Eco-terrorism in fiction
Novels by Neal Stephenson
Novels set in Boston
Environmental fiction books
1988 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Atlantic Monthly Press books | [
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244593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock%20%28computer%20science%29 | Lock (computer science) | In computer science, a lock or mutex (from mutual exclusion) is a synchronization primitive: a mechanism that enforces limits on access to a resource when there are many threads of execution. A lock is designed to enforce a mutual exclusion concurrency control policy, and with a variety of possible methods there exists multiple unique implementations for different applications.
Types
Generally, locks are advisory locks, where each thread cooperates by acquiring the lock before accessing the corresponding data. Some systems also implement mandatory locks, where attempting unauthorized access to a locked resource will force an exception in the entity attempting to make the access.
The simplest type of lock is a binary semaphore. It provides exclusive access to the locked data. Other schemes also provide shared access for reading data. Other widely implemented access modes are exclusive, intend-to-exclude and intend-to-upgrade.
Another way to classify locks is by what happens when the lock strategy prevents the progress of a thread. Most locking designs block the execution of the thread requesting the lock until it is allowed to access the locked resource. With a spinlock, the thread simply waits ("spins") until the lock becomes available. This is efficient if threads are blocked for a short time, because it avoids the overhead of operating system process re-scheduling. It is inefficient if the lock is held for a long time, or if the progress of the thread that is holding the lock depends on preemption of the locked thread.
Locks typically require hardware support for efficient implementation. This support usually takes the form of one or more atomic instructions such as "test-and-set", "fetch-and-add" or "compare-and-swap". These instructions allow a single process to test if the lock is free, and if free, acquire the lock in a single atomic operation.
Uniprocessor architectures have the option of using uninterruptible sequences of instructions—using special instructions or instruction prefixes to disable interrupts temporarily—but this technique does not work for multiprocessor shared-memory machines. Proper support for locks in a multiprocessor environment can require quite complex hardware or software support, with substantial synchronization issues.
The reason an atomic operation is required is because of concurrency, where more than one task executes the same logic. For example, consider the following C code:
if (lock == 0) {
// lock free, set it
lock = myPID;
}
The above example does not guarantee that the task has the lock, since more than one task can be testing the lock at the same time. Since both tasks will detect that the lock is free, both tasks will attempt to set the lock, not knowing that the other task is also setting the lock. Dekker's or Peterson's algorithm are possible substitutes if atomic locking operations are not available.
Careless use of locks can result in deadlock or livelock. A number of strategies can be used to avoid or recover from deadlocks or livelocks, both at design-time and at run-time. (The most common strategy is to standardize the lock acquisition sequences so that combinations of inter-dependent locks are always acquired in a specifically defined "cascade" order.)
Some languages do support locks syntactically. An example in C# follows:
public class Account // This is a monitor of an account
{
private decimal _balance = 0;
private object _balanceLock = new object();
public void Deposit(decimal amount)
{
// Only one thread at a time may execute this statement.
lock (_balanceLock)
{
_balance += amount;
}
}
public void Withdraw(decimal amount)
{
// Only one thread at a time may execute this statement.
lock (_balanceLock)
{
_balance -= amount;
}
}
}
The code lock(this) can lead to problems if the instance can be accessed publicly.
Similar to Java, C# can also synchronize entire methods, by using the MethodImplOptionsSynchronized attribute.
[MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.Synchronized)]
public void SomeMethod()
{
// do stuff
}
Granularity
Before being introduced to lock granularity, one needs to understand three concepts about locks:
lock overhead: the extra resources for using locks, like the memory space allocated for locks, the CPU time to initialize and destroy locks, and the time for acquiring or releasing locks. The more locks a program uses, the more overhead associated with the usage;
lock contention: this occurs whenever one process or thread attempts to acquire a lock held by another process or thread. The more fine-grained the available locks, the less likely one process/thread will request a lock held by the other. (For example, locking a row rather than the entire table, or locking a cell rather than the entire row);
deadlock: the situation when each of at least two tasks is waiting for a lock that the other task holds. Unless something is done, the two tasks will wait forever.
There is a tradeoff between decreasing lock overhead and decreasing lock contention when choosing the number of locks in synchronization.
An important property of a lock is its granularity. The granularity is a measure of the amount of data the lock is protecting. In general, choosing a coarse granularity (a small number of locks, each protecting a large segment of data) results in less lock overhead when a single process is accessing the protected data, but worse performance when multiple processes are running concurrently. This is because of increased lock contention. The more coarse the lock, the higher the likelihood that the lock will stop an unrelated process from proceeding. Conversely, using a fine granularity (a larger number of locks, each protecting a fairly small amount of data) increases the overhead of the locks themselves but reduces lock contention. Granular locking where each process must hold multiple locks from a common set of locks can create subtle lock dependencies. This subtlety can increase the chance that a programmer will unknowingly introduce a deadlock.
In a database management system, for example, a lock could protect, in order of decreasing granularity, part of a field, a field, a record, a data page, or an entire table. Coarse granularity, such as using table locks, tends to give the best performance for a single user, whereas fine granularity, such as record locks, tends to give the best performance for multiple users.
Database locks
Database locks can be used as a means of ensuring transaction synchronicity. i.e. when making transaction processing concurrent (interleaving transactions), using 2-phased locks ensures that the concurrent execution of the transaction turns out equivalent to some serial ordering of the transaction. However, deadlocks become an unfortunate side-effect of locking in databases. Deadlocks are either prevented by pre-determining the locking order between transactions or are detected using waits-for graphs. An alternate to locking for database synchronicity while avoiding deadlocks involves the use of totally ordered global timestamps.
There are mechanisms employed to manage the actions of multiple concurrent users on a database—the purpose is to prevent lost updates and dirty reads. The two types of locking are pessimistic locking and optimistic locking:
Pessimistic locking: a user who reads a record with the intention of updating it places an exclusive lock on the record to prevent other users from manipulating it. This means no one else can manipulate that record until the user releases the lock. The downside is that users can be locked out for a very long time, thereby slowing the overall system response and causing frustration.
Where to use pessimistic locking: this is mainly used in environments where data-contention (the degree of users request to the database system at any one time) is heavy; where the cost of protecting data through locks is less than the cost of rolling back transactions, if concurrency conflicts occur. Pessimistic concurrency is best implemented when lock times will be short, as in programmatic processing of records. Pessimistic concurrency requires a persistent connection to the database and is not a scalable option when users are interacting with data, because records might be locked for relatively large periods of time. It is not appropriate for use in Web application development.
Optimistic locking: this allows multiple concurrent users access to the database whilst the system keeps a copy of the initial-read made by each user. When a user wants to update a record, the application determines whether another user has changed the record since it was last read. The application does this by comparing the initial-read held in memory to the database record to verify any changes made to the record. Any discrepancies between the initial-read and the database record violates concurrency rules and hence causes the system to disregard any update request. An error message is generated and the user is asked to start the update process again. It improves database performance by reducing the amount of locking required, thereby reducing the load on the database server. It works efficiently with tables that require limited updates since no users are locked out. However, some updates may fail. The downside is constant update failures due to high volumes of update requests from multiple concurrent users - it can be frustrating for users.
Where to use optimistic locking: this is appropriate in environments where there is low contention for data, or where read-only access to data is required. Optimistic concurrency is used extensively in .NET to address the needs of mobile and disconnected applications, where locking data rows for prolonged periods of time would be infeasible. Also, maintaining record locks requires a persistent connection to the database server, which is not possible in disconnected applications.
Disadvantages
Lock-based resource protection and thread/process synchronization have many disadvantages:
Contention: some threads/processes have to wait until a lock (or a whole set of locks) is released. If one of the threads holding a lock dies, stalls, blocks, or enters an infinite loop, other threads waiting for the lock may wait forever.
Overhead: the use of locks adds overhead for each access to a resource, even when the chances for collision are very rare. (However, any chance for such collisions is a race condition.)
Debugging: bugs associated with locks are time dependent and can be very subtle and extremely hard to replicate, such as deadlocks.
Instability: the optimal balance between lock overhead and lock contention can be unique to the problem domain (application) and sensitive to design, implementation, and even low-level system architectural changes. These balances may change over the life cycle of an application and may entail tremendous changes to update (re-balance).
Composability: locks are only composable (e.g., managing multiple concurrent locks in order to atomically delete item X from table A and insert X into table B) with relatively elaborate (overhead) software support and perfect adherence by applications programming to rigorous conventions.
Priority inversion: a low-priority thread/process holding a common lock can prevent high-priority threads/processes from proceeding. Priority inheritance can be used to reduce priority-inversion duration. The priority ceiling protocol can be used on uniprocessor systems to minimize the worst-case priority-inversion duration, as well as prevent deadlock.
Convoying: all other threads have to wait if a thread holding a lock is descheduled due to a time-slice interrupt or page fault.
Some concurrency control strategies avoid some or all of these problems. For example, a funnel or serializing tokens can avoid the biggest problem: deadlocks. Alternatives to locking include non-blocking synchronization methods, like lock-free programming techniques and transactional memory. However, such alternative methods often require that the actual lock mechanisms be implemented at a more fundamental level of the operating software. Therefore, they may only relieve the application level from the details of implementing locks, with the problems listed above still needing to be dealt with beneath the application.
In most cases, proper locking depends on the CPU providing a method of atomic instruction stream synchronization (for example, the addition or deletion of an item into a pipeline requires that all contemporaneous operations needing to add or delete other items in the pipe be suspended during the manipulation of the memory content required to add or delete the specific item). Therefore, an application can often be more robust when it recognizes the burdens it places upon an operating system and is capable of graciously recognizing the reporting of impossible demands.
Lack of composability
One of lock-based programming's biggest problems is that "locks don't compose": it is hard to combine small, correct lock-based modules into equally correct larger programs without modifying the modules or at least knowing about their internals. Simon Peyton Jones (an advocate of software transactional memory) gives the following example of a banking application:
design a class that allows multiple concurrent clients to deposit or withdraw money to an account; and give an algorithm to transfer money from one account to another. The lock-based solution to the first part of the problem is:
class Account:
member balance: Integer
member mutex: Lock
method deposit(n: Integer)
mutex.lock()
balance ← balance + n
mutex.unlock()
method withdraw(n: Integer)
deposit(−n)
The second part of the problem is much more complicated. A routine that is correct for sequential programs would be
function transfer(from: Account, to: Account, amount: integer)
from.withdraw(amount)
to.deposit(amount)
In a concurrent program, this algorithm is incorrect because when one thread is halfway through , another might observe a state where has been withdrawn from the first account, but not yet deposited into the other account: money has gone missing from the system. This problem can only be fixed completely by taking locks on both account prior to changing any of the two accounts, but then the locks have to be taken according to some arbitrary, global ordering to prevent deadlock:
function transfer(from: Account, to: Account, amount: integer)
if from < to // arbitrary ordering on the locks
from.lock()
to.lock()
else
to.lock()
from.lock()
from.withdraw(amount)
to.deposit(amount)
from.unlock()
to.unlock()
This solution gets more complicated when more locks are involved, and the function needs to know about all of the locks, so they cannot be hidden.
Language support
Programming languages vary in their support for synchronization:
Ada provides protected objects that have visible protected subprograms or entries as well as rendezvous.
The ISO/IEC C standard provides a standard mutual exclusion (locks) API since C11. The current ISO/IEC C++ standard supports threading facilities since C++11. The OpenMP standard is supported by some compilers, and allows critical sections to be specified using pragmas. The POSIX pthread API provides lock support. Visual C++ provides the synchronize attribute of methods to be synchronized, but this is specific to COM objects in the Windows architecture and Visual C++ compiler. C and C++ can easily access any native operating system locking features.
C# provides the lock keyword on a thread to ensure its exclusive access to a resource.
VB.NET provides a SyncLock keyword like C#'s lock keyword.
Java provides the keyword synchronized to lock code blocks, methods or objects and libraries featuring concurrency-safe data structures.
Objective-C provides the keyword @synchronized to put locks on blocks of code and also provides the classes NSLock, NSRecursiveLock, and NSConditionLock along with the NSLocking protocol for locking as well.
PHP provides a file-based locking as well as a Mutex class in the pthreads extension.
Python provides a low-level mutex mechanism with a Lock class from the threading module.
The ISO/IEC Fortran standard (ISO/IEC 1539-1:2010) provides the lock_type derived type in the intrinsic module iso_fortran_env and the lock/unlock statements since Fortran 2008.
Ruby provides a low-level mutex object and no keyword.
Rust provides the Mutex<T> struct.
x86 assembly provides the LOCK prefix on certain operations to guarantee their atomicity.
Haskell implements locking via a mutable data structure called an MVar, which can either be empty or contain a value, typically a reference to a resource. A thread that wants to use the resource ‘takes’ the value of the MVar, leaving it empty, and puts it back when it is finished. Attempting to take a resource from an empty MVar results in the thread blocking until the resource is available. As an alternative to locking, an implementation of software transactional memory also exists.
Go provides a low-level Mutex object in standard's library sync package. It can be use for locking code blocks, methods or objects.
See also
Critical section
Double-checked locking
File locking
Lock-free and wait-free algorithms
Monitor (synchronization)
Mutual exclusion
Read/write lock pattern
Semaphore (programming)
References
External links
Tutorial on Locks and Critical Sections
Concurrency control
Software design patterns
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244594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf%20of%20Ob | Gulf of Ob | The Gulf of Ob (also known as Ob Bay) (, Obskaya guba) is a bay of the Arctic Ocean, located in Northern Russia at the mouth of the Ob River. It is the world's longest estuary.
Geography
The mouth of the Gulf of Ob is in the Kara Sea between the Gyda and Yamal peninsulas. It is about long and varies in width from about . It generally runs north and south. The gulf is relatively shallow, with an average depth from , which restricts heavy sea transport. The Taz Estuary is an eastern side-branch formed by the Taz River.
There are several islands near the mouth of the Ob, at the beginning of the estuary, such as Khaley Island. All these islands are close to the shore and they are generally flat and low-lying. They are protected wetlands under Ramsar. Further north, except for a few islands located close to the shore, such as Khalevigo and Nyavigo, the Gulf of Ob is free of islands until it meets the Kara Sea.
Beluga whales seasonally migrate to the Gulf of Ob.
Hydrocarbons
Very large natural gas and petroleum deposits have been discovered in this region. To the west is the Yamal project to develop resources in the Yamal Peninsula. To the south-east the Yamburg gas field is the world's third largest natural gas field, located between the southern portion of the gulf and the Taz Estuary to the east. Oil and gas from the wells are sent south via pipeline and rail transport.
A new port has been developed at Sabetta, on the west bank of the gulf, to support the Yamal LNG plant. Commercial operation started in December 2017 with the loading of the first LNG carrier.
Gazprom's Arctic Gate offshore oil loading terminal is in the gulf, designed to operate where ice could be over two meters thick.
See also
Ob River
References
External links
Islands at the mouth of the Ob
Protected wetlands
A very thorough paper about this region
Ob
Bodies of water of Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
Ob River
Ramsar sites in Russia
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244596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Game%20%26%20Watch%20games | List of Game & Watch games | The list of Game & Watch games released by Nintendo, includes format and date of release. Several were collected and re-released as ports for the Game & Watch Gallery series for Game Boy, Game Boy Color, and Game Boy Advance. They were re-released in the Nintendo Mini Classics series in the late 1990s. Digital recreations in DSiWare were released for Nintendo DSi in 2009 (2010 internationally) and for Nintendo 3DS in 2011.
Series
Silver
Gold
Wide Screen
Vertical Multi Screen
Horizontal Multi Screen
New Wide Screen
Table Top
Panorama
Super Color
Micro Vs.
Crystal Screen
Color Screen
Untitled special models
Games
Ball
Ball (originally known as Toss-Up in North America) was released in the Silver series on April 28, 1980. It is the first Game & Watch game, and is a single-screen single-player game.
In Game A, the player tosses two balls in the air. As the balls fall, the player must catch and toss them up again. One point is earned for each successful catch. A dropped ball will display a broken ball and end the game. The object is to continuously catch the balls that fall and throw them back up, as in juggling. In Game B, the player must juggle three balls, and each successful catch rewards ten points instead of one.
It was re-released exclusively via Club Nintendo to celebrate the 30th anniversary of Game & Watch, with the Club Nintendo logo on the back. Unlike the original release, this version includes an option to mute the game by pressing the Time button during gameplay. For members of the Japanese Club Nintendo, after an announcement in November 2009, it was shipped in April 2010 to Platinum members. For members of the North American Club Nintendo, it was available for 1200 coins from February 2011. For members of the European Club Nintendo, it was available for 7500 stars from November 2011.
Ball was recreated in Game Boy Gallery and Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released for Nintendo DSi on July 15, 2009 in Japan, on April 19, 2010 in the United States and April 23, 2010 in Europe; and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe. It also appears as a minigame for the Game Boy Camera, where players can paste images of their own face over that of the juggler.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch's throws reference Ball.
Flagman
Flagman (originally known as Flag Man in North America) was released in the Silver series on June 5, 1980. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The object is to repeat the pattern of numbers on the flags held up by the on-screen character Mr. Game & Watch. A life is lost each time the player pushes the wrong button or hits the correct number too late. The game ends when three lives are lost. Game B requires the character to push the right number as quickly as possible, before time runs out.
Flagman was recreated in Game Boy Gallery and Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color. A version of Flagman becomes available in Wario Land II once the player has achieved 100% completion of the game. It is included in WarioWare: Touched! as a microgame called Flagman Game & Watch. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released for Nintendo DSi on July 15, 2009 in Japan, on April 19, 2010 in the United States and April 23, 2010 in Europe; and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him hit opponents with a flag, referencing Flagman.
Vermin
Vermin (originally known as The Exterminator in North America) was released in the Silver series on July 10, 1980 with 500,000 units sold. It is a single-screen single-player game.
In Vermin, moles pop out of the ground and try to get into the player's garden. The player has to hit the moles with a hammer to keep them out of the garden.
Vermin was recreated in Game Boy Gallery and Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color. In WarioWare, Inc.: Mega Microgame$!, there is a microgame called "Vermin" in which Wario has to whack a mole with a hammer. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released for Nintendo DSi on July 15, 2009 in Japan, on April 5, 2010 in the United States and April 9, 2010 in Europe; and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has several attacks which has him hit opponents on either side with two hammers, referencing Vermin.
Fire
Fire (originally known as Fireman Fireman in North America) was released in the Silver series on July 31, 1980, and in the Wide Screen series on December 4, 1981. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The player controls two firemen who carry a trampoline and must catch people who fall from a burning building and bounce them into a waiting ambulance. In the original Silver series, the player is awarded 1 point for each person who reaches the ambulances, while in the Widescreen, the player is awarded 1 point every time a person is bounced the trampoline, and loses one of their three lives for each person who hits the ground.
Fire was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy, Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance. It was also rereleased in the Mini Classics series.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has a move called "Fire", which has two firemen launch him upwards with a trampoline, referencing Fire. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, he then floats down with a parachute, referencing Parachute. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS, the stage Flat Zone 2 shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Fire. In Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, the stage Flat Zone X shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Fire.
Judge
Judge was released in the Silver series on October 4, 1980. It is a single-screen game for either 1 or 2 players.
Players control two figures who hold hammers in their hands and hold up numbers. The one with the higher number must attack, and the one with the lower number must flee. An attack may be performed before the number is held up, as a gamble.
Judge was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released on July 15, 2009 in Japan, on March 22, 2010 in the United States and on March 26, 2010 in Europe; and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has a move called "Judge", which has him hit opponents with a hammer that has an additional effect dependent on a random number from 1 to 9 that appears above his head, referencing Judge.
Manhole
Manhole was released in the Gold series on January 29, 1981, and in the New Wide Screen series on August 23, 1983. It is the first game in the Gold series. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The player must prevent pedestrians from falling into one of four sewers by temporarily bridging the open gaps with a manhole cover.
The New Wide Screen version of Manhole was recreated in Game Boy Gallery and Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance. This version of Manhole was one of the cards included with purchase of the Nintendo e-Reader. The New Wide Screen version of Manhole was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released on August 19, 2009 in Japan, on April 5, 2010 in the United States and April 9, 2010 in Europe; and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe.
In Warioware Gold, Manhole is one of the unlockable minigames.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him hit opponents with a manhole cover, referencing Manhole. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, the stage Flat Zone is based on a number of Game & Watch games, including Manhole. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS, the stage Flat Zone 2 shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Manhole. In Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, the stage Flat Zone X shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Manhole.
Helmet
Helmet, known as Headache in the United Kingdom, was released in the Gold series on February 21, 1981. It is a single-screen single-player game.
Tools fall from the sky, but there is a house on the right side of the screen. The player must guide the character towards the house, and dodge the tools until the door opens.
Helmet was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released for Nintendo DSi on July 29, 2009 in Japan, on April 5, 2010 in the United States and April 9, 2010 in Europe; and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him hit opponents with a helmet, referencing Helmet. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, the stage Flat Zone is based on a number of Game & Watch games, including Helmet. In Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, the stage Flat Zone X shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Helmet.
Lion
Lion was released in the Gold series on April 29, 1981. It is a single-screen single-player game with a maroon body and a gold faceplate.
The player is a lion tamer who must prevent the lion from escaping from its cage.
Lion was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him hit opponents with a chair, referencing Lion. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS, the stage Flat Zone 2 shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Lion. In Super Smash Bros. for Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, the stage Flat Zone X shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Lion.
Parachute
Parachute was released in the Wide Screen series on June 19, 1981. It is the first game in the Wide Screen series. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The player controls a character in a boat and has to prevent parachutists from landing in shark-infested waters. A life is lost every time the player fails to do this. In Game B, the parachutes can get stuck in trees.
Parachute was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy, Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color, Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance, and Game & Watch Collection 2 for the Nintendo DS (a Club Nintendo-exclusive).
In Super Smash Bros. Melee, Mr. Game & Watch's neutral air has him opens a parachute, referencing Parachute. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl onward, after performing "Fire" in the same way as in Super Smash Bros. Melee, he then floats down with a parachute, referencing Parachute.
In March 2010, Takara Tomy released officially licensed Game & Watch-styled keychains based on three different Wide Screen Game & Watch models, one of which was Parachute. It does not actually run the game, instead just displaying a demo screen. While the game cannot be played, the speed at which the demo runs can be adjusted. The batteries are recharged with solar panels on the unit.
Octopus
Octopus, known as Mysteries of the Sea and Mysteries of the Deep in the United Kingdom, was released in the Wide Screen series on July 16, 1981. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The object is to recover treasure from a sunken ship without getting caught by an octopus. The player must aim his diver under water by jumping off the side of a boat. Each time the octopus touches the player, one life is lost. A point is awarded for each portion of treasure retrieved from a sunken ship, and three additional points are awarded for evading the octopus a second time and returning to the boat. The game speeds as it progresses, and additional lives are granted at 200 and 500 points. In Game B, the octopus is quicker and there are more hazards.
Octopus was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy, Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance and Game & Watch Collection 2 for the Nintendo DS (a Club Nintendo-exclusive). It was also rereleased in the Mini Classics series.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch up smash has him hit opponents with a diving helmet, referencing Octopus. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate Mr. Game & Watch's Final Smash is "Octopus", which has him transform into the octopus and hit opponents with his tentacles, referencing Octopus while in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate he instead grabs the opponents and drags them offscreen. In Nintendo Land, the octopus and the diver appear in the Octopus Dance minigame.
In March 2010, Takara Tomy released officially licensed Game & Watch-styled keychains based on three different Wide Screen Game & Watch models, one of which was Octopus. It does not actually run the game, instead just displaying a demo screen. While the game cannot be played, the speed at which the demo runs can be adjusted. The batteries are recharged with solar panels on the unit.
Popeye
Popeye was released in the Wide Screen series on August 5, 1981, in the Table Top series on August 17, 1983, and in the Panorama series on August 30, 1983. It is a single-screen single-player game. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
The player controls Popeye, who has to catch objects thrown by Olive Oyl while at the same time avoiding Bluto's attacks. If Popeye is upright in the center of the boat, he's safe from Bluto's attacks, but he may miss objects thrown by Olive Oyl. The game speeds up as it progresses, and Olive Oyl will start throwing more than one objects at the same time.
The Panorama Screen and the Table Top versions are different from the Wide Screen version. In these versions, Popeye must fight to save Olive Oyl, who has been captured by Bluto. Each time Popeye defeats Bluto, a Spinach Can will appear near Olive Oyl. After three fights, She kicks the can to Popeye to help him defeat Bluto, and save her.
Chef
Chef was released in the Wide Screen series on September 4, 1981. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The player controls a chef who flips various pieces of food, including sausage and fish, into the air with a pan. Failure to keep the food airborne causes a mouse to steal the food off the floor and the player to use up one miss. The game ends with the player's third miss. A cat often pokes the left piece of food, which holds it in place for a small amount of time and makes it harder for the player to guess when the piece will be flippable. The game speeds up as it progresses. In Game A, the player must flip three items of food. In Game B, the player must flip four food items.
Chef was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy, Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color, and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance. It is unlockable in Personal Trainer: Cooking for the Nintendo DS after the player has cooked a certain number of meals. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released on July 29, 2009 in Japan, on March 22, 2010 in the United States, and March 26, 2010 in Europe; and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has a move called "Chef", which has him flip food out of pan, referencing Chef. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS, the stage Flat Zone 2 shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Chef. In Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, the stage Flat Zone X shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Chef.
In March 2010, Takara Tomy released officially licensed Game & Watch-styled keychains based on three different Wide Screen models, one of which is Chef. It only displays a non-playable demo screen with adjustable speed. Its solar panel recharges its batteries.
Mickey Mouse
Mickey Mouse was released in the Wide Screen series on October 9, 1981, and in the Panorama series on February 28, 1984. It is a single-screen single-player game.
In the Wide Screen version, the player controls Mickey Mouse whose task it is to catch eggs as they roll down four slopes, two on either side of the screen. If an egg is dropped it lands on the floor releasing a chick who walks away off screen. The eggs fall ever more quickly as the total caught closes in on multiples of 100. In GAME A the misses are reset every 100 caught eggs. In GAME B the number and rate of descent of eggs is increased with misses only being reset at multiples of 500. Missing three eggs between resets will end the game. Periodically, Minnie Mouse peers out of the window; if Mickey misses an egg while Minnie is present onscreen, the miss counts as half. The gameplay is similar to Egg.
The Panorama version is completely different, where the player controls Mickey Mouse, who is performing acrobatics in a circus. The player must move Mickey left and right to catch batons, whilst avoiding flaming torches. The speed the objects fall increases upon the total score closing in on multiples of 100. If the player misses a baton or touches a flaming torch, a life is lost. After three lives are lost, the game ends. Once the player reaches 300 points, all misses are cancelled. If the player has no misses, they will receive double points until the next miss. The gameplay is similar to Donkey Kong Circus.
Egg
Egg was released in the Wide Screen series on October 14, 1981. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The player character is a wolf who waits outside a hen house. The wolf must catch the eggs that fall out of the side of the hen house, for one point each. Three lives are given. A life is lost for each egg missed, or half of a life if the egg is missed while a hen appears. The game ends when all three lives are lost. The gameplay is similar to Mickey Mouse in the Wide Screen series.
Egg was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color.
Turtle Bridge
Turtle Bridge was released in the Wide Screen series on February 1, 1982. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The player uses a line of five turtles as stepping stones to transfer baggage from one side of a river to the other. Once a package is tossed to a colleague on the other side, the player can return to the home bank to fetch the next package. The turtles are not motionless but will dive to feed on any fish within reach, and they dive more frequently as the game progresses. The player may need to wait for the colleague on the far bank and cannot return to the home bank while carrying a package. Two to twelve points are awarded, depending on how quickly the package is delivered. It takes approximately 1 hour of game play to accrue 1000 points. Unlike other similar games, the scoreboard can display scores past 1000. Lives are lost if the explorer lands on a turtle that dives. A life can be recovered at the score levels 200 and 500. The game ends when all lives are lost.
In Game A, the middle turtle of the five has no fish swimming in reach and never dives unless the explorer waits too long on its back, at which point fish appear and the turtle dives. In Game B, all turtles will dive from the outset, and the colleague appears less frequently.
Turtle Bridge was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch back air has him hit opponents with a turtle, referencing Turtle Bridge.
Fire Attack
Fire Attack was released in the Wide Screen series on March 19, 1982. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The main character uses a tomahawk-type weapon to protect a fort from burning. The top row of enemies are tribal chiefs who throw firesticks, and the bottom row of enemies are traditional Game & Watch characters who try to set fire to the fort with a match. Two points are earned for each fire blocked. Three misses are allowed, which occur each time the fort catches fire. All misses are erased at 200 points and again at 500; if there aren't any misses at these times, 5 points are awarded per hit for a period of time.
Fire Attack was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance, although, the Game Boy Advance version of the "Legacy Mode" was censored, due to outdated stereotypes, being turned into generic "Bandits".
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him hit opponents with a fire stick, referencing Fire Attack. In Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, Mr. Game & Watch's animations were updated to reflect individual frames from the original games, including gaining a feathered headband when using the move based on Fire Attack. The controversy following this discovery prompted Nintendo to apologize for the potentially offensive stereotype and announce that the animation would be changed in a post-release patch.
Snoopy Tennis
Snoopy Tennis was released in the Wide Screen series on April 28, 1982. It was rereleased in the Nintendo Mini Classics series.
Charlie Brown throws and hits a ball toward Snoopy, who must hit the ball back. Lucy sometimes will hit the ball to Snoopy.
Oil Panic
Oil Panic was released in the Multi Screen series on May 28, 1982. It is the first game in the Multi Screen series. It is a dual-screen single-player game with a white case. It opens like a clamshell, with an upper and lower screen.
The player controls a station helper who uses a bucket to catch drops of oil from a leaking pipe and empties the bucket into an oil drum. Missing a drop from the pipe or missing the oil drum causes the player to lose a life. The player has four lives, rather than the usual three.
Oil Panic was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy, Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color, and Game & Watch Collection for the Nintendo DS (a Club Nintendo-exclusive). Oil Panic is also one of the microgames featured in the collection presented by 9 Volt in WarioWare: Touched!. In Europe, it was also rereleased in the Mini Classics series.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has a move called "Oil Panic", where he collects energy-based attacks in an oil bucket to throw at opponents as oil later, referencing Oil Panic. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, the stage Flat Zone is based on a number of Game & Watch games, including Manhole. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS, the stage Flat Zone 2 shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Oil Panic. In Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, the stage Flat Zone X shifts between several layouts, one of which is based on Oil Panic.
Donkey Kong
Donkey Kong was released in the Multi Screen series on June 3, 1982. It is a dual-screen single-player game with an orange clamshell body. It is the first use of the directional pad or D-pad.
The Game & Watch version of Donkey Kong sold units.
Donkey Kong was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color and Game & Watch Collection for the Nintendo DS (a Club Nintendo-exclusive). It was rereleased in the Nintendo Mini Classics series.
Donkey Kong Jr.
Donkey Kong Jr. was released in the New Wide Screen series on October 26, 1982, in the Table Top series on April 28, 1983, and in the Panorama series on October 4, 1983. It is the first game in the New Wide Screen series. It is a single-screen single-player game. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
Donkey Kong Jr. was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 2, Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color, and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released for Nintendo DSi on August 19, 2009 in Japan, on April 19, 2010 in the United States and April 23, 2010 in Europe, and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe. It was rereleased in the Nintendo Mini Classics.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him hit opponents with a key, referencing Donkey Kong Jr..
Mickey & Donald
Mickey & Donald was released in the Multi Screen series on November 12, 1982. It is a dual-screen single-player game, with a clamshell case. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
The goal is put out the fire in a three-story apartment building as quickly as possible. Donald operates the hose, while Mickey runs the pump. Bulges in the hose give more water for Donald to use, but require Mickey to leave the pump to stop leaks.
Green House
Green House was released in the Multi Screen series on December 15, 1982. It is a dual-screen single-player game with a clamshell case.
The object is to protect the flowers at each corner of the screen from enemies using a can of bug spray. Worms attack the top flowers while spiders approach the bottom flowers. The game ends when three flowers have been eaten.
Green House was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 2 and Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color and Game & Watch Collection for the Nintendo DS (a Club Nintendo-exclusive).
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him spray opponents with a can of bug spray, referencing Green House.
This is the first appearance of Stanley the Bugman, the lead character in the 1983 arcade game Donkey Kong 3.
Donkey Kong II
Donkey Kong II was released as a part of the Multi Screen series on March 7, 1983. It is a dual-screen single-player game. It has a brown clamshell body. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
Donkey Kong II was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color.
Mario Bros.
Mario Bros. was released in the Multi Screen series on March 14, 1983. It is a dual-screen single-player game. It has a maroon clamshell body. It opens like a Japanese book (to the right), with a left and right screen.
Mario and Luigi are working in a bottling plant, on either side of several stacked conveyor belts. The object of the game is to move boxes of bottles through the machine without dropping any. Each brother can climb a ladder to one of three positions. Mario receives a box at the bottom right, and must be in his lowest position to move it into the bottling machine. The box moves left through the machine, to Luigi, who must be in his lowest position to move it to the next level, which moves it to the right, to Mario's middle position, who raises it to the next level. The box moves to Luigi's middle position, then to Mario's highest position, and finally to Luigi's highest position, where Luigi throws the box onto a truck. When the truck is full, the Brothers have a short break, before getting back to work. Successfully moving a box up one level earns the player 1 point, and loading the truck with eight boxes earns 10 points, for a total of 58 points for all the boxes in the truck. However, if a Brother isn't there to catch a box, it falls to the floor and breaks, angering the Brothers' supervisor, resulting in a miss. The third miss ends the game.
Mario Bros. was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy, Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color, and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
In the Super Smash Bros. series until Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, Mr. Game & Watch's forward air has him hit opponents with a package, referencing Mario Bros. One of his taunts from Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U onward also references the game where he sits and sighs, referencing Mario and Luigi completing a level.
Mario's Cement Factory
Mario's Cement Factory was released in the Table Top series on April 28, 1983 and in the New Wide Screen series on June 8, 1983. It is the first game in the Table Top series. It is a single-screen single-player game. Hirokazu Tanaka designed the sounds.
Mario's Cement Factory was recreated in Game Boy Gallery and Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance. It was recreated as a DSiWare game that was released for Nintendo DSi on August 19, 2009 in Japan on March 22, 2010 in the United States, and March 26, 2010 in Europe, and for Nintendo 3DS on July 7, 2011 in Europe. It was rereleased in the Nintendo Mini Classics.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch grabs opponents with a similar pose to how Mario grabs levers, referencing Mario's Cement Factory.
Snoopy
Snoopy was released in the Table Top series on June 5, 1983, and in the Panorama series on August 30, 1983. It is the first game in the Panorama series. It is a single-screen single-player game. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
When Game A or Game B is pressed, an introductory sequence plays, and after that, the player controls Snoopy to move on different colored platforms. He then must whack the corresponding colored music notes coming from Schroeder's piano before they reach Woodstock and his friends. Failing to whack them in time or going too far to the left or right will make the player earn a miss. After 100 points, Lucy will wake up and attack Schroeder, stunning him for a few seconds.
Rain Shower
Rain Shower was released in the Multi Screen series on August 9, 1983. It is a dual-screen single-player game. It opens like a book, with a left and right screen.
The player moves clothing away from falling raindrops by pulling on a clothes line. In Game B, a bird may swoop down and move the clothing.
Rain Shower was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Lifeboat
Lifeboat was released in the Multi Screen series on October 27, 1983. It is a dual-screen single-player game. Its light orange case opens like a book, with a left and right screen.
A burning oceanliner is displayed, and the player pulls a raft through shark-infested waters to catch the people who fall from the ship. The rafts can hold up to 4 people, and can be emptied no matter how many people are in them. A point is awarded for each rescue. The alarm on is indicated by a bucket of water on the cliffside, and when it goes off, a man uses the bucket to attempt to douse the fire.
Game A mode controls two rafts, one on each side of the screen, which move together when the left and right buttons are pressed. In Game B there is only one raft, which can move from
one side of the screen to the other.
Lifeboat was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Mario's Bombs Away
Mario's Bombs Away was released in the Panorama series on November 4, 1983. It is a single-screen single-player game. It features an unlit color LCD screen that faces downward to expose the translucent rear to an external light source, such as daylight. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
The player character is a military-clad Mario who delivers bombs from left to right, and must keep them away from flaming oil spills and enemy torches. Action is viewed in a mirror that reflects the screen.
Mario's Bombs Away was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Pinball
Pinball was released in the Multi Screen series on December 5, 1983. It is a dual-screen single-player game, with a clamshell case. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
The player controls two flippers on the bottom screen and two on the top screen. Other pinball objects include bumpers, outlanes, rollover lanes, kickbacks and plungers.
Spitball Sparky
Spitball Sparky was released in the Super Color series on February 6, 1984. It is the first game in the Super Color series. It is a single-screen single-player game. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
Spitball Sparky works similarly to Breakout, where a ball moves across the screen and is propelled by the player, blowing it upwards as long it is directly above the player in the purple space. If all blocks are eliminated fast enough, a bonus bar at the top would add 5 points per segment, the most being 20 points. Along the top row are red blocks, which require two hits to destroy. If the player eliminates all but the red blocks, and then hits each red block once to make them flash, it awards more bonus points.
Spitball Sparky was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 2 and Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Mr. Game & Watch's up air has him blow opponents upwards, referencing Spitball Sparky.
Crab Grab
Crab Grab was released in the Super Color series on February 20, 1984. It is a single-screen single-player game.
Crabs emerge from four differently colored columns along the bottom of the screen, and settle at the top. The objective is to avoid being in front of the crab, and to push the crabs from the bottom to prevent them from mounting on the screen. Points are earned by pushing and eliminating crabs. The game ends when the player has been bitten three times. Player movement is in all four directions (Up, Down, Left, Right). The A & B games had similar objectives, but with slightly different speeds.
Boxing
Boxing, known as Punch-Out!! in the United States, was released in the Micro Vs. series on July 31, 1984. It is the first game in the Micro Vs. series. It is a single-screen two-player game.
It is similar to Urban Champion, although it was released shortly before the NES game.
Boxing was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery for Game Boy and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Donkey Kong 3
Donkey Kong 3 was released in the Micro Vs. series on August 20, 1984.
Donkey Kong 3 was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Donkey Kong Circus
Donkey Kong Circus was released in the Panorama series on March 2, 1984. It is a single-screen two-player game with a lilac body. The gameplay is similar to Mickey Mouse in the Panorama series.
Donkey Kong Hockey
Donkey Kong Hockey was released as a part of the Micro Vs. series on November 13, 1984. It is a single-screen two-player game.
Black Jack
Black Jack was released as a part of the Multi Screen series on February 15, 1985. It is a dual-screen single-player game. Its maroon clamshell body has an upper and lower screen.
Game A is a blackjack game. The dealer's hand is on the upper screen and the player's hand is on the bottom screen. Four buttons are available: double down, bet ×10/hit, bet ×1/stand and enter. The player starts with a $500 bankroll and can bet up to $100 each hand. Pair splitting is not allowed, and bets must be locked before shuffling is done, contrary to real-world blackjack rules.
In Game B, the player starts with $500 as five numbers cycle on the bottom screen. Pressing the enter button causes the numbers to stop one at a time. There is a $50 reward if all five stop on the same number, or a deduction of $25 if not.
Tropical Fish
Tropical Fish was released in the New Wide Screen series on July 8, 1985. It is a single-screen single-player game.
The player uses a fishbowl to catch fish that jump out of a tank and must move them into a tank on the other side. The game ends when three fish are missed.
Tropical Fish was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 2 for Game Boy Color and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, Mr. Game & Watch has an attack which has him hit opponents with a fish bowl, referencing Tropical Fish.
Squish
Squish was released in the Multi Screen series on April 17, 1986. It is a dual-screen single-player game, with a clamshell case and an upper and lower screen. It is similar to Devil World.
Super Mario Bros.
Super Mario Bros. was released in the Crystal Screen series on June 25, 1986, and in the New Wide Screen series on March 8, 1988. It is the first game in the Crystal Screen series. It is a single-screen single-player game.
Mario traverses levels to save Princess Toadstool (also known as Peach), as in the NES game Super Mario Bros. (1985).
It was a prize for the Famicon's F-1 Grand Prix tournament on August 1, 1987 with the code YM-901-S. It is a single-screen single-player game with a yellow case. It came in a plastic box modeled after Disk-kun, the Famicom Disk System mascot. This edition is the rarest of all Game & Watch models, with only 10,000 units produced and never available at retail. It was rereleased in the Nintendo Mini Classics 1998 series.
Climber
Climber was released in the Crystal Screen series on July 4, 1986, and in the New Wide Screen series on March 8, 1988. It is a single-screen single-player game. It is similar to Ice Climber.
A boy known as the Climber sets out for the Block Mountain where the Blockmen live to train as a warrior. Lord Meiji, who he meets on the way, grants him a pair of boots which enable him to jump very high, armor that can break ceilings, and a head band which will help him find a sword that can defeat Dragalo the Dragon. The climber pursues his quest with the assistance of the mysterious bird Hentori. The objective of the game is to control Climber by jumping through a tower of platforms and landing on them, and by avoiding monsters and blockmen. The goal is to either grab Hentori or slash Dragalo while achieving the highest score possible.
Climber was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 3 for Game Boy Color and Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Balloon Fight
Balloon Fight was released in the Crystal Screen series on November 19, 1986, and in the New Wide Screen series on March 8, 1988. It is a single-screen single-player game.
This game is modeled after the Balloon Trip mode of the NES version. The screen auto-scrolls from the left, and the player must collect balloons while avoiding airborne sparks. The player controls a "Balloon Man" who is chasing an escaped criminal known as Oiram Repus. Every eight phases, there is a boss fight against Oiram Repus, where the player must avoid a pattern of sparks for an amount of time.
This game has not received any official playable ports, but it does appear in the museum portion of Game & Watch Gallery 3, showcasing a simple and non-interactive demo.
Bomb Sweeper
Bomb Sweeper was released in the Multi Screen series on June 15, 1987. It is a dual-screen single-player game with a clamshell case.
The player character is John Solver, who must navigate a maze to defuse bombs set by "Jack". When playing on "Game A" mode, the maze begins to move from left to right after a certain number of bombs are defused, and the player must find an exit back to the surface. The top screen is merely cosmetic, and shows the boss who sends the player character into the underground maze. Unlike in most Game & Watch games, lost lives are not reset when a player reaches 300 points.
Bomb Sweeper was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Safebuster
Safebuster was released in the Multi Screen series on January 12, 1988. It is a dual-screen single-player game with a clamshell case.
A security guard on the bottom screen uses a tube to catch bombs thrown by a bandit on the top screen. The tube is able to hold three bombs, which can be dumped down a chute at either side of the bottom screen for 1 point each. A life is lost for each bomb missed. The game ends when three lives are lost.
Safebuster was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance.
Gold Cliff
Gold Cliff was released in the Multi Screen series on October 19, 1988. It is a dual-screen single-player game. It has a light blue clamshell case with colorful printed metal plate on the cover.
The player controls an Indiana Jones-type archaeologist character who is on a mission to acquire treasure. Stone platforms appear and disappear in a pattern, and the player must jump across them to reach a key at the top of the screen and gain entry to the temple. Action speeds as the game continues. It was one of only two Game & Watch games that included a "continue" feature, which allowed a player to continue the game, with a loss of points, from the last place where they were killed.
Zelda
Zelda was released in the Multi Screen series on August 26, 1989. It is a dual-screen single-player game with a clamshell case.
Zelda was recreated in Game & Watch Gallery 4 for Game Boy Advance. It was rereleased in the Nintendo Mini Classics.
Mario the Juggler
Mario the Juggler is the last Game & Watch game released in the New Wide Screen series on October 14, 1991. It is a single-screen single-player game. The gameplay is similar to that of the first Game & Watch game, Ball.
Super Mario Bros. 35th Anniversary Edition
This limited 35th Anniversary Edition Game & Watch version of Super Mario Bros. has a full-color pixel screen. It has several modes: NES versions of Super Mario Bros. and Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels; another new Mario-themed variant of Ball which looks very different from Mario the Juggler; and traditional Game & Watch clock features. The size and shape of the hardware is similar to the Wide Screen series, plus a cross-shaped d-pad like the Donkey Kong model. It was released on November 13, 2020.
The Legend of Zelda 35th Anniversary Edition
This limited edition 35th Anniversary Edition Game & Watch version of The Legend of Zelda has a full-color pixel screen. It has several modes that include the NES/Famicom versions of The Legend of Zelda and Zelda II: The Adventure of Link in various languages, both Japanese and International GB versions of The Legend of Zelda: Link’s Awakening in various languages, a new Zelda-themed variant of Vermin which looks very different from the Zelda (Game & Watch), playable timer and playable traditional Game & Watch clock. The size and shape of the external hardware is similar to the Game & Watch Wide Screen series, plus a cross-shaped d-pad like on the Zelda (Game & Watch). The official release date was November 12, 2021.
External links
All Nintendo Game & Watch LCD Games part1 and part2 at YouTube
References
issue 4/2005 page 73
Nintendo-related lists
Video game lists by platform
Video game prequels
Prequels | [
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244597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Tombs%20at%20Longtou%20Mountain | Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain | The Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain are the burial sites of twelve royal figures from the Balhae kingdom. It is located on Longtou Mountain, southeast of Toudao Town () in Helong, Jilin Province, China, a region possibly called the "Western Field of the Ran Valley" () by the Balhae people. The mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo is located here.
History
Construction on the first tombs at Longtou Mountain began sometime after 745, when King Mun moved the Balhae capital city to Junggyeong. The cemetery was in use until the end of the Balhae Kingdom.
The discovery of Princess Jeonghyo's tombstone resolved speculation amongst scholars that the area was the former location of Hyundeok Province (현덕부 顯德府) of the Balhae Kingdom.
The site has been a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level since January 13, 1988. The walls and the murals of the tomb have been covered with anti-corrosive chemicals; at one point the tomb included at least one tower, but it is no longer standing.
Excavation
The first excavations at Longtou Mountain were conducted in 1980 by the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture Museum of Jilin (). They excavated the Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo in the Dragon Sea section. At the same time, members of the museum, in addition to other organisations, conducted a survey of a 7.5 km2 area. Local archaeologists were also invited to conduct test excavations on some of the other tombs, which produced various precious artefacts.
In 1982, the Yanbian Museum excavated seven tombs in the Dragon Sea area. All seven were clustered quite close together, but the tomb roofs had already collapsed. Some tombs cut through older tombs. Two of these tombs contained two people, who had been interred at the same time; four tombs contained two people, who had been interred one after the other; one tomb contained four people, one of whom was first interred, followed by the other three on a separate occasion. In the cases of a secondary burial, the second person was placed on top of the first body's head or feet.
Layout
There are three burial zones:
Dragon Lake ()
Dragon Sea ()
The location of Princess Jeonghyo's mausoleum
One robbed-out tumulus to the south-east. The inner north, east, and west walls were plastered, but the tomb had collapsed by 2012.
10 burials distributed over terraces to the east of Princess Jeonghyo's burial
Stone Kingdom ()
Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo
The Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo (Chinese: Zhēnxiào Gōngzhǔ mù 贞孝公主墓, hangul: 정효공주묘) was made in 793 by the people of the early Balhae kingdom. The mausoleum contains, among other things, the first complete discovered and detailed murals done by Balhae artists, and hence provides valuable insights to historians.
The mausoleum originally had a funerary pagoda made from brick and stone slabs, in addition to a tumulus. Only the pagoda's foundations remain, which show that it was originally square, measuring 5.50x5.65 m. Below the funerary pagoda and tumulus, the princess' burial comprised an entry passage, tomb entrance, internal passage, and burial chamber. The burial chamber is underground, and was excavated in October 1980. The burial chamber measured 2.10x3.10 m and was built from bricks, with stone slabs forming the roof. The mounds of earth lined with stones demonstrate the continuance of Goguryeo-style tomb but the formal clothing shows Tang style, which implies that Balhae actively accepted the Tang culture. There were originally 12 murals depicting people on the rear walls of the internal passage and north, east, and west walls of the burial chamber. The chamber is surrounded by four murals on each wall, depicting thirteen people in action, such as warriors (3), chamber attendants, musicians, and maids, wearing red, blue, yellow, purple, and brown robes. The murals displayed the image of the Balhae people in its completeness for the first time.
The burial chamber contains a 1.05-metre tall, 0.58-metre width × 0.26-m depth mugui-shaped () complete and unbroken granite epitaph, on which 728 Chinese characters, in the Regular Script style, are inscribed in 18 horizontal lines. The epitaph is of a typical combined written form, which contained both the chronological writings of the Princess' whole life and the remembrance writings which displayed the praise and remembrance for the Princess. The Balhae scholar author of this epitaph was highly learned in the traditional Chinese literature, as reflected in the use of poetic lines modeled upon poets of the early Tang dynasty.
Interments
The epitaph explains that Princess Jeonghyo (정효공주, 貞孝公主) is the fourth daughter of King Mun, the third ruler of Balhae. Princess Jeonghyo was also the younger sister of Princess Jeonghye (정혜공주, 貞惠公主). The epitaph shows that Balhae considered its ruler as an emperor equivalent to that of China.
The epitaph also recorded that the Princess died on Monday, 6 July 792, during the fifty-sixth year of the Daeheung era. She was accompanied in the burial at Ran Valley () in Xi Yuan (西原 or Western Plains) in the winter of 809 () (western Gregorian solar calendar Monday, 11 January 810, Chinese lunar calendar 28th day of the 11th month). She was given the posthumous name "Jeonghyo" to qualify her as virtuous and filial. She was likely a horse-rider, as the remains of a horse were found in the chamber. The epitaph recorded the year of death as 792. This corrected previous works such as Jin Yufu's () Book of the Balhae Kingdom (), which recorded 793 instead.
The skeletal remains were scattered all over the chamber when discovered by archaeologists, due to previous looting. However, the looters missed several golden and copper items, jewelry, pottery, and figurines. The gold ornament depicting a three stranded bird's wing is a piece of evidence demonstrating how Balhae was inherited of Goguryeo's crowns. Reconstruction showed that the bones belong to a woman, presumably the princess; but there is also a male, possibly an attendant or child.
References
External links
貞孝公主墓碑 (Mausoleum of Princess Zhenxiao), People's Daily, 27-06-2002. Retrieved on 04-02-2007. (Traditional Chinese)
Longtou
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Jilin
Archaeological sites in China
Cultural history of Korea
Zhenxiao
Buildings and structures in Yanbian
Buildings and structures completed in 793
8th-century establishments in China | [
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244600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro%20Badoglio | Pietro Badoglio | Pietro Badoglio, 1st Duke of Addis Abeba, 1st Marquess of Sabotino (, ; 28 September 1871 – 1 November 1956), was an Italian general during both World Wars and the first viceroy of Italian East Africa. With the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy, he became Prime Minister of Italy.
Early life and career
Badoglio was born in 1871. His father, Mario Badoglio, was a modest landowner, and his mother, Antonietta Pittarelli, was of middle-class background. On 5 October 1888 he was admitted to the Royal Military Academy in Turin. He received the rank of Second Lieutenant in 1890. In 1892, he finished his studies and was promoted to Lieutenant.
After completing his studies, he served with the Regio Esercito (Italian Royal Army) from 1892, at first as a Lieutenant (Tenente) in artillery, taking part in the early Italian colonial wars in Eritrea (1896), and in Libya (1912).
First World War
At the beginning of Italian participation in the First World War, he was a Lieutenant Colonel (Tenente Colonnello); he rose to the rank of Major General following his handling of the capture of Monte Sabotino in May 1916 and by the late months of 1917, by now already a Lieutenant General, was named as Vice Chief-of-Staff (Sottocapo di Stato Maggiore) despite being one of those mainly responsible for the disaster during the Battle of Caporetto on 24 October 1917.
With regard to the Battle of Caporetto, although he was blamed in various quarters for his disposition of the forces under his command before the battle, a commission of inquiry rejected most of the criticisms made upon him. In the years after the First World War, in which he held several high posts in the Regio Esercito, Badoglio exerted a constant effort in modifying official documents in order to hide his role in the defeat.
Italian Pacification of Libya
Post-war, Badoglio was named as a Senator, but also remained in the army with special assignments to Romania and the U.S. in 1920 and 1921. At first, he opposed Benito Mussolini and after 1922 was side-lined as ambassador to Brazil. A political change of heart soon returned him to Italy and a senior role in the army as Chief of Staff from 4 May 1925. On 25 June 1926, Badoglio was promoted to the rank of Marshal of Italy (Maresciallo d'Italia).
Badoglio was the first unique governor of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (later amalgamated as Italian Libya) from 1929 to 1933. During his governorship, he played a vital part (with Rodolfo Graziani, deputy governor of Cyrenaica) in defeating the Libyan Resistance by waging a near-genocidal campaign. On 20 June 1930, Badoglio wrote to General Graziani: "As for overall strategy, it is necessary to create a significant and clear separation between the controlled population and the rebel formations. I do not hide the significance and seriousness of this measure, which might be the ruin of the subdued population ... But now the course has been set, and we must carry it out to the end, even if the entire population of Cyrenaica must perish". By 1931, well over half of the population of Cyrenaica were confined to 15 concentration camps where many died as a result of overcrowding together with a lack of water, food and medicine while Badoglio had the Air Force use chemical warfare against the Bedouin rebels in the desert. On 24 January 1932 (third anniversary of his appointment), Badoglio proclaimed the end of Libyan resistance for the first time since the Italian invasion in 1911.
Italian invasion of Ethiopia
On 3 October 1935, because the progress of De Bono's invasion of Abyssinia was judged to be too slow by Mussolini, Badoglio, who had in the meantime launched an epistolary campaign against Emilio de Bono, replaced de Bono as the commander. Badoglio asked for and was given permission to use chemical warfare, using as a pretext the torture and murder of downed Italian pilot Tito Minniti during the Ethiopian "Christmas Offensive". The British historian Sir Ian Kershaw wrote the "barbarous initiatives in the conduct of the war in Ethiopia" came as a rule from the military elite rather than from Mussolini himself.
He employed mustard gas to effectively destroy the Ethiopian armies confronting him on the northern front. Badoglio commanded the Italian invasion army at the First Battle of Tembien, the Battle of Amba Aradam, the Second Battle of Tembien, and the Battle of Shire. On 31 March 1936, Badoglio defeated Emperor Haile Selassie commanding the last Ethiopian army on the northern front at the Battle of Maychew. On 26 April, with no Ethiopian resistance left between his forces and Addis Ababa, Badoglio launched his "March of the Iron Will" to take the Ethiopian capital city and end the war. By 2 May, Haile Selassie had fled the country.
On 5 May 1936, Marshal Badoglio led the victorious Italian troops into Addis Ababa. Mussolini declared King Victor Emmanuel to be the Emperor of Ethiopia, and Ethiopia became part of the Italian Empire. On this occasion, Badoglio was appointed the first Viceroy and Governor General of Ethiopia and ennobled with the victory title of Duke of Addis Abeba ad personam.
On 11 June 1936, Rodolfo Graziani replaced Badoglio as Viceroy and Governor-General of Ethiopia. Badoglio returned to his duties as the Supreme Chief of the Italian General Staff. According to Time magazine, Badoglio even joined the Fascist Party in early June.
World War II
Badoglio was Chief of Staff from 1925 to 1940, and it was he who had the final say on the entire structure of the Armed Forces, including doctrine, selection of officers, armaments, during that period, influencing the whole military environment. Badoglio was not in favour of the Italian-German Pact of Steel and was pessimistic about the chances of Italian success in any European war. Despite such misgivings – he did not oppose the decision of Mussolini and the King to declare war on France and Great Britain. Following the Italian army's poor performance in the invasion of Greece in December 1940, he resigned from the General Staff. Badoglio was replaced by Ugo Cavallero.
By early 1943, there was a wide held belief by the military elite that Italy needed to sign an armistice in order to exit the war. Mussolini needed to go, as he was neither willing to sign an armistice nor were the Allies willing to sign an armistice with him. The two men considered to replace Mussolini were Marshal Badoglio and Marshal Enrico Caviglia. As Marshal Caviglia was one of the few Royal Army officers who was known to dislike Fascism, the king was unwilling to have him as prime minister. Victor Emmanuel wanted an officer who was committed to continuing the Fascist system, which led him to choose Badoglio who had faithfully served Mussolini and committed an array of atrocities in Ethiopia, but who had a grudge against Il Duce for making him the scapegoat for the failed invasion of Greece in 1940. Moreover, Badoglio was an opportunist well known for his sycophancy towards those in power, which led the king to choose him as Mussolini's successor as he knew that Badoglio would do anything to have power whereas Caviglia had a reputation as a man of principle and honor. On 15 July 1943, in a secret meeting Victor Emmanuel told Badoglio that he would soon be sworn in as Italy's new prime minister and the king wanted no "ghosts" (i.e. liberal politicians from the pre-fascist era) in his cabinet.
On 24 July 1943, as Italy had suffered several setbacks following the Allied invasion of Sicily in World War II, Mussolini summoned the Fascist Grand Council, which voted no confidence in Mussolini. The following day Il Duce was removed from government by King Victor Emmanuel III and arrested. On 3 September 1943, General Giuseppe Castellano signed the Italian armistice with the Allies in Cassibile on behalf of Badoglio, who was named Prime Minister of Italy. Wary of the potentially hostile German response to the Armistice, Badoglio hesitated to formally announce the treaty.
On 8 September 1943, the armistice document was published by the Allies in the Badoglio Proclamation, before Badoglio could communicate news of the switch to the Italian armed forces. The units of the Italian Royal Army, Royal Navy, and Royal Air Force were generally surprised by the switch and unprepared for German actions to disarm them. In the early hours of the following day, 9 September 1943, Badoglio, King Victor Emmanuel, some military ministers, and the Chief of the General Staff escaped to Pescara and Brindisi seeking Allied protection.
On 23 September 1943, the longer version of the armistice was signed in Malta. On 13 October, Badoglio and the Kingdom of Italy officially declared war on Nazi Germany. Badoglio continued to head the government for another nine months.
On 9 June 1944, following the German rescue of Mussolini, the capture of Rome by the allies, and increasingly strong opposition to his government, Badoglio was replaced by Ivanoe Bonomi of the Labour Democratic Party.
Final years
Due to increased tensions with the Soviet Union, the British government saw Badoglio as a guarantor of an anti-communist post-war Italy. Consequently, Badoglio was never tried for Italian war crimes committed in Africa.
Badoglio died in Grazzano Badoglio on 1 November 1956.
See also
Royal Italian Army
Royal Italian Army (1940–1946)
Italian Co-Belligerent Army
Bibliography
Pietro Badoglio: Italy in the Second World War, memories and documents. (Transl.: Muriel Currey). Oxford University Press, 1948. Repr. 1976, Greenwood Press:
Pietro Badoglio: The war in Abyssinia. (Foreword: Benito Mussolini). London, Methuen Publishers, 1937.
References
Further reading
Italian Defence Minister website official biography of Pietro Badoglio as Chief of the General Staff
Armellini, Quirino, and Pietro Badoglio. Con Badoglio in Etiopia, Etc. 1937.
Bertoldi, Silvio. Badoglio. Milano: Rizzoli, 1982.
De Luna, Giovanni. Badoglio: Un Militaire al Potere. Milan: Bompiani, 1974. For English translation, see .
Whittam, John. The Politics of the Italian Army, 1861–1918. London: Croom Helm, 1977.
Del Boca, Angelo. La guerra d'Etiopia. L'ultima impresa del colonialismo. Milan: Longanesi, 2010. .
External links
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1871 births
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244601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects%20of%20nuclear%20explosions | Effects of nuclear explosions | The effects of a nuclear explosion on its immediate vicinity are typically much more destructive and multifaceted than those caused by conventional explosives. In most cases, the energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated within the lower atmosphere can be approximately divided into four basic categories:
the blast itself: 40–50% of total energy
thermal radiation: 30–50% of total energy
ionizing radiation: 5% of total energy (more in a neutron bomb)
residual radiation: 5–10% of total energy with the mass of the explosion.
Depending on the design of the weapon and the location in which it is detonated, the energy distributed to any one of these categories may be significantly higher or lower. The physical blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. The environment of the explosion (e.g. submarine, ground burst, air burst, or exo-atmospheric) determines how much energy is distributed to the blast and how much to radiation. In general, surrounding a bomb with denser media, such as water, absorbs more energy and creates more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect. When a nuclear weapon is surrounded only by air, lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects as explosive yield increases. This bubble is faster than the speed of sound. The physical damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon (blast and thermal radiation) are identical to those of conventional explosives, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosion is usually millions of times more powerful per unit mass and temperatures may briefly reach the tens of millions of degrees.
Energy from a nuclear explosion is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats the material to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the fuel powering the explosion). This causes vaporization of the surrounding material, resulting in its rapid expansion. Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave which expands spherically from the center. Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball which, if the explosion is low enough in altitude, is often associated with a mushroom cloud. In a high-altitude burst, where the density of the atmosphere is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and X-rays than as an atmosphere-displacing shockwave.
Direct effects
Blast damage
The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front". The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding shock wave. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air heated by the explosion's "soft" X-rays. Within a fraction of a second, the dense shock front obscures the fireball and continues to move past it, now expanding outwards, free from the fireball, causing a reduction of light emanating from a nuclear detonation. Eventually, the shock wave dissipates to the point where the light becomes visible again giving rise to the characteristic double flash due to the shock wave–fireball interaction. It is this unique feature of nuclear explosions that is exploited when verifying that an atmospheric nuclear explosion has occurred and not simply a large conventional explosion, with radiometer instruments known as Bhangmeters capable of determining the nature of explosions.
For air bursts at or near sea-level, 50–60% of the explosion's energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size and the yield of the bomb. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into a blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to less than 1 percent of sea-level air density.
The effects of a moderate rain storm during an Operation Castle nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce, peak pressure levels by approximately 15% at all ranges.
Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects. Most buildings, except reinforced or blast-resistant structures, will suffer moderate damage when subjected to overpressures of only 35.5 kilopascals (kPa) (5.15 pounds-force per square inch or 0.35 atm).
Data obtained from the Japanese surveys found that was sufficient to destroy all wooden and brick residential structures. This can reasonably be defined as the pressure capable of producing severe damage.
The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km/h, or ~300 m/s, approaching the speed of sound in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry, the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude" and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behavior of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle, the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after Ernst Mach) and is a form of constructive interference.
This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or 'knees' in the above overpressure range graph.
For each goal overpressure, there is a certain optimum burst height at which the blast range is maximized over ground targets. In a typical air burst, where the blast range is maximized to produce the greatest range of severe damage, i.e. the greatest range that ~ of pressure is extended over, is a GR/ground range of 0.4 km for 1 kiloton (kt) of TNT yield; 1.9 km for 100 kt; and 8.6 km for 10 megatons (Mt) of TNT. The optimum height of burst to maximize this desired severe ground range destruction for a 1 kt bomb is 0.22 km; for 100 kt, 1 km; and for 10 Mt, 4.7 km.
Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the blast wave in the air:
Static overpressure, i.e., the sharp increase in pressure exerted by the shock wave. The overpressure at any given point is directly proportional to the density of the air in the wave.
Dynamic pressures, i.e., drag exerted by the blast winds required to form the blast wave. These winds push, tumble and tear objects.
Most of the material damage caused by a nuclear air burst is caused by a combination of the high static overpressures and the blast winds. The long compression of the blast wave weakens structures, which are then torn apart by the blast winds. The compression, vacuum and drag phases together may last several seconds or longer, and exert forces many times greater than the strongest hurricane.
Acting on the human body, the shock waves cause pressure waves through the tissues. These waves mostly damage junctions between tissues of different densities (bone and muscle) or the interface between tissue and air. Lungs and the abdominal cavity, which contain air, are particularly injured. The damage causes severe hemorrhaging or air embolisms, either of which can be rapidly fatal. The overpressure estimated to damage lungs is about 70 kPa. Some eardrums would probably rupture around 22 kPa (0.2 atm) and half would rupture between 90 and 130 kPa (0.9 to 1.2 atm).
Blast winds: The drag energies of the blast winds are proportional to the cubes of their velocities multiplied by the durations. These winds may reach several hundred kilometers per hour.
Thermal radiation
Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of thermal radiation as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, to which the atmosphere is largely transparent. This is known as "Flash". The chief hazards are burns and eye injuries. On clear days, these injuries can occur well beyond blast ranges, depending on weapon yield. Fires may also be started by the initial thermal radiation, but the following high winds due to the blast wave may put out almost all such fires, unless the yield is very high, where the range of thermal effects vastly outranges blast effects, as observed from explosions in the multi-megaton range. This is because the intensity of the blast effects drops off with the third power of distance from the explosion, while the intensity of radiation effects drops off with the second power of distance. This results in the range of thermal effects increasing markedly more than blast range as higher and higher device yields are detonated. Thermal radiation accounts for between 35–45% of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the yield of the device. In urban areas, the extinguishing of fires ignited by thermal radiation may matter little, as in a surprise attack fires may also be started by blast-effect-induced electrical shorts, gas pilot lights, overturned stoves, and other ignition sources, as was the case in the breakfast-time bombing of Hiroshima. Whether or not these secondary fires will in turn themselves be snuffed out as modern noncombustible brick and concrete buildings collapse in on themselves from the same blast wave is uncertain, not least of which, because of the masking effect of modern city landscapes on thermal and blast transmission are continually examined.
When combustible frame buildings were blown down in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they did not burn as rapidly as they would have done had they remained standing. The noncombustible debris produced by the blast frequently covered and prevented the burning of combustible material.
Fire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm in modern times is unlikely after a nuclear detonation. This does not exclude fires from being started, but means that these fires will not form into a firestorm, due largely to the differences between modern building materials and those used in World War II-era Hiroshima.
There are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:
Flash blindness is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light since this part of the electromagnetic spectrum is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.
A retinal burn resulting in permanent damage from scarring is also caused by the concentration of direct thermal energy on the retina by the lens. It will occur only when the fireball is actually in the individual's field of vision and would be a relatively uncommon injury. Retinal burns may be sustained at considerable distances from the explosion. The height of burst and apparent size of the fireball, a function of yield and range will determine the degree and extent of retinal scarring. A scar in the central visual field would be more debilitating. Generally, a limited visual field defect, which will be barely noticeable, is all that is likely to occur.
When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light-colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like anti-flash white paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.
The actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 J/cm2, what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.
In Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, a tremendous firestorm developed within 20 minutes after detonation and destroyed many more buildings and homes, built out of predominantly 'flimsy' wooden materials. A firestorm has gale-force winds blowing in towards the center of the fire from all points of the compass. It is not peculiar to nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during World War II. Despite fires destroying a large area of the city of Nagasaki, no true firestorm occurred in the city, even though a higher yielding weapon was used. Many factors explain this seeming contradiction, including a different time of bombing than Hiroshima, terrain, and crucially, a lower fuel loading/fuel density in the city than that of Hiroshima.
As thermal radiation travels, more or less, in a straight line from the fireball (unless scattered) any opaque object will produce a protective shadow that provides protection from the flash burn. Depending on the properties of the underlying surface material, the exposed area outside the protective shadow will be either burnt to a darker color, such as charring wood, or a brighter color, such as asphalt. If such a weather phenomenon as fog or haze is present at the point of the nuclear explosion, it scatters the flash, with radiant energy then reaching burn sensitive substances from all directions. Under these conditions, opaque objects are therefore less effective than they would otherwise be without scattering, as they demonstrate maximum shadowing effect in an environment of perfect visibility and therefore zero scatterings. Similar to a foggy or overcast day, although there are few if any, shadows produced by the sun on such a day, the solar energy that reaches the ground from the sun's infrared rays is nevertheless considerably diminished, due to it being absorbed by the water of the clouds and the energy also being scattered back into space. Analogously, so too is the intensity at a range of burning flash energy attenuated, in units of J/cm2, along with the slant/horizontal range of a nuclear explosion, during fog or haze conditions. So despite any object that casts a shadow being rendered ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or haze, due to scattering, the fog fills the same protective role, but generally only at the ranges that survival in the open is just a matter of being protected from the explosion's flash energy.
The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb and causing the creation of atmospheric NOx smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the stratosphere where it is responsible for dissociating ozone there, in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do. The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings.
Indirect effects
Electromagnetic pulse
Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy electrons through Compton scattering. For high altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the Earth's magnetic field at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers where they interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a coherent nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.
The pulse is powerful enough to cause moderately long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages due to interactions with the electromagnetic pulse. These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the ionosphere.
Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in conductive material such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject due to the large number of variables involved. Semiconductors, especially integrated circuits, are extremely susceptible to the effects of EMP due to the close proximity of the PN junctions, but this is not the case with thermionic tubes (or valves) which are relatively immune to EMP. A Faraday cage does not offer protection from the effects of EMP unless the mesh is designed to have holes no bigger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.
Large nuclear weapons detonated at high altitudes also cause geomagnetically induced current in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetically induced currents are generated is entirely different from the gamma-ray induced pulse produced by Compton electrons.
Radar blackout
The heat of the explosion causes air in the vicinity to become ionized, creating the fireball. The free electrons in the fireball affect radio waves, especially at lower frequencies. This causes a large area of the sky to become opaque to radar, especially those operating in the VHF and UHF frequencies, which is common for long-range early warning radars. The effect is less for higher frequencies in the microwave region, as well as lasting a shorter time – the effect falls off both in strength and the affected frequencies as the fireball cools and the electrons begin to re-form onto free nuclei.
A second blackout effect is caused by the emission of beta particles from the fission products. These can travel long distances, following the Earth's magnetic field lines. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause ionization similar to the fireball, but over a wider area. Calculations demonstrate that one megaton of fission, typical of a two-megaton H-bomb, will create enough beta radiation to blackout an area across for five minutes. Careful selection of the burst altitudes and locations can produce an extremely effective radar-blanking effect.
The physical effects giving rise to blackouts are those that also cause EMP, which itself can cause power blackouts. The two effects are otherwise unrelated, and the similar naming can be confusing.
Ionizing radiation
About 5% of the energy released in a nuclear air burst is in the form of ionizing radiation: neutrons, gamma rays, alpha particles and electrons moving at speeds up to the speed of light. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation; the others are particles that move slower than light. The neutrons result almost exclusively from the fission and fusion reactions, while the initial gamma radiation includes that arising from these reactions as well as that resulting from the decay of short-lived fission products.
The intensity of initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with distance from the point of burst because the radiation spreads over a larger area as it travels away from the explosion (the inverse-square law). It is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.
The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with the distance from the explosion. Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron-gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of the initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above 50 kt (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.
The neutron radiation serves to transmute the surrounding matter, often rendering it radioactive. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of radioactive contamination is known as nuclear fallout and poses the primary risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for a large nuclear weapon.
Details of nuclear weapon design also affect neutron emission: the gun-type assembly Hiroshima bomb leaked far more neutrons than the implosion-type 21 kt Nagasaki bomb because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.
It was found in early experimentation that normally most of the neutrons released in the cascading chain reaction of the fission bomb are absorbed by the bomb case. Building a bomb case of materials which transmitted rather than absorbed the neutrons could make the bomb more intensely lethal to humans from prompt neutron radiation. This is one of the features used in the development of the neutron bomb.
Earthquake
The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor earthquake. However, theory does not suggest that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances beyond a few tens of kilometers from the shot point.
Summary of the effects
The following table summarizes the most important effects of single nuclear explosions under ideal, clear skies, weather conditions. Tables like these are calculated from nuclear weapons effects scaling laws. Advanced computer modelling of real-world conditions and how they impact on the damage to modern urban areas has found that most scaling laws are too simplistic and tend to overestimate nuclear explosion effects. As it is only simplistic and unclassified scaling laws that are commonly encountered, that do not take important things like varying land topography into account to ease calculation time and equation length. The scaling laws that were used to produce the table below, assume among other things, a perfectly level target area, no attenuating effects from urban terrain masking, e.g. skyscraper shadowing, and no enhancement effects from reflections and tunneling by city streets.
As a point of comparison in the chart below, the most likely nuclear weapons to be used against countervalue city targets in a global nuclear war are in the sub-megaton range. Weapons of yields from 100 to 475 kilotons have become the most numerous in the US and Russian nuclear arsenals; for example, the warheads equipping the Russian Bulava submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) have a yield of 150 kilotons. US examples are the W76 and W88 warheads, with the lower yield W76 being over twice as numerous as the W88 in the US nuclear arsenal.
1 For the direct radiation effects the slant range instead of the ground range is shown here because some effects are not given even at ground zero for some burst heights. If the effect occurs at ground zero the ground range can be derived from slant range and burst altitude (Pythagorean theorem).
2 "Acute radiation syndrome" corresponds here to a total dose of one gray, "lethal" to ten grays. This is only a rough estimate since biological conditions are neglected here.
Further complicating matters, under global nuclear war scenarios, with conditions similar to that during the Cold War, major strategically important cities, like Moscow, and Washington are likely to be hit not once, but numerous times from sub megaton multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles, in a cluster bomb or "cookie-cutter" configuration. It has been reported that during the height of the Cold War in the 1970s Moscow was targeted by up to 60 warheads. The reasons that the cluster bomb concept is preferable in the targeting of cities is twofold, the first is down to the fact that large singular warheads are much easier to neutralize as both tracking and successful interception by anti-ballistic missile systems than it is when several smaller incoming warheads are approaching. This strength in numbers advantage to lower yield warheads is further compounded by such warheads tending to move at higher incoming speeds, due to their smaller, more slender physics package size, assuming both nuclear weapon designs are the same (a design exception being the advanced W88). The second reason for this cluster bomb, or ‘layering’ (using repeated hits by accurate low yield weapons), is that this tactic along with limiting the risk of failure, also reduces individual bomb yields, and therefore reduces the possibility of any serious collateral damage to non-targeted nearby civilian areas, including that of neighboring countries. This concept was pioneered by Philip J. Dolan and others.
Other phenomena
Gamma rays from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material. The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the inelastic collisions of the high-speed fission and fusion products. It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of kinetic energy. This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of blackbody radiation emitting in the soft X-ray region. As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 107 degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to kinetic energy.
For an explosion in the atmosphere, the fireball quickly expands to maximum size, and then begins to cool as it rises like a balloon through buoyancy in the surrounding air. As it does so it takes on the flow pattern of a vortex ring with incandescent material in the vortex core as seen in certain photographs. This effect is known as a mushroom cloud.
Sand will fuse into glass if it is close enough to the nuclear fireball to be drawn into it, and is thus heated to the necessary temperatures to do so; this is known as trinitite.
At the explosion of nuclear bombs lightning discharges sometimes occur.
Smoke trails are often seen in photographs of nuclear explosions. These are not from the explosion; they are left by sounding rockets launched just prior to detonation. These trails allow observation of the blast's normally invisible shock wave in the moments following the explosion.
The heat and airborne debris created by a nuclear explosion can cause rain; the debris is thought to do this by acting as cloud condensation nuclei. During the city firestorm which followed the Hiroshima explosion, drops of water were recorded to have been about the size of marbles. This was termed black rain, and has served as the source of a book and film by the same name. Black rain is not unusual following large fires and is commonly produced by pyrocumulus clouds during large forest fires. The rain directly over Hiroshima on that day is said to have begun around 9 a.m. with it covering a wide area from the hypocenter to the north-west, raining heavily for one hour or more in some areas. The rain directly over the city may have carried neutron activated building material combustion products, but it did not carry any appreciable nuclear weapon debris or fallout, although this is generally to the contrary to what other less technical sources state. The "oily" black soot particles, are a characteristic of incomplete combustion in the city firestorm.
The element einsteinium was discovered when analyzing nuclear fallout.
A side-effect of the Pascal-B nuclear test during Operation Plumbbob may have resulted in the first man-made object launched into space. The so-called "thunder well" effect from the underground explosion may have launched a metal cover plate into space at six times Earth's escape velocity, although the evidence remains subject to debate.
In 1942, there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons in the Manhattan Project that a large enough nuclear explosion might ignite the Earth's atmosphere. This notion concerned the nuclear reaction of two atmospheric nitrogen atoms forming carbon and an oxygen atom, with an associated release of energy. The scientists hypothesized that this energy would heat up the remaining atmospheric nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed, thereby burning all of the Earth's atmosphere (which is composed of nearly 80% diatomic nitrogen) in one single massive combustion event. Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying this hypothesis from the project's earliest days, and eventually concluded that combustion of the entire atmosphere was not possible: the cooling of the fireball due to an inverse Compton effect all but guaranteed that such a scenario would not become a reality. Richard Hamming, a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before the first nuclear test, with the same result. Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years and was the source of apocalyptic gallows humor at the Trinity test.
Survivability
This is highly dependent on factors such as if one is indoors or out, the size of the explosion, the proximity to the explosion, and to a lesser degree the direction of the wind carrying fallout.
Death is highly likely and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is caught in the open with no terrain or building masking effects within a radius of 0–3 km from a 1 megaton airburst, and the 50% chance of death from the blast extends out to ~8 km from the same 1 megaton atmospheric explosion.
To highlight the variability in the real world, and the effect that being indoors can make, despite the lethal radiation and blast zone extending well past her position at Hiroshima, Akiko Takakura survived the effects of a 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of 300 meters from the hypocenter, with only minor injuries, due mainly to her position in the lobby of the Bank of Japan, a reinforced concrete building, at the time. In contrast, the unknown person sitting outside, fully exposed, on the steps of the Sumitomo Bank, next door to the Bank of Japan, received lethal third-degree burns and was then likely killed by the blast, in that order, within two seconds.
With medical attention, radiation exposure is survivable to 200 rems of acute dose exposure. If a group of people is exposed to a 50 to 59 rems acute (within 24 hours) radiation dose, none will get radiation sickness. If the group is exposed to 60 to 180 rems, 50% will become sick with radiation poisoning. If medically treated, all of the 60–180 rems group will survive. If the group is exposed to 200 to 450 rems, most if not all of the group will become sick. 50% of the 200–450 rems group will die within two to four weeks, even with medical attention. If the group is exposed to 460 to 600 rems, 100% of the group will get radiation poisoning. 50% of the 460–600 rems group will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 600 to 1000 rems, 50% will die in one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 1,000 to 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 weeks. At 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 days.
See also
Bomb pulse
Effects of nuclear explosions on human health
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
List of nuclear weapons tests
Nuclear warfare
Nuclear holocaust
Nuclear terrorism
Peaceful nuclear explosion
Rope trick effect
Underwater explosion
Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction
References
External links
Nuclear Weapon Testing Effects – Comprehensive video archive
Underground Bomb Shelters
The Federation of American Scientists provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their effects
The Nuclear War Survival Skills is a public domain text and is an excellent source on how to survive a nuclear attack.
Ground Zero: A Javascript simulation of the effects of a nuclear explosion in a city
Oklahoma Geological Survey Nuclear Explosion Catalog lists 2,199 explosions with their date, country, location, yield, etc.
Australian Government database of all nuclear explosions
Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette (NWA) is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources.
NWA repository of blast models mainly used for the effects table (especially DOS programs BLAST and WE)
HYDESim: High-Yield Detonation Effects Simulator – Mashup of Google Maps and Javascript to calculate blast effects.
NUKEMAP – Google Maps/Javascript effects mapper, which includes fireball size, blast pressure, ionizing radiation, and thermal radiation as well as qualitative descriptions.
Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions
Atomic Forum
Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Third Edition, United States Department of Defense & Energy Research and Development Administration Available Online
Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources
Outrider believes in the power of an informed, engaged public.
Nuclear weapons
Nuclear physics
Articles containing video clips
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244602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-phase%20locking | Two-phase locking | In databases and transaction processing, two-phase locking (2PL) is a concurrency control method that guarantees serializability.
It is also the name of the resulting set of database transaction schedules (histories). The protocol uses locks, applied by a transaction to data, which may block (interpreted as signals to stop) other transactions from accessing the same data during the transaction's life.
By the 2PL protocol, locks are applied and removed in two phases:
Expanding phase: locks are acquired and no locks are released.
Shrinking phase: locks are released and no locks are acquired.
Two types of locks are used by the basic protocol: Shared and Exclusive locks. Refinements of the basic protocol may use more lock types. Using locks that block processes, 2PL may be subject to deadlocks that result from the mutual blocking of two or more transactions.
Data-access locks
A lock is a system object associated with a shared resource such as a data item of an elementary type, a row in a database, or a page of memory. In a database, a lock on a database object (a data-access lock) may need to be acquired by a transaction before accessing the object. Correct use of locks prevents undesired, incorrect or inconsistent operations on shared resources by other concurrent transactions. When a database object with an existing lock acquired by one transaction needs to be accessed by another transaction, the existing lock for the object and the type of the intended access are checked by the system. If the existing lock type does not allow this specific attempted concurrent access type, the transaction attempting access is blocked (according to a predefined agreement/scheme). In practice, a lock on an object does not directly block a transaction's operation upon the object, but rather blocks that transaction from acquiring another lock on the same object, needed to be held/owned by the transaction before performing this operation. Thus, with a locking mechanism, needed operation blocking is controlled by a proper lock blocking scheme, which indicates which lock type blocks which lock type.
Two major types of locks are used:
Write-lock (exclusive lock) is associated with a database object by a transaction (Terminology: "the transaction locks the object," or "acquires lock for it") before writing (inserting/modifying/deleting) this object.
Read-lock (shared lock) is associated with a database object by a transaction before reading (retrieving the state of) this object.
The common interactions between these lock types are defined by blocking behavior as follows:
An existing write-lock on a database object blocks an intended write upon the same object (already requested/issued) by another transaction by blocking a respective write-lock from being acquired by the other transaction. The second write-lock will be acquired and the requested write of the object will take place (materialize) after the existing write-lock is released.
A write-lock blocks an intended (already requested/issued) read by another transaction by blocking the respective read-lock .
A read-lock blocks an intended write by another transaction by blocking the respective write-lock.
A read-lock does not block an intended read by another transaction. The respective read-lock for the intended read is acquired (shared with the previous read) immediately after the intended read is requested, and then the intended read itself takes place.
Several variations and refinements of these major lock types exist, with respective variations of blocking behavior. If a first lock blocks another lock, the two locks are called incompatible; otherwise the locks are compatible. Often, lock types blocking interactions are presented in the technical literature by a Lock compatibility table. The following is an example with the common, major lock types:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Lock compatibility table
|-
! Lock type !! read-lock !! write-lock
|-
! read-lock
| ✔ || X
|-
! write-lock
| X || X
|}
✔ indicates compatibility
X indicates incompatibility, i.e, a case when a lock of the first type (in left column) on an object blocks a lock of the second type (in top row) from being acquired on the same object (by another transaction). An object typically has a queue of waiting requested (by transactions) operations with respective locks. The first blocked lock for operation in the queue is acquired as soon as the existing blocking lock is removed from the object, and then its respective operation is executed. If a lock for operation in the queue is not blocked by any existing lock (existence of multiple compatible locks on a same object is possible concurrently), it is acquired immediately.
Comment: In some publications, the table entries are simply marked "compatible" or "incompatible", or respectively "yes" or "no".
Two-phase locking and its special cases
Two-phase locking
According to the two-phase locking protocol, a transaction handles its locks in two distinct, consecutive phases during the transaction's execution:
Expanding phase (aka Growing phase): locks are acquired and no locks are released (the number of locks can only increase).
Shrinking phase (aka Contracting phase): locks are released and no locks are acquired.
The two phase locking rules can be summarized as: never acquire a lock after a lock has been released. The serializability property is guaranteed for a schedule with transactions that obey this rule.
Typically, without explicit knowledge in a transaction on end of phase 1, it is safely determined only when a transaction has completed processing and requested commit. In this case, all the locks can be released at once (phase 2).
Conservative two-phase locking
The difference between 2PL and C2PL is that C2PL's transactions obtain all the locks they need before the transactions begin. This is to ensure that a transaction that already holds some locks will not block waiting for other locks. Conservative 2PL prevents deadlocks.
Strict two-phase locking
To comply with the S2PL protocol, a transaction needs to comply with 2PL, and release its write (exclusive) locks only after it has ended, i.e., being either committed or aborted. On the other hand, read (shared) locks are released regularly during phase 2. This protocol is not appropriate in B-trees because it causes Bottleneck (while B-trees always starts searching from the parent root).
Strong strict two-phase locking
or Rigorousness, or Rigorous scheduling, or Rigorous two-phase locking
To comply with strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL) the locking protocol releases both write (exclusive) and read (shared) locks applied by a transaction only after the transaction has ended, i.e., only after both completing executing (being ready) and becoming either committed or aborted. This protocol also complies with the S2PL rules. A transaction obeying SS2PL can be viewed as having phase 1 that lasts the transaction's entire execution duration, and no phase 2 (or a degenerate phase 2). Thus, only one phase is actually left, and "two-phase" in the name seems to be still used due to the historical development of the concept from 2PL, and 2PL being a super-class. The SS2PL property of a schedule is also called Rigorousness. It is also the name of the class of schedules having this property, and an SS2PL schedule is also called a "rigorous schedule". The term "Rigorousness" is free of the unnecessary legacy of "two-phase," as well as being independent of any (locking) mechanism (in principle other blocking mechanisms can be used). The property's respective locking mechanism is sometimes referred to as Rigorous 2PL.
SS2PL is a special case of S2PL, i.e., the SS2PL class of schedules is a proper subclass of S2PL (every SS2PL schedule is also an S2PL schedule, but S2PL schedules exist that are not SS2PL).
