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243773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Henry%20%28album%29 | John Henry (album) | John Henry is the fifth studio album by American alternative rock group They Might Be Giants. It was released in 1994. It is the first album by They Might Be Giants to include a full band arrangement, rather than synthesized and programmed backing tracks. The album's name, a reference to the man versus machine fable of John Henry, is an allusion to the band's fundamental switch to more conventional instrumentation, especially the newly established use of a human drummer instead of a drum machine.
John Henry is TMBG's longest record and was the band's highest-charting adult album, having peaked at #61 on the Billboard 200, until 2011's Join Us, which peaked at #32. In 2013, the album was reissued across a double LP by Asbestos Records.
Lyrical themes
The lyrics to the song "AKA Driver" refer to a "NyQuil driver". John Flansburgh offered an explanation of the legal issue with the inclusion of a brand name:
"I Should Be Allowed to Think" excerpts the first line ("I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving, hysterical") of the poem Howl by Allen Ginsberg. The song is also, according to its author, John Linnell, an example of the use of an "unreliable narrator". "Meet James Ensor" refers to an eccentric Belgian expressionist painter whose works excited John Flansburgh. In an interview, Flansburgh explained that "the line 'Dig him up and shake his hand' is actually very specific – a parallel idea to a lot of his paintings which involve resurrections, skeletons and puppets being animated. [...] With the song, I'm trying to encapsulate the issues of his life – an eccentric guy who became celebrated and was soon left behind as his ideas were taken into the culture and other people became expressionists." "Why Must I Be Sad?" is a string of references to Alice Cooper song titles and lyrics, involving several titles from the Billion Dollar Babies album including "No More Mr. Nice Guy," "I Love the Dead," and others.
Appearances in other media
Instrumental excerpts from "No One Knows My Plan" and "The End of The Tour" were used as the opening and closing themes, respectively, during the first season of the animated variety show Cartoon Planet in 1995.
Track listing
Personnel
John Henry is the first album credited to They Might Be Giants as a full band, rather than a duo:
John Flansburgh – vocals, guitar
John Linnell – vocals, keyboard, accordion, horns
Brian Doherty – drums, percussion
Tony Maimone – bass guitar, ukulele
Graham Maby – bass guitar on tracks 11 & 14
Additional musicians
Robert Quine – guitar solos on "Sleeping in the Flowers" and "No One Knows My Plan"
Hudson Shad – vocals on "O, Do Not Forsake Me"
References
External links
John Henry at This Might Be a Wiki
John Henry HyperCard Stack Emulator - A web-based recreation of the band's HyperCard promotional tool
1994 albums
Elektra Records albums
They Might Be Giants albums
Albums produced by Paul Fox (record producer) | [
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243781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetic%20languages | Tibetic languages | The Tibetic languages is a well-defined group of languages descended from Old Tibetan (7-9th century). According to Tournadre (2014), there are 50 languages, which split into over 200 dialects or could be group into 8 dialect continua. It is spoken in the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas in Baltistan, Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Classical Tibetan is the major literary language, particularly for its use in Buddhist literature.
Tibetan languages are spoken by some 6 million people, not all of whom are Tibetans.
With the worldwide spread of Tibetan Buddhism, the Tibetan language has spread into the western world and can be found in many Buddhist publications and prayer materials; with some western students learning the language for translation of Tibetan texts. Outside Lhasa itself, Lhasa Tibetan is spoken by approximately 200,000 exile speakers who have moved from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries. Tibetan is also spoken by groups of ethnic minorities in Tibet who have lived in close proximity to Tibetans for centuries, but nevertheless retain their own languages and cultures.
Although some of the Qiang peoples of Kham are classified by China as ethnic Tibetans (see rGyalrongic languages; rGyalrong people are identified as 'Tibetan' in China), the Qiangic languages are not Tibetan, but rather form their own branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family.
Classical Tibetan was not a tonal language, but many varieties such as Central and Khams Tibetan have developed tone registers. Amdo and Ladakhi-Balti are without tone. Tibetan morphology can generally be described as agglutinative.
Origins
Marius Zemp (2018) hypothesizes that Tibetan originated as a pidgin with the West Himalayish language Zhangzhung as its superstratum, and Rgyalrongic as its substratum. Similarly, Tamangic also has a West Himalayish superstratum, but its substratum is derived from a different Sino-Tibetan branch.
Only a few language clusters in the world are derived from a common language which is identical to or closely related to an old literary language. This small group includes the Tibetic languages, as descendts from Old Tibetan (7-9th century), but also the Romance languages with Latin, the Arabic languages (or “dialects”) with Classical Arabic, the Sinitic languages with Middle Chinese, the modern Indic languages with Vedic Sanskrit etc.
Classification
The more divergent languages are spoken in the north and east, likely due to language contact with the Qiangic, Rgyalrongic languages. The divergence exhibitedin Khalong may also be due to language shift. In addition, there is Baima, which retains an apparent Qiangic substratum, and has multiple layers of borrowing from Amdo, Khams, and Zhongu, but does not correspond to any established branch of Tibetic.
The two major Tibetic languages used for broadcasting within China are Standard Tibetan and Amdo Tibetan.
Tournadre (2014)
Tournadre (2014) classifies the Tibetic languages as eight geolinguistic continuum, concists of 50 languages and over 200 dialects. Thisi is an updated version of his work in 2008. The Eastern and Southeastern branches have lower internal mutual intelligibility, but it is more limited in the Northwestern branch and between certain southern and northern Khams dialects. These continua are spread across five countries with one exception, this being Sangdam, a Khams dialect in Kachin, Myanmar.
North-Western: Ladakhi, Zangskari, Balti, Purki
Western: Spiti, Garzha, Khunu, Jad
Central: Dbus, Tsang, Phenpo, Lhokha, Tö, Kongpo (in Kongpo with Basum)
South-Western: Sherpa and Jirel; other languages/dialects along the Sino-Nepalese border: Humla, Mugu, Dolpo, Lo-ke, Nubri, Tsum, Langtang, Kyirong, Yolmo, Gyalsumdo, Kagate, Lhomi, Walungge, Tokpe Gola.
Southern: Dzongkha, Drengjong, Tsamang, Dhromo Lakha, Dur Brokkat, Mera Sakteng Brokpa-ke
South-Eastern: Hor Nagchu, Hor Bachen, Yushu, Pembar, Rongdrak, Minyak, Dzayul, Derong-Jol, Chaktreng, Muli-Dappa, Semkyi Nyida
‘Northern route’ dialects: ‘Chamdo (Chab-mdo), Derge (sde-dge), and Kandze (dkar-mdzes)
‘Southern route’ dialects: Markham (smar-khams), Bathang (’ba’-thang), Lithang (li-thang)
Eastern: Drugchu, Khöpokhok, Thewo-Chone, Baima, Sharkhok, Palkyi (or Pashi; four dialects, including Chos-rje), and Zhongu
North-Eastern
Amdo
Gser-Rdo: Gserpa, Khalong
Tournadre (2005, 2008)
Tournadre (2005) classifies the Tibetic languages as follows.