SS2PL has been the concurrency control protocol of choice for most database systems and used since their early days in the 1970s. It is proven to be an effective mechanism in many situations, and provides besides Serializability also Strictness (a special case of cascadeless Recoverability), which is instrumental for efficient database recovery, and also Commitment ordering (CO) for participating in distributed environments where a CO based distributed serializability and global serializability solutions are employed. Being a subset of CO, an efficient implementation of distributed SS2PL exists without a distributed lock manager (DLM), while distributed deadlocks (see below) are resolved automatically. The fact that SS2PL employed in multi database systems ensures global serializability has been known for years before the discovery of CO, but only with CO came the understanding of the role of an atomic commitment protocol in maintaining global serializability, as well as the observation of automatic distributed deadlock resolution (see a detailed example of Distributed SS2PL). As a matter of fact, SS2PL inheriting properties of Recoverability and CO is more significant than being a subset of 2PL, which by itself in its general form, besides comprising a simple serializability mechanism (however serializability is also implied by CO), is not known to provide SS2PL with any other significant qualities. 2PL in its general form, as well as when combined with Strictness, i.e., Strict 2PL (S2PL), are not known to be used in practice. The popular SS2PL does not require marking "end of phase 1" as 2PL and S2PL do, and thus is simpler to implement. Also, unlike the general 2PL, SS2PL provides, as mentioned above, the useful Strictness and Commitment ordering properties.
Many variants of SS2PL exist that use various lock types with various semantics in different situations, including cases of lock-type change during a transaction. Notable are variants that use Multiple granularity locking.
Comments:
SS2PL vs. S2PL: Both provide Serializability and Strictness. Since S2PL is a superclass of SS2PL it may, in principle, provide more concurrency. However, no concurrency advantage is typically practically noticed (exactly same locking exists for both, with practically not much earlier lock release for S2PL), and the overhead of dealing with an end-of-phase-1 mechanism in S2PL, separate from transaction end, is not justified. Also, while SS2PL provides Commitment ordering, S2PL does not. This explains the preference of SS2PL over S2PL.
Especially before 1990, but also after, in many articles and books, e.g., (Bernstein et al. 1987, p. 59), the term "Strict 2PL" (S2PL) has been frequently defined by the locking protocol "Release all locks only after transaction end," which is the protocol of SS2PL. Thus, "Strict 2PL" could not be the name of the intersection of Strictness and 2PL, which is larger than the class generated by the SS2PL protocol. This has caused confusion. With an explicit definition of S2PL as the intersection of Strictness and 2PL, a new name for SS2PL, and an explicit distinction between the classes S2PL and SS2PL, the articles (Breitbart et al. 1991) and (Raz 1992) have intended to clear the confusion: the first using the name "rigorousness," and the second "SS2PL."
A more general property than SS2PL exists (a schedule super-class), Strict commitment ordering (Strict CO, or SCO), which as well provides both serializability, strictness, and CO, and has similar locking overhead. Unlike SS2PL, SCO does not block upon a read-write conflict (a read lock does not block acquiring a write lock; both SCO and SS2PL have the same behavior for write-read and write-write conflicts) at the cost of a possible delayed commit, and upon such conflict type SCO has shorter average transaction completion time and better performance than SS2PL. While SS2PL obeys the lock compatibility table above, SCO has the following table:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Lock compatibility for SCO
|-
! Lock type !! read-lock !! write-lock
|-
! read-lock
| ||X
|-
! write-lock
| X || X
|}
Note that though SCO releases all locks at transaction end and complies with the 2PL locking rules, SCO is not a subset of 2PL because of its different lock compatibility table. SCO allows materialized read-write conflicts between two transactions in their phases 1, which 2PL does not allow in phase 1 (see about materialized conflicts in Serializability). On the other hand 2PL allows other materialized conflict types in phase 2 that SCO does not allow at all. Together this implies that the schedule classes 2PL and SCO are incomparable (i.e., no class contains the other class).
Summary - Relationships among classes
Between any two schedule classes (define by their schedules' respective properties) that have common schedules, either one contains the other (strictly contains if they are not equal), or they are incomparable. The containment relationships among the 2PL classes and other major schedule classes are summarized in the following diagram. 2PL and its subclasses are inherently blocking, which means that no optimistic implementations for them exist (and whenever "Optimistic 2PL" is mentioned it refers to a different mechanism with a class that includes also schedules not in the 2PL class).
Deadlocks in 2PL
Locks block data-access operations. Mutual blocking between transactions results in a deadlock, where execution of these transactions is stalled, and no completion can be reached. Thus deadlocks need to be resolved to complete these transactions' executions and release related computing resources. A deadlock is a reflection of a potential cycle in the precedence graph, that would occur without the blocking. A deadlock is resolved by aborting a transaction involved with such potential cycle, and breaking the cycle. It is often detected using a wait-for graph (a graph of conflicts blocked by locks from being materialized; conflicts not materialized in the database due to blocked operations are not reflected in the precedence graph and do not affect serializability), which indicates which transaction is "waiting for" lock release by which transaction, and a cycle means a deadlock. Aborting one transaction per cycle is sufficient to break the cycle. If a transaction has been aborted due to deadlock resolution, it is up to the application to decide what to do next. Usually, an application will restart the transaction from the beginning but may delay this action to give other transactions sufficient time to finish in order to avoid causing another deadlock.
In a distributed environment an atomic commitment protocol, typically the Two-phase commit (2PC) protocol, is used for atomicity. When recoverable data (data under transaction control) partitioned among 2PC participants (i.e., each data object is controlled by a single 2PC participant), then distributed (global) deadlocks, deadlocks involving two or more participants in 2PC, are resolved automatically as follows:
When SS2PL is effectively used in a distributed environment, then global deadlocks due to locking generate voting-deadlocks in 2PC, and are resolved automatically by 2PC (see Commitment ordering (CO), in Exact characterization of voting-deadlocks by global cycles; No reference except the CO articles is known to notice this). For the general case of 2PL, global deadlocks are similarly resolved automatically by the synchronization point protocol of phase-1 end in a distributed transaction (synchronization point is achieved by "voting" (notifying local phase-1 end), and being propagated to the participants in a distributed transaction the same way as a decision point in atomic commitment; in analogy to decision point in CO, a conflicting operation in 2PL cannot happen before phase-1 end synchronization point, with the same resulting voting-deadlock in the case of a global data-access deadlock; the voting-deadlock (which is also a locking based global deadlock) is automatically resolved by the protocol aborting some transaction involved, with a missing vote, typically using a timeout).
Comment:
When data are partitioned among the atomic commitment protocol (e.g., 2PC) participants, automatic global deadlock resolution has been overlooked in the database research literature, though deadlocks in such systems has been a quite intensive research area:
For CO and its special case SS2PL, the automatic resolution by the atomic commitment protocol has been noticed only in the CO articles. However, it has been noticed in practice that in many cases global deadlocks are very infrequently detected by the dedicated resolution mechanisms, less than could be expected ("Why do we see so few global deadlocks?"). The reason is probably the deadlocks that are automatically resolved and thus not handled and uncounted by the mechanisms;
For 2PL in general, the automatic resolution by the (mandatory) end-of-phase-one synchronization point protocol (which has same voting mechanism as atomic commitment protocol, and same missing vote handling upon voting deadlock, resulting in global deadlock resolution) has not been mentioned until today (2009). Practically only the special case SS2PL is used, where no end-of-phase-one synchronization is needed in addition to atomic commit protocol.
In a distributed environment where recoverable data are not partitioned among atomic commitment protocol participants, no such automatic resolution exists, and distributed deadlocks need to be resolved by dedicated techniques.
See also
Serializability
Lock (computer science)
References
Databases
Transaction processing
Concurrency control
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244603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinlock | Spinlock | In software engineering, a spinlock is a lock that causes a thread trying to acquire it to simply wait in a loop ("spin") while repeatedly checking whether the lock is available. Since the thread remains active but is not performing a useful task, the use of such a lock is a kind of busy waiting. Once acquired, spinlocks will usually be held until they are explicitly released, although in some implementations they may be automatically released if the thread being waited on (the one that holds the lock) blocks or "goes to sleep".
Because they avoid overhead from operating system process rescheduling or context switching, spinlocks are efficient if threads are likely to be blocked for only short periods. For this reason, operating-system kernels often use spinlocks. However, spinlocks become wasteful if held for longer durations, as they may prevent other threads from running and require rescheduling. The longer a thread holds a lock, the greater the risk that the thread will be interrupted by the OS scheduler while holding the lock. If this happens, other threads will be left "spinning" (repeatedly trying to acquire the lock), while the thread holding the lock is not making progress towards releasing it. The result is an indefinite postponement until the thread holding the lock can finish and release it. This is especially true on a single-processor system, where each waiting thread of the same priority is likely to waste its quantum (allocated time where a thread can run) spinning until the thread that holds the lock is finally finished.
Implementing spinlocks correctly is challenging because programmers must take into account the possibility of simultaneous access to the lock, which could cause race conditions. Generally, such an implementation is possible only with special assembly-language instructions, such as atomic test-and-set operations and cannot be easily implemented in programming languages not supporting truly atomic operations. On architectures without such operations, or if high-level language implementation is required, a non-atomic locking algorithm may be used, e.g. Peterson's algorithm. However, such an implementation may require more memory than a spinlock, be slower to allow progress after unlocking, and may not be implementable in a high-level language if out-of-order execution is allowed.
Example implementation
The following example uses x86 assembly language to implement a spinlock. It will work on any Intel 80386 compatible processor.
; Intel syntax
locked: ; The lock variable. 1 = locked, 0 = unlocked.
dd 0
spin_lock:
mov eax, 1 ; Set the EAX register to 1.
xchg eax, [locked] ; Atomically swap the EAX register with
; the lock variable.
; This will always store 1 to the lock, leaving
; the previous value in the EAX register.
test eax, eax ; Test EAX with itself. Among other things, this will
; set the processor's Zero Flag if EAX is 0.
; If EAX is 0, then the lock was unlocked and
; we just locked it.
; Otherwise, EAX is 1 and we didn't acquire the lock.
jnz spin_lock ; Jump back to the MOV instruction if the Zero Flag is
; not set; the lock was previously locked, and so
; we need to spin until it becomes unlocked.
ret ; The lock has been acquired, return to the calling
; function.
spin_unlock:
xor eax, eax ; Set the EAX register to 0.
xchg eax, [locked] ; Atomically swap the EAX register with
; the lock variable.
ret ; The lock has been released.
Significant optimizations
The simple implementation above works on all CPUs using the x86 architecture. However, a number of performance optimizations are possible:
On later implementations of the x86 architecture, spin_unlock can safely use an unlocked MOV instead of the slower locked XCHG. This is due to subtle memory ordering rules which support this, even though MOV is not a full memory barrier. However, some processors (some Cyrix processors, some revisions of the Intel Pentium Pro (due to bugs), and earlier Pentium and i486 SMP systems) will do the wrong thing and data protected by the lock could be corrupted. On most non-x86 architectures, explicit memory barrier or atomic instructions (as in the example) must be used. On some systems, such as IA-64, there are special "unlock" instructions which provide the needed memory ordering.
To reduce inter-CPU bus traffic, code trying to acquire a lock should loop reading without trying to write anything until it reads a changed value. Because of MESI caching protocols, this causes the cache line for the lock to become "Shared"; then there is remarkably no bus traffic while a CPU waits for the lock. This optimization is effective on all CPU architectures that have a cache per CPU, because MESI is so widespread. On Hyper-Threading CPUs, pausing with rep nop gives additional performance by hinting the core that it can work on the other thread while the lock spins waiting.
Transactional Synchronization Extensions and other hardware transactional memory instruction sets serve to replace locks in most cases. Although locks are still required as a fallback, they have the potential to greatly improve performance by having the processor handle entire blocks of atomic operations. This feature is built into some mutex implementations, for example in glibc. The Hardware Lock Elision (HLE) in x86 is a weakened but backwards-compatible version of TSE, and we can use it here for locking without losing any compatibility. In this particular case, the processor can choose to not lock until two threads actually conflict with each other.
A simpler version of the test can use the cmpxchg instruction on x86, or the __sync_bool_compare_and_swap built into many Unix compilers.
With the optimizations applied, a sample would look like:
; In C: while(!__sync_bool_compare_and_swap(&locked, 0, 1)) while(locked) __builtin_ia32_pause();
spin_lock:
mov ecx, 1 ; Set the ECX register to 1.
retry:
xor eax, eax ; Zero out EAX, because cmpxchg compares against EAX.
XACQUIRE lock cmpxchg [locked], ecx
; atomically decide: if locked is zero, write ECX to it.
; XACQUIRE hints to the processor that we are acquiring a lock.
je out ; If we locked it (old value equal to EAX: 0), return.
pause:
mov eax, [locked] ; Read locked into EAX.
test eax, eax ; Perform the zero-test as before.
jz retry ; If it's zero, we can retry.
rep nop ; Tell the CPU that we are waiting in a spinloop, so it can
; work on the other thread now. Also written as the "pause".
jmp pause ; Keep check-pausing.
out:
ret ; All done.
spin_unlock:
XRELEASE mov [locked], 0 ; Assuming the memory ordering rules apply, release the
; lock variable with a "lock release" hint.
ret ; The lock has been released.
Alternatives
The primary disadvantage of a spinlock is that, while waiting to acquire a lock, it wastes time that might be productively spent elsewhere. There are two ways to avoid this:
Do not acquire the lock. In many situations it is possible to design data structures that do not require locking, e.g. by using per-thread or per-CPU data and disabling interrupts.
Switch to a different thread while waiting. This typically involves attaching the current thread to a queue of threads waiting for the lock, followed by switching to another thread that is ready to do some useful work. This scheme also has the advantage that it guarantees that resource starvation does not occur as long as all threads eventually relinquish locks they acquire and scheduling decisions can be made about which thread should progress first. Spinlocks that never entail switching, usable by real-time operating systems, are sometimes called raw spinlocks.
Most operating systems (including Solaris, Mac OS X and FreeBSD) use a hybrid approach called "adaptive mutex". The idea is to use a spinlock when trying to access a resource locked by a currently-running thread, but to sleep if the thread is not currently running. (The latter is always the case on single-processor systems.)
OpenBSD attempted to replace spinlocks with ticket locks which enforced first-in-first-out behaviour, however this resulted in more CPU usage in the kernel and larger applications, such as Firefox, becoming much slower.
See also
Synchronization
Busy spin
Deadlock
Seqlock
Ticket lock
References
External links
pthread_spin_lock documentation from The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 6, IEEE Std 1003.1, 2004 Edition
Variety of spinlock Implementations from Concurrency Kit
Article "User-Level Spin Locks - Threads, Processes & IPC" by Gert Boddaert
Article Spin Lock Example in Java
Paper "The Performance of Spin Lock Alternatives for Shared-Memory Multiprocessors" by Thomas E. Anderson
Paper "Algorithms for Scalable Synchronization on Shared-Memory Multiprocessors" by John M. Mellor-Crummey and Michael L. Scott. This paper received the 2006 Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing.
Spin-Wait Lock by Jeffrey Richter
Austria C++ SpinLock Class Reference
Interlocked Variable Access(Windows)
Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces (Chapter: Locks)
Concurrency control algorithms
Programming constructs | [
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244608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste%20Berthelin | Jean-Baptiste Berthelin | Jean-Baptiste Berthelin, also known informally as Cochonfucius, is a French cognitive science researcher, a student of Jean-Claude Simon.
He is connected to the Human-Machine Communication Department of the Laboratoire d'Informatique pour la Mécanique et les Sciences de l'Ingénieur (LIMSI).
He was one of the team responsible for translating Douglas Hofstadter's book Metamagical Themas into French, the others being Jean-Luc Bonnetain and Lise Rosenbaum. The translation was published by InterEditions, in 1988, under the title Ma Thémagie.
External links
Berthelin's LIMSI homepage
Berthelin's informal autobiography
Berthelin's bibliography
Cognitive scientists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | [
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244610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild%20Wild%20West | Wild Wild West | Wild Wild West is a 1999 American steampunk Western film co-produced and directed by Barry Sonnenfeld and written by S. S. Wilson and Brent Maddock alongside Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman, from a story penned by brothers Jim and John Thomas. Loosely adapted from The Wild Wild West, a 1960s television series created by Michael Garrison, it is the only production since the television film More Wild Wild West (1980) to feature the characters from the original series.
The film stars Will Smith (who previously collaborated with Sonnenfeld on Men in Black two years earlier) and Kevin Kline as two U.S. Secret Service agents who work together to protect U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant (Kline, in a dual role) and the United States from all manner of dangerous threats during the American Old West. The film features a supporting cast consisting of Kenneth Branagh, Salma Hayek, Ted Levine, and M. Emmet Walsh, as well as an orchestral film score by Western film score veteran Elmer Bernstein and extensive visual effects courtesy of Industrial Light & Magic.
Released theatrically in the United States on June 30, 1999 by Warner Bros. and produced on a $170 million budget (making it one of the most expensive films ever made when adjusting for inflation at the time of its release), Wild Wild West was a commercial failure, grossing only $113.8 million domestically and $108.3 million overseas for a worldwide total of $222.1 million. Receiving negative reviews from critics, the film was nominated for eight Razzies and won five at the 20th Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture and Worst Original Song (for the song "Wild Wild West" by Smith).
Plot
In 1869, four years after the end of the American Civil War, U.S. Army Captain James T. "Jim" West and U.S. Marshal Artemus Gordon hunt for ex-Confederate General "Bloodbath" McGrath, responsible for a massacre in New Liberty where West's parents were killed. President Ulysses S. Grant informs the two about the disappearances of America's key scientists and a treasonous plot by McGrath, and gives them the task of finding the scientists.
Aboard their train The Wanderer, West and Gordon examine the severed head of scientist Thaddeus Morton, finding a clue that leads them to Dr. Arliss Loveless, a legless ex-Confederate officer and engineering genius. Infiltrating Loveless's plantation during a party, the duo rescues a woman named Rita Escobar, who asks for their help in rescuing her father, Guillermo Escobar, one of the kidnapped scientists. Loveless holds a demonstration of his newest weapon, a steam-powered tank, and angers McGrath by using his soldiers for target practice. Accusing McGrath of "betrayal" for surrendering at Appomattox Court House, Loveless shoots him and leaves him for dead. Gordon, West, and Rita find the dying McGrath, who reveals he was framed by Loveless for the massacre. The three catch up with Loveless on The Wanderer. After a brief fight, Rita accidentally releases sleeping gas, which knocks out West, Gordon and herself.
Wild West Gold and Gordon wake up as Loveless pulls away in The Wanderer, taking Rita hostage. Announcing his intention to capture President Grant at the golden spike ceremony, he leaves the duo in a deadly trap from which they narrowly escape. West and Gordon stumble across Loveless's private railroad, leading to his secret industrial complex at Spider Canyon where they witness Loveless's ultimate weapon, a gigantic mechanical spider armed with nitroglycerin cannons. Loveless uses his spider to capture Grant and Gordon at the ceremony while West is shot and left for dead by one of Loveless's henchwomen after being caught sneaking in the spider. At his complex, Loveless announces his plan – to dissolve the United States, dividing the territory among Great Britain, France, Spain, Mexico, the Native American people and Loveless himself, but Grant refuses to surrender and Loveless orders Gordon to be executed. However, West – having survived being shot earlier – disguises himself as a belly dancer and distracts Loveless, allowing Gordon to free the captives.
Loveless then escapes on his spider, taking Grant with him. He again demands that Grant accept his terms of surrender, but Grant continues to reject his ultimatum and Loveless retaliates by destroying a small town. Using an "Air Gordon" flying machine, Gordon and West catch up to the spider where West battles Loveless's henchmen before confronting Loveless himself, now on mechanical legs. After freeing Grant, Gordon shoots one of Loveless's legs, allowing West to gain the upper hand. As the mechanical spider approaches a cliff, Loveless shoots at West with the concealed gun he used to kill McGrath, but instead hits the spider's machinery, halting it abruptly at the canyon's edge. Both West and Loveless fall from the spider, but West survives by catching a chain dangling from the machinery. Grant promotes Gordon and West as the first agents of his new United States Secret Service. After Grant departs on The Wanderer, West and Gordon reunite with Rita, whom they both attempt to court, but she announces that Professor Escobar is actually her husband. Gordon and West ride into the sunset on the spider.
Cast
Will Smith as U.S. Army Captain James "Jim" T. West
Kevin Kline as U.S. Marshal Artemus Gordon / U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant
Kenneth Branagh as Dr. Arliss Loveless
Salma Hayek as Rita Escobar
Ted Levine as General 'Bloodbath' McGrath
M. Emmet Walsh as US Marshal Coleman
Frederique Van Der Wal as Amazonia
Musetta Vander as Munitia
Bai Ling as Miss Mae Lee East
Sofia Eng as Miss Lippenreider (a play on "Lip-reader")
Garcelle Beauvais-Nilon as Belle
Rodney A. Grant as Hudson
Gary Carlos Cervantes as Professor Escobar, Rita's husband
Michael Sims as Professor Thaddeus Morton
Jerry Potter as Plantation Owner George Washington at Gala
Ian Abercrombie as British Dignitary
Ismael 'East' Carlo as Mexican Dignitary
Orestes Matacena as Spanish Dignitary
Christian Aubert as French Dignitary
E.J. Callahan as Allan Pinkerton
Debra Christofferson as Dora Lookalike
Scott Sandler as Young Joe Finnegan (uncredited)
Derek Mears as 'Metal Head' (uncredited)
David Lea as Thug With Knife (uncredited)
Production
Development
Variety first reported in January 1992 that Warner Bros. had optioned the film rights to Michael Garrison's television show The Wild Wild West, and hired Richard Donner to direct a film adaptation from a screenplay by Shane Black that would have starred Mel Gibson as Jim West (Donner coincidentally directed three episodes of the original series). However, Donner and Gibson left the project to work on a film adaptation of Maverick in 1994. Nonetheless, the project continued in the development stage with Tom Cruise rumored for the lead in 1995. Cruise instead starred in a film adaptation of Mission: Impossible the following year.
Discussions with Will Smith and director Barry Sonnenfeld began in February 1997. Warner Bros. pursued George Clooney to co-star as Artemus Gordon, with Kevin Kline, Matthew McConaughey, and Johnny Depp also in contention for the role while screenwriters S. S. Wilson and Brent Maddock (best known for writing the Short Circuit and Tremors films) were hired by the studio to script the film in April and May 1997. Clooney signed on the following August after dropping out of Jack Frost while the Wilson-Maddock script was rewritten by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman (of Who Framed Roger Rabbit and Doc Hollywood fame). Principal photography was expected to begin in January 1998, but was pushed to April 22, 1998. In December 1997, Clooney dropped out after an argument with Sonnenfeld: "Ultimately, we all decided that rather than damage this project trying to retrofit the role for me, it was better to step aside and let them get someone else."
Writing
The film featured several significant changes from the television series. For example, Dr. Loveless – as portrayed by Kenneth Branagh in the film – went from a dwarf to a man without legs who uses a steam-powered wheelchair (similar to that employed by the villain in the episode "The Night of the Brain"); his first name was also changed from Miguelito to Arliss and was given the motive of a Southerner who sought the defeat of the North after the Civil War. Kevin Kline plays Gordon, whose character was similar to the original version portrayed by Ross Martin except that he was much more competitive with Jim West, besides being much more egotistical. The film's script had Kline's Gordon create more ridiculous, humorous, and implausible inventions than those created by Martin's Gordon in the television series, as well as having an aggressive rivalry with West, whereas in the television series, West and he had a very close friendship and trusted each other with their lives. While Gordon did indeed impersonate Grant in the series ("The Night of the Steel Assassin", "The Night of the Colonel's Ghost", and "The Night of the Big Blackmail"), they were not played by the same actor. Additionally, on the TV series, West was portrayed by Robert Conrad, a Caucasian rather than an African American – which serves a critical plot point as West's parents were among the victims of Loveless's massacre at New Liberty.
Jon Peters produced the film alongside director Sonnenfeld. In a 2002 Q&A event that appears on An Evening with Kevin Smith, filmmaker Kevin Smith talked about working with Peters on a fifth potential Superman film in 1997, revealing that Peters had three demands for the script. The first demand was that Superman not wear the suit, the second was that Superman not fly, and the third was to have Superman fight a giant spider in the third act. After Tim Burton came on board, Smith's script was scrapped and the film was never produced due to further complications. A year later, he noted that Wild Wild West, with Peters on board as producer, was released with the inclusion of a giant mechanical spider in the final act. Neil Gaiman also said that Peters insisted that a giant mechanical spider be included in a proposed film adaptation of The Sandman.
Filming
Filming began in 1998. The sequences on both Artemus Gordon and Dr. Loveless's trains interiors were shot on sets at Warner Bros. Burbank Studios, 4000 Warner Boulevard, Burbank, California. The train exteriors were shot in Idaho on the Camas Prairie Railroad. The Wanderer is portrayed by the Baltimore & Ohio 4–4–0 No. 25, one of the oldest operating steam locomotives in the U.S. Built in 1856 at the Mason Machine Works in Taunton, Massachusetts, it was later renamed The William Mason in honor of its manufacturer. During preproduction, the engine was sent to the steam shops at the Strasburg Rail Road for restoration and repainting. The locomotive is brought out for the B&O Train Museum in Baltimore's "Steam Days". The William Mason and the Inyo (which was the locomotive used in the original television series) both appeared in the 1956 Disney film The Great Locomotive Chase.
Much of the Wild West footage was shot around Santa Fe, New Mexico, particularly at the western town film set at the Cook Movie Ranch (now Cerro Pelon Ranch). During the shooting of a sequence involving stunts and pyrotechnics, a planned building fire grew out of control and quickly overwhelmed the local fire crews that were standing by. Much of the town was destroyed before the fire was contained.
Music
The film's orchestral score, including its main theme, was composed and conducted by Elmer Bernstein, a veteran of many Western film scores such as The Magnificent Seven. The score mainly follows the Western genre's symphonic tradition, while at times also acknowledging the film's anachronistic playfulness by employing a more contemporary music style with notable rock percussion and electronic organ. The score also briefly incorporates Richard Markowitz's theme from the television series in one cue (uncredited in the film and not included on the album); ironically, this was one of the few elements to be faithful to the original television series, which also did not credit Markowitz for the theme. Additional parts of the score were composed by Bernstein's son Peter, while his daughter Emilie served as one of the orchestrators and producers.
Like most of his films during this period, Will Smith recorded a hip hop song based on the film's plot, also titled "Wild Wild West". "Wild Wild West" was a number-one hit on the U.S. pop charts, but it also won a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song. It was produced by Rob Fusari, who lifted a sample from Stevie Wonder's 1976 hit "I Wish". The song also features guest vocals from R&B group Dru Hill, and was a star-making vehicle for Dru Hill lead singer Sisqó. Old-school rapper Kool Moe Dee had recorded a "Wild Wild West" single of his own in 1987, to which he re-performs the chorus from his old "Wild Wild West" as the chorus of this new "Wild Wild West". A performance of the song by Smith, Dee, Dru Hill, and Sisqo at the 1999 MTV Movie Awards included Wonder performing a reprise of the chorus on piano.
Score
Score Deluxe Edition
Release
Upon release on June 30, 1999, alongside Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. Pictures' R-rated animated film South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, several news reports arose stating that adolescent moviegoers purchased tickets into seeing the PG-13-rated Wild Wild West in theaters, but instead went to see South Park. This was a result of a film industry crackdown that made sneaking into R-rated films tougher for children, as proposed by U.S. President Bill Clinton at the time in response to the moral panic generated by the Columbine High School massacre, which had occurred two months before the release of both films.
Marketing
Warner Bros. heavily promoted Wild Wild West as an anticipated summer blockbuster instead of Brad Bird's animated film The Iron Giant, which was released two months after Wild Wild West. This sparked controversy as The Iron Giant was becoming more critically successful than the critically panned Wild Wild West upon release, despite eventually underperforming at the box office due to the studio deciding to spend their money on marketing for Wild Wild West among other films.
Home media
Warner Home Video released Wild Wild West on VHS and DVD on November 30, 1999, on LaserDisc on December 28, 1999, and on Blu-ray on May 29, 2011.
Reception
Box office
Wild Wild West grossed $27.7 million on its opening weekend, ranking first at the North American box office. The film closed on October 10, 1999, after five months, having grossed $113.8 million domestically and $108.3 million overseas for a worldwide total of $222.1 million against a production budget of $170 million, making it commercially unsuccessful.
Critical response
Wild Wild West was met with mostly negative reviews from film critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 17% based on reviews from 131 critics, with an average rating of 4.06/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Bombastic, manic, and largely laugh-free, Wild Wild West is a bizarre misfire in which greater care was lavished upon the special effects than on the script." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 38 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times gave the film one star out of four, stating, "Wild Wild West is a comedy dead zone. You stare in disbelief as scenes flop and die. The movie is all concept and no content; the elaborate special effects are like watching money burn on the screen." Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying the film "leaves reality so far behind that its storytelling would be arbitrary even by comic-book standards, and its characters share no common ground or emotional connection."
Accolades
Wild Wild West later ranked in the listed bottom 20 of the Stinkers' "100 Years, 100 Stinkers" list (which noted the 100 worst films of the 20th century) at #2, but lost to Battlefield Earth.
Soundtrack
A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on June 15, 1999, by Interscope Records and Overbrook Music. It peaked at number four on both the Billboard 200 and the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
Video game
An action-adventure video game titled Wild Wild West: The Steel Assassin was developed and released by SouthPeak Interactive on December 7, 1999, five months following the film's release.
Lawsuit
In 1997, writer Gilbert Ralston sued Warner Bros. over the upcoming feature film based on the series. Ralston helped create the original television series The Wild Wild West and scripted the pilot episode "The Night of the Inferno". In a deposition, Ralston explained that in 1964, he had been approached by producer Michael Garrison, who "said he had an idea for a series, good commercial idea, and wanted to know if I could glue the idea of a Western hero and a James Bond type together in the same show". Ralston said he then created the Civil War characters, the format, the story outline and nine drafts of the script that were the basis for the television series. It was his idea, for example, to have a secret agent named Jim West who would perform secret missions for a bumbling President Grant.
Ralston's experience brought to light a common Hollywood practice of the 1950s and 1960s when television writers who helped create popular series allowed producers or studios to take credit for a show, thus cheating the writers out of millions of dollars in royalties. However, Ralston died in 1999 before his suit was settled, resulting in Warner Bros. paying his family between $600,000 and $1.5 million.
See also
List of Western films of the 1990s
List of steampunk works
References
External links
Budgets (Record-setting)- The Numbers.com
1999 films
1990s English-language films
1999 science fiction films
1999 action comedy films
1990s buddy cop films
1990s Western (genre) comedy films
1990s Western (genre) science fiction films
1990s science fiction action films
1990s science fiction comedy films
American films
American alternate history films
American buddy cop films
American action comedy films
American science fiction action films
American science fiction comedy films
American Western (genre) comedy films
American Western (genre) science fiction films
American films about revenge
African-American films
African-American action films
African-American comedy films
African-American Western (genre) films
Cross-dressing in American films
Cultural depictions of Ulysses S. Grant
Films based on television series
Films directed by Barry Sonnenfeld
Films produced by Barry Sonnenfeld
Films produced by Jon Peters
Films with screenplays by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman
Films with screenplays by Jim Thomas (screenwriter)
Films with screenplays by John Thomas (screenwriter)
Films scored by Elmer Bernstein
Films about amputees
Films about spiders
Films set in 1869
Films set in the White House
Films set in New Orleans
Films set on trains
Films shot in Idaho
Films shot in New Mexico
Films shot in Utah
Golden Raspberry Award winning films
Steampunk films
Warner Bros. films | [
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244611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s%20law%20of%20universal%20gravitation | Newton's law of universal gravitation | Newton's law of universal gravitation is usually stated as that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. The publication of the theory has become known as the "first great unification", as it marked the unification of the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviors.
This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called inductive reasoning. It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. When Newton presented Book 1 of the unpublished text in April 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him.
In today's language, the law states that every point mass attracts every other point mass by a force acting along the line intersecting the two points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The equation for universal gravitation thus takes the form:
where F is the gravitational force acting between two objects, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, r is the distance between the centers of their masses, and G is the gravitational constant.
The first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory was the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and approximately 71 years after his death.
Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of the electrical force arising between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, where force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's law has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses, and the Coulomb constant in place of the gravitational constant.
Newton's law has since been superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, but it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity in most applications. Relativity is required only when there is a need for extreme accuracy, or when dealing with very strong gravitational fields, such as those found near extremely massive and dense objects, or at small distances (such as Mercury's orbit around the Sun).
History
Early history
In 1604, Galileo Galilei correctly hypothesized that the distance of a falling object is proportional to the square of the time elapsed. The relation of the distance of objects in free fall to the square of the time taken was confirmed by Italian Jesuits Grimaldi and Riccioli between 1640 and 1650. They also made a calculation of the gravity of Earth by recording the oscillations of a pendulum.
A modern assessment about the early history of the inverse square law is that "by the late 1670s", the assumption of an "inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons". The same author credits Robert Hooke with a significant and seminal contribution, but treats Hooke's claim of priority on the inverse square point as irrelevant, as several individuals besides Newton and Hooke had suggested it. He points instead to the idea of "compounding the celestial motions" and the conversion of Newton's thinking away from "centrifugal" and towards "centripetal" force as Hooke's significant contributions.
Newton gave credit in his Principia to two people: Bullialdus (who wrote without proof that there was a force on the Earth towards the Sun), and Borelli (who wrote that all planets were attracted towards the Sun). The main influence may have been Borelli, whose book Newton had a copy of.
Plagiarism dispute
In 1686, when the first book of Newton's Principia was presented to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke accused Newton of plagiarism by claiming that he had taken from him the "notion" of "the rule of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the Center". At the same time (according to Edmond Halley's contemporary report) Hooke agreed that "the Demonstration of the Curves generated thereby" was wholly Newton's.
Hooke's work and claims
Robert Hooke published his ideas about the "System of the World" in the 1660s, when he read to the Royal Society on March 21, 1666, a paper "concerning the inflection of a direct motion into a curve by a supervening attractive principle", and he published them again in somewhat developed form in 1674, as an addition to "An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations". Hooke announced in 1674 that he planned to "explain a System of the World differing in many particulars from any yet known", based on three suppositions: that "all Celestial Bodies whatsoever, have an attraction or gravitating power towards their own Centers" and "also attract all the other Celestial Bodies that are within the sphere of their activity"; that "all bodies whatsoever that are put into a direct and simple motion, will so continue to move forward in a straight line, till they are by some other effectual powers deflected and bent..." and that "these attractive powers are so much the more powerful in operating, by how much the nearer the body wrought upon is to their own Centers". Thus Hooke postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, together with a principle of linear inertia.
Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses. He also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On the latter two aspects, Hooke himself stated in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of attraction] are I have not yet experimentally verified"; and as to his whole proposal: "This I only hint at present", "having my self many other things in hand which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting this Inquiry"). It was later on, in writing on 6 January 1679|80 to Newton, that Hooke communicated his "supposition ... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently that the Velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance." (The inference about the velocity was incorrect.)
Hooke's correspondence with Newton during 1679–1680 not only mentioned this inverse square supposition for the decline of attraction with increasing distance, but also, in Hooke's opening letter to Newton, of 24 November 1679, an approach of "compounding the celestial motions of the planets of a direct motion by the tangent & an attractive motion towards the central body".
Newton's work and claims
Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea. Among the reasons, Newton recalled that the idea had been discussed with Sir Christopher Wren previous to Hooke's 1679 letter. Newton also pointed out and acknowledged prior work of others, including Bullialdus, (who suggested, but without demonstration, that there was an attractive force from the Sun in the inverse square proportion to the distance), and Borelli (who suggested, also without demonstration, that there was a centrifugal tendency in counterbalance with a gravitational attraction towards the Sun so as to make the planets move in ellipses). D T Whiteside has described the contribution to Newton's thinking that came from Borelli's book, a copy of which was in Newton's library at his death.
Newton further defended his work by saying that had he first heard of the inverse square proportion from Hooke, he would still have some rights to it in view of his demonstrations of its accuracy. Hooke, without evidence in favor of the supposition, could only guess that the inverse square law was approximately valid at great distances from the center. According to Newton, while the 'Principia' was still at pre-publication stage, there were so many a priori reasons to doubt the accuracy of the inverse-square law (especially close to an attracting sphere) that "without my (Newton's) Demonstrations, to which Mr Hooke is yet a stranger, it cannot believed by a judicious Philosopher to be any where accurate."
This remark refers among other things to Newton's finding, supported by mathematical demonstration, that if the inverse square law applies to tiny particles, then even a large spherically symmetrical mass also attracts masses external to its surface, even close up, exactly as if all its own mass were concentrated at its center. Thus Newton gave a justification, otherwise lacking, for applying the inverse square law to large spherical planetary masses as if they were tiny particles. In addition, Newton had formulated, in Propositions 43–45 of Book 1 and associated sections of Book 3, a sensitive test of the accuracy of the inverse square law, in which he showed that only where the law of force is calculated as the inverse square of the distance will the directions of orientation of the planets' orbital ellipses stay constant as they are observed to do apart from small effects attributable to inter-planetary perturbations.
In regard to evidence that still survives of the earlier history, manuscripts written by Newton in the 1660s show that Newton himself had, by 1669, arrived at proofs that in a circular case of planetary motion, "endeavour to recede" (what was later called centrifugal force) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center. After his 1679–1680 correspondence with Hooke, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J. Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The lesson offered by Hooke to Newton here, although significant, was one of perspective and did not change the analysis. This background shows there was basis for Newton to deny deriving the inverse square law from Hooke.
Newton's acknowledgment
On the other hand, Newton did accept and acknowledge, in all editions of the Principia, that Hooke (but not exclusively Hooke) had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke, and Halley in this connection in the Scholium to Proposition 4 in Book 1. Newton also acknowledged to Halley that his correspondence with Hooke in 1679–80 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters, but that did not mean, according to Newton, that Hooke had told Newton anything new or original: "yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it ..."
Modern priority controversy
Since the time of Newton and Hooke, scholarly discussion has also touched on the question of whether Hooke's 1679 mention of 'compounding the motions' provided Newton with something new and valuable, even though that was not a claim actually voiced by Hooke at the time. As described above, Newton's manuscripts of the 1660s do show him actually combining tangential motion with the effects of radially directed force or endeavour, for example in his derivation of the inverse square relation for the circular case. They also show Newton clearly expressing the concept of linear inertia—for which he was indebted to Descartes' work, published in 1644 (as Hooke probably was). These matters do not appear to have been learned by Newton from Hooke.
Nevertheless, a number of authors have had more to say about what Newton gained from Hooke and some aspects remain controversial. The fact that most of Hooke's private papers had been destroyed or have disappeared does not help to establish the truth.
Newton's role in relation to the inverse square law was not as it has sometimes been represented. He did not claim to think it up as a bare idea. What Newton did, was to show how the inverse-square law of attraction had many necessary mathematical connections with observable features of the motions of bodies in the solar system; and that they were related in such a way that the observational evidence and the mathematical demonstrations, taken together, gave reason to believe that the inverse square law was not just approximately true but exactly true (to the accuracy achievable in Newton's time and for about two centuries afterwards – and with some loose ends of points that could not yet be certainly examined, where the implications of the theory had not yet been adequately identified or calculated).
About thirty years after Newton's death in 1727, Alexis Clairaut, a mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies, wrote after reviewing what Hooke published, that "One must not think that this idea ... of Hooke diminishes Newton's glory"; and that "the example of Hooke" serves "to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated".
Newton's reservations
While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of "action at a distance" that his equations implied. In 1692, in his third letter to Bentley, he wrote: "That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it."
He never, in his words, "assigned the cause of this power". In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity (although he invented two mechanical hypotheses in 1675 and 1717). Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science. He lamented that "philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain" for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced "by many reasons" that there were "causes hitherto unknown" that were fundamental to all the "phenomena of nature". These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer has yet to be found. And in Newton's 1713 General Scholium in the second edition of Principia: "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses.... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies."
Modern form
In modern language, the law states the following:
Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is
The value of the constant G was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for G. This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force.
Bodies with spatial extent
If the bodies in question have spatial extent (as opposed to being point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses that constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become "infinitely small", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies.
In this way, it can be shown that an object with a spherically symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its center. (This is not generally true for non-spherically-symmetrical bodies.)
For points inside a spherically symmetric distribution of matter, Newton's shell theorem can be used to find the gravitational force. The theorem tells us how different parts of the mass distribution affect the gravitational force measured at a point located a distance r0 from the center of the mass distribution:
The portion of the mass that is located at radii causes the same force at the radius r0 as if all of the mass enclosed within a sphere of radius r0 was concentrated at the center of the mass distribution (as noted above).
The portion of the mass that is located at radii exerts no net gravitational force at the radius r0 from the center. That is, the individual gravitational forces exerted on a point at radius r0 by the elements of the mass outside the radius r0 cancel each other.
As a consequence, for example, within a shell of uniform thickness and density there is no net gravitational acceleration anywhere within the hollow sphere.
Vector form
Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a vector equation to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in bold represent vectors.
where
F21 is the force applied on object 2 exerted by object 1,
G is the gravitational constant,
m1 and m2 are respectively the masses of objects 1 and 2,
|r21| = |r2 − r1| is the distance between objects 1 and 2, and
is the unit vector from object 1 to object 2.
It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the scalar form given earlier, except that F is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that F12 = −F21.
Gravity field
The gravitational field is a vector field that describes the gravitational force that would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point.
It is a generalisation of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than two objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For two objects (e.g. object 2 is a rocket, object 1 the Earth), we simply write r instead of r12 and m instead of m2 and define the gravitational field g(r) as:
so that we can write:
This formulation is dependent on the objects causing the field. The field has units of acceleration; in SI, this is m/s2.
Gravitational fields are also conservative; that is, the work done by gravity from one position to another is path-independent. This has the consequence that there exists a gravitational potential field V(r) such that
If m1 is a point mass or the mass of a sphere with homogeneous mass distribution, the force field g(r) outside the sphere is isotropic, i.e., depends only on the distance r from the center of the sphere. In that case
the gravitational field is on, inside and outside of symmetric masses.
As per Gauss's law, field in a symmetric body can be found by the mathematical equation:
where is a closed surface and is the mass enclosed by the surface.
Hence, for a hollow sphere of radius and total mass ,
For a uniform solid sphere of radius and total mass ,
Limitations
Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes and is therefore widely used. Deviations from it are small when the dimensionless quantities and are both much less than one, where is the gravitational potential, is the velocity of the objects being studied, and is the speed of light in vacuum.
For example, Newtonian gravity provides an accurate description of the Earth/Sun system, since
where is the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.
In situations where either dimensionless parameter is large, then
general relativity must be used to describe the system. General relativity reduces to Newtonian gravity in the limit of small potential and low velocities, so Newton's law of gravitation is often said to be the low-gravity limit of general relativity.
Observations conflicting with Newton's formula
Newton's theory does not fully explain the precession of the perihelion of the orbits of the planets, especially that of Mercury, which was detected long after the life of Newton. There is a 43 arcsecond per century discrepancy between the Newtonian calculation, which arises only from the gravitational attractions from the other planets, and the observed precession, made with advanced telescopes during the 19th century.
The predicted angular deflection of light rays by gravity (treated as particles travelling at the expected speed) that is calculated by using Newton's theory is only one-half of the deflection that is observed by astronomers. Calculations using general relativity are in much closer agreement with the astronomical observations.
In spiral galaxies, the orbiting of stars around their centers seems to strongly disobey both Newton's law of universal gravitation and general relativity. Astrophysicists, however, explain this marked phenomenon by assuming the presence of large amounts of dark matter.
Einstein's solution
The first two conflicts with observations above were explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is a manifestation of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, energy and momentum distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force resulting from the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime.
Extensions
In recent years, quests for non-inverse square terms in the law of gravity have been carried out by neutron interferometry.
Solutions of Newton's law of universal gravitation
The n-body problem is an ancient, classical problem of predicting the individual motions of a group of celestial objects interacting with each other gravitationally. Solving this problem — from the time of the Greeks and on — has been motivated by the desire to understand the motions of the Sun, planets and the visible stars. In the 20th century, understanding the dynamics of globular cluster star systems became an important n-body problem too. The n-body problem in general relativity is considerably more difficult to solve.
The classical physical problem can be informally stated as: given the quasi-steady orbital properties (instantaneous position, velocity and time) of a group of celestial bodies, predict their interactive forces; and consequently, predict their true orbital motions for all future times.
The two-body problem has been completely solved, as has the restricted three-body problem.
See also
Bentley's paradox
Gauss's law for gravity
Jordan and Einstein frames
Kepler orbit
Newton's cannonball
Newton's laws of motion
Social gravity
Static forces and virtual-particle exchange
Notes
References
External links
Newton‘s Law of Universal Gravitation Javascript calculator
Theories of gravitation
Isaac Newton
Articles containing video clips
Scientific laws
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244614 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic%3A%20The%20Gathering%20World%20Championship | Magic: The Gathering World Championship | The Magic: The Gathering World Championships (Worlds) have been held annually since 1994. It is the most important tournament in the game of Magic: The Gathering, offering cash prizes of up to $100,000 to the winners. With the exception of the first edition, Worlds is an invitation-only event, and from 1996 to 2011 World was the last event of each Pro Tour season. The invitees were mostly top finishers from the National championships, the top-ranked players of the DCI and high-level pro players. Since 2012 the World Championships are held after the season and the most successful 16 or 24 players have been invited to the tournament.
After the first five World Championships were all held in the United States, Worlds have since been held in Japan, Australia and various countries in Europe. Besides the main event Worlds were always a huge gathering of Magic players, who came to watch the pros and compete in side events.
After the 2011 season, the World Championship was briefly replaced by the Magic Players Championship. The top 16 pro players selected due to various criteria were invited to the Players Championship. In 2013 the tournament was renamed to 'World Championship' once again. From 2014 to 2018 the tournament was expanded to 24 competitors, but is going back to 16 players for the 2019 Worlds.
The large World Championships, held until 2011, also included a national team portion where the top players from each National Championship engaged in a separate competition. The decision to abandon large World Championships would have left the community without such an event. In part due to heavy demand by the players, Wizards of the Coast decided to create a replacement after initially abandoning the national team competition. A new team competition, the World Magic Cup was held annually from 2012 to 2017.
Twenty five World Championships have been held since 1994. The most successful contestant is Shahar Shenhar, the only player to win Worlds twice. In the team portion the United States are by far the most successful country, having won 8 out of 23 editions.
History
The first World Championship was held in 1994 at the Gen Con fair in Milwaukee. The tournament was open to all competitors, its mode was single-elimination, and it featured just one format, Vintage (then known as Type I). The 1994 tournament varied considerably from later Worlds. Starting with the 1995 Worlds, all subsequent Worlds were open to invited players only. Also beginning with the 1995 edition, all Worlds were events with multiple formats, usually two or three. After national team scores had been counted for the 1995 Worlds a proper team portion was introduced in 1996.
With the introduction of the Pro Tour in 1996, the World Championship became the final stop of each Pro Tour season. As the final event to award Pro points every season, Worlds also hosted the Pro Player of the Year award ceremony. Traditionally held in August, Worlds was moved to the end of the year between 2004 and 2006, when the Pro Tour season was adjusted to the calendar year. Since the inception of the Hall of Fame in 2005, Worlds also hosted the induction ceremony of each year's class.
After 15 years in which the Worlds underwent only minor changes, major changes were announced in 2011. For 2012, the World Championships would be replaced by a 16-player invitational event named the Magic: The Gathering Players Championship. The Pro Player of the Year title was discontinued in favor of the Players Championship, thus attempting to merge the major individual titles, the World Champion and the Pro Player of the Year. However, for the next season, the Players Championship was renamed to World Championship and Pro Player of the Year was made a separate title once again. Originally the team portion of Worlds was planned to be discontinued, but after public outcry from the players Wizards decided to create a replacement, the World Magic Cup. Meanwhile, the Hall of Fame introduction ceremony was moved to the first Pro Tour in each season.
Since 2012 there have been only minor changes to the World Championship competition structure. The number of competitors was upped to 24 between 2014 and 2018 and the number of formats used varied from two to four.
Mode
Before 2012, most Worlds were held across five days, hosting an individual competition and a team competition. The individual competition consisted of three disciplines in which every participant had to compete. This meant six rounds of Standard played on the first day, two Drafts of three rounds each on the second, and six rounds of some previously determined constructed format on the third day. The fourth day hosted the national team competition. On the final day the eight highest finishing players from the individual competition returned to determine the World Champion in three rounds of single elimination. Beginning with the 2007 Worlds the tournament had been shortened to four days with the schedule altered to accommodate all parts of the competition.
Since 2012, the World Championship has been a 16-player event (2012 and 2013) or a 24-player event (2014 onwards) rather than a Pro Tour-like event with 300-400 competitors. The mode is similar to previous Worlds events in that it features two constructed formats in addition to Booster Draft. In 2014, three rounds of Vintage Masters draft and four rounds of Modern were played on the first day, followed by three rounds of Khans of Tarkir draft and four rounds of Standard on the second day. After the Swiss rounds, there is a cut to the top four players, who play two rounds of single elimination to determine the World Champion.
For 2015, it was initially announced that the World Championship and the World Magic Cup would be held on separate weeks, sharing the same venue. However, it was later announced that these events would be held at different locations and at different times.
Participants
World Championship
Prior to 2012, the following players were eligible to play in the World Championship:
Current World Champion
2nd to 8th-place finishers from the previous World Championship.
Current Pro Player of the Year.
For countries that hold an invitation-only National Championship, the three members of each national team and that team's designated alternate.
For countries that hold an open National Championship, the winner of that National Championship.
Players with Pro Tour Players Club level 4 or higher. (This includes all members of the Hall of Fame.)
Players with Pro Tour Players Club level 3 that have not yet used their Players Club invitation
Top 25 DCI Total-ranked players from the APAC region.
Top 25 DCI Total-ranked players from Japan.
Top 50 DCI Total-ranked players from the Europe region.
Top 50 DCI Total-ranked players from the Latin America region.
Top 50 DCI Total-ranked players from the North America region.
Players invited to the Magic Online Championship held the same week (New in 2009).
(Compare Magic Premier Event Invitation Policy).
On 2 November 2011, Wizards of the Coast announced a major change to the structure of the World Championship. It was announced that as of 2012, the individual World Championship would be renamed the Magic Players Championship, though the tournament would later revert to its original title, and move from being a Pro Tour-sized event to an exclusive sixteen-person tournament. These sixteen players will be the:
Previous World Champion/Magic Players Champion
Previous Magic Online Champion Series Champion
Winners of the previous three Pro Tours
The top-ranked player from each geo-region (Asia Pacific, Europe, Japan, Latin America, and North America) in the Planeswalker Points Yearly Professional Total in previous' season who are not yet invited based on the above criteria
The top-ranked players in previous' season worldwide Planeswalker Points Yearly Professional Total who are not yet invited based on the above criteria sufficient to bring the total number of invited players to the World Championship to sixteen. Should multiple players finished in the same position, the player with a better standing in his/her best Pro Tour in that season will have an advantage.
In 2012, it was also decided to invite the 2011 Pro Player of the Year, Owen Turtenwald, though it was intended that the title be retired in that year.
In 2014, the tournament was expanded to 24 players. Additional invites were granted to the players ranked 2nd place from each geo-region, the fourth Pro-Tour winner, the Rookie of the Year, and the top-ranked player from the World Magic Cup winning country in the previous season, will be also invited.
In a 2015 revision, the Rookie of the Year invitation was replaced by the top-ranked player in terms of Pro Points earned in Grand Prix events (to which the point cap does not apply). Further revisions include a change in geo-region invitations, which have been increased to Top 3 for Europe and Asia-Pacific (which now includes Japan) and Top 4 for North America, at the expense of at-large slots. Effective after the 2015 World Championship, the captain of the previous season's World Magic Cup winning team would also no longer receive an invite.
Team World Championship
The Team World Championship consists of three-player teams, with each team representing one country. Players that are eligible to play in the Team World Championship are the first, second and third place players at a country's National Championship.
World Magic Cup
In 2012, the Team World Championship became a single separate event called the 'World Magic Cup'. This national team event consists of four-player teams representing selected countries. The four players eligible to play in each national team will be the three winners of World Magic Cup qualifiers and the National Champion (the player finished with most Pro Points in previous season) of the country. The National Champion is the highest ranked player from that country in that year's rankings.
Until 2013, all players in top 4 will be invited into the following Pro Tour with airfare expense paid. It was expanded to top 8 teams since 2014. In 2013 and 2014 running, the National Champion of the winning team was also invited to the following year's World Championship.
1994 World championship
The first Magic World Championship was held at the Gen Con in Milwaukee, USA on 19–21 August 1994. It is the only Worlds tournament which was held in the Vintage format, though it wasn't known as such at the time because there was only one sanctioned format. The 1994 Worlds is also the only Worlds which was not an invite-only tournament. Instead, everybody could register, but the tournament was capped at 512 participants. After two days of single elimination play the final four players featured Bertrand Lestrée, who defeated Cyrille DeFoucaud 2–0 in his semi-final, and Zak Dolan, who defeated Dominic Symens 2–0 in the other semi-final. In the final Dolan defeated Lestrée 2–1.
Final standings
Zak Dolan
Bertrand Lestrée
Dominic Symens
Cyrille de Foucaud
1995 World championship
The second Magic World Championship was held on 4–6 August at the Red Lion Inn in Seattle, USA. 71 players from 19 countries participated. The tournament featured five rounds of Sealed Deck on the first day and five rounds of Standard, then known as Type II, on the second day. In each round three games were played and three points were awarded for each individual game won instead of completed matches as today. After 30 games five players were tied at 19 wins. Blumke and Redi advanced to the top eight after a playoff. The top 8 on Sunday were played with the Standard decks from the day before. In the final Alexander Blumke defeated Marc Hernandez 3–2.
Final standings
Team champion
United States – Mark Justice, Henry Stern, Peter Leiher, Michael Long
Finland – Rosendahl, Henri Schildt, Kimmo Hovi, Punakallio
Australia – Glenn Shanley, Christopher Hudson, Russell, Liew
France – Marc Hernandez, Moulin, Woirgard, Lebas
1996 World championship
The third Magic World Championship was held at the Wizards headquarters in Seattle, USA. It was the first Worlds also to be a Pro Tour. 125 players competed in the event. The tournament featured six rounds each of Booster Draft, Standard (Type II), and Legacy (Type 1.5). For each match two points were awarded to the winner. In case of a draw both players received one point. For the first time the World Championship also included an official team portion.
Final standings
Note that Chanpheng's winning deck included a , but no sources of blue mana. This stemmed from an error in his submitted decklist, which was supposed to include some number of Adarkar Wastes in place of Plains.
Tom's victory was commemorated with a unique card, named 1996 World Champion.
Team final
United States – Dennis Bentley, George Baxter, Mike Long, Matt Place
Czech Republic – David Korejtko, Jakub Slemr, Ondrej Baudys, Lukas Kocourek
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Olle Råde
Shawn "Hammer" Regnier
Mark Justice
1997 World championship
The fourth Magic World Championship was held on 13–17 August 1997 in Seattle, USA. 153 players competed in the event. It was the first Magic tournament to be filmed by ESPN2 and was covered in Sports Illustrated. The competition featured Standard, Mirage-Visions-Weatherlight Rochester Draft, and Extended, and Fifth Edition-Weatherlight Team Sealed for the team portion.
Final standings
Team final
Canada – Gary Krakower, Michael Donais, Ed Ito, Gabriel Tsang
Sweden – Nikolai Weibull, Mattias Jorstedt, Marcus Angelin, Johan Cedercrantz
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Paul McCabe
Terry Borer
1998 World championship
The fifth Magic World Championship was held on 12–16 August 1998 in Seattle, USA. This tournament featured a Tempest-Stronghold-Exodus Booster Draft, Standard, and Tempest Block Constructed.
203 players competed in the event. The USA dominated the top 8, taking seven of the eight slots. The USA also won the team competition.
Finishing order
Brian Selden
Ben Rubin
Jon Finkel
Raphaël Lévy
Scott Johns
Chris Pikula
Brian Hacker
Alan Comer
Team final
United States – Matt Linde, Mike Long, Bryce Currence, Jon Finkel
France – Pierre Malherbaud, Manuel Bevand, Marc Hernandez, Fabien Demazeau
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Jon Finkel
Randy Buehler
Steven O'Mahoney-Schwartz
Rookie of the Year
Randy Buehler
1999 World championship
The sixth Magic World Championship was held on 4–8 August 1999 at the Yokohama Pacifico in Yokohama, Japan. This tournament featured an Urza's Saga-Urza's Legacy-Urza's Destiny Rochester Draft, Standard, and Extended.
208 players from 32 countries competed in the event. In the final Kai Budde defeated Mark Le Pine 3–0 in about 20 minutes, the quickest Pro Tour final ever. Budde's win was the first of his seven Pro Tour victories. By winning this title he also claimed the first of his four Pro Player of the Year titles.
Finishing order
Kai Budde
Mark Le Pine
Raffaele Lo Moro
Matt Linde
Jakub Slemr
Jamie Parke
Gary Wise
Nicolai Herzog
Team final
United States – Kyle Rose, John Hunka, Zvi Mowshowitz, Charles Kornblith
Germany – Marco Blume, Patrick Mello, David Brucker, Rosario Maij
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Kai Budde
Jon Finkel
Casey McCarrel
Rookie of the Year
Dirk Baberowski
2000 World championship
The seventh Magic World Championship was held in Brussels, Belgium on 2–6 August 2000. It was the first time the Worlds were held in Europe. The tournament featured a Mercadian Masques-Nemesis-Prophecy Booster Draft, Mercadian Masques Block Constructed, and Standard.
273 players from 46 countries competed in the event. In the final Jon Finkel defeated his friend, Bob Maher. Both played nearly identical decks with a difference of just one card.
Finishing order
Jon Finkel
Bob Maher, Jr.
Dominik Hothow
Benedikt Klauser
Tom van de Logt
Helmut Summersberger
Janosch Kühn
Nicolas Labarre
Team final
United States – Jon Finkel, Chris Benafel, Frank Hernandez, Aaron Forsythe
Canada – Ryan Fuller, Murray Evans, Gabriel Tsang, Sam Lau
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Bob Maher, Jr.
Darwin Kastle
Jon Finkel
Rookie of the Year
Brian Davis
2001 World championship
The eighth Magic World Championship was held on 8–12 August 2001 at the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The tournament featured Invasion-Planeshift-Apocalypse Rochester Draft, Standard, and Extended as individual formats and Invasion block team Rochester as the team format.
296 players from 51 countries competed in the tournament. Tom van de Logt from the Netherlands came out as the new world champion, garnering a prize of $35,000 for his victory (as well as another $1,000 for the success of the Dutch team he was part of). Other finalists included future World Series of Poker bracelet winner Alex Borteh (2nd place), Antoine Ruel (3rd place), Andrea Santin (4th place), Mike Turian (5th place), Jan Tomcani (6th place), Tommi Hovi (7th place), and David Williams (disqualified). John Ormerod did not make the top 8 finishers, but was awarded 8th place after David Williams was disqualified for a marked deck. The team competition was won by the US team, which defeated Norway in the team final.
Finishing Order
Tom van de Logt
Alex Borteh
Antoine Ruel
Andrea Santin
Mike Turian
Jan Tomcani
Tommi Hovi
John Ormerod
Team final
United States – Trevor Blackwell, Brian Hegstad, Eugene Harvey
Norway – Nicolai Herzog, Oyvind Odegaard, Jan Pieter Groenhof
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Kai Budde
Kamiel Cornelissen
Michael Pustilnik
Rookie of the Year
Katsuhiro Mori
2002 World championship
The ninth Magic World Championship was held on 14–18 August 2002 at Fox Studios in Sydney, Australia. The tournament featured Odyssey-Torment-Judgment Booster Draft, Odyssey Block Constructed, and Standard as individual formats and Odyssey Team Rochester Draft as the team format.
245 players from 46 countries competed in the tournament. Twenty-four-year-old Carlos "Jaba" Romão from São Paulo, Brazil came out as world champion, defeating Mark Ziegner 3–2 in the final, thereby garnering a prize of $35,000 with the help of his blue/black "Psychatog" deck. Germany won the team competition, defeating the United States in the final 2–1.
Finishing order
Carlos Romão
Mark Ziegner
Diego Ostrovich
Dave Humpherys
Sim Han How
John Larkin
Tuomas Kotiranta
Ken Krouner
Team final
Germany – Kai Budde, Mark Ziegner, Felix Schneiders
United States – Eugene Harvey, Andrew Ranks, Eric Franz
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Kai Budde
Jens Thorén
Alex Shvartsman
Rookie of the Year
Farid Meraghni
2003 World championship
(Complete coverage)
The tenth Magic World Championship was held from 6 to 10 August at the Estrel Hotel in Berlin, Germany. The tournament featured Onslaught-Legions-Scourge Rochester Draft, Extended, and Standard as individual formats and Onslaught Team Rochester Draft as the team format.
312 players from 54 countries participated in the tournament. German Daniel Zink managed to emerge as the new world champion, beating Japan's Jin Okamoto 3–0 in the finals and taking home $35,000 in the process. The total prize money awarded to the top 64 finishers was $208,130. In the team final the United States defeated Finland 2–1.
Finishing order
Daniel Zink
Jin Okamoto
Tuomo Nieminen
Dave Humpherys
Jeroen Remie
Peer Kröger
Wolfgang Eder
Gabe Walls
Team Finals
United States – Justin Gary, Gabe Walls, Joshua Wagner
Finland – Tomi Walamies, Tuomo Nieminen, Arho Toikka
Player of the Year Race
Rookie of the Year
Masashi Oiso
2004 World championship
(Complete coverage)
The eleventh Magic World Championship was held from 1 to 5 September at the Fort Mason Center in San Francisco, California, USA.
The tournament featured Standard on Wednesday, Mirrodin-Darksteel-Fifth Dawn Booster Draft on Thursday, and Mirrodin Block Constructed on Friday. The team format was Mirrodin Block Team Rochester Draft.
304 players from 51 countries competed in the event. This was the first ever World Championships without a player from the United States in the Top 8. Julien Nuijten won the final 3–1 against Aeo Paquette. At 15 years old, he became the youngest ever Pro Tour winner and took home a total of $52,366 – a new record for winnings in a single collectible card game tournament. The total prize money awarded to the top 64 finishers was $208,130. Team Germany won the team final 2–1 against Belgium.
Finishing order
Julien Nuijten
Aeo Paquette
Ryou Ogura
Manuel Bevand
Kamiel Cornelissen
Terry Soh
Gabriel Nassif
Murray Evans
Team final
Germany – Torben Twiefel, Roland Bode, Sebastian Zink
Belgium – Vincent Lemoine, Dilson Ramos Da Fonseca, Geoffrey Siron
Player of the Year Race
Gabriel Nassif
Nicolai Herzog
Rickard Österberg
Rookie of the Year
Julien Nuijten
2005 World championship
(Complete coverage)
The twelfth Magic World Championship was held from 30 November to 4 December at the Pacifico Yokohama in Yokohama, Japan. The tournament featured Standard on Wednesday, Ravnica Booster Draft on Thursday, and Extended on Friday. The team format was Ravnica Team Rochester Draft. The event began with the induction of the first class of the newly incepted Hall of Fame – Alan Comer, Jon Finkel, Tommi Hovi, Darwin Kastle, and Olle Råde.
287 players from 56 countries competed in the event. Katsuhiro Mori won the tournament, defeating Frank Karsten 3–1 in the final, taking home $35,000. The total prize money awarded to the top 64 finishers was $208,130. In the team final Japan defeated the United States 3–0.
Finishing Order
Katsuhiro Mori
Frank Karsten
Tomohiro Kaji
Akira Asahara
Marcio Carvalho
Ding Leong
Shuhei Nakamura
André Coimbra
Team final
Japan – Takuma Morofuji, Ichirou Shimura, Masashi Oiso
United States – Antonino De Rosa, Neil Reeves, Jonathan Sonne
Player of the Year Race
Kenji Tsumura
Olivier Ruel
Masashi Oiso
Rookie of the Year
Pierre Canali
Hall of Fame inductees
Jon Finkel
Darwin Kastle
Tommi Hovi
Alan Comer
Olle Råde
2006 World championship
(Complete Coverage)
The thirteenth Magic World Championship took place from 29 November – 3 December 2006 at the Carrousel du Louvre in Paris, France. The tournament featured Standard on Wednesday, Time Spiral Booster Draft on Thursday, and Extended on Friday. The team format was Time Spiral Team Rochester Draft. Also on Wednesday Bob Maher, Dave Humpherys, Raphaël Lévy, Gary Wise, and Rob Dougherty were inducted into the Hall of Fame.
The winner of this tournament was Makihito Mihara, who defeated Ryou Ogura 3–0 in an all-Japanese final. He piloted a combo deck based on the card . It is the first time players from the same country have been World Champion in back-to-back seasons. The Netherlands defeated Japan 2–0 in the team final. The total prize money awarded to the top 75 finishers was $255,245.
Finishing Order
Makihito Mihara
Ryou Ogura
Nicholas Lovett
Gabriel Nassif
Paulo Carvalho
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa
Tiago Chan
Katsuhiro Mori
Team final
Netherlands – Kamiel Cornelissen, Julien Nuijten, Robert Van Medevoort
Japan – Katsuhiro Mori, Shuhei Yamamoto, Hidenori Katayama
Player of the Year
Shouta Yasooka
Shuhei Nakamura
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa
Rookie of the Year
Sebastian Thaler
Hall of Fame inductees
Bob Maher, Jr.
Dave Humpherys
Raphaël Lévy
Gary Wise
Rob Dougherty
2007 World championship
(Complete Coverage)
The fourteenth Magic World Championship took place from 6–9 December 2007 at the Jacob K. Javits Center of New York in New York City, USA. The tournament featured five rounds of Standard and a Lorwyn Booster Draft on Thursday. Friday featured five rounds of Legacy and another Lorwyn Booster Draft. The team format was Lorwyn Two-Headed Giant Booster Draft. The top 64 individual finishers received $215,600 in prize money.
386 players from 61 countries competed in the event. The winner of the tournament was Uri Peleg, defeating Patrick Chapin 3–1 in the final. Katsuhiro Mori made the top 8 for the third consecutive year, while Gabriel Nassif made his third final eight within four Worlds. Coincidentally, each player mirrored their performance from the previous year (Mori was eliminated in the quarter-finals, Nassif in the semi-finals).
Finishing Order
Uri Peleg
Patrick Chapin
Gabriel Nassif
Koutarou Ootsuka
Cristoph Huber
Yoshitaka Nakano
Katsuhiro Mori
Roel van Heeswijk
Team final
Switzerland – Nico Bohny, Manuel Bucher, Christoph Huber, Raphael Gennari
Austria – Thomas Preyer, David Reitbauer, Stefan Stradner, Helmut Summersberger
Pro Tour Player of the Year
Tomoharu Saitou
Kenji Tsumura
Guillaume Wafo-Tapa
Rookie of the Year
Yuuya Watanabe
Hall of Fame inductees
Kai Budde
Zvi Mowshowitz
Tsuyoshi Fujita
Nicolai Herzog
Randy Buehler
2008 World championship
(Official coverage)
The fifteenth Magic World Championship took place from 11 to 14 December 2008 at the Memphis Cook Convention Center in Memphis, TN, USA. The tournament featured six rounds of Standard play on Thursday, two Shards of Alara Booster Drafts with three rounds of Swiss each on Friday, six rounds of Extended on Saturday, and the finals on Sunday. Also, the national teams played two rounds of team constructed each on Thursday and Saturday with the Top 4 teams advancing to the single elimination finals on Sunday. The team format was 3 Person Team Constructed with one player playing Standard, one Extended, and one Legacy. The top 75 individual finishers received $245,245 in prize money.
329 players from 57 countries competed in the event. Antti Malin from Finland won the tournament, thereby claiming the first prize of $45,000. In the team final the United States defeated Australia to become the team champion.
Individual
Antti Malin
Jamie Parke
Tsuyoshi Ikeda
Hannes Kerem
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa
Kenji Tsumura
Frank Karsten
Akira Asahara
Team Competition
United States – Michael Jacob, Samuel Black, Paul Cheon
Australia – Aaron Nicastri, Brandon Lau, Justin Cheung
Brazil – Willy Edel, Vagner Casatti, Luiz Guilherme de Michielli
Japan – Yuuya Watanabe, Masashi Oiso, Akihiro Takakuwa
Pro Player of the Year
Rookie of the Year
Aaron Nicastri
Hall of Fame inductees
Dirk Baberowski
Mike Turian
Jelger Wiegersma
Olivier Ruel
Ben Rubin
2009 World championship
(Official coverage)
The sixteenth Magic World Championship took place from 19 to 22 November 2009 at the Palazzo Dei Congressi in Rome, Italy.
The tournament featured six rounds of Standard play on Thursday, two Zendikar Booster Drafts with three rounds of Swiss each on Friday, six rounds of Extended on Saturday and the finals on Sunday. Also, the national teams played two rounds of team constructed each on Thursday and Saturday with the Top 4 teams advancing to the single elimination finals on Sunday. The team format was 3 Person Team Constructed with one player playing Standard, one Extended, and one Legacy.
409 players from 65 countries competed in the event. André Coimbra from Portugal won the tournament, thereby claiming the first prize of $45,000. In the team final, China defeated Austria to become the team champion. This was the first Magic Pro Tour event of any sort in which no player in the Top 8 was from the United States or Japan. It was also the first time a Pro Tour Top 8 consisted of players from eight countries.
The Magic Online World Championship was held for the first time. It also took place in Rome at the site of the paper Magic World Championship. The tournament was previously announced to be for eight competitors. The qualifications could be gained in special tournaments on Magic Online. The players played three rounds each of Classic, Zendikar Booster Draft, and Standard on computers provided on the site. After nine rounds the two best players determined the title in a final match of Standard. Anssi Myllymäki (screen name: Anathik) of Finland defeated former Pro Player of the Year Shouta Yasooka (yaya3) in the final, thus claiming the grand prize of $13,000. The other contestants won between $4,000 and $9,000.
Individual
André Coimbra
David Reitbauer
Terry Soh
Bram Snepvangers
William Cavaglieri
Manuel Bucher
Marijn Lybaert
Florian Pils
Team Competition
China – Bo Li, Wu Tong, Zhiyang Zhang
Austria – Benedikt Klauser, Bernhard Lehner, Benjamin Rozhon
Czech Republic – Lukas Blohon, Lukas Jakolvsky, Jan Kotrla
Netherlands – Kevin Grove, Niels Noorlander, Tom van Lamoen
Pro Player of the Year
Rookie of the Year
Lino Burgold
Hall of Fame inductees
Antoine Ruel
Kamiel Cornelissen
Frank Karsten
Magic Online World Champion
Anssi Myllymäki
2010 World championship
(Official coverage)
The seventeenth Magic World Championship took place from 9–12 December in Makuhari Messe in Chiba, Japan. The tournament consisted of six rounds of Standard on Thursday, two Scars of Mirrodin Booster Drafts of three rounds each on Friday, and six rounds of Extended on Saturday. On Sunday the best eight players gathered for the Top 8. They had to play the same decks, they used in the Standard portion of the tournament. Also, the national teams played two rounds of team constructed each on Thursday and Saturday with the Top 2 teams advancing to the single elimination finals on Sunday. The team format is 3 Person Team Constructed with one player playing Standard, one Extended, and one Legacy.
352 players from 60 countries competed in the event. The national teams competition had 57 countries represented.
The 2010 World Champion Guillaume Matignon earned enough pro points with his performance to equal Pro Player of the Year leader Brad Nelson's total. This led to a play-off for the Pro Player of the Year title at Pro Tour Paris 2011, which was ultimately won by Brad Nelson.
Individual
Guillaume Matignon
Guillaume Wafo-Tapa
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa
Love Janse
Eric Froehlich
Lukas Jaklovsky
Christopher Wolf
Jonathan Randle
Team Competition
Slovakia – Ivan Floch, Robert Jurkovic, Patrik Surab
Australia – Adam Witton, Ian Wood, Jeremy Neeman
Pro Player of the Year
Rookie of the Year
Andrea Giarola
Hall of Fame inductees
Gabriel Nassif
Brian Kibler
Bram Snepvangers
Magic Online World Champion
Carlos Romão
2011 World championship
(Official coverage)
The eighteenth Magic World Championship was held from 17 to 20 November in the Fort Mason Center in San Francisco, the same site that already hosted the 2004 World Championship. The tournament consisted of six rounds of Standard on Thursday, two Innistrad Booster Drafts of three rounds each on Friday, and six rounds of Modern on Saturday. This would be the first World Championship to feature the new Modern format. On Sunday, the Top 8 players played against each other in elimination rounds, using the Standard decks they played on Thursday. 375 players from 60 countries competed in the event.
The Swiss rounds were dominated by American player Conley Woods, who would go 16–2 with his only losses being tactical concessions to other ChannelFireball teammates. Ultimately, four ChannelFireball teammates would make it into the Top 8: Conley Woods, Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa, Luis Scott-Vargas and Josh Utter-Leyton. For Paulo this was his fourth World Championship Top 8, making him the first player to achieve this, and his eighth Pro Tour Top 8 overall. Also, for the first time players playing in the Magic Online World Championships managed to make the Top 8 of the Pro Tour, with Jun'ya Iyanaga (SEVERUS on MTGO) and David Caplan (goobafish on MTGO) making it to Sunday. The quarterfinals saw three of the four ChannelFireball teammates eliminated, with only Conley Woods making it to the semifinals after narrowly defeating Craig Wescoe 3–2. The semifinals were clean sweeps with Jun'ya Iyanaga and Richard Bland defeating Conley Woods and David Caplan 3–0 respectively. In the finals Jun'ya Iyanaga defeated Richard Bland in another 3–0 to become the 2011 World Champion. Jun'ya Iyanaga's prize money for winning the World Championship and placing seventh in the Magic Online World Championship was $51,000, making him the second highest earner in the history of the World Championships behind 2004 World Champion Julien Nuijten.
In the team event, Japan played against Norway for the World Team Title. The Japanese team of Ryuichiro Ishida, Tomoya Fujimoto, and former World Champion Makihito Mihara were victorious.
In the Magic Online World Championship finals, Reid Duke (reidderrabbit on MTGO) played against Florian Pils (flying man on MTGO) in the Modern format. Reid Duke won the match 2–1 to become the Magic Online World Champion, the first American and the first Magic Online Player of the Year to win the title.
Individual
Jun'ya Iyanaga
Richard Bland
Conley Woods
David Caplan
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa
Luis Scott-Vargas
Josh Utter-Leyton
Craig Wescoe
Team Competition
Japan – Ryuichiro Ishida, Tomoya Fujimoto, Makihito Mihara
Norway – Sveinung Bjørnerud, Kristoffer Jonassen, Andreas Nordahl
Pro Player of the Year
Owen Turtenwald
Luis Scott-Vargas
Martin Juza
Rookie of the Year
Matthias Hunt
Hall of Fame inductees
Shuhei Nakamura
Anton Jonsson
Steven O'Mahoney-Schwartz
Magic Online World Champion
Reid Duke
2012 World championship
In 2012, the Magic World Championship structure was drastically altered alongside changes to the ranking system used in Magic: The Gathering. The individual World Championship was changed from a Pro Tour-sized event to a sixteen-player event, which was called the Magic Players Championship (though the tournament reverted to being called the World Championship for 2013). The team event, formerly held alongside the individual event, took place before the individual tournament and was contested by four-player teams instead of the previous three-player teams.
2012 World Magic Cup
(Official coverage)
Mode
The first World Magic Cup was held on 16–19 August at Gen Con 2012 in Indianapolis. The World Magic Cup is a modified national team event contested by four-player teams. Of the four players, three were winners of a country's three qualifier tournaments, called Magic World Cup qualifiers. The final player on the team was the National Champion, the player with the most pro points for the season from that country.
On Day 1, there were seven Swiss rounds including three rounds of Magic 2013 Booster Draft and four rounds of Standard. Players gained points for the team (Win- 3, Draw- 1, Loss- 0) and the best three scores in each team were added together to make a combined team score. The Top 32 teams with the highest combined team score advanced to Day 2.
On Day 2, all qualified teams will only start with three players, along with their advisor (the lowest scoring player in their team on Day 1). The 32 teams were being sorted, according to seeding, into eight pools of four teams. The teams played in three rounds with the format being Magic 2013 Team Sealed Deck. After these rounds, the top two teams from each pool advanced to the second stage, leaving sixteen teams. These teams were then sorted into four pools of four teams, and played three rounds of Team Constructed, with a player from each team playing Standard, Modern, and Innistrad Block Constructed.
On Day 3, the top eight teams from Day 2 competed in seeded single-elimination rounds, in the Team Constructed format, to determine the winner of the World Magic Cup.
Results
In the final of the tournament, the team from Taiwan played against the Puerto Rico team. Taiwan won the final and became the first World Magic Cup holders.
Finalists
Taiwan — Tzu-Ching Kuo, Tung-Yi Cheng, Yu Min Yang, and Paul Renie
Puerto Rico – Jorge Iramain, Gabriel Nieves, Cesar Soto, and Jonathan Paez
Poland – Tomek Pedrakowski, Mateusz Kopec, Adam Bubacz, and Jan Pruchniewicz
Hungary – Tamás Glied, Gabor Kocsis, Tamas Nagy, and Máté Schrick
Croatia – Grgur Petric Maretic, Toni Portolan, Stjepan Sucic, and Goran Elez
Scotland – Stephen Murray, Bradley Barclay, Andrew Morrison, and Chris Davie
Philippines – Andrew Cantillana, Gerald Camangon, Zax Ozaki, and Jeremy Bryan Domocmat
Slovak Republic – Robert Jurkovic, Ivan Floch, Filip Valis, and Patrik Surab
2012 Magic Players Championship
(Official coverage)
Mode
The 2012 Magic: The Gathering Players Championship was held from 29–31 August 2012 at the PAX Prime 2012 event. It replaced the former Pro Tour-sized World Championship event. Although originally entitled the 2012 World Championship, the tournament was renamed the Players Championship in an announcement in December 2011. The Players Championship also replaced the former Pro Player of the Year title, with that title intended to be encompassed in the Players Championship. The 2012 Magic Players Championship was an exclusive sixteen-person tournament which took place over three days. Day 1 consisted of three rounds of the Modern format followed by three rounds of Cube Draft, the first time a Cube Draft had been used in high-level competition. Day 2 consisted of three rounds of Magic 2013 draft, followed by three more rounds of Modern. On Day 3, the four players with the best records from the past 12 rounds played in single-elimination best-of-five-games Modern rounds to determine the winner of the Magic Players Championship.
Results
Yuuya Watanabe won the 2012 Players Championship and became only the second player ever (after Kai Budde) to receive more than one Player of the Year title.
Yuuya Watanabe (Top Pro Points, Japan) - Decklist
Shouta Yasooka (Top Pro Points, At-large 3)
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa (Top Pro Points, Latin America)
Jon Finkel (Top Pro Points, At-large 1)
Shuhei Nakamura (Top Pro Points, At-large 5)
Brian Kibler (Pro Tour Dark Ascension Champion)
Samuele Estratti (Pro Tour Philadelphia Champion)
Alexander Hayne (Pro Tour Avacyn Restored Champion)
Martin Juza (Top Pro Points, Europe)
Owen Turtenwald (2011 Pro Tour Player of the Year)
Jun'ya Iyanaga (2011 World Champion)
Luis Scott-Vargas (Top Pro Points, At-large 2)
Josh Utter-Leyton (Top Pro Points, North America)
David Ochoa (Top Pro Points, At-large 4)
Tzu-Ching Kuo (Top Pro Points, APAC)
Reid Duke (2011 Magic Online Champion)
2013 World Championship
(Official coverage)
For 2013 the Players Championship was renamed to World Championship. The title of Pro Player of the Year once again became a separate title, being awarded to Josh Utter-Leyton for the 2012-13 season. The 2013 World Championship was held in Amsterdam on 31 July – 4 August.
The players invited to the 2013 World Championship were.
Shahar Shenhar (Top Pro Points, at-large)
Reid Duke (Top Pro Points, at-large)
Ben Stark (Top Pro Points, at-large)
Josh Utter-Leyton (2012–13 Player of the year)
Craig Wescoe (Pro Tour Dragon's Maze winner)
Yuuya Watanabe (2012 Players Championship winner)
Brian Kibler (Top Pro Points, at-large)
Shuhei Nakamura (Top Pro Points, at-large)
Dmitriy Butakov (2012 Magic Online champion)
David Ochoa (Top Pro Points, at-large)
Stanislav Cifka (Pro Tour Return to Ravnica winner)
Tom Martell (Pro Tour Gatecrash winner)
Willy Edel (Top Pro Points, Latin America)
Eric Froehlich (Top Pro Points, at-large)
Lee Shi Tian (Top Pro Points, Asia Pacific)
Martin Juza (Top Pro Points, at-large)
The tournament consisted of three rounds each of Modern Masters Booster Draft, Modern, Magic 2014 Booster Draft, and Standard. After these twelve rounds, the field of 16 players was cut to the top four. In the semi-finals Shahar Shenhar beat Ben Stark, and Reid Duke beat Josh Utter-Leyton. After trailing 0–2 in the finals, Shahar Shenhar came back to a 3–2 victory over Reid Duke with his UWR Flash Modern Deck, thus becoming the 2013 Magic World Champion.
2013 World Magic Cup
(Official coverage)
The second World Magic Cup took place during 2–4 August 2013 at the Amsterdam Convention Factory, in conjunction with the World Championship.
In the finals of the tournament, France won 2–1 against Hungary.
Mode
The format greatly differs from the inaugural running: Day 1 would still consist of seven Swiss rounds will decide the 32 teams advance to Day 2, but three rounds of Team Sealed Deck and four rounds of Team Standard were played instead. On Day 2, the team play began with teams being sorted, according to seeding, into eight pools of four teams. The teams played in three rounds with the format being Team Sealed Deck. After these rounds, the top two teams from each pool advanced to the second stage, leaving sixteen teams. These teams were then sorted into four pools of four teams, and played three rounds of Team Standard. The Top 8 teams, advanced the top two teams from each pool, will play Team Standard on the final day of the tournament in seeded single-elimination rounds.
On Day 1 and Day 2, Teams must switch one of the members played in the first portion to the player who had not played in the first portion at the beginning of the second portion of the event (i.e. no player can sit out for the whole day). In Team Standard, the same decks must be used throughout the whole event.
Final eight
France (Raphaël Lévy, Timothee Simonot, Yann Guthmann, and Stephane Soubrier)
Hungary (Tamas Nagy, Adorjan Korbl, Gabor Kocsis, and Ervin Hosszú)
Czech Republic (Stanislav Cifka, Leos Kopecky, Kristian Janda, and Michal Mendl)
Iceland (Alvin Orri Gislason, Orri Ómarsson, Ragnar Sigurdsson and Hedinn Haraldsson)
Austria (Thomas Holzinger, Manuel Danninger, David Reitbauer, and Marc Mühlböck)
Estonia (Hannes Kerem, Mikk Kaasik, Rauno Raidma, and Simon Robberts)
New Zealand (Walker MacMurdo, Jingwei Zheng, Jason Chung, and Digby Carter)
Belgium (Vincent Lemoine, Xavier Vantyghem, Marijn Lybaert, and Emmanuel Delvigne)
2014 World Championship
(Official coverage)
In 2014, the World Championship and the World Magic Cup took place from 2–7 December 2014. The events were held in conjunction in Nice, France.
For 2014, the World Championship format was altered to include 24 players rather than the 16 players who were invited the previous two years. Day One of the tournament consisted of three rounds of Vintage Masters Draft and four rounds of Modern. Day Two consisted of three rounds of Khans of Tarkir Draft and four rounds of Standard. After these fourteen rounds the Top 4 players in the Swiss standings played in single-elimination rounds in the Standard format.
The final standings were as follows:
Shahar Shenhar (2013 World Champion)
Patrick Chapin (Pro Tour Journey into Nyx winner)
Yuuya Watanabe (Pro Point leader Japan)
Kentaro Yamamoto (8th most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Shaun McLaren (Pro Tour Born of the Gods winner)
Yuuki Ichikawa (Pro Point runner-up Japan)
Ivan Floch (Pro Tour Magic 2015 winner)
William Jensen (Most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Sam Black (6th most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Lars Dam (2013 Magic Online Champion)
Josh Utter-Leyton (3rd most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Paul Rietzl (5th most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Owen Turtenwald (Pro Point leader North America)
Reid Duke (Pro Point runner-up North America)
Stanislav Cifka (2nd most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Tom Martell (4th most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Raphaël Lévy (2013 World Magic Cup winner)
Jérémy Dezani (2013–14 Player of the Year)
Jacob Wilson (7th most Pro Points of otherwise unqualified)
Willy Edel (Pro Point leader Latin America)
Nam Sung-Wook (Pro Point runner-up APAC region)
Raymond Perez Jr. (2013–14 Rookie of the Year)
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa (Pro Point runner-up Latin America)
Lee Shi Tian (Pro Point leader APAC region)
Shahar Shenhar became the first player to win the World Championship for a second time as well as the first player to win the title in consecutive years.
2014 World Magic Cup
(Official Coverage)
Final eight
Denmark (Martin Müller, Simon Nielsen, Thomas Enevoldsen, Lars Birch)
Greece (Marios Angelopoulos, Bill Chronopoulos, Panagiotis Savvidis, Socrates Rozakeas)
England (Fabrizio Anteri, David Inglis, Francesco Giorgio, Riccardo Reale)
United States (Owen Turtenwald, Isaac Sears, Andrew Baeckstrom, Neal Oliver)
South Korea (Nam Sung-wook, Oh Joon-hyun, Cho Jeong-woo, Kim Sang-eun)
Serbia (Aleksa Telarov, Miodrag Kitanovic, Boris Bajgo, Milos Stajic)
Slovakia (Ivan Floch, Jan Tomcani, Michal Guldan, Matej Zatlkaj)
Brazil (Willy Edel, Gabriel Fehr, Thiago Saporito, Matheus Rosseto)
2015 World Championship
The 2015 World Championship took place from 27 to 30 August 2015. The event was originally planned to be held in Barcelona, Spain in conjunction with 2015 World Magic Cup, but was later moved to Seattle, and was held in conjunction with PAX Prime instead.
Some changes to the previous years' invitation structure were announced, with the following announcement by Director of Organized Play, Helene Bergeot at Pro Tour Fate Reforged.
The 2015 World Championship was the last where the World Magic Cup team-winning captain was invited to
North America now invited its top four Pro Point earners (it was previously two)
Europe now invited its top three Pro Point earners (it was previously two)
Asia-Pacific now invited its top three Pro Point earners (it was previously two for Asia-Pacific and two for Japan, the latter of which was folded into the Asia-Pacific georegion for this event)
A new slot was added for the player who had earned the most Pro Points at Grand Prix in the 2014–2015 Premier Play season (the number of GPs that count for this slot is uncapped)
The invitation for Rookie of the Year had been removed
The format of the tournament was 3 rounds of Modern Masters 2015 draft followed by 4 rounds of Modern constructed for Thursday. On Friday, a Magic Origins draft followed by 4 rounds of standard and after a hiatus on Saturday, the top 4 playoffs on Sunday.
The final standings were as follows:
Seth Manfield (Top Pro Points at large)
Owen Turtenwald (Top Pro Points at large)
Paul Rietzl (Top Pro Points at large)
Sam Black (Top Pro Points North America)
Magnus Lantto (2014 Magic Online Champion)
Martin Müller (2014 World Magic Cup winning team captain)
Shaun McLaren (Top Pro Points at large)
Thiago Saporito (Top Pro Points Latin America)
Ondrey Strasky (Top Pro Points North America)
Yuuya Watanabe (Top Pro Points Asia-Pacific)
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa (Top Pro Points Latin America)
Jacob Wilson (Top Pro Points at large)
Joel Larsson (Pro Tour Magic Origins winner)
Alexander Hayne (Grand Prix Pro Point leader)
Martin Dang (Pro Tour Dragons of Tarkir winner)
Steve Rubin (Top Pro Points at large)
Kentaro Yamamoto (Top Pro Points Asia-Pacific)
Mike Sigrist (2014–15 Player of the Year)
Eric Froehlich (Top Pro Points North America)
Lee Shi Tian (Top Pro Points Asia-Pacific)
Brad Nelson (Top Pro Points North America)
Antonio Del Moral Leon (Pro Tour Fate Reforged winner)
Shahar Shenhar (2014 World Champion)
Ari Lax (Pro Tour Khans of Tarkir winner)
2015 World Magic Cup
(Official Coverage)
Final eight
Italy (Marco Cammilluzzi, Andrea Mengucci, Simone Huez and Claudio Zeni)
Thailand (Aekarash Sorakup, Suttipong Popitukgul, Matej Dornik and Chom Pasidparchya)
France (Pierre Dagen, Hichem Tedjditi, Fathi Ben Aribi and Arnaud Soumet)
Austria (Nikolaus Eigner, Christoph Aukenthaler, Valentin Mackl and Sebastian Fiala-Ibitz)
Denmark (Christoffer Larsen, Daniel Lind, Martin Müller and Martin Dang)
Guatemala (Fernando José Juárez Oliva, José Andrés Martínez Figueloa, Christopher Andrés Virula Martinez and Wilfredo Bojorquez Castillo)
Scotland (Ray Doyle, Stephen Murray, Grant Hislop and Martin Clement)
Japan (Kenji Tsumura, Ryoichi Tamada, Yuuya Watanabe and Soyo You)
2016 World Championship
The 2016 World Championship was held from 1–4 September in Seattle. The formats used in the competition were Eldritch Moon-Shadows over Innistrad Booster Draft for rounds 1–3, Standard for rounds 4–7, Eldritch Moon-Shadows over Innistrad Booster Draft for rounds 8–10, Modern for rounds 11–14, and Standard for the Top 4.
The final standings were as follows:
Brian Braun-Duin (2015–16 Grand Prix Master)
Marcio Carvalho (2015–16 Draft Master)
Oliver Tiu (2015–16 Constructed Master)
Shota Yasooka (Top Pro Points Asia-Pacific)
Lukas Blohon (Pro Tour Eldritch Moon champion, Top Pro Points Europe)
Luis Scott-Vargas (Outstanding Hall of Famer, Top Pro Points North America)
Jiachen Tao (Pro Tour Oath of the Gatewatch champion)
Seth Manfield (Reigning World Champion, Top Pro Points North America)
Thiago Saporito (Top Pro Points Latin America)
Steve Rubin (Pro Tour Shadows over Innistrad champion)
Mike Sigrist (Top Pro Points at large)
Reid Duke (Top Pro Points North America)
Brad Nelson (Top Pro Points at large)
Joel Larsson (Top Pro Points Europe)
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa (Top Pro Points Latin America)
Yuuya Watanabe (Top Pro Points Asia-Pacific)
Owen Turtenwald (2015–16 Player of the Year, 2015–16 Mid-Season Master, Top Pro Points North America)
Ondrej Strasky (Top Pro Points at large)
Samuel Pardee (Top Pro Points at large)
Andrea Mengucci (Top Pro Points at large)
Niels Noorlander (Magic Online Champion)
Kazuyuki Takimura (Pro Tour Battle for Zendikar champion)
Ryoichi Tamada (Top Pro Points Asia-Pacific)
Martin Müller (Top Pro Points Europe)
2016 World Magic Cup
(Official Coverage)
The 2016 World Magic Cup was held from 18 to 20 November in Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Final eight
Greece (Panagiotis Papadopoulos, Nikolaos Kaponis, Petros Tziotis, and Bill Chronopoulos)
Belgium (Jerome Bastogne, Peter Vieren, Branco Neirynck, and Pascal Vieren)
Italy (Alessandro Portaro, Andrea Mengucci, Mattia Rizzi, and Alessandro Casamenti)
Belarus (Pavel Miadzvedski, Ihar Klionski, Dmitry Andronchik, and Bantsevich Hleb)
Finland (Lauri Pispa, Tuomas Tuominen, Leo Lahonen, and Matti Kuisma)
Australia (David Mines, James Wilks, Ryan Cubit, and Garry Lau)
Ukraine (Sergiy Sushalskyy, Bogdan Sorozhinsky, Iurii Babych, and Artem Fedorchenko)
Panama (Saul Alvarado, Sergio Bonilla, Manuel Succari, and Cesar Segovia)
2017 World Championship
The 2017 World Championship was held from 6–8 October in Boston. For the 2017 World Championship Wizards of the Coast decided to simplify the invitation criteria, awarding a large portion of invites to the players with the most Pro Points in the 2016–17 Pro Tour season. The formats used in the competition were Ixalan Booster Draft for rounds 1–3, Standard for rounds 4–7, Ixalan Booster Draft for rounds 8–10, Standard for rounds 11–14, and Standard for the Top 4.
The final standings were as follows:
William Jensen (Top Pro Point Earner)
Javier Dominguez (Top Pro Point Earner)
Josh Utter-Leyton (Magic Online Champion)
Kelvin Chew (Top Pro Point Earner)
Reid Duke (North American Geo-Region Champion)
Samuel Black (Top Pro Point Earner)
Seth Manfield (Top Pro Point Earner)
Owen Turtenwald (Top Pro Point Earner)
Gerry Thompson (Pro Tour Amonkhet champion)
Shota Yasooka (Pro Tour Kaladesh champion)
Christian Calcano (Top Pro Point Earner)
Paulo Vitor Damo da Rosa (Pro Tour Hour of Devastation champion, Latin-America Geo Region Champion)
Eric Froehlich (Top Pro Point Earner)
Sebastian Pozzo (2016–17 Standard Master)
Brad Nelson (Top Pro Point Earner)
Martin Juza (2016–17 Draft Master)
Ken Yukuhiro (Top Pro Point Earner)
Yuuya Watanabe (Asia-Pacific Geo-Region Champion)
Marcio Carvalho (European Geo-Region Champion)
Lee Shi Tian (Top Pro Point Earner)
Martin Müller (Top Pro Point Earner)
Donald Smith (Top Pro Point Earner)
Lucas Esper Berthoud (Pro Tour Aether Revolt champion)
Samuel Pardee (Top Pro Point Earner)
2017 World Magic Cup
(Official Coverage)
The 2017 World Magic Cup was held from 1–3 December in Nice, France.
Final eight
Japan (Yuuya Watanabe, Kenta Harane, and Shota Yasooka)
Poland (Grzegorz Kowalski, Radek Kaczmarczyk, and Piotr Glogowski)
Germany (Marc Tobiasch, Philipp Krieger, and Moritz Templin)
Italy (Andrea Mengucci, Adriano Moscato, and Mattia Rizzi)
Wales (Philip Griffiths, Sam Rolph, and Aaron Boyhan)
Austria (Oliver Polak-Rottmann, Elias Klocker, and Adrian Johann Schrenk)
China (Yuchen Liu, Chao Lu, and Tan Gao)
Slovakia (Ivan Floch, Peter Snoha, and Ondrej Kedrovic)
2018 World Championship
The 2018 World Championship was held from 21 to 23 September in Las Vegas. The formats used in the competition were Dominaria Booster Draft for rounds 1–3, Standard for rounds 4–7, Dominaria Booster Draft for rounds 8–10, Standard for rounds 11–14, and Standard for the Top 4.
The final standings were as follows:
Javier Dominguez (Top Pro Point Earner)
Grzegorz Kowalski (Top Pro Point Earner)
Ben Stark (Top Pro Point Earner)
Shahar Shenhar (Top Pro Point Earner)
Allen Wu (Pro Tour 25th Anniversary champion)
Wyatt Darby (Pro Tour Dominaria champion)
Matthew Nass (Top Pro Point Earner)
Ben Hull (Pro Tour 25th Anniversary champion)
Reid Duke (Top Pro Point Earner)
Mike Sigrist (Top Pro Point Earner)
John Rolf (Top Pro Point Earner)
Marcio Carvalho (European Geo-Region Champion)
Brad Nelson (Top Pro Point Earner)
Elias Watsfeldt (2017–18 Draft Master)
Brian Braun-Duin (Top Pro Point Earner)
Luis Salvatto (Pro Tour Rivlas of Ixalan champion, North American Geo-Region Champion)
Andrea Mengucci (Top Pro Point Earner)
Matthew Severa (2017–18 Constructed Master)
Gregory Orange (Pro Tour 25th Anniversary champion)
Seth Manfield (Pro Tour Ixalan champion, Latin American Geo-Region Champion)
Owen Turtenwald (Top Pro Point Earner)
Martin Juza (Top Pro Point Earner)
Ken Yukuhiro (Asia-Pacific Geo-Region Champion)
Gerry Thompson had qualified for the event, but announced very shortly before the start of the tournament, that he was not going to attend in order to protest recent changes to organized play made by Wizards of the Coast. Ken Yukuhiro was disqualified in round 14, sitting in eighth place, for not alerting a judge right away when he noticed that he had failed to de-sideboard after the previous match.
2018 World Magic Cup
(Official Coverage)
The 2018 World Magic Cup was held from 14 to 16 December in Barcelona, Spain.
Final eight
France (Jean-Emmanuel Depraz, Arnaud Hocquemiller, and Timothée Jammot)
Israel (Yuval Zuckerman, Shahar Shenhar, and Amit Etgar)
Hong Kong (Wu Kon Fai, Lee Shi Tian, and Alexander Dadyko)
Italy (Tian Fa Mun, Andrea Mengucci, and Mattia Basilico)
Japan (Ken Yukuhiro, Naoya Nanba, and Moriyama Masahide)
China (Liu Yuchen, Song Long, and Xu Ming)
Australia (Benaya Lie, David Mines, and Matthew Garnham)
Slovakia (Richard Hornansky, Ivan Floch, and Milan Niznansky)
Performance by country
With William "Huey" Jensen's win in 2017 the United States extended its lead over Japan for most Individual World Championships. The United States has also won the most team titles, and have had most competitors amongst the final eight individually. Germany, the Netherlands, Brazil and Israel are the only other countries with more than one champion. Canada, Italy and Austria are the most successful nations that have never won a title.
References
External links
Official Magic: The Gathering "Tournament Center"
Top 4 decklists 1994–2000
Event Coverage Archive
Magic: The Gathering professional events
Recurring events established in 1994
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244617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claremont | Claremont | Claremont may refer to:
Places
Australia
Claremont, Ipswich, a heritage-listed house in Queensland
Claremont, Tasmania, a suburb of Hobart
Claremont, Western Australia, a suburb of Perth
Claremont Football Club, West Australian Football League
Claremont Oval, home stadium for Claremont Football Club
Claremont Airbase, aerial firefighting base near Brukunga, South Australia
Canada
Claremont, Ontario
Ireland
Claremount, County Westmeath
Jamaica
Claremont, Jamaica
South Africa
Claremont, Cape Town
Claremont, a suburb in the western side of Pretoria
United Kingdom
Claremont (country house), a stately house in Surrey
Claremont, Salford, Greater Manchester
Claremont (ward), electoral ward for Claremont, Salford
United States
Claremont, California
Claremont, Oakland/Berkeley, California, a neighborhood in two adjoining cities
Claremont, Illinois
Claremont, Minnesota
Claremont, Mississippi
Claremont (Port Gibson, Mississippi), a historic house
Claremont, New Hampshire
Claremont, North Carolina
Claremont, South Carolina
Claremont, South Dakota
Claremont, Virginia
Claremont, West Virginia
Education
Claremont Colleges, Claremont, California
Claremont McKenna College
Claremont Graduate University
Claremont School of Theology, Claremont, California
Claremont Secondary School, Saanich, British Columbia
Claremont High School (disambiguation)
People
Claremont (surname)
Other uses
Claremont Institute, conservative think tank
Claremont Review of Books, a quarterly review
Claremont Hotel & Spa, a resort in California on the Oakland/Berkeley border
"Claremont", a poem by Samuel Garth
See also
Clairemont (disambiguation)
Clairmont (disambiguation)
Claremont Airport (disambiguation)
Claremont High School (disambiguation)
Claremont Hotel (disambiguation)
Claremont School (disambiguation)
Claremont station (disambiguation)
Clermont (disambiguation) | [
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244618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3%20B%C3%ADr%C3%B3 | László Bíró | László József Bíró (; born László József Schweiger; 29 September 1899 – 24 October 1985), Hispanicized as Ladislao José Biro, was a Hungarian-Argentine inventor who patented the first commercially successful modern ballpoint pen. The first ballpoint pen had been invented roughly 50 years earlier by John J. Loud, but it was not a commercial success.
Early life
Bíró was born to a Hungarian Jewish family in Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary, within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1899 to Mózes Mátyás Schweiger and Janka née Ullmann. After leaving school, he began work as a journalist in Hungary.
Invention of the ballpoint pen
While working as a journalist, Bíró noticed that the ink used in newspaper printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge-free. He tried using the same ink in a fountain pen, but found that it would not flow into the tip, as it was too viscous.
Bíró presented the first production of the ballpoint pen at the Budapest International Fair in 1931. Working with his brother György, a chemist, he developed a new tip consisting of a ball that was free to turn in a socket, and as it turned it would pick up ink from a cartridge and then roll to deposit it on the paper. Bíró patented the invention in Paris in 1938.
During World War II, Bíró fled the Nazis with his brother, moving to Argentina, in 1943. On 17 June 1943, they filed another patent, issued in the US as , and formed Biro Pens of Argentina (in Argentina the ballpoint pen is known as birome, a portmanteau of the brothers' surname with that of their business partner, Juan Jorge Meyne). This new design was supposedly licensed for production in the United Kingdom for supply to Royal Air Force aircrew.
In 1945, Marcel Bich bought the patent from Bíró for the pen, which soon became the main product of his BIC company. Bic has sold more than 100 billion ballpoint pens worldwide. In November of that same year, promoter Milton Reynolds introduced a gravity-fed pen to the U.S. market, to try to get around Biro's patent, which was based on capillary action, where fresh ink is drawn out of the reservoir of the pen as ink is deposited on the paper. Because the Reynolds workaround depended on a gravity feed, it did not infringe, but required thinner ink and a larger barrel. The Reynolds Pen was successful for a few years until its reputation for leaking and competition from established pen manufacturers overtook it.
Death and legacy
László Bíró died in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1985.
Argentina's Inventors' Day is celebrated on Bíró's birthday, 29 September.
A ballpoint pen is widely referred to as a "biro" in many countries, including the UK, Ireland, Australia and Italy. Although the word is a registered trademark, in some countries it has become genericised. On 29 September 2016, the 117th anniversary of his birth, Google commemorated Bíró with a Google Doodle for "his relentless, forward-thinking spirit".
References
External links
Brief biography of Bíró by Budapest Pocket Guide
Marcel Bich licensed the technology from Bíró and introduced the BIC pen
1899 births
1985 deaths
Argentine inventors
Argentine Jews
Argentine people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
Hungarian emigrants to Argentina
Hungarian expatriates in Argentina
Hungarian inventors
Hungarian Jews
Hungarian journalists
Naturalized citizens of Argentina
People from Buda
Pens
20th-century journalists | [
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244621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pall%20Mall%2C%20Tennessee | Pall Mall, Tennessee | Pall Mall ( ) is a small unincorporated community in the Wolf River valley of Fentress County, Tennessee, United States. It is named after Pall Mall, London. Pall Mall is located near the Kentucky-Tennessee state-line in northeastern-central Tennessee. The population was at 1,398 people according to the 2000 census.
Notable people
The World War I hero Alvin York was raised in Pall Mall. His son Andrew Jackson York lives in the town (as of 2013). York is commemorated at the Sgt. Alvin C. York State Historic Park in Pall Mall, which includes the family farmhouse and grist mill. York is buried at Wolf River Cemetery in Pall Mall.
Other notable natives of Pall Mall include U.S. Representative Lincoln Davis and fugitive Billy Dean Anderson.
Notes
External links
Sgt. Alvin C. York State Historic Park web site
Unincorporated communities in Fentress County, Tennessee
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244622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark | Clark | Clark is an English language surname, ultimately derived from the Latin with historical links to England and Ireland clericus meaning "scribe", "secretary" or a scholar within a religious order, referring to someone who was educated. Clark evolved from "clerk". First records of the name are found in 12th-century England. The name has many variants.
Clark is the twenty-seventh most common surname in the United Kingdom, including placing fourteenth in Scotland. Clark is also an occasional given name, as in the case of Clark Gable.
According to the 1990 United States Census, Clark was the twenty-first most frequently encountered surname, accounting for 0.23% of the population. Notable people with the surname include:
Disambiguation pages
Anne Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Brian Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Cameron Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Charles Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Chris Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Clive Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Colin Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Douglas Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
David Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Dick Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Edward Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Eugene Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
George Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Gregory Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Jack Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
James Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Jason Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Jeff Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Jim Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
John Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Jonathan Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Joseph Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Ken Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Kenneth Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Lee Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Mary Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Robert Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Ryan Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Sally Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Samuel Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Simon Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Terry Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Thomas Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
William Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Arts and literature
Alton Dorian Clark (born 1984), better known as American hip-hop musician Dorian
Andy Clark (musician), British musician
Ann Clarke (born 1944), Canadian artist
Annie Erin Clark, better known under her stage name St. Vincent (musician) (born 1982), American singer, songwriter, and musician
Appleton P. Clark, Jr. (1865–1955), American architect
Bob Clark (Benjamin "Bob" Clark) (1941–2007), an American director
Buddy Clark (1911–1949), American singer
Catherine Clark (born 1976), Canadian television host
Chris Clark (musician) (born 1979), British musician, known by the mononym "Clark"
Christian Clark (born 1979), Australian actor
Claudine Clark (born 1941), American R&B singer and performer of the 1962 hit record "Party Lights"
Cora Mildred Maris Clark (1885–1967), New Zealand hockey player and nurse
Dave Clark (musician) (born 1942), English drummer of The Dave Clark Five
Dorothy Park Clark (1899–1983), American novelist who wrote under the pen name Clark McMeekin
Dodie Clark (born 1995), English musician, YouTuber, and author
Donté Clark, American poet, actor
Ernest Clark (1912–1994), British actor
Florence Anderson Clark (1835–1918), American author, newspaper editor, librarian, university dean
Guy Clark (1941–2016), American musician, songwriter, recording artist, and performer
Helen Taggart Clark (1849–?), American journalist, poet
Hilda Margery Clarke (born 1926), English painter and curator
Jean Clark (artist) (1902–1999), English artist
Joseph Benwell Clark (1857–1938), English artist
Joshua Clark, (born 1980), American writer
Ken Clark (actor), (1921–2009), American actor
Laura Lee Clark (born 1964), American interior designer
Libby Clark (?-2012), American journalist
Lizzy Clark (born 1994), English actor
Louis Clark (1947–2021), musician and conductor with The Orchestra (successor band to ELO and ELO Part II)
Robin Clark (pop singer), (born 1949), 1960s American pop singer
Roy Clark (1933–2018), American singer and musician
Spencer T. Clark (born 1987), American actor
Stephen R. L. Clark (born 1945), English philosopher
Steve Clark (1960–1991), British guitarist for Def Leppard
Tyrone Clark, American filmmaker and musician
Tom Clark (journalist), Canadian television journalist
Vicky A. Clark, American art curator
Vinnie B. Clark (1878–1971), American educator and author
Wallis Clark (1882–1961), English actor
William Clark (artist) (1803–1883), Scottish artist
Business
Allen George Clark (1898–1962), British businessman
Arnold Clark (1927–2017), Scottish businessman
Hilda Clark (model) (1872–1932), American Coca-Cola advertising spokesperson
Jonas Gilman Clark (1815–1900), American businessman and the founder of Clark University
Lance Clark (1936–2018), English businessman, of the shoe retailers Clarks
Myron Henry Clark (1881–1953), American management consultant
Shawn M. Clark (born c. 1964), American organizational theorist
Politics and law
Abraham Clark (1725–1794), American politician and Revolutionary War figure
Alan Clark (1928–1999), British Conservative politician and author, son of Kenneth Clark
Alistair Clark, Lord Clark (), Scottish judge, senator of the College of Justice
Augusta Clark (1932–2013), American librarian, lawyer and politician
Barbara M. Clark (1939–2016), New York politician
Benjamin S. W. Clark (1829–1912), a New York politician
Billy J. Clark (1778–1866), a New York physician and politician
Boyd A. Clark (1918–1978), an American politician and jurist
Darius Clark (1798–1871), New York physician and politician
Frank M. Clark (1915–2003), American Congressman
Gavin Brown Clark (1846–1930), MP for Caithness
Greenleaf Clark (1835–1904), American jurist
Helen Clark (born 1950), prime minister of New Zealand from 1999 to 2008
Horace Clark (assemblyman), 1830s New York politician
Horace F. Clark (1815–1873), US Congressman from New York
Isabella Clark (1809–1857), wife of Prime Minister of Canada Sir John A. Macdonald
Joe Clark (born 1939), former prime minister of Canada
Karen Clark (born 1945), American politician from Minnesota
Katy Clark (born 1967), Scottish politician and trade union official
Kelly Clark (lawyer) (1957–2013), American lawyer
Maureen Harding Clark (born 1946), Irish jurist
Newcomb Clark (1840–1913), Michigan politician
Orville Clark (1801–1862), New York politician
Ramsey Clark (1927–2021), US attorney general and activist
Rita Clark (1915–2008), member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Satterlee Clark, Jr., American politician
Septima Poinsette Clark (1898–1987), American educator and voting registration leader
Sir Terence Clark (born 1934), British retired diplomat and writer
Tom C. Clark (1899–1977), US attorney general, U.S. Supreme Court justice
Zenas Clark (1795–1864), New York politician
Science and medicine
Adam Clark, American meteorologist
Benjamin Preston Clark (1860–1939), an American entomologist
Bracy Clark (1771–1860), English veterinary surgeon specialising in the horse
Cynthia Clark (born 1942), American statistician
Daniel Kinnear Clark (1822–1896), Scottish railway mechanical engineer
Duncan W. Clark (1910–2007), American public health specialist
Gerry Clark (1927–1999), New Zealand sailor and ornithologist
Grahame Clark (1907–1995), British archaeologist
Hamlet Clark (1823–1867), English entomologist
Hilda Clark (doctor) (1881–1955), Quaker physician and humanitarian
Hubert Lyman Clark (1870–1947), American zoologist
Judson Freeman Clark (1870–1942), Canadian forester and mycologist
Leslie J. Clark (1924–2003), British engineer and founder of Parvalux
Lynn G. Clark (born 1956), American botanist
Noel A. Clark (born 1940), American physicist
Wilfrid Le Gros Clark (1895–1971), British palaeoanthropologist
Sports
Alysha Clark (born 1987), American-Israeli basketball player
Babe Clark, American football player
Caitlin Clark (born 2002), American basketball player
Calum Clark (born 1989), English rugby union player
Carmel Clark (born 1965), New Zealand swimmer
Chuck Clark (born 1995), American football player
Chuck Clark (ice hockey) (1891–1970), British-born Canadian ice hockey player
Ciaran Clark (born 1989), Irish football player
Corrie Clark (born 1982), American breaststroke swimmer
Dallas Clark, American football player
Damone Clark (born 2000), American football player
Daniel Clark (born 1988), British basketball player
Darion Clark (born 1994), American football player
Duncan Clark (athlete) (1915–2003), Scottish hammer thrower
Dwight Clark (1957–2018), American football player
Earl Clark, American basketball player
Elky Clark (1898–1956), Scottish boxer of the 1920s
Emily Clark (born 1995), Canadian ice hockey player
Frank Clark (footballer), English football player
Ginger Clark (1879–1943), American baseball pitcher
Glenn Clark (born 1969), Canadian coach of Toronto Rock
Hannah Clark (born 1990), English cricketer
Jeremy Clark (defensive back) (born 1994), American football player
Kelly Clark (born 1983), American snowboarder
Kihei Clark (born 2000), American–Filipino basketball player
Le'Raven Clark (born 1993), American football player
Leon Clark (basketball), American basketball player
Ocky Clark (born 1960), American middle-distance runner
Otey Clark (born 1915), American baseball pitcher
R. Foster Clark, American college sports coach
Ranza Clark (born 1961), Canadian middle-distance runner
Roger Clark, British rally driver
Sherm Clark (1899–1980), American Olympic rower and rear admiral
Stuart Clark (born 1975), Australian cricketer
Wendel Clark (born 1966), retired Canadian ice hockey player
Will Clark (born 1964), American baseball player
Zoey Clark (born 1994), British sprinter
Other
Alice Clark (1874–1934), English suffragist and historian
Alister Clark (1864–1949), Australian rose-breeder
Davis Wasgatt Clark (1812–1871), American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church
Felton Grandison Clark (1903–1970), African-American university president
Hugh Massey Clark (1886–1956), New York philatelist
Hulda Regehr Clark, (1928–2009), alternative medicine practitioner
Joseph Samuel Clark (1871–1944), African-American university president
Manning Clark (1915–1991), Australian historian
Mark Wayne Clark (1896–1984), American army general in WW2 (Italy) and the Korean War
Nada Hazel Clark (1922–1964), New Zealand trade unionist
Nancy B. Clark, Massachusetts philatelist, president of Cardinal Spellman Philatelic Museum
R. Scott Clark (born 1961) American seminary professor
Theresa Maria Clark (c. 1890 – 1953), New York philatelist, spouse of Hugh Massey Clark
Wesley K. Clark (born 1944), American army general in the Vietnam War and Kosovo
Carlos Clark Van Leer (born 1865), American military officer
Fictional characters
David Clark, a character in the 2013 American crime comedy movie We're the Millers
John Clark (Tom Clancy character), character in Tom Clancy's Ryanverse
Tracy Clark, fictional character from The CW primetime drama 90210
Clark Kent, secret identity of DC Superhero Superman
Clark Griswold, fictional character from National Lampoon's Vacation film series.
See also
The Clark Sisters, American gospel vocalists from Detroit
Clark (taxonomic authority)
Clarke
Justice Clark (disambiguation)
Clerke (disambiguation)
Karen Clark Sheard (born 1960), American Grammy Award-winning singer
References
External links
Clark(e) Surname DNA Project
English-language surnames
Occupational surnames
Surnames of English origin
Surnames of Scottish origin | [
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] |
244625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearwater | Clearwater | Clearwater or Clear Water may refer to:
Places
Canada
Clear Water Academy, a private Catholic school located in Calgary, Alberta
Clearwater (provincial electoral district), a former provincial electoral district in Alberta
Clearwater, British Columbia
Clearwater, Manitoba
Clearwater County, Alberta
Clearwater Lakes, a double impact crater in Quebec
Hong Kong
Clear Water Bay
United States
Clearwater, Florida
Clearwater, Kansas
Clearwater, Minnesota
Clearwater, Missouri
Clearwater, Nebraska
Clearwater, Oregon
Clearwater, South Carolina
Clearwater, Washington
Clearwater County, Idaho
Clearwater County, Minnesota
Clearwater Township, Michigan
Clearwater Township, Minnesota
Clearwater Township, Nebraska
Clearwater Mountains, in the panhandle of Idaho
Other
Clearwater Bay Golf & Country Club, a country club in Hong Kong
Clearwater Features, a production company which did Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends in its very early years
Clearwater Festival, a folk music festival whose proceeds benefit Hudson River Sloop Clearwater
Clearwater Marine Aquarium, a 501c non-profit organization and aquarium in Clearwater, Florida
Clearwater Paper Corporation, a pulp and paperboard manufacturer
Clearwater Threshers, a minor-league baseball team affiliated with the Philadelphia Phillies
Creedence Clearwater Revival, an American rock band from the late 1960s
The Clearwater Concert, a 2009 benefit concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City in celebration of Pete Seeger's 90th birthday
The Clearwater Resort, a golf course in New Zealand
People with the surname
William H. Clearwater (1875–1948), billiards champion
See also
Clearwater Lake (disambiguation)
Clearwater River (disambiguation)
Eau Claire (disambiguation), French for Clearwater
Shimizu (disambiguation), Japanese for Clearwater
Qingshui (disambiguation), Chinese for Clearwater | [
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244628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maureen%20Connolly | Maureen Connolly | Maureen Catherine Connolly-Brinker (née Connolly; September 17, 1934 – June 21, 1969), known as "Little Mo", was an American tennis player, the winner of nine major singles titles in the early 1950s. In 1953, she became the first woman to win a Grand Slam (all four major tournaments during the same calendar year). She is also the only player in history to win a title without losing a set at all four major championships. The following year, in July 1954, a horseback riding accident seriously injured her right leg and ended her competitive tennis career at age 19.
Early years
Maureen was born in San Diego, California on September 17, 1934, the first child of Martin and Jessamine Connolly. Her parents divorced when she was three years old and she was raised by her mother and an aunt. She loved horseback riding as a child, but her mother was unable to pay the cost of riding lessons. So, she took up the game of tennis. Connolly's tennis career began at the age of 10 on the municipal courts of San Diego. Her first coach, Wilbur Folsom, encouraged her to switch from a left-handed grip to right and she soon became a baseline specialist with tremendous power and accuracy, and a strong backhand. When she was 11, Maureen was dubbed "Little Mo" by San Diego sportswriter Nelson Fisher, who compared the power of her forehand and backhand to the firepower of the USS Missouri, known colloquially as "Big Mo". In 1948, Folsom was replaced as her coach by Eleanor Tennant, who previously coached Alice Marble and Bobby Riggs, both Wimbledon and U.S. singles champions. At age 14, she won 56 consecutive matches, and the following year became the youngest ever to win the U.S. national championship for girls 18 and under.
Playing career
At the 1951 U.S. Championships, the 16-year-old Connolly defeated Shirley Fry to become, at that time, the youngest ever to win America's most prestigious tennis tournament. Her coach at the time was Eleanor Tennant.
Connolly won her first Wimbledon title in 1952, defeating Louise Brough in the final. She had arrived at the tournament with a shoulder injury but refused to withdraw when Tennant instructed her to do so. The ensuing argument resulted in the end of their partnership. Connolly was seeded first at the 1952 U.S. Championships and successfully defended her title with a victory in the final against Doris Hart. For the 1953 season, she hired a new coach, the Australian Davis Cup captain Harry Hopman, and entered all four Grand Slam tournaments for the first time. She defeated Julie Sampson Haywood in the Australian Championships final and Doris Hart in the finals of the French Championships, Wimbledon, and the U.S. Championships to become the first woman, and only the second tennis player after Don Budge, to win the world's four major titles in the same year, commonly known as a "Grand Slam." She lost only one set in those four tournaments.
Connolly won the last nine Grand Slam singles tournaments she played, including 50 consecutive singles matches. During her Wightman Cup career from 1951 through 1954, she won all seven of her singles matches. Connolly's achievements made her the darling of the media and one of the most popular personalities in the U.S.; she was named Female Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press for three straight years, from 1951 through 1953.
In 1954, Connolly did not defend her title at the Australian Championships, but successfully defended her French and Wimbledon championships.
Later life
Horseriding accident
Two weeks after she won her third-straight Wimbledon title, she was horseback riding in San Diego on July 20, 1954. A passing concrete mixer truck frightened her horse Colonel Merryboy, which pinned Connolly between the horse and truck. She was thrown and suffered a compound fracture to her right fibula, which ultimately ended her tennis career at age 19. She had intended to turn professional after the 1954 U.S. National Championships. She officially retired from tennis in February 1955 when she announced her impending marriage to Norman Brinker. Connolly retained Melvin Belli as counsel and sued the concrete mixer company. On December 17, 1957, the Supreme Court of California unanimously affirmed a $95,000 jury verdict in her favor; the opinion was signed by Chief Justice Phil S. Gibson.
Marriage
In June 1955, Connolly married Norman Brinker, a member of the 1952 Olympic equestrian team for the United States, who shared her love of horses. They had two daughters, Cindy and Brenda, and she remained partially involved in tennis, acting as a correspondent for some U.S. and British newspapers at major U.S. tennis tournaments. Connolly was a coach for the British Wightman Cup team during its visits to the U.S. In Texas, where the couple lived, she established the Maureen Connolly Brinker Foundation to promote junior tennis.
In 1957, she published an autobiography titled Forehand Drive. Connolly recognized the downside of her tennis career, writing "I have always believed greatness on a tennis court was my destiny, a dark destiny, at times, where the court became my secret jungle and I a lonely, fear-stricken hunter. I was a strange little girl armed with hate, fear, and a Golden Racket."
Death
In 1966, Connolly was diagnosed with ovarian cancer. On June 4, 1969, she underwent a third operation for a stomach tumor at Baylor Hospital in Dallas. She died nearly three weeks later on June 21, at the age of 34.
Legacy
According to John Olliff and Lance Tingay of The Daily Telegraph and the Daily Mail, Connolly was ranked in the world top 10 from 1951 through 1954, reaching a career high of world number one in those rankings from 1952 through 1954. Connolly was included in the year-end top-10 rankings issued by the United States Lawn Tennis Association from 1950 through 1953. She was the top-ranked U.S. player from 1951 through 1953.
Connolly was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1969 and the International Women's Sports Hall of Fame in 1987. In 1956, she was inducted by the San Diego Hall of Champions into the Breitbard Hall of Fame honoring San Diego's finest athletes both on and off the playing surface.
Since 1973, the Maureen Connolly Challenge Trophy is played, a yearly competition between the best female tennis players age 18 and younger from the United States and Great Britain.
Brinker Elementary School in Plano, Texas is named in honor of her. The school was dedicated on November 20, 1988.
Connolly was portrayed by Glynnis O'Connor in Little Mo, a television movie that initially aired on September 5, 1978.
In 2019, the United States Postal Service released a commemorative Forever stamp in her honor.
Grand Slam finals
Singles: 9 (9 titles)
Doubles: 6 (2 titles, 4 runner-ups)
Mixed doubles: 3 (1 title, 2 runner-ups)
Grand Slam singles tournament timeline
References
Further reading
External links
Maureen Connolly Brinker Tennis Foundation Inc.
Texas State Historical Association – Brinker, Maureen Catherine Connolly
1934 births
1969 deaths
American female tennis players
Australian Championships (tennis) champions
Deaths from cancer in Texas
Deaths from ovarian cancer
French Championships (tennis) champions
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
Tennis players from San Diego
United States National champions (tennis)
Wimbledon champions (pre-Open Era)
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles
Burials at Sparkman-Hillcrest Memorial Park Cemetery
Southern Methodist University alumni
20th-century American women | [
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244629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific%20law | Scientific law | Scientific laws or laws of science are statements, based on repeated experiments or observations, that describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. The term law has diverse usage in many cases (approximate, accurate, broad, or narrow) across all fields of natural science (physics, chemistry, astronomy, geoscience, biology). Laws are developed from data and can be further developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or indirectly based on empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they implicitly reflect, though they do not explicitly assert, causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than invented.
Scientific laws summarize the results of experiments or observations, usually within a certain range of application. In general, the accuracy of a law does not change when a new theory of the relevant phenomenon is worked out, but rather the scope of the law's application, since the mathematics or statement representing the law does not change. As with other kinds of scientific knowledge, scientific laws do not express absolute certainty, as mathematical theorems or identities do. A scientific law may be contradicted, restricted, or extended by future observations.
A law can usually be formulated as one or several statements or equations, so that it can predict the outcome of an experiment. Laws differ from hypotheses and postulates, which are proposed during the scientific process before and during validation by experiment and observation. Hypotheses and postulates are not laws, since they have not been verified to the same degree, although they may lead to the formulation of laws. Laws are narrower in scope than scientific theories, which may entail one or several laws. Science distinguishes a law or theory from facts. Calling a law a fact is ambiguous, an overstatement, or an equivocation. The nature of scientific laws has been much discussed in philosophy, but in essence scientific laws are simply empirical conclusions reached by scientific method; they are intended to be neither laden with ontological commitments nor statements of logical absolutes.
Overview
A scientific law always applies to a physical system under repeated conditions, and it implies that there is a causal relationship involving the elements of the system. Factual and well-confirmed statements like "Mercury is liquid at standard temperature and pressure" are considered too specific to qualify as scientific laws. A central problem in the philosophy of science, going back to David Hume, is that of distinguishing causal relationships (such as those implied by laws) from principles that arise due to constant conjunction.
Laws differ from scientific theories in that they do not posit a mechanism or explanation of phenomena: they are merely distillations of the results of repeated observation. As such, the applicability of a law is limited to circumstances resembling those already observed, and the law may be found to be false when extrapolated. Ohm's law only applies to linear networks; Newton's law of universal gravitation only applies in weak gravitational fields; the early laws of aerodynamics, such as Bernoulli's principle, do not apply in the case of compressible flow such as occurs in transonic and supersonic flight; Hooke's law only applies to strain below the elastic limit; Boyle's law applies with perfect accuracy only to the ideal gas, etc. These laws remain useful, but only under the specified conditions where they apply.
Many laws take mathematical forms, and thus can be stated as an equation; for example, the law of conservation of energy can be written as , where is the total amount of energy in the universe. Similarly, the first law of thermodynamics can be written as , and Newton's second law can be written as . While these scientific laws explain what our senses perceive, they are still empirical (acquired by observation or scientific experiment) and so are not like mathematical theorems which can be proved purely by mathematics.
Like theories and hypotheses, laws make predictions; specifically, they predict that new observations will conform to the given law. Laws can be falsified if they are found in contradiction with new data.
Some laws are only approximations of other more general laws, and are good approximations with a restricted domain of applicability. For example, Newtonian dynamics (which is based on Galilean transformations) is the low-speed limit of special relativity (since the Galilean transformation is the low-speed approximation to the Lorentz transformation). Similarly, the Newtonian gravitation law is a low-mass approximation of general relativity, and Coulomb's law is an approximation to quantum electrodynamics at large distances (compared to the range of weak interactions). In such cases it is common to use the simpler, approximate versions of the laws, instead of the more accurate general laws.
Laws are constantly being tested experimentally to increasing degrees of precision, which is one of the main goals of science. The fact that laws have never been observed to be violated does not preclude testing them at increased accuracy or in new kinds of conditions to confirm whether they continue to hold, or whether they break, and what can be discovered in the process. It is always possible for laws to be invalidated or proven to have limitations, by repeatable experimental evidence, should any be observed. Well-established laws have indeed been invalidated in some special cases, but the new formulations created to explain the discrepancies generalize upon, rather than overthrow, the originals. That is, the invalidated laws have been found to be only close approximations, to which other terms or factors must be added to cover previously unaccounted-for conditions, e.g. very large or very small scales of time or space, enormous speeds or masses, etc. Thus, rather than unchanging knowledge, physical laws are better viewed as a series of improving and more precise generalizations.
Properties
Scientific laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. A scientific law is "inferred from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present." The production of a summary description of our environment in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.
Several general properties of scientific laws, particularly when referring to laws in physics, have been identified. Scientific laws are:
True, at least within their regime of validity. By definition, there have never been repeatable contradicting observations.
Universal. They appear to apply everywhere in the universe.
Simple. They are typically expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation.
Absolute. Nothing in the universe appears to affect them.
Stable. Unchanged since first discovered (although they may have been shown to be approximations of more accurate laws),
All-encompassing. Everything in the universe apparently must comply with them (according to observations).
Generally conservative of quantity.
Often expressions of existing homogeneities (symmetries) of space and time.
Typically theoretically reversible in time (if non-quantum), although time itself is irreversible.
Broad. In physics, laws exclusively refer to the broad domain of matter, motion, energy, and force itself, rather than more specific systems in the universe, such as living systems, i.e. the mechanics of the human body.
The term "scientific law" is traditionally associated with the natural sciences, though the social sciences also contain laws. For example, Zipf's law is a law in the social sciences which is based on mathematical statistics. In these cases, laws may describe general trends or expected behaviors rather than being absolutes.
In natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined.
Some examples of widely accepted impossibilities in physics are perpetual motion machines, which violate the law of conservation of energy, exceeding the speed of light, which violates the implications of special relativity, the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, which asserts the impossibility of simultaneously knowing both the position and the momentum of a particle, and Bell's theorem: no physical theory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics.
Laws as consequences of mathematical symmetries
Some laws reflect mathematical symmetries found in Nature (e.g. the Pauli exclusion principle reflects identity of electrons, conservation laws reflect homogeneity of space, time, and Lorentz transformations reflect rotational symmetry of spacetime). Many fundamental physical laws are mathematical consequences of various symmetries of space, time, or other aspects of nature. Specifically, Noether's theorem connects some conservation laws to certain symmetries. For example, conservation of energy is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time (no moment of time is different from any other), while conservation of momentum is a consequence of the symmetry (homogeneity) of space (no place in space is special, or different than any other). The indistinguishability of all particles of each fundamental type (say, electrons, or photons) results in the Dirac and Bose quantum statistics which in turn result in the Pauli exclusion principle for fermions and in Bose–Einstein condensation for bosons. The rotational symmetry between time and space coordinate axes (when one is taken as imaginary, another as real) results in Lorentz transformations which in turn result in special relativity theory. Symmetry between inertial and gravitational mass results in general relativity.
The inverse square law of interactions mediated by massless bosons is the mathematical consequence of the 3-dimensionality of space.
One strategy in the search for the most fundamental laws of nature is to search for the most general mathematical symmetry group that can be applied to the fundamental interactions.
Laws of physics
Conservation laws
Conservation and symmetry
Conservation laws are fundamental laws that follow from the homogeneity of space, time and phase, in other words symmetry.
Noether's theorem: Any quantity which has a continuous differentiable symmetry in the action has an associated conservation law.
Conservation of mass was the first law of this type to be understood, since most macroscopic physical processes involving masses, for example collisions of massive particles or fluid flow, provide the apparent belief that mass is conserved. Mass conservation was observed to be true for all chemical reactions. In general this is only approximative, because with the advent of relativity and experiments in nuclear and particle physics: mass can be transformed into energy and vice versa, so mass is not always conserved, but part of the more general conservation of mass-energy.
Conservation of energy, momentum and angular momentum for isolated systems can be found to be symmetries in time, translation, and rotation.
Conservation of charge was also realized since charge has never been observed to be created or destroyed, and only found to move from place to place.
Continuity and transfer
Conservation laws can be expressed using the general continuity equation (for a conserved quantity) can be written in differential form as:
where ρ is some quantity per unit volume, J is the flux of that quantity (change in quantity per unit time per unit area). Intuitively, the divergence (denoted ∇•) of a vector field is a measure of flux diverging radially outwards from a point, so the negative is the amount piling up at a point, hence the rate of change of density in a region of space must be the amount of flux leaving or collecting in some region (see main article for details). In the table below, the fluxes, flows for various physical quantities in transport, and their associated continuity equations, are collected for comparison.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:150px;"| Physics, conserved quantity
! scope="col" style="width:140px;"| Conserved quantity q
! scope="col" style="width:140px;"| Volume density ρ (of q)
! scope="col" style="width:140px;"| Flux J (of q)
! scope="col" style="width:10px;"| Equation
|-
| Hydrodynamics, fluids
| m = mass (kg)
| ρ = volume mass density (kg m−3)
| ρ u, where
u = velocity field of fluid (m s−1)
|
|-
| Electromagnetism, electric charge
| q = electric charge (C)
| ρ = volume electric charge density (C m−3)
| J = electric current density (A m−2)
|
|-
| Thermodynamics, energy
| E = energy (J)
| u = volume energy density (J m−3)
| q = heat flux (W m−2)
|
|-
| Quantum mechanics, probability
|| P = (r, t) = ∫|Ψ|2d3r = probability distribution
|| ρ = ρ(r, t) = |Ψ|2 = probability density function (m−3),
Ψ = wavefunction of quantum system
|| j = probability current/flux
|
|}
More general equations are the convection–diffusion equation and Boltzmann transport equation, which have their roots in the continuity equation.
Laws of classical mechanics
Principle of least action
Classical mechanics, including Newton's laws, Lagrange's equations, Hamilton's equations, etc., can be derived from the following principle:
where is the action; the integral of the Lagrangian
of the physical system between two times t1 and t2. The kinetic energy of the system is T (a function of the rate of change of the configuration of the system), and potential energy is V (a function of the configuration and its rate of change). The configuration of a system which has N degrees of freedom is defined by generalized coordinates q = (q1, q2, ... qN).
There are generalized momenta conjugate to these coordinates, p = (p1, p2, ..., pN), where:
The action and Lagrangian both contain the dynamics of the system for all times. The term "path" simply refers to a curve traced out by the system in terms of the generalized coordinates in the configuration space, i.e. the curve q(t), parameterized by time (see also parametric equation for this concept).
The action is a functional rather than a function, since it depends on the Lagrangian, and the Lagrangian depends on the path q(t), so the action depends on the entire "shape" of the path for all times (in the time interval from t1 to t2). Between two instants of time, there are infinitely many paths, but one for which the action is stationary (to the first order) is the true path. The stationary value for the entire continuum of Lagrangian values corresponding to some path, not just one value of the Lagrangian, is required (in other words it is not as simple as "differentiating a function and setting it to zero, then solving the equations to find the points of maxima and minima etc", rather this idea is applied to the entire "shape" of the function, see calculus of variations for more details on this procedure).
Notice L is not the total energy E of the system due to the difference, rather than the sum:
The following general approaches to classical mechanics are summarized below in the order of establishment. They are equivalent formulations. Newton's is commonly used due to simplicity, but Hamilton's and Lagrange's equations are more general, and their range can extend into other branches of physics with suitable modifications.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:600px;" colspan="2"| Laws of motion
|-
|colspan="2" |Principle of least action:
|- valign="top"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:300px;"|The Euler–Lagrange equations are:
Using the definition of generalized momentum, there is the symmetry:
| style="width:300px;"| Hamilton's equations
The Hamiltonian as a function of generalized coordinates and momenta has the general form:
|-
|Hamilton–Jacobi equation
|- style="border-top: 3px solid;"
| colspan="2" scope="col" style="width:600px;"| Newton's laws
Newton's laws of motion
They are low-limit solutions to relativity. Alternative formulations of Newtonian mechanics are Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics.
The laws can be summarized by two equations (since the 1st is a special case of the 2nd, zero resultant acceleration):
where p = momentum of body, Fij = force on body i by body j, Fji = force on body j by body i.
For a dynamical system the two equations (effectively) combine into one:
in which FE = resultant external force (due to any agent not part of system). Body i does not exert a force on itself.
|}
From the above, any equation of motion in classical mechanics can be derived.
Corollaries in mechanics
Euler's laws of motion
Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics)
Corollaries in fluid mechanics
Equations describing fluid flow in various situations can be derived, using the above classical equations of motion and often conservation of mass, energy and momentum. Some elementary examples follow.
Archimedes' principle
Bernoulli's principle
Poiseuille's law
Stokes's law
Navier–Stokes equations
Faxén's law
Laws of gravitation and relativity
Some of the more famous laws of nature are found in Isaac Newton's theories of (now) classical mechanics, presented in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, and in Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
Modern laws
Special relativity
Postulates of special relativity are not "laws" in themselves, but assumptions of their nature in terms of relative motion.
Often two are stated as "the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames" and "the speed of light is constant". However the second is redundant, since the speed of light is predicted by Maxwell's equations. Essentially there is only one.
The said postulate leads to the Lorentz transformations – the transformation law between two frame of references moving relative to each other. For any 4-vector
this replaces the Galilean transformation law from classical mechanics. The Lorentz transformations reduce to the Galilean transformations for low velocities much less than the speed of light c.
The magnitudes of 4-vectors are invariants - not "conserved", but the same for all inertial frames (i.e. every observer in an inertial frame will agree on the same value), in particular if A is the four-momentum, the magnitude can derive the famous invariant equation for mass-energy and momentum conservation (see invariant mass):
in which the (more famous) mass-energy equivalence E = mc2 is a special case.
General relativity
General relativity is governed by the Einstein field equations, which describe the curvature of space-time due to mass-energy equivalent to the gravitational field. Solving the equation for the geometry of space warped due to the mass distribution gives the metric tensor. Using the geodesic equation, the motion of masses falling along the geodesics can be calculated.
Gravitomagnetism
In a relatively flat spacetime due to weak gravitational fields, gravitational analogues of Maxwell's equations can be found; the GEM equations, to describe an analogous gravitomagnetic field. They are well established by the theory, and experimental tests form ongoing research.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|- valign="top"
| scope="col" style="width:300px;"|Einstein field equations (EFE):
where Λ = cosmological constant, Rμν = Ricci curvature tensor, Tμν = Stress–energy tensor, gμν = metric tensor
| scope="col" style="width:300px;"|Geodesic equation:
where Γ is a Christoffel symbol of the second kind, containing the metric.
|- style="border-top: 3px solid;"
|colspan="2"| GEM Equations
If g the gravitational field and H the gravitomagnetic field, the solutions in these limits are:
where ρ is the mass density and J is the mass current density or mass flux.
|-
|colspan="2"| In addition there is the gravitomagnetic Lorentz force:
where m is the rest mass of the particlce and γ is the Lorentz factor.
|}
Classical laws
Kepler's Laws, though originally discovered from planetary observations (also due to Tycho Brahe), are true for any central forces.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|- valign="top"
| scope="col" style="width:300px;"|Newton's law of universal gravitation:
For two point masses:
For a non uniform mass distribution of local mass density ρ (r) of body of Volume V, this becomes:
| scope="col" style="width:300px;"| Gauss' law for gravity:
An equivalent statement to Newton's law is:
|- style="border-top: 3px solid;"
| colspan="2" scope="col" style="width:600px;"|Kepler's 1st Law: Planets move in an ellipse, with the star at a focus
where
is the eccentricity of the elliptic orbit, of semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b, and l is the semi-latus rectum. This equation in itself is nothing physically fundamental; simply the polar equation of an ellipse in which the pole (origin of polar coordinate system) is positioned at a focus of the ellipse, where the orbited star is.
|-
| colspan="2" style="width:600px;"|Kepler's 2nd Law: equal areas are swept out in equal times (area bounded by two radial distances and the orbital circumference):
where L is the orbital angular momentum of the particle (i.e. planet) of mass m about the focus of orbit,
|-
|colspan="2"|Kepler's 3rd Law: The square of the orbital time period T is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis a:
where M is the mass of the central body (i.e. star).
|}
Thermodynamics
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|-
!colspan="2"|Laws of thermodynamics
|- valign="top"
| scope="col" style="width:150px;"|First law of thermodynamics: The change in internal energy dU in a closed system is accounted for entirely by the heat δQ absorbed by the system and the work δW done by the system:
Second law of thermodynamics: There are many statements of this law, perhaps the simplest is "the entropy of isolated systems never decreases",
meaning reversible changes have zero entropy change, irreversible process are positive, and impossible process are negative.
| rowspan="2" style="width:150px;"| Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with one another.
Third law of thermodynamics:
As the temperature T of a system approaches absolute zero, the entropy S approaches a minimum value C: as T → 0, S → C.
|-
| For homogeneous systems the first and second law can be combined into the Fundamental thermodynamic relation:
|- style="border-top: 3px solid;"
| colspan="2" style="width:500px;"|Onsager reciprocal relations: sometimes called the Fourth Law of Thermodynamics
;
.
|}
Newton's law of cooling
Fourier's law
Ideal gas law, combines a number of separately developed gas laws;
Boyle's law
Charles's law
Gay-Lussac's law
Avogadro's law, into one
now improved by other equations of state
Dalton's law (of partial pressures)
Boltzmann equation
Carnot's theorem
Kopp's law
Electromagnetism
Maxwell's equations give the time-evolution of the electric and magnetic fields due to electric charge and current distributions. Given the fields, the Lorentz force law is the equation of motion for charges in the fields.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|- valign="top"
| scope="col" style="width:300px;"|Maxwell's equations
Gauss's law for electricity
Gauss's law for magnetism
Faraday's law
Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's correction)
| scope="col" style="width:300px;"| Lorentz force law:
|- style="border-top: 3px solid;"
| colspan="2" scope="col" style="width:600px;"| Quantum electrodynamics (QED): Maxwell's equations are generally true and consistent with relativity - but they do not predict some observed quantum phenomena (e.g. light propagation as EM waves, rather than photons, see Maxwell's equations for details). They are modified in QED theory.
|}
These equations can be modified to include magnetic monopoles, and are consistent with our observations of monopoles either existing or not existing; if they do not exist, the generalized equations reduce to the ones above, if they do, the equations become fully symmetric in electric and magnetic charges and currents. Indeed, there is a duality transformation where electric and magnetic charges can be "rotated into one another", and still satisfy Maxwell's equations.
Pre-Maxwell laws
These laws were found before the formulation of Maxwell's equations. They are not fundamental, since they can be derived from Maxwell's Equations. Coulomb's Law can be found from Gauss' Law (electrostatic form) and the Biot–Savart Law can be deduced from Ampere's Law (magnetostatic form). Lenz' Law and Faraday's Law can be incorporated into the Maxwell-Faraday equation. Nonetheless they are still very effective for simple calculations.
Lenz's law
Coulomb's law
Biot–Savart law
Other laws
Ohm's law
Kirchhoff's laws
Joule's law
Photonics
Classically, optics is based on a variational principle: light travels from one point in space to another in the shortest time.
Fermat's principle
In geometric optics laws are based on approximations in Euclidean geometry (such as the paraxial approximation).
Law of reflection
Law of refraction, Snell's law
In physical optics, laws are based on physical properties of materials.
Brewster's angle
Malus's law
Beer–Lambert law
In actuality, optical properties of matter are significantly more complex and require quantum mechanics.
Laws of quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics has its roots in postulates. This leads to results which are not usually called "laws", but hold the same status, in that all of quantum mechanics follows from them.
One postulate that a particle (or a system of many particles) is described by a wavefunction, and this satisfies a quantum wave equation: namely the Schrödinger equation (which can be written as a non-relativistic wave equation, or a relativistic wave equation). Solving this wave equation predicts the time-evolution of the system's behaviour, analogous to solving Newton's laws in classical mechanics.
Other postulates change the idea of physical observables; using quantum operators; some measurements can't be made at the same instant of time (Uncertainty principles), particles are fundamentally indistinguishable. Another postulate; the wavefunction collapse postulate, counters the usual idea of a measurement in science.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|- valign="top"
| style="width:300px;"| Quantum mechanics, Quantum field theory
Schrödinger equation (general form): Describes the time dependence of a quantum mechanical system.
The Hamiltonian (in quantum mechanics) H is a self-adjoint operator acting on the state space, (see Dirac notation) is the instantaneous quantum state vector at time t, position r, i is the unit imaginary number, ħ = h/2π is the reduced Planck's constant.
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:300px;"|Wave–particle duality
Planck–Einstein law: the energy of photons is proportional to the frequency of the light (the constant is Planck's constant, h).
De Broglie wavelength: this laid the foundations of wave–particle duality, and was the key concept in the Schrödinger equation,
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: Uncertainty in position multiplied by uncertainty in momentum is at least half of the reduced Planck constant, similarly for time and energy;
The uncertainty principle can be generalized to any pair of observables - see main article.
|-
| Wave mechanics
Schrödinger equation (original form):
|- style="border-top: 3px solid;"
| colspan="2" style="width:600px;"| Pauli exclusion principle: No two identical fermions can occupy the same quantum state (bosons can). Mathematically, if two particles are interchanged, fermionic wavefunctions are anti-symmetric, while bosonic wavefunctions are symmetric:
where ri is the position of particle i, and s is the spin of the particle. There is no way to keep track of particles physically, labels are only used mathematically to prevent confusion.
|}
Radiation laws
Applying electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics, to atoms and molecules, some laws of electromagnetic radiation and light are as follows.
Stefan–Boltzmann law
Planck's law of black-body radiation
Wien's displacement law
Radioactive decay law
Laws of chemistry
Chemical laws are those laws of nature relevant to chemistry. Historically, observations led to many empirical laws, though now it is known that chemistry has its foundations in quantum mechanics.
Quantitative analysis
The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the law of conservation of mass, which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary chemical reaction. Modern physics shows that it is actually energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are related; a concept which becomes important in nuclear chemistry. Conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics.
Additional laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. Joseph Proust's law of definite composition says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important.
Dalton's law of multiple proportions says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers; although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.
The law of definite composition and the law of multiple proportions are the first two of the three laws of stoichiometry, the proportions by which the chemical elements combine to form chemical compounds. The third law of stoichiometry is the law of reciprocal proportions, which provides the basis for establishing equivalent weights for each chemical element. Elemental equivalent weights can then be used to derive atomic weights for each element.
More modern laws of chemistry define the relationship between energy and its transformations.
Reaction kinetics and equilibria
In equilibrium, molecules exist in mixture defined by the transformations possible on the timescale of the equilibrium, and are in a ratio defined by the intrinsic energy of the molecules—the lower the intrinsic energy, the more abundant the molecule. Le Chatelier's principle states that the system opposes changes in conditions from equilibrium states, i.e. there is an opposition to change the state of an equilibrium reaction.
Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs.
There is a hypothetical intermediate, or transition structure, that corresponds to the structure at the top of the energy barrier. The Hammond–Leffler postulate states that this structure looks most similar to the product or starting material which has intrinsic energy closest to that of the energy barrier. Stabilizing this hypothetical intermediate through chemical interaction is one way to achieve catalysis.
All chemical processes are reversible (law of microscopic reversibility) although some processes have such an energy bias, they are essentially irreversible.
The reaction rate has the mathematical parameter known as the rate constant. The Arrhenius equation gives the temperature and activation energy dependence of the rate constant, an empirical law.
Thermochemistry
Dulong–Petit law
Gibbs–Helmholtz equation
Hess's law
Gas laws
Raoult's law
Henry's law
Chemical transport
Fick's laws of diffusion
Graham's law
Lamm equation
Laws of biology
Natural selection
Whether or not Natural Selection is a “law of nature” is controversial among biologists. Henry Byerly, an American philosopher known for his work on evolutionary theory, discussed the problem of interpreting a principle of natural selection as a law. He suggested a formulation of natural selection as a framework principle that can contribute to a better understanding of evolutionary theory. His approach was to express relative fitness, the propensity of a genotype to increase in proportionate representation in a competitive environment, as a function of adaptedness (adaptive design) of the organism.
Laws of geology
Archie's law
Buys-Ballot's law
Birch's law
Byerlee's law
Principle of original horizontality
Law of superposition
Principle of lateral continuity
Principle of cross-cutting relationships
Principle of faunal succession
Principle of inclusions and components
Walther's law
Other fields
Some mathematical theorems and axioms are referred to as laws because they provide logical foundation to empirical laws.
Examples of other observed phenomena sometimes described as laws include the Titius–Bode law of planetary positions, Zipf's law of linguistics, and Moore's law of technological growth. Many of these laws fall within the scope of uncomfortable science. Other laws are pragmatic and observational, such as the law of unintended consequences. By analogy, principles in other fields of study are sometimes loosely referred to as "laws". These include Occam's razor as a principle of philosophy and the Pareto principle of economics.
History
The observation and detection of underlying regularities in nature date from prehistoric times - the recognition of cause-and-effect relationships implicitly recognises the existence of laws of nature. The recognition of such regularities as independent scientific laws per se, though, was limited by their entanglement in animism, and by the attribution of many effects that do not have readily obvious causes—such as physical phenomena—to the actions of gods, spirits, supernatural beings, etc. Observation and speculation about nature were intimately bound up with metaphysics and morality.
In Europe, systematic theorizing about nature (physis) began with the early Greek philosophers and scientists and continued into the Hellenistic and Roman imperial periods, during which times the intellectual influence of Roman law increasingly became paramount.The formula "law of nature" first appears as "a live metaphor" favored by Latin poets Lucretius, Virgil, Ovid, Manilius, in time gaining a firm theoretical presence in the prose treatises of Seneca and Pliny. Why this Roman origin? According to [historian and classicist Daryn] Lehoux's persuasive narrative, the idea was made possible by the pivotal role of codified law and forensic argument in Roman life and culture.
For the Romans . . . the place par excellence where ethics, law, nature, religion and politics overlap is the law court. When we read Seneca's Natural Questions, and watch again and again just how he applies standards of evidence, witness evaluation, argument and proof, we can recognize that we are reading one of the great Roman rhetoricians of the age, thoroughly immersed in forensic method. And not Seneca alone. Legal models of scientific judgment turn up all over the place, and for example prove equally integral to Ptolemy's approach to verification, where the mind is assigned the role of magistrate, the senses that of disclosure of evidence, and dialectical reason that of the law itself.
The precise formulation of what are now recognized as modern and valid statements of the laws of nature dates from the 17th century in Europe, with the beginning of accurate experimentation and the development of advanced forms of mathematics. During this period, natural philosophers such as Isaac Newton (1642-1727) were influenced by a religious view - stemming from medieval concepts of divine law - which held that God had instituted absolute, universal and immutable physical laws. In chapter 7 of The World, René Descartes (1596-1650) described "nature" as matter itself, unchanging as created by God, thus changes in parts "are to be attributed to nature. The rules according to which these changes take place I call the 'laws of nature'." The modern scientific method which took shape at this time (with Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and Galileo (1564-1642)) contributed to a trend of separating science from theology, with minimal speculation about metaphysics and ethics. (Natural law in the political sense, conceived as universal (i.e., divorced from sectarian religion and accidents of place), was also elaborated in this period by scholars such as Grotius (1583-1645), Spinoza (1632-1677), and Hobbes (1588-1679).)
The distinction between natural law in the political-legal sense and law of nature or physical law in the scientific sense is a modern one, both concepts being equally derived from physis, the Greek word (translated into Latin as natura) for nature.
See also
References
Further reading
John Barrow (1991). Theories of Everything: The Quest for Ultimate Explanations. ()
Francis Bacon (1620). Novum Organum.
Daryn Lehoux (2012). What Did the Romans Know? An Inquiry into Science and Worldmaking. University of Chicago Press. ()
External links
Physics Formulary, a useful book in different formats containing many or the physical laws and formulae.
Eformulae.com, website containing most of the formulae in different disciplines.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Laws of Nature" by John W. Carroll.
Baaquie, Belal E. "Laws of Physics : A Primer". Core Curriculum, National University of Singapore.
Francis, Erik Max. "The laws list".. Physics. Alcyone Systems
Pazameta, Zoran. "The laws of nature". Committee for the scientific investigation of Claims of the Paranormal.
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Laws of Nature" – By Norman Swartz
"Laws of Nature", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Mark Buchanan, Frank Close and Nancy Cartwright (Oct. 19, 2000)
Causality
Metaphysics of science
Philosophy of science
Principles
Laws in science
Scientific method | [
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] |
244630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay%27s%20Journal | Jay's Journal | Jay's Journal is a book presented as an autobiographical account of a depressed teenage boy who becomes involved with a Satanic group. After participating in several occult rituals, "Jay" believes he is being haunted by a demon named Raul. The book is based on "true" events of 16-year-old Alden Barrett from Pleasant Grove, Utah, who committed suicide in 1971.
Some critics have challenged the authenticity of the story, noting that the editor of this book, Beatrice Sparks, has filled the same role on many other "actual, anonymous diaries of teenagers" that explore such sensational themes as drug addiction, teenage pregnancy, and prostitution. These books, the most well-known of which is Go Ask Alice, serve as cautionary tales.
According to a book written by Barrett's brother Scott (A Place in the Sun: The Truth Behind Jay's Journal) and interviews with the family, Sparks used 21 entries of 212 total from Barrett's actual journal. The other entries were fictional, with Sparks claiming they were based on case histories from other teenagers Sparks worked with and interviews of friends and acquaintances of Barrett.
A rock opera titled A Place in the Sun was created and performed by Utah county band Grain in 1997. According to some family members, it was a more accurate portrayal and showed Sparks' alleged exploitation of the story.
Within the city of Pleasant Grove, Jay's Journal has been the source of many urban legends, including alleged locations where Jay performed actions described in the book, his home, the effect on his family after his death, and other rumors.
Due to allegations of ritual cattle mutilation arising in Jay's Journal, the book came to the attention of Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers investigating reports of killed and mutilated cows in Alberta.
References
External links
Blog entry on the "Mormon Horror Fiction" of Jay's Journal
Review of Grain's A Place in the Sun rock opera
Teen Death Diary by Ben Dieterle in Salt Lake City Weekly, June 3, 2004, discusses the issues and controversies related to Barrett's death and Jay's Journal. Archive.org link access 4/27/2014.
Debunking by Snopes of the anti-drug tale Go Ask Alice, also written by Beatrice Sparks.
1979 books
Fictional diaries
Works by Beatrice Sparks
Written fiction presented as fact | [
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244632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbiana | Columbiana | Columbiana may refer to:
In botany:
Arctostaphylos columbiana or hairy manzanita, a plant species native to North America
Calatola columbiana, a species of plant in the family Icacinaceae endemic to Colombia
Clematis columbiana, a species of flowering plant in the buttercup genus Clematis
Crataegus columbiana, a species of hawthorn plant native to North America
Lewisia columbiana or Columbian lewisia, a species of flowering plant in the purslane family
Wolffia columbiana or Columbian watermeal, a perennial aquatic plant in the duckweed family
In zoology:
Columbiana (planthopper), a genus of planthoppers in the subfamily Delphacinae
Dictyna columbiana, a Dictynidae species of spider
Nucifraga columbiana or Clark's nutcracker, a species of passerine bird in the family Corvidae
Sicalis columbiana or orange-fronted yellow-finch, a species of bird in the family Emberizidae
Xylophanes columbiana, a species of moth in the family Sphingidae
In U.S. places:
Columbiana, Alabama
Columbiana, Ohio
Columbiana Exempted Village School District, a school district in Ohio
Columbiana High School
Columbiana County, Ohio
Columbiana County Airport, an airport in Ohio
See also
Central Columbiana and Pennsylvania Railway or Youngstown and Southeastern Railroad
Colombia (disambiguation)
Colombian (disambiguation)
Colombiana (disambiguation)
Columbia (disambiguation)
Columbian (disambiguation)
Columbiana Centre, a shopping mall in Columbia, South Carolina | [
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244633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur%20scale | Réaumur scale |
The Réaumur scale (; °Ré, °Re, °r), also known as the "octogesimal division", is a temperature scale for which the freezing and boiling points of water are defined as 0 and 80 degrees respectively. The scale is named for René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, who first proposed a similar scale in 1730.
Change in scale
Réaumur’s thermometer contained diluted alcohol (ethanol) and was constructed on the principle of using 0° for the freezing temperature of water, and graduating the tube into degrees, each of which was one-thousandth of the volume contained by the bulb and tube up to the zero mark. He suggested that the concentration of alcohol employed be such that it began boiling at 80 °Ré — that is, when it had expanded in volume by 8%. He chose alcohol instead of mercury because it expands more visibly, but this posed problems: his original thermometers were very bulky, and the low boiling point of alcohol made them unsuitable for many applications. Instrument-makers generally chose different liquids, and then used 80 °Ré to signify the boiling point of water, causing much confusion. During 1772 Jean-André Deluc studied the several substances then used in thermometers and concluded that mercurial thermometers were the best for practical use; for example, if two equal amounts of water at x and y degrees were mixed, the temperature of the result was then the average of x and y degrees, and this relationship was only reliable when mercury was used. From the late 18th century mercury was used almost without exception. Its range is 0 to 80 degrees.
Use
The Réaumur scale was used widely in Europe, particularly in France, Germany and Russia, and was referenced in the works of Thomas Mann, Dostoyevsky, Flaubert, Tolstoy, and Nabokov. For example, at the beginning of Book X of The Brothers Karamazov, the narrator says, "We had eleven degrees of frost", i.e. −11 °Ré, equivalent to −14 °C or 7 °F. By the 1790s, France had chosen the Celsius scale as part of the metric system, rather than the Réaumur measurement, but it was used commonly in some parts of Europe until at least the mid-19th century, and in parts of Russia until the early 20th. While living in Paris, George Orwell mentions "translating Réaumur into Fahrenheit" even in 1929. Its main modern uses are in some Italian and Swiss factories for measuring milk temperature during cheese production, and in the Netherlands for measuring temperature when cooking sugar syrup for desserts and sweets.
Conversion between different temperature units
(C/100) = (F − 32)/180 = (K − 273.15)/100 = (R/80)
Notes and references
Obsolete units of measurement
Scales of temperature
Science and technology in France | [
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244642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanbian%20Korean%20Autonomous%20Prefecture | Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture | Yanbian (; Chosŏn'gŭl: , Yeonbyeon; Hangul: , Yenbyen), officially known as the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the east of Jilin Province, China. Yanbian is bordered to the north by Heilongjiang, on the west by Baishan and Jilin City, on the south by North Korea's North Hamgyong Province and on the east by Primorsky Krai in Russia. Yanbian is designated as a Korean autonomous prefecture due to the large number of ethnic Koreans living in the region. The prefectural capital is Yanji and the total area is .
The prefecture has an important Balhae archaeological site: the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, which includes the Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo.
History
In the Ming dynasty, Yanbian was governed by the Jianzhou Guard () and in the late Qing dynasty the area was divided into the Yanji () and Hunchun () subprefectures. From 1644 to the 1800s the Manchurian administrators of the Qing state attempted to separate Northeast China, politically and ethnographically, into a "Manchuria" to which they could retreat in case an ethnically Han Chinese dynasty regained control over China. However, this effort failed because of the trading and agricultural opportunities available to Han Chinese migrants in the northeast region which made it profitable to evade the rules, as well as later Qing relaxation of the same rules to discourage Russian encroachment.
In the late 19th century, Korean immigrants migrated en masse from the Korean Peninsula to China. After the foundation of the Republic of China, a second wave arrived. Of the 2 million ethnic Koreans in Manchuria at the time of the communist takeover, 1.2 million remained in the region after the end of World War II. Many participated in the Chinese Civil War, most on the side of the Chinese communists. When the civil war was over, the new Chinese government gave these Koreans their own autonomous region () in 1952. Yanbian was upgraded to an ethnic autonomous prefecture in 1955.
Korean (Joseon) migration into Northeast China began in significant numbers in the last quarter of the 19th century and was mainly motivated by economic hardship on the Korean side of the border. After the Japanese annexed Korea in 1910, a small but significant number of migrants also came to Manchuria for political reasons.
In 1952, the Korean migrants comprised some 60% of the local population, but by 2000 that was down to 32%. The Chinese authorities subsidize Korean language schools and publications, but also take measures to prevent an emergence of Korean irredentism in the area. From the late 1990s, the Koreans have assimilated into mainstream Chinese culture with increasing speed, often switching to daily use of Chinese and choosing to attend Chinese-language schools.
Geography
Geographic coordinates: 41° 59' 47" – 44° 30' 42" N, 127° 27' 43" – 131° 18' 33" E
Total border length:
With North Korea:
With Russia:
Mountains that are in the prefecture are:
Changbai Mountains (central range)
Zhangguangcai Range
Harba Peak ()
Peony Peak ()
Old Master Peak ()
Nangang Mountain Range ()
There have been over 40 types of minerals and 50 kinds of metals – including gold, lead, zinc, copper, silver, manganese and mercury – discovered near or in the mountains.
The average land height is 500 metres above sea level.
Main rivers include:
Songhua River
Mudan River (Peony River)
Tumen River
Gaya River (branch of the Tumen)
Hunchun River
The rivers sustain 28 running water processing facilities. They created basins, which are suitable for agricultural uses, like rice paddies and bean farms.
Administration
The prefecture is subdivided into eight county-level divisions: six county-level cities and two counties:
The above counties and cities are divided into 642 villages ().
Transportation
Railways include:
Chang-Tu Line ()
Mu-Tu Line ()
Chao-Kai Line ()
Yangchuan-Shantun Line ()
Tumen-Hunchun Railway: under construction
There are 1,480 kilometres of public roads altogether. There are four airports.
Demographics
Ethnic composition:
2,271,600 (2010)
64.55% Han Chinese
32.45% Korean
2.52% Manchu
0.28% Hui
0.13% Mongols
Growth rate 0.4%.
Population density: .
As on the Korean peninsula, the most common surname among Yanbian Koreans is Kim (Jin [] in Chinese). Many emigrated from Korea during the 19th century and again during the Japanese occupation.
Between 1952 and 2002, the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture had among the highest rates of urbanization () at 55.6%, 20 percentage points greater than the provincial average (31.3%) and 25 more than the national average (26.5%).
Education
Colleges and universities:
Yanbian University, which uses both Chinese and Korean as instruction mediums.
Yanbian University of Science and Technology
International schools:
Yanbian International Academy
Korean International School in Yanbian
Culture
Both Mandarin Chinese and Korean are used as official languages in Yanbian.
The Museum of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture was planned in 1960, and constructed in 1982. It contains over 10,000 exhibits, including 11 first-level artifacts. The exhibits' labels and explanations are bilingual in Korean and Chinese and tour guides are also available in both languages.
Tourism
There are seven public parks in Yanbian's green space (18% of whole prefecture), including:
Yanji People's Park ()
Youth Lake Park ()
Also popular among locals during holidays and festivities.
Baekdusan
Nature and environment
Over 70% are originally forest in the prefecture, so there is a rich diversity of life.
1,460 species of native animals
250 species of native plants.
Sports
Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture is an important region for Chinese football. Over 50 years, more than 40 footballers have been selected by the Chinese national football team.
In 1955, Yanbian Football Club was founded, although it was a semi-professional one.
The first professional football team in this prefecture is Jilin Three Stars Football Club. From 1994 to 2000, this club had played each year in the top Chinese football league. In 2000, they were relegated from the top league. Because of poor economic conditions the club was sold to Lucheng Group in Zhejiang Province.
In 2001, Yanbian Football Club was founded. They are currently playing in the 32,000-seater Hailanjiang Stadium in the Chinese Super League, the top tier of the Chinese football league system.
In 2016, Yanbian Football Club was sponsored by Shenzhen Funde Group when they got the permission of Chinese Super League, since they acquired the 1st place in the Chinese Second League in 2015.
See also
Changbai Korean Autonomous County
References
Further reading
External links
Official government website
Official government Tourism website
Yanbian Office in Korea
Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture: by the Information Office of Jilin Provincial Government
A map labeled in Chinese written in the list in the "Administration" section
Prefecture-level divisions of Jilin
Autonomous prefectures of the People's Republic of China
Koreans in China
Korean-speaking countries and territories | [
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244646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20Service%20College | Imperial Service College | The Imperial Service College (ISC) was an English independent school based in Windsor, originally known as St. Mark's School when it was founded in 1845.
In 1906, St Mark’s School absorbed boys from the former United Services College, which had failed. In 1911, St Mark’s was also in difficulties, and after securing support from the Imperial Service College Trust it was renamed as Imperial Service College, St Mark’s. On the death of Lord Kitchener in 1916, Prince Alexander of Teck, soon to become Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone, launched a public appeal for a permanent endowment of the school in Kitchener’s memory. He noted that the Imperial Service College had been founded “for the purpose of providing a public school education for the Sons of Officers of limited means belonging to the Navy, Army, and Higher Civil Services.”
In 1942, the school merged with Haileybury to form Haileybury and Imperial Service College.
During the 1950s, part of the site was the home of the Royal Horse Guards Light Aid Detachment Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (LAD REME RHG), while the school’s Kipling Memorial Building (1939) was occupied by the Royal Borough of New Windsor Council.
The area is now being redeveloped as offices.
Notable alumni
Military
Colonel John L. Collard, MC, Order of the Star of Nepal, Nepalese Burma Medal
Lt. Colonel Charles J. Boulter, MC, O.B.E.
Air Vice-Marshal Sir Laurence Sinclair, GC
Group Captain Randolph Stuart Mills DFC
Sir John Gorman, MC
Wing Commander Clive Beadon, DFC, Burma Star
Sir Richard Williams, KBE, CB, DSO: the only Australian to command the RAAF Wing in the field in World War I and the first Australian to become an Air Marshal
Group Captain Peter Erskine Vaughan-Fowler, CVO, DSO, DFC and bar, AFC, Croix de Guere, Legion d' Honneur
Others
Frank Ayton: electrical engineer and pioneer of electric vehicles
Charles Ede: founder of the Folio Society
William Hartnell: actor who played the first Doctor Who
Krishen Khanna: Indian artist
Hubert Stanley Middleton, organist and Cambridge academic.
Prince Andrew Romanov, Russian royal and artist
Peter Woods, journalist, newsreader
Benefactors
Patrick Young Alexander
References
Defunct schools in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead
Educational institutions disestablished in 1942
1942 disestablishments in England | [
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244648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gera | Gera | Gera is, with around 93,000 inhabitants, the third-largest city of Thuringia after Erfurt and Jena as well as the easternmost city of the Thüringer Städtekette, an almost straight string of cities consisting of the six largest Thuringian cities from Eisenach in the west, via Gotha, Erfurt, Weimar and Jena to Gera in the east. Gera is the largest city in the Vogtland, and one of its historical capitals along with Plauen, Greiz and Weida. The city lies in the East Thuringian Hill Country, in the wide valley of the White Elster, between Greiz (upstream) and Leipzig (downstream). Gera is located in the Central German Metropolitan Region, approximately south of Saxony's largest city of Leipzig, east of Thuringia's capital Erfurt, west of Saxony's capital Dresden and 90 km (56 miles) north of Bavaria's city of Hof (Saale).
First mentioned in 995 and developing into a city during the 13th century, Gera has historical significance as being one of the main residences of the Ducal House of Reuss and subsequently the capital of the Principality of Reuss-Gera (1848-1918) and of the People's State of Reuss (1918-1920), one of the many microstates the Thuringian region consisted of, before they were unified to form Thuringia in 1920.
Over the 19th century, Gera became a centre of the textile industry and saw a period of rapid growth. In 1952, the city also became an administrative centre in GDR as one of the capitals of Gera administrative district (Bezirk). In 1990, Gera became part of re-established Thuringia. The loss of its administrative functions as well as its industrial core (caused both by structural change among the European textile industry and the economic system change after the German reunification) precipitated the city's slide into an enduring economic crisis.
Since 1990, many of Gera's buildings have been restored and big urban planning programmes like the Bundesgartenschau 2007 were implemented to stimulate Gera's economy. Sights include some retained buildings of the royal residence epoque and many public and private buildings from the economic heyday between 1870 and 1930. The famous painter Otto Dix was born in Gera in 1891.
History
Middle Ages
The place name Gera originally referred to the area of the Elster river valley where the city stands now. The name most likely originated before the European Migration Period – the people who first settled the area during the 8th century adopted the name. The first known documentary mention of Gera dates from 995.
In 999 Emperor Otto III assigned the "province" of Gera to the Quedlinburg Abbey. In turn, the church assigned the protectorship of this area in 1209 to the Vogts of Weida (in German: Vögte von Weida) who served as its administrators. The Vogts of Weida were the ancestors of the Reussians, who ruled Gera until 1918. Gera was first mentioned as a town in 1237, though it is unclear in which year Gera got the municipal law. The small town got circumvallated in the 13th century on an area of 350 x 350 m and the Vogts' city castle was built in the south-western corner at today's Burgstraße. A municipal seal was first used in 1350, the council was first named in 1360 and the town hall was mentioned in 1426. The abbess of Quedlinburg remained the formal sovereign of Gera until 1358, as the Wettins followed her up. The Vogt's couldn't emancipate theirselfs from Wettin rule. In 1450, Gera was almost totally destroyed during the Saxon Fratricidal War, but it could recuperate quick because the starting textile manufacture brought wealth to the town.
Early modern period
The Reformation was introduced in Gera in 1533 against the will of the Vogts by the Wettins. After the Schmalkaldic War in 1546, the Wettins lost Gera to the Bohemian Crown, who however had no influence on the city, so that the Vogts resp. the Reussians (which arose from the Vogts in the mid-16th century) as indeed rulers were strengthened. During the 16th century, some cloth-makers from the Spanish Netherlands migrated to Gera as religious refugees at Count Henry's invitation and raised the textile business in Gera. In the 18th century, there was a first peak in this industry (Putting-out system), which can be seen today at the large agents houses.
In 1673, the Reussians were raised to Imperial Counts which granted them full sovereignty within the Holy Roman Empire; Gera became their royal residence. In 1686 and 1780, big town fires destroyed most buildings in Gera. The town was rebuilt relatively uniform during the 1780s in late-Baroque style, which marks the inner city until today.
In 1806 Napoleon established his Imperial Headquarters at Gera during the War of the Fourth Coalition. From here, on October 12, 1806, the French Emperor purposely sent an arrogant and threatening letter to King Frederick William III of Prussia – a letter that enticed Prussia to war and a crushing defeat at the Battle of Jena a few days later.
Since 1815
The Gera line of Reussians died out in 1802, so that it had no royal residence until the new one moved there from Schleiz in 1848. From 1848 to 1918 Gera served as the capital of the Principality of Reuss-Gera. With the industrial revolution in the mid-19th century, Gera grew rapidly, due largely to its textile industry, which saw the first Power loom installed in 1836. In 1859, Gera was first connected by railway to Halle via Zeitz and Weißenfels. During the following decades, rail lines in all directions made Gera to a transport hub, and the town kept growing. The second electric tram in Germany was installed in Gera in 1892.
After World War I, during the German Revolution of 1918–19, the prince of Reuss was forced to abdicate and as the resultant "Republic of Reuss" joined the newly founded state of Thuringia in 1920. After the incorporation of some suburbs in the 1910s and 1920s Gera, with some 80,000 inhabitants, was the largest city in Thuringia, although the more centrally located Weimar became its capital.
After the Nazi takeover of Germany, the Jewish community of Gera was destroyed, the synagogue burnt down in the Kristallnacht in 1938 and the city's Jews emigrated or were murdered in concentration camps. A month before the end of World War II, on 6 April 1945, U.S. bombing destroyed parts of the city and killed 514 residents. Some 300 buildings were hit, including the Osterstein castle and several historic buildings in city centre, many of which weren't rebuilt after the war. U.S. forces occupied Gera on 14 April 1945 but were replaced by the Soviets on 1 July 1945.
Gera became part of the GDR in 1949 and was a flash point in the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany as thousands of workers – among them many employees of the Soviet-established Wismut uranium mining entity in the nearby Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge) – demanded higher wages and free elections. The demonstrations were put down by Soviet military forces, including armored units.
With governmental reorganization in East Germany, the city became the capital of the newly created District of Gera in 1952. The population rose during the GDR period, and massive Plattenbau prefabricated apartment blocks, built throughout East Germany, were constructed in Gera.
After German reunification in 1990, Gera became part of the restored state of Thuringia. However, Gera lost most of its administrative functions after reunification, and nearly all the city's factories were closed. This led to a continuing economic crisis with significant unemployment, and the city's population declined from 135,000 in 1990 to less than 100,000 a decade later.
The city hosted the Bundesgartenschau (federal horticultural exhibition) in 2007.
Geography and demographics
Topography
Gera is located in a smooth-hilly landscape in eastern Thuringia at the White Elster river (progression: ), between the Thuringian Highland approx. in the south-west, the Ore Mountains approx. in the south-east and the Leipzig Bay approx. in the north. The municipal territory is marked by the Elster valley, crossing it in south-northern direction. West of the valley, the landscape is more hilly and forested (with the Gera Municipal Forest), whereas the eastern parts are more flat and in agricultural use. The elevation is between 180 metres (the level of the White Elster river) and (when measured at Gera-Falka at the furthest southeastern point). Usually the height above sea level for the city appears as when measured at the market place.
Small tributaries of the White Elster river within the borders of Gera are the Erlbach on the western side and the Wipsenbach, Gessenbach and Brahme on the eastern side.
Climate
Gera has a humid continental climate (Dfb) or an oceanic climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system. Summers are warm and sometimes humid, winters are relatively cold. The city's topography creates a microclimate caused through the basin position with sometimes inversion in winter (quite cold nights under ) and heat and inadequate air circulation in summer. Annual precipitation is only with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Light snowfall mainly occurs from December through February, but snow cover does not usually remain for long.
Administrative division
Gera abuts the following municipalities:
in the Burgenlandkreis district in the north: Wetterzeube and Gutenborn in the federal state of Saxony-Anhalt
in the Greiz district in the east: Pölzig, Hirschfeld, Brahmenau, Schwaara, Korbußen, Ronneburg, Kauern, Hilbersdorf and Linda; in the south: Endschütz, Wünschendorf, Zedlitz and Hundhaupten; in the west: Saara, Kraftsdorf, Hartmannsdorf and Bad Köstritz
in the Saale-Holzland district: Silbitz in the north-west.