Central Tibetan
The basis of Standard Tibetan that includes various Nepalese varieties
Khams
Amdo
Dzongkha–Lhokä
Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Lakha, Naapa, Chocangaca, Brokkat, Brokpa and probably Groma
Ladakhi–Balti
Ladakhi, Burig, Zangskari, Balti
Lahuli–Spiti
Kyirong–Kagate
Sherpa–Jirel
Sherpa, Jirel
The other languages (Thewo-Chone, Zhongu, Khalong, Dongwang, Gserpa, Zitsadegu, Drugchu, Baima) are not mutually intelligible, but are not known well enough to classify.
Tournadre (2013) adds Tseku and Khamba to Khams, and groups Thewo-Chone, Zhongu, Baima as an Eastern branch of Tibetic.
Bradley (1997)
According to Bradley, the languages cluster as follows (dialect information from the Tibetan Dialects Project at the University of Bern):
Western Archaic Tibetan (non-tonal), including Ladakhi, Balti and Burig
Amdo Tibetan (including Thewo-Chone) (non-tonal)
Khams Tibetan (tonal)
Western Innovative Tibetan (Lahuli–Spiti) (slightly tonal)
Dialects of Upper Ladakh and Zanskar, of the Northwest Indian Border Area (Lahaul and Spiti district and Uttarakhand), and of Zanda County (westernmost Tibet)
Central Tibetan (slightly tonal)
Most dialects of Ngari Prefecture in western Tibet, of the northern Nepalese border area in Nepal, Tsang dialects of Shigatse Prefecture, and Ü dialects (Lhokha, Lhasa, etc.). The basis of Standard Tibetan.
Northern Tibetan (slightly tonal)
Dialects of Gêrzê, of Nagqu Prefecture in north-central Tibet, and of Nangqên County in South Qinghai(Considered dialects of Khams by Tournadre)
Southern Tibetan (slightly tonal)
Groma language of Chumbi Valley in southern Tsang, Sikkimese in India, Sherpa and Jirel in Nepal, and various languages of Bhutan:Dzongkha, Brokkat, Brokpa, Chocangaca, Lakha, Laya dialect, Lunana dialect.
Other
Some classifications group Khams and Amdo together as Eastern Tibetan (not to be confused with East Bodish, whose speakers are not ethnically Tibetan). Some, like Tournadre, break up Central Tibetan. Phrases such as 'Central Tibetan' and 'Central Bodish' may or may not be synonymous: Southern (Central) Tibetan can be found as Southern Bodish, for example; 'Central Tibetan' may mean dBus or all tonal lects apart from Khams; 'Western Bodish' may be used for the non-tonal western lects while 'Western Tibetan' is used for the tonal lects, or 'Bodish' may even be used for other branches of the Tibeto-Kanauri languages.
Writing systems
Most Tibetic languages are written in one of two Indic scripts. Standard Tibetan and most other Tibetic languages are written in the Tibetan script with a historically conservative orthography (see below) that helps unify the Tibetan-language area. Some other Tibetan languages (in India and Nepal) are written in the related Devanagari script, which is also used to write Hindi, Nepali and many other languages. However, some Ladakhi and Balti speakers write with the Urdu script; this occurs almost exclusively in Pakistan. The Tibetan script fell out of use in Pakistani Baltistan hundreds of years ago upon the region's adoption of Islam. However, increased concern among Balti people for the preservation of their language and traditions, especially in the face of strong Punjabi cultural influence throughout Pakistan, has fostered renewed interest in reviving the Tibetan script and using it alongside the Perso-Arabic script. Many shops in Baltistan's capital Skardu in Pakistan's "Northern Areas" region have begun supplementing signs written in the Perso-Arabic script with signs written in the Tibetan script. Baltis see this initiative not as separatist but rather as part of an attempt to preserve the cultural aspects of their region which has shared a close history with neighbours like Kashmiris and Punjabis since the arrival of Islam in the region many centuries ago.
Historical phonology
Old Tibetan phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script. The finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced, the prefix letters assimilated their voicing to the root letters. The graphic combinations hr and lh represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to r and l respectively. The letter ' was pronounced as a voiced guttural fricative before vowels but as homorganic prenasalization before consonants. Whether the gigu verso had phonetic meaning or not remains controversial.
For instance, Srongbtsan Sgampo would have been pronounced (now pronounced in Lhasa Tibetan) and 'babs would have been pronounced (pronounced in Lhasa Tibetan).
Already in the 9th century the process of cluster simplification, devoicing and tonogenesis had begun in the central dialects can be shown with Tibetan words transliterated in other languages, particularly Middle Chinese but also Uyghur.
The concurrence of the evidence indicated above enables us to form the following outline of the evolution of Tibetan. In the 9th century, as shown by the bilingual Tibetan–Chinese treaty of 821–822 found in front of Lhasa's Jokhang, the complex initial clusters had already been reduced, and the process of tonogenesis was likely well underway.
The next change took place in Tsang (Gtsang) dialects: The ra-tags were altered into retroflex consonants, and the ya-tags became palatals.
Later on the superscribed letters and finals d and s disappeared, except in the east and west. It was at this stage that the language spread in Lahul and Spiti, where the superscribed letters were silent, the d and g finals were hardly heard, and as, os, us were ai, oi, ui. The words introduced from Tibet into the border languages at that time differ greatly from those introduced at an earlier period.
The other changes are more recent and restricted to Ü and Tsang. In Ü, the vowel sounds a, o, u have now mostly umlauted to ä, ö, ü when followed by the coronal sounds i, d, s, l and n. The same holds for Tsang with the exception of l which merely lengthens the vowel. The medials have become aspirate tenues with a low intonation, which also marks the words having a simple initial consonant; while the former aspirates and the complex initials simplified in speech are uttered with a high tone, shrill and rapidly.
Reconstruction
Proto-Tibetic
Proto-Tibetic, the hypothetical proto-language ancestral to the Tibetic languages, has been reconstructed by Tournadre (2014). Proto-Tibetic is similar to, but not identical to, written Classical Literary Tibetan. The following phonological features are characteristic of Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113).
The prefixes *s(ǝ)-, *d(ǝ)-/g(ǝ)-, *m(ǝ)-, and *b(ǝ)-, which have been retained from Proto-Tibeto-Burman. *s(ǝ)- is primarily used with animals and body parts, as well as *d(ǝ)-/*g(ǝ)- and *m(ǝ)-/*r(ǝ)-.
Palatalization of dental and alveolar consonants before y (/j/).
Consonant change from lateral to dental position after /m/ (e.g., *ml > *md).
Distinctive aspirated initial stops. This phenomenon is attested by alternating aspirated and non-aspirated consonants in Old Tibetan orthography. Examples include gcig ~ gchig (གཅིག་ ~ གཆིག་) ‘one’; phyin-chad ~ phyin-cad (ཕྱིན་ཆད་ ~ ཕྱིན་ཅད་) ‘from now on’; ci ~ chi (ཅི་ ~ ཆི་) ‘what’; and cu ~ chu (ཅུ་ ~ ཆུ་) ‘water’.