Gera is divided in different ways. Historically, there are more than 60 villages in the densely settled Elster valley area belonging to Gera today. The actual division knows on the one hand statistical districts and on the other hand political districts. The 12 statistical districts are covering the whole city area and consist of (sometimes) several political districts, urban quarters and/or rural villages. The 16 political districts are covering only few parts of Gera, but not the central urban areas, instead usually rural districts got incorporated during the second half of the 20th century. Each political district can (but doesn't have to) consist of more than one village. Each political district elects an own district council and a district mayor, whereas the statistical districts don't have any political function.
The main urban quarters are the city centre, Untermhaus (incorporated 1919) in the west, Langenberg (1950), Tinz (1919) and Bieblach (1905) in the north, Leumnitz (1919) in the east, Pforten (1919) and Zwötzen (1919) in the south-east as well as Debschwitz (1912) and Lusan (1919) in the south-west.
Demographics
During the centuries, Gera has been a quite small town of 2,000 inhabitants. As the textile business saw a first peak, the population rose to 7,000 in 1800 and further to 17,000 after the early stage of industrialisation in 1870. Gera's heyday between 1870 and 1930 led to a demographic boom with a population of 83,000 at the end of this phase in 1930. In 1950, Gera had 98,000 inhabitants and the all-time peak was reached in 1988 with a population of 135,000. After the German reunification in 1990, the city saw a significant decline in population, despite the large incorporations of 1994. The population shrunk to 113,000 in 2000 and 95,000 in 2012.
The average decrease of population between 2009 and 2012 was approximately 0.55% p. a, whereas the population in bordering rural regions is shrinking with accelerating tendency. Suburbanization played only a small role in Gera. It occurred after the reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders. During the 1990s and the 2000s, many inhabitants left Gera to search a better life in west Germany or other major east German cities like Jena or Leipzig. Since 2010, emigration is no big issue anymore. Now, the birth deficit, caused by the high average age of the population, is getting a bigger problem because the immigration isn't sufficient to compensate it yet. Despite urban planning activities to tear down unused flats, vacancy is still a problem with rates around 12% (according to 2011 EU census). A positive side effect for the inhabitants is that Gera has one of the lowest rent levels in Germany.
The birth deficit was 715 in 2012, this is -7.5 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: -4.5; national average: -2.4). The net migration rate was +3.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: -0.8; national average: +4.6). The most important regions of origin of Gera migrants are bordering rural areas of Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Saxony as well as foreign countries like Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.
Like other eastern German cities, Gera has only a small amount of foreign population: circa 1.6% are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 5.0% are migrants (according to 2011 EU census). Differing from the national average, the biggest groups of migrants in Gera are Russians, Vietnamese people and Ukrainians. During recent years, the economic situation of the city improved a bit: the unemployment rate declined from 22% in 2005 to 11% in 2013, which is still the highest one out of all Thuringian districts. Due to the official atheism in former GDR, most of the population is non-religious. 9.8% are members of the Evangelical Church in Central Germany and 2.6% are Catholics (according to 2011 EU census) making one of the world's lowest amounts of religious people.
Culture, sights and cityscape
Museums
There are some museums in Gera:
The Orangerie at Orangerieplatz hosts an exhibition of art from the Middle Ages to the contemporary period.
The Otto-Dix-Haus at Mohrenplatz 4, birthplace and childhood home of the famous artist Otto Dix, has a collection of his drawings, prints, paintings and childhood sketch books, and an exhibition about his life.
The Museum für Angewandte Kunst at Greizer Straße shows 20th century contemporary art (inside "Ferber House"). It displays collections of Bauhaus ceramics by the artists Otto Lindig und Theodor Bogler; architectural works of Thilo Schoder; and photographs by Aenne Biermann.
The Museum für Naturkunde at Nicolaiberg hosts a natural history exhibition (inside the "Schreiber House", the oldest building in the city), with its adjacent botanical garden, the Botanischer Garten Gera
The Stadtmuseum at Museumsplatz shows an exhibition of Gera's municipal history.
The Haus Schulenburg at Straße des Friedens is a factory owner's mansion, built in 1913/14 by the famous architect Henry van de Velde. It hosts topical furniture and decoration and can be visited.
Image gallery
Cityscape
Like its western neighbour-city Jena, Gera is a protracted city along a wide valley in south-northern direction. The historic city centre is quite small and located between Sorge in the north, Nicolaistraße in the east, Stadtgraben in the south and Reichsstraße in the west. It survived World War II, but during the 1960s and 1970s, the GDR government demolished larger inner-city areas to rebuild them with modern concrete architecture, which marks the view of Gera's centre, particularly in the north-west until today. Between 1870 and 1930, the city was largely extended in all directions. As distinct from other German cities, there is no citywide spatial separation between the worker's quarters and the upper-class mansion districts, instead, the mansions and the tenements are situated near to each other, spread over all the districts. The hilly areas and those next to the river and the parks are more upscale, whereas the areas next to the railway and the factories are more working-class styled. Nevertheless, the Gründerzeit architecture is quite diverse and interesting in Gera. Most buildings were extensively refurbished after 1990. Especially Gera's mansion architecture from the 1900s and 1910s is unique. The 1920s brought some modern-style Bauhaus buildings to the then rich city. During the GDR period, urban growth was handled by establishing big Plattenbau settlements on the city's periphery, like the Lusan district in south and the Bieblach district in north.
Image gallery
Sights and architectural heritage
Churches
The St. Saviour's Church at Nicolaiberg is the evangelical main church of Gera, built between 1717 and 1720 by David Schatz in Baroque style.
The Trinity Church at Heinrichstraße is an evangelical parish church (since 1886), built between 1609 and 1611 as cemetery church.
The St. John's Church at Clara-Zetkin-Straße is an evangelical parish church, built between 1881 and 1885 in neo-Gothic style.
The St. Mary's Church at Untermhaus district is the evangelical parish church of the former village Untermhaus, built around 1450.
The St. Elizabeth's Church at Kleiststraße is the catholic parish church of Gera, built in 2000 in modern style as one of only few bigger new churches in Thuringia after 1990.
The St. Martin's Church at Zwötzen district is an evangelical parish church, built in 1895 in neo-Gothic style.
The Fourteen Holy Helpers Church at Langenberg district is an evangelical parish church, was rebuilt during the 1750s.
Image gallery
Other sights
The town hall at Marktplatz is one of the biggest Renaissance town halls in Germany with a nearly 60 m high tower, built between 1573 and 1576. The Marktplatz itself forms a good ensemble of 18th century patricians houses in late-Baroque style.
The Stadttheater at Küchengartenallee is the former royal Reussian theatre, built in 1902 by Heinrich Seeling in neo-Baroque style.
The Stadtapotheke (city pharmacy) is a Renaissance building at Marktplatz with a beautiful bay, established in 1592.
The Küchengarten with the Orangerie is a park ensemble west of the city centre, established in 1732 by the Reussians.
The Höhler is a cellar system under the city centre with a length of approx. , established in 17th and 18th century for storing beer. A part can be visited via an entrance at Nicolaiberg 3.
The Schloss Tinz was the royal summer residence of the Reussians, built in 1748 in Baroque style with a surrounding park.
The Schloss Osterstein was the main royal residence of the Reussians, built during the 16th century in Renaissance style. It was hit by bombs in 1945 and partially demolished in 1962. Only the tower remained.
The city wall was demolished in the 19th century, only a small part at Stadtgraben remained.
Image gallery
Economy and infrastructure
Agriculture, industry and services
Agriculture has some importance in the rural districts of Gera, especially in the northern and eastern city parts. Approximately 57% of the municipal territory is in agricultural use: growing maize, rapeseed and crops as well as pasturing cattle.
The city's economy features industrial machinery (Dagro Gera GmbH), communications (DTKS GmbH, Deutsche Telekom), security locks (Schloßsicherungen Gera GmbH), optics (POG Präzisionsoptik Gera GmbH), electrical equipment (Electronicon Kondensatoren GmbH), and margarine manufacturing (Othüna). Other companies include a compressor manufacturer (Kompressorenwerk Kaeser), a precision-tool maker (SMK-Präzisionsmechanik), and a subsidiary of the construction company Max Bögl. The e-commerce service-provider D+S Europe has a service centre in Gera with several hundred workers, and Rittal, a manufacturer of information-technology enclosures, moved from Bad Köstritz to Gera. Some industrial branches operating before 1990 no longer have major importance. Sectors either no longer existing or sharply reduced include those in toolmaking (VEB Wema Union), textiles (VEB Modedruck), textile machinery (VEB Textima), electronic equipment (VEB Elektronik Gera). Other industries that had a presence included VEB Carl Zeiss Jena and a brewery. One important industrial branch had been uranium-ore mining in nearby Ronneburg (Wismut), whereby the region became the Soviet Union's leading uranium supplier. In 2012 Gera had 41 companies with more than 20 workers in the industrial sector, employing 3,400 people and generating an overall turnover of €452 million.
Gera is a supra-centre according to the Central Place Theory in German regional planning. This makes the city a regional centre for retailing, with three major shopping centres: Gera-Arcaden, Amthor-Passage and Elster-Forum. Health services are important, with one of the biggest hospitals in Thuringia, the SRH Waldklinikum. Nevertheless, Gera's economy is weak compared to equal-sized neighbouring cities like Jena or Zwickau. While Jena counts 51,000 and Zwickau 50,000 jobs liable to pay into the German social insurance, Gera had only 35,000 of those full-time jobs in 2012. The commuter balance was +14,000 in Jena and +16,000 in Zwickau, but only +2,000 in Gera, which is one of the lowest ratios among German supra-centres, highlighting the lack of ability of Gera to provide jobs for the region. The unemployment rate reached 11.2% in September 2013 - the highest among all Thuringian districts.
Transport
By rail
Since the late 19th century, Gera has been a hub in the railway network. The first railway ran to the Thuringian Railway in Weißenfels (with connection to Halle) via Zeitz in 1859. Further main lines were opened to Gößnitz (with connection to Chemnitz) in 1865, to Saalfeld in 1871, to Leipzig (via Zeitz) in 1873, to Plauen in 1875, to Weimar (with connection to Erfurt) via Jena in 1876 and to Hof in 1883. The secondary railways to Werdau (opened in 1876) and Meuselwitz (opened via Pölzig in 1901 and via Lumpzig in 1887) are abandoned. Nevertheless, none of these lines are electrified or in use for long-distance trains. Today, there are regional express trains to Göttingen via Jena and Erfurt, to Leipzig via Zeitz, to Altenburg, Glauchau and Zwickau via the Gößnitz line, to Greiz, to Hof and to Saalfeld. Local trains provide connections to Weimar via Jena, Leipzig, Weischlitz (near Plauen), Hof and Saalfeld. The most lines run every two hours, so that there is hourly service (express and local trains in alternation) to most directions. The electrification of the west-eastern mainline Weimar – Jena – Gera – Gößnitz is in discussion for closing that gap in the network and enable Gera's connection to long-distance trains, which can be reached today either via Jena or via Leipzig.
The most important stations in Gera are the Gera main station (former Prussian station), where all the trains stop, and the Gera southern station (former Saxonian station), where all the trains, except the local ones to Weimar, stop. More stations in Gera are Langenberg at the Leipzig line, Zwötzen at the Saalfeld and Hof line as well as Gera Ost and Liebschwitz at the Plauen line. Freight transport by rail is immaterial in Gera since the 1990s.
By road
The two Autobahnen crossing each other nearby at Hermsdorf junction are the Bundesautobahn 4 (Frankfurt–Dresden) and the Bundesautobahn 9 (Berlin–Munich), which were both built during the 1930s. Furthermore, there are three Bundesstraßen connecting Gera: the Bundesstraße 2 to Zeitz in the north and Hof in the south, the Bundesstraße 7 to Jena (via Eisenberg) in the west and to Altenburg in the east and the Bundesstraße 92 to Plauen (via Greiz) in the south. Important secondary roads run to Altenburg (via Lumpzig), to Werdau (via Linda), to Wünschendorf, to Stadtroda and to Hermsdorf. As part of the Bundesgartenschau 2007, a new bypass road was built in the east to improve the connection of southern city parts to the A 4 and to relieve the city centre from transit traffic.
By aviation
The closest regional airports are the Leipzig/Halle Airport, about north and the Erfurt-Weimar Airport, about west of Gera. Both serve mainly holiday flights. The nearest major airports are the Frankfurt Airport, the Munich Airport and the prospective Berlin Brandenburg Airport. In the eastern part of Gera lies the airfield Gera-Leumnitz meant for private aviation.
By bike
Cycling is becoming more popular since the construction of quality cycle tracks began in the 1990s. For tourists, there are the Weiße Elster track and the Thuringian city string track (Radweg Thüringer Städtekette). Both connect points of tourist interest, the first along the White Elster valley from the Elster Mountains at the Czech border to Saale river in Halle and second from Eisenach via Erfurt, Weimar, Jena and Gera to Altenburg. For inner city every-day traffic, some cycle lanes exist along several main streets.
Trams and buses
The Gera tram network was the second in Germany that launched electrical engines in 1892. Today, there are two long lines, one from Bieblach via city centre to Lusan (line 3) and another one – opened in 2006 – from Untermhaus via city centre to Zwötzen (line 1). The third short line is a connection between Lusan and the Zwötzen railway station (line 2). Another line is planned to connect Langenberg and the northern city parts. On line 3 is one course every 5 minutes, on line 1 every 10 minutes and on line 2 every 20 minutes.
The bus network connects districts without trams as well as neighbouring municipalities that do not have a rail connection.
Education
Tertiary institutions are the private college SRH Fachhochschule für Gesundheit Gera (university of applied sciences for health) with 500 students and the Gera branch of the Duale Hochschule Gera-Eisenach (cooperative state college) with 850 students locally.
Furthermore, there are four Gymnasiums, all of them are state-owned. The Goethe-Gymnasium/Rutheneum focuses on music education as an elite boarding school, in addition to the common curriculum.
Politics
The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was independent Ralf Rauch, who served from 1994 to 2006. He was succeeded by Norbert Vornehm of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who served from 2006 to 2012. Viola Hahn was elected in 2012, but was defeated seeking re-election in 2018, failing to progress to the second round. Julian Vonarb was elected, and has since served as mayor. The most recent mayoral election was held on 15 April 2018, with a runoff held on 29 April, and the results were as follows:
! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate
! rowspan=2| Party
! colspan=2| First round
! colspan=2| Second round
|-
! Votes
! %
! Votes
! %
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Julian Vonarb
| align=left| Independent
| 9,182
| 23.5
| 24,777
| 69.8
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Dieter Lauenbach
| align=left| Alternative for Germany
| 8,305
| 21.3
| 10,741
| 30.2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Viola Hahn
| align=left| Independent
| 8,050
| 20.6
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Norbert Hein
| align=left| Independent
| 6,853
| 17.5
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Margit Jung
| align=left| The Left
| 5,201
| 13.3
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Nils Fröhlich
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
| 1,487
| 3.8
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 39,078
! 99.2
! 35,518
! 98.2
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 299
! 0.8
! 653
! 1.8
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 39,377
! 100.0
! 36,171
! 100.0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 79,724
! 49.4
! 79,671
! 45.4
|-
| colspan=7| Source: Wahlen in Thüringen
|}
The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows:
! colspan=2| Party
! Lead candidate
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
| align=left| Harald Frank
| 36,344
| 28.8
| New
| 12
| New
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
| align=left| Andreas Schubert
| 23,155
| 18.3
| 13.2
| 8
| 5
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
| align=left| Christian Klein
| 16,280
| 12.9
| 11.7
| 6
| 4
|-
|
| align=left| Citizenry Gera (BSG)
| align=left| Ulrich Porst
| 9,656
| 7.6
| 6.3
| 3
| 3
|-
|
| align=left| For Gera (FG)
| align=left| Sandra Graupner
| 8,588
| 6.8
| New
| 3
| New
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
| align=left| Nils Fröhlich
| 8,483
| 6.7
| 2.2
| 3
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
| align=left| Heiner Fritzsche
| 8,091
| 6.4
| 2.9
| 3
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Voters (FW)
| align=left| Norbert Hein
| 4,129
| 3.3
| New
| 1
| New
|-
|
| align=left| Liberal Alliance (LA)
| align=left| Anne Kathrin Hildebrand
| 3,647
| 2.9
| New
| 1
| New
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
| align=left| Falk Nerger
| 3,440
| 2.7
| 0.3
| 1
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
| align=left| Ingo Kaschta
| 3,418
| 2.7
| New
| 1
| New
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)
| align=left| Gordon Richter
| 1,169
| 0.9
| 2.9
| 0
| 2
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 42,808
! 96.8
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 1,420
! 3.2
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 44,228
! 100.0
!
! 42
! ±0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 78,537
! 56.3
! 12.7
!
!
|-
| colspan=8| Source: Wahlen in Thüringen
|}
Twin towns – sister cities
Gera is twinned with:
Arnhem, Netherlands
Fort Wayne, United States
Goražde, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Kuopio Finland
Pskov, Russia
Rostov-on-Don, Russia
Saint-Denis, France
Skierniewice, Poland
Sliven, Bulgaria
Timișoara, Romania
Notable people
Heinrich Reinhold (1788–1825), painter and engraver
Heinrich Gustav Beck (1857–1933), Minister-president of Saxony 1914–1918
Otto Lummer (1860–1925), physicist
Otto Dix (1891–1969), painter and printmaker
Rudolf Paul (1893–1978), politician, President of Thuringia 1945–1947
Bernhard Wehner (1909–1995), SS-officer (Hauptsturmführer), criminal inspector and journalist
Nahum Golan (1915–1991), Israeli Brigadier General, 1948-1950 commander of the Golani Brigade
Dietrich Peltz (1914–2001), Luftwaffe general
Karl Weschke (1925–2005), painter
Georg Buschner (1925–2007), football player, head coach East Germany national football team
Rainer Ortleb (born 1944), politician (FDP), 1990-1991 Federal Minister for Special Affairs and from 1991 to 1994 Federal Minister of Education and Science
Max Frankel (born 1930), executive editor, New York Times 1986–1994
Klaus Kropfinger (1930–2016), musicologist
Helga Königsdorf (born 1938), mathematician and author
Thilo Sarrazin (born 1945), German politician (SPD), author
Wolfgang Tiefensee (born 1955), politician (SPD)
Marlies Göhr (born 1958), athlete
Olaf Ludwig (born 1960), racing cyclist
Heike Drechsler (born 1964), Olympic gold medallist long jumper
Jens Heppner (born 1964), racing cyclist
John Degenkolb (born 1989), racing cyclist
Marcel Eckardt (born 1989), snooker referee
Bianca Schmidt (born 1990), footballer
Wilhelm Ernst Spaethe and Otto Paul Spaeth, of Spaethe Pianos, founded in 1858 by Wilhelm Spaethe senior, awarded an imperial and royal warrant of appointment, to the court of Austria-Hungary.
References
Notes
External links
Official website of Gera
Principality of Reuss-Gera
Bezirk Gera
Holocaust locations in Germany | [
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244649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel%20Lasker | Emanuel Lasker | Emanuel Lasker (; December 24, 1868 – January 11, 1941) was a German chess player, mathematician, and philosopher who was World Chess Champion for 27 years, from 1894 to 1921, the longest reign of any officially recognised World Chess Champion in history. In his prime, Lasker was one of the most dominant champions, and he is still generally regarded as one of the strongest players in history.
His contemporaries used to say that Lasker used a "psychological" approach to the game, and even that he sometimes deliberately played inferior moves to confuse opponents. Recent analysis, however, indicates that he was ahead of his time and used a more flexible approach than his contemporaries, which mystified many of them. Lasker knew contemporary analyses of openings well but disagreed with many of them. He published chess magazines and five chess books, but later players and commentators found it difficult to draw lessons from his methods.
Lasker made contributions to the development of other games. He was a first-class contract bridge player and wrote about bridge, Go, and his own invention, Lasca. His books about games presented a problem that is still considered notable in the mathematical analysis of card games. Lasker was a research mathematician who was known for his contributions to commutative algebra, which included proving the primary decomposition of the ideals of polynomial rings. His philosophical works and a drama that he co-wrote, however, received little attention.
Life and career
Early years 1868–1894
Emanuel Lasker was born on December 24, 1868, at Berlinchen in Neumark (now Barlinek in Poland), the son of a Jewish cantor. At the age of eleven he was sent to study mathematics in Berlin, where he lived with his brother Berthold, eight years his senior, who taught him how to play chess. Berthold was among the world's top ten players in the early 1890s. To supplement their income, Emanuel Lasker played chess and card games for small stakes, especially at the Café Kaiserhof.
Lasker won the Café Kaiserhof's annual Winter tournament 1888/89 and the Hauptturnier A ("second division" tournament) at the sixth DSB Congress (German Chess Federation's congress), held in Breslau. Winning the Hauptturnier earned Lasker the title of "master". The candidates were divided into two groups of ten. The top four in each group competed in a final. Lasker won his section, with 2½ points more than his nearest rival. However, scores were reset to 0 for the final. With two rounds to go, Lasker trailed the leader, Viennese amateur von Feierfeil, by 1½ points. Lasker won both of his final games, while von Feierfeil lost in the penultimate round (being mated in 121 moves after the position was reconstructed incorrectly following an adjournment) and drew in the last round. The two players were now tied. Lasker won a playoff and garnered the master title. This enabled him to play in master-level tournaments and thus launched his chess career.
Lasker finished second in an international tournament at Amsterdam, ahead of Mason and Gunsberg. In spring 1892, he won two tournaments in London, the second and stronger of these without losing a game. At New York City in 1893, he won all thirteen games, one of the few times in chess history that a player has achieved a perfect score in a significant tournament.
His record in matches was equally impressive: At Berlin in 1890 he drew a short playoff match against his brother Berthold and won all his other matches from 1889 to 1893, mostly against top-class opponents: Curt von Bardeleben (1889), Jacques Mieses (1889), Henry Edward Bird (1890), Berthold Englisch (1890), Joseph Henry Blackburne (1892), Jackson Showalter (1892–93) and Celso Golmayo Zúpide (1893). Chessmetrics calculates that Emanuel Lasker became the world's strongest player in mid 1890, and that he was in the top ten from the very beginning of his recorded career in 1889.
In 1892 Lasker founded the first of his chess magazines, The London Chess Fortnightly, which was published from August 15, 1892, to July 30, 1893. In the second quarter of 1893, there was a gap of ten weeks between issues, allegedly because of problems with the printer. Shortly after its last issue, Lasker traveled to the US, where he spent the next two years.
Lasker challenged Siegbert Tarrasch, who had won three consecutive strong international tournaments (Breslau 1889, Manchester 1890, and Dresden 1892), to a match. Tarrasch haughtily declined, stating that Lasker should first prove his mettle by attempting to win one or two major international events.
Chess competition 1894–1918
Matches against Steinitz
Rebuffed by Tarrasch, Lasker challenged the reigning World Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, to a match for the title. Initially Lasker wanted to play for US$5,000 a side, and a match was agreed to at stakes of $3,000 a side, but Steinitz agreed to a series of reductions when Lasker found it difficult to raise the money. The final figure was $2,000, which was less than for some of Steinitz's earlier matches (the final combined stake of $4,000 would be worth over $495,000 at 2006 values). The match was played in 1894 at venues in New York, Philadelphia, and Montreal. Steinitz had previously declared he would win without doubt, so it came as a shock when Lasker won the first game. Steinitz won the second game and maintained the balance through the sixth. However, Lasker won all the games from the seventh to the eleventh, and Steinitz asked for a week's rest. When the match resumed, Steinitz looked in better shape and won the 13th and 14th games. Lasker struck back in the 15th and 16th, and Steinitz did not compensate for his losses in the middle of the match. Hence Lasker won convincingly with ten wins, five losses, and four draws. Lasker thus became the second formally recognized World Chess Champion and confirmed his title by beating Steinitz even more convincingly in their rematch in 1896–97 (ten wins, two losses, and five draws).
Tournament successes
Influential players and journalists belittled the 1894 match both before and after it took place. Lasker's difficulty in getting backing may have been caused by hostile pre-match comments from Gunsberg and Leopold Hoffer, who had long been a bitter enemy of Steinitz. One of the complaints was that Lasker had never played the other two members of the top four, Siegbert Tarrasch and Mikhail Chigorin – although Tarrasch had rejected a challenge from Lasker in 1892, publicly telling him to go and win an international tournament first. After the match some commentators, notably Tarrasch, said Lasker had won mainly because Steinitz was old (58 in 1894).
Emanuel Lasker answered these criticisms by creating an even more impressive playing record. He came third at Hastings 1895 (where he may have been suffering from the after-effects of typhoid fever), behind Pillsbury and Chigorin but ahead of Tarrasch and Steinitz, and then won first prizes at very strong tournaments in St Petersburg 1895–96 (an elite, 4-player tournament, ahead of Steinitz, Pillsbury and Chigorin), Nuremberg (1896), London (1899) and Paris (1900); tied for second at Cambridge Springs 1904, and tied for first at the Chigorin Memorial in St Petersburg 1909.
Later, at St Petersburg (1914), he overcame a 1½-point deficit to finish ahead of the rising stars, Capablanca and Alexander Alekhine, who later became the next two World Champions. For decades chess writers have reported that Tsar Nicholas II of Russia conferred the title of Grandmaster of Chess upon each of the five finalists at St Petersburg 1914 (Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch and Marshall), but chess historian Edward Winter has questioned this, stating that the earliest known sources supporting this story were published in 1940 and 1942.
Matches against Marshall and Tarrasch
Lasker's match record was as impressive between his 1896–97 re-match with Steinitz and 1914: he won all but one of his normal matches, and three of those were convincing defenses of his title.
In 1906 Lasker and Géza Maróczy agreed to terms for a World Championship, but the arrangements could not be finalised, and the match never took place.
Lasker's first world championship match since 1897 was against Frank Marshall in the World Chess Championship 1907. Despite his aggressive style, Marshall could not win a single game, losing eight and drawing seven (final score: 11½–3½).
Lasker then played Tarrasch in the World Chess Championship 1908, first at Düsseldorf then at Munich. Tarrasch firmly believed the game of chess was governed by a precise set of principles. For him the strength of a chess move was in its logic, not in its efficiency. Because of his stubborn principles he considered Lasker as a who won his games only thanks to dubious tricks, while Lasker mocked the arrogance of Tarrasch who, in his opinion, shone more in salons than at the chessboard. At the opening ceremony, Tarrasch refused to talk to Lasker, only saying: "Mr. Lasker, I have only three words to say to you: check and mate!"
Lasker gave a brilliant answer on the chessboard, winning four of the first five games, and playing a type of chess Tarrasch could not understand. For example, in the second game after 19 moves arose a situation (see diagram) in which Lasker was a pawn down, with a and . At this point it appeared Tarrasch was winning, but 20 moves later he was forced to resign. Lasker eventually won by 10½–5½ (eight wins, five draws, and three losses). Tarrasch claimed the wet weather was the cause of his defeat.
Matches against Janowski
In 1909 Lasker drew a short match (two wins, two losses) against Dawid Janowski, an all-out attacking Polish expatriate. Several months later they played a longer match in Paris, and chess historians still debate whether this was for the World Chess Championship. Understanding Janowski's style, Lasker chose to defend solidly so that Janowski unleashed his attacks too soon and left himself vulnerable. Lasker easily won the match 8–2 (seven wins, two draws, one loss). This victory was convincing for everyone but Janowski, who asked for a revenge match. Lasker accepted and they played a World Chess Championship match in Berlin in November–December 1910. Lasker crushed his opponent, winning 9½–1½ (eight wins, three draws, no losses). Janowski did not understand Lasker's moves, and after his first three losses he declared to Edward Lasker, "Your homonym plays so stupidly that I cannot even look at the chessboard when he thinks. I am afraid I will not do anything good in this match."
Match against Schlechter
Between his two matches against Janowski, Lasker arranged another World Chess Championship in January–February 1910 against Carl Schlechter. Schlechter was a modest gentleman, who was generally unlikely to win the major chess tournaments by his peaceful inclination, his lack of aggressiveness and his willingness to accept most draw offers from his opponents (about 80% of his games finished by a draw).
At the beginning, Lasker tried to attack but Schlechter had no difficulty defending, so that the first four games finished in draws. In the fifth game Lasker had a big advantage, but committed a blunder that cost him the game. Hence at the middle of the match Schlechter was one point ahead. The next four games were drawn, despite fierce play from both players. In the sixth Schlechter managed to draw a game being a pawn down. In the seventh Lasker nearly lost because of a beautiful exchange sacrifice from Schlechter. In the ninth only a blunder from Lasker allowed Schlechter to draw a lost ending. The score before the last game was thus 5–4 for Schlechter. In the tenth game Schlechter tried to win tactically and took a big advantage, but he missed a clear win at the 35th move, continued to take increasing risks and finished by losing. Hence the match was a draw and Lasker remained World Champion.
It has been speculated that Schlechter played unusually risky chess in the tenth game because the terms of the match required him to win by a margin of two games. But according to Isaak and Vladimir Linder, this was unlikely. The match was originally to be a 30-game affair and Schlechter would have to win by two games. But they note that according to the Austrian chess historian Michael Ehn, Lasker agreed to forgo the plus two provision in view of the match being subsequently reduced to only 10 games. For proof Ehn quoted Schlechter's comment printed in Allgemeine Sportzeitung (ASZ) of December 9, 1909 "There will be ten games in all. The winner on points will receive the title of world champion. If the points are equal, the decision will be made by the arbiter."
Abandoned challenges
In 1911 Lasker received a challenge for a world title match against the rising star José Raúl Capablanca. Lasker was unwilling to play the traditional "first to win ten games" type of match in the semi-tropical conditions of Havana, especially as drawn games were becoming more frequent and the match might last for over six months. He therefore made a counter-proposal: if neither player had a lead of at least two games by the end of the match, it should be considered a draw; the match should be limited to the best of thirty games, counting draws; except that if either player won six games and led by at least two games before thirty games were completed, he should be declared the winner; the champion should decide the venue and stakes, and should have the exclusive right to publish the games; the challenger should deposit a forfeit of US$2,000 (equivalent to over $250,000 in 2020 values); the time limit should be twelve moves per hour; play should be limited to two sessions of 2½ hours each per day, five days a week. Capablanca objected to the time limit, the short playing times, the thirty-game limit, and especially the requirement that he must win by two games to claim the title, which he regarded as unfair. Lasker took offence at the terms in which Capablanca criticized the two-game lead condition and broke off negotiations, and until 1914 Lasker and Capablanca were not on speaking terms. However, at the 1914 St. Petersburg tournament, Capablanca proposed a set of rules for the conduct of World Championship matches, which were accepted by all the leading players, including Lasker.
Late in 1912 Lasker entered into negotiations for a world title match with Akiba Rubinstein, whose tournament record for the previous few years had been on a par with Lasker's and a little ahead of Capablanca's. The two players agreed to play a match if Rubinstein could raise the funds, but Rubinstein had few rich friends to back him and the match was never played. This situation demonstrated some of the flaws inherent in the championship system then being used. The start of World War I in summer 1914 put an end to hopes that Lasker would play either Rubinstein or Capablanca for the World Championship in the near future.
Throughout World War I (1914–1918) Lasker played in only two serious chess events. He convincingly won (5½−½) a non-title match against Tarrasch in 1916. In September–October 1918, shortly before the armistice, he won a quadrangular (four-player) tournament, half a point ahead of Rubinstein.
Academic activities 1894–1918
Despite his superb playing results, chess was not Lasker's only interest. His parents recognized his intellectual talents, especially for mathematics, and sent the adolescent Emanuel to study in Berlin (where he found he also had a talent for chess). Lasker gained his abitur (high school graduation certificate) at Landsberg an der Warthe, now a Polish town named Gorzów Wielkopolski but then part of Prussia. He then studied mathematics and philosophy at the universities in Berlin, Göttingen (where David Hilbert was one of his doctoral advisors) and Heidelberg.
Lasker was also a mathematician. In 1895 he published two mathematical articles in Nature. On the advice of David Hilbert he registered for doctoral studies at Erlangen during 1900–1902. In 1901 he presented his doctoral thesis Über Reihen auf der Convergenzgrenze ("On Series at Convergence Boundaries") at Erlangen and in the same year it was published by the Royal Society. He was awarded a doctorate in mathematics in 1902. His most significant mathematical article, in 1905, published a theorem of which Emmy Noether developed a more generalized form, which is now regarded as of fundamental importance to modern algebra and algebraic geometry.
Lasker held short-term positions as a mathematics lecturer at Tulane University in New Orleans (1893) and Victoria University in Manchester (1901; Victoria University was one of the "parents" of the current University of Manchester). However, he was unable to secure a longer-term position, and pursued his scholarly interests independently.
In 1906 Lasker published a booklet titled Kampf (Struggle), in which he attempted to create a general theory of all competitive activities, including chess, business and war. He produced two other books which are generally categorized as philosophy, Das Begreifen der Welt (Comprehending the World; 1913) and Die Philosophie des Unvollendbar (sic; The Philosophy of the Unattainable; 1918).
Other activities 1894–1918
In 1896–97 Lasker published his book Common Sense in Chess, based on lectures he had given in London in 1895.
In 1903, Lasker played in Ostend against Mikhail Chigorin, a six-game match that was sponsored by the wealthy lawyer and industrialist Isaac Rice in order to test the Rice Gambit. Lasker narrowly lost the match. Three years later Lasker became secretary of the Rice Gambit Association, founded by Rice in order to promote the Rice Gambit, and in 1907 Lasker quoted with approval Rice's views on the convergence of chess and military strategy.
In November 1904, Lasker founded Lasker's Chess Magazine, which ran until 1909.
Beginning in 1910, he wrote a weekly chess column for the New York Evening Post, for which he was Chess Editor.
Emanuel Lasker became interested in the strategy game Go after being introduced to it by his namesake Edward Lasker, probably in 1907 or 1908 (Edward Lasker wrote a successful book Go and Go-Moku in 1934). He and Edward played Go together while Edward was helping him prepare for his 1908 match with Tarrasch. He kept his interest in Go for the rest of his life, becoming one of the strongest players in Germany and Europe and contributing occasionally to the magazine Deutsche Go-Zeitung. It is alleged that he once said "Had I discovered Go sooner, I would probably have never become world chess champion".
At the age of 42, in July 1911, Lasker married Martha Cohn (née Bamberger), a rich widow who was a year older than Lasker and already a grandmother. They lived in Berlin. Martha Cohn wrote popular stories under the pseudonym "L. Marco".
During World War I, Lasker invested all of his savings in German war bonds, which lost nearly their entire value with the wartime and post-war inflation. During the war, he wrote a pamphlet which claimed that civilization would be in danger if Germany lost the war.
Match against Capablanca
In January 1920 Lasker and José Raúl Capablanca signed an agreement to play a World Championship match in 1921, noting that Capablanca was not free to play in 1920. Because of the delay, Lasker insisted on a final clause that allowed him to play anyone else for the championship in 1920, that nullified the contract with Capablanca if Lasker lost a title match in 1920, and that stipulated that if Lasker resigned the title Capablanca should become World Champion. Lasker had previously included in his agreement before World War I to play Akiba Rubinstein for the title a similar clause that if he resigned the title, it should become Rubinstein's.
A report in the American Chess Bulletin (July–August 1920 issue) said that Lasker had resigned the world title in favor of Capablanca because the conditions of the match were unpopular in the chess world. The American Chess Bulletin speculated that the conditions were not sufficiently unpopular to warrant resignation of the title, and that Lasker's real concern was that there was not enough financial backing to justify his devoting nine months to the match. When Lasker resigned the title in favor of Capablanca he was unaware that enthusiasts in Havana had just raised $20,000 to fund the match provided it was played there. When Capablanca learned of Lasker's resignation he went to the Netherlands, where Lasker was living at the time, to inform him that Havana would finance the match. In August 1920 Lasker agreed to play in Havana, but insisted that he was the challenger as Capablanca was now the champion. Capablanca signed an agreement that accepted this point, and soon afterwards published a letter confirming this. Lasker also stated that, if he beat Capablanca, he would resign the title so that younger masters could compete for it.
The match was played in March–April 1921. After four draws, the fifth game saw Lasker blunder with Black in an equal ending. Capablanca's solid style allowed him to easily draw the next four games, without taking any risks. In the tenth game, Lasker as White played a position with an Isolated Queen Pawn but failed to create the necessary activity and Capablanca reached a superior ending, which he duly won. The eleventh and fourteenth games were also won by Capablanca, and Lasker resigned the match.
Reuben Fine and Harry Golombek attributed this to Lasker's being in mysteriously poor form. On the other hand, Vladimir Kramnik thought that Lasker played quite well and the match was an "even and fascinating fight" until Lasker blundered in the last game, and explained that Capablanca was 20 years younger, a slightly stronger player, and had more recent competitive practice.
European life and travels
Lasker was in his early 50s when he lost the world championship to Capablanca, and he retired from serious match play afterwards; his only other match was a short exhibition against Frank James Marshall in 1940, which was never completed due to Lasker's illness and subsequent death a few months after it started. After winning the Moravská Ostrava 1923 chess tournament (without a single loss) and the New York 1924 chess tournament (1½ points ahead of Capablanca) and finishing second at Moscow in 1925 (1½ points behind Efim Bogoljubow, ½ point ahead of Capablanca), he effectively retired from serious chess.
During the Moscow 1925 chess tournament, Lasker received a telegram informing him that the drama written by himself and his brother Berthold, ("History of Mankind"), had been accepted for performance at the Lessing theatre in Berlin. Lasker was so distracted by this news that he lost badly to Carlos Torre the same day. The play, however, was not a success.
In 1926, Lasker wrote Lehrbuch des Schachspiels, which he re-wrote in English in 1927 as Lasker's Manual of Chess. He also wrote books on other games of mental skill: Encyclopedia of Games (1929) and Das verständige Kartenspiel (means "Sensible Card Play"; 1929; English translation in the same year), both of which posed a problem in the mathematical analysis of card games; Brettspiele der Völker ("Board Games of the Nations"; 1931), which includes 30 pages about Go and a section about a game he had invented in 1911, Lasca.
In 1930, Lasker was a special correspondent for Dutch and German newspapers reporting on the Culbertson-Buller bridge match during which he became a registered teacher of the Culbertson system. He became an expert bridge player, representing Germany at international events in the early 1930s, and wrote Das Bridgespiel ("The Game of Bridge") in 1931.
In October 1928 Emanuel Lasker's brother Berthold died.
In spring 1933 Adolf Hitler started a campaign of discrimination and intimidation against Jews, depriving them of their property and citizenship. Lasker and his wife Martha, who were both Jewish, were forced to leave Germany in the same year. After a short stay in England, in 1935 they were invited to live in the USSR by Nikolai Krylenko, the Commissar of Justice who had been responsible for Show trials and, in his other capacity as Sports Minister, was an enthusiastic supporter of chess. In the USSR, Lasker renounced his German citizenship and received Soviet citizenship. He took permanent residence in Moscow, and was given a post at Moscow's Institute for Mathematics and a post of trainer of the USSR national team.
Lasker returned to competitive chess to make some money, finishing fifth in Zürich 1934 and third in Moscow 1935 (undefeated, ½ point behind Mikhail Botvinnik and Salo Flohr; ahead of Capablanca, Rudolf Spielmann and several Soviet masters), sixth in Moscow 1936 and equal seventh in Nottingham 1936. His performance in Moscow 1935 at age 66 was hailed as "a biological miracle".
Settling in the United States
In August 1937, Martha and Emanuel Lasker decided to leave the Soviet Union, and they moved, via the Netherlands, to the United States (first Chicago, next New York) in October 1937. They were visiting Martha's daughter, but they may also have been motivated by political upheaval in the Soviet Union. In the United States Lasker tried to support himself by giving chess and bridge lectures and exhibitions, as he was now too old for serious competition. In 1940 he published his last book, The Community of the Future, in which he proposed solutions for serious political problems, including anti-Semitism and unemployment.
Assessment
Playing strength and style
Lasker was considered to have a "psychological" method of play in which he considered the subjective qualities of his opponent, in addition to the objective requirements of his position on the board. Richard Réti published a lengthy analysis of Lasker's play in which he concluded that Lasker deliberately played inferior moves that he knew would make his opponent uncomfortable. W. H. K. Pollock commented, "It is no easy matter to reply correctly to Lasker's bad moves."
Lasker himself denied the claim that he deliberately played bad moves, and most modern writers agree. According to Grandmaster Andrew Soltis and International Master John L. Watson, the features that made his play mysterious to contemporaries now appear regularly in modern play: the g2–g4 "Spike" attack against the Dragon Sicilian; sacrifices to gain positional advantage; playing the "practical" move rather than trying to find the best move; counterattacking and complicating the game before a disadvantage became serious. Former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik said, "He realized that different types of advantage could be interchangeable: tactical edge could be converted into strategic advantage and vice versa", which mystified contemporaries who were just becoming used to the theories of Steinitz as codified by Siegbert Tarrasch.
Max Euwe opined that the real reason behind Lasker's success was his "exceptional defensive technique" and that "almost all there is to say about defensive chess can be demonstrated by examples from the games of Steinitz and Lasker", the former exemplifying passive defence and the latter an active defence.
The famous win against José Raúl Capablanca at St. Petersburg in 1914, which Lasker needed in order to retain any chance of catching up with Capablanca, is sometimes offered as evidence of his "psychological" approach. Reuben Fine describes Lasker's choice of opening, the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez, as "innocuous but psychologically potent". However, an analysis of Lasker's use of this variation throughout his career concludes that he had excellent results with it as White against top-class opponents, and sometimes used it in "must-win" situations. Luděk Pachman writes that Lasker's choice presented his opponent with a dilemma: with only a ½ point lead, Capablanca would have wanted to play safe; but the Exchange Variation's pawn structure gives White an endgame advantage, and Black must use his aggressively in the middlegame to nullify this. In Kramnik's opinion, Lasker's play in this game demonstrated deep positional understanding, rather than psychology.
Fine reckoned Lasker paid little attention to the openings, but Capablanca thought Lasker knew the openings very well but disagreed with a lot of contemporary opening analysis. In fact before the 1894 world title match, Lasker studied the openings thoroughly, especially Steinitz's favorite lines. He played primarily e4 openings, particularly the Ruy Lopez. He opened with 1.d4 relatively rarely, although his d4 games had a higher winning percentage than his e4 ones. With the Black pieces, he mainly answered 1.e4 with the French Defense and 1.d4 with the Queen's Gambit. Lasker also used the Sicilian Defense fairly often. In Capablanca's opinion, no player surpassed Lasker in the ability to assess a position quickly and accurately, in terms of who had the better prospects of winning and what strategy each side should adopt. Capablanca also wrote that Lasker was so adaptable that he played in no definite style, and that he was both a tenacious defender and a very efficient finisher of his own attacks.
Lasker followed Steinitz's principles, and both demonstrated a completely different chess paradigm than the "romantic" mentality before them. Thanks to Steinitz and Lasker, positional players gradually became common (Tarrasch, Schlechter, and Rubinstein stand out.) But, while Steinitz created a new school of chess thought, Lasker's talents were far harder for the masses to grasp; hence there was no Lasker school.
In addition to his enormous chess skill, Lasker was said to have an excellent competitive temperament: his rival Siegbert Tarrasch once said, "Lasker occasionally loses a game, but he never loses his head." Lasker enjoyed the need to adapt to varying styles and to the shifting fortunes of tournaments. Although very strong in matches, he was even stronger in tournaments. For over 20 years, he always finished ahead of the younger Capablanca: at St. Petersburg 1914, New York 1924, Moscow 1925, and Moscow 1935. Only in 1936 (15 years after their match), when Lasker was 67, did Capablanca finish ahead of him.
In 1964, Chessworld magazine published an article in which future World Champion Bobby Fischer listed the ten greatest players in history. Fischer did not include Lasker in the list, deriding him as a "coffee-house player [who] knew nothing about openings and didn't understand positional chess". In a poll of the world's leading players taken some time after Fischer's list appeared, Tal, Korchnoi, and Robert Byrne all said that Lasker was the greatest player ever. Both Pal Benko and Byrne stated that Fischer later reconsidered and said that Lasker was a great player.
Statistical ranking systems place Lasker high among the greatest players of all time. The book Warriors of the Mind places him sixth, behind Garry Kasparov, Anatoly Karpov, Fischer, Mikhail Botvinnik and Capablanca. In his 1978 book The Rating of Chessplayers, Past and Present, Arpad Elo gave retrospective ratings to players based on their performance over the best five-year span of their career. He concluded that Lasker was the joint second strongest player of those surveyed (tied with Botvinnik and behind Capablanca). The most up-to-date system, Chessmetrics, is rather sensitive to the length of the periods being compared, and ranks Lasker between fifth and second strongest of all time for peak periods ranging in length from one to twenty years. Its author, the statistician Jeff Sonas, concluded that only Kasparov and Karpov surpassed Lasker's long-term dominance of the game. By Chessmetrics' reckoning, Lasker was the number 1 player in 292 different months—a total of over 24 years. His first No. 1 rank was in June 1890, and his last in December 1926—a span of 36½ years. Chessmetrics also considers him the strongest 67-year-old in history: in December 1935, at age 67 years and 0 months, his rating was 2691 (number 7 in the world), well above second-place Viktor Korchnoi's rating at that age (2660, number 39 in the world, in March 1998).
Influence on chess
Lasker founded no school of players who played in a similar style. Max Euwe, World Champion 1935–1937 and a prolific writer of chess manuals, who had a lifetime 0–3 score against Lasker, said, "It is not possible to learn much from him. One can only stand and wonder." However, Lasker's pragmatic, combative approach had a great influence on Soviet players like Mikhail Tal and Viktor Korchnoi.
There are several "Lasker Variations" in the chess openings, including Lasker's Defense to the Queen's Gambit, Lasker's Defense to the Evans Gambit (which effectively ended the use of this gambit in tournament play until a revival in the 1990s), and the Lasker Variation in the McCutcheon Variation of the French Defense.
Lasker was shocked by the poverty in which Wilhelm Steinitz died and did not intend to die in similar circumstances. He became notorious for demanding high fees for playing matches and tournaments, and he argued that players should own the copyright in their games rather than let publishers get all the profits. These demands initially angered editors and other players, but helped to pave the way for the rise of full-time chess professionals who earn most of their living from playing, writing and teaching. Copyright in chess games had been contentious at least as far back as the mid-1840s, and Steinitz and Lasker vigorously asserted that players should own the copyright and wrote copyright clauses into their match contracts. However, Lasker's demands that challengers should raise large purses prevented or delayed some eagerly awaited World Championship matches—for example Frank James Marshall challenged him in 1904 to a match for the World Championship but could not raise the stakes demanded by Lasker until 1907. This problem continued throughout the reign of his successor, Capablanca.
Some of the controversial conditions that Lasker insisted on for championship matches led Capablanca to attempt twice (1914 and 1922) to publish rules for such matches, to which other top players readily agreed.
Work in other fields
In his 1905 article on commutative algebra, Lasker introduced the theory of primary decomposition of ideals, which has influence in the theory of Noetherian rings. Rings having the primary decomposition property are called "Laskerian rings" in his honor.
His attempt to create a general theory of all competitive activities were followed by more consistent efforts from von Neumann on game theory, and his later writings about card games presented a significant issue in the mathematical analysis of card games.
However, his dramatic and philosophical works have never been highly regarded.
Personal life, family and friends
Lasker died of a kidney infection in New York on January 11, 1941, at the age of 72, as a charity patient at the Mount Sinai Hospital. A funeral service for him was held at the Riverside Memorial Chapel. He was buried at historic Beth Olom Cemetery, Queens, New York.
His wife Martha and his sister, Mrs. Lotta Hirschberg, survived him.
Poet Else Lasker-Schüler was his sister-in-law.
Edward Lasker, born in Kempen (Kępno), Greater Poland (then Prussia), the German-American chess master, engineer, and author, claimed that he was distantly related to Emanuel Lasker. They both played in the great New York 1924 chess tournament.
Lasker was a good friend of Albert Einstein, who wrote the introduction to the posthumous biography Emanuel Lasker, The Life of a Chess Master from Dr. Jacques Hannak (1952). In this preface Einstein expresses his satisfaction at having met Lasker, writing:
Publications
Chess
The London Chess Fortnightly, 1892–93
Common Sense in Chess, 1896 (an abstract of 12 lectures delivered to a London audience in 1895)
Lasker's How to Play Chess: An Elementary Text Book for Beginners, Which Teaches Chess By a New, Easy and Comprehensive Method, 1900
Lasker's Chess Magazine, , 1904–1907.
The International Chess Congress, St. Petersburg, 1909, 1910
Lasker's Manual of Chess, 1925, is as famous in chess circles for its philosophical tone as for its content.
Lehrbuch des Schachspiels, 1926 – English version Lasker's Manual of Chess published in 1927.
Lasker's Chess Primer, 1934
Other games
Encyclopedia of Games, 1929.
Das verständige Kartenspiel (Sensible Card Play), 1929 – English translation published in the same year.
Brettspiele der Völker (Board Games of the Nations), 1931 – includes sections about Go and Lasca.
Das Bridgespiel ("The Game of Bridge"), 1931.
Mathematics
– Lasker's PhD thesis.
Philosophy
Kampf (Struggle), 1906.
Das Begreifen der Welt (Comprehending the World), 1913.
Die Philosophie des Unvollendbar (sic; The Philosophy of the Unattainable), 1918.
Vom Menschen die Geschichte ("History of Mankind"), 1925 – a play, co-written with his brother Berthold.
The Community of the Future, 1940.
In popular culture
In Michael Chabon's alternate history mystery novel, The Yiddish Policemen's Union, the murdered man, Mendel Shpilman (born during the 1960s), being a chess enthusiast, uses the name "Emanuel Lasker" as an alias. The reference is clearly understood by the protagonist, Detective Meyer Landsman, because he has also studied chess.
Tournament results
The following table gives Lasker's placings and scores in tournaments. The first "Score" column gives the number of points on the total possible. In the second "Score" column, "+" indicates the number of won games, "−" the number of losses, and "=" the number of draws.
Match results
Here are Lasker's results in matches. The first "Score" column gives the number of points on the total possible. In the second "Score" column, "+" indicates the number of won games, "−" the number of losses, and "=" the number of draws.
Notable games
Lasker vs. Johann Hermann Bauer, Amsterdam 1889. Although this was not the earliest-known game with a successful two-bishops sacrifice, this combination is now known as a "Lasker–Bauer combination" or "Lasker sacrifice".
Harry Nelson Pillsbury vs. Lasker, St Petersburg 1895. A brilliant sacrifice on the 17th move leads to a victorious attack.
Wilhelm Steinitz vs. Lasker, London 1899. The old champion and the new one really go for it.
Frank James Marshall vs. Lasker, World Championship Match 1907, game 1. Lasker's attack is insufficient for a quick win, so he trades it in for an endgame in which he quickly ties Marshall in knots.
Lasker vs. Carl Schlechter, match 1910, game 10. Not a great game, but the one that saved Lasker from losing his world title in 1910.
Lasker vs. Jose Raul Capablanca, St Petersburg 1914. Lasker, who needed a win here, surprisingly used a opening, allowing Capablanca to the game early. There has been much debate about whether Lasker's approach represented subtle psychology or deep positional understanding.
Max Euwe vs. Lasker, Zurich 1934. 66-year-old Lasker beats a future World Champion, sacrificing his queen to turn defence into attack.
See also
List of Jewish chess players
References
Further reading
External links
Obituary of Emanuel Lasker, The Times, 1941
Articles about Emanuel Lasker by Edward Winter
1868 births
1941 deaths
19th-century chess players
20th-century chess players
19th-century German mathematicians
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
20th-century German mathematicians
Algebraists
Burials at Beth Olom Cemetery
Chess theoreticians
German chess players
German chess writers
German contract bridge players
German male non-fiction writers
Heidelberg University alumni
Jewish chess players
People from Barlinek
People from the Province of Brandenburg
Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union
Tulane University faculty
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244650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrow | Marrow | Marrow may refer to:
Marrow (vegetable), the mature fruit of certain Cucurbita pepo cultivars
Bone marrow, a semi-solid tissue in bones
Bone marrow (food)
Arts and entertainment
Music
Marrow (band), American rock band
Marrow (album), by Madder Mortem, 2018, and its title track
Marrow 1, an EP by I:Scintilla, 2012
Marrow 2, 2013
"Marrow", a song by Ani DiFranco from the 2001 album Revelling/Reckoning
"Marrow", a song by Anohni from the 2016 album Hopelessness
"Marrow", a song by Yob from the 2014 album Clearing the Path to Ascend
"Marrow", a song by St. Vincent from the 2009 album Actor
Other uses in arts and entertainment
Marrow (comics), a character in the X-Men comic series
Marrow (novel), by Robert Reed, 2000
People
Alex Marrow (born 1990), English footballer
Alfred J. Marrow (1905–1978), American industrial psychologist and philanthropist
Buck Marrow (1909–1982), American baseball player
Christopher Marrow (born 1996), South African cricketer
Claude Marrow (born 1978), American wrestler, ring name Ruckus
Deborah Marrow (1948–2019), American arts administrator
Henry Marrow Jr. (1947–1970), victim of the Shooting of Henry Marrow
Jermaine Marrow (born 1997), American basketball player
Mitch Marrow (born 1975), American football player
Queen Esther Marrow (born 1941), American soul and gospel singer
Vince Marrow (born 1968), American football player
Ice-T (Tracy Marrow, born 1958), American rapper and actor
Other uses
Fort Marrow, a historic American Civil War fort in West Virginia, U.S.
Marrow, the student branch of the Anthony Nolan charity
See also
Marrowbone (disambiguation)
Joseph R. Marro (1907–1989), American lawyer and politician
Marrow Controversy, a Scottish ecclesiastical dispute occasioned by the republication of The Marrow of Modern Divinity in 1718 | [
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244652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Services%20College | United Services College | The United Services College was an English boys' public school for the sons of military officers, located at Westward Ho! near Bideford in North Devon. Almost all boys were boarders. The school was founded to prepare pupils for a career as officers in the armed services, many of them going on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, or the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth.
History
The college was founded in 1874. Its first headmaster, Cormell Price, was a housemaster at Haileybury College and took twelve Haileybury boys with him to the new school.
USC suffered financial difficulties and closed in 1903. Its boys were ultimately absorbed by St Mark’s School, Windsor in 1906. That was soon renamed as “Imperial Service College“ and itself merged with Haileybury College in 1942.
As at virtually all boys' schools of its era, corporal punishment (strokes of the cane) was used, but USC was very unusual in that the cane was applied to the student's upper back (as described by Kipling) rather than the buttocks.
Notable former pupils
Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936), writer. His collection of stories, Stalky & Co, is based on his experiences at the College, which he joined in January 1878 and left in the summer of 1882. He dedicated the book to Cormell Price, headmaster of the school for its first twenty years, and Price is portrayed in it as someone the boys respected.
Major-General Lionel Dunsterville CB, CSI (1865–1946), a contemporary of Kipling, and the inspiration for the character of Stalky in the Stalky & Co. stories
George Charles Beresford (1864–1938), photographer, inspiration for "M'Turk" in Stalky & Co.
Bruce Bairnsfather (1887–1959), cartoonist and author
Colonel Edward Douglas Browne-Synge-Hutchinson, VC, CB (attended United Services College Day Boy 1875). He was a Major when he earned his VC.
Brigadier General George William St. George Grogan, VC, CB, CMG, DSO & Bar (attended 1890–1893)
Brigadier General The Honourable Alexander Gore Arkwright Hore-Ruthven, VC, GCMG, CB, DSO & Bar, PC, Croix de Guerre (France and Belgium). He was a Captain when he earned his VC.
Brigadier General Francis Aylmer Maxwell, VC, CSI, DSO & Bar, (attended 1883–1890)
Captain Anketell Moutray Read, VC, (attended 1898–1902)
Major General Cyril Wagstaff, Commandant of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Archibald Ritchie (1869–1955), British Army Major-General of World War I
Colonel Bernard Underwood Nicolay (attended 1887–1892)
References
External links
USC at the Westward Ho! History Group
USC at the Kipling Society
Educational institutions established in 1874
Defunct schools in Devon
Educational institutions disestablished in 1906
1874 establishments in England
1906 disestablishments in England | [
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244656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Crow | Bob Crow | Robert Crow (13 June 196111 March 2014) was an English trade union leader who served as the General Secretary of the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT) from 2002 until his death. He was also a member of the General Council of the Trades Union Congress (TUC). A self-described "communist/socialist", he was a leading figure in the No to EU – Yes to Democracy campaign.
Crow joined London Transport in 1977 and soon became involved in trade unionism. He was regarded as part of the Awkward Squad, a loose grouping of left-wing union leaders who came to power in a series of electoral victories beginning in 2002. After he became leader, the RMT's membership increased from around 57,000 in 2002 to more than 80,000 in 2008, making it one of Britain's fastest-growing trade unions.
Crow was a polarising figure in British politics. Supporters praised him as a champion of the working class and a successful trade unionist; critics argued that he held London to ransom with strikes.
Early life
Born at 162 Burrow Road, Epping, Essex to Lillian (née Hutton) and George Crow; his background was working-class, a fact of which he remained proud throughout his life. Crow's father was a docker who taught him to read both the Morning Star and the Financial Times, but to disbelieve everything in the latter. His father also was a lifelong member of the Transport and General Workers Union. His family subsequently moved to Hainault. He left school at 16 and joined London Transport, there becoming involved in union politics. His first job was making the tea, then he worked as part of a tree-felling group in 1977, before moving onto heavy track repairing. In 1983, he was elected as a local representative to the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR) and in 1985 became NUR national officer for track workers.
During his formative years, the British trade union movement was dominated by such prominent figures as Jack Jones, Hugh Scanlon, Joe Gormley, and Len Murray. As a result, he commented that "Starting my career with these people in charge of unions, and working in a nationalised industry with people who had put in 30 or even 40 years of service helped shape my views."
Trade union career and politics
In 1990 the National Union of Railwaymen merged with the National Union of Seamen to form the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT), and the following year Crow became the London Underground representative on the National Executive. In 1991, he became assistant general secretary, and on 14 February 2002 Crow was elected by the membership to succeed Jimmy Knapp as general secretary. He received 12,051 votes in the election – nearly twice as many as the other two candidates put together (Phil Bialyk received 4,512 votes and Ray Spry-Shute received 1,997). Six weeks earlier on 1 January 2002, Crow was attacked outside his home by two men wielding an iron bar. He speculated that he was the victim of hired employer muscle, although it is possible that the culprits were members of far right activist groups who were active in Dagenham at the time. Crow was a member of the General Council of the Trade Union Congress. From 2006 until his death he was a member of the Executive Board of the International Transport Workers Federation, the global trade union for transport workers.
Under Bob Crow's leadership, the RMT affiliated to the World Federation of Trade Unions and he was regularly invited to attend, in his capacity as general secretary of the RMT, the presidential council of the WFTU.
At the time he became general secretary, he had a strong negotiating position as the industry was booming, and was the leader of one of the only British trade unions which still wielded industrial strength.
Communist Party and Socialist Labour Party
Crow identified as a "communist/socialist", and between 1983 and 1997, was a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain and then the Communist Party of Britain.
He described his political philosophy with a quote from Argentine Marxist–Leninist revolutionary Che Guevara: "Hasta la victoria siempre!" ("Forever onwards until the victory!"). He kept a bust of communist leader Vladimir Lenin in his office. He described the aims of a trade-unionist as to secure "Job security, being safe, best possible pay, best possible conditions, decent pensions, and a world that lives in peace."
In 1997 he briefly joined Arthur Scargill's Socialist Labour Party (SLP), and was always a strong supporter of Scargill for his commitment to trade unionism. Crow rejected the argument that Scargill was responsible for the defeats of the miners and the union movement more generally.
Crow was a founding member of the Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition for several years up until his death. Previously he gave his support to the now disbanded Socialist Alliance, and believed all socialist parties should unite. In the 2005 general election, he endorsed Robert Griffiths, the Communist Party of Britain candidate in Pontypridd, calling him "a champion of workers' rights". Griffiths went on to win 233 votes (0.6%), coming last out of the six candidates. In the 2010 Local Election, he publicly supported the directly elected Mayoral candidate in the London Borough of Hackney Monty Goldman and the candidate for Leabridge Ward Mick Carty.
Campaign for a New Workers' Party
Crow was an outspoken critic of Tony Blair, who "squandered a massive landslide from an electorate hungry for change, poured billions of public pounds into private pockets and accelerated the growing gap between rich and poor". He deemed the policies implemented by Blair's New Labour project to be "near enough identical" to those of the Conservatives.
Speaking at the founding conference of the National Shop Stewards Network in July 2007, Crow called for a new party for the working class.
RMT industrial action
After Transport for London offered workers an inflation-adjusted pay rise, Crow described TfL's approach to pay as "confrontational".
In response to the RMT declaring a 48-hour strike on 10 June 2009, Crow wrote in The Guardian Comment is free section the purpose of the move: "On London Underground, bosses are threatening to tear up an agreement aimed at safeguarding jobs, and have refused to rule out compulsory redundancies. Up to 4,000 jobs are at risk as part of a multibillion-pound cuts package that can be traced directly back to the collapse of Metronet and the failure of the PPP."
"RMT have made it clear we expect managers to abide by the existing job security agreements and we would simply not be doing our job as a union if we allowed the tube to treat our members as cannon fodder who can be hired and fired at will", adding that "It wasn't our members who created the downturn and we will not be bullied into accepting that they should be forced to pay for an economic crisis that was cooked up by the bankers and the politicians."
Rail managers recognised Crow as a moderate within the RMT; he faced calls from figures to the left of him who were more eager to use industrial action. He was also criticised by RMT members on the right of his position; Crow repeatedly championed the cause of the lowest-paid workers, such as cleaners, whose jobs were often outsourced to separate companies. Sectors of the more highly-paid RMT membership were critical of Crow for this support, believing it inefficient.
No to EU – Yes to Democracy
In March 2009, Crow announced that the RMT would be fronting the No to EU – Yes to Democracy platform with an array of socialist organisations and individuals for the 2009 European Parliament elections. No2EU – Yes to Democracy stood for a Europe of "independent, democratic states that value its public services and does not offer them to profiteers; a Europe that guarantees the rights of workers and does not put the interests of big business above that of ordinary people".
As the party leader and lead candidate in London, Crow was "not against workers coming into the country", unlike other Eurosceptic groupings, but he was against "two workers from different countries competing against each other on different rates of pay" and added that "Our main role will be out there among working people, giving them our support and helping to save their industries from privatisation".
No2EU secured 153,236 votes, compared to an RMT membership of 80,000. The party achieved 1% of the popular vote in Britain, giving them the 12th largest share of the vote, behind Scargill's Socialist Labour Party and the far-right British National Party. This was insufficient for a seat in the European Parliament. In London, where Crow was a candidate, the party secured 17,758 votes, equating to the tenth largest share of the vote. In this region, No2EU secured a larger share of the popular vote than the Socialist Labour Party.
Accusations of cronyism
Critics within his own union suggested he was filling posts with "henchmen". Crow insisted that the appointment of his wife as chief executive of the RMT credit union was legitimate as she was the only applicant for the position, and he had interviewed her for the role.
Accusations of champagne socialism
Political opponents and sections of the press frequently offered criticism of Crow for what they described as a lavish lifestyle which they considered to be inconsistent with his socialist credentials. The total employment costs figure of £145k was frequently mentioned by the press as "wages" or "salary". It was pointed out by a journalist for the Independent that the correct figure for salary was around £96,000, and this was also mentioned by Crow in interview. According to the latest figures available from the Trades Union Certification Officer, as of 2012 Bob Crow's basic salary at the RMT was £89,805. The union also paid £10,313 of National Insurance contributions to the state and £34,429 into his pension pot in 2012. No car or chauffeur was provided. Crow responded to the criticisms by claiming "I'm worth it". In an article commenting on his contribution to the RMT union, the Telegraph agreed that it was a merited figure for Crow who "represented the interests of his members with a single-minded determination". The newspaper concluded Crow "wanted the best deal for the people who paid his salary – and they continued to reward him because he delivered it.".
Final years: 2010–14
Crow faced increasing media scrutiny. He was criticised in April 2013 after the death of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher when he stated: "As far as I'm concerned she can rot in Hell." In January 2014 Crow went on a three-week luxury cruise holiday from Bermuda to Brazil. Paparazzi photographed him on Copacabana Beach, although in his response to press he asked "What do you want me to do? Sit under a tree and read Karl Marx all day?".
When a Daily Mirror reporter asked him if he felt sorry for commuters, he responded: "Course I feel sorry for them. But they know our fight isn't with them. It's with Transport for London. And what do they expect a trade union to do? If you join one you expect it to fight for your rights and your job – and that's what I'm doing."
Crow died in the early hours of 11 March 2014 at Whipps Cross University Hospital after suffering an aneurysm and heart attack.
Personal life
On one hand, Crow was known for his robust political views and macho interests: described by George Eaton of the New Statesman as "an apologist for Stalinism", he also wished the UK to withdraw from the European Union. Since childhood, he had supported Millwall Football Club, and as RMT leader he kept a photograph of the club on the wall of his office. He was known to be a fan of boxing, and in an interview from 2011, claimed to work out six days a week, and be able to bench-press . He also had a pet Staffordshire bull terrier whom he named Castro after the Cuban Marxist–Leninist leader Fidel Castro.
On the other hand, those who got to know Crow saw much more subtle aspects to his character: The Guardian described Crow as having "a very keen brain and strong emotional intelligence", while The New York Times deemed him to be both "confrontational and charismatic" and "sharp and shrewd". Crow took a keen interest in the weather and owned a barometer, informing press that if he had not become a trade unionist then he would have liked to have become a weather man.
Despite the many portrayals as a radical socialist Crow was rather seen to be very pragmatic in outlook, and was described as "too shrewd for doctrine". Although believing that it was morally right to punish murder by capital punishment, he did not support the death penalty in practice, claiming too little faith in the criminal justice system. Similarly, he claimed that he would happily support the Conservative Party if by doing so he could achieve the renationalisation of the railways.
Crow's marriage to Geraldine Horan, on 12 June 1982, by whom he had a daughter, Kerrie-Anne, and two grandsons, Daniel and Jamie Atlee, ended in divorce. He later entered a long-term relationship with Nicola Hoarau, with whom he had another daughter, Tanya. Writing in the New Statesman, George Eaton thought Crow to have been "more hurt than most realise by the press intrusion into his private life".
Crow had a distinctive south-east accent described variously as Cockney or soft-spoken Essex.
In later life, he lived in a three-bedroom council house in Woodford Green, eastern Greater London, but some newspapers criticised him for doing so whilst receiving a high salary. He defended his actions, asserting that "I was born in a council house, as far as I'm concerned I will die in one."
Although Crow frequently played up to the extreme leftist caricature of himself created by the press, in particular describing bankers as greedy "spivs", he was once asked by a journalist from the Financial Times how he would feel if his children had chosen careers in banking: in response he pointed out that he was happy for them to live their lives, and revealed that his brother was a stockbroker but that he was more concerned about the fact his brother supported Arsenal F.C.
In 2011, lawyers acting for Crow wrote to the Metropolitan Police asking for any evidence or information that they may have uncovered in respect of the News International phone hacking scandal. Crow had suspicions that "journalists may have had access to private information about my movements and my union's activities that date back to the year 2000".
Legacy
Crow had a polarising effect in British politics, becoming "the left's favourite firebrand and the right's favourite villain." To supporters, he was a working-class hero who successfully stood up for the rights of RMT members. Deemed highly successful in his job, during his leadership of the RMT, membership rose from 59,000 to 78,000, while London tube drivers' pay rose to £52,000, nearly twice the national average wage. Discussing Crow's contribution, former Mayor of London Ken Livingstone noted that "The only working-class people who still have well-paid jobs in London are [RMT] members". The Guardian asserted that he "managed to popularise the cause of trade unions at a time of declining membership and increasing hostility". BBC News commented that he had managed to become "one of the UK's best-known characters at a time when the rest of the nation's trade union movement had faded into comparative obscurity".
However, Crow was regularly criticised by both the right and the centre-left. Critics saw him as a bully who improved the status of RMT workers at the expense of commuters. The Daily Express deemed him a "champagne socialist" for his lavish lifestyle.
Following Crow's death, tributes were offered by figures from the trade union movement. TUC Secretary-General Frances O'Grady called him "an outstanding trade unionist, who tirelessly fought for his members, his industry and the wider trade union movement". Manuel Cortes, leader of the TSSA rail union, stated that Crow "was admired by his members and feared by employers, which is exactly how he liked it... It was a privilege to campaign and fight alongside him because he never gave an inch." Tributes were also offered by politicians on the political left. Livingstone asserted that the RMT leader was "broadly right on most key issues" and that "He fought really hard for his members." Leader of the Labour Party Ed Miliband commented that "I didn't always agree with him politically but I always respected his tireless commitment to fighting for the men and women in his union. He did what he was elected to do, was not afraid of controversy and was always out supporting his members across the country."
His death also drew responses from the political right. Conservative Mayor of London Boris Johnson stated: "I'm shocked. Bob Crow was a fighter and a man of character... Whatever our political differences, and there were many, this is tragic news... Bob fought tirelessly for his beliefs and for his members. There can be absolutely no doubt that he played a big part in the success of the Tube, and he shared my goal to make transport in London an even greater success." A spokesman speaking for Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron commented that "The Prime Minister expresses his sincere condolences to Mr Crow's family and friends." Nigel Farage, the leader of the UK Independence Party, tweeted to express his sadness at Crow's death, commenting that "I liked him" and that he had found common ground over their mutual anti-EU sentiment. On his death, management at Transport for London placed posters marking his death at tube stations throughout London as a mark of respect.
Bob Crow Brigade
The Bob Crow Brigade is a group of volunteers from the UK and the Republic of Ireland fighting as part of the International Freedom Battalion (IFB). The IFB consists of leftist foreign volunteers fighting alongside the People's Protection Units in the Syrian Civil War in support of the Rojava Revolution and against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The group has expressed solidarity with the RMT and striking rail workers in the UK. Steve Hedley, senior assistant general secretary of the RMT, said: "Bob would have been honoured that young people from Britain would fight the forces of evil in his name. A great admirer of the international brigades that fought in Spain, Crow would of course have drawn the parallels with the new international brigades fighting clerical fascism and defending Yazhidi, Muslim and Christian workers from slavery and persecution."
References
External links
BBC profile
The National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT)
"Rail union leader praises communist 'workers' champion'"
Obituary of Bob Crow in Socialist Worker
Biography of Bob Crow by Gregor Gall – Bob Crow: Socialist, leader, fighter – A political biography
News items
Bob Crow: You Ask The Questions The Independent, 29 June 2009
Independent article September 2007
1961 births
2014 deaths
Communist Party of Britain members
Communist Party of Great Britain members
English communists
English trade unionists
General Secretaries of the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers
Members of the General Council of the Trades Union Congress
People from Hainault
People from Shadwell
Socialist Labour Party (UK) members
British Eurosceptics
British political party founders | [
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244657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy%20Russell | Willy Russell | William Russell (born 23 August 1947) is an English dramatist, lyricist and composer. His best known works are Educating Rita, Shirley Valentine, Blood Brothers and Our Day Out.
Early life
Russell was born in Whiston, Lancashire (which is now Merseyside). On leaving school, aged 15, he became a ladies' hairdresser, eventually running his own salon, until the age of 20 when he decided to go back to college. This led to him qualifying as a teacher. During these years, Russell also worked as a semi-professional singer, writing and performing his own songs in folk clubs.
At college, he began writing drama and, in 1972, took a programme of three one-act plays to the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, where they were seen by writer John McGrath, who recommended Russell to the Liverpool Everyman, which commissioned the adaptation, When The Reds…, Russell's first professional work for theatre.
Career
The first play Russell wrote was Keep Your Eyes Down (1971) written while he attended Saint Katherine's College of Higher Education in Liverpool and performed at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in 1971.
In 1974 Russell wrote John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert, a musical about The Beatles. Commissioned by the Liverpool Everyman, it ran for a (then) unprecedented eight weeks before transferring to the West End where it ran for over a year, winning the Evening Standard and London Theatre Critics awards for the best musical of 1974. It premiered at the Everyman Theatre, Liverpool, and then transferred to the Lyric Theatre in the West End in 1974.
Alongside further stage works, One for the Road (1976) and Stags and Hens (1978), Russell was a screenwriter with television films, Death of A Young Young Man (1975, BBC1), Daughters of Albion (1979), Our Day Out (1977) and One Summer (1983, 1985).
Commissioned by the Royal Shakespeare Company, Educating Rita premiered at the Warehouse, London in 1980 and transferred to the West End Piccadilly Theatre, London in August 1980, and starred Julie Walters and Mark Kingston. Since its premiere and long West End run (the play ran to "at least" June 1982), the play has been translated and produced in almost every part the globe garnering awards both for its author and for many of the actors who have played the roles of Rita and Frank.
Returning to the Liverpool Everyman in 1986, Russell wrote Shirley Valentine which went on to an acclaimed West End run, earning Olivier Awards for both its author (Comedy of the Year) and star Pauline Collins (Actress of the Year in a New Play). The play transferred to New York for a highly successful Broadway run in February 1989 to November 1989, and a Tony Award as Best Actress for Collins.
Both Shirley Valentine (1989) and Educating Rita (1983) became feature films with Michael Caine, Julie Walters and Pauline Collins all receiving Oscar nominations for their respective roles, as did Russell for his Educating Rita screenplay.
Russell's other worldwide theatrical success has been Blood Brothers, "a Liverpudlian folk opera" about a pair of twins separated at birth and brought up in completely different environments. It won the Olivier Award for Best New Musical in 1983. Its 1988 revival had over 10,000 consecutive performances during its 24-year West End run, which ended in November 2012. Simultaneously, there were UK touring and international productions, including a two-year run on Broadway starting in 1993. The Broadway production was nominated for the 1993 Tony Award, Best Musical.
Russell (with musical collaborator Bob Eaton) realised a long-held ambition to develop Our Day Out further and after extensive rewriting, and recomposing created Our Day Out – The Musical. This modern musical retelling retains all the characters and plot of the original but with the action brought forward to today with a new score and lyrics to reflect this twenty first century setting. The musical was produced in 2010 at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool.
The Wrong Boy, Willy Russell's first novel, was published in 2000. In 2004, Russell returned to his original singer/songwriter roots, releasing his album, Hoovering the Moon on Pure Records. Russell also co-produced the Tim Firth album Harmless Flirting.
In 2013, the Archive and Special Collections department of Liverpool John Moores University established the Willy Russell Archive containing manuscripts, programmes, publicity and media material including newspaper cuttings and press releases, correspondence, legal, financial and administrative documents, records relating to the casting and audition process, audio and film material, and promotional ephemera. The material was produced throughout the course of Russell's career and is a comprehensive representation of his work to date. It also illustrates Willy Russell's collaborative works, both written and musical.
Personal life
In 1969, Russell married Annie Seagroatt; the couple have one son, Rob, and two daughters, Rachel and Ruth.
Works
Keep Your Eyes Down (play 168881)
Sam O'Shanker (play 1972, musical 1973)
John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert (musical 1974)
Death of a Young Man (play 1974)
Breezeblock Park (play 1975)
Our Day Out (made-for-TV film 1976, musical stage version, 2010)
Our Day Out (play 1977, later adapted for musical)
Blind Scouse
One for the Road (play 1976)
I Read the News Today (BBC Schools Radio Play, 1976)
Stags and Hens (1978 play, filmed in 1990 as Dancin' Thru the Dark)
Educating Rita (play 1980, film 1983)
The Boy with the Transistor Radio (1980)
One Summer (TV series 1983)
Blood Brothers (musical 1983)
Connie (TV series, co-wrote theme tune "The Show" 1985)
Shirley Valentine (play 1986, film 1989)
Terraces (BBC TV film 1993)
The Wrong Boy (first novel, 2000)
Hoovering the Moon (music album, 2003)
Our Day Out – The Musical (2009/10)
Awards and nominations
Awards
1980: Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Comedy – Educating Rita 1983: Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical – Blood Brothers 1988: Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Comedy – Shirley Valentine 1990: Evening Standard British Film Award for Best Screenplay – Shirley ValentineNominations
1984: Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay – Educating Rita 1984: Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Motion Picture Screenplay – Educating Rita 1984: BAFTA nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay – Educating Rita 1989 Tony Award for Best Play – Shirley Valentine 1990: BAFTA nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay – Shirley Valentine 1993: Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical – Blood Brothers''
References
External links
Willy Russell Homepage
1947 births
Living people
Alumni of Liverpool Hope University
English dramatists and playwrights
English musical theatre composers
English male composers
Laurence Olivier Award winners
People from Whiston, Merseyside
English male dramatists and playwrights | [
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244658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewer | Skewer | A skewer is a thin metal or wood stick used to hold pieces of food together. The word may sometimes be used as a metonym, to refer to the entire food item served on a skewer, as in "chicken skewers". Skewers are used while grilling or roasting meats and fish, and in other culinary applications.
In English, brochette is a borrowing of the French word for skewer. In cookery, en brochette means 'on a skewer', and describes the form of a dish or the method of cooking and serving pieces of food, especially grilled meat or seafood, on skewers; for example "lamb cubes en brochette". Skewers are often used in a variety of kebab dishes.
Utensil
Metal skewers are typically stainless steel rods with a pointed tip on one end and a grip of some kind on the other end for ease of removing the food. Non-metallic skewers are often made from bamboo, as well as hardwoods such as birch, beech, or other suitable wood. Prior to grilling, wooden skewers may be soaked in water to avoid burning. A related device is the rotisserie or spit, a large rod that rotates meat while it cooks.
History
Evidence of the prehistoric use of skewers, as far back as the Lower Paleolithic, has been found at a 300,000-year-old site in Schöningen, Germany. A stick with a burnt tip was found to have been used to cook meat over a fire. Excavations of the Minoan settlement of Akrotiri unearthed stone "fire dogs" used before the 17th century BCE. In these supports there are pairs of indentations that may have been used for holding skewers. Homer in Iliad (1.465) mentions pieces of meat roasted on spits (, ). In Classical Greece, a small spit or skewer was known as (), and Aristophanes mentions such skewers being used to roast thrushes. The story is often told of medieval Middle Eastern soldiers - usually Turkish or Persian, depending on the storyteller – who cooked meat skewered on their swords.
One of the most well-known skewered foods around the world is the shish kebab. The earliest literary evidence for the Turkish word (shish) as a food utensil comes from the 11th-century , attributed to Mahmud of Kashgar. He defines shish as both a skewer and 'tool for arranging noodles' (), though he is unique in this regard as all subsequent known historical references to shish define it as a skewer.
Examples of skewered foods
Kebab
A large variety of dishes cooked on skewers are kebabs (meat dishes prevalent in Middle Eastern cuisine and the Muslim world), or derived from them. Examples include Turkish shish kebab, Iranian jujeh kabab, Chinese chuan, and Southeast Asian satay. However, kebab is not synonymous with "skewered food", and many kebab dishes such as chapli kebab are not cooked on skewers. On the other hand, English speakers may sometimes use the word kebab to refer to any food on a skewer.
Other
Dishes, other than kebabs, prepared with skewers include American city chicken and corn dog, Brazilian churrasco, indigenous Peruvian anticucho, Italian arrosticini, Greek souvlaki, Japanese kushiyaki and kushikatsu, Korean jeok and kkochi, Nepali sekuwa, Portuguese espetada, Vietnamese nem nướng and chạo tôm, and Chinese shaokao.
Appetizers and hors d'oeuvres may often be skewered together with small sticks or toothpicks; the Spanish pincho is named after such a skewer. Small, often decorative, skewers of glass, metal, wood or bamboo known as olive picks or cocktail sticks are used for garnishes on cocktails and other alcoholic beverages. Many types of snack food, such as candy apples, bananacue, ginanggang, elote, and tanghulu, are sold and served "on a stick" or skewer, especially at outdoor markets, fairs, and sidewalk or roadside stands around the world.
See also
Barbecue
Mixed grill
References
External links
Food preparation utensils
Eating utensils | [
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244659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Their%20Eyes%20Were%20Watching%20God | Their Eyes Were Watching God | Their Eyes Were Watching God is a 1937 novel by American writer Zora Neale Hurston. It is considered a classic of the Harlem Renaissance, and Hurston's best known work. The novel explores main character Janie Crawford's "ripening from a vibrant, but voiceless, teenage girl into a woman with her finger on the trigger of her own destiny".
Set in central and southern Florida in the early 20th century, the novel was initially poorly received. Since the late 20th century, it has been regarded as influential to both African-American literature and women's literature. TIME included the novel in its 2005 list of the 100 best English-language novels published since 1923.
Plot synopsis
Janie Crawford, an African-American woman in her forties, recounts her life starting with her sexual awakening, which she compares to a blossoming pear tree kissed by bees in spring. Around this time, Janie allows a local boy, Johnny Taylor, to kiss her, which Janie's grandmother, Nanny, witnesses.
As a young enslaved woman, Nanny was raped by her white enslaver, then gave birth to a mixed-race daughter she named Leafy. Though Nanny wanted a better life for her daughter and even escaped her jealous mistress after the American Civil War, Leafy was later raped by her school teacher and became pregnant with Janie. Shortly after Janie's birth, Leafy began to drink and stay out at night, eventually running away and leaving Janie with Nanny.
Nanny, having transferred her hopes for stability and opportunity from Leafy to Janie, arranges for Janie to marry Logan Killicks, an older farmer looking for a wife. However, Killicks doesn't love Janie and wants only a domestic helper rather than a lover or partner; he thinks she doesn't do enough around the farm and considers her ungrateful. When Janie speaks to Nanny about her desire for love, Nanny, too, accuses Janie of being spoiled and, soon afterwards, dies.
Unhappy, disillusioned, and lonely, Janie leaves Killicks and runs off with Jody (Joe) Starks, a glib man who takes her to the all-black community of Eatonville, Florida. Starks arranges to buy more land, establishes a general store, and is soon elected mayor of the town. However, Janie soon realizes that Starks wants her as a trophy wife to reinforce his powerful position in town and to run the store, even forbidding her from taking part in the town's social life. During their twenty-year marriage, he treats her as his property, criticizing her, controlling her, and physically abusing her. Finally, when Starks's kidney begins to fail, Janie says that he never knew her because he would not let her be free.
After Starks dies, Janie becomes financially independent through his estate. Though she is beset with suitors, including men of means, she turns them all down until she meets a young drifter and gambler named Vergible Woods, known as "Tea Cake". He plays the guitar for her and initially treats her with kindness and respect. Janie is hesitant because she is older and wealthy, but she eventually falls in love with him and decides to run away with him to Jacksonville to marry. They move to Belle Glade, in the northern part of the Everglades region ("the muck"), where they find work planting and harvesting beans. While their relationship is volatile and sometimes violent, Janie finally has the marriage with love that she wanted. Her image of the pear tree blossom is revived.
Suddenly, the area is hit by the great 1928 Okeechobee hurricane. Tea Cake is bitten by a rabid dog while saving Janie from drowning and becomes increasingly jealous and unpredictable. When he tries to shoot Janie with his pistol, she fatally shoots him with a rifle in self-defense and is charged with murder.
At the trial, Tea Cake's black male friends show up to oppose her, but a group of local white women arrive to support Janie. After the all-white jury acquits Janie, she gives Tea Cake a lavish funeral. Tea Cake's friends forgive her, asking her to remain in the Everglades. However, she decides to return to Eatonville. As she expected, the residents gossip about her when she returns to town. The story ends where it started, as Janie finishes recounting her life to Pheoby.
Themes
Gender roles
The novel explores traditional gender roles and the relationship between men and women. Nanny believes that Janie should marry a man not for love but for "protection" Janie's first two husbands, Logan Killicks and Jody Starks, both believe Janie should be defined by her marriage to them. Both men want her to be domesticated and silent. Her speech, or silence, is defined by her physical locations, most often. For example, Starks forces her silence at the store, a public—and therefore, male space at the time. He says, "... Muh wife don't know nothin' bout no speech-makin'. Ah never married her for nothin' lak dat. She's ah woman[,] and her place is in de home." Janie is also forbidden from socializing with the townspeople on the porch. Tea Cake is Janie's last husband, who treats her as more of an equal than Killicks and Starks did, by talking to her and playing checkers with her. Despite this, Tea Cake does hit Janie to show his possession over her. Thus, Janie's life seems defined by her relation to domineering males.
Masculinity and femininity
Scholars argue that, in Their Eyes Were Watching God, the role of masculinity is portrayed through the subordination and objectification of women. In a reflection of post-slavery Florida, black men are subordinate only to their white employers and adhere to white patriarchal institutions of masculinity in which women are held in a positive social regard only if they are attractive, are married, or have attained financial security via previous marriages. Black women, specifically, face greater oppression, as their own struggle for independence was considered counter-productive to the greater fight for equality for black Americans as a whole. Nanny explains this hierarchical structure early on to Janie when she says, "Honey, de white man is de ruler of everything...white man throw down the load and tell de nigger man to pick it up. He picks it up because he has to, but he doesn't tote it. He hands it to his womenfolks."
In the book, men view women as an object to pursue, acquire, and control through courting, manipulation, and even physical force. Janie's journey for the discovery of her self-identity and independence is depicted through her pursuit of true love—her dream—through marriages to three different men. Each of the men she marries conforms in some way to gender norms of the day. The role of femininity is portrayed through the symbolism of property, mules, and elements in nature. Women in the book are considered a trophy prize for males, to simply look pretty and obey their husbands. The analogy of the Mule and Women is stated repetitively in the book and is used to represent the gender role of women. Janie's Nanny explained to Janie at a young age how African-American women were objectified as mules. "De nigger woman is de mule uh de world so far as Ah can see." Mules are typically bought and sold by farmers, usually to be used to work until exhaustion. Later in the book, Janie realizes that Nanny's warnings were true when she identifies with an abused mule in Eatonville. She sees herself as a working animal with no voice, there for the amusement of others and at the expense of her own free will. This identification is shown in the book when the townspeople are laughing at the mule that Jody had eventually bought and rescued (in an attempt to manipulate Janie). However, Janie doesn't laugh alongside the townspeople as she is shown to empathize with the mule ("Everybody was having fun at the mule-baiting. All but Janie") and she feels disgusted by the situation. The mule represents the feminine gender role in the story by which men suppress and degrade women who are stereotyped as unable to think for themselves and needing constant guidance from men. These stereotypes "become a chain on the American women, preventing them from developing individuality, and from pursuing their personal happiness" and ultimately what forces them to mold into their gender role.