Reconstructed Proto-Tibetic forms from Tournadre (2014) include:
*g(ǝ)-tɕik ‘one’
*g(ǝ)-nyis ‘two’
*g(ǝ)-su- ‘three’
*b(ǝ)-ʑi ‘four’
*l(ǝ)-ŋa ‘five’
*d(ǝ)-ruk ‘six’
*b(ǝ)-dun ‘seven’
*b(ǝ)-rgyat ‘eight’
*d(ǝ)-gu ‘nine’
*b(ǝ)-tɕu ‘ten’
*s(ǝ)-dik-pa ‘scorpion’
*s(ǝ)-bal ‘frog’
*s(ǝ)-tak ‘tiger’
*s(ǝ)-b-rul ‘snake’
*s(ǝ)-pra ‘monkey’
*s(ǝ)-kra ‘hair’
*s(ǝ)-nyiŋ ‘heart’
*s(ǝ)-na ‘nose’
*d(ǝ)-myik ‘eye’
*m(ǝ)-go ‘head’
*r(ǝ)-na ‘ear’
Pre-Tibetic
Pre-Tibetic is a hypothetical pre-formation stage of Proto-Tibetic.
*ty-, *ly-, *sy- were not palatalized in Pre-Tibetic, but underwent palatalization in Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113-114). Posited sound changes from Pre-Tibetic to Proto-Tibetic include *ty- > *tɕ-, *sy- > *ɕ-, *tsy- > *tɕ-, and *ly- > *ʑ-. However, Tournadre (2014: 114) notes that many Bodish languages such as Basum, Tamang, and Kurtöp (East Bodish) have not undergone these changes (e.g., Bake (Basum) ti ‘what’ vs. Proto-Tibetic *tɕ(h)i and Bake tɨ ‘one’ vs. Proto-Tibetic *g(ǝ)-tɕ(h)ik; Kurtöp Hla: ‘iron’ and Bumthap lak ‘iron’ vs. Proto-Tibetic *ltɕaks).
Some Pre-Tibetic reconstructions, along with reconstructed Proto-Tibetic forms and orthographic Classical Literary Tibetan, from Tournadre (2014: 114-116) are listed below.
Comparisons of Numerals
The Numerals in different Tibetan/Tibetic languages are:
The numbers include the tonelevel. For the middle or eastern languages:
References
Further reading
AHP43 Amdo Tibetan Language
External links
Comparative Dictionary of Tibetan Dialects (CDTD)
Languages on the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas — Nicolas Tournadre
Overview of Old Tibetan Synchronic phonology by Nathan Hill
L'évolution des langues et les facteurs écolinguistiques : le cas des langues d'éleveurs et des langues d'agriculteurs sur le Haut Plateau tibétain at CNRS-LACITO
China's Tibet policy continued attempt at erasing Tibetan language
Languages attested from the 7th century
Agglutinative languages
Languages of China
Bodic languages
Languages of Tibet
Languages of Bhutan
Languages of Nepal
Languages of Pakistan
Languages of India | [
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243786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsa%20the%20lioness | Elsa the lioness | Elsa the lioness ( 28 January 195624 January 1961) was a female lion raised along with her sisters "Big One" and "Lustica" by game warden George Adamson and his wife Joy Adamson after they were orphaned at only a few days old. Though her two sisters eventually went to the Netherlands' Rotterdam Zoo, Elsa was trained by the Adamsons to survive on her own, and was eventually released into the wild.
Her story is told in several books by the Adamsons, as well as the 1966 motion picture Born Free.
Life
Elsa and her sisters were orphaned on February 1, 1956 after George Adamson was forced to kill their mother when she charged him, in defense of her three cubs. George only later realized why the lioness had acted so aggressively towards him. George and his wife Joy then adopted the lioness’s four-day-old cubs.
While Elsa lived in many ways like a domesticated pet when she was small, Joy Adamson, whom Elsa trusted the most, considered her relationship with Elsa to be that of equals. Indeed, after sending the other two to a zoo, Joy was fiercely determined to give Elsa the education she needed to hunt and live in the wild. Her efforts paid off, earning Elsa worldwide fame at the time, when her early life’s story was published in the book Born Free. When Elsa was three years old, she brought three cubs of her own to show to the Adamsons, whom the Adamsons named "Jespah" (male), "Gopa" (male), and "Little Elsa" (female). The life of Elsa and her cubs is covered in the book Living Free, published not long afterwards.
Elsa died prematurely of a form of babesiosis, a tick-borne blood disease similar to malaria which often infects the cat family. Elsa’s grave is in the Meru National Park. She died as local sentiment had begun to turn against Elsa and her cubs, forcing the Adamsons to consider moving them. Elsa’s death made her cubs much more averse to human contact, even with the Adamsons themselves, complicating what would be their eventual capture and release in the Serengeti. The fate of the cubs upon their release was uncertain, though George Adamson was able to find Little Elsa, healthy and in the company of two other unrelated lions, during 19 months of subsequent searching. This was the last time that the Adamsons saw any of Elsa's cubs.
Books
Born Free 1960Written by Joy Adamson; Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 60-6792
Living Free 1961Written by Joy Adamson; Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 61-15810
Forever Free 1962Written by Joy Adamson; Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 63-8081
Bwana Game (UK Title) 1968, A Lifetime With Lions (USA Title) 1970Written by George Adamson
My Pride and Joy 1986Written by George AdamsonISNS 978-0-00-272518-7 0 00 272518 5.
Films
Elsa the Lioness (1961), 29 minutes; BBC documentary produced, hosted and narrated by David Attenborough. Filmed just before Elsa's death, it follows Joy and George Adamson as they search for Elsa (who has been wounded in a fight with another lioness) and her three cubs. It shows remarkable footage of Meru National Park and its wildlife. Joy Adamson recounts the visit of Attenborough and his cameraman Jeff Mulligan in her book Living Free.
Born Free (1966), 95 minutes; starring Bill Travers and Virginia McKennaGeorge Adamson was the technical advisor. Directed by James Hill. Academy Award winner and Golden Globe Award winner.
Living Free (1972), starring Susan Hampshire and Nigel Davenport, based not on the book by the same name, but on the third book of the series, Forever Free.
Elsa and Her Cubs, 25 minutes; Extremely rare film footage of Elsa and her cubs Jespah, Gopa, and Little Elsa. It includes Joy and George Adamson. Although the film begins by saying the narrator is George Adamson, it is not George Adamson speaking.
Elsa's Legacy: The Born Free Story (2010), 53 minutes; Documentary marking the 50th anniversary of Joy Adamson's book Born Free. It includes home footage of Elsa and her cubs shot by the Adamsons and interviews with Virginia McKenna and David Attenborough.
Television
Born Free (1974), television series based on the film, starring Gary Collins and Diana Muldaur.
Elsa - The Lioness that Changed the World (2011) - documentary narrated by Richard Armitage.
See also
Kenya
Lion
Christian the Lion
References
External links
A tribute to Elsa This site contains a huge amount of information and listings of the books, films, many photos and even letters written by both Joy and George Adamson.
Born Free Foundation
Wildlife Artist Gary Hodgesdrawing of Elsa by Gary Hodges in memory of Bill Travers.
Elsa the Lioness (1961) Original Documentary
Individual lions
Felines and humans
Environment of Kenya
1956 animal births
1961 animal deaths
Samburu National Reserve | [
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243788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20von%20Papen | Franz von Papen | Franz Joseph Hermann Michael Maria von Papen, Erbsälzer zu Werl und Neuwerk (; 29 October 18792 May 1969) was a German conservative politician, diplomat, Prussian nobleman and General Staff officer. He served as the chancellor of Germany in 1932, and then as the vice-chancellor under Adolf Hitler from 1933 to 1934.
Born into a wealthy family of Westphalian Catholic aristocrats, Papen served in the Prussian Army from 1898 onward and was trained as a German General Staff officer. He served as military attaché in Mexico and the United States from 1913 to 1915, organising acts of sabotage in the United States and financing Mexican forces in the Mexican Revolution. After being expelled from the United States in 1915, he served as a battalion commander on the Western Front of World War I and finished his war service in the Middle Eastern theatre as a lieutenant colonel.
Appointed chancellor in 1932 by President Paul von Hindenburg, Papen ruled by presidential decree. He negotiated the end of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. He launched the Preußenschlag coup against the Social Democratic government of the Free State of Prussia. His failure to secure a base of support in the Reichstag led to his dismissal by Hindenburg and replacement by General Kurt von Schleicher.
Determined to return to power, Papen, believing that Adolf Hitler could be controlled once he was in the government, persuaded Hindenburg into appointing Hitler as chancellor and Papen as vice-chancellor in 1933 in a cabinet ostensibly not under Nazi Party domination. With military dictatorship the only alternative to Nazi rule, Hindenburg consented. Papen and his allies were quickly marginalized by Hitler and he left the government after the Night of the Long Knives in 1934, during which the Nazis killed some of his confidants. Subsequently, Papen served as an ambassador of Germany in Vienna from 1934 to 1938 and in Ankara from 1939 to 1944.
After the Second World War, Papen was indicted in the Nuremberg trials of war criminals before the International Military Tribunal but was acquitted of all charges. In 1947, a West German denazification court found Papen to have acted as the main culprit in crimes relating to the Nazi government. Papen was given an eight-year hard labour prison sentence but released on appeal in 1949. Papen's memoirs were published in 1952 and 1953, and he died in 1969.
Early life and education
Papen was born into a wealthy and noble Catholic family in Werl, Westphalia, the third child of Friedrich von Papen-Köningen (1839–1906) and his wife Anna Laura von Steffens (1852–1939).
Papen was sent to a cadet school in Bensberg of his own volition at the age of 11 in 1891. His four years there were followed by three years of training at Prussian Main Military academy in Lichterfelde. He was trained as a Herrenreiter ("gentleman rider"). He served for a period as a military attendant in the Kaiser's Palace and as a second lieutenant in his father's old unit, the Westphalian Uhlan Regiment No. 5 in Düsseldorf. Papen joined the German General Staff as a captain in March 1913.
He married Martha von Boch-Galhau (1880–1961) on 3 May 1905. Papen's wife was the daughter of a wealthy Saarland industrialist whose dowry made him a very rich man. An excellent horseman and a man of much charm, Papen cut a dashing figure and during this time, befriended Kurt von Schleicher. Papen was proud of his family's having been granted hereditary rights since 1298 to mine brine salt at Werl. He always believed in the superiority of the aristocracy over commoners. Fluent in both French and English, he travelled widely all over Europe, the Middle East and North America. He was devoted to Kaiser Wilhelm II. Influenced by the books of General Friedrich von Bernhardi, Papen was a militarist throughout his life.
Military attaché in Washington, DC
He entered the diplomatic service in December 1913 as a military attaché to the German ambassador in the United States. In early 1914 he travelled to Mexico (to which he was also accredited) and observed the Mexican Revolution. At one time, when the anti-Huerta Zapatistas were advancing on Mexico City, Papen organised a group of European volunteers to fight for Mexican General Victoriano Huerta. In the spring of 1914, as German military attaché to Mexico, Papen was deeply involved in selling arms to the government of General Huerta, believing he could place Mexico in the German sphere of influence, though the collapse of Huerta's regime in July 1914 ended that hope. In April 1914, Papen personally observed the United States occupation of Veracruz when the US seized the city of Veracruz, despite orders from Berlin to stay in Mexico City. During his time in Mexico, Papen acquired the love of international intrigue and adventure that characterised his later diplomatic postings in the United States, Austria and Turkey. On 30 July 1914, Papen arrived in Washington, DC from Mexico to take up his post as German military attaché to the United States.
During the First World War, he tried to buy weapons in the United States for his country, but the UK's blockade made shipping arms to Germany almost impossible. On 22 August 1914, Papen hired US private detective Paul Koeing, based in New York City, to conduct a sabotage and bombing campaign against businesses in New York owned by citizens from the Allied nations. Papen, who was given an unlimited fund of cash to draw on by Berlin, attempted to block the British, French and Russian governments from buying war supplies in the United States. Papen set up a front company that tried to preclusively purchase every hydraulic press in the US for the next two years to limit artillery shell production by US firms with contracts with the Allies. To enable German citizens living in the Americas to go home to Germany, Papen set up an operation in New York to forge US passports.
Starting in September 1914, Papen abused his diplomatic immunity as German military attaché, violating US neutrality to start organising plans for an invasion of Canada, as well as a campaign of sabotage against canals, bridges and railroads. In October 1914, Papen became involved in the Hindu–German Conspiracy, when he contacted anti-British Indian nationalists living in California, arranging for weapons to be handed over to them. In February 1915, he organised the Vanceboro international bridge bombing, in which his diplomatic immunity protected him from arrest. At the same time, he was involved in plans to restore Huerta to power, arranging for the arming and financing of the planned invasion of Mexico.
Papen's activities were known to British intelligence, which shared its information with the US government. As a result, he was expelled from the United States for complicity in the planning of acts of sabotage. On 28 December 1915, he was declared persona non grata after his exposure and recalled to Germany. Upon his return, he was given the Iron Cross.
Papen remained involved in plots in the Americas. In February 1916, he contacted Mexican Colonel Gonzalo Enrile, living in Cuba, in an attempt to arrange German support for Félix Díaz, the would-be strongman of Mexico. Papen served as an intermediary between the Irish Volunteers and the German government for purchase and delivery of arms to be used against the UK during the Easter Rising of 1916. He served as an intermediary with Indian nationalists as well. In April 1916, a US federal grand jury issued an indictment against Papen for a plot to blow up Canada's Welland Canal; he remained under indictment until he became chancellor of Germany, at which time the charges were dropped.
Army service in World War I
As a Catholic, Papen belonged to the Zentrum, the right of the center party that almost all German Catholics supported, but during the course of the war, the nationalist conservative Papen became estranged from his party. Papen disapproved of Matthias Erzberger's cooperation with Social Democrats, and regarded the Reichstag Peace Resolution of 19 July 1917 as almost treason.
Later in World War I, Papen returned to the army on active service, first on the Western Front. In 1916 Papen took command of the 2nd Battalion of the 93rd Reserve Infantry Regiment of the 4th Guards Infantry Division fighting in Flanders. On 22 August 1916, Papen's battalion took heavy losses while successfully resisting a British attack during the Battle of the Somme. Between November 1916 – February 1917, Papen's battalion was engaged in almost continuous heavy fighting. He was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st Class. On 11 April 1917, Papen fought at Vimy Ridge, where his battalion was defeated with heavy losses by the Canadian Corps.
After Vimy, Papen asked for a transfer to the Middle East, which was approved. From June 1917 Papen served as an officer on the General Staff in the Middle East, and then as an officer attached to the Ottoman army in Palestine. During his time in Constantinople, Papen befriended Joachim von Ribbentrop. Between October–December 1917, Papen took part in the heavy fighting in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. Promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he returned to Germany and left the army soon after the armistice which halted the fighting in November 1918.