Janie Crawford
Janie Crawford is the main character of Their Eyes Were Watching God. At the beginning of the story, she is described as naive, beautiful, and energetic. However, as the story progresses, Janie is constantly under the influence and pressure of gender norms within her romantic relationships. As she navigates each of her relationships with men, Janie ultimately loses her confidence and self-image, conforming to roles that the husbands want her to fill.
In Janie's first relationship, she was given as a wife by Nanny at an early age and was told that love may come with marriage but that it was not important. However, as time passed, Janie was unable to love Logan. "She began to cry. 'Ah wants things sweet wid mah marriage lak when you sit under a pear tree and think.'" As time passed on, Logan began forcing Janie to confirm to a traditional lifestyle, telling her that he would buy a mule for her so that she could work. However, Janie was strong-minded and Logan made little progress on changing Janie. Janie raised her voice, but still, she remained susceptible to suppression and abuse. "You ain't got no particular place. It's wherever Ah need yuh. Git a move on yuh, and dat quck."
Then, in Janie's second relationship, she left Logan Killicks in an attempt to pursue a better future with her new husband, Joe Starks. Joe was the Mayor of Eatonville and achieved incredible wealth, placing Janie in a higher status than her peers, since she was "sleeping with authority, seating in a higher chair". Janie believed that her life would change for the better. However, she was confined in the roles of a housewife and was made to be Joe's prized possession. "The king's mule, and the king's pleasure is everything she is there for, nothing else".
In Janie's third and last relationship, she was able to experience true love, on her own terms, with her third husband Vergible "Tea Cake" Woods. Janie was older than Tea Cake by nearly twelve years. He loved and treated her better than her previous husbands. While she was no longer strictly confined by the gender roles placed upon her by her previous husbands, she was still easily influenced and manipulated by Tea Cake. Janie was forced to shoot and kill Tea Cake in self defense after he developed rabies.
Logan Killicks
Logan Killicks is Janie's first husband. Shortly after Nanny observes Janie sharing her first kiss with a boy named Johnny Taylor—and therefore showing signs of puberty—she informs Janie that she was promised to Logan Killicks, a widower, from a young age for her own well-being and protection. Logan owns a farm with 60 acres of land. He grows and sells potatoes as well as chops and delivers wood. He has one mule to plow the fields and decides that he needs to add another to the stable. Though Janie hopes that it will grow, there is never any gentleness or love between her and Logan. She is 15 or 16 years old when she is married off to Logan and later, she grows to resent her grandmother for selling her off, like a slave. Their marriage is purely based on logic, work and convenience— he is a man with property and he needs a wife while Nanny is an aging woman raising her grandchild alone, and she needs to secure Janie's future. There is little regard for Janie's happiness as Nanny believes Logan to be a good husband based on his financial prospects alone.
Logan has traditional views on marriage. He believes that a man should be married to a woman, and that she should be his property and work hard. Everyone contributes to tending the family land. He believes Janie should work well from dawn to dusk, in the field as well as the house, and do as she is told. She is analogous to a mule or other working animal. He is not an attractive man by Janie's description of him and seems to be aware of this. As such, his prospects at finding a mate based on attraction and his age are slim, thus the reason for approaching Nanny early on about an arrangement of marriage to Janie when she comes of age.
During the course of their brief marriage, Logan attempts to subjugate Janie with his words and attempts to make her work beyond the gender roles in a typical marriage. He does not appreciate her streaks of independence when she refuses his commands and he uses her family history to try to manipulate her into being submissive to him. At one point, he threatens to kill her for her insubordination in a desperate and final attempt to control her.
Joe "Jody" Starks
Joe "Jody" Starks is Janie's second husband. He is charismatic, charming and has big plans for his future. Janie, being young and naive, is easily seduced by his efforts to convince her to leave Logan. Ultimately, Joe is successful in gaining Janie's trust and so she joins him on his journey. Joe views Janie as a princess or royalty to be displayed on a pedestal. Because of her youth, inexperience, and desire to find true love, Jody easily controls and manipulates her into submitting to his male authority.
Joe Starks is a man who is strong, organized and a natural leader. He has money from his time working for white men and he now aims to settle in a new community made up of African-Americans, a place in its infancy where he can make a name for himself. Joe quickly establishes himself as an authoritative figure around the town which has no determined name or governance of any kind when he and Janie arrive. With the money he has, he buys land, organizes the townsfolk, becomes the owner-operator of the general store and post office, and is eventually named Mayor of Eatonville. Joe strives for equality with white men, particularly the mayor of the white town across the river from Eatonville. To attain this status he requires nice things: the largest white house, a nice desk and chair, a gilded spitoon, and a beautiful wife. He is a larger-than-life character and during their time in Eatonville, he has grown an equally large belly and taken up the habit of chewing nice cigars, both of which cement his status with the locals as an important man around town. Joe, like most of the men in the book, believes that women are incapable of thinking and caring for themselves. He likens them to children and livestock that need constant tending and direction. “Somebody’s got to think for the women and chillen and chickens and cows. God, they sho don't think none fo themselves.”
Jody is a jealous man, and because of this he grows more and more possessive and controlling of Janie. He expects her to dress a certain way (buying her the finest of clothes, with tight corsets) and requires that she wear her long, beautiful hair—symbolic of her free spirit and femininity— covered and up in a bun, so as not to attract too much unwanted attention from the other men in Eatonville. He considers her long hair to be for his enjoyment alone. He excludes her from various events and the social gatherings in Eatonville to further his dominance and control over her. He restricts her from being friendly with the other townswomen, requiring her to behave in a separate and superior manner.
Vergible "Tea Cake" Woods
Tea Cake is Janie's third and final husband. He is her ideal partner in her search for true love. He is charismatic, charming, funny, and creative with a tendency to embellish stories. To Janie, he is larger than life, wise, and genuinely cares for her. Tea Cake is loving towards Janie and respectful of her as her own individual person. Unlike her previous two marriages, Tea Cake never stops trying to make her happy. He is more than willing to share with her what he has learned from his own experiences and show her the greater world outside of her own existence. He enjoys being with Janie and playing the role of a teacher. Through Tea Cake, Janie learns to shoot a rifle, play checkers, and fish among other activities.
However, Tea Cake shows tendencies of patriarchal dominance and psychological abuse towards Janie. He isn't always truthful with her and shows some of the same characteristic traits exhibited by Joe Starks and Logan Killicks. For instance, he keeps her from working with the rest of the people down on the muck because he believes she is above common folk. Consequently, until Janie asserts herself with Tea Cake and joins the others in working, she gains a bit of a reputation for thinking herself better than everyone else.
In a show of male dominance in their relationship, Tea Cake takes $200 from Janie without her knowledge or permission and spends it on a nice guitar and a lavish party with others around town without including her in the festivities. While accounting for his spending of her money, he tells Janie that he had to pay women that he deemed unattractive $2 each to keep them from the party. He then gambles the remaining amount to make the money back and excludes her from the gambling scene. What differentiates him from Joe in this regard is that Janie regularly confronts him and he acquiesces to her demand that she not be excluded from aspects of his life.
Another tendency that Tea Cake shares with Joe is his jealousy and need to maintain some amount of control over Janie. When he overhears another woman speaking poorly to Janie about Tea Cake and attempting to set her up with her brother, Tea Cake decides to take matters into his own hands. First, he discusses with Janie, a conversation he overheard between her and Mrs. Turner, a local café owner. He criticizes Mrs. Turner's appearance (like Janie, she is mixed-race) and then successfully executes an elaborate plan to ruin her establishment. Finally, he slaps Janie around in front of Mrs. Turner and others to show them that he is in charge and to assert his ownership over her.
In the end, Tea Cake plays the role of hero to Janie when he saves her from drowning and being attacked by a rabid dog. Tea Cake himself is bitten and eventually succumbs to the disease. Not able to think rationally and enraged with jealousy, he physically attacks Janie and she is forced to shoot and kill Tea Cake. Therefore, she effectively ends her emotional attachment to the men in her life and the desire to seek out and realize her dream of true love.
Liberated woman
Janie is constantly searching for her own voice and identity throughout the novel. She is often without a voice in relation to her husbands as she will not fight back. Janie is also encounter situations that make her feel that her value as an African-American woman is little to none. She is seen as distinct from other women in the novel, who follow traditions and do not find a life independent of men. Janie's physical appeal becomes a basis of Starks and Tea Cake to have jealousy and belittle her looks. Starks orders Janie to cover her long hair as other men are attracted to it. Similarly, Tea Cake remarks on Janie's lighter skin and her appeal to Mrs. Turner's brother. But Janie begins to feel liberated in her marriage with Tea Cake because he treats her as an equal and mostly does not look down on her. As a result, she loves him more than she did the other two spouses.
Janie does not find complete independence as a woman until after the death of Tea Cake. She returns to Eatonville with her hair down and she sits on her own porch chatting with her friend Pheoby. By the end of the novel, she has overcome traditional roles and cultivates an image of the "liberated black woman."
Liberation from racial history
Janie grew up under the care of her grandmother, Nanny. Her experiences as a slave and freedwoman shaped the way Nanny saw the world. She hoped to protect Janie, by forcing her to marry Logan Killicks, although he was older and not attractive. Janie followed her grandmother's advice but found that it wouldn't be as easy to love him as Nanny had suggested. African Americans believed in marriage during the early 20th century because they had been prevented from such legal protection under slavery. Unhappy in her marriage to Logan, Janie runs off with Starks and commits bigamy. After the death of Starks, Janie meets Tea Cake and they fall in love. Her community thought he was a broke nobody and were suspicious of him. Tea Cake wasn't the perfect man, but better than expected by the community of Eatonville.
Liberation from domestic violence
During the early 20th century, the African-American community asked African-American women to set aside self-realization and self-affirmation values. They imposed male-dominated values and often controlled who women married. Janie suffered domestic violence in her marriages with Joe Starks and Tea Cake. Starks initially seemed to be good for Janie, but later beat her several times, in an effort to exert his authority over her. Despite her husband's physical and emotional abuse, Janie did not complain, behavior that was approved by the townsmen. Domestic abuse was not entirely disapproved by the African-American community, and men thought it was acceptable to control their women this way. After Starks' death, Janie was freed from his abuse. Tea Cake showed his respect of her. Although Tea Cake was not a perfect husband, he was the only husband of hers that gave her the chance to love.
Liberation from sexual norms
The early 1900s was a time in which patriarchal ideals were accepted and seen as the norm. Throughout the novel, Janie on multiple occasions suffers from these ideals. In her relationships, she is being ordered around by the man, but she did not question it, whether in the kitchen or bedroom. Janie in many ways expresses her growing distance from the sexual and social norms. After the death of Starks, Janie goes to his funeral wearing black and formal clothes. But for Tea Cake's funeral, she wears workers' blue overalls, showing that she cared less for what society thought of her as she got older. In addition, critics say that Tea Cake was the vehicle for Janie's liberation. She went from working in the kitchen and indoors to working more "manly" jobs, such as helping in the fields, fishing, and hunting. Tea Cake offered her a partnership; he didn't see her as an object to be controlled and possessed through marriage.
Value of women in a relationship
Throughout the novel, Hurston vividly displays how African American women are valued, or devalued, in their marital relationships. By doing so, she takes the reader on a journey through Janie's life and her marriages. Janie formed her initial idea of marriage off the beautiful image of unity she witnessed between a pear tree and a bee. This image and expectation sets Janie up for disappointment when it came time to marry. From her marriage to Logan Killicks to Tea Cake, Janie was forced to acknowledge where she stood as a powerless female in her relationship.
Starting with her marriage to Logan, Janie was put in a place where she was expected to prove her value with hard work. On top of all the physical labor expected from her, Janie endured constant insults and physical beatings from her male counterparts. Hoping for more value, Janie decides to leave Logan and run off with Joe Starks. However, in reaction to this decision, she's only faced with more beating and devaluement. Joe expected her stay in the home, work in the kitchen, and when she was in public, Janie was expected to cover her hair and avoid conversation with the locals. With one last hope, Janie engaged in a marriage with Tea Cake, a younger man, and things finally seemed to look up for her, even though she was still expected to help in the fields and tend to her womanly duties. Overall, throughout her marriages, Janie experienced the hardships that most African American women went through at that time. From the physical labor to the physical beatings, Janie was presented with the life that a woman was expected to live. [See detailed argument and synopsis in Addison Gayle, Jr.'s article, "The Outsider"]
Janie was able to feel like a woman in her third marriage with Tea Cake. In her first marriage with Logan she was being controlled by her husband. She didn't feel like a woman in her first marriage. She didn't feel any love or affection either. In her second marriage with Jody, she was able to experience independence as a woman. With Jody's death, she became in charge of the store and his property. She was able to experience freedom and an economic stable life. She learned about ownership, self determination, self ruling, and home ruling. In her last marriage with Tea Cake Janie experienced true love. But she also learned who she was as an African American woman. Throughout her marriages she learned how to value herself as a woman, an African American woman, and a hard working woman.
The novel is written in dialect and colloquial language that expresses it as a story of a black woman from Southern United States. Throughout the novel, Janie serves both as protagonist as well as occasional narrator, detailing the events of her life, her three marriages, and the aftermath of each, that eventually lead to her return to Eatonville. This is done with two contrasting writing styles, one in standard English prose when the narration is done in third person, and the other making use of black Southern vernacular in dialogue. The theme of having a voice and being able to speak out is a prevalent theme throughout the novel. During her first two marriages to Logan Killicks and Joe Starks, Janie is subjugated and held under their rule, the former comparing her to another mule to work his field and the latter keeping her in a powerless position of domesticity. Throughout both marriages she finds herself without the ability to speak out or to express herself, and when she tries she is usually shut down. This leaves her feeling like a "rut in the road," the isolation taking its toll until she finally confronts Joe and attacks his ego with a verbal assault against his manhood. The effect this takes is that it leaves Joe resenting Janie and in effect destroys what is left of their marriage. When Janie marries Tea Cake, we see how language affects the way Janie begins to feel about herself. The way Tea Cake speaks to her allows her to find the freedom in her own voice and to begin to learn how to use it. We are able to see how language helps Janie grow as a person once she learns that her voice is her power.
Race
While the novel is written about Black people in the South, it is not primarily a book about a racist society. Nanny is the first character to discuss the effects of slavery. "Ah was born back due in slavery so it wasn't for me to fulfil my dreams of whut a woman oughta be and to do. Dat's one of de hold-backs of slavery." The novel is mostly concerned with differences within the black community. Starks is compared to the master of a plantation, as he has a huge house in the centre of the town. "The rest of town looked like servants' quarters surrounding the 'big house'. Starks becomes a figure of authority because he has money and is determined to create the first black town. But his plans seem to result in a town where people impose their own hierarchy. "Us talks about de white man keepin' us down! Shucks! He don't have tuh. Us keeps our own selves down." When Janie marries Tea Cake and moves to the Everglades, she becomes friendly with Mrs. Turner. This woman compliments Janie on her light skin and European features, from her mixed-race ancestry. Turner disapproves of her marriage to Tea Cake, as he is darker skinned and more "African" looking.
Inspirations and influences
Perhaps the strongest inspiration for Hurston's writing of Their Eyes Were Watching God was her former lover Percival Punter. Hurston writes in her autobiography that the romance between Janie and Tea Cake was inspired by a tumultuous love affair. She described falling in love with the man as "a parachute jump". Like Janie in the novel, Hurston was significantly older than her lover. Like Jody, Punter was sexually dominant and sometimes violent. Hurston wrote Their Eyes Were Watching God three weeks after the tumultuous conclusion of her relationship with Punter. She wrote in her autobiography that she had "tried to embalm all the tenderness of [her] passion for him." With this emotional inspiration, Hurston went on to paint the picture of Their Eyes Were Watching God using her personal experience and research as a template.
In 1927, a decade before writing Their Eyes Were Watching God, Hurston traveled south to collect folk songs and folk tales through an anthropological research fellowship arranged by her Barnard College mentor Franz Boas. The all-black Eatonville of Their Eyes Were Watching God is based on the all-black town of the same name in which Hurston grew up. The town's weekly announced in 1889, "Colored People of the United States: Solve the great race problem by securing a home in Eatonville, Florida, a Negro city governed by negroes." The hurricane that symbolizes the climax of Hurston's story also has an historical inspiration; in 1928, "a hurricane ravaged both coastal and inland areas of Florida, bringing torrential rains that broke the dikes of Lake Okeechobee near Belle Glade". Scholars of the African diaspora note the cultural practices common to the Caribbean, Africa, and the United States in Their Eyes Were Watching God.
Hurston wrote Their Eyes Were Watching God while living in Belle Glade, at the home of Harvey Poole, who, as manager of one of the local labor camps, informed her tremendously about bean picking, and the labors of African-Americans on the muckland. The book was also written while on a Guggenheim Fellowship in Haiti to research Obeah practices in the West Indies.
Reception
Initial reception
Hurston's political views in Their Eyes Were Watching God were met with resistance from several leading Harlem Renaissance authors.
Novelist and essayist Richard Wright condemned Their Eyes Were Watching God, writing in a review for New Masses (1937):
Miss Hurston seems to have no desire whatsoever to move in the direction of serious fiction… [She] can write; but her prose is cloaked in that facile sensuality that has dogged Negro expression since the days of Phyllis Wheatley... Her characters eat and laugh and cry and work and kill; they swing like a pendulum eternally in that safe and narrow orbit in which America likes to see the Negro live: between laughter and tears.
Ralph Ellison said the book contained a "blight of calculated burlesque."
Alain Locke wrote in a review: "when will the Negro novelist of maturity, who knows how to tell a story convincingly—which is Miss Hurston's cradle gift, come to grips with motive fiction and social document fiction?"
The New Republics Otis Ferguson wrote: "it isn't that this novel is bad, but that it deserves to be better". But he went on to praise the work for depicting "Negro life in its naturally creative and unselfconscious grace".
Not all African-American critics had negative things to say about Hurston's work. Carter G. Woodson, founder of The Journal of Negro History wrote, "Their Eyes Were Watching God is a gripping story... the author deserves great praise for the skill and effectiveness shown in the writing of this book." The critic noted Hurston's anthropological approach to writing, "She studied them until she thoroughly understood the working of their minds, learned to speak their language".
Meanwhile, reviews of Hurston's book in the mainstream white press were largely positive, although they did not translate into significant retail sales. Writing for The New York Times, Ralph Thompson states:[T]he normal life of Negroes in the South today—the life with its holdovers from slave times, its social difficulties, childish excitements, and endless exuberances... compared to this sort of story, the ordinary narratives of Negroes in Harlem or Birmingham seem ordinary indeed."
For the New York Herald Tribune, Sheila Hibben described Hurston as writing "with her head as with her heart" creating a "warm, vibrant touch". She praised Their Eyes Were Watching God as filled with "a flashing, gleaming riot of black people, with a limitless sense of humor, and a wild, strange sadness".
New York Times critic Lucille Tompkins described Their Eyes Were Watching God, thusly: "It is about Negroes... but really it is about every one, or at least every one who isn't so civilized that he has lost the capacity for glory."
Rediscovery
As universities across the country developed Black Studies programs in the 1970s and 1980s, they created greater space for Black literature in academia. Several prominent academics, including Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and Addison Gayle, Jr., established a new "Black Aesthetic" that "placed the sources of contemporary black literature and culture in the communal music and oral folk tradition". This new respect coupled with a growing Black feminism led by Mary Helen Washington, Audre Lorde, Alice Walker, and others, would create the space for the rediscovery of Hurston.
Hurston first achieved a level of mainstream institutional support in the 1970s. Walker published an essay, "Looking for Zora", in Ms. magazine in 1975. In that work, she described how the Black community's general rejection of Hurston was like "throwing away a genius". The National Endowment for the Humanities went on to award Robert Hemenway two grants for his work to write Hurston's biography. The 1977 biography was followed in 1978 by the re-issue of Their Eyes Were Watching God.
In 1975, the Modern Language Association held a special seminar focusing on Hurston. In 1981, professor Ruth Sheffey of Baltimore's Morgan State University founded the Zora Neale Hurston Society. Hurston had attended the school, then known as Morgan Academy, in 1917.
In 1978, Harper and Row leased its rights to Their Eyes Were Watching God to the University of Illinois Press. However, the printing was so profitable that Harper and Row refused to renew the leasing contract and instead reprinted its own new edition. This new edition sold its total print of 75,000 in less than a month.
The New York Times Virginia Heffernan explains that the book's "narrative technique, which is heavy on free-indirect discourse, lent itself to poststructuralist analysis". With so many new disciplines especially open to the themes and content of Hurston's work, Their Eyes Were Watching God achieved growing prominence in the last several decades. It is now firmly established in the literary canon.
On November 5, 2019, the BBC News listed Their Eyes Were Watching God on its list of the 100 most influential novels.
Critical analysis
In Maria J. Johnson's article "'The World in a Jug and the Stopper in [Her] Hand': Their Eyes Were Watching God as Blues Performance," she states that Hurston's novel takes a similar structure and aesthetic to blues culture. Johnson also shows how the contrast of Hurston's images, such as the pleasure and pain dynamic of the bee, can be seen in songs by singers like Bessie Smith.
The article "The Cognitive Construction of the Self in Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God", by Patrick S. Bernard, highlights the connection between the construction of self and cognition in Hurston's novel. According to Bernard, cognition is the inner essence of an individual that embodies the idea of "thinking, seeing, speaking, and knowing", but is often determined by one's exterior environment. Janie, the protagonist, uses her cognitive skills to find her identity and throughout the novel develops her cognition further. While Janie is living in a sexist society, she continues to rise above her opposition, specifically that of her three husbands. Bernard demonstrates that:
In a conversation with Jody, Janie defends 'womenfolk,' disagreeing with the sexist claim that God made men "different" because they turn "out so smart" (70). When she states that men "don't know half as much as you think you do," Jody interrupts her saying, 'you getting too moufy Janie... Go fetch me de checker-board and de checkers' (70–71) so that he and the other men could play (Bernard 9).
The comment from Jody, Janie's second husband, attempts to suppress her voice and manipulate her thoughts. Rather than acting submissive to Jody, Janie for a brief moment contends with Jody by telling him how men misunderstand women. Jody fears that Janie's thinking will lead to her gaining more knowledge and naturally to speaking her mind, eventually leading to Janie achieving the power of knowledge to recognize and change the mistreatment and unfairness she has been receiving. Bernard proposes the idea that Jody's relationship with Janie represents society's assumption that women are of limited cognition. This assumption positions women in subservient roles that limit their ways of thinking, speaking, and seeing.
In addition to bringing up Janie's relationship with Jody, Bernard emphasizes how her relationships with her other husbands influenced her cognition. He points out the fact that Logan Killicks, Janie's first husband, mistreated her by severing any beginning form of self-construction by treating her as an infant. Bernard also brings forth the idea that Janie's construction of selfhood blossoms when Tea Cake, her third husband, allows her to participate in experiences unimaginable to her. While Logan Killicks gives her no opportunity of expressing herself, Jody overpowers her expressive voice; Tea Cake allows her construction of self to mature link between self construction and cognition. Bernard's main point therefore is that self-construction is influenced by cognition, that is, knowing, thinking, seeing and speaking are important to the construction of self in Zora Neale Hurston's novel.
In "The Hierarchy Itself: Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God and the Sacrifice of Narrative Authority," Ryan Simmons argues that Hurston made a statement against models of authority that supplant an oppressive system with other oppressive systems and offered an alternative. By models of authority, he means the narrative voice of the author and Janie's narrative voice. Hurston represented the different ideologies of Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois through the characters of Logan Killicks and Joe ("Jody") Starks. Like Washington, Logan models the path of "gradual progress" that would not threaten the white-dominated sphere of power and Hurston presents his practices as a tradeoff between liberty and modest prosperity. Joe models the path advocated by Du Bois, which is one of assertion of dignity and less compromise. However, the issue shown by Joe's eventual isolation from the community dialogue he helped establish and Janie's overpowering of him through a usurpation of authority, Hurston shows that the weakness with Joe's approach is that it mirrors that of white suppression.
Instead, Hurston introduces a third way of achieving self-autonomy through Tea Cake. He represents an independence from reliance on communal validation, and instead serves as a mirror for Janie to discover her narrative power. In relation to the author's narrative power, Tea Cake is the epitome of a good reader, one that is receptive to the transformative message of the text. Language is the understanding and sharpening of one's identity while communication comes second. In Hurston's innovative narrative, she is attempting to fulfill the "ideal narrative", which is one that nurtures and changes both the reader and the author.
In the article “‘The Kiss of Memory': The Problem of Love in Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God,” author Tracy L. Bealer argues that Janie's quest for her ideal form of love, as symbolized by the pear tree in bloom, is impossible within her existing sociohistorical environment. The forces of racial and patriarchal hierarchies lead Tea Cake, who generally treats Janie as his intellectual and communal equal, to beat her in order to display his dominance to their peers. Bealer asserts that the novel's depiction of Tea Cake, abuse and all, is intentionally ambivalent in order to simultaneously promote intersubjective love and to indict racism and sexism.
William M. Ramsey, in his article "The compelling ambivalence of Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God," posits that the novel stands as an unfinished and unrealized work. He backs this claim by noting the short amount of time Hurston spent writing as well as statements made by Hurston in her autobiography. Ramsey also note how the numerous contradictions inherent in the novel (Tea Cake's treatment of Janie, Janie's idealization of Tea Cake, Janie's expectations of a utopian "pear tree" marriage, etc.) have led to wildly different interpretations and ultimately, a richly ambivalent text.
He also suggests that Tea Cake's death is "Hurston's vicarious revenge on Arthur Price," a former lover that Hurston left to pursue a research fellowship in the Caribbean.
In the article "Naming and Power in Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes were Watching God," Sigrid King comments that "Naming has always been an important issue in the Afro-American tradition because of its link to the exercise of power." Their names are a form of power. King also says that "Nanny teaches Janie the same lessons she learned about naming: Names are bound within the white male power structure, and the most s black woman can hope for is to endure within them". Nanny tells Janie that names are powerful are used to take power away from people and in the book we see thar Nanny's name is her role in society and not an actual name. Hurston is aware of the power that names have and she chooses to have Janie start off the book without having a name.
In the article "Racial and sexual politics of Their Eyes are Watching God from a spatial perspective", Lihua Zhao argues that Janie is a victim of racism and gender sexism which leads to her poor character attributes in a lead black female novel. Zhao comments on the novel saying "Janie's determined and consistent ignorance of racial spatial division implies her weak black identification, the horrible damage done by racism. Her vague and brief feminist consciousness suggests the brainwash of patriarchy is so successful that it is very hard to eliminate." Zhao states that in order to bring attention to a social political issue, we must first expose the problem in a meaningful manner like how Hurston has in her novel.
In the article "Mules and women: identify and rebel—Janie's identity quest in "Their Eyes Were Watching God'", Hongzhi Wu explores the symbolism of the mule in Hurston's novel claiming that it provides a deeper meaning of the external issues of racism. Wu states, "In all these animal talks they expressed their hatred of the abuses and exploitation from the white world; their despise of their white master's ignorance and viciousness; their acclamation of the black people's industriousness and intelligence; and they also expressed their hope of salvation." The mule acts as a metaphor for the exploitation and mistreatment of the black community by the white superiority race.
Adaptations for theater, film and radio
In 1983, the graduate repertory Hilberry Theater at Wayne State University produced To Gleam It Around, To Show My Shine, which is based on Their Eyes Were Watching God. The play was written by Bonnie Lee Moss Rattner and directed by Von Washington. It has been produced numerous times by other companies.
Oprah Winfrey served as executive producer of the made-for-TV adaptation Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. Harpo Productions sponsored the film, directed by Darnell Martin and with a screenplay written by Suzan-Lori Parks, Misan Sagay and Bobby Smith, Jr.
In 2011, the novel was adapted as a radio play for BBC World Drama, dramatized by Patricia Cumper. The play first aired on February 19, 2011.
In 2012, a live radio play performance of Their Eyes Were Watching God, written by Arthur Yorinks, was recorded and broadcast to celebrate the 75th anniversary of the book's publication.
References
External links
Describes Hurston's participation in the Harlem Renaissance; also summary, analysis, themes, and essays from "Their Eyes Were Watching God"
"Their Eyes Were Watching God": Folk Speech and Figurative Language
1937 American novels
African-American novels
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into plays
American novels adapted into television shows
J. B. Lippincott & Co. books
Novels adapted into radio programs
Novels by Zora Neale Hurston
Novels set in Florida
Modernist novels | [
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244662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eel%20ladder | Eel ladder | An eel ladder is type of fish ladder designed to help eels swim past barriers, such as dams and weirs or even natural barriers, to reach upriver feeding grounds. (Many eels are catadromous, living in fresh water but spawning at sea.) The basic design of an eel ladder has the eel swim over the barrier using an eel ascending ramp, which provides the eels a climbing substrate to "push against" while slithering upstream. For some higher barriers, elevator-style systems are also used.
An eel ladder typically consists of four parts: an eel ascending ramp, a supporting structure, a water-feeding system, and a side gutter. The eel ascending ramp can be a fairly simple construction, such as a hollowed out tree filled with recycled fishing net, or a more complex structure designed to accommodate specific species or ages of eels. The supporting structure mounts the ladder to the barrier. The rampside gutter provides an attraction flow to draw eels toward the ladder while the water-feeding system ensures the proper flow of water to the gutter.
See also
Eel buck
Eel life history
Elver pass
Fish ladder
Fish migration
External links
Fish-Pass sarl eel ladder and elevator systems
Dwight St. Dam Eelway project (Chicopee River, Massachusetts)
Ichthyology
Dams
Eels
Fish migrations | [
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244664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip%20Van%20Winkle | Rip Van Winkle | "Rip Van Winkle" is a short story by the American author Washington Irving, first published in 1819. It follows a Dutch-American villager in colonial America named Rip Van Winkle who meets mysterious Dutchmen, imbibes their liquor and falls asleep in the Catskill Mountains. He awakes 20 years later to a very changed world, having missed the American Revolution.
Inspired by a conversation on nostalgia with his American expatriate brother-in-law, Irving wrote the story while temporarily living in Birmingham, England. It was published in his collection, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. While the story is set in New York's Catskill Mountains near where Irving later took up residence, he admitted, "When I wrote the story, I had never been on the Catskills."
Plot
"Rip Van Winkle" is set in the years before and after the American Revolutionary War in a village at the foot of New York's Catskill Mountains where Rip Van Winkle, a Dutch-American villager, lives. One autumn day, Van Winkle wanders into the mountains with his dog Wolf to escape his wife's nagging. He hears his name called out and sees a man wearing antiquated Dutch clothing; he is carrying a keg up the mountain and requires help. Together, the man and Wolf proceed to a hollow in which Rip discovers the source of thunderous noises: a group of ornately dressed and bearded men who are playing nine-pins.
Van Winkle does not ask who they are or how they know his name. Instead, he begins to drink some of their liquor and soon falls asleep. When he awakens on the mountain, he discovers shocking changes: his musket is rotting and rusty, his beard is a foot long, and his dog is nowhere to be found. He returns to his village, where he recognizes no one. He arrives just after an election, and people ask how he voted. Never having cast a ballot in his life, he proclaims himself a faithful subject of King George III, unaware that the American Revolution has taken place, and nearly gets himself into trouble with the townspeople until one elderly woman recognizes him as the long-lost Rip Van Winkle.
King George's portrait on the inn's sign has been replaced with one of George Washington. Van Winkle learns that most of his friends were killed fighting in the American Revolution. He is also disturbed to find another man called Rip Van Winkle; it is his son, now grown up. Van Winkle also discovers that his wife died some time ago, but he is not saddened by the news. He learns that the men whom he met in the mountains are rumored to be ghosts of the crew of the Halve Maen, captained by English sea explorer Henry Hudson. He also realizes that he has been away from the village for at least 20 years. His grown daughter takes him in and he resumes his usual idleness. His strange tale is solemnly taken to heart by the Dutch settlers, particularly by the children who say that, whenever thunder is heard, the men in the mountains must be playing nine-pins.
Characters
Rip Van Winkle – A henpecked husband who loathes "profitable labor"; and a meek, easygoing, ne'er-do-well resident of the village who wanders off to the mountains and meets strange men playing nine-pins.
Dame Van Winkle – Rip Van Winkle's cantankerous and nagging wife.
Rip Van Winkle, Jr. – Rip Van Winkle's ne'er-do-well son.
Judith Gardenier – Rip Van Winkle's married daughter; she takes her father in after he returns from his sleep.
Derrick Van Bummel – The local schoolmaster who went on to serve in the American Revolution as a flag officer and later a member of Congress.
Nicholas Vedder – Landlord of the local inn where menfolk congregate.
Van Schaick – The local parson.
Jonathan Doolittle – Owner of the Union Hotel, the establishment that replaced the village inn.
Wolf – Van Winkle's faithful dog.
Man carrying a keg up the mountain – The ghost of one of Henry Hudson's crew members.
Ninepin bowlers – The ghosts of Henry Hudson's crewmen from his ship, the Half-Moon; they share purple magic liquor with Rip Van Winkle and play a game of nine-pins.
Brom Dutcher – Van Winkle's neighbor who went off to war while Van Winkle was sleeping.
Old woman – Woman who identifies Van Winkle when he returns to the village after his sleep.
Peter Vanderdonk – The oldest resident of the village, who confirms Van Winkle's identity and cites evidence indicating Van Winkle's strange tale is true.
Mr. Gardenier – Judith Gardenier's husband, a farmer, and crabby villager.
Rip Van Winkle III – Rip Van Winkle's infant grandchild; his mother is Judith Gardenier. It is not explained why he is named after his maternal grandfather instead of his father.
Composition and publication history
After a failed business venture with his brothers, Irving filed for bankruptcy in 1818. Despondent, he turned to writing for possible financial support, although he had difficulty thinking of stories to write. He stayed in Birmingham, England, where his brother-in-law Henry Van Wart had opened a trading firm. The two were reminiscing in June 1818 when Irving was suddenly inspired by their nostalgic conversation. Irving locked himself in his room and wrote non-stop all night. As he said, he felt like a man waking from a long sleep. He presented the first draft of "Rip Van Winkle" to the Van Wart family over breakfast.
"Rip Van Winkle" was one of the first stories Irving proposed for his new book, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. Irving asked his brother Ebeneezer to assist with publication in the United States. As Irving wrote, "I shall feel very anxious to hear of the success of this first re-appearance on the literary stage – Should it be successful, I trust I shall be able henceforth to keep up an occasional fire." Two thousand copies of the first octavo-sized installment, which included "Rip Van Winkle", were released on June 23, 1819, in Baltimore, Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, published by Cornelius S. Van Winkle, and sold at a somewhat expensive 75 cents. A British edition was published shortly afterward, by John Miller, who went out of business immediately thereafter. With help from his friend Walter Scott, Irving was able to convince John Murray to take over British publication of the Sketch Book.
Following the success of Rip Van Winkle in print and on stage, later celebrated editions were illustrated by Arthur (Heinemann, 1905) and N.C. Wyeth (McKay, 1921).
Themes and literary forerunners
In the tenth chapter of his book Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, the third-century AD Greek historian Diogenes Laërtius relates the story of the legendary sage Epimenides of Knossos, who was said to have been a shepherd on the island of Crete. One day, Epimenides followed after a sheep that had wandered off and, after becoming tired, went into a cave under Mount Ida and fell asleep. When he awoke, he continued searching for the sheep, but could not find it, so he returned to his father's farm, only to discover that it was under new ownership. He went home, only to discover that the people there did not know him. Finally, he encountered his younger brother, who had become an old man, and learned that he had been asleep in the cave for fifty-seven years. According to the different sources that Diogenes relates, Epimenides lived to be 154, 157, or 299 years old. Multiple sources have identified the story of Epimenides as the earliest known variant of the "Rip Van Winkle" fairy tale.
In Christian tradition, there is a similar, well-known story of "The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus", which recounts a group of early Christians who hid in a cave circa 250 AD, to escape the persecution of Christians during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius. They fell into a miraculous sleep and woke some 200 years later during the reign of Theodosius II, to discover that the city and the whole Empire had become Christian. This Christian story is recounted by Islam and appears in a famous Sura of the Quran, Sura Al-Kahf. The version recalls a group of young monotheists escaping from persecution within a cave and emerging hundreds of years later.
Another similar story in the Islamic tradition is of Uzair (usually identified with the Biblical Ezra) whose grief at the Destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians was so great that God took his soul and brought him back to life after Jerusalem was reconstructed. He rode on his revived donkey and entered his native place. But the people did not recognize him, nor did his household, except the maid, who was now an old blind woman. He prayed to God to cure her blindness and she could see again. He meets his son who recognized him by a mole between his shoulders and was older than he was. (see Uzair#Islamic tradition and literature).
In Judaism, there is the story of Honi ha-M'agel, a miracle-working sage of the 1st century BC, who was a historical character but to whom various myths were attached. One of them recounts that Honi was journeying on the road and he saw a man planting a carob tree. He asked him: How long does it take to bear fruit? The man replied: Seventy years. ha-M'agel then further asked the man: Are you certain that you will live another seventy years? The man replied: No. But I am planting this not for myself, but for the other generations to come after me and the generations to follow those. Honi then shrugged as he walked away from the man. Later that day, he sat down to take a rest. But he slept for seventy years, and rocks had formed a tent-like structure around him. When he woke, he saw a man picking a tree with carobs all over it. He asked: Are you the man that planted this tree? The man replied: No. But my father told me that his father planted this tree for me.
The story of "Rip Van Winkle" itself is widely thought to have been based on Johann Karl Christoph Nachtigal's German folktale "Peter Klaus", which is a shorter story set in a German village. It tells of a goatherd named Peter Klaus who goes looking for a lost goat. He finds some men drinking in the woods and, after drinking some of their wine, he falls asleep. When he wakes back up, twenty years have passed.
In many ways, the story is a classic European fairy tale of a man who is actually rewarded for helping the fairies move their barrel. They advance him to a time in life where he is free of his nagging wife. He is now old enough for it to be respectable for him to take it easy and play with children, working when he wants to instead of when he has to, supported by his loving, grown children. The theme of independence is also explored; the young Van Winkle lives in British America and is a subject of the King; the old Van Winkle awakes in a country independent of the Crown. On a personal level, the awakened Van Winkle has gained another form of "independence": being widowered from his shrewish wife.
In Orkney, there is a similar folktale linked to the burial mound of Salt Knowe, adjacent to the Ring of Brodgar. A drunken fiddler on his way home hears music from the mound. He finds a way in and finds the (trolls) having a party. He stays and plays for two hours, then makes his way home to Stenness, where he discovers 50 years have passed. The Orkney Rangers believe this may be one source for Washington Irving's tale because his father was an Orcadian from the island of Shapinsay and would almost certainly have known the story.
In Ireland, the story of Niamh and Oisin has a similar theme. Oisin falls in love with the beautiful Niamh and leaves with her on her snow white horse, bound for Tir Na nOg – the land of the ever-young. Missing his family and friends, he asks to pay them a visit. Niamh lends him her horse, warning him never to dismount, and he travels back to Ireland. But 300 years have passed; his family and fellow warriors are all dead. When Oisin encounters some men trying to move a boulder, he reaches down to help them, the girth of the horse's saddle snaps, and he falls to the ground. Before the watching eyes of the men, he becomes a very, very old man.
Author Joe Gioia suggests the basic plot strongly resembles, and may have originated with, an upstate New York Seneca legend of a young squirrel hunter who encounters the mystic "Little People", and after a night with them returns to his village to find it overgrown by forest and everyone gone: that single night had lasted a year.
The story also bears some similarities to stories from East Asia, including the third century AD Chinese tale of "Ranka", as retold by Lionel Giles in A Gallery of Chinese Immortals, and the eighth-century Japanese tale "Urashima Tarō". The Hindu story of Muchukunda from the Bhagavatam also displays many similarities to the story of "Rip Van Winkle".
The theme is taken up in numerous modern works of science fiction. In H. G. Wells's The Sleeper Awakes, a man who sleeps for 203 years wakes up in a completely transformed London where he has become the richest man in the world. In the original Buck Rogers book, the protagonist falls asleep under the influence of a gas in a mine, sleeps for four centuries and wakes to find America under the rule of Mongol invaders – whereupon he places himself at the head of the freedom fighters. In Roger Zelazny's science-fantasy series The Chronicles of Amber, protagonist Corwyn experiences drinking and revelry in an underground lair with otherworldly people who try to entice him into slumber; he knows this is a centuries-of-sleep trap and resists; the passage is similar in theme to both "Rip Van Winkle" and especially the Orkney story.
Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, under which a person traveling at near light speed would experience only the passage of a few years but would return to find centuries had passed on Earth, provides a broad new scope to express essentially the same literary theme – for example, in the opening chapter of Ursula K. Le Guin's Rocannon's World. In Robert Heinlein's Time for the Stars, Earth sends out a fleet of relativistic ships to explore the galaxy, their crews hailed as stalwart pioneers – but after a century, which they experience as only a few years, faster-than-light ships are developed and the earlier ones are recalled, their crews discovering that they had become unwanted anachronisms on a changed Earth. The protagonist notices a newspaper headline disparagingly announcing the arrival of himself and his shipmates as "yet another crew of Rip Van Winkles". The Queen song "'39" is similarly a tale of relativistic space travelers returning to their home planet to find a century has elapsed.
Adaptations
The story has been adapted for other media for the last two centuries, in cartoons, films, stage plays, music, and other media.
Theater
Actor Joseph Jefferson performed various dramatizations of the character on the 19th-century stage. He and Dion Boucicault wrote an adaptation which opened in London in 1865 and on Broadway in 1866. Around 1894, Helen Keller, a close friend of Jefferson's, attended his stage performance while she studied in New York; he later performed scenes for her via haptics, allowing her to feel his movements as he acted. She described his interpretation of Rip Van Winkle as a "beautiful, pathetic representation [that] quite carried me away with delight. I have a picture of old Rip in my fingers which they will never lose."
Film
In 1896, Joseph Jefferson filmed a series of short films recreating scenes from his stage adaptations, which are collectively in the U.S. National Film Registry.
Several other film adaptations have been produced.
Music
George Frederick Bristow composed 1855 an opera entitled Rip van Winkle.
In 1882, Robert Planquette and H.B. Farnie premiered a romantic opera adaptation.
The 1960s Tale Spinners For Children record series included a dramatization of the "Rip Van Winkle" story.
In 1977, Mr. Pickwick Records released an album (SPC-5156) with Boris Karloff narrating a version of the story along with a version of The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
Numerous modern songs have been written whose lyrics retell the story, including the 1961 song "Rip Van Winkle" by The Devotions, the 2006 song "Rip Van Winkle" by Witch, and "Kaatskill Serenade" by David Bromberg. In the Belle and Sebastian song "I Could Be Dreaming" an extract from "Rip Van Winkle" is read.
Cartoons and animated films
Molly Moo-Cow and Rip Van Winkle (1935) – Molly Moo-Cow meets Rip van Winkle. Film produced by the Van Beuren Studios.
The Looney Tunes cartoon, Have You Got Any Castles? (1938), depicts Rip Van Winkle trying to fall asleep in a cuckoo clock.
In the animated short Popeye Meets Rip Van Winkle (1941), the soundly-sleeping Rip is evicted for not paying his rent for twenty years. The film features a caricature of Chico Marx playing the piano.
In the 16th episode of The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo (original airdate January 16, 1965), Mr. Magoo (voiced by Jim Backus) plays Rip Van Winkle.
The story inspired an episode of The Flintstones entitled "Rip Van Flintstone", which originally aired on November 5, 1965. In it, Fred falls asleep at the Slate Company picnic and dreams he has awakened 20 years in the future as an old man. He notices various changes to his town of Bedrock and to his friends. Fred remarks that, "Maybe I have fallen asleep for 20 years like in that Rip Van Winklestone story."
The story was parodied in an episode of the Laurel and Hardy cartoon series entitled "Flipped Van Winkles".
Tales of Washington Irving, a one-hour animated television special from 1970, presented adaptations of "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle".
Rip Van Winkle (1978), a claymation version of the story produced and directed by Will Vinton, was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.
An episode of the HBO show Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child gives a feminist retelling of the story as told from the point of view of Rip's wife Vanna. The adaptation, starring Tom Arnold and Calista Flockhart and co-narrated by Gloria Steinem, is set in the 1960s, where Rip is a heavy metal rocker who often neglects his wife and child.
Comics
Issue 12 of Classics Illustrated retold the "Rip Van Winkle" story with various twists.
In the Carl Barks comic Rip Van Donald (1950), Donald Duck's nephews trick him into believing that he has been sleeping for 40 years, and has supposedly awakened in the then-future year of 1990. Donald expects to see a fabulous "futuristic" world, and the nephews must use various tricks to keep their prank going. Eventually Donald falls asleep and "returns" to 1950.
Disney's "Rip van Goofy" (February 1, 1966) is a parody of "Rip Van Winkle", with Goofy portraying the character who sleeps for 20 years. When he awakens, no one remembers him except Mickey Mouse, once a child to whom Rip van Goofy told fantasy stories.
In a 1988 issue of Boys' Life, the Dink & Duff comic strip has the African-American Cub Scout Dink pondering the meaning of Americanism, only to lapse into a coma and awaken in 2068. A boy who addresses him as "Rip van Dinkle" explains that during the past 80 years the United States has been replaced by an authoritarian monarchy. Dink eventually awakens back in 1988.
In Globo's Mônica #141 (1998) has a comic called Mônica Van Winkle where after Monica reads the story of Rip Van Winkle and starts to sleep, Jimmy Five and the boys come up with a plan to trick her into believing that she slept for 30 years and everyone grew up and are now adult (using stilts to look taller) and making Monica believe that she didn't grow up for being a dwarf. This comic was later adapted in an episode of the cartoon series in 2009.
A second adaptation of the story in Monica and Friends was made in 2008 in Panini's Turma da Monica #21, however being adapted as Dud Van Winkle with the main character being a doppelgänger of Junior (Dudu) and ending with the character waking up in the Parque da Mônica.
Television
The story was adapted twice for Kraft Television Theatre, once in 1950 with Lawrence Fletcher and once in 1953 with Raymond Bramley.
E. G. Marshall played the title character in a 1958 episode of Shirley Temple's Storybook.
The TV show Wishbone showed the dog imagining himself as the title character, complete with the men playing nine-pins and his mistaking the George Washington Inn for his old hangout, the King George Inn.
Harry Dean Stanton played the title role in the 1987 Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales and Legends episode directed by Francis Ford Coppola.
An episode of the 1980s Smurfs TV series, titled "Smurf Van Winkle", is based on this story.
Poetry
British poet laureate Carol Ann Duffy wrote "Mrs Rip Van Winkle" from the perspective of the wife, who in the original story is voiceless.
Statue
There is a statue of Rip Van Winkle in Irvington, New York.
In popular culture
Infrastructure
The Rip Van Winkle Bridge carries New York State Route 23 over the Hudson River, connecting Catskill, New York and Hudson, New York.
Beverages
Old Rip Van Winkle is a brand of Kentucky Straight Bourbon whiskey produced by the Sazerac Company.
Pappy Van Winkle's Family Reserve is the flagship brand of Bourbon whiskey owned by the "Old Rip Van Winkle Distillery" company, actually distilled and bottled by the Sazerac Company.
Literature
A character in the novel Darkness at Noon (1940) is nicknamed Rip Van Winkle because he spent 20 years imprisoned in solitary confinement.
A young Rip Van Winkle is the primary character in the 2015 novel, Rip Van Winkle and The Pumpkin Lantern by Seth Adam Smith.
Music
The American composer George Whitefield Chadwick wrote a concert overture entitled Rip Van Winkle in 1879, when he was a student in Leipzig.
Composer Ferde Grofe spent 20 years working on a symphonic tone poem based on "Rip Van Winkle", eventually reworking the material into his Hudson River Suite. One of the movements is entitled "Rip Van Winkle".
American musician Josh Eppard, rapping under the name Weerd Science, references Rip Van Winkle in his song, "Sick Kids". In the chorus of the song, Eppard sings "I tried to tell you that these kids are sick, man. Leave you sleeping in the dirt like your name was Rip Van."
"Mountain Music" is a song written by Randy Owen, and recorded by the American country music band Alabama. It was released in January 1982 and references Rip Van Winkle in the lyrics of the song, "Take a nap like Rip Van Winkle."
Ween's song "Sketches of Winkle", from 1991, also alludes to the story.
Laura Harrington aspiring actress mentions Rip Van Winkle in Lionel Richie's 1984 music video "Hello".
In the Belle & Sebastian song "I Could Be Dreaming", a piece of the story being read aloud can be heard in the background.
African-American composer Cab Calloway's song "Jitterbug", references Rip Van Wrinkle "As ripman with his eyes atwinkle, We names him after Rip Van Wrinkle"
Television
In an episode of The Twilight Zone entitled "The Rip Van Winkle Caper" (season 2, episode 24, original airdate April 21, 1961), four gold thieves place themselves in suspended animation for 100 years in order to escape the law and, upon revival, spend their stolen fortune with impunity. Complications arise in the form of a Rod Serling plot twist.
An episode of The Twilight Zone (TV series), titled "In His Image", mentions the title character after a man realizes his hometown has greatly changed in supposedly one week.
In an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation, "Relics" (October 17, 1992), 147-year-old Captain Montgomery Scott is revived after 75 years in a transport buffer.
In the movie Star Trek Generations (1994) 138-year-old Admiral James T. Kirk comes back to life after being "suspended" in a Nexus for 78 years.
The manga/anime series Hellsing has a minor antagonist named Rip Van Winkle.
In the BBC television show Doctor Who, the tenth episode of the ninth series (titled "Sleep no More") involves a machine called Morpheus which can condense a full night's worth of sleep into mere minutes. People who refuse to use Morpheus are colloquially called "Rips", referencing Rip van Winkle.
Video games
The 1990 video game Super Mario World features an enemy known as "Rip Van Fish" which constantly sleeps unless disturbed.
In the 2018 video game Red Dead Redemption 2, when a member of the Pinkerton Detective Agency asks John Marston who he is, John responds sarcastically, stating that he's "Rip Van Winkle".
In the Saturn fan-translation of "Policenauts", the main character of Jonathan Ingram, who was frozen in space for 25 years after an accident, is called "Rip Van Winkle" a few times. The Japanese version referred to the story of Urashima_Tarō.
See also
Rip Van Wink from The Beano
Seven Sleepers, the Christian and Islamic story of a group of youths who hid inside a cave at Ephesus to escape Roman persecutions and emerged some 300 years later.
The Bedbug, the story of Prisypkin, who was frozen in the basement for fifty years.
References
Sources
Internet Archive
Further reading
External links
Characters in short stories
Male characters in literature
New York (state) in fiction
Short stories by Washington Irving
Sleep in fiction
1819 short stories
Ghosts in written fiction
Short stories adapted into films
Books illustrated by Arthur Rackham
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244665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger%20beetle | Tiger beetle | Tiger beetles are a large group of beetles, from the Cicindelinae subfamily, known for their aggressive predatory habits and running speed. The fastest known species of tiger beetle, Rivacindela hudsoni, can run at a speed of , or about 125 body lengths per second. As of 2005, about 2,600 species and subspecies were known, with the richest diversity in the Oriental (Indo-Malayan) region, followed by the Neotropics.
Description
Tiger beetles often have large bulging eyes, long, slender legs and large curved mandibles. All are predatory, both as adults and as larvae. The genus Cicindela has a cosmopolitan distribution. Other well-known genera include Tetracha, Omus, Amblycheila and Manticora. While members of the genus Cicindela are usually diurnal and may be out on the hottest days, Tetracha, Omus, Amblycheila and Manticora are all nocturnal. Both Cicindela and Tetracha are often brightly colored, while the other genera mentioned are usually uniform black in color. Tiger beetles in the genus Manticora are the largest in size of the subfamily. These live primarily in the dry regions of southern Africa.
The larvae of tiger beetles live in cylindrical burrows as much as a meter deep. They are large-headed, hump-backed grubs and use their humpbacks to flip backwards, for the purpose of capturing prey insects that wander over the ground. The fast-moving adults run down their prey and are extremely fast on the wing, their reaction times being of the same order as that of common houseflies. Some tiger beetles in the tropics are arboreal, but most run on the surface of the ground. They live along sea and lake shores, on sand dunes, around playa lakebeds and on clay banks or woodland paths, being particularly fond of sandy surfaces.
Tiger beetles are considered a good indicator species and have been used in ecological studies on biodiversity. Several species of wingless parasitic wasps in the genus Methocha (family Thynnidae), lay their eggs on larvae of various Cicindela spp., such as Cicindela dorsalis.
Adaptations
Tiger beetles display an unusual form of pursuit in which they alternatively sprint quickly toward their prey, then stop and visually reorient. This may be because while running, the beetle is moving too fast for its visual system to accurately process images. To avoid obstacles while running they hold their antennae rigidly and directly in front of them to mechanically sense their environment.
Fossil record
The oldest fossil tiger beetle yet found, Cretotetracha grandis, comes from the Yixian Formation in Inner Mongolia, China, and dates to the early Cretaceous Period, 125 million years ago. Most fossils found are grey or yellow silty mudstone.
Traits that identify Cretotetracha as Cicindelinae include long mandibles shaped like sickles, simple teeth arranged along the mandible's inner surface, antennae that attach to the head between the base of the mandibles and the eye. The left mandible is approximately 3.3 mm and the right mandible is approximately 4.2mm long. A long body form roughly around 8.1mm where the combined eyes and head are wider than the thorax, and long running legs. Previously known Mesozoic fossils of tiger beetles have been described from the Crato Formation, about 113 million years ago and Oxycheilopsis cretacicus from the Santana Formation, 112 million years ago, both in Brazil.
Taxonomy
Tiger beetles were traditionally classified as the family Cicindelidae but most authorities now treat them as the subfamily Cicindelinae of the Carabidae (ground beetles). The most recent classifications, however, have relegated them to a monophyletic subgroup within the subfamily Carabinae, though this is not yet universally accepted. Accordingly, there is no consensus classification for this group, at any level from family down to subspecies, and it can be exceedingly difficult to decipher the taxonomic literature surrounding this group. Many genera are the result of the splitting of the large genus Cicindela, and many were described by the German entomologist Walther Horn.
Genera
Abroscelis Hope, 1838
Amblycheila Say, 1829
Aniara Hope, 1838
Antennaria Dokhtouroff, 1883
Apteroessa Hope, 1838
Archidela Rivalier, 1963
Baloghiella Mandl, 1981
Bennigsenium W. Horn, 1897
Brasiella Rivalier, 1954
Caledonica Chaudoir, 1860
Caledonomorpha W. Horn, 1897
Callidema Guerin-Meneville, 1843
Callytron Gistl, 1848
Calomera Motschulsky, 1862
Calyptoglossa Jeannel, 1946
Cenothyla Rivalier, 1969
Cephalota Dokhtouroff, 1883
Chaetodera Jeannel, 1946
Cheilonycha Lacordaire, 1843
Cheiloxya Guerin-Meneville, 1855
Cicindela Linnaeus, 1758
Collyris Fabricius, 1801
Cratohaerea Chaudoir, 1850
†Cretotetracha Zhao et al., 2019
Ctenostoma Klug, 1821
Cylindera Westwood, 1831
Darlingtonica Cassola, 1986
Derocrania Chaudoir, 1860
Diastrophella Rivalier, 1957
Dilatotarsa Dokhtouroff, 1882
Distipsidera Westwood, 1837
Dromica Dejean, 1826
Dromicoida Werner, 1995
Dromochorus Guerin-Meneville, 1845
Ellipsoptera Dokhtouroff, 1883
Enantiola Rivalier, 1961
Eunota Rivalier, 1954
Euprosopus Dejean, 1825
Euryarthron Guerin-Meneville, 1849
Eurymorpha Hope, 1838
Euzona Rivalier, 1963
Grammognatha Motschulsky, 1850
Grandopronotalia W. Horn, 1936
Guineica Rivalier, 1963
Habrodera Motschulsky, 1862
Habroscelimorpha Dokhtouroff, 1883
Heptodonta Hope, 1838
Hypaetha Leconte, 1860
Iresia Dejean, 1831
Jansenia Chaudoir, 1865
Langea W. Horn, 1901
Leptognatha Rivalier, 1963
Lophyra Motschulsky, 1859
Macfarlandia Sumlin, 1981
Manautea Deuve, 2006
Mantica Kolbe, 1896
Manticora Fabricius, 1781
Megacephala Latreille, 1802
Megalomma Westwood, 1842
Metriocheila Thomson, 1857
Micromentignatha Sumlin, 1981
Microthylax Rivalier, 1954
Myriochila Motschulsky, 1862
Naviauxella Cassola, 1988
Neochila Basilewsky, 1953
Neocicindela Rivalier, 1963
Neocollyris W. Horn, 1901
Neolaphyra Bedel, 1895
Nickerlea W. Horn, 1899
Notospira Rivalier, 1961
Odontocheila Laporte, 1834
Omus Eschscholtz, 1829
Opilidia Rivalier, 1954
Opisthencentrus W. Horn, 1893
Orthocindela Rivalier, 1972
Oxycheila Dejean, 1825
†Oxycheilopsis Cassola & Werner, 2004
Oxygonia Mannerheim, 1837
Oxygoniola W. Horn, 1892
Paraphysodeutera J. Moravec, 2002
Pentacomia Bates, 1872
Peridexia Chaudoir, 1860
Phaeoxantha Chaudoir, 1850
Phyllodroma Lacordaire, 1843
Physodeutera Lacordaire, 1843
Picnochile Motschulsky, 1856
Platychile Macleay, 1825
Pogonostoma Klug, 1835
Polyrhanis Rivalier, 1963
Pometon Fleutiaux, 1899
Prepusa Chaudoir, 1850
Probstia Cassola, 2002
Pronyssa Bates, 1874
Pronyssiformia W. Horn, 1929
Prothyma Hope, 1838
Prothymidia Rivalier, 1957
Protocollyris Mandl, 1975
Pseudotetracha Fleutiaux, 1894
Pseudoxycheila Guerin-Meneville, 1839
Rhysopleura Sloane, 1906
Rhytidophaena Bates, 1891
Rivacindela Nidek, 1973
Ronhuberia J. Moravec & Kudrna, 2002
Salpingophora Rivalier, 1950
Socotrana Cassola & Wranik, 1998
Stenocosmia Rivalier, 1965
Sumlinia Cassola & Werner, 2001
Tetracha Hope, 1838
Therates Latreille, 1816
Thopeutica Schaum, 1861
Tricondyla Latreille, 1822
Vata Fauvel, 1903
Waltherhornia Olsoufieff, 1934
References
Bibliography
Further new country records of African Tiger Beetles with some taxonomical note (Coleoptera, Cicindelidae) by Peter Schüle. Entomologia Africana 15(2)2010.
The Tiger beetles of Africa by Karl Werner, Taita Publishers 2000.
A Quantitative Analysis of Species Descriptions of Tiger Beetles (Coleoptera Cicindelidae), from 1758 to 2004, and Notes about Related Developments in Biodiversity Studies by D.L. Pearson and F. Cassola. The Coleopterists Bulletin Vol 59, n°2, June 2005.
Tiger Beetles of Alberta: Killers on the Clay, Stalkers on the Sand by John Acorn. University of Alberta Press, 2001.
Tiger Beetles: The Evolution, Ecology, and Diversity of the Cicindelids by David L. Pearson and Alfried P. Vogler. Cornell University Press, 2001.
A Field Guide to the Tiger Beetles of the United States and Canada by David L. Pearson, C. Barry Knisley and Charles J. Kazilek. Oxford University Press, 2005.
The Beetles of the World, volumes 13 , 15 , 18 & 20 by Karl Werner, Sciences Nat, Venette, 1991, 1992, 1993 & 1995.
External links
Cicindela Online
https://web.archive.org/web/20060831202838/http://homepage3.nifty.com/trechinae/cicinw.htm
Planet's Coolest Critters -- Tiger Beetles
Tiger Beetles of the U.S.A.
Tiger Beetles of Papua Indonesia
Tiger beetles of Florida on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
Moravec J. (2010): Tiger Beetles of the Madagascan Region (Madagascar, Seychelles, Comoros, Mascarenes, and other islands) Taxonomic revision of the 17 genera occurring in the region (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae),430 pp.
Siuslaw Hairy-Necked Tiger Beetle Video produced by Oregon Field Guide
Štrunc V. (2020): Tiger Beetles of the World - Illustrated guide to the genera, 338 species | [
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244666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frits%20Zernike | Frits Zernike | Frits Zernike (; 16 July 1888 – 10 March 1966) was a Dutch physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1953 for his invention of the phase-contrast microscope.
Early life and education
Frits Zernike was born on 16 July 1888 in Amsterdam, Netherlands to Carl Friedrich August Zernike and Antje Dieperink. Both parents were teachers of mathematics, and he especially shared his father's passion for physics. He studied chemistry (his major), mathematics and physics at the University of Amsterdam.
Academic career
In 1912, he was awarded a prize for his work on opalescence in gases. In 1913, he became the assistant of Jacobus Kapteyn at the astronomical laboratory of Groningen University. In 1914, Zernike and Leonard Ornstein were jointly responsible for the derivation of the Ornstein–Zernike equation in critical-point theory. In 1915, he obtained a position in theoretical physics at the same university and in 1920 he was promoted to full professor of theoretical physics.
In 1930, Zernike was conducting research into spectral lines when he discovered that the so-called ghost lines that occur to the left and right of each primary line in spectra created by means of a diffraction grating, have their phase shifted from that of the primary line by 90 degrees. It was at a Physical and Medical Congress in Wageningen in 1933, that Zernike first described his phase contrast technique in microscopy. He extended his method to test the figure of concave mirrors. His discovery lay at the base of the first phase contrast microscope, built during World War II.
He also made another contribution in the field of optics, relating to the efficient description of the imaging defects or aberrations of optical imaging systems like microscopes and telescopes. The representation of aberrations was originally based on the theory developed by Ludwig Seidel in the middle of the nineteenth century. Seidel's representation was based on power series expansions and did not allow a clear separation between various types and orders of aberrations. Zernike's orthogonal circle polynomials provided a solution to the long-standing problem of the optimum 'balancing' of the various aberrations of an optical instrument. Since the 1960s, Zernike's circle polynomials are widely used in optical design, optical metrology and image analysis.
Zernike's work helped awaken interest in coherence theory, the study of partially coherent light sources. In 1938 he published a simpler derivation of Van Cittert's 1934 theorem on the coherence of radiation from distant sources, now known as the Van Cittert–Zernike theorem.
Death
He died in the hospital at Amersfoort, Netherlands in 1966 after suffering illness the last years of his life. His granddaughter is journalist Kate Zernike.
Honours and awards
In 1946, Zernike became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
In 1953, Zernike won the Nobel Prize in Physics, for his invention of the phase-contrast microscope, an instrument that permits the study of internal cell structure without the need to stain and thus kill the cells.
In 1954, Zernike became an Honorary Member of The Optical Society (OSA). Zernike was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS).
The university complex (Zernike Campus) to the north of the city of Groningen is named after him, as is the crater Zernike on the Moon.
Zernike's great-nephew Gerard 't Hooft won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1999.
The Oz Enterprise, a Linux distribution, was named after Leonard Ornstein and Frederik Zernike.
See also
Leonard Ornstein
Coherence theory
Fourier optics
Live cell imaging
Optical aberration
Phase-contrast X-ray imaging
Physical optics
References
External links
Frits Zernike Photo
including his Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1953 How I discovered phase contrast
Extended Nijboer–Zernike theory
Museum Boerhaave Negen Nederlandse Nobelprijswinnaars
H. Brinkman, Zernike, Frits (1888–1966), in Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland.
Prominente Groningse hoogleraren Frits Zernike (1888–1966)
Frits Zernike (1888–1966) biography at the National library of the Netherlands.
The Ornstein-Zernike equation and integral equations
Multilevel wavelet solver for the Ornstein-Zernike equation Abstract
Analytical solution of the Ornstein-Zernike equation for a multicomponent fluid
The Ornstein-Zernike equation in the canonical ensemble
1888 births
1966 deaths
20th-century Dutch inventors
Dutch Nobel laureates
20th-century Dutch physicists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Microscopists
Nobel laureates in Physics
Scientists from Amsterdam
University of Amsterdam alumni
University of Groningen faculty | [
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244675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pevsner | Pevsner | Pevsner or Pevzner is a Jewish surname, and may refer to:
Real people
Antoine Pevsner (1886–1962), a Russian sculptor, brother of Naum Gabo
David Pevsner, American actor, singer, dancer and writer
Keren Pevzner (, nee Kira Gennadievna Konovalova; pen name Katerina Vrublevskaya; b. 1961), an Israeli novel and essay writer, a vintage crime fictions author, Hebrew and Computer science teacher, translater, author of a number of textbooks, cookbooks, and encyclopedias, and blogger.
Sir Nikolaus Pevsner (1902–1983), a German-born British historian and critic of art and architecture (or, by extension, the Buildings of England series he began)
Pavel A. Pevzner, computer scientist
Shmuel Pevzner (1878–1930), a Russian-born Jewish writer and industrialist
Stella Pevsner, author of children's books
Tom Pevsner (1926–2014), German-born British film producer and son of Sir Nikolaus Pevsner
Aihud Pevsner (1925-2018), American experimental physicist
Fictional people
"Baldy" Pevsner, legendary player for Neasden FC, in the North Circular Relegation League, as depicted in Private Eye | [
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244680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20cropping | Multiple cropping | In agriculture, multiple cropping or multicropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in the same piece of land during one growing season instead of just one crop. When multiple crops are grown simultaneously, this is also known as intercropping. This cropping system helps farmers to double their crop productivity and income. But, the selection of two or more crops for practicing multicropping mainly depends on the mutual benefit of the selected crops.
Threshing can be difficult in multiple cropping systems where crops are harvested together. It can take the form of double-cropping, in which a second crop is planted after the first has been harvested. In the Garhwal Himalaya of India, a practice called barahnaja involves sowing 12 or more crops on the same plot, including various types of beans, grains, and millets, and harvesting them at different times.
Benefits of multiple cropping
Adopting the practice of multiple cropping on a large scale can help in reducing the food crises of a country. The overall cost of input decreases, cost spent on fertilizers, irrigation, labour, etc. reduces because of growing two or more than two crops on the same field. Risk of weed growth, pest and disease infestation reduces because of mutual relationship within the crop. This results in better farm management and increased income of the farmer. Although only 5% of global rainfed cropland is under multiple cropping, whereas 40% of global irrigated cropland is under multiple cropping.
See also
Forest gardening
Intercropping
Nurse crop
Succession planting
References
External links
Improving nutrition through home gardening Home Garden Technology Leaflet 12: Multiple cropping, FAO, 2001
Crops
Agronomy | [
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] |
244681 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card | Card | Card or The Card may refer to:
Various types of plastic cards:
By type
Magnetic stripe card
Chip card
Digital card
By function
Payment card
Credit card
Debit card
EC-card
Identity card
European Health Insurance Card
Drivers license
Playing card, a card used in games
Printed circuit board
Punched card, a piece of stiff paper that holds digital data represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions.
In communications
Postcard
Greeting card, an illustrated piece of card stock featuring an expression of friendship or other sentiment
Cards (iOS), a card-making application on iOS
, in mathematical notation, a function that returns the cardinality of a set
Card, a tool for carding, the cleaning and aligning of fibers
Sports terms
Card (sports), the lineup of the matches in an event
Penalty card
As a proper name
People with the name
Card (surname)
Companies
Cards Corp, a South Korean internet company
Arts and entertainment
"The Card" (The New Twilight Zone), a TV episode
The Card, a 1911 novel by Arnold Bennett
The Card (1922 film), based on the novel
The Card (1952 film), based on the novel
The Card (musical), based on the novel
"The Card", an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants (season 6)
The Card, a 2012 novel written by Graham Rawle
Sport
Sports teams
Arizona Cardinals, a National Football League team nicknamed the "Cards"
St. Louis Cardinals, a Major League Baseball team nicknamed the "Cards"
Louisville Cardinals, the sports teams of the University of Louisville, nicknamed the "Cards"
Woking F.C., an association football club, based in Surrey, England, nicknamed the "Cards"
As an acronym
Finance and government
Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development, and Stabilisation (CARDS) programme, the European Union's main financial assistance instrument to the western Balkans
Credit CARD Act of 2009 (Credit Card Accountability, Responsibility, and Disclosure Act of 2009), signed into law in 2009 by President Obama
Healthcare and science
Caspase recruitment domain or CARD domain, an interaction motif found in a wide array of proteins
Center for Autism and Related Disorders, an applied behavior analysis provider
Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases
The Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD)
Other uses of the acronym
Campaign Against Racial Discrimination, British organization, founded in 1964, that lobbied for race relations legislation
American Committee for Devastated France (Comité Américain pour les Régions Dévastées de France), an organization of American women volunteers who helped France recover from
Collegiate Aerial Robotics Demonstration, a college-level FIRST competition
See also
Card game (disambiguation)
Card holder (disambiguation)
Carding (disambiguation) | [
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244682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission%20Hills | Mission Hills | Mission Hills or Mission Hill may refer to:
Places
Communities
In the United States (alphabetically by state)
Mission Hills, Santa Barbara County, California, a town north of the city of Lompoc
Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California, in the San Fernando Valley
Mission Hills, San Diego, California, an old subdivision in north-central San Diego
Mission Hills, Kansas, in Johnson County
Mission Hill, Boston, Massachusetts, a residential neighborhood
Mission Hill, South Dakota, a town in Yankton County
Mission Hills, a neighborhood in west central El Paso, Texas
Golf courses
Mission Hills Country Club, in Rancho Mirage, California
Mission Hills Country Club (Kansas), in the Kansas City metropolitan area
Mission Hills Golf Club, in Shenzhen, China
Mission Hills Haikou, in the province of Hainan, China
Other places
Mission Hill Family Estate, a wine grower and producer based in West Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
Mission Hills station, a station of the Shenzhen Metro in China
Schools
Bromsgrove School Mission Hills, in Shenzhen, China
Mission Hill School, in the Jamaica Plain neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts
Mission Hills High School, in San Marcos, California
Other uses
Mission Hill (TV series), an American animated television series
Mission Hills Star Trophy, an annual, pro-celebrity golf tournament held in Hainan, China
See also
Mission Mountains, in Montana
Mission Peak, near Fremont, California
Mission Terrace, in San Francisco, California | [
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] |
244687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20awards%20for%20supporting%20actor | List of awards for supporting actor | Best Supporting Actor or Actress are accolades given by a group of film or television professionals in recognition of the work of supporting and character actors. Most awards for supporting actors are gender-specific.
Film
Male
Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor
AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role
AACTA International Award for Best Supporting Actor
AVN Award for Best Supporting Actor
BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role
Black Reel Award: Best Supporting Actor
Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor
Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor
Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor
César Award for Best Supporting Actor
Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor
Citra Award for Best Supporting Actor
Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor
David di Donatello for Best Supporting Actor
Empire Award for Best Supporting Actor
Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor -Hindi
Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu
Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor
Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role
Golden Calf Award for Best Supporting Actor
Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture
Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor
Goya Award for Best Supporting Actor
Hong Kong Film Award for Best Supporting Actor
Hundred Flowers Award for Best Supporting Actor
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male
Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor
NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture
National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor
National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor
National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor
New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor
Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor
Polish Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor
Prix Iris for Best Supporting Actor
San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor
San Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor
Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture
Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor
Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role
SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu
St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor
Toronto Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor
Vancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor
Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor
Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Male
Female
Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress
AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role
AACTA International Award for Best Supporting Actress
BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role
Black Reel Award: Best Supporting Actress
Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress
Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress
César Award for Best Supporting Actress
Citra Award for Best Supporting Actress
Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
David di Donatello for Best Supporting Actress
Empire Award for Best Supporting Actress
Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress - Hindi
Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress – Telugu
Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress
Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role
Golden Calf Award for Best Supporting Actress
Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture
Golden Horse Award for Best Supporting Actress
Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress
Goya Award for Best Supporting Actress
Hong Kong Film Award for Best Supporting Actress
Hundred Flowers Award for Best Supporting Actress
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female
Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture
National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress
National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress
National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress
New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress
Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress
Polish Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress
Prix Iris for Best Supporting Actress
San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress
San Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress
Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture
Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress
Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role
SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actress – Telugu
St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
Toronto Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
Vancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress
Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female
Television
Male
AACTA Award for Best Guest or Supporting Actor in a Television Drama
British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor
Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series
Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Program or Series
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Television Series
Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television
TVB Anniversary Award for Best Supporting Actor
Female
AACTA Award for Best Guest or Supporting Actress in a Television Drama
Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series
Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Program or Series
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie
Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Television Series
Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television
TVB Anniversary Award for Best Supporting Actress
See also
Lists of awards
List of television awards
Lists of acting awards
Supporting actor
Supporting actor
Lists of acting awards | [
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244689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher-order%20function | Higher-order function | In mathematics and computer science, a higher-order function is a function that does at least one of the following:
takes one or more functions as arguments (i.e. a procedural parameter, which is a parameter of a procedure that is itself a procedure),
returns a function as its result.
All other functions are first-order functions. In mathematics higher-order functions are also termed operators or functionals. The differential operator in calculus is a common example, since it maps a function to its derivative, also a function. Higher-order functions should not be confused with other uses of the word "functor" throughout mathematics, see Functor (disambiguation).
In the untyped lambda calculus, all functions are higher-order; in a typed lambda calculus, from which most functional programming languages are derived, higher-order functions that take one function as argument are values with types of the form .
General examples
map function, found in many functional programming languages, is one example of a higher-order function. It takes as arguments a function f and a collection of elements, and as the result, returns a new collection with f applied to each element from the collection.
Sorting functions, which take a comparison function as a parameter, allowing the programmer to separate the sorting algorithm from the comparisons of the items being sorted. The C standard function qsort is an example of this.
filter
fold
apply
Function composition
Integration
Callback
Tree traversal
Montague grammar, a semantic theory of natural language, uses higher-order functions
Support in programming languages
Direct support
The examples are not intended to compare and contrast programming languages, but to serve as examples of higher-order function syntax
In the following examples, the higher-order function takes a function, and applies the function to some value twice. If has to be applied several times for the same it preferably should return a function rather than a value. This is in line with the "don't repeat yourself" principle.
APL
twice←{⍺⍺ ⍺⍺ ⍵}
plusthree←{⍵+3}
g←{plusthree twice ⍵}
g 7
13
Or in a tacit manner:
twice←⍣2
plusthree←+∘3
g←plusthree twice
g 7
13
C++
Using in C++11:
#include <iostream>
#include <functional>
auto twice = [](const std::function<int(int)>& f)
{
return [&f](int x) {
return f(f(x));
};
};
auto plus_three = [](int i)
{
return i + 3;
};
int main()
{
auto g = twice(plus_three);
std::cout << g(7) << '\n'; // 13
}
Or, with generic lambdas provided by C++14:
#include <iostream>
auto twice = [](const auto& f)
{
return [&f](int x) {
return f(f(x));
};
};
auto plus_three = [](int i)
{
return i + 3;
};
int main()
{
auto g = twice(plus_three);
std::cout << g(7) << '\n'; // 13
}
C#
Using just delegates:
using System;
public class Program
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
Func<Func<int, int>, Func<int, int>> twice = f => x => f(f(x));
Func<int, int> plusThree = i => i + 3;
var g = twice(plusThree);
Console.WriteLine(g(7)); // 13
}
}
Or equivalently, with static methods:
using System;
public class Program
{
private static Func<int, int> Twice(Func<int, int> f)
{
return x => f(f(x));
}
private static int PlusThree(int i) => i + 3;
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
var g = Twice(PlusThree);
Console.WriteLine(g(7)); // 13
}
}
Clojure
(defn twice [f]
(fn [x] (f (f x))))
(defn plus-three [i]
(+ i 3))
(def g (twice plus-three))
(println (g 7)) ; 13
ColdFusion Markup Language (CFML)
twice = function(f) {
return function(x) {
return f(f(x));
};
};
plusThree = function(i) {
return i + 3;
};
g = twice(plusThree);
writeOutput(g(7)); // 13
Common Lisp
(defun twice (f)
(lambda (x) (funcall f (funcall f x))))
(defun plus-three (i)
(+ i 3))
(defvar g (twice #'plus-three))
(print (funcall g 7))
D
import std.stdio : writeln;
alias twice = (f) => (int x) => f(f(x));
alias plusThree = (int i) => i + 3;
void main()
{
auto g = twice(plusThree);
writeln(g(7)); // 13
}
Dart
int Function(int) twice(int Function(int) f) {
return (x) {
return f(f(x));
};
}
int plusThree(int i) {
return i + 3;
}
void main() {
final g = twice(plusThree);
print(g(7)); // 13
}
Elixir
In Elixir, you can mix module definitions and anonymous functions
defmodule Hof do
def twice(f) do
fn(x) -> f.(f.(x)) end
end
end
plus_three = fn(i) -> 3 + i end
g = Hof.twice(plus_three)
IO.puts g.(7) # 13
Alternatively, we can also compose using pure anonymous functions.
twice = fn(f) ->
fn(x) -> f.(f.(x)) end
end
plus_three = fn(i) -> 3 + i end
g = twice.(plus_three)
IO.puts g.(7) # 13
Erlang
or_else([], _) -> false;
or_else([F | Fs], X) -> or_else(Fs, X, F(X)).
or_else(Fs, X, false) -> or_else(Fs, X);
or_else(Fs, _, {false, Y}) -> or_else(Fs, Y);
or_else(_, _, R) -> R.
or_else([fun erlang:is_integer/1, fun erlang:is_atom/1, fun erlang:is_list/1], 3.23).
In this Erlang example, the higher-order function takes a list of functions () and argument (). It evaluates the function with the argument as argument. If the function returns false then the next function in will be evaluated. If the function returns then the next function in with argument will be evaluated. If the function returns the higher-order function will return . Note that , , and can be functions. The example returns .
F#
let twice f = f >> f
let plus_three = (+) 3
let g = twice plus_three
g 7 |> printf "%A" // 13
Go
package main
import "fmt"
func twice(f func(int) int) func(int) int {
return func(x int) int {
return f(f(x))
}
}
func main() {
plusThree := func(i int) int {
return i + 3
}
g := twice(plusThree)
fmt.Println(g(7)) // 13
}
Notice a function literal can be defined either with an identifier () or anonymously (assigned to variable ).
Haskell
twice :: (Int -> Int) -> (Int -> Int)
twice f = f . f
plusThree :: Int -> Int
plusThree = (+3)
main :: IO ()
main = print (g 7) -- 13
where
g = twice plusThree
J
Explicitly,
twice=. adverb : 'u u y'
plusthree=. verb : 'y + 3'
g=. plusthree twice
g 7
13
or tacitly,
twice=. ^:2
plusthree=. +&3
g=. plusthree twice
g 7
13
Java (1.8+)
Using just functional interfaces:
import java.util.function.*;
class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Function<IntUnaryOperator, IntUnaryOperator> twice = f -> f.andThen(f);
IntUnaryOperator plusThree = i -> i + 3;
var g = twice.apply(plusThree);
System.out.println(g.applyAsInt(7)); // 13
}
}
Or equivalently, with static methods:
import java.util.function.*;
class Main {
private static IntUnaryOperator twice(IntUnaryOperator f) {
return f.andThen(f);
}
private static int plusThree(int i) {
return i + 3;
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
var g = twice(Main::plusThree);
System.out.println(g.applyAsInt(7)); // 13
}
}
JavaScript
"use strict";
const twice = f => x => f(f(x));
const plusThree = i => i + 3;
const g = twice(plusThree);
console.log(g(7)); // 13
Julia
julia> function twice(f)
function result(x)
return f(f(x))
end
return result
end
twice (generic function with 1 method)
julia> plusthree(i) = i + 3
plusthree (generic function with 1 method)
julia> g = twice(plusthree)
(::var"#result#3"{typeof(plusthree)}) (generic function with 1 method)
julia> g(7)
13
Kotlin
fun twice(f: (Int) -> Int): (Int) -> Int {
return { f(f(it)) }
}
fun plusThree(i: Int) = i + 3
fun main() {
val g = twice(::plusThree)
println(g(7)) // 13
}
Lua
function twice(f)
return function (x)
return f(f(x))
end
end
function plusThree(i)
return i + 3
end
local g = twice(plusThree)
print(g(7)) -- 13
MATLAB
function result = twice(f)
result = @inner
function val = inner(x)
val = f(f(x));
end
end
plusthree = @(i) i + 3;
g = twice(plusthree)
disp(g(7)); % 13
OCaml
let twice f x =
f (f x)
let plus_three =
(+) 3
let () =
let g = twice plus_three in
print_int (g 7); (* 13 *)
print_newline ()
PHP
<?php
declare(strict_types=1);
function twice(callable $f): Closure {
return function (int $x) use ($f): int {
return $f($f($x));
};
}
function plusThree(int $i): int {
return $i + 3;
}
$g = twice('plusThree');
echo $g(7), "\n"; // 13
or with all functions in variables:
<?php
declare(strict_types=1);
$twice = fn(callable $f): Closure => fn(int $x): int => $f($f($x));
$plusThree = fn(int $i): int => $i + 3;
$g = $twice($plusThree);
echo $g(7), "\n"; // 13
Note that arrow functions implicitly capture any variables that come from the parent scope, whereas anonymous functions require the keyword to do the same.
Perl
use strict;
use warnings;
sub twice {
my ($f) = @_;
sub {
$f->($f->(@_));
};
}
sub plusThree {
my ($i) = @_;
$i + 3;
}
my $g = twice(\&plusThree);
print $g->(7), "\n"; # 13
or with all functions in variables:
use strict;
use warnings;
my $twice = sub {
my ($f) = @_;
sub {
$f->($f->(@_));
};
};
my $plusThree = sub {
my ($x) = @_;
$x + 3;
};
my $g = $twice->($plusThree);
print $g->(7), "\n"; # 13
Python
>>> def twice(f):
... def result(x):
... return f(f(x))
... return result
>>> plus_three = lambda i: i + 3
>>> g = twice(plus_three)
>>> g(7)
13
Python decorator syntax is often used to replace a function with the result of passing that function through a higher-order function. E.g., the function could be implemented equivalently:
>>> @twice
... def g(i):
... return i + 3
>>> g(7)
13
R
twice <- function(f) {
return(function(x) {
f(f(x))
})
}
plusThree <- function(i) {
return(i + 3)
}
g <- twice(plusThree)
> print(g(7))
[1] 13
Raku
sub twice(Callable:D $f) {
return sub { $f($f($^x)) };
}
sub plusThree(Int:D $i) {
return $i + 3;
}
my $g = twice(&plusThree);
say $g(7); # 13
In Raku, all code objects are closures and therefore can reference inner "lexical" variables from an outer scope because the lexical variable is "closed" inside of the function. Raku also supports "pointy block" syntax for lambda expressions which can be assigned to a variable or invoked anonymously.
Ruby
def twice(f)
->(x) { f.call(f.call(x)) }
end
plus_three = ->(i) { i + 3 }
g = twice(plus_three)
puts g.call(7) # 13
Rust
fn twice(f: impl Fn(i32) -> i32) -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 {
move |x| f(f(x))
}
fn plus_three(i: i32) -> i32 {
i + 3
}
fn main() {
let g = twice(plus_three);
println!("{}", g(7)) // 13
}
Scala
object Main {
def twice(f: Int => Int): Int => Int =
f compose f
def plusThree(i: Int): Int =
i + 3
def main(args: Array[String]): Unit = {
val g = twice(plusThree)
print(g(7)) // 13
}
}
Scheme
(define (add x y) (+ x y))
(define (f x)
(lambda (y) (+ x y)))
(display ((f 3) 7))
(display (add 3 7))
In this Scheme example, the higher-order function is used to implement currying. It takes a single argument and returns a function. The evaluation of the expression first returns a function after evaluating . The returned function is . Then, it evaluates the returned function with 7 as the argument, returning 10. This is equivalent to the expression , since is equivalent to the curried form of .
Swift
func twice(_ f: @escaping (Int) -> Int) -> (Int) -> Int {
return { f(f($0)) }
}
let plusThree = { $0 + 3 }
let g = twice(plusThree)
print(g(7)) // 13
Tcl
set twice {{f x} {apply $f [apply $f $x]}}
set plusThree {{i} {return [expr $i + 3]}}
# result: 13
puts [apply $twice $plusThree 7]
Tcl uses apply command to apply an anonymous function (since 8.6).
XACML
The XACML standard defines higher-order functions in the standard to apply a function to multiple values of attribute bags.
rule allowEntry{
permit
condition anyOfAny(function[stringEqual], citizenships, allowedCitizenships)
}
The list of higher-order functions in XACML can be found here.
XQuery
declare function local:twice($f, $x) {
$f($f($x))
};
declare function local:plusthree($i) {
$i + 3
};
local:twice(local:plusthree#1, 7) (: 13 :)
Alternatives
Function pointers
Function pointers in languages such as C, C++, and Pascal allow programmers to pass around references to functions. The following C code computes an approximation of the integral of an arbitrary function:
#include <stdio.h>
double square(double x)
{
return x * x;
}
double cube(double x)
{
return x * x * x;
}
/* Compute the integral of f() within the interval [a,b] */
double integral(double f(double x), double a, double b, int n)
{
int i;
double sum = 0;
double dt = (b - a) / n;
for (i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
sum += f(a + (i + 0.5) * dt);
}
return sum * dt;
}
int main()
{
printf("%g\n", integral(square, 0, 1, 100));
printf("%g\n", integral(cube, 0, 1, 100));
return 0;
}
The qsort function from the C standard library uses a function pointer to emulate the behavior of a higher-order function.