After the Turks signed an armistice with the Allies on 30 October 1918, the German Asia Corps was ordered home, and Papen was in the mountains at Karapinar when he heard on 11 November 1918 that the war was over. The new republic ordered soldiers' councils to be organised in the German Army, including the Asian corps, which General Otto Liman von Sanders attempted to obey, and which Papen refused to obey. Sanders ordered Papen arrested for his insubordination, which caused Papen to leave his post without permission as he fled to Germany in civilian clothing to personally meet Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, who had the charges dropped.
Catholic politician
After leaving the German Army in the spring of 1919, Papen purchased a country estate, the Haus Merfeld, living the life of a "gentleman farmer" in Dülmen. In April 1920, during the Communist uprising in the Ruhr, Papen took command of a Freikorps unit to protect Catholicism from the "Red marauders". Impressed with his leadership of his Freikorps unit, Papen decided to pursue a career in politics. In the fall of 1920, the president of the Westphalian Farmer's Association, Baron Engelbert von Kerkerinck zur Borg, told Papen his association would campaign for him if he ran for the Prussian Landtag.
Papen entered politics and joined the Centre Party, better known as the Zentrum. The monarchist Papen formed part of the conservative wing of the party that rejected democracy and the Weimar Coalition with the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Papen's politics were much closer to the national-conservative German National People's Party than to the Zentrum, and he seems to have belonged to the Zentrum on the account of his Catholicism and a hope that he could shift his party to the right. Papen was a figure of influence in the Zentrum by the virtue of being the largest shareholder and chief of the editorial board in the party's Catholic newspaper Germania, which was the most prestigious of the Catholic papers in Germany.
Papen was a member of the Landtag of Prussia from 1921 to 1928 and from 1930 to 1932, representing a rural, Catholic constituency in Westphalia. Papen rarely attended the sessions of the Landtag and never spoke at the meetings during his time as a Landtag deputy. Papen tried to have his name entered into the Zentrum party list for the Reichstag elections of May 1924, but was blocked by the Zentrum's leadership. In February 1925, Papen was one of the six Zentrum deputies in the Landtag who voted with the German National People's Party and the German People's Party against the SPD-Zentrum government. Papen was nearly expelled from the Zentrum for breaking with party discipline in the Landtag. In the 1925 presidential elections, he surprised his party by supporting the right-wing candidate Paul von Hindenburg over Zentrum's own Wilhelm Marx. Papen, along with two of his future cabinet ministers, was a member of Arthur Moeller van den Bruck's exclusive Berlin Deutscher Herrenklub (German Gentlemen's Club).
In March 1930, Papen welcomed the coming of presidential government. But with chancellor Heinrich Brüning's presidential government's dependence upon the Social Democrats in the Reichstag to "tolerate" it by not voting to cancel laws passed under Article 48, Papen grew more critical. In a speech before a group of farmers in October 1931, Papen called for Brüning to disallow the SPD and base his presidential government on "tolerance" from the NSDAP instead. Papen demanded that Brüning transform the "concealed dictatorship" of a presidential government into a dictatorship that would unite all of the German right under its banner. In the March–April 1932 German presidential election, Papen voted for Hindenburg on the grounds he was the best man to unite the right, while in the Prussian Landtag's election of speaker of the Landtag, Papen voted for the Nazi Hans Kerrl.
Chancellorship
On 1 June 1932, Papen was suddenly lifted to supreme importance when president Hindenburg appointed him chancellor. Papen owed the appointment to General Kurt von Schleicher, an old friend from the pre-war General Staff, and influential advisor of President Hindenburg. Schleicher selected Papen because his conservative, aristocratic background and military career were satisfactory to Hindenburg and would create the groundwork for a possible Centre-Nazi coalition. Schleicher, who became Defence Minister, selected the entire cabinet himself. The day before, Papen had promised party chairman Ludwig Kaas he would not accept any appointment. After he broke his pledge, Kaas branded him the "Ephialtes of the Centre Party", after the infamous traitor of the Battle of Thermopylae; Papen forestalled his expulsion from the party by leaving it on 31 May 1932.
The cabinet that Papen formed was known as the "cabinet of barons" or "cabinet of monocles". Papen had little support in the Reichstag; the only parties committed to supporting him were the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP) and the conservative liberal German People's Party (DVP). The Centre Party would not support Papen because he had backstabbed Brüning. Schleicher's planned Centre-Nazi coalition thus failed to materialize, and the Nazis now had little reason to prop up Papen's weak government. Papen grew very close to Hindenburg and first met Adolf Hitler in June 1932.
Papen consented on 31 May to Hitler's and Hindenburg's agreement of 30 May that the Nazi Party would tolerate Papen's government if fresh elections were called, the Sturmabteilung ban cancelled, and the Nazis granted access to the radio network. As agreed, the Papen government dissolved the Reichstag on 4 June and called a national election by 31 July 1932, in the hope that the Nazis would win the largest number of seats in the Reichstag, which would allow him the majority he needed to establish an authoritarian government. In a so-called "presidential government", Papen would rule by Article 48, having emergency decrees signed by President Hindenburg. On 16 June 1932, the new government lifted the ban on the SA and the SS, eliminating the last remaining rationale for Nazi support for Papen.
In June and July 1932, Papen represented Germany at the Lausanne conference where, on 9 July, German reparation obligations were cancelled. Germany had ceased paying reparations in June 1931 under the Hoover Moratorium, and most of the groundwork for the Lausanne conference laid by Brüning, but Papen took credit for the success. In exchange for cancellation of reparations, Germany was supposed to make a one-time payment of 3 million Reichsmarks to France, a commitment that Papen repudiated immediately upon his return to Berlin.
Through Article 48, Papen enacted economic policies on 4 September that cut the payments offered by the unemployment insurance fund, subjected jobless Germans seeking unemployment insurance to a means test, and lowered wages (including those reached by collective bargaining), while arranging tax cuts for corporations and the rich. These austerity policies made Papen deeply unpopular with the masses but had the backing of the business elite.
Negotiations between the Nazis, the Centre Party, and Papen for a new Prussian government began on 8 June but broke down due to the Centre Party's hostility to the party deserter Papen. On 11 July 1932 Papen received the support of the cabinet and the president for a decree allowing the Reich government to take over the Prussian government, which was dominated by the SPD, in a move that was later justified through the rumour that the Social Democrats and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) were planning a merger. The political violence of the so-called Altona Bloody Sunday clash between Nazis, Communists, and the police on 17 July, gave Papen his pretext. On 20 July, Papen launched a coup against the SPD coalition government of Prussia in the so-called Preußenschlag (Putsch in Prussia). Berlin was put on military shutdown and Papen sent men to arrest the SPD Prussian authorities, whom he accused with no evidence of being in league with the Communists. Hereafter, Papen declared himself Reich Commissioner of Prussia by way of another emergency decree that he elicited from Hindenburg, further weakening the democracy of the Weimar Republic. Papen viewed the coup as a gift to the Nazis, who had been informed of it by 9 July, and were now supposed to support his government.
On 23 July, Papen had German representatives walk out of the World Disarmament Conference after the French delegation warned that allowing Germany Gleichberechtigung ("equality of status") in armaments would lead to another world war. Papen announced that the Reich would not return to the conference until the other powers agreed to consider his demand for Gleichberechtigung.
In the Reichstag election of 31 July the Nazis won the largest number of seats. To combat the rise in SA and SS political terrorism that began right after the elections, Papen on 9 August brought in via Article 48 a new law that drastically streamlined the judicial process in death penalty cases while limiting the right of appeal. New special courts were also created. A few hours later in the town of Potempa, five SA men killed Communist labourer Konrad Pietrzuch. The "Potempa Five" were promptly arrested, then convicted and sentenced to death on 23 August by a special court. The Potempa case generated enormous media attention, and Hitler made it clear that he would not support Papen's government if the "Five" were executed. On 2 September, Papen in his capacity as Reich Commissioner of Prussia commuted the sentences of the "Five" to life imprisonment.
On 11 August, the public holiday of Constitution Day, which commemorated the adoption of the Weimar Constitution in 1919, Papen and his Interior Minister Baron Wilhelm von Gayl called a press conference to announce plans for a new constitution that would, in effect, turn Germany into a dictatorship. Two days later, Schleicher and Papen offered the position of vice-chancellor to Hitler, who rejected it.
When the new Reichstag assembled on 12 September, Papen hoped to destroy the growing alliance between the Nazis and the Centre Party. That day at the president's estate in Neudeck, Papen, Schleicher, and Gayl obtained in advance from Hindenburg a decree to dissolve the Reichstag, then secured another decree to suspend elections beyond the constitutional 60 days. The Communists made a motion of no confidence in the Papen government. Papen had anticipated this move by the Communists, but had been assured that there would be an immediate objection. However, when no one objected, Papen placed the red folder containing the dissolution decree on Reichstag president Hermann Göring's desk. He demanded the floor in order to read it, but Göring pretended not to see him; the Nazis and the Centre Party had decided to support the Communist motion. The motion carried by 512 votes to 42. Realizing that he did not have nearly enough support to go through with his plan to suspend elections, Papen decided to call another election to punish the Reichstag for the vote of no-confidence.
On 27 October, the Supreme Court of Germany issued a ruling that Papen's coup deposing the Prussian government was illegal, but allowed Papen to retain control of Prussia. In November 1932, Papen violated the terms of the Treaty of Versailles by passing an umbau (rebuilding) programme for the German Navy of one aircraft carrier, six battleships, six cruisers, six destroyer flotillas, and 16 U-boats, intended to allow Germany to control both the North Sea and the Baltic.
In the November 1932 election, the Nazis lost seats, but Papen was still unable to secure a Reichstag that could be counted on not to pass another vote of no-confidence in his government. Papen's attempt to negotiate with Hitler failed. Under pressure from Schleicher, Papen resigned on 17 November and formed a caretaker government. Papen told his cabinet that he planned to have martial law declared, which would allow him to rule as a dictator. However, at a cabinet meeting on 2 December, Papen was informed by Schleicher's associate General Eugen Ott that Reichswehr war games showed there was no way to maintain order against the Nazis and Communists. Realizing that Schleicher was moving to replace him, Papen asked Hindenburg to fire Schleicher as Defence Minister. Instead, Hindenburg appointed Schleicher as chancellor.
Bringing Hitler to power
After his resignation, Papen regularly visited Hindenburg, missing no opportunity to attack Schleicher in these visits. Schleicher had promised Hindenburg that he would never attack Papen in public when he became chancellor, but in a bid to distance himself from the very unpopular Papen, Schleicher in a series of speeches in December 1932 – January 1933 did just that, upsetting Hindenburg. Papen was embittered by the way his former best friend, Schleicher, had brought him down, and was determined to become chancellor again. On 4 January 1933, Hitler and Papen met in secret at the banker Kurt Baron von Schröder's house in Cologne to discuss a common strategy against Schleicher.
On 9 January 1933, Papen and Hindenburg agreed to form a new government that would bring in Hitler. On the evening of 22 January in a meeting at the villa of Joachim von Ribbentrop in Berlin, Papen made the concession of abandoning his claim to the chancellorship and committed to support Hitler as chancellor in a proposed "Government of National Concentration", in which Papen would serve as vice-chancellor and Minister-President of Prussia. On 23 January, Papen presented to Hindenburg his idea for Hitler to be made chancellor, while keeping him "boxed" in. On the same day Schleicher, to avoid a vote of no-confidence in the Reichstag when it reconvened on 31 January, asked the president to declare a state of emergency. Hindenburg declined and Schleicher resigned at midday on 28 January. Hindenburg formally gave Papen the task of forming a new government.
In the morning of 29 January, Papen met with Hitler and Hermann Göring at his apartment, where it was agreed that Papen would serve as vice-chancellor and Commissioner for Prussia. It was in the same meeting that Papen first learned that Hitler wanted to dissolve the Reichstag when he became chancellor and, once the Nazis had won a majority of the seats in the ensuing elections, to activate the Enabling Act in order to be able to enact laws without the involvement of the Reichstag. When the people around Papen voiced their concerns about putting Hitler in power, he asked them, "What do you want?" and reassured them, "I have the confidence of Hindenburg! In two months, we'll have pushed Hitler so far into the corner that he'll squeal."
In the end, the president, who had previously vowed never to let Hitler become chancellor, appointed Hitler to the post at 11:30 am on 30 January 1933, with Papen as vice-chancellor. While Papen's intrigues appeared to have brought Hitler into power, the crucial dynamic was in fact provided by the Nazi Party's electoral support, which made military dictatorship the only alternative to Nazi rule for Hindenburg and his circle.
At the formation of Hitler's cabinet on 30 January, only three Nazis held cabinet portfolios: Hitler, Göring, and Wilhelm Frick. The other eight posts were held by conservatives close to Papen, including the DNVP chairman, Alfred Hugenberg. Additionally, as part of the deal that allowed Hitler to become chancellor, Papen was granted the right to attend every meeting between Hitler and Hindenburg. Moreover, cabinet decisions were made by majority vote. Papen believed that his conservative friends' majority in the cabinet and his closeness to Hindenburg would keep Hitler in check.
Vice-chancellor
Hitler and his allies instead quickly marginalised Papen and the rest of the cabinet. For example, as part of the deal between Hitler and Papen, Göring had been appointed interior minister of Prussia, thus putting the largest police force in Germany under Nazi control. He frequently acted without consulting his nominal superior, Papen. On 1 February 1933, Hitler presented to the cabinet an Article 48 decree law that had been drafted by Papen in November 1932 allowing the police to take people into "protective custody" without charges. It was signed into law by Hindenburg on 4 February as the "Decree for the Protection of the German People".
On the evening of 27 February 1933, Papen joined Hitler, Göring and Goebbels at the burning Reichstag and told him that he shared their belief that this was the signal for Communist revolution. On 18 March 1933, in his capacity as Reich Commissioner for Prussia, Papen freed the "Potempa Five" under the grounds the murder of Konrad Pietzuch was an act of self-defense, making the five SA men "innocent victims" of a miscarriage of justice. Neither Papen nor his conservative allies waged a fight against the Reichstag Fire Decree in late February or the Enabling Act in March. After the Enabling Act was passed, serious deliberations more or less ceased at cabinet meetings when they took place at all, which subsequently neutralised Papen's attempt to "box" Hitler in through cabinet-based decision-making.