Macros
Macros can also be used to achieve some of the effects of higher-order functions. However, macros cannot easily avoid the problem of variable capture; they may also result in large amounts of duplicated code, which can be more difficult for a compiler to optimize. Macros are generally not strongly typed, although they may produce strongly typed code.
Dynamic code evaluation
In other imperative programming languages, it is possible to achieve some of the same algorithmic results as are obtained via higher-order functions by dynamically executing code (sometimes called Eval or Execute operations) in the scope of evaluation. There can be significant drawbacks to this approach:
The argument code to be executed is usually not statically typed; these languages generally rely on dynamic typing to determine the well-formedness and safety of the code to be executed.
The argument is usually provided as a string, the value of which may not be known until run-time. This string must either be compiled during program execution (using just-in-time compilation) or evaluated by interpretation, causing some added overhead at run-time, and usually generating less efficient code.
Objects
In object-oriented programming languages that do not support higher-order functions, objects can be an effective substitute. An object's methods act in essence like functions, and a method may accept objects as parameters and produce objects as return values. Objects often carry added run-time overhead compared to pure functions, however, and added boilerplate code for defining and instantiating an object and its method(s). Languages that permit stack-based (versus heap-based) objects or structs can provide more flexibility with this method.
An example of using a simple stack based record in Free Pascal with a function that returns a function:
program example;
type
int = integer;
Txy = record x, y: int; end;
Tf = function (xy: Txy): int;
function f(xy: Txy): int;
begin
Result := xy.y + xy.x;
end;
function g(func: Tf): Tf;
begin
result := func;
end;
var
a: Tf;
xy: Txy = (x: 3; y: 7);
begin
a := g(@f); // return a function to "a"
writeln(a(xy)); // prints 10
end.
The function a() takes a Txy record as input and returns the integer value of the sum of the record's x and y fields (3 + 7).
Defunctionalization
Defunctionalization can be used to implement higher-order functions in languages that lack first-class functions:
// Defunctionalized function data structures
template<typename T> struct Add { T value; };
template<typename T> struct DivBy { T value; };
template<typename F, typename G> struct Composition { F f; G g; };
// Defunctionalized function application implementations
template<typename F, typename G, typename X>
auto apply(Composition<F, G> f, X arg) {
return apply(f.f, apply(f.g, arg));
}
template<typename T, typename X>
auto apply(Add<T> f, X arg) {
return arg + f.value;
}
template<typename T, typename X>
auto apply(DivBy<T> f, X arg) {
return arg / f.value;
}
// Higher-order compose function
template<typename F, typename G>
Composition<F, G> compose(F f, G g) {
return Composition<F, G> {f, g};
}
int main(int argc, const char* argv[]) {
auto f = compose(DivBy<float>{ 2.0f }, Add<int>{ 5 });
apply(f, 3); // 4.0f
apply(f, 9); // 7.0f
return 0;
}
In this case, different types are used to trigger different functions via function overloading. The overloaded function in this example has the signature auto apply.
See also
First-class function
Combinatory logic
Function-level programming
Functional programming
Kappa calculus - a formalism for functions which excludes higher-order functions
Strategy pattern
Higher order messages
References
Functional programming
Lambda calculus
Subroutines
Articles with example Python (programming language) code
Articles with example Haskell code
Articles with example Scheme (programming language) code
Articles with example JavaScript code
Articles with example C code
Articles with example Pascal code
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244691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Brinkley | David Brinkley | David McClure Brinkley (July 10, 1920 – June 11, 2003) was an American newscaster for NBC and ABC in a career lasting from 1943 to 1997.
From 1956 through 1970, he co-anchored NBC's top-rated nightly news program, The Huntley–Brinkley Report, with Chet Huntley and thereafter appeared as co-anchor or commentator on its successor, NBC Nightly News, through the 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, Brinkley was host of the popular Sunday This Week with David Brinkley program and a top commentator on election-night coverage for ABC News. Over the course of his career, Brinkley received ten Emmy Awards, three George Foster Peabody Awards, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
He wrote three books, including the 1988 bestseller Washington Goes to War, about how World War II transformed the nation's capital. His books were largely based on his own observations as a young reporter in the city.
Early life
Brinkley was born in Wilmington, North Carolina, the youngest of five children born to William Graham Brinkley and Mary MacDonald (née West) Brinkley. He began writing for a local newspaper, the Wilmington Morning Star, while still attending New Hanover High School. He attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Emory University, and Vanderbilt University, before entering service in the United States Army in 1940. Following a medical discharge, he worked for United Press International in several of its Southern bureaus. In 1943, he moved to Washington, D.C., looking for a radio job at CBS News. Instead, he took a job at NBC News, became its White House correspondent, and in time began appearing on television.
Career
In 1952, Brinkley began providing Washington reporting on NBC Television's evening news program, the Camel News Caravan (the name changed over time), hosted by John Cameron Swayze. In 1956, NBC News executives considered various possibilities to anchor the network's coverage of the Democratic and Republican political conventions, and when executive J. Davidson Taylor suggested pairing two reporters (he had in mind Bill Henry and Ray Scherer), producer Reuven Frank, who favored Brinkley for the job, and NBC's director of news, Joseph Meyers, who favored Chet Huntley, proposed combining Huntley and Brinkley. NBC's top brass consented, but they had so little confidence in the team that they withheld announcing it for two months. Their concern proved unfounded.
The pairing worked so well that on October 29, 1956, the two took over NBC's flagship nightly newscast, with Huntley in New York City and Brinkley in Washington, D.C., for the newly christened Huntley–Brinkley Report. Brinkley's dry wit offset the serious tone set by Huntley, and the program proved popular with audiences turned off by the incessantly serious tone of CBS's news broadcasts of that era. Brinkley's ability to write for the ear with simple, declarative sentences gained him a reputation as one of the medium's most talented writers, and his connections in Washington led CBS's Roger Mudd to observe, "Brinkley, of all the TV guys here, probably has the best sense of the city — best understands its moods and mentality. He knows Washington and he knows the people." Most often described as "wry", Brinkley once suggested on the air that the best way to resolve the controversy over whether to change the name of Boulder Dam to "Hoover Dam" was to have former president Herbert Hoover change his name to "Herbert Boulder".
Another example of Brinkley's wryness was evinced on the third night of Chicago's infamous Democratic Convention of 1968. After continuous abuses of NBC correspondents made on the floor of the convention — namely, interference and shadowing of the media staff by supporters of Hubert Humphrey, presumably with connections to political boss Richard J. Daley — Brinkley criticized Daley's alleged interference with freedom of the press following Senator Abraham Ribicoff's stormy nomination of George McGovern. Perhaps in reply to a control room request for objectivity and alluding to Daley's refusal to be interviewed by NBC's John Chancellor earlier in the evening, Brinkley was heard over the noise of the McGovern demonstration saying, "Mayor Daley had his chance!" (i.e., "now give the McGovern people theirs").
Huntley and Brinkley's nightly sign-off — "Good night, Chet," Brinkley would intone; "Good night, David," Huntley would reply — entered popular usage and was followed by the beginning of the second movement of Beethoven's 9th Symphony as the program credits rolled. The Huntley–Brinkley Report was America's most popular television newscast until it was overtaken, at the end of the 1960s, by the CBS Evening News, anchored by Walter Cronkite. Brinkley and his co-anchor gained such celebrity that Brinkley was forced to cut short his reporting on Hubert Humphrey in the 1960 West Virginia primary because West Virginians were more interested in meeting Brinkley than the candidate. From 1961 to 1963, Brinkley anchored a prime time news magazine, David Brinkley's Journal. Produced by Ted Yates, the program won a George Foster Peabody Award and two Emmy Awards.
When Huntley retired from the anchor chair in 1970, the evening news program was renamed NBC Nightly News (not insignificantly employing the suffixes of Huntley and Brinkley's surnames for the sake of continuity), and Brinkley co-anchored the broadcast with John Chancellor and Frank McGee. In 1971, Chancellor was named sole anchor, and Brinkley became the program's commentator, delivering three-minute perspectives several times a week under a reprise of the earlier title, David Brinkley's Journal. By 1976, though, NBC had decided to revive the dual-anchor format, and Brinkley once again anchored the Washington desk for the network until October 1979. But the early years of Nightly News never achieved the popularity of Huntley-Brinkley Report, and none of several news magazine shows anchored by Brinkley during the 1970s succeeded. An unhappy Brinkley left NBC in 1981; NBC Magazine was his last show for that network.
Almost immediately, Brinkley was offered a job at ABC. ABC News president Roone Arledge was anxious to replace ABC's Sunday morning news program, Issues and Answers, which had always lagged far behind CBS's Face the Nation and NBC's Meet the Press. Brinkley was tapped for the job and in 1981 began hosting This Week with David Brinkley. This Week revolutionized the Sunday morning news program format, featuring not only several correspondents interviewing guest newsmakers, but concluding with a roundtable discussion. The format proved highly successful and was soon imitated by ABC's NBC and CBS rivals as well as engendering new programs originating both nationally and from local stations.
For a brief period after Washington-based World News Tonight anchor Frank Reynolds was diagnosed with hepatitis that ultimately claimed his life on July 20, 1983, Brinkley returned to the network anchor desk as Reynolds' substitute from Washington. This arrangement lasted until July 4; when Reynolds' eventual successor as the network anchor, Peter Jennings, was brought in from his post in London.
As part of ABC's commemoration of World War II, Brinkley and the News division produced the special, The Battle of the Bulge: 50 Years On, with Brinkley hosting and interviewing survivors of the battle, Allied and Axis. The special, which aired at Christmas 1994, was critically acclaimed and widely viewed.
Retirement
Days before he announced his retirement from regular news coverage, Brinkley made a rare, on-air mistake during evening coverage of the 1996 United States presidential election at a moment when he thought he was on commercial break. One of his colleagues asked him what he thought of the prospects for Bill Clinton's re-election. He called Clinton "a bore" and added, "The next four years will be filled with pretty words and pretty music and a lot of goddamn nonsense!" Peter Jennings pointed out that they were still on the air. Brinkley said, "Really? Well, I'm leaving anyway!". Brinkley would offer Clinton an apology during a one-on-one interview a week later.
Brinkley last broadcast as host of This Week was November 10, 1996, but he continued to provide short pieces of commentary for the show until 1997. He then fully retired from television. He had been a journalist for over fifty years and had been anchor or host of a daily or weekly national television program for just over forty years. His career extended from the end of the radio age to the age of the internet.
In addition to his ten Emmys and three Peabodys, Brinkley also received the Alfred I. duPont Award in 1958. In 1982, he received the Paul White Award for lifetime achievement from the Radio Television Digital News Association. In 1988, he was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame. In 1992, President George H. W. Bush awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor. Bush called him "the elder statesman of broadcast journalism" but Brinkley was much more humble. In an interview in 1992, he said, "Most of my life, I've simply been a reporter covering things and writing and talking about it."
Personal life
David Brinkley married the former Flora Ann Fischer in 1946 and had three sons; they divorced in 1972. Soon after, Brinkley married Susan Melanie Benfer that same year, with Benfer bringing daughter Alexis from another marriage. The second union lasted until Brinkley's death.
Brinkley was the father of the late historian and former Columbia University provost Alan Brinkley and the late Stanford journalism professor and Pulitzer Prize–winning writer Joel Brinkley.
Death
Brinkley died in 2003 at his home in Houston from complications of a fall suffered at his vacation home in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, according to his son, John Brinkley. His body is interred at Oakdale Cemetery, Wilmington, North Carolina.
Television career
1951–1956 Camel News Caravan (correspondent)
1956–1970 NBC News/The Huntley–Brinkley Report
1961–1963 David Brinkley's Journal, Wednesday 10:30–11:00 p.m. EST
1971–1976 NBC Nightly News (commentator only)
1976–1979 NBC Nightly News (co-anchor)
1980–1981 NBC Magazine with David Brinkley
1981–1996 This Week with David Brinkley
1981–1998 ABC World News Tonight (commentator)
1991 Pearl Harbor: Two Hours That Changed The World with David Brinkley (50th anniversary)
1994 David Brinkley Reports: The Battle of the Bulge; 50 Years On
Bibliography
Washington Goes to War, 1988
Everyone Is Entitled to My Opinion, 1991
David Brinkley: A Memoir, 1995
Brinkley's Beat: People, Places, and Events That Shaped My Time, 2003
References
External links
David Brinkley obituary by Richard Severo, The New York Times
Working with Brinkley by Ron Steiman (1960–1961)
David Brinkley collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society — Over 150,000 documents covering Brinkley's career
American broadcast news analysts
American television news anchors
American television reporters and correspondents
1920 births
2003 deaths
ABC News personalities
NBC News people
Burials at Oakdale Cemetery
Peabody Award winners
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Emory University alumni
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
Vanderbilt University alumni
Writers from Wilmington, North Carolina
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists
New Hanover High School alumni
United States Army personnel of World War II | [
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244703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20France | Music of France | The music of France reflects a diverse array of styles. In the field of classical music, France has produced several prominent romantic composers, while folk and popular music have seen the rise of the chanson and cabaret style. The earliest known sound recording device in the world, the phonautograph, was patented in France by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville in 1857. France is also the 5th largest market by value in the world, and its music industry has produced many internationally renowned artists, especially in the nouvelle chanson and electronic music.
Classical music
Medieval
French music history dates back to organum in the 10th century, followed by the Notre Dame School, an organum composition style. Troubadour songs of chivalry and courtly love were composed in the Occitan language between the 10th and 13th centuries, and the Trouvère poet-composers flourished in Northern France during this period. The fiddle was their instrument of choice. By the end of the 12th century, a form of song called the motet arose, accompanied by traveling musicians called jongleurs. In the 14th century, France produced two notable styles of music, Ars Nova and Ars Subtilior
Renaissance
Burgundy, which was the mostly French-speaking area unified with the Kingdom of France in 1477, had become a major center for musical development in the musical continent Europe. This was followed by the rise of chansons and the Burgundian School.
Baroque
Influential composers included Jean-Baptiste Lully, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Élisabeth Jacquet de La Guerre, Louis Couperin, François Couperin and Jacques Champion de Chambonnières. Jean Philippe Rameau, a prominent opera composer, wrote an influential treatise on musical theory, especially in the subject of harmony; he also introduced the clarinet into his orchestras. In the late Renaissance and early Baroque period, a type of popular secular vocal music called Air de cour spread throughout France.
Opera
The first French opera may be Akébar roi du Mogol, first performed in Carpentras in 1646. It was followed by the team of Pierre Perrin and Cambert, whose Pastoral in Music, performed in Issy, was a success, and the pair moved to Paris to produce Pomone (1671) and Les Peines et les Plaisirs de l'Amour (1672).
Jean-Baptiste Lully, who had become well known for composing ballets for Louis XIV, began creating a French version of the Italian opera seria, a kind of tragic opera known as tragédie lyrique or tragédie en musique - see (French lyric tragedy). His first was Cadmus from 1673. Lully's forays into operatic tragedy were accompanied by the pinnacle of French theatrical tragedy, led by Corneille and Racine.
Lully also developed the common beat patterns used by conductors to this day and was the first to take the role of leading the orchestra from the position of the first violin.
The French composer Georges Bizet composed Carmen, one of the best-known and most popular operas.
Classical era
Claude Balbastre was an organist, harpsichordist and fortepianist. He was one of the most famous musicians of his time.
Henri-Montan Berton, son of Pierre, is principally remembered as a composer of operas, most of which were first performed at the Opéra-Comique.
Chélard earned his living for much of his career as a violist at the Paris Opera. His 1827 opera Macbeth was a flop in Paris, but a great success in Munich.
Jeanne-Hippolyte Devismes married the director of the Paris Opéra. Her only known works are a song, "La Dame Jacinthe", and an opera, Praxitėle, which was a success and ran for 16 performances.
Harpsichordist and composer Jacques Duphly contributed to Jean-Jacques Rousseau dictionary, for articles relating to the art of playing the harpsichord.
Romantic era
One of the major French composers of the time, and one of the most innovative composers of the early Romantic era, was Hector Berlioz.
In the late 19th century, pioneers such as Georges Bizet, Jules Massenet, Gabriel Fauré, Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy revitalized French music. The last two had an enormous impact on 20th-century music - both in France and abroad - and influenced many major composers such as Béla Bartók and Igor Stravinsky. Erik Satie was also a very significant composer from that era. His music is difficult to classify.
20th century
The early 20th century saw neo-classical music flourish in France, especially composers such as Lili Boulanger, Nadia Boulanger, Albert Roussel and Les Six, a group of musicians who gathered around Satie. Later in the century, Olivier Messiaen, Henri Dutilleux and Pierre Boulez proved influential. The latter was a leading figure of Serialism while Messiaen incorporated Asian (particularly Indian) influences and bird song and Dutilleux translated the innovations of Debussy, Bartók and Stravinsky into his own, very personal, musical idiom.
The most important French contribution to musical innovation of the past 35 years is a form of computer-assisted composition called "spectral music". The astonishing technical advances of the spectralist composers in the 1970s are only recently beginning to achieve wide recognition in the United States; major composers in this vein include Gérard Grisey, Tristan Murail, and Claude Vivier.
Folk music
Traditional styles of music have survived most in remote areas such as the island of Corsica and mountainous Auvergne, as well as the more nationalistic regions of the Basques and the Bretons. In many cases, folk traditions were revived in relatively recent years to cater to tourists. These groupes folkloriques tend to focus on very early 20th-century melodies and the use of the piano accordion.
Paris
In 1900 in Paris, a new style of waltz emerged, the "Valse musette" an evolution of Bal-musette also known as "French Waltz". Aimable, Émile Vacher, Marcel Azzola, Yvette Horner, André Verchuren were famous accordionists who played valse musette. There is also Yann Tiersen and its Amélie (soundtrack) of Amélie from Montmartre.
West France
The West of France comprises the Pays de Nantes, the provinces of Vendée, Anjou and Maine, and the Poitou-Charentes region. Traditions of ballad-singing, dance-songs and fiddle-playing have survived, predominantly in Poitou and the Vendée. Jérôme Bujeaud collected extensively in the area, and his 2-volume work "Chants et chansons populaires des provinces de l'ouest: Poitou, Saintonge, Aunis et Angoumois" (Niort, 1866) remains the principal scholarly collection of music and songs. In recent decades John Wright and Claude Ribouillault (amongst others) have done much to collect, analyse and promote the surviving traditions.
The Marais Breton of Vendée is noted particularly for its tradition of veuze playing - which has been revived by the bagpipe-maker and player Thierry Bertrand - and for traditional singers such as Pierre Burgaud.
Folk dances specific to the West of France include the courante, or maraichine, and the bal saintongeais. Bourrées in triple time have been noted in the 19th century by Bujeaud, and more recently, in Angoumois. Circle- or chain-dances accompanied by caller-and-response singing have been noted in the West, and also in other regions such as Gascony, Normandy and Brittany.
Notable contemporary folk musicians include Christian Pacher and Claude Ribouillault (Poitou) and the group La Marienne (Vendée.)
Brittany
Distinctly Celtic in character, the folk music of Lower Brittany has had perhaps the most successful revival of its traditions, partly thanks to the city of Lorient, which hosts France's most popular music festival: Festival Interceltique de Lorient.
The documented history of Breton music begins with the publication of Barzaz-Breizh in 1839. A collection of folk songs compiled by Hersart de la Villemarqué, Barzaz-Breizh re-branded and promoted Breton traditions and helped ensure their continuity.
Sonneurs couples, consisting of a bombard and a biniou (bagpipe), is usually played at festoù-noz (Fest Noz) celebrations (some are famous, such as Printemps de Chateauneuf). It is swift dance music and has an older vocal counterpart called kan ha diskan. Unaccompanied call and response singing was interspersed with the gwerz, a form of ballad.
Probably the most popular form of Breton folk is the bagad pipe band, which features native instruments such as biniou and bombard alongside drums and, in more modern groups, biniou braz pipes. Modern revivalists include Kevrenn Alre Bagad and Bagad Kemper.
Alan Stivell is perhaps the most influential folk-rock performer of continental Europe. After 1971's Renaissance of the Celtic Harp, Breton and other Celtic traditional music achieved mainstream success internationally. With Dan Ar Braz, he then released Chemins de Terre (1974), which launched Breton folk-rock. This set the stage for stars such as Malicorne in the ensuing decades.
In later years much has been done to collect and popularize the musical traditions of the Pays Gallo of Upper Brittany, for which the singer Bertran Ôbrée, his group Ôbrée Alie and the association DASTUM must take much credit. The songs of Upper Brittany are either in French or in Gallo.
Modern Breton folk music includes harpists such as Anne-Marie Jan, Anne Auffret and Myrdhin, while singers Kristen Nikolas, Andrea Ar Gouilh and Yann-Fanch Kemener have become mainstream stars. Instrumental bands, however, have been the most successful, including Gwerz, Bleizi Ruz, Strobinell, Sonerien Du and Tud.
Central France
Central France includes the regions of Auvergne, Limousin, Morvan, Nivernais, Bourbonnais and Berry. The lands are the home to a significant bagpipe tradition, as well as the iconic hurdy-gurdy and the dance bourrée. There are deep differences between the regions of Central France, with the Auvergne and Limousin retained the most vibrant folk traditions of the area. As an example of the area's diversity, the bourrée can come in either duple or triple meter; the latter is found in the south of the region, and is usually improvised with bagpipes and hurdy-gurdy, while the former is found in the north and includes virtuoso players.
Bagpipe and Hurdy-gurdy
The hurdy-gurdy, or vielle-à-roue, is essentially a mechanical violin, with keys or buttons instead of a fingerboard. It is made up of a curved, oval body, a set of keys and a curved handle, which is turned and connected to a wheel which bows the strings that are stopped by the keys. There is a moveable bridge, a variable number of drones and optional sympathetic strings. Other forms of the hurdy-gurdy are found all over Europe.
The bagpipe is found in a wide array of forms in France. The cabrette and grande cornemuse from Auvergne and Berry are best known. These forms are found at least as far back as the 17th century. Prominent bagpipers include Bernard Blanc, Frédéric Paris and Philippe Prieur, as well as bandleader Jean Blanchard of La Grande Bande de Cornemuses and Quintette de Cornemuses. Frédéric Paris is also known as a member of the Duo Chabenat-Paris, who use elements such as mixed polyphonic ensembles and melodies based on the bourrée. Bernard Blanc and Jean Blanchard, along with Éric Montbel from Lyon, were among the musicians who formed the basis of La Bamboche and Le Grand Rouge. It was these two bands who did more than anyone to revitalize the traditions of Central France during the 1970s folk revival. The festival of St. Chartier, a music festival held annually near Châteauroux, has been a focal point for the music of Auvergne and Limousin.
The regions of Morvan and Nivernais have produced some traditional stars, including Faubourg de Boignard and Les Ménétriers du Morvan, respectively. The Nivernais collector Achille Millien was also notable in the early part of the 20th century.
South France
Basque Country
The music of the French Basque Country (east of the Basque Country) should be considered against a Pyrenean cultural background. Up to recent times and still ttun-ttun and xirula should be highlighted in traditional folk music (especially in the province of Soule) as a tabor and pipe like pair.
Mixel Etxekopar or Jean Mixel Bedaxagar have played a major role in Basque traditional music as xirula players as well as traditional singers. Other popular performers such as Benat Achiary take on a more experimental approach. These performers refer to a former tradition collected and restored by figures such as Etxahun Iruri (1908–1979) where singing improviser poets (bertsolaris) played an important role in popular culture. This bertsolari tradition relies almost exclusively on younger generations, and efforts are being made now to restore it along the lines of the "southern" tradition, i.e. of the Spanish Basque Country.
Music from the Basque Country nowadays caters to almost all the tastes of music, with a wide range of music being played in Basque, from choral music (Oldarra in Biarritz) to elaborate music bands (e.g. Bidaia) to ska or hardcore trends, while it's much praised lately for the fine bare voices that have arisen with the likes of Maddi Oihenart, Maialen Errotabehere or Amaren Alabak, to mention but a few.
Corsica
Corsican polyphonic singing is perhaps the most unusual of the French regional music varieties. Sung by male trios, it is strongly harmonic and occasionally dissonant. Works can be either spiritual or secular. Modern groups include Canta u Populu Corsu, I Muvrini, Tavagna and Chjami Aghjalesi; some groups have been associated with Corsican nationalism.
Corsican musical instruments include the caramusa (cornemuse bagpipe), cetera (16-stringed lute), mandulina (mandolin), pifana (a type of gemshorn) and urganettu (diatonic accordion).
Popular music
The 19th century saw the apogee of the Cabaret style with Yvette Guilbert as a major star. The era lasted through to the 1930s and saw the likes of Édith Piaf, Charles Trenet, Maurice Chevalier, Tino Rossi, Félix Mayol, Lucienne Boyer, Marie-Louise Damien, Marie Dubas, Fréhel, Georges Guibourg and Jean Sablon.
During the 50s and 60s, it was the golden age of Chanson Française: Juliette Gréco, Mireille Mathieu, Georges Brassens, Jacques Brel, Gilbert Bécaud, Monique Serf (Barbara), Léo Ferré, Charles Aznavour and Alain Barrière. The Yéyé style was popular in the 1950s and 60s with Sheila, Claude François and Françoise Hardy.
Musette
Musette is a style of French music and dance that became popular in Paris in the 1880s. Musette uses the accordion as main instrument, and often symbolizes the French art of living abroad. Émile Vacher (1883-1969) was the star of the new style. Other popular musette accordionists include Aimable Pluchard, Yvette Horner and André Verchuren. In 2001, the musette-style was a huge international success through the album Amélie composed by Yann Tiersen.
Cancan
The Cancan, also called French-Cancan, is a high-energy and physically demanding musical dance, traditionally performed by a chorus line of female dancers who wear costumes with long skirts, petticoats, and black stockings. The main features of the dance are the lifting and manipulation of the skirts, with high kicking and suggestive, provocative body movements. The Infernal Galop from Jacques Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld is the tune most associated with the Cancan. The Cancan first appeared in the working-class ballrooms of Montparnasse in Paris in around 1830. It was a more lively version of the Galop, a dance in quick 2/4 time, which often featured as the final figure in the Quadrille.
Cabaret
Cabaret is a typical form of French musical entertainment featuring chanson, music, dance, comedy and spectacles. The audience usually sits at tables, often dining or drinking, and performances are sometimes introduced by a master of ceremonies. The first cabaret was opened in 1881 in Montmartre, Paris, by Rodolphe Salis and was called Le Chat Noir (The Black Cat). Built in 1889, Moulin Rouge is famous for the large red windmill on its roof. Other popular French cabarets include the Folies Bergère and Le Lido. Cabarets were a key venue in the careers of many singers such as Mistinguett, Josephine Baker, Charles Trenet and Edith Piaf. More recently, Patricia Kaas embodies the revival of the French cabaret style.
Chanson
Chanson Française is the typical style of French music (chanson means "song" in French) and is still very popular in France. Some of the most important artists included: Édith Piaf, Juliette Gréco, Mireille Mathieu, Jacques Brel, Georges Brassens, Gilbert Bécaud, Monique Serf (Barbara), Léo Ferré, Charles Aznavour, Salvatore Adamo and Dalida plus the more art-house musicians like Brigitte Fontaine. Also during the 1950s one of the more representative of Montmartre cabaret singers was Suzanne Robert.
During the 1970s, new artists modernized the chanson Française (Michel Fugain, Renaud, Francis Cabrel, Alain Souchon, Jacques Higelin, Alain Chamfort, Joe Dassin) and also in the 80s (Étienne Daho, Têtes Raides) till now (Benjamin Biolay, Zaz, Vincent Delerm, Bénabar, Jean-Louis Murat, Miossec, Juliette, Mano Solo, Jacques Higelin, Matthieu Chedid, Mathieu Boogaerts, Daniel Darc, Maurane, Christina Goh, Renan Luce). Singer-songwriter Serge Gainsbourg began as a jazz musician in the 1950s and spanned several eras of French popular music including pop, rock, reggae, new wave, disco and even hip hop.
Yéyé
Yéyé is a style of popular music that emerged from France in the early 1960s. The yé-yé movement had its origins in the radio programme Salut les copains, which was first aired in October 1959. Most famous Yéyé stars include Johnny Hallyday, Eddy Mitchell, Richard Anthony, Dick Rivers and the popular girls such as France Gall, Sheila, Sylvie Vartan, and artists who fuse various music genres such as Chantal Goya, Dalida or Claude François. These were popular female teen idols, and included Françoise Hardy, who was the first to write her own songs.
Contemporary music
Nouvelle Chanson
Jazz
Pop
The more commercial and pop part of Chanson is called Variété in French, and included Vanessa Paradis, Patricia Kaas, Patrick Bruel, Marc Lavoine, Pascal Obispo, Florent Pagny, Francis Cabrel, Étienne Daho, Alain Souchon, Laurent Voulzy and Jean-Jacques Goldman. The superstar status of diva Mylène Farmer inspired pop-rock performers such as Zazie, Lorie, Alizée, and R&B singers like Nâdiya and Ophelie Winter.
More recently, the success of musical television shows have spawned a new generation of young pop-music stars including Nolwenn Leroy, Grégory Lemarchal, Christophe Willem, Julien Doré and Élodie Frégé. The French-Caribbean singer Shy'm enjoys a status of popstar in France since her first album in 2006, as well as her male counterpart Matt Pokora. Notable pop-rock groups include Niagara and Indochine. Michel Sardou is also known for his love songs ("La maladie d'amour", "Je vais t'aimer").
Rock
Rock'n Roll started to become popular in the 60s with singers like Johnny Hallyday. There were also innovative musicians in France as the psychedelic rock trend was peaking worldwide. Jean-Pierre Massiera's Les Maledictus Sound (1968) and Aphrodite's Child's 666 were the most influential. Later came bands such as Magma, Martin Circus, Au Bonheur des Dames, Trust, Téléphone, Noir Désir, and guitarist and singer Paul Personne.
In the early 70s, Breton musician Alan Stivell (Renaissance de la Harpe Celtique) launched the field of French folk-rock by combining psychedelic and progressive rock sounds with Breton and Celtic folk styles.
Progressive Rock
France became one of the leading producers of Progressive rock in the 1970s. Aficionados worldwide were enamoured by recordings such as Ange's Le Cimetiere des arlequins, Pulsar's Halloween, Shylock's Ile de Fievre, Atoll's L'Araignee-Mal and Eskaton's Ardeur. Most well-known, however, may be the band Magma which created its own genre, Zeuhl music.
Eighties Rock (1980)
In the 1980s, French rock spawned myriad styles, many closely connected with other Francophone musical scenes in Switzerland, Canada and especially Belgium. Pub rock (Telephone), psychobilly (La Muerte), pop punk (Les Thugs), synthpop and punk rock (Bérurier Noir, Bijou and Gill Dougherty) were among the styles represented in this era. Beginning in the 1980s, Les Rita Mitsouko became very popular throughout Europe with their unique blending of punk, new wave, dance and cabaret elements.
Punk rock had arisen in the 1970s and continued into the next decade, perhaps best represented by Oberkampf and Métal Urbain. 80s progressive rock peaked early in the decade, with Dün's Eros, Emeraude's Geoffroy and Terpandre's Terpandre, all from 1981, representing the genre's pinnacle, in French West Indies (Guadeloupe Island) The Bolokos represent the genre.
Metal
French heavy metal bands include Gojira, Dagoba, Anorexia Nervosa, Hacride, Eths, Loudblast, Carcariass, Massacra, Gorod, Kronos, Yyrkoon, Benighted, Necrowretch, and Fairyland. Many of these bands play in the death metal, thrash metal and/or power metal styles.
France also has a large black metal movement, including, Belenos, Deathspell Omega, Nocturnal Depression, Blut Aus Nord, Peste Noire, Vorkreist, Arkhon Infaustus, Merrimack and Antaeus, and the organization known as Les Légions Noires made up of such bands as Mütiilation, Vlad Tepes and Torgeist. The 'shoegaze' black metal movement also has many bands hailing from France, such as Alcest, Les Discrets and Amesoeurs.
Electronic
Electronic music, as exemplified by Jean Michel Jarre and Cerrone, achieved a wide French audience. The French electro-pop duos Air and Daft Punk and techno artists Laurent Garnier and David Guetta found a wide audience in the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century, both locally and internationally. Groups such as Justice, M83, Phoenix, Télépopmusik and Klingande continue to enjoy success.
Dance
French house is a late 1990s form of house music, part of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st-century European dance music scene and the latest form of Euro disco. The genre is also known as "Disco house", "Neu-disco" (new disco), "French touch", "filter house" or "tekfunk". The early mid/late 1990s productions was notable for the "filter effect" used by artists such as Daft Punk. Other productions use more mainstream vocals and samples.
French house is greatly influenced by the 1970s Euro disco and especially the short lived space disco music style (a European (mostly French) variation of Hi-NRG disco), and also by P-Funk and the productions of Thomas Bangalter.
The first French house experiments (at the time called "disco house" and "neu disco") became notable in the international market between 1997 and 1999. Daft Punk, Stardust and Cassius were the first international successful artists of the genre and their videos show their "space disco" roots.
Several artists played important roles in popularizing the genre, which, in 2000, achieved international success. Bob Sinclar's single "I Feel For You" charted in several countries, including Germany, Italy, and Spain. Etienne de Crécy's album Tempovision charted at #57 in France and included the successful single "Am I Wrong." In September, the French house group Modjo released "Lady (Hear Me Tonight), which debuted at #1 in the UK and became a top-ten hit in thirteen countries. Galleon followed the next year.
Today most French house bands and artists have moved on to other music styles, notably a French variation of electro, that is danced on the milky way/Tecktonik style.
Disco
The Village People, co-founded by the two French composers Jacques Morali and Henri Belolo, was a major international disco group. Notable French disco singers also include Dalida, Sheila and B. Devotion, Ottawan, Voyage, Cerrone, Patrick Hernandez and F.R. David, respectively known for their worldwide hits Monday, Tuesday... Laissez-moi danser (1979), Spacer (1979), D.I.S.C.O. (1979), You're OK / T'es OK (1980), Souvenirs (1978), Supernature (1977), Born to Be Alive (1979) and Words (1982).
Hip-Hop
Hip hop music was exported to France in the 1980s, and French rappers and DJs such as David Guetta and MC Solaar, also had some success. Hip hop music came from New York City, invented in the 1970s by African Americans. By 1983, the genre had spread to much of the world, including France. Almost immediately, French performers (musicians and breakdancers) began their career, including Max-Laure Bourjolly and Traction Avant. Popularity was brief, however, and hip hop quickly receded to the French underground. Hip-hop was adapted to French context, especially the poverty of large cities known as banlieues ("suburbs") where many French of foreign descent live, especially from the former colonial countries (West Africa and Caribbean). If there is some influence of African musics and of course American hip hop, French hip-hop is also strongly connected to French music, with strong reciprocal influences, from French pop and chanson, both in music and lyrics.
Paname City Rappin (1984, by Dee Nasty) was the first album released, and the first major stars were IAM, Suprême NTM and MC Solaar, whose 1991 Qui Sème le Vent Récolte le Tempo, was a major hit. Through the nineties, the music grew to become one of the most popular genres in France with huge success of the pioneers (IAM, Suprême NTM) and newcomers (Ministère Amer, Oxmo Puccino, Lunatic). France is the world's second-largest hip-hop market. The most popular rappers of the 2000s are Diam's, Booba and Kenza Farah with successful artists more underground such as La Rumeur, la Caution and TTC.
Overseas music
French Polynesia
Réunion island
Séga music is a popular style that mixes African and European music. The most popular sega musicians include Ousanousava, Baster, Maxime Laope. Maloya music has a strong African element reflected in the use of slave chants and work songs. The most popular sega musicians include Danyèl Waro, Firmin Viry, Granmoun Lélé, Mars tou sèl.
Martinique and Guadeloupe
Zouk
Zouk is a fast jump-up carnival beat originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, popularized by the French Antillean band Kassav' in the 1980s. Very rapid in tempo, the style lost ground in the 1980s due to the strong presence of kadans or compas, the main music of the French Antilles. Today, zouk is the French Antilles compas, also called zouk-love
In Africa, Kassav's zouk and the Haitian compas they featured, gained popularity in francophone and lusophone countries. It is also particularly popular in North America in the Canadian province of Quebec.
Bouyon
Bouyon (Boo-Yon) is a form of popular music of Dominica, also known as jump up music in Guadeloupe and Martinique. The best-known band in the genre is Windward Caribbean Kulture (WCK), who originated the style in 1988.
Over the years, thanks to inter-trade with the Dominicans and the mass participation of Guadeloupe at the World Creole Music Festival, the flagship group as Triple kay and MFR band began to democratize and local artists were inducted including the remix Allo Triple kay with Daly and "Big Ting Poppin 'Daly alone.
A popular offshoot within the bouyon is called bouyon hardcore, a style characterized by its lewd and violent lyrics. Popular Bouyon gwada musicians include, Wee Low, Suppa, Doc J, Yellow gaza, etc.
Antilles hip hop
The French Antilles hip hop is a style of hip hop music originating from the French departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique in the Caribbean. Usually in French and Antillean creole, the French Antilles hip hop is most popular in the French Antilles and France.
Rock In Gwada
Although a minority genre, French Antilles rock groups participate in the broadening of the Caribbean musical spectrum. The spearheads like The Bolokos or Livestocks include themes, rhythms or Caribbean melodies on British or American influences. The "Rock In Gwada" collective brings together some of these groups whose first festival took place in Petit-Bourg in 2016.
International music
French language is spoken worldwide and many international artists contribute to French music.
Europe
The greatest Belgian chansonnier was Jacques Brel, whose classic songs have been covered by several international artists. Others such as Salvatore Adamo, Axelle Red, Lara Fabian, Maurane, Selah Sue, Frédéric François and Annie Cordy have also enjoyed some success in France and other French-speaking countries.
North America
Quebec singers are very popular in France, and both nations have influenced each other in terms of music styles. Quebec artists have been taking the French stage quite extensively. Notable singers that have performed in France included: Céline Dion, Diane Tell, Cœur de pirate, Garou, Isabelle Boulay, Lynda Lemay and many others. Roch Voisine and Natasha St-Pier, who are of Acadian heritage, reached the top of charts in France with their famous songs "Hélène" (1989) and "Tu trouveras" (2002). Rock singer Avril Lavigne, whose father is of French origin (born in Lorraine), is also popular in France, and she obtained her French passport and citizenship in 2011. Salvatore Adamo and Charles Aznavour are widely recognized in America
Asia
One of the most famous French-speaking Asian artists is Anggun, a French-naturalised singer from Indonesia, best known for her single La Neige au Sahara (Snow on the Sahara) written by Erick Benzi. The song was released in 1997 as her debut international single in 33 countries worldwide, and made the charts in Europe (#1 in Italy), America (#16 in USA Billboard), and Asia (#1 in Indonesia, #3 in Malaysia). French music also found surprising favorable reception in Japan, where the language and culture from France is often seen as romantic. Some Japanese groups use the French language, such as Malice Mizer or Versailles, named after the Château de Versailles. Charles Aznavour and Mireille Mathieu are widely recognized in Japan.
Africa
Beginning in the 1920s, Raï music developed in Algeria as a combination of rural and urban music. Often viewed as a form of resistance towards censorship, many of the conventional values of the old raï became modernized with instruments, synthesizers and modern equipment. Later performers added influences from funk, hip hop, rock and other styles, creating most notably a pop genre called lover's raï. Performers include Rachid Taha and Faudel. Originating of the city of Oran, raï shot to the top of the French, Swiss and Dutch charts in 1992 with the release of Khaled's single Didi.
Music journals
Volume!
One journal that provides coverage of popular music in France along with popular music history is Volume!. Volume! (subtitled in French:La revue des musiques populaires - The journal of popular music studies) is a biannual (May & November) peer-reviewed academic journal "dedicated to the study of contemporary popular music". It is published by Éditions Mélanie Seteun, a publishing association specialized in popular music. The journal has both French and English editions. Volume! was established in 2002 under the title Copyright Volume! by Gérôme Guibert, Marie-Pierre Bonniol, and Samuel Étienne, and obtained its current name in 2008. Étienne (Université de la Polynésie Française) was its first editor-in-chief (2002–2008), before Guibert (University of Paris III: Sorbonne Nouvelle) took over in 2008.
See also
History of music in Paris
References
Boll, André, and Émil Damais. Répertoire analytique de la musique française, des origins à nos jours. Paris: Horizons de France, 1948.
Krümm, Philippe and Jean-Pierre Rasle. "Music of the Regions". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 103–113. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
External links
French-kisses, A blog in English dedicated to French music
BBC Radio 3 Audio (105 minutes): Marseille - Mahgreb Rap, Algerian Rai, Pacific Creole, Congolese Rumba. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Audio clips: Traditional music of France. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Performing arts pages with videographic documentation | [
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244705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weil%20conjectures | Weil conjectures | In mathematics, the Weil conjectures were highly influential proposals by . They led to a successful multi-decade program to prove them, in which many leading researchers developed the framework of modern algebraic geometry and number theory.
The conjectures concern the generating functions (known as local zeta functions) derived from counting points on algebraic varieties over finite fields. A variety over a finite field with elements has a finite number of rational points (with coordinates in the original field), as well as points with coordinates in any finite extension of the original field. The generating function has coefficients derived from the numbers of points over the extension field with elements.
Weil conjectured that such zeta functions for smooth varieties are rational functions, satisfy a certain functional equation, and have their zeros in restricted places. The last two parts were quite consciously modeled on the Riemann zeta function, a kind of generating function for prime integers, which obeys a functional equation and (conjecturally) has its zeros restricted by the Riemann hypothesis. The rationality was proved by , the functional equation by , and the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis by .
Background and history
The earliest antecedent of the Weil conjectures is by Carl Friedrich Gauss and appears in section VII of his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae , concerned with roots of unity and Gaussian periods. In article 358, he moves on from the periods that build up towers of quadratic extensions, for the construction of regular polygons; and assumes that is a prime number congruent to 1 modulo 3. Then there is a cyclic cubic field inside the cyclotomic field of th roots of unity, and a normal integral basis of periods for the integers of this field (an instance of the Hilbert–Speiser theorem). Gauss constructs the order-3 periods, corresponding to the cyclic group of non-zero residues modulo under multiplication and its unique subgroup of index three. Gauss lets , , and be its cosets. Taking the periods (sums of roots of unity) corresponding to these cosets applied to , he notes that these periods have a multiplication table that is accessible to calculation. Products are linear combinations of the periods, and he determines the coefficients. He sets, for example, equal to the number of elements of which are in and which, after being increased by one, are also in . He proves that this number and related ones are the coefficients of the products of the periods. To see the relation of these sets to the Weil conjectures, notice that if and are both in , then there exist and in such that and ; consequently, . Therefore is the number of solutions to in the finite field . The other coefficients have similar interpretations. Gauss's determination of the coefficients of the products of the periods therefore counts the number of points on these elliptic curves, and as a byproduct he proves the analog of the Riemann hypothesis.
The Weil conjectures in the special case of algebraic curves were conjectured by . The case of curves over finite fields was proved by Weil, finishing the project started by Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves over finite fields. Their interest was obvious enough from within number theory: they implied upper bounds for exponential sums, a basic concern in analytic number theory .
What was really eye-catching, from the point of view of other mathematical areas, was the proposed connection with algebraic topology. Given that finite fields are discrete in nature, and topology speaks only about the continuous, the detailed formulation of Weil (based on working out some examples) was striking and novel. It suggested that geometry over finite fields should fit into well-known patterns relating to Betti numbers, the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem and so on.
The analogy with topology suggested that a new homological theory be set up applying within algebraic geometry. This took two decades (it was a central aim of the work and school of Alexander Grothendieck) building up on initial suggestions from Serre. The rationality part of the conjectures was proved first by , using -adic methods. and his collaborators established the rationality conjecture, the functional equation and the link to Betti numbers by using the properties of étale cohomology, a new cohomology theory developed by Grothendieck and Michael Artin for attacking the Weil conjectures, as outlined in .
Of the four conjectures the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis was the hardest to prove. Motivated by the proof of of an analogue of the Weil conjectures for Kähler manifolds, Grothendieck envisioned a proof based on his standard conjectures on algebraic cycles . However, Grothendieck's standard conjectures remain open (except for the hard Lefschetz theorem, which was proved by Deligne by extending his work on the Weil conjectures), and the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis was proved by , using the étale cohomology theory but circumventing the use of standard conjectures by an ingenious argument.
found and proved a generalization of the Weil conjectures, bounding the weights of the pushforward of a sheaf.
Statement of the Weil conjectures
Suppose that is a non-singular -dimensional projective algebraic variety over the field with elements. The zeta function of is by definition
where is the number of points of defined over the degree extension of .
The Weil conjectures state:
1. (Rationality) is a rational function of . More precisely, can be written as a finite alternating product
where each is an integral polynomial. Furthermore, , , and for , factors over as for some numbers .
2. (Functional equation and Poincaré duality) The zeta function satisfies
or equivalently
where is the Euler characteristic of . In particular, for each , the numbers , , ... equal the numbers , , ... in some order.
3. (Riemann hypothesis) for all and all . This implies that all zeros of lie on the "critical line" of complex numbers with real part .
4. (Betti numbers) If is a (good) "reduction mod " of a non-singular projective variety defined over a number field embedded in the field of complex numbers, then the degree of is the th Betti number of the space of complex points of .
Examples
The projective line
The simplest example (other than a point) is to take to be the projective line. The number of points of over a field with elements is just (where the "" comes from the "point at infinity"). The zeta function is just
.
It is easy to check all parts of the Weil conjectures directly. For example, the corresponding complex variety is the Riemann sphere and its initial Betti numbers are 1, 0, 1.
Projective space
It is not much harder to do -dimensional projective space. The number of points of over a field with elements is just . The zeta function is just
.
It is again easy to check all parts of the Weil conjectures directly. (Complex projective space gives the relevant Betti numbers, which nearly determine the answer.)
The number of points on the projective line and projective space are so easy to calculate because they can be written as disjoint unions of a finite number of copies of affine spaces. It is also easy to prove the Weil conjectures for other spaces, such as Grassmannians and flag varieties, which have the same "paving" property.
Elliptic curves
These give the first non-trivial cases of the Weil conjectures (proved by Hasse). If is an elliptic curve over a finite field with elements, then the number of points of defined over the field with elements is , where and are complex conjugates with absolute value .
The zeta function is
.
Weil cohomology
Weil suggested that the conjectures would follow from the existence of a suitable "Weil cohomology theory" for varieties over finite fields, similar to the usual cohomology with rational coefficients for complex varieties. His idea was that if is the Frobenius automorphism over the finite field, then the number of points of the variety over the field of order is the number of fixed points of (acting on all points of the variety defined over the algebraic closure). In algebraic topology the number of fixed points of an automorphism can be worked out using the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem, given as an alternating sum of traces on the cohomology groups. So if there were similar cohomology groups for varieties over finite fields, then the zeta function could be expressed in terms of them.
The first problem with this is that the coefficient field for a Weil cohomology theory cannot be the rational numbers. To see this consider the case of a supersingular elliptic curve over a finite field of characteristic . The endomorphism ring of this is an order in a quaternion algebra over the rationals, and should act on the first cohomology group, which should be a 2-dimensional vector space over the coefficient field by analogy with the case of a complex elliptic curve. However a quaternion algebra over the rationals cannot act on a 2-dimensional vector space over the rationals. The same argument eliminates the possibility of the coefficient field being the reals or the -adic numbers, because the quaternion algebra is still a division algebra over these fields. However it does not eliminate the possibility that the coefficient field is the field of -adic numbers for some prime , because over these fields the division algebra splits and becomes a matrix algebra, which can act on a 2-dimensional vector space. Grothendieck and Michael Artin managed to construct suitable cohomology theories over the field of -adic numbers for each prime , called -adic cohomology.
Grothendieck's proofs of three of the four conjectures
By the end of 1964 Grothendieck together with Artin and Jean-Louis Verdier (and the earlier 1960 work by Dwork) proved the Weil conjectures apart from the most difficult third conjecture above (the "Riemann hypothesis" conjecture) (Grothendieck 1965). The general theorems about étale cohomology allowed Grothendieck to prove an analogue of the Lefschetz fixed-point formula for the l-adic cohomology theory, and by applying it to the Frobenius automorphism F he was able to prove the conjectured formula for the zeta function:
where each polynomial Pi is the determinant of I − TF on the l-adic cohomology group Hi.
The rationality of the zeta function follows immediately. The functional equation for the zeta function follows from Poincaré duality for l-adic cohomology, and the relation with complex Betti numbers of a lift follows from a comparison theorem between l-adic and ordinary cohomology for complex varieties.
More generally, Grothendieck proved a similar formula for the zeta function (or "generalized L-function") of a sheaf F0:
as a product over cohomology groups:
The special case of the constant sheaf gives the usual zeta function.
Deligne's first proof of the Riemann hypothesis conjecture
, , and gave expository accounts of the first proof of . Much of the background in l-adic cohomology is described in .
Deligne's first proof of the remaining third Weil conjecture (the "Riemann hypothesis conjecture") used the following steps:
Use of Lefschetz pencils
Grothendieck expressed the zeta function in terms of the trace of Frobenius on l-adic cohomology groups, so the Weil conjectures for a d-dimensional variety V over a finite field with q elements depend on showing that the eigenvalues α of Frobenius acting on the ith l-adic cohomology group Hi(V) of V have absolute values =qi/2 (for an embedding of the algebraic elements of Ql into the complex numbers).
After blowing up V and extending the base field, one may assume that the variety V has a morphism onto the projective line P1, with a finite number of singular fibers with very mild (quadratic) singularities. The theory of monodromy of Lefschetz pencils, introduced for complex varieties (and ordinary cohomology) by , and extended by and to l-adic cohomology, relates the cohomology of V to that of its fibers. The relation depends on the space Ex of vanishing cycles, the subspace of the cohomology Hd−1(Vx) of a non-singular fiber Vx, spanned by classes that vanish on singular fibers.
The Leray spectral sequence relates the middle cohomology group of V to the cohomology of the fiber and base. The hard part to deal with is more or less a group H1(P1, j*E) = H(U,E), where U is the points the projective line with non-singular fibers, and j is the inclusion of U into the projective line, and E is the sheaf with fibers the spaces Ex of vanishing cycles.
The key estimate
The heart of Deligne's proof is to show that the sheaf E over U is pure, in other words to find the absolute values of the eigenvalues of Frobenius on its stalks. This is done by studying the zeta functions of the even powers Ek of E and applying Grothendieck's formula for the zeta functions as alternating products over cohomology groups. The crucial idea of considering even k powers of E was inspired by the paper , who used a similar idea with k=2 for bounding the Ramanujan tau function. pointed out that a generalization of Rankin's result for higher even values of k would imply the Ramanujan conjecture, and Deligne realized that in the case of zeta functions of varieties, Grothendieck's theory of zeta functions of sheaves provided an analogue of this generalization.
The poles of the zeta function of Ek are found using Grothendieck's formula
and calculating the cohomology groups in the denominator explicitly. The H term is usually just 1 as U is usually not compact, and the H can be calculated explicitly as follows. Poincaré duality relates H(Ek) to H(Ek), which is in turn the space of covariants of the monodromy group, which is the geometric fundamental group of U acting on the fiber of Ek at a point. The fiber of E has a bilinear form induced by cup product, which is antisymmetric if d is even, and makes E into a symplectic space. (This is a little inaccurate: Deligne did later show that E∩E⊥ = 0 by using the hard Lefschetz theorem, this requires the Weil conjectures, and the proof of the Weil conjectures really has to use a slightly more complicated argument with E/E∩E⊥ rather than E.) An argument of Kazhdan and Margulis shows that the image of the monodromy group acting on E, given by the Picard–Lefschetz formula, is Zariski dense in a symplectic group and therefore has the same invariants, which are well known from classical invariant theory. Keeping track of the action of Frobenius in this calculation shows that its eigenvalues are all qk(d−1)/2+1, so the zeta function of Z(Ek,T) has poles only at T=1/qk(d−1)/2+1.
The Euler product for the zeta function of Ek is
If k is even then all the coefficients of the factors on the right (considered as power series in T) are non-negative; this follows by writing
and using the fact that the traces of powers of F are rational, so their k powers are non-negative as k is even. Deligne proves the rationality of the traces by relating them to numbers of points of varieties, which are always (rational) integers.
The powers series for Z(Ek, T) converges for T less than the absolute value 1/qk(d−1)/2+1 of its only possible pole. When k is even the coefficients of all its Euler factors are non-negative, so that each of the Euler factors has coefficients bounded by a constant times the coefficients of Z(Ek, T) and therefore converges on the same region and has no poles in this region. So for k even the polynomials Z(E, T) have no zeros in this region, or in other words the eigenvalues of Frobenius on the stalks of Ek have absolute value at most qk(d−1)/2+1.
This estimate can be used to find the absolute value of any eigenvalue α of Frobenius on a fiber of E as follows. For any integer k, αk is an eigenvalue of Frobenius on a stalk of Ek, which for k even is bounded by q1+k(d−1)/2. So
As this is true for arbitrarily large even k, this implies that
Poincaré duality then implies that
Completion of the proof
The deduction of the Riemann hypothesis from this estimate is mostly a fairly straightforward use of standard techniques and is done as follows.
The eigenvalues of Frobenius on H(U,E) can now be estimated as they are the zeros of the zeta function of the sheaf E. This zeta function can be written as an Euler product of zeta functions of the stalks of E, and using the estimate for the eigenvalues on these stalks shows that this product converges for <q−d/2−1/2, so that there are no zeros of the zeta function in this region. This implies that the eigenvalues of Frobenius on E are at most qd/2+1/2 in absolute value (in fact it will soon be seen that they have absolute value exactly qd/2). This step of the argument is very similar to the usual proof that the Riemann zeta function has no zeros with real part greater than 1, by writing it as an Euler product.
The conclusion of this is that the eigenvalues α of the Frobenius of a variety of even dimension d on the middle cohomology group satisfy
To obtain the Riemann hypothesis one needs to eliminate the 1/2 from the exponent. This can be done as follows. Applying this estimate to any even power Vk of V and using the Künneth formula shows that the eigenvalues of Frobenius on the middle cohomology of a variety V of any dimension d satisfy
As this is true for arbitrarily large even k, this implies that
Poincaré duality then implies that
This proves the Weil conjectures for the middle cohomology of a variety. The Weil conjectures for the cohomology below the middle dimension follow from this by applying the weak Lefschetz theorem, and the conjectures for cohomology above the middle dimension then follow from Poincaré duality.
Deligne's second proof
found and proved a generalization of the Weil conjectures, bounding the weights of the pushforward of a sheaf. In practice it is this generalization rather than the original Weil conjectures that is mostly used in applications, such as the hard Lefschetz theorem. Much of the second proof is a rearrangement of the ideas of his first proof. The main extra idea needed is an argument closely related to the theorem of Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la Vallée Poussin, used by Deligne to show that various L-series do not have zeros with real part 1.
A constructible sheaf on a variety over a finite field is called pure of weight β if for all points x the eigenvalues of the Frobenius at x all have absolute value N(x)β/2, and is called mixed of weight ≤β if it can be written as repeated extensions by pure sheaves with weights ≤β.
Deligne's theorem states that if f is a morphism of schemes of finite type over a finite field, then Rif! takes mixed sheaves of weight ≤β to mixed sheaves of weight ≤β+i.
The original Weil conjectures follow by taking f to be a morphism from a smooth projective variety to a point and considering the constant sheaf Ql on the variety. This gives an upper bound on the absolute values of the eigenvalues of Frobenius, and Poincaré duality then shows that this is also a lower bound.
In general Rif! does not take pure sheaves to pure sheaves. However it does when a suitable form of Poincaré duality holds, for example if f is smooth and proper, or if one works with perverse sheaves rather than sheaves as in .
Inspired by the work of on Morse theory, found another proof, using Deligne's l-adic Fourier transform, which allowed him to simplify Deligne's proof by avoiding the use of the method of Hadamard and de la Vallée Poussin. His proof generalizes the classical calculation of the absolute value of Gauss sums using the fact that the norm of a Fourier transform has a simple relation to the norm of the original function. used Laumon's proof as the basis for their exposition of Deligne's theorem. gave a further simplification of Laumon's proof, using monodromy in the spirit of Deligne's first proof. gave another proof using the Fourier transform, replacing etale cohomology with rigid cohomology.
Applications
was able to prove the hard Lefschetz theorem over finite fields using his second proof of the Weil conjectures.
had previously shown that the Ramanujan-Petersson conjecture follows from the Weil conjectures.
used the Weil conjectures to prove estimates for exponential sums.
were able to prove the Künneth type standard conjecture over finite fields using Deligne's proof of the Weil conjectures.
References
Reprinted in
Reprinted in Oeuvres Scientifiques/Collected Papers by André Weil
External links
Topological methods of algebraic geometry
Theorems in number theory
Conjectures
History of mathematics
Homological algebra
Zeta and L-functions
Fixed points (mathematics)
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244706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20music | French music | French music may refer to:
Music of France, music of the French people in France
French music may also refer to the music of French-speaking countries:
Music of Quebec, music of the French-Canadians in Canada, most often Québécois or Acadians
Music of Belgium
Music of Switzerland
Music of Monaco
Music of Luxembourg
French styles of music may refer to:
French classical music
French opera
French folk music
French popular music
French pop music
French jazz
French electronic music
French house music
French rock
Chanson
Nouvelle Chanson
Bal-musette
Cabaret
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244708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaheim%20Amigos | Anaheim Amigos | The Anaheim Amigos/Los Angeles Stars/Utah Stars were a charter member American Basketball Association (ABA) team based in Southern California. They were the Amigos during their first season in Anaheim and later moved to Los Angeles to become the Stars. The team existed from 1967 to 1976. In 1970, it moved from southern California to Utah.
The Amigos were the first professional team in any sport to bill themselves as representing the city of Anaheim, and were the only team to do so until the National Hockey League's Mighty Ducks of Anaheim began play in 1993. The California Angels of Major League Baseball played at Anaheim Stadium during the Amigos' existence, but they would not use "Anaheim" in their name until 1997.
Franchise history
Origins
With the founding of the ABA on February 2, 1967, a charter franchise in Anaheim, California was awarded to Art Kim and James Ackerman for $30,000. A 'name the team' contest resulted in the Amigos name. The team played most of its home games at the Anaheim Convention Center. Five home games were scheduled elsewhere in California and three home games were scheduled in Honolulu, Hawaii. Al Brightman was the first head coach.
1967–68 season
The Amigos' roster was highlighted by guards Les Selvage, Jeff Congdon and Steve Chubin, former NBA player Ben Warley and 7 foot center Larry Bunce. Chubin led the team in scoring and assists and was a fan favorite. Selvage led the league in three-point field goal attempts. Warley led the team in rebounds and was an effective outside shooter. Congdon played well but was traded in mid-season to the Denver Rockets for Willis Thomas. Bunce did not live up to expectations despite his height, but played in the 1968 ABA All-Star Game, as did Warley.
The Amigos were not successful on the court. They lost their first five games, including the first ever ABA game, a 134–129 loss to the Oakland Oaks on the road. After losing two thirds of their first 36 games Brightman was fired and replaced as head coach by Harry Dinnel. During the season the Amigos lost eight straight games in one stretch and had two other stretches of six losses each. The team finished the season with 25 wins and 53 losses, good for fifth place in Western Division but not good enough to make the playoffs.
Move to Los Angeles
The Amigos were not successful off the court either. They averaged 1,293 fans per home game and their games were broadcast on radio and sometimes on television. However, they lost approximately $500,000 on the season and were sold for $450,000 to James J. Kirst who moved the team to nearby Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, where they became the Stars. Kirst also brought in Bill Sharman as the new head coach. Sharman had just completed two years coaching the NBA's San Francisco Warriors, taking them to the playoffs both years. With Sharman associated with the team, they were able to sign 13 of their top 15 draft picks including All-Americans Larry Miller and Merv Jackson. Playing with a roster that contained 8 rookies, Los Angeles finished in 5th place and failed to make the playoffs in 1968-69.
1969-70 started out a little better for the Stars with some new veterans joining the best of the previous seasons returning players, but the team was still out of the playoff picture on March 5 when they were sold to cable television entrepreneur Bill Daniels. Following the sale the team came alive, making the playoffs on the last day of the season and riding a fourth place finish to the Western Conference Championship. They then stretched the Indiana Pacers to a sixth game before losing.
Move to Salt Lake City, Utah
After the 1969–70 season, the franchise once again relocated, this time to Salt Lake City, and became the Utah Stars.
Season-by-season
|-
|colspan="6" align=center style="background:orange; color:#000000;"| Anaheim Amigos
|-
|1967–68|| 25 || 53 || .321 || ||
|-
|colspan="6" align=center | Los Angeles Stars
|-
|1968–69 || 33 || 45 || .423 || ||
|-
|1969–70 || 43 || 41 || .512 || Won Division SemifinalsWon SemifinalsLost ABA Finals || Los Angeles 4, Dallas 2Los Angeles 4, Denver 1Indiana 4, Los Angeles 2
|-
External links
LA Stars History & Win/Loss Record
References
American Basketball Association teams
Defunct basketball teams in the United States
Los Angeles Stars
Utah Stars
Basketball teams in California
Basketball teams established in 1968
Sports clubs disestablished in 1970
de:Los Angeles Stars
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244710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah%20Stars | Utah Stars | The Utah Stars were an American Basketball Association (ABA) team based in Salt Lake City, Utah. Under head coach Bill Sharman the Stars were the first major professional basketball team to use a pre-game shootaround.
History prior to moving to Utah (1967–1970)
The team was founded as the Anaheim Amigos, a charter member of the ABA based in Anaheim, California. They played at the Anaheim Convention Center. The team's colors were orange and black. The Anaheim Amigos were founded by Art Kim, a Hawaii native who had long been active in basketball as a player, Amateur Athletic Union administrator and owner. The Amigos lost the very first ABA game to Oakland, 132-129. They finished their first season with 25 wins and 53 losses, good for fifth place in the Western Division but not good enough to make the playoffs.
The Amigos lost $500,000 in their first season, largely due to poor attendance; they only averaged 1,500 fans per game in a 7,500-seat arena. Kim realized he did not have the resources to keep going and sold the team to construction company owner Jim Kirst, who moved the team as the Los Angeles Stars in 1968 and played at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena in Los Angeles, The franchise made an attempt to sign legendary center Wilt Chamberlain. Chamberlain did not sign with the Stars (though he did later coach the ABA's San Diego Conquistadors). With 33 wins and 45 losses, the Stars improved from their first season but again finished fifth in the Western Division and did not make the playoffs.
In October 1969 the Stars signed Zelmo Beaty away from the NBA's Atlanta Hawks, but Beaty had to sit out the season due to a one-year option held by the Hawks, which the Stars would not buy out for $75,000. First year players Mack Calvin and Willie Wise signed with the Stars. The Stars finished fourth in the Western Division with a record of 43-41, earning the first winning season in franchise history and a playoff berth. The Stars defeated the Dallas Chaparrals 4 games to 2 in the Western Division semifinals and bested the Denver Rockets 4 games to 1 in the semifinals before losing the ABA championship series 4 games to 2 to the Indiana Pacers. Kirst had not anticipated the fast turnaround, and did not book the Sports Arena for several dates. They had to play several first and second-round games in their old home in Anaheim, as well as at the Long Beach Sports Arena in Long Beach. This turned out to be their final game as the Los Angeles Stars.
Move to Utah (1970–71)
Despite a promising young roster, the Stars were more or less an afterthought in a market whose first choices were the Los Angeles Lakers and UCLA Bruins; they only averaged 2,500 fans per game. In March 1970, Kirst sold the team to Colorado cable TV pioneer Bill Daniels, who moved the team in June to Salt Lake City as the Utah Stars for the 1970–71 season. Zelmo Beaty suited up for the team and they finished second in the Western Division with their best record yet at , one game behind the Indiana Pacers.
The Stars swept the Texas Chaparrals in four games in the first round of the playoffs, beat Indiana in seven games in a fiercely contested semifinal series, and edged out the Kentucky Colonels in seven games for the ABA championship. To date, this is Utah's only pro basketball championship.
1971–72 season
The Stars won their first division championship, winning the Western Division with a record of 60-24. The Stars defeated the Dallas Chaparrals 4 games to none in the Western Division semifinals before falling to the Indiana Pacers in the Western Division finals, 4 games to 3.
1972–73 season
The Stars hosted the ABA All Star Game and again won the Western Division with a record of 55-29. The Stars defeated the San Diego Conquistadors 4 games to none in the Western Division semifinals but lost in the Western Division finals 4 games to 2 to the Indiana Pacers.
1973–1974 season
In 1973–74 the Stars finished with a record of 51-33 and won first place in the ABA's Western Division for the third straight year under new coach Joe Mullaney. It was the Stars' third straight Western Division title. In the playoffs the Stars again defeated the San Diego Conquistadors in the Western Division semifinals, this time 4 games to 2, and went on to defeat the Indiana Pacers 4 games to 3 in the Western Division finals to reach the ABA Finals for the 2nd time in four seasons. The Stars then lost the championship to the New York Nets 4 games to 1.
1974–75 season
This was the Stars' final full ABA season. Daniels was almost broke due to a series of failed business ventures and an unsuccessful run for governor of Colorado. One of the casualties of the team's financial woes was Mullaney, who resigned after being told the team could not afford to meet his contract. Daniels sold the team to Salt Lake City businessman James A. Collier in August 1974, but Collier was forced to relinquish the team to Daniels two weeks later after missing a payment. The Stars made a high-profile personnel move that season by signing high school player Moses Malone to play for them. The Stars finished the season in fourth place in the Western Division and lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Denver Nuggets, 4 games to 1.
1975–76 season
During the preseason, the Stars (and the Virginia Squires) failed to make payments required as a guarantee for hosting the NBA's Chicago Bulls in one of the common ABA vs. NBA preseason exhibition games. Daniels sold the team again to Snellen and Lyle Johnson in May, but ownership reverted to Daniels just before the season when the Johnsons missed several payments.
However, Daniels was almost completely broke by this time. As a result, on December 2, 1975, the league canceled the Stars franchise for missing payroll. Four of their players (including Moses Malone) were sold to the Spirits of St. Louis, with Daniels getting a 10% minority stake in the Spirits as well. A fifth player was sold to the Virginia Squires. Daniels ultimately paid back all of the season ticket holders at eight percent interest.
The Stars are widely considered one of the most successful teams in ABA history. They were also known for having some of the best fan support in the ABA, even up until the team folded in 1975. From 1970–1975, the Stars went 265-171 (.608), which was the best winning percentage of any team that played more than one season in the league.
Aftermath
Despite the Stars' demise, Salt Lake City had proven it could support big-time professional basketball. With this in mind, in 1976 the owners of the Spirits of St. Louis announced that they were moving the team to Utah for the 1976–1977 ABA season, to play as the Utah Rockies. However, this was undone when the ABA–NBA merger closed in June 1976 and the Spirits and the Kentucky Colonels were the only two teams left out of the merged league. (The Virginia Squires were folded shortly after the end of the regular season due to their inability to make good on a required league assessment, though there was no chance of them being part of a merger deal in any event.)
Professional basketball finally returned to Salt Lake City when the NBA's New Orleans Jazz relocated there in 1979. The Jazz have played in Salt Lake City ever since. Of the three ABA teams that were left out of the ABA–NBA merger, the Stars are the only one to have eventually been replaced by an NBA team.
ABA Championship
In their first season in Salt Lake City, the Stars dominated their way to a 57-27 record and a 2nd-place finish in the Western Division standings, a game behind the Indiana Pacers. In the Western Division Semifinals, the Stars would go on to sweep the Texas Chaparrals and then stunned the Pacers in game 7 of the Western Division Finals, earning a spot in the ABA Championship.
The Stars would face the Kentucky Colonels in the ABA Championship. In game one a near-capacity crowd filed into the Salt Palace to watch the Stars defeat Kentucky 136-117. The Stars set an ABA Playoff record by scoring 50 points in the 2nd quarter. In game 2, the series continued its high scoring with the Stars beating Kentucky 138-125. The series shifted to Louisville and Kentucky took games 3 and 4, tying the series up at 2-2. The series then returned to Salt Lake City, where the Stars beat Kentucky 137-127, taking a 3-2 series lead. The Stars looked to wrap up the ABA Championship with a game 6 victory in Louisville. However Kentucky clawed their way to a 7th game, barely beating the Stars 105-102, sending the series to a decisive 7th game back in Salt Lake City.
With the ABA Championship on the line, an ABA record crowd of 13,260 packed into the Salt Palace to watch game 7 of the 1971 ABA Championship. The game remained close throughout, however the Stars pulled away late, winning the 1971 ABA Championship 131-121.
As the game ended, hundreds of Stars fans rushed the court, lifting players onto their shoulders in a jubilant celebration. The actions were a total surprise to Stars officials, as they had not anticipated such a reaction from the fans.
Utah Stars vs. NBA teams
The ABA teams frequently played exhibition games in the preseason vs. NBA teams. While the ABA overall had a winning record vs. the NBA in head to head competition, the Stars had an overall record of 7-9 against NBA teams.
The Stars' first game against the NBA was a 96-89 loss at home to the New York Knicks on September 28, 1971. The Stars lost their first four games against NBA teams, earning their first win against that league with a win against the Seattle SuperSonics in Honolulu, Hawaii on September 24, 1972.
Other Stars wins against the NBA include defeating the Boston Celtics at home on October 4, 1973 (part of a double header in which 12,431 Utah fans also saw the ABA's Denver Rockets defeat the NBA's Phoenix Suns 113-111 prior to the Stars' win); a home win against the Kansas City-Omaha Kings on October 8, 1974; a home win against the SuperSonics on October 7, 1975; a win against the Kings on October 11, 1975 in Denver as part of a double header in which 17,018 fans saw the Denver Nuggets lose to the NBA's Golden State Warriors 115-100); and a 118-108 road win against the SuperSonics in Seattle on October 15, 1975.
In the very last game ever played between ABA and NBA teams, the Stars defeated the Milwaukee Bucks 106-101 in Salt Lake City on October 21, 1975. (In the penultimate ABA vs. NBA matchup, the ABA's Kentucky Colonels defeated the Washington Bullets 121-111 two nights prior.)
Notable players
Zelmo Beaty
Ron Boone
Jimmy Jones
Moses Malone
Rick Mount
Willie Wise
Basketball Hall of Famers
Season-by-season
|-
|colspan="6" align=center style="background:orange; color:#000000;"| Anaheim Amigos
|-
|1967–68 || 25 || 53 || .321 || ||
|-
|colspan="6" align=center | Los Angeles Stars
|-
|1968–69 || 33 || 45 || .423 || ||
|-
|1969–70 || 43 || 41 || .512 || Won Division SemifinalsWon SemifinalsLost ABA Finals || Los Angeles 4, Dallas 2Los Angeles 4, Denver 1Indiana 4, Los Angeles 2
|-
|colspan="6" align=center style="background:#1034A6; color:#FFFFFF; border:2px solid #d0103a;"|Utah Stars
|-
|1970–71 || 57 || 27 || .679 || Won First RoundWon SemifinalsWon ABA Finals || Utah 4, Texas 0Utah 4, Indiana 3Utah 4, Kentucky 3
|-
|1971–72 || 60 || 24 || .714 || Won Division SemifinalsLost Division Semifinals || Utah 4, Dallas 0Indiana 4, Utah 3
|-
|1972–73 || 55 || 29 || .655 || Won Division SemifinalsLost Division Semifinals || Utah 4, San Diego 0Indiana 4, Utah 2
|-
|1973–74 || 51 || 33 || .607 || Won Division SemifinalsWon Division FinalsLost ABA Finals || Utah 4, San Diego 2Utah 4, Indiana 3New York 4, Utah 1
|-
|1974–75 || 38 || 46 || .452 || Lost Division Semifinals || Denver 4, Utah 2
|-
|1975–76 || 4 || 12 || .250 || Did not qualify || (team folded)
|-
By the numbers
1 ABA Western Division regular season runner up (1970–71)
3 ABA Western Division regular season championships (1971–72, 1972–93, 1973–74)
2 ABA Western Division playoff runners up (1971–72, 1972–73)
3 ABA Western Division playoff championships (1969–1970, 1970–71, 1973–74)
1 ABA Championship (1970–71)
.321 winning percentage in ABA regular season games as the Anaheim Amigos
.469 winning percentage in ABA regular season games as the Los Angeles Stars
.571 winning percentage in ABA playoffs as the Utah Stars
.588 winning percentage in ABA playoffs as the Los Angeles Stars (only the Pittsburgh Condors and Oakland Oaks did better)
.608 winning percentage in ABA regular season games as the Utah Stars
3 number of cities the franchise called home (Anaheim, Los Angeles, Salt Lake City)
7 number of playoff games lost as the Los Angeles Stars
10 number of playoff games won as the Los Angeles Stars
25 number of regular season games won as the Anaheim Amigos
27 number of playoff games lost as the Utah Stars
36 number of playoff games won as the Utah Stars
53 number of regular season games lost as the Anaheim Amigos
76 number of regular season games won as the Los Angeles Stars
86 number of regular season games lost as the Los Angeles Stars
171 number of regular season games lost as the Utah Stars
265 number of regular season games won as the Utah Stars
12,166 capacity at the Salt Palace
13,260 crowd at the Salt Palace for Game 7 of the 1971 ABA championship series
$30,000 cost to enter the Amigos as an original ABA franchise in 1967
262,342 attendance during their first season in Salt Lake City
$450,000 sale price of the Amigos franchise in 1968
$500,000 lost in the Amigos' first season in Anaheim
$850,000 sale price of the Stars franchise in 1970
As the Utah Stars, the team's regular season winning percentage was .608, second only to the Minnesota Muskies (notably, the Muskies played only one season); however, if the franchise's Anaheim and Los Angeles games are included, the Kentucky Colonels have a higher winning percentage, at .602.
References
External links
Remember the ABA page for the Utah Stars
Audio of the final seconds of the Stars game 7 victory over Kentucky.
American Basketball Association teams
1970 establishments in Utah
1975 disestablishments in Utah
Basketball teams in Utah | [
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244712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission%20Hills%2C%20Los%20Angeles | Mission Hills, Los Angeles | Mission Hills is a suburban neighborhood in the City of Los Angeles, California, located in the San Fernando Valley.
It is near the northern junction of the Golden State Freeway (I-5) and the San Diego Freeway (I-405). The Ronald Reagan Freeway (SR-118) bisects the community. Mission Hills is at the northern end of the long Sepulveda Boulevard. Other main thoroughfares are San Fernando Mission Boulevard, Woodman Avenue, and Rinaldi, Brand, Chatsworth, Devonshire, and Lassen Streets. The boundaries are roughly Sepulveda Blvd and Interstate 405 to the west, Interstate 5 to the north and east, Van Nuys Boulevard to the southeast, and Lassen Street to the south. The Granada Hills community lies to the west, Sylmar to the north, the city of San Fernando to the northeast, Pacoima to the east, Arleta to the southeast, and Panorama City to the south.
The historical town was Hickson, now is named Mission Hills for the nearby Spanish Mission San Fernando Rey de España (1784). It includes the Andrés Pico Adobe, the second oldest residence still standing in Los Angeles. The San Fernando Mission Cemetery, located a short distance away, is one of the oldest active cemeteries within the San Fernando Valley.
Demographics
The 2010 U.S. census counted 18,496 residents in the area's 91345 ZIP Code. The median age was 36.3, and the median yearly household income at that time was $62,426.
In 2009, the Los Angeles Timess "Mapping L.A." project supplied the following numbers for the community of Mission Hills. Population: 18,237; median household income: $75,675.
Education
Residents are zoned to schools in the Los Angeles Unified School District.
Mission Hills has one private school within its boundaries; Bishop Alemany High School which is run by the Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
Medical centers
The community is serviced by Providence Holy Cross Medical Center, Facey Medical Group, and a newly opened Kaiser Permanente.
Government and infrastructure
Postal services
The United States Postal Service operates the Mission City Post Office at 10919 Sepulveda Boulevard.
Health services
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Pacoima Health Center in Pacoima, serving Mission Hills.
Police
In May 2005, the Los Angeles Police Mission Area was established as the 19th station built in the City of Los Angeles. This police station serves the communities of Mission Hills, Sylmar, North Hills, Arleta, and Panorama City.
Fire & EMS
The City of Los Angeles Fire Department provides fire and emergency medical services from Station 75. This consists of two engines (E75 & E275), a ladder truck (T75), and both an advanced life support ambulance (Rescue 75) and a basic life support ambulance (Rescue 875).
Federal representation
Mission Hills is represented in the United States Senate by California's Senators Dianne Feinstein and Alex Padilla.
The community of Mission Hills is located within California's 29th congressional district represented by Democrat Tony Cárdenas.
State representation
Mission Hills is located within California's 39th State Assembly district represented by Democrat Luz Rivas and California's 18th State Senate district represented by Democrat Robert Hertzberg.
Local representation
Mission Hills is located within Los Angeles City Council District 7 represented by Monica Rodriguez.
Economy
Tourism
Tourists visit the Mission San Fernando Rey de España, a historical mission.
The Andrés Pico Adobe is the second-oldest adobe home in the city of Los Angeles.
Notable natives
People who were born in Mission Hills include:
Ryan Braun (major league baseball All Star and MVP outfielder)
Jessica Cosby (Olympic athlete; track and field)
Michael Kuluva (fashion designer)
George Lopez (comedian)
Scott McAfee (actor)
References
Communities in the San Fernando Valley
Neighborhoods in Los Angeles | [
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244716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Carnival%20of%20the%20Animals | The Carnival of the Animals | The Carnival of the Animals (Le Carnaval des animaux) is a humorous musical suite of fourteen movements by the French composer Camille Saint-Saëns. The work, about 25 minutes in duration, was written for private performance by two pianos and chamber ensemble; Saint-Saëns prohibited public performance of the work during his lifetime, feeling that its frivolity would damage his standing as a serious composer. The suite was published in 1922, the year after his death. A public performance in the same year was greeted with enthusiasm, and the work has remained among his most popular. In addition to the original version for chamber ensemble, the suite is frequently performed with a full orchestral complement of strings.
History
Following a disastrous concert tour of Germany in 1885–86, Saint-Saëns withdrew to a small Austrian village, where he composed The Carnival of the Animals in February 1886. From the beginning he regarded the work as a piece of fun. On 9 February 1886 he wrote to his publishers Durand in Paris that he was composing a work for the coming Shrove Tuesday, and confessing that he knew he should be working on his Third Symphony, but that this work was "such fun" (). He had apparently intended to write the work for his students at the École Niedermeyer de Paris, but it was first performed at a private concert given by the cellist Charles Lebouc on 3 March 1886:
A few days later, a second performance was given at Émile Lemoine's chamber music society La Trompette, followed by another at the home of Pauline Viardot with an audience including Franz Liszt, a friend of the composer, who had expressed a wish to hear the work. There were other performances, typically for the French mid-Lent festival of Mi-Carême. All those performances were semi-private, except for one at the Société des instruments à vent in April 1892, and "often took place with the musicians wearing masks of the heads of the various animals they represented". Saint-Saëns was adamant that the work would not be published in his lifetime, seeing it as detracting from his "serious" composer image. He relented only for the famous cello solo The Swan, which forms the penultimate movement of the work, and which was published in 1887 in an arrangement by the composer for cello and solo piano (the original uses two pianos).
Saint-Saëns specified in his will that the work should be published posthumously. Following his death in December 1921 it was published by Durand in Paris in April 1922; the first public performance was given on 25 February 1922 by the Concerts Colonne, conducted by Gabriel Pierné. It was rapturously received. Le Figaro reported:
The Carnival of the Animals has since become one of Saint-Saëns's best-known works, played in the original version for eleven instruments, or more often with the full string section of an orchestra. Frequently a glockenspiel substitutes for the rare glass harmonica.
Music
The suite is scored for two pianos, two violins, viola, cello, double bass, flute (and piccolo), clarinet (C and B), glass harmonica, and xylophone. There are fourteen movements, each representing a different animal or animals:
I. Introduction et marche royale du lion (Introduction and Royal March of the Lion)
Strings and two pianos: the introduction begins with the pianos playing a bold tremolo, under which the strings enter with a stately theme. The pianos play a pair of glissandos going in opposite directions to conclude the first part of the movement. The pianos then introduce a march theme that they carry through most of the rest of the introduction. The strings provide the melody, with the pianos occasionally taking low chromatic scales in octaves which suggest the roar of a lion, or high ostinatos. The two groups of instruments switch places, with the pianos playing a higher, softer version of the melody. The movement ends with a fortissimo note from all the instruments used in this movement.
II. Poules et coqs (Hens and Roosters)
Strings without cello and double bass, two pianos, with clarinet: this movement is centered around a pecking theme played in the pianos and strings, which is quite reminiscent of chickens pecking at grain. The clarinet plays a small solo above the strings. The piano plays a very fast theme based on the crowing of a rooster's Cock-a-Doodle-Doo.
III. Hémiones (animaux véloces) (Wild Donkeys Swift Animals)
Two pianos: the animals depicted here are quite obviously running, an image induced by the constant, feverishly fast up-and-down motion of both pianos playing figures in octaves. These are dziggetai, donkeys that come from Tibet and are known for their great speed.
IV. Tortues (Tortoises)
Strings and piano: a satirical movement which opens with a piano playing a pulsing triplet figure in the higher register. The strings play a slow rendition of the famous "Galop infernal" (commonly called the Can-can) from Offenbach's comic opera Orphée aux enfers (Orpheus in the Underworld).
V. L'Éléphant (The Elephant)
Double bass and piano: this section is marked Allegro pomposo, the great caricature for an elephant. The piano plays a waltz-like triplet figure while the bass hums the melody beneath it. Like "Tortues," this is also a musical joke—the thematic material is taken from the Scherzo from Mendelssohn's incidental music to A Midsummer Night's Dream and Berlioz's "Dance of the Sylphs" from The Damnation of Faust. The two themes were both originally written for high, lighter-toned instruments (flute and various other woodwinds, and violin, accordingly); the joke is that Saint-Saëns moves this to the lowest and heaviest-sounding instrument in the orchestra, the double bass.
VI. Kangourous (Kangaroos)
Two pianos: the main figure here is a pattern of "hopping" chords (made up of triads in various positions) preceded by grace notes in the right hand. When the chords ascend, they quickly get faster and louder, and when the chords descend, they quickly get slower and softer.
VII. Aquarium
Violins, viola, cello (string quartet), two pianos, flute, and glass harmonica. The melody is played by the flute, backed by the strings, and glass harmonica on top of tumultuous, glissando-like runs and arpeggios in pianos. The first piano plays a descending ten-on-one, and eight-on-one ostinato, in the style of the second of Chopin's études, while the second plays a six-on-one. These figures, plus the occasional glissando from the glass harmonica towards the end—often played on celesta or glockenspiel—are evocative of a peaceful, dimly lit aquarium.
VIII. Personnages à longues oreilles (Characters with Long Ears)
Two violins: this is the shortest of all the movements. The violins alternate playing high, loud notes and low, buzzing ones (in the manner of a donkey's braying "hee-haw").
Music critics have speculated that the movement is meant to compare music critics to braying donkeys.
IX. Le Coucou au fond des bois (The Cuckoo in the Depths of the Woods)
Two pianos and clarinet: the pianos play large, soft chords while the clarinet plays a single two-note ostinato; a C and an A, mimicking the call of a cuckoo bird. Saint-Saëns states in the original score that the clarinetist should be offstage.
X. Volière (Aviary)
Strings, pianos and flute: the high strings take on a background role, providing a buzz in the background that is reminiscent of the background noise of a jungle. The cellos and basses play a pickup cadence to lead into most of the measures. The flute takes the part of the bird, with a trilling tune that spans much of its range. The pianos provide occasional pings and trills of other birds in the background. The movement ends very quietly after a long ascending chromatic scale from the flute.
XI. Pianistes (Pianists)
Strings and two pianos: this humorous movement (satirizing pianists as animals) is a glimpse of what few audiences ever get to see: the pianists practicing their finger exercises and scales. The scales of C, D, D and E are covered. Each one starts with a trill on the first and second note, then proceeds in scales with a few changes in the rhythm. Transitions between keys are accomplished with a blasting chord from all the instruments between scales. In some performances, the later, more difficult, scales are deliberately played increasingly out of time. The original edition has a note by the editors instructing the players to imitate beginners and their awkwardness. After the four scales, the key changes back to C, where the pianos play a moderate speed trill-like pattern in thirds, in the style of Charles-Louis Hanon or Carl Czerny, while the strings play a small part underneath. This movement is unusual in that the last three blasted chords do not resolve the piece, but rather lead into the next movement.
XII. Fossiles (Fossils)
Strings, two pianos, clarinet, and xylophone: here, Saint-Saëns mimics his own composition, the Danse macabre, which makes heavy use of the xylophone to evoke the image of skeletons dancing, the bones clacking together to the beat. The musical themes from Danse macabre are also quoted; the xylophone and the violin play much of the melody, alternating with the piano and clarinet. Allusions to "Ah! vous dirai-je, Maman" (better known in the English-speaking world as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star), the French nursery rhymes "Au clair de la lune", and "J'ai du bon tabac" (the second piano plays the same melody upside down [inversion]), the popular anthem "Partant pour la Syrie", as well as the aria "Una voce poco fa" from Rossini's The Barber of Seville can also be heard. The musical joke in this movement, according to Leonard Bernstein's narration on his recording of the work with the New York Philharmonic, is that the musical pieces quoted are the fossils of Saint-Saëns's time. The movement ends with the xylophone theme first played by the xylophone and strings, but is soon taken over by almost all the instruments.