At the Reichstag election of 5 March 1933, Papen was elected as a deputy in an electoral alliance with Hugenberg's DNVP. Papen endorsed Hitler's plan, presented at a cabinet meeting on 7 March 1933, to destroy the Zentrum by severing the Catholic Church from the Zentrum. This was the origin of the Reichskonkordat that Papen was to negotiate with the Catholic Church later in the spring of 1933. Papen founded a new political party on 5 April 1933 called the League of German Catholics Cross and Eagle, which was intended as a conservative Catholic party that would hold the NSDAP in check while at the same time working with the NSDAP. Both the Zentrum and the Bavarian People's Party declined to merge into Papen's new party while the rival Coalition of Catholic Germans which was sponsored by the NSDAP proved more effective at recruiting German Catholics.
On 8 April Papen travelled to the Vatican to offer a 'Reichskonkordat' that defined the German state's relationship with the Catholic Church. During his stay in Rome, Papen met the Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and failed to persuade him to drop his support for the Austrian chancellor Dollfuss. Papen was euphoric at the Reichskonkordat that he negotiated with Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli in Rome, believing that this was a diplomatic success that restored his status in Germany, guaranteed the rights of German Catholics in the Third Reich, and required the disbandment of the Zentrum and the Bavarian People's Party, thereby achieving one of Papen's main political goals since June 1932. During Papen's absence, the Nazified Landtag of Prussia elected Göring as prime minister on 10 April. Papen saw the end of the Zentrum that he had engineered as one of his greatest achievements. Later in May 1933, he was forced to disband the League of German Catholics Cross and Eagle owing to lack of public interest.
In September 1933, Papen visited Budapest to meet the Hungarian Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös, and to discuss how Germany and Hungary might best co-operate against Czechoslovakia. The Hungarians wanted the volksdeutsche (ethnic German) minorities in the Banat, Transylvania, Slovakia and Carpathia to agitate to return to Hungary in co-operation with the Magyar minorities, a demand that Papen refused to meet. In September 1933, when the Soviet Union ended its secret military co-operation with Germany, the Soviets justified their move under the grounds that Papen had informed the French of the Soviet support for German violations of the Versailles Treaty.
On 3 October 1933, Papen was named a member of the Academy for German Law at its inaugural meeting. Then, on 14 November 1933, Papen was appointed the Reich Commissioner for the Saar. The Saarland was under the rule of the League of Nations and a referendum was scheduled for 1935 under which the Saarlanders had the option to return to Germany, join France, or retain the status quo. As a conservative Catholic whose wife was from the Saarland, Papen had much understanding of the heavily Catholic region, and he gave numerous speeches urging the Saarlanders to vote to return to Germany. Papen was successful in persuading the majority of the Catholic clergy in the Saarland to campaign for a return to Germany, and 90% of the Saarland voted to return to Germany in the 1935 referendum.
Papen began covert talks with other conservative forces with the aim of convincing Hindenburg to restore the balance of power back to the conservatives. By May 1934, it had become clear that Hindenburg was dying, with doctors telling Papen that the president only had a few months left to live. Papen together with Otto Meissner, Hindenburg's chief of staff, and Major Oskar von Hindenburg, Hindenburg's son, drafted a "political will and last testament", which the president signed on 11 May 1934. At Papen's request, the will called for the dismissal of certain Nazi ministers from the cabinet, and regular cabinet meetings, which would have achieved Papen's plan of January 1933 for a broad governing coalition of the right.
The Marburg speech
With the Army command recently having hinted at the need for Hitler to control the SA, Papen delivered an address at the University of Marburg on 17 June 1934 where he called for the restoration of some freedoms, demanded an end to the calls for a "second revolution" and advocated the cessation of SA terror in the streets. Papen intended to "tame" Hitler with the Marburg speech, and gave the speech without any effort at co-ordination beforehand with either Hindenburg or the Reichswehr. The speech was crafted by Papen's speech writer, Edgar Julius Jung, with the assistance of Papen's secretary Herbert von Bose and Catholic leader Erich Klausener, and Papen had first seen the text of the speech only two hours before he delivered it at the University of Marburg. The "Marburg speech" was well received by the graduating students of Marburg university who all loudly cheered the vice-chancellor. Extracts were reproduced in the Frankfurter Zeitung, the most prestigious newspaper in Germany, and from there picked up by the foreign press.
The speech incensed Hitler, and its publication was suppressed by the Propaganda Ministry. Papen told Hitler that unless the ban on the Marburg speech was lifted and Hitler declared himself willing to follow the line recommended by Papen in the speech, he would resign and would inform Hindenburg why he had resigned. Hitler outwitted Papen by telling him that he agreed with all of the criticism of his regime made in the Marburg speech; told him Goebbels was wrong to ban the speech and he would have the ban lifted at once; and promised that the SA would be put in their place, provided Papen agreed not to resign and would meet with Hindenburg in a joint interview with him. Papen accepted Hitler's suggestions.
Night of the Long Knives
Two weeks after the Marburg speech, Hitler responded to the armed forces' demands to suppress the ambitions of Ernst Röhm and the SA by purging the SA leadership. The purge, known as the Night of the Long Knives, took place between 30 June and 2 July 1934. Though Papen's bold speech against some of the excesses committed by the Nazis had angered Hitler, the latter was aware that he could not act directly against the vice-chancellor without offending Hindenburg. Instead, in the Night of the Long Knives, the Vice-Chancellery, Papen's office, was ransacked by the Schutzstaffel (SS); his associates Herbert von Bose, Erich Klausener and Edgar Julius Jung were shot. Papen himself was placed under house arrest at his villa with his telephone line cut. Some accounts indicate that this "protective custody" was ordered by Göring, who felt the ex-diplomat could be useful in the future.
Reportedly Papen arrived at the Chancellery, exhausted from days of house arrest without sleep, to find the chancellor seated with other Nazi ministers around a round table, with no place for him but a hole in the middle. He insisted on a private audience with Hitler and announced his resignation, stating, "My service to the Fatherland is over!" The following day, Papen's resignation as vice-chancellor was formally accepted and publicised, with no successor appointed. When Hindenburg died on 2 August, the last conservative obstacles to complete Nazi rule were gone.
Ambassador to Austria
Hitler offered Papen the assignment of German ambassador to Vienna, which Papen accepted. Papen was a German nationalist who always believed that Austria was destined to join Germany in an Anschluss (annexation), and felt that a success in bringing that about might restore his career. During his time as ambassador to Austria, Papen stood outside the normal chain of command of the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office) as he refused to take orders from Konstantin von Neurath, his own former Foreign Minister. Instead, Papen reported directly to Hitler.
Papen met often with Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg to assure him that Germany did not wish to annex his country, and only wanted the banned Austrian Nazi Party to participate in Austrian politics. In late 1934-early 1935, Papen took a break from his duties as German ambassador in Vienna to lead the Deutsche Front ("German Front") in the Saarland plebiscite on 13 January 1935, where the League of Nations observers monitoring the vote noted Papen's "ruthless methods" as he campaigned for the region to return to Germany.
Papen also contributed to achieving Hitler's goal of undermining Austrian sovereignty and bringing about the Anschluss. On 28 August 1935, Papen negotiated a deal under which the German press would cease its attacks on the Austrian government, in return for which the Austrian press would cease its attacks on Germany's. Papen played a major role in negotiating the 1936 Austro-German agreement under which Austria declared itself a "German state" whose foreign policy would always be aligned with Berlin's and allowed for members of the "national opposition" to enter the Austrian cabinet in exchange for which the Austrian Nazis abandoned their terrorist campaign against the government. The treaty Papen signed in Vienna on 11 July 1936 promised that Germany would not seek to annex Austria and largely placed Austria in the German sphere of influence, greatly reducing Italian influence on Austria. In July 1936, Papen reported to Hitler that the Austro-German treaty he had just signed was the "decisive step" towards ending Austrian independence, and it was only a matter of time before the Anschluss took place.