XIII. Le cygne (The Swan)
Two pianos and cello: a slowly moving cello melody (which evokes the swan elegantly gliding over the water) is played over rippling sixteenths in one piano and rolled chords in the other.
A staple of the cello repertoire, this is one of the best-known movements of the suite, usually in the version for cello with solo piano which was the only publication from this suite in Saint-Saëns's lifetime.
A short ballet solo, The Dying Swan, was choreographed in 1905 by Mikhail Fokine to this movement and performed by Anna Pavlova. Pavlova gave some 4,000 performances of the dance and "swept the world."
XIV. Final (Finale)
Full ensemble: the finale opens on the same trills in the pianos as in the introduction, but soon the wind instruments, the glass harmonica and the xylophone join in. The strings build the tension with a few low notes, leading to glissandi by the piano before the lively main melody is introduced. The Finale is somewhat reminiscent of an American carnival of the 19th century, with one piano always maintaining a bouncy eighth-note rhythm. Although the melody is relatively simple, the supporting harmonies are ornamented in the style that is typical of Saint-Saëns' compositions for piano; dazzling scales, glissandi and trills. Many of the previous movements are quoted here from the introduction, the lion, the donkeys, hens, and kangaroos. The work ends with a series of six "Hee Haws" from the donkeys, as if to say that the donkey has the last laugh, before the final strong group of C major chords.
Musical allusions
As the title suggests, the work is programmatical and zoological. It progresses from the first movement, , through portraits of elephants and donkeys ("Personages with Long Ears") to a finale reprising many of the earlier motifs.
Several of the movements are of humorous intent:
uses the theme of Rameau's harpsichord piece ("The Hen") from his Suite in G major, but in a less elegant mood.
makes use of the well-known "Galop infernal" from Offenbach's comic opera Orpheus in the Underworld, playing the usually breakneck-speed melody at a slow, drooping pace.
uses a theme from Berlioz's "Danse des sylphes" (from his work The Damnation of Faust) played in a much lower register than usual as a double bass solo. The piece also quotes the Scherzo from Mendelssohn's A Midsummer Night's Dream.
The section is thought to be directed at music critics: they are also supposedly the last animals heard during the finale, braying.
depicts piano students labouring over their scales in Hanon- and Czerny-style exercises.
quotes Saint-Saëns's own as well as three nursery rhymes, "J'ai du bon tabac", (Twinkle Twinkle Little Star) and , also the song "Partant pour la Syrie" and Rossini's aria, "Una voce poco fa" from The Barber of Seville.
Verses
In 1949 Ogden Nash wrote a set of humorous verses to accompany each movement for a Columbia Masterworks recording of Carnival of the Animals conducted by Andre Kostelanetz. They were recited by Noël Coward; Kostelanetz and Coward performed the suite with Nash's verses with the New York Philharmonic at Carnegie Hall, New York, in 1956.
Nash's verses, with their topical references (e.g. to President Truman's piano playing) became dated, and later writers have written new words to accompany the suite, including Johnny Morris, Jeremy Nicholas, Jack Prelutsky, John Lithgow, and Michael Morpurgo, whose version was recorded in 2020, and given at the Proms in 2021 by Morpurgo and an ensemble comprising Sheku Kanneh-Mason, members of his family and other musicians.
Recordings
In 2019, Gramophone published a comparative review of recordings of Carnival of the Animals. The recordings mentioned were:
Source: Gramophone.
Other recorded versions
Other recordings, not mentioned in the above survey, include:
Source: Naxos Music Library.
Alternative recordings
In 1982, the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble recorded an arrangement for brass instruments by Peter Reeve.
A parody of the work entitled "Carnival of the Animals, Part Two" was recorded by "Weird Al" Yankovic and Wendy Carlos in 1988, with new verses written by Yankovic about a different cast of animals such as the shark and the poodle.
In 1993, an all-star cast recording was released on CD by Dove Audio performed by the Hollywood Chamber Orchestra conducted by Lalo Schifrin with all proceeds going to charity. Readers included Arte Johnson (Introduction and Finale), Charlton Heston (Royal March of The Lion), James Earl Jones (Hens and Roosters), Betty White (Wild Donkeys), Lynn Redgrave (Tortoises), William Shatner (The Elephant), Joan Rivers (Kangaroos), Ted Danson (Aquarium), Lily Tomlin (Characters with Long Ears), Deborah Raffin (The Cuckoo), Audrey Hepburn (Aviary), Dudley Moore (Pianists), Walter Matthau (Fossils) and Jaclyn Smith (The Swan).
In 1996, a surf rock cover of "Aquarium" was used as the on-ride soundtrack of the original Space Mountain ride layout at Disneyland before its 2005 renovation. It featured guitar riffs by Dick Dale.
For a ballet to Saint-Saëns's suite, choreographed by Christopher Wheeldon and presented by New York City Ballet, John Lithgow wrote a narration. The storyline is that a mischievous boy slips away from his teacher during a trip to a museum of natural history and, once the museum is shut, sees all the people he knows transformed into animals. An audio recording was made in 2004 by members of Chamber Music Los Angeles, conducted by Bill Elliot, with the narration spoken by Lithgow.
In 2021, the Los Angeles Philharmonic streamed the piece at the Hollywood Bowl with Yuja Wang and David Fung on piano, conducted by Gustavo Dudamel. 4 animal folktales were narrated by El Sistema students from around the world - Martin (9), Arão (12), Afra (14), and Maya (8).
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
.
External links
Video Performance of Le Cygne by Julian Lloyd Webber
2011 recording for organ and piano combined, by David Owen Norris and David Coram
NY Theatre Ballet Children's Study Guide (PDF), featuring Ogden Nash verses
1886 compositions
Chamber music by Camille Saint-Saëns
Saint-Saens
Compositions for double bass
Humor in classical music
Music about animals
Orchestral suites | [
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244717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Fifth%20Republic | French Fifth Republic | The Fifth Republic () is France's current republican system of government. It was established 4 October 1958 by Charles de Gaulle under the Constitution of the Fifth Republic. The Fifth Republic emerged from the collapse of the Fourth Republic, replacing the former parliamentary republic with a semi-presidential (or dual-executive) system that split powers between a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. De Gaulle, who was the first French president elected under the Fifth Republic in December 1958, believed in a strong head of state, which he described as embodying ("the spirit of the nation").
The Fifth Republic is France's third-longest-lasting political regime, after the hereditary and feudal monarchies of the Ancien Régime (Late Middle Ages – 1792) and the parliamentary Third Republic (1870–1940). The Fifth Republic will overtake the Third Republic as the second-longest-lasting regime and the longest-lasting French republic on 11 July 2028 if it remains in place.
Origins
The trigger for the collapse of the Fourth French Republic was the Algiers crisis of 1958. France was still a colonial power, although conflict and revolt had begun the process of decolonization. French West Africa, French Indochina, and French Algeria still sent representatives to the French parliament under systems of limited suffrage in the French Union. Algeria in particular, despite being the colony with the largest French population, saw rising pressure for separation from Metropolitan France. The situation was complicated by those in Algeria, such as European settlers, native Jews, and Harkis (native Muslims who were loyal to France) who wanted to maintain the union with France. The Algerian War was not just a separatist movement but had elements of a civil war. Further complications came when a section of the French Army rebelled and openly backed the movement to defeat separation. Charles de Gaulle, who had retired from politics a decade before, placed himself in the midst of the crisis, calling on the nation to suspend the government and create a new constitutional system. De Gaulle was carried to power by the inability of the parliament to choose a government, popular protest, and the last parliament of the Fourth Republic voting for their dissolution and the convening of a constitutional convention.
The Fourth Republic suffered from a lack of political consensus, a weak executive, and governments forming and falling in quick succession since 1946. With no party or coalition able to sustain a parliamentary majority, prime ministers found themselves unable to risk their political position with unpopular reforms.
De Gaulle and his supporters proposed a system of strong presidents elected for seven-year terms. The president, under the proposed constitution, would have executive powers to run the country in consultation with a prime minister whom he would appoint. On 1 June 1958, Charles de Gaulle was appointed head of the government; on 3 June 1958, a constitutional law empowered the new government to draft a new constitution of France, and another law granted Charles de Gaulle and his cabinet the power to rule by decree for up to six months, except on certain matters related to the basic rights of citizens (criminal law, etc.). These plans were approved by more than 80% of those who voted in the referendum of 28 September 1958. The new constitution was signed into law on 4 October 1958. Since each new constitution established a new republic, France moved from the Fourth to the Fifth Republic.
The new constitution contained transitional clauses (articles 90–92) extending the period of rule by decree until the new institutions were operating. René Coty remained president of the Republic until the new president was proclaimed. On 21 December 1958, Charles de Gaulle was elected president of France by an electoral college. The provisional constitutional commission, acting in lieu of the constitutional council, proclaimed the results of the election on 9 January 1959. The new president began his office on that date, appointing Michel Debré as prime minister.
The 1958 constitution also replaced the French Union with the French Community, which allowed fourteen member territories (excluding Algeria) to assert their independence. 1960 became known as the "Year of Africa" because of this wave of newly independent states. Algeria became independent on 5 July 1962.
Evolution
The president was initially elected by an electoral college but in 1962 de Gaulle proposed that the president be directly elected by the citizens and held a referendum on the change. Although the method and intent of de Gaulle in that referendum were contested by most political groups except for the Gaullists, the change was approved by the French electorate. The Constitutional Council declined to rule on the constitutionality of the referendum.
The president is now elected every five years, changed from seven by a constitutional referendum in 2000, to reduce the probability of cohabitation due to former differences in the length of terms for the National Assembly and presidency. The president is elected in one or two rounds of voting: if one candidate gets a majority of votes in the first round that person is president-elect; if no one gets a majority in the first round, the two candidates with the greatest number of votes go to a second round.
Two major changes occurred in the 1970s regarding constitutional checks and balances. Traditionally, France operated according to parliamentary supremacy: no authority was empowered to rule on whether statutes passed by Parliament respected the constitutional rights of the citizens. In 1971, however, the Constitutional Council, arguing that the preamble of the constitution referenced the rights defined in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and the preamble of the 1946 constitution, concluded that statutes must respect these rights and so declared partially unconstitutional a statute because it violated freedom of association. Only the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, or the president of either house of Parliament could ask for a constitutional review a statute was signed into law—which greatly reduces the likelihood of such a review if all these officeholders happened to be from the same side of politics, which was the case at the time. Then in 1974, a constitutional amendment widened this prerogative to 60 members of the National Assembly or 60 members of the senate. From that date, the opposition has been able to have controversial new statutes examined for constitutionality.
Presidents of the Fifth Republic
Source:
President image gallery
Prime Ministers of the Fifth Republic
Source:
Institutions of the Fifth Republic
See also
1958 Guinean constitutional referendum
French colonial empire
List of French possessions and colonies
Politics of France
Notes
References
Further reading
Atkin, Nicholas. The Fifth French Republic (European History in Perspective) (2005) excerpt and text search
Bell, David S. and John Gaffney, eds. The Presidents of the French Fifth Republic (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)
Bell,David, et al. A Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders since 1870 (1990)
Bell, David S., and Byron Criddle. Exceptional Socialists: The Case of the French Socialist Party (2014)
Berstein, Serge, and Jean-Pierre Rioux. The Pompidou Years, 1969–1974 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (2000) excerpt
Brouard, Sylvain et al. The French Fifth Republic at Fifty: Beyond Stereotypes (French Politics, Society and Culture) (2009)
Chabal, Emile, ed. France since the 1970s: History, Politics and Memory in an Age of Uncertainty (2015) Excerpt
Cole, Alistair. François Mitterrand: A study in political leadership (1994)
Corbett, Anne, and Bob Moon, eds. Education in France: continuity and change in the Mitterrand years 1981–1995 (Routledge, 2002)
Fenby, Jonathan The General: Charles de Gaulle and the France He Saved (2010) pp. 375–635.
Fenby, Jonathan France: A Modern History from the Revolution to the War with Terror (2016) pp. 359–484
Gaffney, John. Political Leadership in France. From Charles de Gaulle to Nicolas Sarkozy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
Jackson, Julian. De Gaulle (2018) 887pp; the most recent major biography
Kulski, W. W. De Gaulle and the World: The Foreign Policy of the Fifth French Republic (1966) online free to borrow
Lewis-Beck, Michael S., et al. eds. French Presidential Elections (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012)
Nester, William R. De Gaulle's Legacy: The Art of Power in France's Fifth Republic (2014)
Praud, Jocelyne and Sandrine Dauphin, eds. Parity Democracy: Women's Political Representation in Fifth Republic France (2011)
Raymond, Gino G., The French Communist Party During Fifth Republic: A Crisis of Leadership and Ideology. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)
Rogoff, Martin A. French Constitutional Law: Cases and Materials (Durham, Carolina Academic Press, 2010.
Short, Philip. Mitterrand: A Study in Ambiguity (2013)
Thody, Philip. The Fifth French Republic: Presidents, Politics and Personalities: A Study of French Political Culture (1998) excerpt and text search
Wall, Irwin. France Votes: The Election of François Hollande (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.)
Williams, Charles. The Last Great Frenchman: A Life of General De Gaulle (1997)
In French
External links
LegiFrance: French Constitution of 1958
Contemporary French history
Republic 5
Republicanism in France
1958 establishments in France
States and territories established in 1958
Republic 5
21st century in France | [
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244718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth%20Republic | Fifth Republic | Fifth Republics may refer to:
Fifth Republic of Afghanistan, also known as the "Islamic Republic of Afghanistan" (2004-2021)
Fifth Brazilian Republic (1964-1985)
French Fifth Republic (1958–present)
Fifth Republic of Czechoslovakia (1990–1992)
Fifth Republic of Korea (1981–1988)
5th Republic (TV series), a dramatization of this time period made for Korean television
Fifth Republic of the Philippines (1986–present)
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (1999–present)
Fifth Republic Movement, Hugo Chávez's left-wing populist, socialist political party in Venezuela now merge with United Socialist Party of Venezuela
Fifth Republic of Niger (since 1999)
Fifth Irish Republic, Since 1949
Fifth South African Republic (1994-Present)
Fifth Roman Republic (1849)
See also
First Republic (disambiguation)
Second Republic (disambiguation)
Third Republic (disambiguation)
Fourth Republic (disambiguation)
Sixth Republic | [
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244721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Diego%20Conquistadors | San Diego Conquistadors | The San Diego Conquistadors (known as the San Diego Sails in their final, partial season), were an American Basketball Association (ABA) team based in San Diego. The "Q's", as they were popularly known, played from 1972 to 1975. As the Sails, they played an incomplete season only, beginning the 1975–1976 season but folding after only 11 games with 3 wins and 8 losses.
History
San Diego Conquistadors
The franchise was founded by Leonard Bloom in 1972 as the ABA's first—and as it turned out, only—expansion team. The team was slated to play at the San Diego Sports Arena, but a feud between Bloom and Peter Graham, operator and lease-holder of the city-owned 14,400 seat arena, led Graham to lock the newborn team out of the facility for two years. Graham was reportedly upset about Bloom being awarded the ABA expansion team he had also sought. By the time the conflict was resolved in the fall of 1974, it was too late for a weakened franchise that had been forced to play, in the interim, at bandboxes Peterson Gymnasium (3,200 seats) on the campus of San Diego State University, and Golden Hall, a multipurpose facility in Downtown.
After reaching the 1973 ABA Playoffs in their inaugural season, the Q's seemingly pulled off a coup by paying center Wilt Chamberlain $600,000 to become their player-coach. But the Los Angeles Lakers sued to block their former star from playing for his new team. Relegated to a sideline role, Chamberlain was reduced to an indifferent, 7-foot-1-inch sideshow who once skipped a game in favor of an autograph session for his recently published autobiography. (His fill-in, on that and other occasions, was Stan Albeck, who later skippered the Chicago Bulls, San Antonio Spurs and New Jersey Nets of the NBA.) Nonetheless, the team again reached the postseason, bowing out in the first round, for the second year in a row, in the 1974 ABA Playoffs.
The season, however, was overshadowed by the arena situation. Frustrated with his inability to get a lease for the Sports Arena, Bloom announced plans for a 20,000-seat arena in Chula Vista. However, a referendum on the arena, held just after the season started, failed by only 294 votes. League officials then ordered Bloom to take preliminary steps toward moving to Los Angeles, in hopes of returning to a market abandoned by the Utah Stars four years earlier.
For their third season in 1974–75, the Conquistadors lost Chamberlain and finally gained a lease in the Sports Arena. But without Chamberlain as a gate attraction, the team was roundly ignored by San Diegans, and placed last in the Western Division, missing the 1975 ABA Playoffs.
San Diego Sails
Bloom sold the franchise during the summer of 1975 to Frank Goldberg, a former co-owner of the successful Denver Nuggets franchise. Goldberg started anew, renaming the team the San Diego Sails and hiring former University of Minnesota coach Bill Musselman. With a completely different roster, color scheme, set of uniforms and just about everything else, the re-branded Sails sought to repeat Denver's turnaround a season earlier from mediocrity to championship contender.
But the Sails attracted just 3,060 fans to their home opener on October 24, 1975 – a loss to the Nuggets – and fan attendance rapidly dwindled further as the team limped to a 3-8 start; only 1,670 showed up for San Diego's third (and ultimately last) home game, against the San Antonio Spurs. Goldberg soon learned San Diego was to be shut out of the pending ABA–NBA merger, reportedly due to the insistence of Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke, who refused to share his Southern California fan base with a team to the south.
With the team lacking fan support or a long-term future, Goldberg folded the franchise on November 12. The ABA, which planned to start the season with ten teams only to have the Baltimore Claws fold after three exhibition games, saw its number drop to eight with the Sails' failure; on December 2, the Utah Stars also disbanded, cutting the league to seven teams and forcing the ABA to shrink its two-division setup to just one.
The ABA's demise and later San Diego basketball
The moribund state of the last-place Virginia Squires, who folded after the season, left the ABA with only six teams and forced the league to seek a merger with the more established NBA, which absorbed four of the six remaining teams. (The Indiana Pacers, New York Nets, Denver Nuggets and San Antonio Spurs joined the NBA, while the owners of the Spirits of St. Louis and Kentucky Colonels were paid off and folded their franchises.)
In 1978, the NBA's Buffalo Braves arrived in San Diego as the San Diego Clippers; in 1984, they moved up the coast to become the Los Angeles Clippers. San Diego has not had another major-league pro basketball team since. A couple of minor-league hoops teams have called the city home: the CBA's San Diego Wildcards, who folded after only 21 games in 1996, and the International Basketball League's San Diego Stingrays, who played from 1999 to 2001. (San Diego has also had various franchises in the semi-pro, 21st century American Basketball Association, such as the B-Kings, Sol, Surf, Wildcats and Wildfire.)
Basketball Hall of Famers
Notes:
1 Inducted as a player.
Season-by-season
|-
|colspan="6" align=center style="background:#FFD700; color:#C80815;"| San Diego Conquistadors
|-
|1972–73 || 30 ||54 ||.357 || Lost Division Semifinals || Utah 4, San Diego 0
|-
|1973–74 || 37 || 47 ||.440 || Lost Division Semifinals || Utah 4, San Diego 2
|-
|1974–75 || 31 || 53 ||.369|| colspan=2|Did not qualify
|-
|colspan="6" align=center style="background:#FFFFFF; color:#000f89; border:2px solid #228B22;"| San Diego Sails
|-
|1975–76 || 3 ||8 ||.273|| Did not qualify|| (team folded)
|-
References
External links
San Diego Sails page at RememberTheABA.com
American Basketball Association teams
Defunct basketball teams in the United States
Defunct basketball teams in California
1972 establishments in California
1975 disestablishments in California
Basketball teams established in 1972
Sports clubs disestablished in 1975 | [
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244722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weil%20conjecture | Weil conjecture | The term Weil conjecture may refer to:
The Weil conjectures about zeta functions of varieties over finite fields, proved by Dwork, Grothendieck, Deligne and others.
The Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture about elliptic curves, proved by Wiles and others.
The Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers about the Tamagawa number of an algebraic group, proved by Kottwitz and others.
The Hasse–Weil conjecture about zeta functions. | [
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244732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subminiature%20photography | Subminiature photography | Subminiature photography is photographic technologies and techniques working with film material smaller in size than 35mm film, such as 16mm, 9.5mm, 17mm, or 17.5mm films. It is distinct from photomicrography, photographing microscopic subjects with a camera which is not particularly small.
Definition
Subminiature — "very much reduced in size", Oxford English Dictionary.
A subminiature camera is a class of camera that is very much smaller than a "miniature camera".
The term "miniature camera" was originally used to describe cameras using the 35 mm cine film as negative material for still photography; so cameras that used film smaller than 35mm were referred to as "sub-miniature". The smallest of these are often referred to as "ultra-miniature". Lipstick cameras and other small digital cameras are not included, because they don't use film. The smaller subminiature cameras, called ultraminiature cameras, particularly Minox, are associated with spying.
In short, some people define "subminiature camera" as one that uses film smaller than 35mm (even though some of these cameras are larger than full-framed 35mm cameras), but others define it any camera that has a film format smaller than the standard 35mm format of 24x36mm (even though some of these cameras are larger than full-framed 35mm cameras).
Types
There are many subminiature cameras. Minox, followed by Tessina, GaMi, Rollei, Yashica, Mamiya, Gemflex and Minolta are the best-known manufacturers. All made small, precision cameras and a few were still in production in 2006 but by 2011, only the Minox TLX model was still in production. Getting film and processing for most smaller cameras is a challenge as they are no longer manufactured or supported. Most require cutting your own film and home-processing.
The best known subminiature formats are—in increasing size—Minox (8×11 mm), Kodak disc (8×11 mm), 16 mm (10×14 mm), Super 16 mm (12×17 mm), 110 film (13×17 mm), 17.5mm for HIT camera( for example TONE camera), and the Advanced Photo System (APS) with different aspect ratios on 24 mm film. While many subminiature cameras were inexpensive and poorly manufactured (thus giving the format a bad name), Minox, Gami, Edixa, Rollei, Pentax and Minolta made quality cameras capable of producing fine results—even when enlarged. Some of these formats, or non-standard cartridges loaded with an otherwise standard ciné format, are best described as specialised (e.g., Minox); half-frame 35 mm uses standard 35 mm film; cameras such as 110 and disc were aimed at the mass market.
The first subminiature single lens reflex is the Russian Narciss camera produced in 1961-65.
First making an appearance in the late 19th century, often as concealed cameras, subminiature cameras became popular soon after WWII when many consumer markets required small, inexpensive cameras. Friedrich Kaftansky's Mini-flex was designed in 1931, on the market in 1933. Walter Zapp's Riga Minox appeared in 1938. Kodak's introduction of the 110 camera in the 1970s and the Kodak disc camera in the 1980s brought the subminiature camera to the forefront of the photographic market. The many cheap, poorly made cameras that soon appeared drove Kodak out of the market.
Various formats of subminiature camera have come and gone over the years as newer formats have replaced older one. In addition, many larger format cameras, especially 35 mm, become smaller in size and weight—partly due to the consumer demand for subminiature cameras—and were able to replace some subminiature formats. For example, full-frame 35 mm cameras, such as the Minox 35 and the Olympus XA, were made as small as earlier half-frame subminiature cameras such as the Olympus Pen, using moderate wide-angle fixed lenses to minimise lens barrel depth. Some subminiature formats, such as the Minox and 110 formats, continue in production. Most other subminiature cameras are still usable if film can be obtained, particularly if the photographer is prepared to do the processing.
Subminiature camera film
16mm perforated or unperforated bulk roll film by Agfa, Kodak, Fujifilm in 100 ft to 1000 ft.
Using film slitter to slit 35mm roll film into Minox format film or 16mm film.
Subminiature photography technique
Focusing
The process of focusing a subminiature camera is the same as any other camera:
Unit focusing: the entire lens is moved back and forth relative to the film plane. Examples: Minox B, C, LX, TLX; Edixa 16, Tessina. Minox 110, Monolta 16
Front element focusing: Rollei 16, Rollei 110.
Fixed focus, feasible with the great depth of field of short focal length lenses: Minox EC, Minox ECX.
Internal focusing is not used.
The small size of the camera and film require the use of a lens with short focal length, and hence great depth of field. This simplifies focusing to some extent.
The simplest system is to use a lens with fixed focus set at the hyperfocal distance. This will produce images that are acceptably sharp from infinity to some near plane (usually five to eight feet away). This system is used in most cheaper cameras.
More complex systems allow variable focus, through a dial or slider. Many cameras with this system have distance markings on the control; it is up to the user to set the focus according to the distance to the subject. Most Minox cameras use this system.
Some subminiature cameras include a rangefinder, for example the Minox 110. These increase the size.
Autofocus or through-the-lens focusing systems are not used on subminiature cameras to reduce the size requirements.
Macro photography
Subminiature cameras are less suited to macro photography than larger cameras, although the relatively large depth of field at close distances is an advantage. Where concealment is required, subminiature cameras are required; they (particularly the various Minox models) are well known as spy cameras, where they were used to photograph documents close up. Minox cameras for these purposes come with a 24-inch measuring chain attached, with markings corresponding to certain distances, to assist in focusing at these short ranges.
Telephoto
Few subminiature cameras have interchangeable lenses, which reduce the advantages of a small size system. Telephoto lenses for such small formats essentially do not exist, except for Steky and Gami. There have been attachments to allow cameras (generally Minox) to attach to telescopes or binoculars, but these give results of lower quality than the camera's optics can achieve.
Developing and enlarging
Nikor or Jobo 16mm development reel
Nikor 9.2mm or Jobo 8x11 development reel
Minox daylight development tank
10x14mm, 12x17mm, 14x21mm and 8x11mm negative carrier used with 35mm enlarger.
Minox enlarger with 15mm Micro-Minox enlarging lens
See also
Pigeon photography
Gallery
References
Joseph D. Cooper Ultra-miniature photography
Joseph D. Cooper The Minox Manual
William White: Subminiature Photography
Photography by genre | [
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244733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby%20Bonds | Bobby Bonds | Bobby Lee Bonds (March 15, 1946 – August 23, 2003) was an American right fielder in Major League Baseball from to , primarily with the San Francisco Giants. Noted for his outstanding combination of power hitting and speed, he was the first player to have more than two seasons of 30 home runs and 30 stolen bases, doing so a record five times (the record was matched only by his son Barry), and was the first to accomplish the feat in both major leagues; he became the second player to hit 300 career home runs and steal 300 bases, joining Willie Mays. Together with Barry, he is part of baseball's most accomplished father-son combination, holding the record for combined home runs, RBIs, and stolen bases. A prolific leadoff hitter, he also set major league records for most times leading off a game with a home run in a career (35) and a season (11, in ); both records have since been broken.
Baseball career
Born in Riverside, California, Bonds played varsity high school baseball at Riverside Polytechnic High School and signed with the Giants in . His sister, Rosie, was a 1964 Olympic hurdler. His brother, Robert, won two gold medals in the hurdles at the high school track and field state finals in 1960, and was an NFL Draft pick in 1965. In 1964 he was a High School All-American in track & field, while also being named Southern California High School Athlete of the Year. Playing in the Giants' minor league system, he was Most Valuable Player of the class-A Western Carolinas League.
He hit a grand slam in his third at bat in his first major league game, June 25, 1968, becoming just the second player, and the first in MLB's modern era, to hit a grand slam in his debut game. The first was Bill Duggleby in 1898. Bonds was named to the 1968 Topps All-Star Rookie Team.
Bonds was remarkable during his era for his combination of power and speed, but also for his propensity to strike out. In his first full season in , he set a major league record with 187 strikeouts, while also leading the NL in runs. He broke his own strikeout record a year later with 189. That record lasted until , when Adam Dunn broke it by striking out 195 times. This mark now belongs to Mark Reynolds with 223 in 2009. Bonds' 1970 total currently ranks tenth on the all-time single-season strikeout list. When Bonds retired, he ranked third in career strikeouts with 1,757, behind Willie Stargell's 1,912 and Reggie Jackson's 1,810. Bobby Bonds hit 39 home runs and had 43 stolen bases in 1973 – the highest level of home runs and stolen bases (39+ of each) until José Canseco of the Oakland Athletics in 1988. Barry and Bobby had 1,094 combined home runs through 2007 – a record for a father-son combination. He was a three-time Gold Glove Award winner (1971, 1973–74), and a three-time All-Star (1971, 1973 and 1975, winning the All-Star MVP award in 1973).
In 1970 he stole a career-high 48 bases, the highest total by a Giant since Frankie Frisch in 1921. Bonds was second in the NL in runs (134), third in triples (10) and stolen bases (48), and fourth in doubles (36) and total bases (334). He also set a major league record with 189 strikeouts, which stood for 34 years until it was broken in 2004 by Adam Dunn.
In 1971 he finished fourth in the NL in runs batted in and second in runs, leading the Giants with a .288 average as they won the National League West title, earning their first postseason berth since the 1962 World Series. A bruised rib cage limited his play in the 1971 NLCS, his only postseason appearance; he was a late-inning replacement for rookie Dave Kingman in Game 1, and did not play in Game 2 before starting the final two games, batting 2-for-8 in the series. That season, he placed fourth in the NL MVP award voting. In 1972 Bonds scored 118 runs, which was second in the NL (the third straight season he was second in runs scored) and his 26 home runs was ninth in the circuit while his 44 stolen bases was 4th in the league. In 1973, he placed third in the MVP voting after hitting a career-high 39 home runs, 11 of them to start a game, and leading the league in runs a second time. Bonds was named the NL Player of the Year by The Sporting News in 1973 and was also named an outfielder on TSN'''s American League All-Star Team in 1977.
In 1975 Bonds broke Eddie Yost's career record of 28 leadoff home runs. His eventual record of 35 stood until Rickey Henderson broke it in 1989, and his NL record of 30 was broken by Craig Biggio in 2003. His single-season mark of 11 was broken by Brady Anderson in 1996. His 32 home runs was fourth in the AL and his 30 stolen bases were eighth in the league. He was voted honorable mention on AP's ALl-MLB team.
After being traded to the New York Yankees for Bobby Murcer after the 1974 season, Bonds became one of the sport's most-traveled figures, playing for seven more teams over seven seasons, with more than one season for only the California Angels (1976–77). With the Angels needing right-handed power hitters, he had been obtained from the Yankees for Mickey Rivers and Ed Figueroa on December 11, 1975, In 1977 he tied the Angels club record for home runs in a season (37).
He was acquired along with Richard Dotson and Thad Bosley by the Chicago White Sox from the Angels for Brian Downing, Chris Knapp and Dave Frost on December 5, 1977. The transaction was part of Bill Veeck and Roland Hemond's rent-a-player strategy in which they attempted to get one productive campaign from a star player who was expected to become a free agent at season's end. It had worked the previous year when Richie Zisk and Oscar Gamble helped to keep the White Sox in contention into September, but it failed when the team opened 1978 with Bonds as its right fielder and a 9–20 start. He was sent to the Texas Rangers for Claudell Washington and Rusty Torres on May 16, 1978.
Bonds, along with Len Barker, was dealt from the Rangers to the Cleveland Indians for Jim Kern and Larvell Blanks on October 3, 1978. His trade to the St. Louis Cardinals for John Denny and Jerry Mumphrey on December 7, 1979 was the sixth in just over five years. After his contract was purchased by the Chicago Cubs from the Rangers on June 4, 1981, he had played with eight different MLB teams in eight years. This prompted a line in the lyrics to Terry Cashman's 1981 hit song "Talkin' Baseball", in which the line in part reads "And Bobby Bonds can play for everyone."
Bonds' 461 career stolen bases ranked 12th in major league history upon his retirement. He was hitting instructor for the Indians from 1984 to 1987, and rejoined the Giants as a coach in 1993 when his son Barry signed with the team as a free agent. As a player, coach, scout and front-office employee, he was with the Giants franchise for 23 seasons. Barry Bonds is the only other player in major league history to hit 300 home runs and steal 400 bases, and also the only other player to have five 30–30 seasons.
Eleven times Bonds was in his league's top 10 in stolen bases, with eight of those season in the top six. Seven times he was among the league top ten home run hitters and nine time he was among the top ten in runs scored, leading the NL in 1971 and 1973. He was in the top ten in total bases eight times, leading the NL in 1973. He had as of 2018 the fifth-highest career power–speed number, behind his son Barry, Rickey Henderson, Willie Mays, and Alex Rodriguez, at 386.0.
Personal life
On May 3, 1963, he married Patricia Howard. They had three sons, Barry Bonds who went on to become one of the greatest major league players of all time, Rick Bonds, and Bobby Bonds Jr., the latter playing eleven years of pro ball but never making it to the major leagues.
Bonds died of complications from lung cancer and a brain tumor at age 57 in San Carlos, California. He is interred at Skylawn Memorial Park in San Mateo, California.
See also
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
30–30 club
List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
References
Baseball: The Biographical Encyclopedia'' (2000). Kingston, New York: Total/Sports Illustrated. .
External links
Bobby Bonds at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
Baseball Evolution Hall of Fame – Player Profile
1946 births
2003 deaths
African-American baseball coaches
African-American baseball players
American League All-Stars
Arizona Instructional League Giants players
Baseball players from Riverside, California
California Angels players
Chicago Cubs players
Chicago White Sox players
Cleveland Indians coaches
Cleveland Indians players
Columbus Clippers players
Deaths from cancer in California
Neurological disease deaths in California
Deaths from lung cancer
Deaths from brain tumor
Fresno Giants players
Gold Glove Award winners
Lexington Giants players
Major League Baseball All-Star Game MVPs
Major League Baseball first base coaches
Major League Baseball hitting coaches
Major League Baseball right fielders
Minor league baseball managers
National League All-Stars
New York Yankees players
People from San Carlos, California
Phoenix Giants players
San Francisco Giants coaches
San Francisco Giants players
Sportspeople from Riverside, California
St. Louis Cardinals players
St. Lucie Legends players
Texas Rangers players
Track and field athletes from California
Waterbury Giants players
Wichita Aeros players
20th-century African-American sportspeople
21st-century African-American people | [
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244737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30%E2%80%9330%20club | 30–30 club | In Major League Baseball (MLB), the 30–30 club is the group of batters who have collected thirty home runs and thirty stolen bases in a single season. Ken Williams was the first to achieve this, doing so in 1922. He remained the sole member of the club for 34 years until Willie Mays achieved consecutive 30–30 seasons in 1956 and 1957. Bobby Bonds became the club's fourth member in 1969 and became the first player in MLB history to reach the 30–30 club on three occasions and ultimately on five occasions, subsequently achieving the milestone in 1973, 1975, 1977 and 1978. He remained the only player to accomplish this until 1997, when his son Barry Bonds achieved his fifth 30–30 season. The most recent player to reach the milestone is Cedric Mullins, who achieved the feat during the 2021 season.
In total, 43 players have reached the 30–30 club in MLB history and thirteen have done so more than once. Of these 43 players, 29 were right-handed batters, nine were left-handed and five were switch hitters, meaning they could bat from either side of the plate. Eight of these players (including four active members of the 30–30 club) have played for only one major league team. The Atlanta Braves, Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Indians, Colorado Rockies, New York Mets, and San Francisco Giants are the only franchises to have three players reach the milestone. Five players – Hank Aaron, Barry Bonds, Willie Mays, Alex Rodriguez and Sammy Sosa – are also members of the 500 home run club, and Aaron, Mays and Rodriguez are also members of the 3,000 hit club. Dale Murphy, Jose Canseco, Barry Bonds, Larry Walker, Jimmy Rollins, Ryan Braun and Mookie Betts won the Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award in the same year as their 30–30 season, with Bonds achieving this on two occasions (1990 and 1992). Both Mays and Rollins also reached the 20–20–20 club in the same season. Four players accomplished 30–30 seasons in 1987, 1996, 1997 and 2011, the most in a single season.
Due to the rarity of a player excelling in the combination of hitting home runs and stealing bases, Baseball Digest called the 30–30 club "the most celebrated feat that can be achieved by a player who has both power and speed." Six members of the 30–30 club have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, with Mays and Aaron elected in their first year of eligibility. Eligibility requires that a player has been retired for at least five seasons or deceased for at least six months, disqualifying any active players and those recently retired.
Members
Notes
See also
Baseball statistics
Triple Crown
References
General
Specific
Major League Baseball statistics
Major League Baseball lists | [
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] |
244738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFT | EFT | An eft is the terrestrial juvenile phase of a newt.
EFT, EfT, or eft also may refer to:
École Française de Téhéran, a French international school in Tehran, Iran
Ecosystem Functional Type
Effective field theory
Electrical Fast Transient, see Transient (oscillation)
Electronic funds transfer
Emotionally focused therapy
Emotional Freedom Techniques
Escape from Tarkov
Evangelical Fellowship of Thailand
Ewing family of tumors
Exploration Flight Test-1 (5 December 2014), for the NASA Constellation/Ares/SLS Program Orion Crew Vehicle
Monroe Municipal Airport (FAA id: EFT), in Wisconsin, United States
See also
EFTS (disambiguation) | [
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244739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabinia%20gens | Gabinia gens | The gens Gabinia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens first appear in the second century BC.
Praenomina
All of the Gabinii known from historical records bore the praenomina Aulus, Publius, and possibly Gaius.
Branches and cognomina
The Gabinii do not seem to have been divided into distinct stirpes. The surnames Capito, Cimber, and Sisenna are associated with individual members.
Members
(Aulus?) Gabinius, placed in command of the garrison at Scodra in Illyricum by the proconsul Lucius Anicius Gallus in 167 BC.
Aulus Gabinius, tribune of the plebs in 139 BC, he introduced the first lex tabellaria, permitting voting by ballot.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, p. 1091 ("Tabellariae Leges", no. 1).
Aulus Gabinius, quaestor in 101 BC, serving under the proconsul Marcus Antonius against the Cilician pirates.
Aulus (or Gaius?) Gabinius, a legate in the Social War, who campaigned successfully against the Marsi and Lucani; he was killed while blockading an enemy camp, BC 89.Florus, iii. 18. § 13.
Aulus Gabinius, a military tribune who fought under Sulla at the Battle of Chaeronea. In BC 81, Sulla sent him to Asia with instructions for Lucius Licinius Murena to end the war with Mithridates of Pontus. He was known for his moderation and sense of honour.Plutarch, "Life of Sulla", 16, 17.Cicero, Pro Lege Manilia, 3.
Aulus Gabinius, consul in 58 BC. As tribune of the plebs in 66, he had introduced the law giving Pompeius command in the war against the pirates. As proconsul of Syria, he intervened in an Egyptian dynastic struggle, for which he was later prosecuted, fined, and exiled, although he was later recalled by Caesar.
Aulus Gabinius A. f. Sisenna, son of the consul, he begged Memmius to stop haranguing his father before the people, but to no avail.Cassius Dio, xxxix. 56.
Publius Gabinius Capito, praetor in 89 BC, he was subsequently propraetor in Achaea. On his return to Rome he was accused of extortion by Lucius Calpurnius Piso, and condemned. In 76 BC he was one of three envoys sent to Erythrae in order to collect Sibylline prophecies.
Publius Gabinius Capito, or Gaius Gabinius Cimber, an active member of the conspiracy of Catiline in 63 BC.Cicero, In Catilinam, iii. 3, 5, 6, iv. 6.
Aulus Gabinius Secundus, consul in AD 35.
Aulus Gabinius Secundus, consul in AD 43.
Publius Gabinius Secundus Chaucius (or Cauchius), a general under Claudius.
Gaius Gabinius Barbarus Pompeianus, proconsul of Asia between 212 and 217.
(Gabinius) Barbarus Pompeianus, consularis of Campania in 333 AD.
Gabinius, a king of the Germanic Quadi, murdered by Valentinian I circa AD 374.
Gabinius Barbarus Pompeianus, governor of Africa circa AD 400, and praefectus urbi of Rome during Alaric's siege in 409. He proposed making sacrifices to the pagan gods to protect the city, and was lynched by a mob during a food shortage.
Gabinii in literature
Cnaeus Gabinius Capito of Roman Britain, mentioned as an ancestor of Lord Northam in the H. P. Lovecraft story "The Descendant".
Footnotes
See also
List of Roman gentes
References
Bibliography
Titus Livius (Livy), Ab Urbe Condita (History of Rome).
Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Legibus, Divinatio in Quintum Caecilium, In Catilinam, Laelius de Amicitia, Pro Archia Poeta, Pro Lege Manilia.
Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Bellum Catilinae (The Conspiracy of Catiline).
Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars).
Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings).
Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans.
Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History.
Florus, Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC.
Paulus Orosius, Historiarum Adversum Paganos (History against the Pagans).
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown, and Company, Boston (1849).
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown, and Company, Boston (1859).
T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic'', American Philological Association (1952–1986).
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244742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%20famine%20of%201944%E2%80%931945 | Dutch famine of 1944–1945 | The Dutch famine of 1944–1945, known in the Netherlands as the Hongerwinter (literal translation: hunger winter), was a famine that took place in the German-occupied Netherlands, especially in the densely populated western provinces north of the great rivers, during the winter of 1944–1945, near the end of World War II.
A German blockade cut off food and fuel shipments from farm towns. Some 4.5 million were affected and survived thanks to soup kitchens. Loe de Jong (1914–2005), author of The Kingdom of the Netherlands During World War II, estimated at least 22,000 deaths occurred due to the famine. Another author estimated 18,000 deaths from the famine. Most of the victims were reportedly elderly men.
The famine was alleviated by the liberation of the provinces by the Allies in May 1945. Prior to that, bread baked from flour shipped in from Sweden, and the airlift of food by the Royal Air Force, the Royal Canadian Air Force, and the United States Army Air Forces – under an agreement with the Germans that if the Germans did not shoot at the mercy flights, the Allies would not bomb the German positions – helped to mitigate the famine. These were Operations Manna and Chowhound. Operation Faust also trucked in food to the province.
Causes
Towards the end of World War II, food supplies became increasingly scarce in the Netherlands. After the landing of the Allied Forces on D-Day, conditions became increasingly bad in the Nazi-occupied Netherlands. The Allies were able to liberate the southern part of the country, but ceased their advance into the Netherlands when Operation Market Garden, the attempt to seize a bridge across the Rhine at Arnhem, failed.
The Allied advance into Germany was delayed by supply problems as the port of Antwerp was not usable until the approaches had been cleared in the Battle of the Scheldt. But Montgomery had given priority to "Market Garden"; and to the capture of the French Channel ports like Boulogne, Calais and Dunkirk, which were resolutely defended and had suffered demolitions, see Operation Market Garden.
After the national railways complied with the exiled Dutch government's appeal for a railway strike starting September 1944 to further the Allied liberation efforts, the German administration (under Wehrmachtbefehlshaber Friedrich Christiansen) retaliated by placing an embargo on all food transports to the western Netherlands. The food embargo was partially lifted in early November 1944.
Food
Food stocks in the cities in the western Netherlands rapidly ran out. The adult rations in cities such as Amsterdam dropped to below 1000 calories (4,200 kilojoules) a day by the end of November 1944 and to 580 calories in the west by the end of February 1945. Over this Hongerwinter ("Hunger winter"), a number of factors combined to cause starvation in especially the large cities in the West of the Netherlands. The winter in the month of January 1945 itself was unusually harsh prohibiting transport by boat for roughly a month between early January 1945 and early February 1945. Also, the German army destroyed docks and bridges to flood the country and impede the Allied advance. Thirdly, Allied bombing made it extremely difficult to transport food in bulk, since Allied bombers could not distinguish German military and civilian shipments. As the south-eastern (the Maas valley) and the south-western part of the Netherlands (Walcheren and Beveland) became one of the main western battlefields, these conditions combined to make the transport of existing food stocks in large enough quantities nearly impossible.
The areas affected were home to 4.5 million people. Butter disappeared after October 1944, shortly after railway transport to the western parts of the Netherlands had stopped in September due to the railway strike. The supply of vegetable fats dwindled to a minuscule seven-month supply of 1.3 liters per person. At first 100 grams of cheese were allotted every two weeks; the meat coupons became worthless. The bread ration had already dropped from 2,200 to 1,800 and then to 1,400 grams per week. Then it fell to 1,000 grams in October, and by April 1945 to 400 grams a week. Together with one kilogram of potatoes, this then formed the entire weekly ration. The black market increasingly ran out of food as well, and with the gas and electricity and heat turned off, everyone was very cold and very hungry. In search of food, young strong people would walk for tens of kilometers to trade valuables for food at farms. Tulip bulbs and sugar beets were commonly consumed. Furniture and houses were dismantled to provide fuel for heating.
In the last months of 1944, in anticipation of the coming famine, tens of thousands of children were brought from the cities to rural areas where many remained until the end of the war. Deaths in the three big cities of the Western Netherlands (The Hague, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam) started in earnest in December 1944, reaching a peak in March 1945, but remained very high in April and May 1945. In early summer 1945 the famine was brought quickly under control. The deaths of 18,000 Dutch people between September 1944 and May 1945 were attributed to malnutrition as the primary cause and in many more cases as a contributing factor.
End of the famine
The Dutch Famine ended with the liberation by the Allies of the western Netherlands in May 1945. Shortly before that, some relief had come from "Swedish bread", which was baked in the Netherlands from flour shipped in from Sweden. Shortly after these shipments, the German occupiers allowed coordinated air drops of food over German-occupied Dutch territory by the Royal Air Force and Royal Canadian Air Force from 29 April to 7 May (Operation Manna), and by the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1 to 8 May (Operation Chowhound). The Germans agreed not to shoot at the planes flying the mercy missions, and the Allies agreed not to bomb German positions. Operation Faust also trucked in food to Rhenen beginning on 2 May, utilizing 200 vehicles. Rhenen was also occupied by the Germans.
Legacy
The Dutch famine of 1944–45 was a rare case of a famine which took place in a modern, developed, and literate country, albeit one suffering under the privations of occupation and war. The well-documented experience has helped scientists to measure the effects of famine on human health.
The Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study found that the children of pregnant women exposed to famine were more susceptible to diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, microalbuminuria and other health problems.
Moreover, the children of the women who were pregnant during the famine were smaller, as expected. However, surprisingly, when these children grew up and had children those children were thought to also be smaller than average. This data suggested that the famine experienced by the mothers caused some kind of epigenetic changes that were passed down to the next generation. Despite this, a subsequent study by the same author failed to find a correlation between maternal exposure to famine and birth weight of the next generation.
The discovery of the cause of coeliac disease may also be partly attributed to the Dutch famine. With wheat in very short supply there was an improvement at a children's ward of coeliac patients. Stories tell of the first precious supplies of bread being given specifically to the (no longer) sick children, prompting an immediate relapse. Thus in the 1940s the Dutch paediatrician Dr. Willem Dicke was able to corroborate his previously researched hypothesis that wheat intake was aggravating coeliac disease. Later Dicke went on to prove his theory.
Audrey Hepburn spent her childhood in the Netherlands during the famine and despite her later wealth she had lifelong negative medical repercussions. She suffered from anemia, respiratory illnesses, and œdema as a result.
Subsequent academic research on the children who were affected in the second trimester of their mother's pregnancy found an increased incidence of schizophrenia in these children. Also increased among them were the rates of schizotypal personality and neurological defects.
Some studies have suggested that epigenetic damage caused by the famine has caused increased morbidity in the grandchildren of Hongerwinter survivors.
See also
Effect of the Siege of Leningrad on the city
Great famine of 1941–1942, in German-occupied Greece
Historical trauma
Holodomor in Ukraine
Hunger Plan
List of famines
Överkalix study
Prenatal nutrition and birth weight
Siege of Leningrad
Transgenerational epigenetics
References
Notes
Bibliography
Banning, C. (May 1946). "Food Shortage and Public Health, First Half of 1945". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. 245, The Netherlands during German Occupation, pp. 93–110. (JSTOR.)
Barnouw, David (1999). De hongerwinter. .
Bijvoet, Tom and Van Arragon Hutten, Anne (2013). The Hunger Winter. .
Collingham, E. M. (2011). The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food.
de Jong, Loe. The Kingdom of the Netherlands During World War II (vol VII), p. 1–270 (Verarmend Nederland, 1914–2005)
Hart, Nicky. "Famine, Maternal Nutrition and Infant Mortality: A Re-Examination of the Dutch Hunger Winter", Population Studies Vol. 47, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 27–46 (JSTOR)
Hitchcock, William I. (2009). The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe. pp. 98–129.
Sas, Anthony. "Holland's 'Hunger Winter' of 1944–45", Military Review, September 1983, Vol. 63, Issue 9, pp. 24–32.
Sellin, Thorsten (ed.) (May 1946). "The Netherlands During German Occupation", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 245, pp. i to 180. (JSTOR.)
Stein, Zena (ed.) (1975). Famine and human development: The Dutch hunger winter of 1944–1945.
van der Zee, Henri A. (1998). The Hunger Winter: Occupied Holland 1944–1945. University of Nebraska Press.
Warmbrunn, Werner (1963). The Dutch Under German Occupation 1940–1945. Stanford University Press.
External links
Dutch film (starting at minute 2:00)
The Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study
Recipe for tulip-bulb puree at the Amsterdam City Archives
The Hunger winter and the allied food relief that followed
Multimedia
CBC Archives – CBC Radio (22 April 1945) reporting on the famine in Apeldoorn and the inflation of food prices.
CBC Archives – CBC Radio (30 April 1945) reporting on the agreement to provide food to the Dutch.
1944 in the Netherlands
1945 in the Netherlands
1944 disasters
1945 disasters
Famines in Europe
Health disasters in the Netherlands
Military history of the Netherlands during World War II
20th-century famines | [
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244747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin | Brahmin | Brahmin (; ) is a varna as well as a major caste within the Hindu society. The Brahmins specialised as intellectuals, priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari), teachers (acharya or guru), and protectors of sacred learning across generations.
The traditional occupation of Brahmins was that of priesthood at the Hindu temples or at socio-religious ceremonies and rite of passage rituals such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers. Theoretically, the Brahmins have the highest ritual status of the four social classes. Their livelihood is prescribed to be one of strict austerity and voluntary poverty ("[A Brahmin] should acquire what just suffices for the time, what he earns he should spend all that the same day"). In practice, Indian texts suggest that some Brahmins became agriculturalists, warriors, traders and had also held other occupations in the Indian subcontinent.
Vedic sources
Purusha Sukta
The earliest inferred reference to "Brahmin" as a possible social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once, and the hymn is called Purusha Sukta. According to a hymn in Mandala 10, Rigveda 10.90.11-2, Brahmins are described as having emerged from the mouth of Purusha, being that part of the body from which words emerge.
The Purusha Sukta varna verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a charter myth. Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".
Shrauta Sutras
According to Kulkarni, the Grhya-sutras state that Yajna, Adhyayana (studying the vedas and teaching), dana pratigraha (accepting and giving gifts) are the "peculiar duties and privileges of brahmins".
Definition of Brahmin as casteless renunciate
The term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Patrick Olivelle states that both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature repeatedly define "Brahmin" not in terms of family of birth, but in terms of personal qualities. These virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the social class from which most ascetics came.
Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras
The Dharmasutra and Dharmashaastra texts of Hinduism describe the expectations, duties and role of Brahmins.
John Bussanich states that the ethical precepts set for Brahmins, in ancient Indian texts, are similar to Greek virtue-ethics, that "Manu's dharmic Brahmin can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom", and that "the virtuous Brahmin is not unlike the Platonic-Aristotelian philosopher" with the difference that the latter was not sacerdotal.
Vedic duties
The Brahmins were expected to perform all six Vedic duties as opposed to other twice-borns who performed three.
History
According to Abraham Eraly, "Brahmin as a varna hardly had any presence in historical records before the Gupta Empire era" (3rd century to 6th century CE), when Buddhism dominated the land. "No Brahmin, no sacrifice, no ritualistic act of any kind ever, even once, is referred to" in any Indian texts between third century BCE and the late first century CE. He also states that "The absence of literary and material evidence, however, does not mean that Brahmanical culture did not exist at that time, but only that it had no elite patronage and was largely confined to rural folk, and therefore went unrecorded in history". Their role as priests and repository of sacred knowledge, as well as their importance in the practice of Vedic Shrauta rituals, grew during the Gupta Empire era and thereafter.
However, the knowledge about actual history of Brahmins or other varnas of Hinduism in and after the first millennium is fragmentary and preliminary, with little that is from verifiable records or archeological evidence, and much that is constructed from ahistorical Sanskrit works and fiction. Michael Witzel writes,
Actual occupations
Historical records, state scholars, suggest that Brahmin varna was not limited to a particular status or priest and the teaching profession. Chanakya, a Brahmin born in 375 BCE, was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, royal advisor, who assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya in his rise to power and is widely credited for having played an important role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire. Historical records from mid 1st millennium CE and later, suggest Brahmins were agriculturalists and warriors in medieval India, quite often instead of as exception. Donkin and other scholars state that Hoysala Empire records frequently mention Brahmin merchants "carried on trade in horses, elephants and pearls" and transported goods throughout medieval India before the 14th-century.
The Pali Canon depicts Brahmins as the most prestigious and elite non-Buddhist figures. They mention them parading their learning. The Pali Canon and other Buddhist texts such as the Jataka Tales also record the livelihood of Brahmins to have included being farmers, handicraft workers and artisans such as carpentry and architecture. Buddhist sources extensively attest, state Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett, that Brahmins were "supporting themselves not by religious practice, but employment in all manner of secular occupations", in the classical period of India. Some of the Brahmin occupations mentioned in the Buddhist texts such as Jatakas and Sutta Nipata are very lowly. The Dharmasutras too mention Brahmin farmers.
According to Haidar and Sardar, unlike the Mughal Empire in Northern India, Brahmins figured prominently in the administration of Deccan Sultanates. Under Golconda Sultanate Telugu Niyogi Brahmins served in many different roles such as accountants, ministers, revenue administration and in judicial service. The Deccan sultanates also heavily recruited Marathi Brahmins at different levels of their administration. During the days of Maratha Empire in the 17th and 18th century, the occupation of Marathi Brahmins ranged from being state administrators, being warriors to being de facto rulers as Peshwa.
After the collapse of Maratha empire, Brahmins in Maharashtra region were quick to take advantage of opportunities opened up by the new British rulers. They were the first community to take up Western education and therefore dominated lower level of British administration in the 19th century. Similarly, the Tamil Brahmins were also quick to take up English education during British colonial rule and dominate government service and law.
Eric Bellman states that during the Islamic Mughal Empire era Brahmins served as advisers to the Mughals, later to the British Raj. The East India Company also recruited from the Brahmin communities of Bihar and Awadh (in the present day Uttar Pradesh) for the Bengal army. Many Brahmins, in other parts of South Asia lived like other varna, engaged in all sorts of professions. Among Nepalese Hindus, for example, Niels Gutschow and Axel Michaels report the actual observed professions of Brahmins from 18th- to early 20th-century included being temple priests, minister, merchants, farmers, potters, masons, carpenters, coppersmiths, stone workers, barbers, gardeners among others.
Other 20th-century surveys, such as in the state of Uttar Pradesh, recorded that the primary occupation of almost all Brahmin families surveyed was neither priestly nor Vedas-related, but like other varnas, ranged from crop farming (80 per cent of Brahmins), dairy, service, labour such as cooking, and other occupations. The survey reported that the Brahmin families involved in agriculture as their primary occupation in modern times plough the land themselves, many supplementing their income by selling their labor services to other farmers.
Brahmins, the Bhakti Movement and Social Reform Movements
Many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins, a movement that encouraged a direct relationship of an individual with a personal god. Among the many Brahmins who nurtured the Bhakti movement were Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Madhvacharya of Vaishnavism, Ramananda, another devotional poet sant. Born in a Brahmin family, Ramananda welcomed everyone to spiritual pursuits without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion (such as Muslims). He composed his spiritual message in poems, using widely spoken vernacular language rather than Sanskrit, to make it widely accessible. The Hindu tradition recognises him as the founder of the Hindu Ramanandi Sampradaya, the largest monastic renunciant community in Asia in modern times.
Other medieval era Brahmins who led spiritual movement without social or gender discrimination included Andal (9th-century female poet), Basava (12th-century Lingayatism), Dnyaneshwar (13th-century Bhakti poet), Vallabha Acharya (16th-century Vaishnava poet), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu(14th-century Vaishnava saint) were among others.
Many 18th and 19th century Brahmins are credited with religious movements that criticised idolatry. For example, the Brahmins Raja Ram Mohan Roy led Brahmo Samaj and Dayananda Saraswati led the Arya Samaj.
In Buddhist and Jain texts
The term Brahmin appears extensively in ancient and medieval Sutras and commentary texts of Buddhism and Jainism.
Modern scholars state that such usage of the term Brahmin in ancient texts does not imply a caste, but simply "masters" (experts), guardian, recluse, preacher or guide of any tradition. An alternate synonym for Brahmin in the Buddhist and other non-Hindu tradition is Mahano.
Outside India: Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and Indonesia
Some Brahmins formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court Brahmins were locally called Punna. During the Konbaung dynasty, Buddhist kings relied on their court Brahmins to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions. This role of Hindu Brahmins in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.
The Brahmins were also consulted in the transmission, development and maintenance of law and justice system outside India. Hindu Dharmasastras, particularly Manusmriti written by the Prajapati Manu, states Anthony Reid, were "greatly honored in Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of law and order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)".
The mythical origins of Cambodia are credited to a Brahmin prince named Kaundinya, who arrived by sea, married a Naga princess living in the flooded lands. Kaudinya founded Kambuja-desa, or Kambuja (transliterated to Kampuchea or Cambodia). Kaundinya introduced Hinduism, particularly Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), and these ideas grew in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.
The Chams Balamon (Hindu Brahmin Chams) form a majority of the Cham population in Vietnam.
Brahmins have been part of the Royal tradition of Thailand, particularly for the consecration and to mark annual land fertility rituals of Buddhist kings. A small Brahmanical temple Devasathan, established in 1784 by King Rama I of Thailand, has been managed by ethnically Thai Brahmins ever since. The temple hosts Phra Phikhanesuan (Ganesha), Phra Narai (Narayana, Vishnu), Phra Itsuan (Shiva), Uma, Brahma, Indra (Sakka) and other Hindu deities. The tradition asserts that the Thai Brahmins have roots in Hindu holy city of Varanasi and southern state of Tamil Nadu, go by the title Pandita, and the various annual rites and state ceremonies they conduct has been a blend of Buddhist and Hindu rituals. The coronation ceremony of the Thai king is almost entirely conducted by the royal Brahmins.
Modern demographics
According to 2007 reports, Brahmins in India are about five percent of its total population. The Himalayan states of Uttarakhand (20%), Himachal Pradesh (14%) and Uttar Pradesh (13%) have the highest percentage of Brahmin population relative to respective state's total Hindus.
According to the Center for the Study of Developing Societies, in 2004 about 65% of Brahmin households in India earned less than $100 a month compared to 89% of STs, 91% of SCs and 86% of Muslims.
See also
Vedic priesthood
Brahmavarta
List of Brahmins
List of Brahmin dynasties and states
1st Brahman Regiment and 3rd Brahman Regiment
Brahmin Tamil
Historical Vedic religion
References
Further reading
Baldev Upadhyaya, Kashi Ki Panditya Parampara, Sharda Sansthan, Varanasi, 1985.
Christopher Alan Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770–1870, Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Anand A. Yang, Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar, University of California Press, 1999.
M. N. Srinivas, Social Change in Modern India, Orient Longman, Delhi, 1995.
External links
Brahmins and Pariah, An appeal and record of colonial era conflict in Bengal
The wisdom of the Brahmin, Friedrich Ruckert (translated from German by Charles Brooks)
Brahmins
Priestly castes
Varnas in Hinduism
Indian castes | [
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244749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelyabinsk | Chelyabinsk | Chelyabinsk () is the administrative center and largest city of Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. It is the seventh-largest city in Russia, with a population of over 1 million, and the second-largest city in the Ural Federal District, after Yekaterinburg. Chelyabinsk runs along the Miass River, and is just east of the Ural Mountains.
The area of Chelyabinsk contained the ancient settlement of Arkaim, which belonged to the Sintashta culture. In 1736, a fortress by the name of Chelyaba was founded on the site of a Bashkir village. Chelyabinsk was granted town status by 1787. Chelyabinsk began to grow rapidly by the early 20th century as a result of the construction of railway links from the Russian core to Siberia, including the Trans-Siberian Railway. Its population reached 70,000 by 1917. Under the Soviet Union, Chelyabinsk became a major industrial centre during the 1930s. The Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant was built in 1933. During World War II, the city was a major contributor to the manufacture of tanks and ammunition.
Chelyabinsk remains an important industrial centre, especially heavy industries such as metallurgy and military production. It is home to several educational institutions, mainly South Ural State University and Chelyabinsk State University.
History
Ancient Sintashta civilization
Archaeologists have discovered ruins of the ancient town of Arkaim in the vicinity of the city of Chelyabinsk. Ruins and artifacts in Arkaim and other sites in the region indicate a relatively advanced civilization existing in the area since the 2nd millennium BCE, which was of proto-Indo-Iranian origin.
The Arkaim site, located in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area, was known by Russian archaeologists for at least 70 years, however it was mostly ignored by non-Russian anthropological circles. The borders of the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area run along the eastern Urals of the Eurasian steppe to about 400 km south of Chelyabinsk and to the east for about 200 km. 23 archaeological sites are recognized as being part of this area.
The sites resemble towns, laid out in round, square, or oval shapes. Although most of the sites have been discovered by aerial photography, only two, Arkaim and Sintashta, have been thoroughly excavated. These sites are characterized by their fortification, connected houses, and extensive evidence of metallurgy.
The people of the Sintashta culture are thought to have spoken Proto-Indo-Iranian, the ancestor of the Indo-Iranian language family. This identification is based primarily on similarities between their language in comparison to sections of the Rigveda, and based on funerary rituals of the Sintashta culture, as revealed by archaeological studies in the area.
Modern Russian history
The fortress of Chelyaba, from which the city takes its name, was founded at the location of the Bashkir village of Chelyaby () by colonel Alexey (Kutlu-Muhammed) Tevkelev in 1736 to protect the surrounding trade routes from possible attacks by Bashkir outlaws. During Pugachev's Rebellion, the fortress withstood a siege by the rebel forces in 1774, but was eventually captured for several months in 1775. In 1782, Chelyabinsk became a seat of the uyezd of Ufa Viceroyalty, which was later reformed into Orenburg Governorate. In 1787, Chelyabinsk was granted town status by the government.
Until the late 19th century, Chelyabinsk was a small provincial town. In 1892, the Samara-Zlatoust Railway was completed, which connected it with Moscow and the rest of European Russia. Also in 1892, construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway started from Chelyabinsk, and in 1896, the city was linked to Ekaterinburg. Chelyabinsk then became the main hub for travel to Siberia. For fifteen years, more than fifteen million people - a tenth of Russia's population at the time - passed through Chelyabinsk. Some of them remained in Chelyabinsk, which contributed to its rapid growth. In addition a so-called “customs fracture” was created in Chelyabinsk, which imposed duties on the shipment of goods between the European and Asian parts of Russia, which led to the emergence of mills and notably, a tea-packing factory. As a result, Chelyabinsk became a major trade center. Its population reached 20,000 inhabitants by 1897, 45,000 by 1913, and 70,000 by 1917. Because of its rapid growth at the turn of the 20th century, similar to that of midwestern American cities, Chelyabinsk was sometimes called "the Chicago of the Urals".
During the first five-year plans of the 1930s, Chelyabinsk experienced rapid industrial growth. Several important factories, including the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant and the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant, were built at this time. During World War II, Joseph Stalin decided to move a large part of Soviet manufacturing to areas removed from the reach of the advancing German military as part of a general exodus from western occupied areas. This brought new industries and thousands of workers to Chelyabinsk, including facilities for the production of T-34 tanks and Katyusha rocket launchers. During World War II, the city's industries produced 18,000 tanks and 48,500 tank diesel engines as well as over 17 million units of ammunition. During that time Chelyabinsk was informally called “Tankograd” (English: “Tank City”). During World War II, the S.M. Kirov Factory no. 185 or “OKMO” was moved to Chelyabinsk from Leningrad to produce heavy tanks, although it was transferred to Omsk after 1962.
2013 meteor
Shortly after dawn on February 15, 2013, a superbolide meteor descended at over over the Ural Mountains, exploding at an altitude of .
The meteor created a momentary flash as bright as the sun and generated a shock wave that injured over a thousand people. Fragments fell in and around Chelyabinsk. Interior Ministry spokesman Vadim Kolesnikov said 1,100 people had called for medical assistance following the incident, mostly for treatment of injuries from broken glass by the explosions. One woman suffered a broken spine. Kolesnikov also said about of a roof at a zinc factory had collapsed. A spokeswoman for the Emergency Ministry told the Associated Press that there was a meteor shower; however, another ministry spokeswoman was quoted by the Interfax news agency as saying it was a single meteor. The size has been estimated at diameter with a mass of 10,000 or 11,000 metric tons. The power of the explosion was about 500 kilotons of TNT (about 1.8 PJ), which is 20–30 times more energy than was released from the atomic bomb detonated in Hiroshima. The city managed to avoid large casualties and destruction due to the high altitude of the explosion.
Administrative and municipal status
Chelyabinsk is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Chelyabinsk, an administrative unit with a status equal to that of the oblast's districts. As a municipal division, the City of Chelyabinsk is incorporated as Chelyabinsky Urban Okrug. In June 2014, Chelyabinsk's seven city districts were granted civil status.
Administrative districts
Chelyabinsk is divided into seven administrative districts.
Geography
Chelyabinsk is located east of the Ural Mountains, 200 km south of Yekaterinburg. It is elevated 200-250 meters above sea level.
The city is bisected by the Miass River, which is regarded as the border between the Urals and Siberia. This is reflected in the geology of the area, with the granite foothills of the Ural Mountains to the west and the lower sedimentary rock of the West Siberian Plain to the east.
The Leningrad bridge crosses the river, due to this it is known as “the bridge between the Urals and Siberia". Chelyabinsk itself is also known as "the gateway to Siberia".
Like Rome, Constantinople, San Francisco and Moscow, Chelyabinsk is said to be located on seven hills.
Climate
The city has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) similar to that of the Canadian prairies, despite the city being located further north. The average temperature in January is well below the freezing point at -14°C/6.6 °F. July has a relatively cool average of 19°C/66.7 °F, and the annual average is a few degrees above the freezing point at 3°C/37.8 °F, indicating some moderation. The range of extremes allegedly reaches 70°C/158 °F, claimed to be typical of a mid-latitude climate on a large continent such as Eurasia.
The majority of precipitation occurs in the summer, with less in the winter. The month of July experiences the most, with an average 87mm/3.44'' of precipitation, while January, the driest month, experiences 15mm/0.6''. Total precipitation reaches an average of 429mm/16.9'' annually, consistent with the city's semi-arid influence. On average, 119 days of the year experience precipitation.
Population
As of 2020, the population of Chelyabinsk is 1,196,680; up from 1,130,132 recorded in the 2010 Census.
At the time of the official 2010 Census, the ethnic makeup of the city's population whose ethnicity was known (1,082,269) was:.
Cityscape
Architecture
The architecture of Chelyabinsk has been shaped through its history by the progression of historical eras in Russia. Before the 1917 Russian Revolution, the city was a trading center, with numerous merchant buildings in the eclectic and modern styles with elements of Russian Revival architecture, some of which are preserved on the pedestrian-only Kirovka Street.
Industrialization in Chelyabinsk started in the late 1920s. The construction of large plants was accompanied by the construction of new residential and public buildings in the constructivist style. Entire constructivist neighborhoods can be seen in the area of the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant.
In the late 1930s, a new era began in the city, with large-scale construction of Stalinist architecture. Many of the buildings in and around the city center and central avenue are constructed in this style.
The next 60 years saw extensive construction of residential high-rise buildings as the city's population rose to about one million, notably within the large residential area called "Severo-Zapad" (English: North-West).
With the market reforms of the 1990s, there was an increase in the construction of office buildings and major shopping malls in postmodern and high-tech styles.
Parks and gardens
Chelyabinsk has seventeen public parks. The largest is Gagarin Central Park. Its territory includes large areas of rocky and forested terrain, located around several now-flooded abandoned quarries.
Education
There are over a dozen universities in Chelyabinsk. The oldest, Chelyabinsk State Agroengineering Academy, was founded in 1930, followed by the Chelyabinsk State Pedagogical University in 1934. Major universities include South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk State University, South Ural State University of Arts, and Chelyabinsk Medical Academy. After World War II, Chelyabinsk became the main center of vocational education of the entire Ural region.
Economy
Chelyabinsk is one of the major industrial centers of Russia. Heavy industries, especially metallurgy and military production, are predominant in the area, notably the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Combinate (CMK, ChMK), owned by the mining corporation Mechel. Other important industries include Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant (CTZ, ChTZ), Chelyabinsk Electrode Plant (ChEZ), the machine part-producing Chelyabinsk Forge-and-Press Plant (ChKPZ), the crane-producing Chelyabinsk Mechanical Plant (ChMZ), and Chelyabinsk Tube Rolling Plant (ChTPZ), which is included in the "Big Eight" of pipe producers in Russia, and produces large-diameter pipes for use in pipelines. Chelyabinsk Zinc Plant, owned by the Ural Mining and Metallurgical Company, produces about 2% of the world's zinc supply and over 60% of the Russian supply. Kolyuschenko Road Machinery Plant produces construction machinery and dump trucks for the American manufacturer Terex.
Molnija Watch Factory produces pocket watches, as well as technical watches for use in aircraft and ships. In 1980, Molnija watches were given as gifts to participants of the Moscow Olympic Games.
The agro-industrial company Makfa, the largest producer of pasta in Russia, and one of the five largest producers in the world, is based in Chelyabinsk. The largest manufacturer of footwear in Russia, Unichel Footwear Firm, owns a factory in Chelyabinsk. Chelyabinsk is also home to the agricultural firm Ariant, which leads in the production of beverages and meat products in the Urals Federal District of Russia. The American corporation Emerson Electric owns part of the local company Metran, as well as a factory for the production of industrial equipment.
In recent years, Chelyabinsk has had a significant role in other sectors of the Russian economy, hosting insurance firms, logistics centers, tourism, And important regional banking firms, such as Chelindbank and Chelyabinvestbank.
There are several large shopping malls. The largest of them are Gorky (English: Hills), built in 2007 with an area of 55,000 meters2, and Rodnik (English: Spring) built in 2011 with an area 135,000 meters2. At least two more are under construction: Almaz (English: Diamond), and Cloud, beginning construction in 2015 and 2018, with planned areas of 220,000 and 350,000 meters2, respectively.
Transportation
Public transport in Chelyabinsk consists of bus (since 1925), tram (since 1932) and trolleybus (since 1942) networks, as well as private marshrutka (routed cab) services. The city has several taxi companies.
In 2014 in Chelyabinsk began to run electric buses, trolleybuses fitted to run electrically.
In 2011 the telecommunications company Beeline and Chelyabinsk city transport signed an agreement to provide passengers free internet. Currently Wi-Fi is available in some public trams and trolleybuses in Chelyabinsk.
Chelyabinsk started the construction of a three-line subway network in 1992.
The city is served by the Chelyabinsk Airport.
Sports
Several sports clubs are active in the city:
In recent history, Chelyabinsk has hosted several important sporting events, especially in martial arts. These events include the 2012 European Judo Championships, the 2014 World Judo Championships, and the 2015 World Taekwondo Championships. 2015 also saw Chelyabinsk host the European Speed Skating Championships. In 2018, Chelyabinsk and nearby Magnitogorsk hosted the IIHF World U18 Championship.
Culture
The city has several libraries, notably Chelyabinsk Regional Universal Scientific Library, the largest public library in the Chelyabinsk Oblast. The library has more than 2 million books, over 12,000 of which are rare, originating from the 17th to 19th centuries.
Chelyabinsk is home to several theaters, which include the Nahum Orlov State Academic Drama Theatre, the Glinka State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre, Chelyabinsk State Chamber Theater, Chelyabinsk State Puppet Theater, Chelyabinsk State Youth Theatre, Mannequin Theater, Chelyabinsk New Arts Theatre, and Chelyabinsk Contemporary Dance Theatre.
There are nine museums in Chelyabinsk. Chelyabinsk Regional Museum was founded in 1913 and holds about 300,000 exhibits. Important expositions include the "Land of Cities" exhibit relating to the 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE settlement of Arkaim, the 570 kg largest fragment of the Chelyabinsk meteor, ornate 19th and 20th century blades made by Zlatoust arms factory, exhibits of Kasli artistic cast iron, and much more.
Chelyabinsk Regional Picture Gallery has more than 11,000 works. The museum displays collections of Russian, European, and international works originating from the Middle Ages to modern times. The museum has significant collections of religious icons from the 16th to 20th centuries, along with early printed books and manuscripts.
The Museum of History of the Southern Ural Railway hosts more than 30 exhibits of equipment used on the railway after its opening in Chelyabinsk in 1892.
The Museum of Military Equipment in the Garden of Victory was founded in 2007. It has 16 exhibits, including models of T-34 and IS-3 tanks, along with Katyusha rocket launchers produced in Chelyabinsk during World War II.
In addition, the city is home to the Chelyabinsk Regional Geological Museum, the Malgobekskii Museum of Military and Labor Glory, the Chelyabinsk Postal Service Museum, and the Entertaining Sciences Museum Eksperimentus.
Chelyabinsk Zoo is located in the central region of Chelyabinsk. It has an area of 30 hectares with more than 110 species of animals, of which more than 80 are listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation. The zoo participates in international programs for the conservation of endangered species, including amur (siberian) tigers, far eastern leopards and polar bears. The zoo holds regular sightseeing tours, lectures, exhibitions and celebrations.
Other cultural attractions include the Chelyabinsk State Circus, the Chelyabinsk State Philharmonic Concert Hall named after Sergei Prokofiev, and Organ and Chamber Music Hall Rodina.
Chelyabinsk is home to several churches built from the 19th to 21st centuries.
Notable people
Ariel, Soviet pop rock band
Lera Auerbach (born 1973), composer and musician, born and grew up in Chelyabinsk
Svyatoslav Belza (1942–2014), musical scholar, critic and essayist, born in Chelyabinsk
(born 1943), jazz musician, bandleader, composer, born and started his career in Chelyabinsk
Zhan Bush (born 1993), figure skater
Dmitry Shishkin born in 1992 Classical Pianist
Yekaterina Gamova (born 1980), Olympic volleyball player, born and grew up in Chelyabinsk
Makhmut Gareev (1923–2019), historian and military scientist, born and grew up in Chelyabinsk
Viktor Khristenko (born 1957), politician and statesman born and grew up in Chelyabinsk
Igor Kurnosov (1985–2013), chess grandmaster, born in Chelyabinsk
Oleg Mityaev (born 1956), singer-songwriter and actor, born, grew up, and came into prominence in Chelyabinsk
Vadim Muntagirov (born 1990), ballet dancer, born in Chelyabinsk
Staņislavs Olijars (born 1979), Latvian 110m hurdler, gold medallist at the 2006 European Athletics Championships, born in Chelyabinsk
Georgy Ratner (1923–2001), surgeon, born in Chelyabinsk
Nelli Rokita (born 1957), Polish politician, born in Chelyabinsk
Eugene Roshal (born 1972), software developer, born in Chelyabinsk
Mariya Savinova (born 1985), Olympic athlete, born in Chelyabinsk
Galina Starovoytova (1946–1998), politician and human rights activist, born in Chelyabinsk
Maksim Surayev (born 1972), cosmonaut, born in Chelyabinsk
Evgeny Sveshnikov (born 1950), chess grandmaster and writer, born and grew up in Chelyabinsk
Anna Trebunskaya (born 1980), ballroom and Latin dancer, born in Chelyabinsk
Ivan Ukhov (born 1986), Olympic high jumper, born in Chelyabinsk
Mikhail Yurevich (born 1969), businessman, politician, born in Chelyabinsk
Mikhail Koklyaev (born 1978), Russian strongman competitor
Ice hockey players
Sergei Babinov (born 1955), Soviet player, Canada Cup champion
Sergei Starikov (born 1958), Soviet Olympian and NHL player
Vyacheslav Bykov (born 1960), Soviet player
Stanislav Chistov (born 1983), NHL and KHL player
Evgeny Davydov (born 1967), NHL player, USSR champion
Sergei Gonchar (born 1974), NHL player, Stanley Cup champion
Dmitri Kalinin (born 1980), NHL and KHL player, Gagarin Cup champion
Alexandra Vafina (born 1990), Russian Olympic ice hockey player (2010, 2014)
Evgeny Kuznetsov (born 1992), NHL and KHL player, Stanley Cup champion
Sergei Makarov (born 1958), NHL player
Andrei Nazarov (born 1974), NHL player and KHL coach
Nikita Nesterov (born 1993), NHL and KHL player
Valeri Nichushkin (born 1995), NHL and KHL player
Valeri Karpov (1971–2014), Russian Superleague and NHL player
Dmitri Tertyshny (1976–1999), Russian Superleague and NHL player
Slava Voynov (born 1990), NHL player, Stanley Cup champion
Danil Yerdakov (born 1989), KHL player
Danis Zaripov (born 1981), KHL player, Gagarin Cup champion
Yakov Trenin (born 1997), NHL player
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Chelyabinsk is twinned with:
Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom
Ramla, Israel
Ürümqi, China
Columbia, United States
Diplomatic and consular missions and visa centers
Italy: Honorary Consulate, Visa center
Poland: Visa center
See also
Chelyabinsk Trade Center
References
Notes
Sources
Anne Garrels, Putin Country: A Journey Into The Real Russia (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016).
Lennart Samuelson, Tankograd: The Formation of a Soviet Company Town: Cheliabinsk, 1900s–1950s (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
External links
Official website of Chelyabinsk
Chelyabinsk Business Directory
Chelyabinsk News Agency
Interactive book about Chelyabinsk in iBooks Store
History of Ural
Orenburg Governorate
Populated places established in 1736 | [
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244752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waking%20Life | Waking Life | Waking Life is a 2001 American experimental adult animated film written and directed by Richard Linklater. The film explores a wide range of philosophical issues, including the nature of reality, dreams and lucid dreams, consciousness, the meaning of life, free will, and existentialism. It is centered on a young man who wanders through a succession of dream-like realities wherein he encounters a series of individuals who engage in insightful philosophical discussions.
The entire film was digitally rotoscoped. It contains several parallels to Linklater's 1991 film Slacker. Ethan Hawke and Julie Delpy reprise their characters from the 1995 Before Sunrise in one scene. After premiering at the 2001 Sundance Film Festival, Waking Life received critical acclaim and grossed $3.2 million against a budget of $2 million.
Plot
An unnamed young man lives an ethereal existence that lacks transitions between everyday events and eventually progresses toward an existential crisis. He observes quietly but later participates actively in philosophical discussions involving other characters—ranging from quirky scholars and artists to everyday restaurant-goers and friends—about such issues as metaphysics, free will, social philosophy, and the meaning of life. Other scenes do not even include the protagonist's presence but rather focus on a random isolated person, a group of people, or a couple engaging in such topics from a disembodied perspective. Along the way, the film also touches upon existentialism, situationist politics, posthumanity, the film theory of André Bazin, and lucid dreaming, and makes references to various celebrated intellectual and literary figures by name.
Gradually, the protagonist begins to realize that he is living out a perpetual dream, broken up only by occasional false awakenings. So far, he is mostly a passive onlooker, though this changes during a chat with a passing woman who suddenly approaches him. After she greets him and shares her creative ideas with him, he reminds himself that she is a figment of his own dreaming imagination. Afterward, he starts to converse more openly with other dream characters, but he begins to despair about being trapped in a dream.
The protagonist's final talk is with a character (played by Richard Linklater) whom he briefly encountered previously in the film. This last conversation reveals this other character's view that reality may be only a single instant that the individual interprets falsely as time (and, thus, life); that living is simply the individual's constant negation of God's invitation to become one with the universe; that dreams offer a glimpse into the infinite nature of reality; and that in order to be free from the illusion called life, the individual need only accept God's invitation.
The protagonist is last seen walking into a driveway when he suddenly begins to levitate, paralleling a scene at the start of the film of a floating child in the same driveway. The protagonist uncertainly reaches toward a car's handle but is too swiftly lifted above the vehicle and over the trees. He rises into the endless blue expanse of the sky until he disappears from view.
Cast
Wiley Wiggins plays the protagonist.
The film features appearances from a wide range of actors and non-actors, including:
Eamonn Healy
Timothy "Speed" Levitch
Adam Goldberg
Nicky Katt
Ethan Hawke
Julie Delpy
Steven Prince
Caveh Zahedi
Otto Hofmann
Richard Linklater
Alex Jones
Kim Krizan
Louis H. Mackey
Steven Soderbergh
David Sosa
Robert C. Solomon
Steve Brudniak
Production
In a 2001 interview, Linklater estimated that the idea for the film came "before I was even interested in film, probably 20 years ago." For a while he felt the idea for the film "didn't quite work" calling it "too blunt, too realistic" stating that "I think to make a realistic film about an unreality the film had to be a realistic unreality". To create that visual effect, Linklater used an animation technique based on rotoscoping, in which animators overlaid the live-action footage shot by Linklater with animation that roughly approximates the images actually filmed. Linklater employed a variety of artists, so the movie's feel continually changes, producing a surreal, shifting dreamscape.
The animators used standard Apple Macintosh computers. The film was mostly produced using Rotoshop, a rotoscoping program that creates blends between key frame vector shapes, which also uses virtual "layers", designed specifically for the production by Bob Sabiston. Linklater used this animation method again for his 2006 film A Scanner Darkly.
Release
Waking Life premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2001 and was given a limited release in the United States on October 19, 2001.
Reception
The film received "universal acclaim" according to review aggregator Metacritic, which distilled 31 critics's reviews into a weighted average score of 82 out of 100. Based on 145 reviews compiled by Rotten Tomatoes, 81% of 145 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Waking Lifes inventive animated aesthetic adds a distinctive visual component to a film that could easily have rested on its smart screenplay and talented ensemble cast." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four stars out of four, describing it as "a cold shower of bracing, clarifying ideas". Ebert later included the film on his list of "Great Movies". Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly awarded the film an "A" rating, calling it "a work of cinematic art in which form and structure pursue the logic-defying (parallel) subjects of dreaming and moviegoing," while Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote it was "so verbally dexterous and visually innovative that you can't absorb it unless you have all your wits about you". Dave Kehr of The New York Times found the film to be "lovely, fluid, funny" and stated that it "never feels heavy or over-ambitious".
Conversely, J. Hoberman of The Village Voice felt that Waking Life "doesn't leave you in a dream... so much as it traps you in an endless bull session". Frank Lovece felt the film was "beautifully drawn" but called its content "pedantic navel-gazing".
In 2018, Richard Linklater addressed the potentially controversial inclusion of Alex Jones in the film. In an interview with IndieWire, Linklater states, "I just thought he was kind of funny." He notes that he never imagined Jones would one day be taken seriously and that at the time, he didn't think much of including him.
Nominated for numerous awards, mainly for its technical achievements, Waking Life won the National Society of Film Critics award for "Best Experimental Film", the New York Film Critics Circle award for "Best Animated Film", and the "CinemAvvenire" award at the Venice Film Festival for "Best Film". It was also nominated for the Golden Lion, the festival's main award.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2008 – AFI's 10 Top 10: Nominated Animation Film
Home media
The film was released on DVD in North America in May 2002. Special features included several commentaries, documentaries, interviews, trailers, and deleted scenes, as well as the short film Snack and Drink. A bare-bones DVD with no special features was released in Region 2 in February 2003. A Blu-Ray was released in Germany and the UK.
Soundtrack
The Waking Life OST was performed and written by Glover Gill and the Tosca Tango Orchestra, except for Frédéric Chopin's Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9, No. 2. The soundtrack was relatively successful. Featuring the nuevo tango style, it bills itself "the 21st Century Tango". The tango contributions were influenced by the music of the Argentine "father of new tango" Astor Piazzolla.
See also
Dream argument
Dream art
Oneironautics
Simulated reality
References
Bibliography
External links
2001 films
2001 animated films
2000s American animated films
2001 drama films
American avant-garde and experimental films
Animated drama films
American films
Films about dreams
Magic realism films
2000s English-language films
Fox Searchlight Pictures films
Existentialist works
Films directed by Richard Linklater
Rotoscoped films
Films about philosophy
Films shot in Texas
Films shot in Austin, Texas
Films shot in San Antonio
Metaphysical fiction films
2000s avant-garde and experimental films
American adult animated films
Before trilogy
Adult animated films
American independent films | [
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244755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense%20and%20reference | Sense and reference | In the philosophy of language, the distinction between sense and reference was an innovation of the German philosopher and mathematician Gottlob Frege in 1892 (in his paper "On Sense and Reference"; German: "Über Sinn und Bedeutung"), reflecting the two ways he believed a singular term may have meaning.
The reference (or "referent"; Bedeutung) of a proper name is the object it means or indicates (bedeuten), whereas its sense (Sinn) is what the name expresses. The reference of a sentence is its truth value, whereas its sense is the thought that it expresses. Frege justified the distinction in a number of ways.
Sense is something possessed by a name, whether or not it has a reference. For example, the name "Odysseus" is intelligible, and therefore has a sense, even though there is no individual object (its reference) to which the name corresponds.
The sense of different names is different, even when their reference is the same. Frege argued that if an identity statement such as "Hesperus is the same planet as Phosphorus" is to be informative, the proper names flanking the identity sign must have a different meaning or sense. But clearly, if the statement is true, they must have the same reference. The sense is a 'mode of presentation', which serves to illuminate only a single aspect of the referent.
Much of analytic philosophy is traceable to Frege's philosophy of language. Frege's views on logic (i.e., his idea that some parts of speech are complete by themselves, and are analogous to the arguments of a mathematical function) led to his views on a theory of reference.
Background
Frege developed his original theory of meaning in early works like Begriffsschrift (concept script) of 1879 and Grundlagen (foundations of arithmetic) of 1884. On this theory, the meaning of a complete sentence consists in its being true or false, and the meaning of each significant expression in the sentence is an extralinguistic entity which Frege called its Bedeutung, literally meaning or significance, but rendered by Frege's translators as reference, referent, 'Meaning', nominatum, etc. Frege supposed that some parts of speech are complete by themselves, and are analogous to the arguments of a mathematical function, but that other parts are incomplete, and contain an empty place, by analogy with the function itself. Thus "Caesar conquered Gaul" divides into the complete term "Caesar", whose reference is Caesar himself, and the incomplete term "—conquered Gaul", whose reference is a concept. Only when the empty place is filled by a proper name does the reference of the completed sentence – its truth value – appear. This early theory of meaning explains how the significance or reference of a sentence (its truth value) depends on the significance or reference of its parts.
Sense
Frege introduced the notion of "sense" (German: Sinn) to accommodate difficulties in his early theory of meaning.
First, if the entire significance of a sentence consists of its truth value, it follows that the sentence will have the same significance if we replace a word of the sentence with one having an identical reference, as this will not change its truth value. The reference of the whole is determined by the reference of the parts. If the evening star has the same reference as the morning star, it follows that the evening star is a body illuminated by the Sun has the same truth value as the morning star is a body illuminated by the Sun. But it is possible for someone to think that the first sentence is true while also thinking that the second is false. Therefore, the thought corresponding to each sentence cannot be its reference, but something else, which Frege called its sense.
Second, sentences that contain proper names with no reference cannot have a truth value at all. Yet the sentence 'Odysseus was set ashore at Ithaca while sound asleep' obviously has a sense, even though 'Odysseus' has no reference. The thought remains the same whether or not 'Odysseus' has a reference. Furthermore, a thought cannot contain the objects that it is about. For example, Mont Blanc, 'with its snowfields', cannot be a component of the thought that Mont Blanc is more than 4,000 metres high. Nor can a thought about Etna contain lumps of solidified lava.
Frege's notion of sense is somewhat obscure, and neo-Fregeans have come up with different candidates for its role. Accounts based on the work of Carnap and Church treat sense as an intension, or a function from possible worlds to extensions. For example, the intension of ‘number of planets’ is a function that maps any possible world to the number of planets in that world. John McDowell supplies cognitive and reference-determining roles. Michael Devitt treats senses as causal-historical chains connecting names to referents, allowing that repeated "groundings" in an object account for reference change.
Sense and description
In his theory of descriptions, Bertrand Russell held the view that most proper names in ordinary language are in fact disguised definite descriptions. For example, 'Aristotle' can be understood as "The pupil of Plato and teacher of Alexander", or by some other uniquely applying description. This is known as the descriptivist theory of names. Because Frege used definite descriptions in many of his examples, he is often taken to have endorsed the descriptivist theory. Thus Russell's theory of descriptions was conflated with Frege's theory of sense, and for most of the twentieth century this "Frege–Russell" view was the orthodox view of proper name semantics. However, Saul Kripke argued compellingly against the descriptivist theory. According to Kripke, proper names are rigid designators which designate the same object in every possible world. Descriptions such as "the President of the U.S. in 1969" do not designate the same in every possible world. For example, someone other than Richard Nixon, e.g. Lyndon B. Johnson, might have been the President in 1969. Hence a description (or cluster of descriptions) cannot be a rigid designator, and thus a proper name cannot mean the same as a description.
However, the Russellian descriptivist reading of Frege has been rejected by many scholars, in particular by Gareth Evans in The Varieties of Reference and by John McDowell in "The Sense and Reference of a Proper Name", following Michael Dummett, who argued that Frege's notion of sense should not be equated with a description. Evans further developed this line, arguing that a sense without a referent was not possible. He and McDowell both take the line that Frege's discussion of empty names, and of the idea of sense without reference, are inconsistent, and that his apparent endorsement of descriptivism rests only on a small number of imprecise and perhaps offhand remarks. And both point to the power that the sense-reference distinction does have (i.e., to solve at least the first two problems), even if it is not given a descriptivist reading.
Translation of Bedeutung
As noted above, translators of Frege have rendered the German Bedeutung in various ways. The term 'reference' has been the most widely adopted, but this fails to capture the meaning of the original German ('meaning' or 'significance'), and does not reflect the decision to standardise key terms across different editions of Frege's works published by Blackwell. The decision was based on the principle of exegetical neutrality, namely that 'if at any point in a text there is a passage that raises for the native speaker legitimate questions of exegesis, then, if at all possible, a translator should strive to confront the reader of his version with the same questions of exegesis and not produce a version which in his mind resolves those questions'. The term 'meaning' best captures the standard German meaning of Bedeutung. However, while Frege's own use of the term can sound as odd in German for modern readers as when translated into English, the related term 'deuten' does mean 'to point towards'. Though 'Bedeutung' is not usually used with this etymological proximity in mind in German, German speakers can well make sense of 'Bedeutung' as signifying 'reference', in the sense of it being what 'Bedeutung' points, i.e. refers to. Moreover, 'meaning' captures Frege's early use of Bedeutung well, and it would be problematic to translate Frege's early use as 'meaning' and his later use as 'reference', suggesting a change in terminology not evident in the original German.
Precursors
Antisthenes
The Greek philosopher Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, apparently distinguished "a general object that can be aligned with the meaning of the utterance” from “a particular object of extensional reference". According to Susan Prince, this "suggests that he makes a distinction between sense and reference".
The principal basis of Prince's claim is a passage in Alexander of Aphrodisias' “Comments on Aristotle's 'Topics'” with a three-way distinction:
the semantic medium, δι' ὧν λέγουσι
an object external to the semantic medium, περὶ οὗ λέγουσιν
the direct indication of a thing, σημαίνειν ... τὸ ...
Stoicism
The Stoic doctrine of refers to a correspondence between speech and the object referred to in speech, as distinct from the speech itself. British classicist R. W. Sharples cites lekta as an anticipation of the distinction between sense and reference.
John Stuart Mill
The sense-reference distinction is commonly confused with that between connotation and denotation, which originates with John Stuart Mill. According to Mill, a common term like 'white' denotes all white things, as snow, paper. But according to Frege, a common term does not refer to any individual white thing, but rather to an abstract concept (Begriff). We must distinguish between the relation of reference, which holds between a proper name and the object it refers to, such as between the name 'Earth', and the planet Earth, and the relation of 'falling under', such as when the Earth falls under the concept planet. The relation of a proper name to the object it designates is direct, whereas a word like 'planet' has no such direct relation to the Earth at all, but only to a concept that the Earth falls under. Moreover, judging of anything that it falls under this concept is not in any way part of our knowledge of what the word 'planet' means. The distinction between connotation and denotation is closer to that between concept and object, than to that between 'sense' and 'reference'.
See also
Descriptivist theory of names
Definite description
Direct and indirect realism
Frege's puzzles
Intensional logic
Mediated reference theory
Temperature paradox
Theories of language
Use–mention distinction
Footnotes
Philosophy of language
Philosophical logic
Conceptual distinctions
Meaning (philosophy of language) | [
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244768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Criswell | Kim Criswell | Kim Criswell (born July 19, 1957) is an American musical entertainer and actress.
Life and career
Criswell was born in Hampton, Virginia, United States, but grew up in Chattanooga, Tennessee. After she graduated from Hixson High School in suburban Chattanooga, she studied musical theatre at the University of Cincinnati's College Conservatory of Music. She then moved to New York City where she landed a role in the touring company of Annie. She made her Broadway debut in The First in 1981. She has been in numerous musicals and has appeared with some of America's leading symphony orchestras as the featured soloist. She won the Helen Hayes Award in 1989 for her 1988 performance in Side By Side By Sondheim at the Olney Theatre in Washington.
In September 1991, she presented her one-woman show Doin What Comes Naturally, at the Shaw Theatre in London. She has lived in London since 1992, when she was invited to play Annie Oakley in Irving Berlin's musical Annie Get Your Gun.
On August 1, 2009, she was a featured soloist in the "BBC Proms 2009: a Celebration of Classic MGM Film Musicals" at the Royal Albert Hall. On that evening she performed a number of songs including: "The Trolley Song", "Over the Rainbow" and "Get Happy" all originally made famous by Judy Garland. She additionally performed the songs "I Got Rhythm" (also in Garland's repertoire) and "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire" in a duet with Seth MacFarlane. On October 4, 2009, she was a featured artist at the Broadway to West End Gala in the Theatre Royal Drury Lane. She repeated her Proms Concert success when she appeared in a Rodgers and Hammerstein evening, once again with the John Wilson Orchestra at The Royal Albert Hall with opera singer Rod Gilfry in August 2010.
In January 2012, she performed at Vienna's Volksoper, starring in Bernstein's Candide.
Musicals
The First (1981) as Hilda/ensemble
Nine (1982) as Francesca (also as Claudia-first replacement)
Baby (1983) as Narrator/Sixth Woman
Jesus Christ Superstar at Papermill Playhouse as Mary Magdalene
Cats (1985-1986 LA Production) as Grizabella
Stardust (1986) as Soloist
Three Musketeers (1983) as Queen Anne
Side By Side By Sondheim (1988)
The Threepenny Opera (1989) at Lunt Fontanne Theatre, Broadway as Lucy Brown
Annie Get Your Gun (1992) at Prince Of Wales Theatre, London as Annie Oakley
I Married an Angel at Theatre Off Park as Peggy
Dames at Sea (1996) as Mona Kent
The Slow Drag (1997) as June Wedding
Of Thee I Sing (1998) as Diana Deaveraux
Wonderful Town (1999) as Ruth Sherwood
Hollywood and Broadway II -Herself, Bonnie Langford& Wayne Sleep- 1993Anything Goes (2002) at Grange Park Opera as Reno SweeneyCall Me Madam (2004) at Goodspeed Opera House as Mrs. Sally AdamsInto The Woods (2006) as The WitchCandide (2006) at the Théâtre du Châtelet (Paris - France) as The Old WomanThe Sound of Music (2009) at the Théâtre du Châtelet (Paris - France) as The Mother AbbessHysteria (2011) as Mrs. Castellari Carrie (2015) at the Southwark Playhouse (London) as Margaret White
FilmsThe Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1997) as Georgie Maguire
Recordings
"Dearest Enemy" (2012)
Mary Murray
Solo albums The Human Cry (1993)The Lorelei (1994)Back to Before (1999)Something to Dance About''
References
External links
Interview with Kim Criswell
1957 births
Living people
University of Cincinnati – College-Conservatory of Music alumni | [
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244770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20Williams%20%28Welsh%20politician%29 | Phil Williams (Welsh politician) | Professor Philip James Stradling Williams (11 January 1939 – 10 June 2003) was a Welsh politician for Plaid Cymru and scientist.
Background
Williams was born in Tredegar in the industrial valleys of south Wales and grew up in Bargoed, another industrial town. He was educated at Lewis School, Pengam and Clare College, Cambridge, and became a leading space scientist. He was appointed Professor of Solar Terrestrial Physics at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, and simultaneously became economic spokesman for Plaid Cymru.
Political career
He contested the 1968 Caerphilly by-election, where he came close to unseating Labour in a safe seat, and became the second Chairman of Plaid Cymru in 1970, a post he held until 1976; when he became Vice President of the party. He was responsible for policy and research in the party for many years.
From 1999 to 2003, he was a Member of the National Assembly for Wales for the electoral region of South Wales East. Williams also stood for election in Blaenau Gwent in 1999 and got 21% of the vote.
Return to science and death
He stood down as an Assembly Member in 2003 to work on a research project to study the inner workings of the sun from the observatory near the North Pole. In 2001, he was voted Welsh Politician of the Year, and he was being pressured by former colleagues to become the next president of his party, following the resignation of Ieuan Wyn Jones as president. Shortly after standing down from the Welsh Assembly he suffered a heart attack while visiting a massage parlour in Cardiff and was pronounced dead shortly afterwards.
References
External links
Rishbeth, Henry. "Obituary: P J S Williams 1939–2003", Astronomy & Geophysics, 44(5), 2003.
Plaid Cymru – the Party of Wales Website
Offices held
1939 births
2003 deaths
People from Tredegar
Academics of Aberystwyth University
Plaid Cymru members of the Senedd
Wales AMs 1999–2003
Plaid Cymru politicians
Welsh space scientists
People educated at Lewis School, Pengam
Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
Welsh-speaking politicians
20th-century Welsh scientists | [
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244773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty%20name | Empty name | In metaphysics and the philosophy of language, an empty name is a proper name that has no referent.
The problem of empty names is that empty names have a meaning that it seems they should not have. The name "Pegasus" is empty; there is nothing to which it refers. Yet, though there is no Pegasus, we know what the sentence "Pegasus has two wings" means. We can even understand the sentence "There is no such thing as Pegasus." But, what can the meaning of a proper name be, except the object to which it refers?
Overview
There are three broad ways which philosophers have tried to approach this problem.
The meaning of a proper name is not the same as the object (if there is any) it refers to. Hence, though "Pegasus" refers to nothing, it still has a meaning. The German philosopher Gottlob Frege seems to have held a theory of this sort. He says that the sentence Odysseus was set ashore at Ithaca while sound asleep' obviously has a sense. ... the thought [expressed by that sentence] remains the same whether 'Odysseus' has reference or not." Bertrand Russell may also have held a similar theory, that a proper name is a disguised definite description that signifies some unique characteristic. If any object has this characteristic feature, the name has a referent. Otherwise it is empty. Perhaps "Aristotle" means "the teacher of Alexander". Since there was such a person, "Aristotle" refers to that person. By contrast, "Pegasus" may mean "the winged horse of Bellerophon". Since there was no such horse, the name has no referent. This is the so-called description theory of names. The difficulty with this account is that we may always use a proper name to deny that the individual bearing the name actually has some characteristic feature. So, we can meaningfully say that Aristotle was not the teacher of Alexander. But if "Aristotle" means "teacher of Alexander", it would follow that this assertion is self-contradictory, which it is not. Saul Kripke proposed this argument in a series of influential papers in the 1970s. Another difficulty is that different people may have different ideas about the defining characteristics of any individual. Yet we all understand what the name means. The sole information carried by the name seems to be the identity of the individual that it belongs to. This information therefore cannot be descriptive, it cannot describe the individual. As John Stuart Mill argued, a proper name tells us the identity of its bearer, without telling us anything else about it. Naming is rather like pointing.
A theory that became influential following Kripke's attack is that empty proper names, have, strictly speaking, no meaning. This is the so-called direct-reference theory. Versions of this theory have been defended by Keith Donnellan, David Kaplan, Nathan Salmon, Scott Soames and others. The problem with the direct-reference theory is that names appear to be meaningful independently of whether they are empty. Furthermore, negative existential statements using empty names are both true and apparently meaningful. How can "Pegasus does not exist" be true if the name "Pegasus", as used in that sentence, has no meaning?
There are no empty names. All names have a referent. The difficulty with this theory is how to distinguish names like "Pegasus" from names like "Aristotle". Any coherent account of this distinction seems to require that there are, i.e. there exist, objects that do not exist. Given that "Pegasus does not exist" is true, it follows that the referent of "Pegasus" does not exist. Hence there is something—the referent of "Pegasus"—that does not exist.
Some philosophers, such as Alexius Meinong have argued that there are two senses of the verb "exists", exemplified by the sentence "there are things that do not exist". The first, signified by "there are", is the so-called "wide sense", including Pegasus, the golden mountain, the round square, and so on. The second, signified by "exist" is the so-called "narrow sense", encompassing only things that are real or existent. The difficulty with this "two sense" theory is that there is no strong evidence that there really are two such distinct senses of the verb "to be".
Fictional entities
Some philosophers employ the related concepts of "fictional entities" (such as Sherlock Holmes) who are deliberate inventions, and of "mythical entities" (such as Vulcan) that result from accidental mistakes. Such entities appear to be employed in many different contexts:
Discourse within fiction: The story itself saying that "[Holmes was] the most perfect reasoning and observing machine"
Intra-fictional discourse by readers: "Holmes solved his first mystery while in college"
Inter-fictional discourse by readers: "Holmes is even smarter than Batman"
Nonexistence claims: "Sherlock Holmes does not exist"
Discourse about the entity as a fictional entity: "Holmes is a fictional character"
See also
Meinong's jungle
Meta-ontology
Nonexistent objects
Ontological commitment
Plato's beard
Round square copula
References
Philosophy of language
Abstract object theory
Concepts in metaphysics
Logic
Semantics
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244774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse | Curse | A curse (also called an imprecation, malediction, hex, execration, malison, anathema, or commination) is any expressed wish that some form of adversity or misfortune will befall or attach to one or more persons, a place, or an object. In particular, "curse" may refer to such a wish or pronouncement made effective by a supernatural or spiritual power, such as a god or gods, a spirit, or a natural force, or else as a kind of spell by magic (usually black magic) or witchcraft; in the latter sense, a curse can also be called a hex or a jinx. In many belief systems, the curse itself (or accompanying ritual) is considered to have some causative force in the result. To reverse or eliminate a curse is sometimes called "removal" or "breaking", as the spell has to be dispelled, and is often requiring elaborate rituals or prayers.
Types
The study of the forms of curses comprises a significant proportion of the study of both folk religion and folklore. The deliberate attempt to levy curses is often part of the practice of magic. In Hindu culture, the Sage or Rishi is believed to have the power to bless (Āshirvada or Vara) and curse (Shaapa). Examples include the curse placed by Rishi Bhrigu on king Nahusha and the one placed by Rishi Devala.
Special names for specific types of curses can be found in various cultures:
African American hoodoo presents us with the jinx and crossed conditions, as well as a form of foot track magic which was used by Ramandeep, whereby cursed objects are laid in the paths of victims and activated when walked over.
Middle Eastern and Mediterranean culture is the source of the belief in the evil eye, which may be the result of envy but or, more rarely, is said to be the result of a deliberate curse. In order to be protected from the evil eye, a protection item is made from dark blue circular glass, with a circle of white around the black dot in the middle, which is reminiscent of a human eye. The size of the protective eye item may vary.
German people, including the Pennsylvania Dutch, speak in terms of hexing (from hexen, the German word for doing witchcraft), and a common hex in days past was that laid by a stable-witch who caused milk cows to go dry and horses to go lame.
Egyptians and mummies
There is a broad popular belief in curses being associated with the violation of the tombs of mummified corpses, or of the mummies themselves. The idea became so widespread as to become a pop-culture mainstay, especially in horror films (though originally the curse was invisible, a series of mysterious deaths, rather than the walking-dead mummies of later fiction). The "Curse of the Pharaohs" is supposed to have haunted the archeologists who excavated the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, whereby an imprecation was supposedly pronounced from the grave by the ancient Egyptian priests, on anyone who violated its precincts. Similar dubious suspicions have surrounded the excavation and examination of the (natural, not embalmed) Alpine mummy, "Ötzi the Iceman". While such curses are generally considered to have been popularized and sensationalized by British journalists of the 19th century, ancient Egyptians were, in fact, known to place curse inscriptions on markers protecting temple or tomb goods or property.
In the Bible
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article Cursing, the Bible depicts God cursing the serpent, the earth, and Cain (, , ). Similarly, Noah curses Canaan (), and Joshua curses the man who should build the city of Jericho (). In various books of the Hebrew Bible, there are long lists of curses against transgressors of the Law (, , etc.). The 10 Plagues of Egypt, preceding the 10 Commandments, can be seen as curses cast from the rods of Aaron and Moses acting on instruction from the God of Israel, in order to enable the enthralled to come free from the yoke of enforced serfdom, slavery and the like.
In the New Testament, Christ curses the barren fig-tree (), pronounces his denunciation of woe against the incredulous cities (), against the rich, the worldly, the scribes, and the Pharisees, and foretells the awful malediction that is to come upon the damned (). The word curse is also applied to the victim of expiation for sin (Galatians 3:13), to sins temporal and eternal (; )."
Objects
Cursed objects are generally supposed to have been stolen from their rightful owners or looted from a sanctuary. The Hope Diamond is supposed to bear such a curse, and bring misfortune to its owner. The stories behind why these items are cursed vary, but they usually are said to bring bad luck or to manifest unusual phenomena related to their presence. Busby's stoop chair was reportedly cursed by the murderer Thomas Busby shortly before his execution so that everyone who would sit in it would die.
As plot devices
Curses have also been used as plot devices in literature and theater. When used as a plot device, they involve one character placing a curse or hex over another character. This is distinguished from adverse spells and premonitions and other such plot devices. Examples of the curse as a plot device:
Rigoletto— Count Monterone places a curse on Rigoletto. Rigoletto blames the climactic death of his daughter on the curse.
Romeo and Juliet— A dying Mercutio curses the Montagues and Capulets with "A plague 'o both your houses." (Often quoted as "a pox on both your houses.")
Sleeping Beauty — Evil fairy Carabosse (Maleficent in the Disney film) casts a curse on Princess Aurora to die on her 16th birthday.
Beauty and the Beast — A fairy punishes a conceited prince by transforming him into a hideous beast.
The Six Swans (and variants) - a mother curses her six (seven, twelve) sons into bird form, and their sister must sew magic shirts to reverse the transformation
Shrek — Princess Fiona was cursed to be human by day, but ogre by night.
There Will Be Blood — Daniel Plainview was cursed by Eli Sunday through "blessing" of Daniel's oil rig and through "baptism".
Drag Me To Hell - Christine Brown was cursed by Sylvia Ganush to experience three days of torture, then the lamia will drag her to hell.
Sports
A number of curses are used to explain the failures or misfortunes of specific sports teams, players, or even cities. For example:
No first-time winner of the World Snooker Championship has successfully defended his title since the event was first held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield in 1977. This has been widely attributed to a Crucible Curse.
The Curse of the Billy Goat was used to explain the failures of the Chicago Cubs baseball team, who did not win a World Series championship between 1908 and 2016, and a National League pennant between 1945 and 2016.
There was a famous curse called the Curse of the Bambino on the Boston Red Sox Major League Baseball team. After the Red Sox sold Babe Ruth, who had won 3 of the 5 Red Sox World Series titles at the time, to the New York Yankees, where he won his final 4 titles, it took the Red Sox 86 years to win another World Series (1918-2004). In 2004 the Red Sox made history in the American League Championship Series (ALCS), coming back from 0 games to 3, winning 4 games in a row against their archrivals the New York Yankees, blowing out game 7 in the Bronx 10 to 3, this is cited as one of the greatest comebacks in sports history. The Red Sox secured the AL Pennant and then went on to sweep the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series, 4 games to 0, ending the curse once and for all. Three years later, they would win sweep again in the 2007 World Series against the Colorado Rockies, in they added a third championship by defeating the Cardinals 4 games to 2, and finally (so far) they won their fourth post "curse" in the 2018 World Series, four games to one, against the L.A. Dodgers.
The Krukow Kurse was used to explain the San Francisco Giants' failure to ever win the World Series until 2010. It is attributed to Mike Krukow (a former pitcher for the Giants and a current broadcaster for the team) based upon his yearly pre-season predictions that the Giants "have a chance" to win the World Series. Once Krukow stops making such predictions—says the legend—the Giants will, in fact, win the World Series. However, the Giants went on to win the World Series in 2010. It was during the same year that Krukow's partner, Giants broadcaster, Duane Kuiper, stated, "Giants baseball, it's torture!", due to the large amount of close games that they played. This phrase was adopted by fans and became a rallying cry throughout the second half of the season and the playoff run.
Marketing experts have highlighted the curse of Gillette, given the mishaps that happen to sports stars associated with the brand.
See also
Book curse
Curse of 39
Curse of Turan
Curse tablet
Family curse
Fortune telling fraud
Incantation
Nocebo
Profanity
Superman curse
Superstition
References
Further reading
Curse tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World by John G. Gager
Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression ISSN US 0363-3659
Supernatural Hawaii by Margaret Stone. Copyright 1979 by Aloha Graphics and Sales.
The Secret Obake Casebook Tales from the Darkside of the Cabinet by Glen Grant. Copyright 1997 by Glen Grant.
External links
Supernatural legends | [
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244775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Lorenzo | San Lorenzo | San Lorenzo is the Italian and Spanish name for Saint Lawrence, the 3rd-century Christian martyr, and may refer to:
Places
Argentina
San Lorenzo, Santa Fe
San Lorenzo Department, Chaco
Monte San Lorenzo, a mountain on the border between Argentina and Chile
Bolivia
San Lorenzo, Tarija
Colombia
San Lorenzo, Nariño
Croatia
Lovrečica, also called San Lorenzo, a village in Umag
Costa Rica
San Lorenzo, a district in Heredia Province
Dominican Republic
San Lorenzo de Mao in Mao, Dominican Republic
Ecuador
San Lorenzo, Ecuador, a sea port
San Lorenzo Canton, Esmeraldas Province
El Salvador
San Lorenzo, Ahuachapán
San Lorenzo, San Vicente
France
San-Lorenzo, a village in Corsica
Guatemala
San Lorenzo, San Marcos
San Lorenzo, Suchitepéquez
Honduras
San Lorenzo, Valle
Italy
San Lorenzo, Arcidosso, a village in the province of Grosseto
San Lorenzo (Naples), a neighborhood in central Naples
San Lorenzo, Calabria, a municipality in the province of Reggio Calabria
San Lorenzo alle Corti, a village in the province of Pisa
San Lorenzo al Mare, a municipality in the province of Imperia
San Lorenzo a Pagnatico, a village in the province of Pisa
San Lorenzo del Vallo, a municipality in the province of Cosenza
San Lorenzo in Banale, a municipality in Trentino
San Lorenzo in Campo, a municipality in the province of Pesaro and Urbino
San Lorenzo (Bognanco), in the province of Verbano Cusio Ossola
Colonne di San Lorenzo, Roman ruins in Milan
Quartiere San Lorenzo, part of the Third Municipality of Rome
San Lorenzo Bellizzi, a municipality in Cosenza
San Lorenzo Isontino, a municipality in Gorizia
San Lorenzo Maggiore, a municipality and town in Benevento
San Lorenzo Nuovo, a municipality in Viterbo
St. Lorenzen, a municipality in South Tyrol, in the Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
Mexico
San Lorenzo River (Mexico)
San Lorenzo, Chihuahua
San Lorenzo, Oaxaca
San Lorenzo Albarradas, Oaxaca
San Lorenzo Cacaotepec, Oaxaca
San Lorenzo Cuaunecuiltitla, Oaxaca
San Lorenzo Texmelucan, Oaxaca
San Lorenzo Victoria, Oaxaca
San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, an ancient center of the Olmec culture, in Veracruz
Nicaragua
San Lorenzo, Boaco
Panama
Fort San Lorenzo, Colón
San Lorenzo, Chiriquí
Paraguay
San Lorenzo, Paraguay, a satellite city to the east of Asunción
Peru
San Lorenzo Island, Peru, an island in the Pacific off the coast of Callao
San Lorenzo, Loreto
San Lorenzo, San Lorenzo District, Jauja Province
San Lorenzo District, Jauja
Philippines
San Lorenzo, Guimaras
San Lorenzo, San Pablo
San Lorenzo, a village in Makati
Puerto Rico
San Lorenzo, Puerto Rico, a municipio
San Lorenzo, Morovis, Puerto Rico, a barrio
San Lorenzo barrio-pueblo, barrio and administrative center of San Lorenzo, Puerto Rico
Spain
San Lorenzo de El Escorial, a municipality in Madrid
Mount San Lorenzo, a mountain near Ezcaray in Sierra de la Demanda, La Rioja
San Lorenzo (Madrid Metro), a station on Line 4
United States
San Lorenzo, California, a town in Alameda County
San Lorenzo River, in California
San Lorenzo Valley, in California
San Lorenzo, New Mexico (disambiguation), several unincorporated communities
Fictional
San Lorenzo (Vonnegut), a Caribbean island nation in Cat's Cradle by Kurt Vonnegut
San Lorenzo, a Central American country in Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie
San Lorenzo, a Mediterranean country in Leverage
San Lorenzo, a town in The Adventures of Puss in Boots
Churches
Basilica di San Lorenzo (disambiguation)
Italy
San Lorenzo Church, Brescia, a Baroque style, Roman Catholic church in Lombardy
San Lorenzo, Budrio, a Roman Catholic parish church in Bologna, Emilia Romagna
San Lorenzo, Carmignano, a romanesque-style, Roman Catholic rural parish church in Prato, Tuscany
San Lorenzo, Civitella del Tronto, a Renaissance-style Roman Catholic parish church in Teramo, Abruzzo
San Lorenzo, Florence, one of the largest churches of Florence
San Lorenzo, Ghisalba, a neoclassical-style, Roman Catholic parish church in Bergamo, Lombardy
San Lorenzo, Lodi, a Romanesque-style, Roman Catholic church located in Lodi, region of Lombardy
San Lorenzo, Melfi, a Baroque-style Roman Catholic church building in Potenza, Basilicata
San Lorenzo, Mortara, a Gothic architecture, Roman Catholic Basilica church in Pavia, Lombardy
San Lorenzo, Nirano, a Roman Catholic parish church in Fiorano Modenese, Emilia-Romagna
San Lorenzo, Pazzaglio ed Uniti, a Roman Catholic parish church in Cremona, Lombardy
San Lorenzo, San Lorenzo in Campo, a Roman Catholic basilica church in Pesaro e Urbino, Marche
San Lorenzo, Sansepolcro, a Renaissance-style, Roman Catholic church in Arezzo, Tuscany
San Lorenzo, Turin, a Baroque-style church in Turin
San Lorenzo, Venice, a church building in the sestiere of Castello of Venice
San Lorenzo in Panisperna, a basilica in Rome
San Lorenzo in Lucina, a church in Rome
San Lorenzo in Miranda, a church and former temple in Rome
San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, a basilica in Rome
Genoa Cathedral or Cattedrale di San Lorenzo, a cathedral in Genoa
Perugia Cathedral or Cattedrale di San Lorenzo, a cathedral in Perugia
Basilica of San Lorenzo, Milan or Chiesa di San Lorenzo Maggiore, a church in Milan
Spain
San Lorenzo, Córdoba, a church in Andalusia
Iglesia de San Lorenzo, Toledo
Sports
San Lorenzo de Almagro, an Argentine football club based in Buenos Aires
Club Sportivo San Lorenzo, a Paraguayan football club
San Lorenzo F.C., a Honduran football club
Other uses
San Lorenzo (restaurant), an Italian restaurant in London
San Lorenzo (Vonnegut), a fictional country in the novel Cat's Cradle by Kurt Vonnegut
Sanlorenzo, an Italian yacht builder
Battle of San Lorenzo, fought in 1813 between the United Provinces and the Royalists, in current Argentine territory
Battle of San Lorenzo de la Muga, fought in 1784 between Spanish-Portuguese and French armies
Operación San Lorenzo, a rescue of trapped Chilean miners in 2010
"San Lorenzo march", a 1902 Argentine military march, celebrating the Battle of San Lorenzo
"San Lorenzo", a song by Pat Metheny Group from Pat Metheny Group
San Lorenzo Troop, a mounted squadron of the ceremonial Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers of the Argentine Army
See also
Lorenzo (disambiguation)
San Lorenzo District (disambiguation)
Río San Lorenzo (disambiguation)
Saint Laurent (disambiguation)
Saint Lawrence (disambiguation)
San Lawrenz, a village in Gozo, Malta
Sankt Lorenzen (disambiguation)
São Lourenço (disambiguation) | [
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244779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Harrison%20%28DJ%29 | Harry Harrison (DJ) | Harry M. Harrison (September 20, 1930 – January 28, 2020) was an American radio personality, primarily in New York City, for over 50 years. Harrison is the only disc jockey to be a WMCA "Good Guy", a WABC "All-American", and a personality on WCBS-FM's oldies format. Harrison retired in June 2005. He was known as New York's "Morning Mayor" after having hosted morning drive time through most of his career.
Early
Harry M. Harrison was born on Sept. 20, 1930, in Chicago to Harry Harrison and Mary (McKenna) Harrison. He attended a seminary with the intention of becoming a priest. Bedridden with rheumatic fever for nearly a year, he kept his ear glued to the radio, which decided him on a broadcasting career. He began his radio career at WCFL in 1953, later hosting a morning show at WPEO in Peoria, Illinois, before moving to New York City.
Career
WCFL, Chicago, Illinois (1953–1954)
Harrison worked at WCFL 1000 AM as a summer replacement, yet remained there eight months, substituting for the permanent DJs.
WPEO, Peoria, Illinois (1954–1959)
Harrison became program director at WPEO, Peoria and hosted the morning show as the "Morning Mayor of Peoria." In just six months, Harrison made WPEO the top station.
WMCA, New York (1959–1968)
In 1959, Harrison joined WMCA 570 AM, New York, as the midday "Good Guy." (WMCA disc jockeys were dubbed Good Guys.) Joe O'Brien (mornings) and Harrison gave WMCA a "one-two punch" for over eight years. Harrison, along with wife Patti, and children Brian Joseph ["B.J."], Patti, Patrick, and Michael, called the New York suburbs "home".
In 1965, he recorded the holiday narration "May You Always", which was released as a single on Amy Records and made the Billboard Christmas singles chart that year.
Other WMCA "Good Guys" included Jack Spector, B. Mitchel Reed, Dan Daniel and Johnny Dark, and talk show host Barry Gray. Harrison became popular with his "Housewife Hall of Fame" feature, and participated in the 1966 WMCA Good Guy picnic. Often, he scored the highest ratings on WMCA. Program director Rick Sklar of competing Top 40 station WABC took note.
WABC–AM, New York (1968–1979)
In 1968, when WABC morning host Herb Oscar Anderson left the station, Rick Sklar hired Harrison to be the new morning DJ. Harrison was followed on the WABC schedule by Ron Lundy in middays and Dan Ingram in afternoons.
Every year, Harrison played seasonal songs, such as his holiday greeting "May You Always" in December (the Amy records single of this song made the Billboard Christmas charts in 1965), and Allan Sherman's summer camp novelty, "Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh", throughout the summer months.
WABC personalities included, along with Harrison; Charlie Greer, Scott Muni, Bob Lewis, Ron Lundy, Johnny Donovan, Dan Ingram, Bruce Morrow aka "Cousin Brucie", Chuck Leonard, Bob Cruz, Frank Kingston Smith, Roby Yonge and Jay Reynolds.
Harrison had a number of "trademark" phrases, such as "Morning, Mom"; "Every brand new day should be unwrapped like a precious gift"; "Stay well, stay happy, stay right here"; and "Harry Harrison wishing you all the very best... because that's exactly what you deserve!" Also, on the last day of every year, Harrison would bring his four children to work with him and at the end of his shift, he would join them in giving listeners New Year's wishes.
Harrison was let go from WABC as the station changed direction in November 1979.
WCBS–FM, New York (1980–2003)
On March 24, 1980, Harrison became the morning personality at WCBS-FM 101.1, playing oldies music. In 1984, with Lundy joining the station, they were once again heard back-to-back. Harrison would interact with Morning Crew engineer Al Vertucci, sportscaster Phil Pepe, and joke about "wacky weather" and toupee warnings with meteorologist Irv "Mr. "G" Gikofsky, and newscasters Mary Jane Royce and Sue Evans. At 7:20 AM, Harrison opened the "birthday book" and announced listener and celebrity birthdays.
On March 19, 2003, after a 44-year career in New York radio, Harrison left WCBS-FM, saying "I am not retiring." His farewell to his loyal radio friends (from 5:30 to 10:00am) was held before a live audience at the Museum of Television and Radio in New York City. It offered old airchecks plus guest appearances by WCBS-FM colleagues Don K. Reed, Bobby Jay, Steve O'Brien, Randy Davis and Dan Taylor, his replacement, as well as his son and daughter, Patti. Harrison took phone calls from Bob Shannon, Mike Fitzgerald, Ed Baer, and Ron Lundy. Songs included Gladys Knight's "Neither One of Us (Wants to Be the First to Say Goodbye)" and the Little River Band's "Reminiscing," before closing with "That's What Friends Are For."
WCBS–FM, New York (2004–2005)
Harrison returned to WCBS-FM with a Saturday morning show in 2004. It offered two hours of variety and two hours of Beatles music and memories.
On Memorial Day, May 30, 2005, Harry and "Cousin Brucie" Bruce Morrow were guests on WABC Radio's annual Rewound show. Four days later, on June 3, WCBS-FM ended its "oldies" format, in favor of the new "Jack" format. However, as a result of listener disapproval, the WCBS-FM Oldies format was brought back on July 12, 2007, in a modernized form.
Legacy
Harrison was known as New York's "Morning Mayor".
Mayor Rudy Giuliani declared April 25, 1997 as "Harry Harrison Day," in honor of the city's second "mayor."
In November 2019 Harrison was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame. Fellow inductees included John Tesh, Ryan Seacrest, and Dr. Ruth Westheimer.
Death
Harry Harrison died peacefully on January 28, 2020 at his home in Westwood, New Jersey, at the age of 89. He is survived by his daughter Patti and son Patrick; his sons Michael and BJ, and wife Patti predeceased him.
References
External links
REELRADIO Harry Harrison Special by Larry Ware
Harry Harrison at WMCA
Harry Harrison at WABC radio
Harry's WCBS-FM Farewell
WCBS-FM history
1930 births
2020 deaths
American radio DJs
Radio personalities from Chicago
Radio personalities from New York City
People from Peoria, Illinois
Death in New Jersey | [
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244786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornbread | Cornbread | Cornbread is a quick bread made with cornmeal, associated with the cuisine of the Southern United States, with origins in Native American cuisine. It is an example of batter bread. Dumplings and pancakes made with finely ground cornmeal are staple foods of the Hopi people in Arizona. The Hidatsa people of the Upper Midwest call baked cornbread naktsi. Cherokee and Seneca tribes enrich the basic batter, adding chestnuts, sunflower seeds, apples or berries, and sometimes combining beans or potatoes with the cornmeal. Modern versions of cornbread are usually leavened by baking powder.
History
Native Americans had been using ground corn (maize) as food for thousands of years before Europeans arrived in the New World.
European settlers, especially those who resided in the English Southern Colonies, learned the original recipes and processes for corn dishes from the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek, and soon they devised recipes for using cornmeal in breads similar to those made of grains available in Europe. Cornbread has been called a "cornerstone" of the cuisine of the Southern United States. Cornmeal is produced by grinding dry raw corn grains. A coarser meal (compare flour) made from corn is grits. Grits are produced by soaking raw corn grains in hot water containing calcium hydroxide (an alkaline salt), which loosens the grain hulls (bran) and increases the nutritional value of the product (by increasing available niacin and available amino acids). These are separated by washing and flotation in water, and the now softened slightly swelled grains are called hominy. Hominy, pozole in Mexican Spanish, also is ground into masa harina for arepas, tamales and tortillas. This ancient Native American technology has been named nixtamalization. Besides cornbread, Native Americans use corn to make numerous other dishes from the familiar hominy grits to alcoholic beverages (such as Andean chicha). Cornbread was popular during the American Civil War because it was very cheap and could be made in many different forms—high-rising, fluffy loaves or simply fried (as unleavened pone, corn fritters, hoecakes, etc.).
Types of cornbread
Cornbread is a popular item in Southern cooking enjoyed by many people for its texture and aroma. Cornbread can be baked, fried, or (rarely) steamed. Steamed cornbread is mushy, chewier, and more like cornmeal pudding than what most consider to be traditional cornbread. Cornbread can also be baked into corn cakes.
Baked cornbread
Cornbread is a common bread in United States cuisine, particularly associated with the South and Southwest, as well as being a traditional staple for populations where wheat flour was more expensive. Cornbread, especially leftovers, can be eaten as a breakfast. It is also widely eaten with barbecue and chili con carne. In parts of the southern and southwestern United States, cornbread, accompanied by pinto beans, has been a common lunch for many people. It is still a common side dish for many suppers, often served with butter. Cornbread crumbs are also used in some poultry stuffings or dressing as it is called; cornbread stuffing is particularly associated with Thanksgiving turkeys.
In the United States, northern and southern cornbread are different because they generally use different types of corn meal and varying degrees of sugar and eggs. Southern cornbread has traditionally been made with little or no sugar and smaller amounts of flour (or no flour), with northern cornbread being sweeter and more cake-like. Southern cornbread traditionally used white cornmeal and buttermilk. Other ingredients such as pork rinds are sometimes used. Cornbread is occasionally crumbled and served with cold milk or clabber (buttermilk), similar to cold cereal. In Texas, Mexican influence has spawned a hearty cornbread made with fresh or creamed corn kernels and jalapeño peppers and topped with shredded cheese. Cornbread is typically eaten with molasses in the southern states and with butter and honey in the northern states of America.
Skillet-fried or skillet-baked cornbread (often simplified to cornbread or skillet bread) is a traditional staple in the rural United States, especially in the South. This involves heating bacon drippings, lard or other oil in a heavy, well-seasoned cast iron skillet in an oven, and then pouring a batter made from cornmeal, egg, and milk directly into the hot grease. The mixture is returned to the oven to bake into a large, crumbly and sometimes very moist cake with a crunchy crust. This bread tends to be dense and is usually served as an accompaniment rather than as a bread served as a regular course. In addition to the skillet method, such cornbread also may be made in sticks, muffins, or loaves.
A slightly different variety, cooked in a simple baking dish, is associated with northern U.S. cuisine. The batter for northern-style cornbread is very similar to and sometimes interchangeable with that of a corn muffin. A typical contemporary northern U.S. cornbread recipe contains half wheat flour, half cornmeal, milk or buttermilk, eggs, leavening agent, salt, and usually sugar, resulting in a bread that is somewhat lighter and sweeter than the traditional southern version.
Unlike fried variants of cornbread, baked cornbread is a quick bread that is dependent on an egg-based protein matrix for its structure (though the addition of wheat flour adds gluten to increase its cohesiveness). The baking process gelatinizes the starch in the cornmeal, but still often leaves some hard starch to give the finished product a distinctive sandiness not typical of breads made from other grains.
Cracklin' bread
A primarily Southern dish consisting of cornbread with pork cracklings inside. It can be prepared with any method but a skillet is most common as it allows for making the cornbread crispier.
Corn pone
Corn pone (sometimes referred to as "Indian pone") is a type of cornbread made from a thick, malleable cornmeal dough (which is usually egg-less and milk-less) and cooked in a specific type of iron pan over an open fire (such as a frontiersman would use), using mostly bacon grease, but later, butter, margarine, shortening, or cooking oil. Corn pones are a staple of Southern U.S. cuisine, and have been discussed or referenced by many American writers, including Mark Twain.
In the Appalachian Mountains, cornbread baked in a round iron skillet, or in a cake pan of any shape, is still referred to as a "pone" of cornbread (as opposed to "hoe cakes", the term for cornbread fried in pancake style); and when biscuit dough (i.e., "biscuits" in the American sense of the word) is occasionally baked in one large cake rather than as separate biscuits, this is called a "biscuit pone".
The term "corn pone" is sometimes used derogatorily to refer to one who possesses certain rural, unsophisticated peculiarities ("he's a corn pone"), or as an adjective to describe particular rural, folksy or "hick" characteristics (e.g., "corn pone" humor). This pejorative term often is directed at persons from rural areas of the Southern and Midwestern United States. A character in the Lil' Abner comic strip, General Jubilation T Cornpone, was a mythical Civil War general from Dogpatch known for his retreats and imputed cowardice. President John F. Kennedy's staffers, who were mostly Northeastern Ivy League elites, openly mocked Texan Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson's rural speech patterns, referring to Johnson behind his back as "Uncle Cornpone" or "Rufus Cornpone".
Hot water cornbread
Cooked on a rangetop, one frying method involves pouring a small amount of liquid batter made with boiling water and self-rising cornmeal (cornmeal with soda or some other chemical leavener added) into a skillet of hot oil, and allowing the crust to turn golden and crunchy while the center of the batter cooks into a crumbly, mushy bread. These small (3-4" diameter) fried breads are soft and very rich. Sometimes, to ensure the consistency of the bread, a small amount of wheat flour is added to the batter. This type of cornbread is often known as "hot water" or "scald meal" cornbread and is unique to the American South.
Johnnycakes
Pouring a batter similar to that of skillet-fried cornbread, but slightly thinner, into hot grease atop a griddle or a skillet produces a pancake-like bread called a johnnycake. This type of cornbread is prevalent in New England, particularly in Rhode Island, and also in the American Midwest and the American South. It is reminiscent of the term hoecake, used in the American South for fried cornbread pancakes, which may date back to stories about some people on the frontier making cornbread patties on the blade of a hoe.
Hushpuppies
A thicker buttermilk-based batter that is deep-fried rather than pan-fried, forms the hushpuppy, a common accompaniment to fried fish and other seafood in the South. Hushpuppy recipes vary from state to state, some including onion seasoning, chopped onions, beer, or jalapeños. Fried properly, the hushpuppy will be moist and yellow or white on the inside, while crunchy and light to medium-dark golden brown on the outside.
See also
– Balkan variant
Notes and references
External links
Indians.org History of cornbread
Quick breads
American breads
Canadian cuisine
Native American cuisine
Native American cuisine of the Southeastern Woodlands
Cuisine of the Southern United States
Maize dishes
Thanksgiving food
Cuisine of the Southwestern United States | [
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244795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Germany | Music of Germany | Germany claims some of the most renowned composers, singers, producers and performers of the world. Germany is the largest music market in Europe, and third largest in the world.
German classical music is one of the most performed in the world; German composers include some of the most accomplished and popular in history, among them Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Friedrich Händel, Ludwig van Beethoven, Felix Mendelssohn, Johannes Brahms, Robert Schumann. Carl Maria von Weber, Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss were among the composers who created the field of German opera. Hans Zimmer, the prolific film score composer, is also German .
German popular music of the 20th and 21st century includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle (Nena, Hubert Kah, Alphaville), disco (Boney M., Modern Talking, Dschinghis Khan, Milli Vanilli, Bad Boys Blue), metal/rock (Rammstein, Scorpions, Accept, Helloween), punk (Die Ärzte, Böhse Onkelz, Nina Hagen, Die Toten Hosen), pop rock (Sandra, Enigma, Michael Cretu, Herbert Grönemeyer) and indie (Tocotronic). Famous female singers were Marlene Dietrich and Hildegard Knef. German electronic music gained global influence, with Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream being pioneer groups in this genre. The electro and techno scene is internationally popular, namely due to the DJs Paul van Dyk, Scooter and Cascada.
Germany hosts many large rock music festivals. The Rock am Ring and Rock im Park festival is among the largest in the world. Since around 1990, the new-old German capital Berlin has developed a diverse music and entertainment industry.
Minnesingers and Meistersingers
The beginning of what is now considered German music could be traced back to the 12th-century compositions of mystic abbess Hildegard of Bingen, who wrote a variety of hymns and other kinds of Christian music.
After Latin-language religious music had dominated for centuries, in the 12th century to the 14th centuries, Minnesinger (love poets), singing in German, spread across Germany. Minnesinger were aristocrats, traveling from court to court, who had become musicians, and their work left behind a vast body of literature, Minnelieder. The following two centuries saw the Minnesinger replaced by middle-class Meistersinger, who were often master craftsmen in their main profession, whose music was much more formalized and rule-based than that of the Minnesinger. Minnesinger and Meistersinger could be considered parallels of French troubadours and trouvère.
Among the Minnesinger, Hermann, a monk from Salzburg, deserves special note. He incorporated folk styles from the Alpine regions in his compositions. He made some primitive forays into polyphony as well. Walther von der Vogelweide and Reinmar von Hagenau are probably the most famous minnesingers from this period.
Classical music
Germans have played a leading role in the development of classical music. Many of the best classical musicians such as Bach, Händel, Beethoven, Schumann, Brahms, Wagner, Mahler, or Schoenberg (a lineage labeled the "German Stem" by Igor Stravinsky) were German. At the beginning of the 15th century, German classical music was revolutionized by Oswald von Wolkenstein, who travelled across Europe learning about classical traditions, spending time in countries like France and Italy. He brought back some techniques and styles to his homeland, and within a hundred years, Germany had begun producing composers renowned across the continent. Among the first of these composers was the organist Conrad Paumann. The largest summer festival for classical music in Germany is the Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival.
Chorale
Beginning in the 16th century, polyphony, or the intertwining of multiple melodies, arrived in Germany. Protestant chorales predominated; in contrast to Catholic music, chorale was vibrant and energetic. Composers included Dieterich Buxtehude, Heinrich Schütz and Martin Luther, leader of the Protestant Reformation. Luther happened to accompany his sung hymns with a lute, later recreated as the waldzither that became a national instrument of Germany in the 20th century.
Opera
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) is usually said to be the beginning of German opera. An earlier starting date for German opera, however, could be Heinrich Schütz's Dafne from 1627. Schütz is said to be the first great German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach, and was a major figure in 17th-century music.
In the 19th century, two figures were paramount in German opera: Carl Maria von Weber and Richard Wagner. Wagner introduced devices like the Leitmotiv, a musical theme which recurs for important characters or ideas. Wagner (and Weber) based his operas of German history and folklore, most importantly including the Ring of the Nibelung (1874). Into the 20th century, opera composers included Richard Strauss (Der Rosenkavalier) and Engelbert Humperdinck, who wrote operas meant for young audiences. Across the border in Austria, Arnold Schoenberg innovated a form of twelve-tone music that used rhythm and dissonance instead of traditional melodies and harmonies, while Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht collaborated on some of the great works of German theater, including Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny and The Three-Penny Opera.
Following the war, German composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen and Hans Werner Henze began experimenting electronic sounds in classical music.
Germany is also very well known for its many subsidised opera houses, such as Semperoper, Munich State Theatre and the Bayreuth Festspielhaus.
Baroque period
Baroque music, which was the first music to use tonality in the modern sense, is also known for its ornamentation and artistic use of counterpoint. It originated in Northern Italy at the end of the 16th century, and the style migrated quickly to Germany, which was one of the most active centers of early Baroque music. Early German Baroque composers included Heinrich Schütz, Michael Praetorius, Johann Hermann Schein, and Samuel Scheidt. The culmination of the Baroque era was undoubtedly in the works of Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel in the first half of the 18th century. Bach established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and adapted rhythms, forms, and textures from Italy and France. Bach wrote numerous works, including preludes, cantatas, fugues, concertos for harpsichord, violin and wind, orchestral suites, the Brandenburg Concertos, St Matthew Passion, St John Passion and the Christmas Oratorio. Händel was a cosmopolitan composer that wrote music for virtually every genre of his time. His most famous works include the orchestral suites Water Music, Music for the Royal Fireworks and the oratorio Messiah.
Another important composer was Georg Philipp Telemann, one of the most prolific musicians in history.
Classical era
By the middle of the 18th century, the cities of Vienna, Dresden, Berlin and Mannheim had become the center for orchestral music. The Esterházy princes of Vienna, for example, were the patrons of Joseph Haydn, an Austrian who invented the classic format of the string quartet, symphony and sonata. Later that century, Vienna's Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart emerged, mixing German and Italian traditions into his own style. Mozart was a prolific and influential composer who composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most popular of classical composers, and his influence on subsequent Western art music is profound; Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart.
Romantic era
The following century saw two major German composers come to fame early—Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert. Beethoven, a student of Haydn's in Vienna, used unusually daring harmonies and rhythm and composed numerous pieces for piano, violin, symphonies, chamber music, string quartets and an opera. Schubert created a field of artistic, romantic poetry and music called lied; his lieder cycles included Die schöne Müllerin and Winterreise.
Franz Schubert was extremely prolific during his lifetime. His output consists of over six hundred secular vocal works (mainly Lieder), seven complete symphonies, sacred music, operas, incidental music and a large body of chamber and piano music. He is ranked among the greatest composers of the late Classical era and early Romantic era.
Early in the 19th century, a composer by the name of Richard Wagner was born. He was a "Musician of the Future" who disliked the strict traditionalist styles of music. He is credited with developing leitmotivs which were simple recurring themes found in his operas.
Carl Maria von Weber was a composer, conductor, pianist, guitarist and critic, one of the first significant composers of the Romantic school. His operas Der Freischütz, Euryanthe and Oberon greatly influenced the development of the Romantic opera in Germany. Felix Mendelssohn was a composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. He was particularly well received in Britain as a composer, conductor and soloist. He wrote symphonies, concerti, oratorios, piano music and chamber music. Robert Schumann was a composer and influential music critic. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era. Schumann's published compositions were written exclusively for the piano until 1840; he later composed works for piano and orchestra; many Lieder (songs for voice and piano); four symphonies; an opera; and other orchestral, choral, and chamber works. Johannes Brahms honored the music pioneered by Mozart and Beethoven and advanced his music into a Romantic idiom, in the process creating bold new approaches to harmony and melody.
The later 19th century saw Vienna continue its elevated position in European classical music, as well as a burst of popularity with Viennese waltzes. These were composed by people like Johann Strauss the Younger. Richard Strauss was a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras. He is known for his operas, which include Der Rosenkavalier and Salome; his lieder, especially his Four Last Songs; and his tone poems. Strauss, along with Gustav Mahler, represents the late flowering of German Romanticism after Richard Wagner, in which pioneering subtleties of orchestration are combined with an advanced harmonic style.
20th century
The first half of 20th century saw a split between German and Austrian music. In Vienna, Arnold Schoenberg and his pupils Alban Berg and Anton Webern moved along an increasingly avant-garde path, pioneering atonal music in 1909 and twelve-tone music in 1923. Meanwhile, composers in Berlin took a more populist route, from the cabaret-like socialist operas of Kurt Weill to the Gebrauchsmusik of Paul Hindemith. In Munich there was also Carl Orff, who was influenced by the French Impressionist composer Claude Debussy. He began to use colorful, unusual combinations of instruments in his orchestration. His most popular work is Carmina Burana.
Many composers emigrated to the United States when the Nazi Party came to power, including Schoenberg, Hindemith, and Erich Korngold. During this period, the Nazi Party embarked on a campaign to rid Germany of so-called degenerate art, which became a catch-all phrase that included music with any link to Jews, Communists, jazz, and anything else thought to be dangerous. Some figures such as Karl Amadeus Hartmann remained defiantly in Germany during the years of Nazi dominance, continually watchful of how their output might be interpreted by the authorities.
After the defeat of Nazi Germany, musicians were also subjected to the Allied policy of denazification. But here, the supposed non-political nature of music was able to excuse many, including Wilhelm Furtwängler and Herbert von Karajan (who had actually joined the Nazi Party in 1933). They both claimed to have concentrated mainly on music and to have ignored politics, but also to have conducted pieces in ways that were meant to be "gestures of defiance."
In West Germany in the second half of the 20th century, German and Austrian music was largely dominated by the avant-garde. In the 60s and 70s, the Darmstadt New Music Summer School was a major center of European modernism; German composers such as Karlheinz Stockhausen and Hans Werner Henze and non-German ones such as Pierre Boulez and Luciano Berio all studied there. In contrast, composers in East Germany were advised to avoid the avant-garde and to compose music in keeping with the tenets of Socialist Realism. Music written in this style was supposed to advance party politics as well as be more accessible to all. Hanns Eisler and Ernst Hermann Meyer were among the most famous of the first generation of GDR composers.
More recently, composers such as Helmut Lachenmann and Olga Neuwirth have extensively explored the possibilities of extended techniques. Hans Werner Henze largely dissociated himself from the Darmstadt school in favour of a more lyrical approach, and remains perhaps Germany's most lauded contemporary composer. Although he had lived outside the country since the 1950s and until his death in 2012, he remained influenced by the Germanic musical tradition.
Folk music
Germany has many unique regions with their own folk traditions of music and dance. Much of the 20th century saw German culture appropriated for the ruling powers (who fought "foreign" music at the same time).
In both East and West Germany, folk songs called "volkslieder" were taught to children; these were popular, sunny and optimistic, and had little relation to authentic German folk traditions. Inspired by American and English roots revivals, Germany underwent many of the same changes following the 1968 student revolution in West Germany, and new songs, featuring political activism and realistic joy, sadness and passion, were written and performed on the burgeoning folk scene. In East Germany, the same process did not begin until the mid-70s, where some folk musicians began incorporating revolutionary ideas in coded songs.
Popular folk songs included emigration songs from the 19th century, work songs and songs of apprentices, as well as democracy-oriented folk songs collected in the 1950s by Wolfgang Steinitz. Beginning in 1970, the Festival des politischen Liedes, an East German festival focusing on political songs, was held annually and organized (until 1980) by the FDJ (East German youth association). Musicians from up to thirty countries would participate, and, for many East Germans, it was the only exposure possible to foreign music. Among foreign musicians at the festival, some were quite renowned, including Inti-Illimani (Chile), Billy Bragg (England), Dick Gaughan (Scotland), Mercedes Sosa (Argentina) and Pete Seeger (United States), while German performers included, from both East and West, Oktoberklub, Wacholder and Hannes Wader.
Oom-pah is a kind of music played by the brass bands; it is associated with beer halls.
Bavaria and Swabia
Bavarian folk music is likely the best known outside of Germany. Yodeling and schuhplattler dancers are among the stereotyped images of German folk life, though these are only found today in the southernmost areas. Bavarian folk music has played a role in the Alpine New Wave, and produced several pioneering world music groups that fuse traditional Bavarian sounds with foreign styles.
Around the turn of the 20th century, across Europe and especially in Bavaria, many people became concerned about a loss of cultural traditions. This idea was connected to the Heimatschutz movement, which sought to protect regional identities and boundaries. What is considered Bavarian folk music in modern Germany is not the same as what Bavarian folk music was in the early 20th century; like any kind of folk or popular music, styles and traditions have evolved over time, giving birth to new forms of music.
The popularity of the Volkssänger (people's singer) in Bavaria began in the 1880s, and continued in earnest until the 1920s. Shows consisting of duets, ensemble songs, humor and parodies were popular, but the format began changing significantly following World War I. Bally Prell, the "Beauty Queen of Schneizlreuth", was emblematic of this change. She was an attractive tenor who sang lieder, chanson and opera and operetta.
Swabian folk music is most popularly represented by acts like Saiten Fell and Firlefanz and the singer-songwriter (and player of the hurdy-gurdy and guitar) Thomas Felder.
Christmas carols
Some Christmas carols familiar in English are translations of German Christmas songs (Weihnachtslieder). Pastoral Weihnachtslieder are sometimes called Hirtenlieder (shepherd songs). Three well-known examples are "O Tannenbaum" ("O Christmas Tree"), from a German folksong arranged by Ernst Anschütz; "Silent Night" ("Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht"), by the Austrians Franz Xaver Gruber and Joseph Mohr; and "Still, still, still", an Austrian folksong also from the Salzburg region, based on an 1819 melody by Süss, with the original words, slightly changed over time and location, by G. Götsch.
Early popular music
Between World War I and World War II, German music branched out to form new, more liberal and independent styles.
Kabarett
The first form of German pop music is said to be cabaret, which arose during the Weimar Republic in the 1920s as the sensual music of late-night clubs. Marlene Dietrich and Margo Lion were among the most famous performers of the period, and became associated with both humorous satire and liberal ideas.
Swing Movement
The strict regimentation of youth culture in Nazi Germany through the Hitler Youth led to the emergence of several underground protest movements, through which adolescents were able better to exert their independence.
One of these consisted mainly of upper middle class youths, who based their protest on their musical preferences, rejecting the völkisch music propagated by the Party in place of American jazz forms, especially Swing. While musical preferences are often a feature of youthful rebellion—as the history of rock and roll shows—jazz and especially Swing were particularly offensive to the Nazi hierarchy: not only did they promote sexual permissiveness, but they were also associated with the American enemy and worse, with the African race they considered inferior.
On the other hand, Joseph Goebbels assembled some of the now jobless musicians from Germany and conquered countries into a big band called Charlie and His Orchestra.
Popular music from West Germany
After World War II, German pop music was greatly influenced by music from USA and Great Britain. Apart from Schlager and Liedermacher, it is necessary to distinguish between pop music in West Germany and pop music in East Germany which developed in different directions. Pop music from West Germany was often heard in East Germany, had more variety and is still present today, while East German music has had little influence.
In West Germany, English-language pop music became more and more important, and today most songs on the radio are English. Nevertheless, there is great diversity in German language pop music. There is also original English-language pop music from Germany, some having international success (for instance the Scorpions and James Last), but little with enduring broad success in Germany itself. There was very little English pop music from East Germany.
Germany has also had a thriving English-language pop scene since the end of the war, with several European and American acts topping the charts. However, Germans and German-oriented musicians have been successful as well. In the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century such European pop acts were popular as well as artists like Sarah Connor, No Angels and Monrose who performed various types of mainstream pop in English. Many of these acts have had success all over Europe and Asia.
Schlager and Volksmusik
Schlager is a kind of vocal pop music, frequently in the form of sentimental ballads sung in German, popularized by singers such as Gitte Hænning and Rex Gildo in the 1960s, though not without a wide range within the style (Modern Schlager, Schlager-Gold, ). Schlager is strictly separated from international pop music and is only played on special format radio stations (sometimes mixed with international Oldies).
An important part of Schlager is volkstümliche Musik, a Schlager-like interpretation of traditional German folk themes that is very popular in German speaking countries, especially among the older generation.
Schlager has a wide variety, and the artists with many different styles for example Heino, Katja Ebstein, Wolfgang Petry, Guildo Horn, Roland Kaiser, Helene Fischer and many others.
Liedermacher
Liedermacher (Songwriter) has sophisticated lyrics and is sung with minimal instrumentation, for instance only with acoustic guitar. Some songs are very political in nature. This is related to American Folk/Americana and French Chanson styles.
Famous West German Liedermacher are Reinhard Mey, Klaus Hoffmann, Hannes Wader and Konstantin Wecker. A famous East German Liedermacher was Wolf Biermann. Herman van Veen from the Netherlands was also very popular in Germany. Several Liedermacher artists also record special albums for children.
Rock
The US military radio station American Forces Network (AFN) had a great impact on German postwar culture, starting with AFN Munich in July 1945, which was formative for the further development of German rock and jazz culture. Bill Ramsey, a senior producer at AFN Frankfurt in 1953 who came from Ohio, later became famous as a jazz and Schlager singer in Germany (while remaining almost unknown in the US).
Prior to the late 1960s however, rock music in Germany was a negligible part of the schlager genre covered by interpreters such as Peter Kraus and Ted Herold, who played rock 'n' roll standards by Little Richard or Bill Haley, sometimes translated into German.
Genuine German rock first appeared around 1968, just as the hippie countercultural explosion was peaking in the US and UK. At the time, the German musical avant-garde had been experimenting with electronic music for more than a decade, and the first German rock bands fused psychedelic rock from abroad with electronic sounds. The next few years saw the formation of a group of bands that came to be known as Krautrock or Kosmische Musik groups; these included Amon Düül, who later became the world music pioneers Dissidenten, Tangerine Dream, Popol Vuh, Can, Neu! and Faust.
Neue Deutsche Welle
Neue Deutsche Welle (NDW) is an outgrowth of British punk rock and new wave which appeared in the mid-to late 1970s. It was arguably the first successful unique German form of Pop music, but was limited in its stylistic devices (funny lyrics and surreal composition and production). Though it was a huge success in Germany itself in the 1980s, this was not long-lasting mostly due to over-commercialization. Some artists became famous internationally like Nena, Trio, Falco (from Austria) and Joachim Witt.
Popular artists
In the 1980s and 1990s most German-language popular music was sung by male solo artists. Very popular singers are Udo Jürgens, Udo Lindenberg, Herbert Grönemeyer, Marius Müller-Westernhagen, Peter Maffay and BAP.
Udo Jürgens has maintained a large following since the late 60s and still sold out entire soccer stadiums during concerts in 2012. Grönemeyer also has managed to maintain his success up to today. Maffay developed from Schlager to rock and has a large but delimited fan base—he is seldomly played on the radio. BAP, who sing in Kölsch, the dialect of their hometown Cologne, enjoy success nationwide.
Hamburger Schule
Hamburger Schule (School of Hamburg) is an underground music-movement that started in the late 1980s and was still active till around the mid-1990s. It has similar traditions as Neue Deutsche Welle and mixed all that with punk, grunge and experimental pop music. Hamburger Schule has been an important part of Germany's youth and gave the term "Pop" a new definition, as now it was "ok" (or "cool") to sing in the German language. Hamburger Schule also includes intellectual lyrics with postmodern theories and social criticism. Important artists are Blumfeld, Die Sterne and Tocotronic.
Popular music from East Germany
Ostrock
By the early 1970s, experimental West German rock styles had crossed the border into East Germany and influenced the creation of an East German rock movement referred to as Ostrock. On the other side of the Iron Curtain, these bands tended to be stylistically more conservative than in the West, to have more reserved engineering, and often to include more classical and traditional structures (such as those developed by Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht in their 1920s Berlin theater songs). These groups often featured poetic lyrics loaded with indirect double-meanings and deeply philosophical challenges to the status quo. As such, they were a style of Krautrock. The best-known of these bands were The Puhdys, Karat, City, Stern-Combo Meißen and Silly.
Only a few individual songs, such as "Am Fenster" by City and "Über sieben Brücken mußt Du geh'n" by Karat, found wide popularity outside the GDR. There was also a wide diversity of underground bands. Out of this scene later grew the internationally successful band Rammstein (see Neue Deutsche Härte below).
Popular music from reunified Germany
Modern popular music
In the 1990s, German-language groups had only limited popularity, and only a few artists managed to be played on the radio, for example Nena, Herbert Grönemeyer, Marius Müller-Westernhagen, Die Ärzte, Rammstein, Rosenstolz or Die Prinzen.
In the mid-2000s the German band Wir sind Helden found success with a new style of German-language pop-rock. This success was followed by several other bands and artists that led to a new boom of German-language music and a broader acceptance of existing German-language recording artists, such as:
Sportfreunde Stiller
Juli
Silbermond
Kraftklub
Klee
MIA.
Polarkreis 18
2raumwohnung
Revolverheld
Annett Louisan
Tim Bendzko
Andreas Bourani
Mark Forster
Philipp Poisel
Indie and alternative rock
Popular anglophone alternative rock and crossover bands from Germany that managed to find success domestic and abroad include Beatsteaks, Donots, Blackmail, Reamonn, H-Blockx, Itchy Poopzkid, Guano Apes and Die Happy. The Notwist, an indie rock band, had great critical and commercial success with their album Neon Golden.
Euro disco
Boney M.
Chilly
Dschinghis Khan
Mike Mareen
Fancy
Silent Circle
Goombay Dance Band
London Boys
Lian Ross
Arabesque
Silver Convention
Penny McLean
Synthpop, Eurodance, Pop
In the late 1980s (prior to reunification) and the 1990s, Synthpop and Eurodance became popular throughout Germany. Often, different styles were mixed in between these to attract a broad variety of audiences. Successful representatives of these styles were:
George Kranz
Culture Beat
Modern Talking
Sandra
Sarah Connor
Hubert Kah
The Underdog Project
Mousse T.
Milli Vanilli
Groove Coverage
Haddaway
Captain Hollywood Project
E-Rotic
Monrose
No Angels
Mr. President
Fun Factory
Sash!
Jeanette Biedermann
Captain Jack
Lou Bega
Bad Boys Blue
Alphaville
R.I.O.
Cascada
Real McCoy
Snap!
Camouflage
A Touch of Class (British based)
Antique (Greek-Swedish based)
Reggae, dancehall, ska
Popular bands and performers include Culcha Candela, Dr. Ring-Ding, Gentleman, Hans Söllner, Jan Delay, Mamadee, Milky Chance, Oceana, Patrice, Peter Fox and Seeed.
R&B, soul, funk
Notable R&B, Soul and Funk artists include Ayọ, Cassandra Steen, Denyo, Miss Platnum, Nadja Benaissa, Nneka, Söhne Mannheims and Xavier Naidoo.
Hip hop
Hip hop in Germany arrived in the early 1980s, and graffiti and breakdancing became well-known quickly, even in socialist East Germany. German hip hop "started out as a transnational youth subculture. The commercial success started in 1992 with the hit "Die Da" from Die Fantastischen Vier from Stuttgart. The Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt tried to establish a "gangster" rap. An early influential group was Advanced Chemistry including Torch. They sparked an interest in speaking out for the immigrants and used rap as a way to defend themselves.
Fettes Brot from Hamburg, has been successful since their beginning. They sing about funny topics, such as infidelity and boasting about their prowess with women. Whereas hip hop had a peak of success in the early first decade of the 21st century, gangster rap became a controversial part of German music and youth culture just as late as 2004 with Aggro Berlin. Some of Germany's hip hop artists are: Cro, Kool Savas, Sido, Samy Deluxe, Bushido, Marteria, Eko Fresh, Bonez MC, Gzuz, Samra, Capital Bra, Trettmann, and Afrob. Gzuz gained recognition worldwide after two of his music videos were posted by Worldstar Hip Hop on YouTube.
Punk
Punk music in Germany has a long and diverse history. When bands like the Sex Pistols and The Clash became popular in West Germany, a number of Punk bands were formed, which led to the creation of a German punk scene. Among the first wave of bands were Male, from Düsseldorf, founded in 1976, PVC, from West Berlin, and Big Balls and the Great White Idiot, from Hamburg. Early German punk groups were heavily influenced by UK bands, often writing their lyrics in English. The main difference is that German punk bands hadn't yet become political.
Beginning in the late 1970s and early 1980s there were new movements within the German punk scene, led by labels like ZickZack Records, from Hamburg. It was during this period that the term Neue Deutsche Welle (New German Wave) was first coined by Alfred Hilsberg. Many of these bands played experimental post-punk, often using synthesizers and computers. Among them were The Nina Hagen Band, as well as Fehlfarben and Abwärts, from Hamburg. Both are still active, though they've changed their style several times. Other bands played a more aggressive style of punk rock with a clear leftist political direction influenced by earlier political rock bands like Ton Steine Scherben - bands like Slime, Toxoplasma, or Vorkriegsjugend are still relevant in the German punk scene. There is a still existing scene with many only locally known independent bands that confine themselves from the bigger and more popular groups (that are often branded as "Kommerzpunk").
Punkrock was outlawed in the GDR. Bands like Schleim-Keim or L'Attentat were observed and persecuted by the Stasi and couldn't perform in the public. Music was produced in underground and exchanged on Tape, an attempt to release a split-vinyl of "Schleimkeim" and "Zwitschermaschine" failed since the latter was undercut by government agents.
Nonpolitical punkrock that is also listened to by skinheads is termed as Oi!. Thematically, Oi! songs are often about alcohol, relations, and/or violence. While some Oi! Bands like "Loikaemie" did antifascist songs, there are many cases with an affliction to neonazis, with fluid borders toward right-extremist rockmusic ("Rechtsrock") within the Oi!-Scene.
There are few German language bands who managed to be successful for a longer period. The best known are the punk bands Die Ärzte and Die Toten Hosen. Both were formed in the early 1980s but have very different approaches to punk. As successful as those two bands in number of sales and number one albums but much lesser accepted by the public and normally not played by German media because of their affiliation with right-wing politics but with a huge fan community were the Oi!-Band Böhse Onkelz.
Digital hardcore band Atari Teenage Riot is particularly well known in the United Kingdom and Japan as well as in German autonomist circles.
Heavy metal
Germany has a long and strong history with heavy metal. It is considered by many to be one of Europe's heaviest contributors to the scene. The genre is quite popular and mainstream within the country. Early hard rock/heavy metal was brought to German soil with the success of Scorpions and Accept. Germany is today known for its large metal festivals including Wacken Open Air and Summer Breeze Open Air.
Germany has a strong tradition of speed metal and power metal. Early speed metal bands include Running Wild, Grave Digger, Rage, and to some extent Warlock and Stormwitch. The European style of power metal, developed in Germany, was popularized by German bands like Blind Guardian, Helloween, Gamma Ray, Freedom Call, Iron Savior, Avantasia, Edguy and Primal Fear gained international recognition. In many cases these bands initially started out playing speed metal, but later switched to power metal. More recently, a new generation of power metal-influenced bands like Masterplan, Orden Ogan, Kissin' Dynamite and Powerwolf is becoming more and more popular in Germany and abroad.
Running Wild are also considered a pioneer of the pirate metal genre with the release of their 1987 album Under Jolly Roger, which was one of the first pirate-themed heavy metal albums.
Three local variants of metal subgenres exist in Germany. The Teutonic thrash metal scene is represented by such groups as Kreator, Sodom, Destruction, Tankard and Exumer. Medieval metal, incorporates German traditional music with industrial metal. Notable bands include Subway to Sally, In Extremo, Corvus Corax, Saltatio Mortis and Schandmaul (the last is considered folk rock in Germany). Another variant, Neue Deutsche Härte, a form of industrial metal, is detailed below.
Bands from the genres of death metal, deathcore, metalcore, doom metal, black metal and folk metal are: Absurd, Agathodaimon, Annisokay, Atrocity, Bethlehem, Caliban, Crematory, Dark Fortress, Deadlock, Debauchery, Desaster, Die Apokalyptischen Reiter, Disbelief, Endstille, Eskimo Callboy, Equilibrium, Falkenbach, Finsterforst, Fleshcrawl, Golem, Heaven Shall Burn, His Statue Falls, Katharsis, Leaves' Eyes, Midnattsol, Moonblood, Morgoth, Mystic Circle, Nagelfar, Nargaroth, Neaera, Necrophagist, Nocte Obducta, Obscura, The Ocean, The Ruins of Beverast, Secrets of the Moon, Suidakra, Van Canto, War From a Harlots Mouth, We Butter The Bread With Butter and Wolfchant.
Neue Deutsche Härte
Neue Deutsche Härte (engl. "New German Hardness") is a term for an extremely popular German variant of Industrial metal. It combines the common sound of metal with elements of gothic and industrial music as well as electronic samples and is mostly sung in German. It is known for morbid and provocative lyrical themes and over-the-top stage shows often featuring fire, pyrotechnic, stunts and other special effects. It draws its audience from both the metal and goth scene. Some bands, especially Rammstein and Oomph! have gained mainstream success and, despite their lyrics being mostly in German, have also found success in non-German-speaking countries. Other famous artists include Stahlhammer (from Austria), Megaherz, Unheilig, Eisbrecher, Tanzwut, and Joachim Witt.
Medieval metal
Medieval metal or medieval rock is a subgenre of folk metal that blends hard rock or heavy metal music with medieval folk music. Medieval metal is mostly restricted to Germany where it is known as Mittelalter-Metal or Mittelalter-Rock. The genre emerged from the middle of the 1990s with contributions from Subway to Sally, In Extremo, Schandmaul and Wolgemut. The style is characterised by the prominent use of a wide variety of traditional folk and medieval instruments.
Goth
Germany is the home of a vivid Goth scene, and has a large scene of musicians from the spectrum who are typically known as Goth musicians. Most notable artists are Lacrimosa, Lacrimas Profundere, Xmal Deutschland, Das Ich, Deine Lakaien, Illuminate, Untoten, Erben der Schöpfung (from Liechtenstein), No More, Girls Under Glass or Project Pitchfork. Leipzig is home of the largest event of this subculture worldwide called the Wave-Gotik-Treffen, regularly hosting 25,000 attendants. The WGT is closely followed by the annual M'era Luna festival in Hildesheim.
Neue Deutsche Todeskunst (engl. "New German Death Art") is a German death-obsessed Dark Wave style of music that blends Death rock, German Rock, Gothic Rock, and neo-classical music with German philosophical texts and a theatrical stage show. It is restricted to Germany where it emerged in the early 1990s from bands such as Das Ich, Lacrimosa, Relatives Menschsein and Goethes Erben. Many NDT artists are known for their use of Classical Latin.
Electronic music and techno
Germany has the largest electronic music scene in the world and has a long tradition in and influence on almost all genres of electronic music. The band Kraftwerk was one of the first bands in the world to make music entirely on electronic equipment, and the band Tangerine Dream is often credited as being among the originators and primary influences of the "Berlin School" of electronic music, which would later influence trance music. Some other bands like Liaisons Dangereuses, Tyske Ludder, Deutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft and Die Krupps created a style later called Electronic body music. Recently a few electronica artists have become successful in the mainstream, such as Monika Kruse, Marusha, Blümchen and MIA. Artists on the cutting edge of German-language techno include Klee. Both Einstürzende Neubauten (collapsing new buildings, translated literally) and KMFDM (no pity for the majority, translated literally) are considered by many industrial and electronic music fans as the godfathers of their genre. Their sounds developed the modern styles of groups such as NIN, Marilyn Manson, Rammstein, and New Order. Einstürzende Neubauten can be recognized by their Prince-esque logo, which has been subliminally fused into several mainstream American movies (such as a tattoo in the movie Bug, directed by William Friedkin, starring Harry Connick Jr.). KMFDM has released many songs in English, making them more accessible to their huge American and worldwide audience.
In the 1990s, Germany was one of the most successful contributors to the Eurodance genre, with notable German-based acts including Real McCoy, Snap!, Culture Beat, La Bouche, Captain Jack, Captain Hollywood Project, Fun Factory, Masterboy and Haddaway.
Since 2006 producer and DJ Paul Kalkbrenner gained popularity in Germany. He nowadays is one of the most famous performers of electronic music.
Trance music is a style of electronic music that originated in Germany in the very late 1980s and early 1990s, upon German unification. Following the development of trance music in Germany, many Trance genres stemmed from the original trance music and most trance genres developed in Germany, most notably "Anthem trance" or also called "uplifting" or "epic" trance, progressive trance, and "Ambient trance".
One of the most notable event referring to this scene was the Love Parade festival with up to 1.5 million participants from all over the world.
Scooter are by far the most successful German dance act, having found huge national and international success.
In recent years, German DJs have found worldwide success in the popular edm genre, most notably Paul Kalkbrenner, Cascada, Felix Jaehn and Robin Schulz.
Other popular and influential German DJs and dance projects include Paul van Dyk, WestBam, DJ Quicksilver, ATB, Ian Pooley, Jam & Spoon, Lexy & K-Paul, Blank & Jones, Sven Väth, Dune, ItaloBrothers, Groove Coverage, Novaspace, International Pony and Anthony Rother.
Klezmer in Germany and Eastern Europe
Klezmer is a musical Jewish genre that consists of mainly instrumental songs. In Germany, Klezmer expanded significantly after the fall of the Berlin Wall in the mid-1980s. As Klezmer was expanding, so was the Yiddish folk movement, and the two genres became intertwined to a certain extent. In the 1980s while Klezmer was seeing tremendous growth, many Jews in Eastern Europe turned to Klezmer as a means of understanding their communist backgrounds and showing their remembrance to those who experienced the Holocaust. Once Klezmer groups started to tour outside of Europe in the 1980s, Americans gained immediate interest in the music genre. Henry Sapoznik created the first American Klezmer band, known as Kapelye, which toured all around Europe. The spread of Americans playing Klezmer brought a new tone to the genre which captured large audiences. Most American groups who played Klezmer added a hint of American rock into their performances, which was different than the traditional sound of Klezmer in Eastern Europe. It was uncomfortable at first for many of the American Klezmer bands to play in Germany because of the trauma that had occurred there. Despite Germany's background, the American Klezmer groups knew Germany was a place they had to play because of Klezmer's popularity there. Over time, Klezmer's audience expanded in Germany and the American Klezmer bands were able to adjust.
Giora Feidman is arguably one of the most influential Klezmer musicians. Feidman created a new perspective for Klezmer, and shared a new ideology for how the music genre could be viewed and appreciated. Feidman gained a large amount of popularity from his work on the musical play, Ghetto, which associated him and his style with the Holocaust. He brought a new theme to Klezmer music which focused on the remembrance of the Holocaust, and a way of "healing" the trauma caused by the Holocaust. Feidman turned Klezmer into a form of personal expression, in which he tried to unite all people (especially the Jews and Germans) and all things through Klezmer. He completely shifted the ideology of Klezmer and explained how Klezmer is in everything, it is even a way to get in touch with religion and communicate with God. However, some people believe Feidman took his ideology too far and turned Klezmer into something that it never intended to become.
During the 1980s Klezmer underwent significant transformation, and by the middle-late 1990s Klezmer experienced a new wave of change. Klezmer became a name for many different trends far from where it originated. Klezmer was known as a political statement, a method of healing, amateur musicians getting together and playing music, a way to reconnect with lost traditions.
Jazz
World music
Germany was the starting point of the international career of Cuban-born singer & songwriter Addys Mercedes.
Notes
References
Further reading
Helms, Siegmund, ed. (1972). Schlager in Deutschland: Beiträge zur Analyse der Popularmusik und des Musikmarktes. Breitkopf & Härtel. N.B.: Includes a bibliog. dictionary of German musicians on pp. 177–235. Without ISBN.
Schütte, Uwe, ed. (2017). German Pop Music. A Companion. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. .
External links
German music Brief biographies, sound samples, CDs from folk music to classical composers to contemporary rock, pop, and hip-hop German music.
Web Portal on Music in Germany, Goethe-Institut
Performing arts pages with videographic documentation
pt:Cultura da Alemanha#Música | [
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] |
244807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes%20Scantlin | Wes Scantlin | Wesley Reid Scantlin (born June 9, 1972) is an American singer, songwriter, and musician. He is best known as the lead vocalist, guitarist, and only constant member of rock band Puddle of Mudd. He was named one of the "Top 100 Heavy Metal Vocalists" by Hit Parader.
Career
Scantlin formed Puddle of Mudd in 1991. They released their debut EP Stuck in 1994, followed by a demo album called Abrasive in 1997. Four years later, the band added three new members and released their debut album Come Clean. In 2003, they released their second album, Life on Display. Their third album, Famous, was released in 2007, followed by Songs in the Key of Love & Hate in 2009 and Welcome to Galvania in 2019.
Scantlin sometimes tours with Alice in Chains guitarist Jerry Cantrell, joining Cantrell in playing acoustic renditions of Alice in Chains songs. He was also one of the musicians who participated in Alice in Chains' reunion tsunami benefit show, and was one of many artists who worked with Carlos Santana on his album All That I Am for the song "Just Feel Better". The song was recorded twice with both Scantlin and Steven Tyler, but only Tyler's version appears on the album.
Personal life
Scantlin has a son named Jordan (born 1997) from a previous relationship. He married Jessica Nicole Smith in January 2008. They divorced in May 2012.
During an October 2017 show in Doncaster, South Yorkshire, Scantlin apologized to the audience for his on-and-offstage behaviour in previous years and admitted to struggling with addiction. He then announced his sobriety and began playing the song "Uh Oh", which he had previously written to address his problems.
Legal issues and controversies
In March 2002, Scantlin and his then-fiancée, actress Michelle Rubin, were both arrested for allegations of domestic violence after witnesses reported seeing the couple fighting on the side of California's Highway 126 while on their way to a video shoot. Several witnesses reported seeing Scantlin forcing Rubin into a Jeep Cherokee driven by an unknown third person. Scantlin and Rubin were released after posting $20,000 bail each.
During a February 22, 2004 show in Toledo, Ohio, Scantlin admitted to the audience that he was too intoxicated to continue after only four songs. Frustrated, his bandmates walked off.
On September 24, 2007, Scantlin was banned from Graceland after entering an off-limits swimming pool.
On December 11, 2011, Scantlin was pursued by the IRS for non-payment of back taxes in the region of $60,000.
On April 4, 2012, Scantlin was arrested for cocaine possession, driving under the influence, and driving without a license in Culver City, California. He agreed to attend rehab to erase his potential five-year jail sentence. On September 4, he was arrested for drunk and disorderly conduct on a cross-country flight from Boston to Los Angeles. The plane had to make an emergency landing in Austin, Texas, where Scantlin was charged with public intoxication.
In May 2013, Scantlin was arrested on domestic violence charges after he allegedly dragged ex-wife Jessica Nicole Smith and pulled her by the arm or shirt. In July, he was arrested on charges of felony vandalism after he used a buzzsaw to destroy property on his neighbor's patio.
On January 4, 2014, Scantlin was sued by American Express for non-payment of debt. During a show at Trees Dallas on April 16, he threw a microphone and beer into the audience, as well as appearing to threaten and attempt to physically attack members of the audience. He also received criticism as he appeared to be lip-syncing during the performance.
On January 16, 2015, Scantlin was arrested at Denver International Airport after taking a joyride on a baggage carousel and entering a restricted area. During a show on April 2, he smashed his guitar, headphones, and part of the drumkit before walking out. On April 15, he was arrested and charged for disorderly conduct at Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport. On July 26, he was arrested in the early morning after leading sheriff deputies on a high-speed chase in excess of 100 mph through Renville County, Minnesota. He faced a felony charge of fleeing a police officer in a motor vehicle and two gross misdemeanors of driving under the influence, but the charges were dropped. On August 5, he was arrested for driving under the influence in Sturgis, South Dakota.
On January 10, 2016, Scantlin tried to re-enter the house he had lost via foreclosure the previous year, and was arrested for destroying property inside the residence. On April 2, he was arrested at his Los Angeles home. In February, during a concert in Northampton, Pennsylvania, Scantlin berated the sound manager and threatened to call the "Kansas City Mafia" on him before ending the show early. On August 16, he was caught drinking just before a flight to Louisville, Kentucky. He was removed from the flight and had to cancel a scheduled performance in Louisville. On August 23, Scantlin's neighbors called police after witnessing him rigging a fake bomb onto his vehicles in an attempt to deter thieves from entering them. The mock explosive, consisting of wires attached to the car motor and a gas tank, caused the bomb squad to be called and four surrounding buildings to be evacuated.
On September 9, 2017, Scantlin was arrested at Los Angeles International Airport after he tried to board a plane with a BB gun. His bail was set at $850,000.
Discography
References
1972 births
Living people
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
Alternative metal guitarists
Alternative rock guitarists
Alternative rock singers
American alternative rock musicians
American hard rock musicians
American male guitarists
American male singer-songwriters
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
Musicians from Kansas City, Missouri
Nu metal singers
Post-grunge musicians
Rhythm guitarists
20th-century American guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
Singer-songwriters from Missouri
Guitarists from Missouri
Puddle of Mudd members
20th-century American male singers
21st-century American male singers | [
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