In the summer and fall of 1937, Papen pressured the Austrians to include more Nazis in the government. In September 1937, Papen returned to Berlin when Benito Mussolini visited Germany, serving as Hitler's adviser on Italo-German talks about Austria. Though Papen was dismissed from his mission in Austria on 4 February 1938, Hitler drafted him to arrange a meeting between the German dictator and Schuschnigg at Berchtesgaden. The ultimatum that Hitler presented to Schuschnigg at the meeting on 12 February 1938 led to the Austrian government's capitulation to German threats and pressure, and paved the way for the Anschluss.
Ambassador to Turkey
Papen later served the German government as Ambassador to Turkey from 1939 to 1944. In April 1938, after the retirement of the previous ambassador, Frederich von Keller on his 65th birthday, the German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop attempted to appoint Papen as ambassador in Ankara, but the appointment was vetoed by the Turkish president Mustafa Kemal Atatürk who remembered Papen well with considerable distaste when he had served alongside him in World War I. In November 1938 and in February 1939, the new Turkish president General İsmet İnönü again vetoed Ribbentrop's attempts to have Papen appointed as German ambassador to Turkey. In April 1939, Turkey accepted Papen as ambassador. Papen was keen to return to Turkey, where he had served during World War I.
Papen arrived in Turkey on 27 April 1939, just after the signing of a UK-Turkish declaration of friendship. İnönü wanted Turkey to join the UK-inspired "peace front" that was meant to stop Germany. On 24 June 1939, France and Turkey signed a declaration committing them to upholding collective security in the Balkans. On 21 August 1939, Papen presented Turkey with a diplomatic note threatening economic sanctions and the cancellation of all arms contracts if Turkey did not cease leaning towards joining the UK-French "peace front", a threat that Turkey rebuffed.
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, and two days later on 3 September 1939 the UK and France declared war on Germany. Papen claimed later to have been opposed to Hitler's foreign policy in 1939, and was very depressed when he heard the news of the German attack on Poland on the radio. Papen continued his work of representing the Reich in Turkey under the grounds that resigning in protest "would indicate the moral weakening in Germany", which was something he could never do.
On 19 October 1939, Papen suffered a notable setback when Turkey signed a treaty of alliance with France and the UK. During the Phoney War, the conservative Catholic Papen found himself to his own discomfort working together with Soviet diplomats in Ankara to pressure Turkey not to enter the war on the Allied side. In June 1940, with France's defeat, İnönü abandoned his pro-Allied neutrality, and Papen's influence in Ankara dramatically increased.
Between 1940 and 1942 Papen signed three economic agreements that placed Turkey in the German economic sphere of influence. Papen hinted more than once to Turkey that Germany was prepared to support Bulgarian claims to Thrace if Turkey did not prove more accommodating to Germany. In May 1941, when the Germans dispatched an expeditionary force to Iraq to fight against the UK in the Anglo-Iraqi War, Papen persuaded Turkey to allow arms in Syria to be shipped along a railroad linking Syria to Iraq. In June 1941, Papen successfully negotiated a Treaty of Friendship and Non-aggression with Turkey, signed on 17 June 1941, which prevented Turkey from entering the war on the Allied side. After Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union that began on 22 June 1941, Papen persuaded Turkey to close the Turkish straits to Soviet warships, but was unable to have the straits closed to Soviet merchant ships as he demanded.
Papen claimed after the war to have done everything within his power to save Turkish Jews living in countries occupied by Germany from deportation to the death camps, but an examination of the Auswärtige Amt records does not support him. During the war, Papen used his connections with Turkish Army officers with whom he served in World War I to try to influence Turkey into joining the Axis, held parties at the German embassy which were attended by leading Turkish politicians and used "special funds" to bribe Turks into following a pro-German line. As an ambassador to Turkey, Papen survived a Soviet assassination attempt on 24 February 1942 by agents from the NKVD: a bomb exploded prematurely, killing the bomber and no one else, although Papen was slightly injured. In 1943, Papen frustrated a UK attempt to have Turkey join the war on the Allied side by getting Hitler to send a letter to Inönü assuring him that Germany had no interest in invading Turkey and by threatening to have the Luftwaffe bomb Istanbul if Turkey joined the Allies.
In the summer and fall of 1943, realising the war was lost, Papen attended secret meetings with the agents of the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in Istanbul. Papen exaggerated his power in Germany to the OSS, and asked for US support to make him dictator of a post-Hitler Germany. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt rejected the offer when he heard of it and told the OSS to stop talking to Papen. From October 1943, Papen and the German embassy gained access to the "Cicero" documents of secret agent Elyesa Bazna, including information on Operation Overlord and the Tehran Conference, which Papen revealed selectively to Inönu to strain Allied-Turkish relations. In January 1944, Papen, after learning via the "Cicero" documents of a UK plan to have the Royal Air Force use airfields in Turkey to bomb the oil fields of Ploiești in Romania, told the Turkish foreign minister Hüseyin Numan Menemencioğlu that if Turkey allowed the RAF to use Turkish air fields to bomb Ploiești, the Luftwaffe would use its bases in Bulgaria and Greece to bomb and destroy Istanbul and Izmir.
On 20 April 1944, Turkey, wishing to ingratiate itself with the Allies, ceased selling chromium to Germany. On 26 May 1944 Menemencioğlu announced that Turkey was reducing exports to Germany by 50%, and on 2 August 1944 Turkey severed diplomatic relations with Germany, forcing Papen to return to Berlin. After Pope Pius XI died in February 1939, his successor Pope Pius XII did not renew Papen's honorary title of Papal chamberlain. As nuncio, the future Pope John XXIII, Angelo Roncalli, became acquainted with Papen in Greece and Turkey during World War II. The German government considered appointing Papen ambassador to the Holy See, but Pope Pius XII, after consulting Konrad von Preysing, Bishop of Berlin, rejected this proposal. In August 1944, Papen had his last meeting with Hitler after arriving back in Germany from Turkey. Here, Hitler awarded Papen the Knight's Cross of the War Merit Cross. In September 1944, Papen settled at his estate at Wallerfangen in the Saarland that had been given to him by his father-in-law. On 29 November 1944, Papen could hear in the distance the guns of the advancing US Third Army, which caused him and his family to flee deeper into Germany.
Post-war years
Papen was captured along with his son Franz Jr. at his own home by First Lieutenant Thomas McKinley and members of the US 194th Glider Infantry Regiment, on 14 April 1945. Also present during the capture was a small band from the 550th Airborne glider Infantry. Papen was forced by the US to visit a concentration camp to see firsthand the nature of the regime he had served from start to finish and had fostered.
Papen was one of the defendants at the main Nuremberg War Crimes Trial. The investigating tribunal found no solid evidence to support claims that Papen had been involved in the annexation of Austria. The court acquitted him, stating that while he had committed a number of "political immoralities", these actions were not punishable under the "conspiracy to commit crimes against peace" written in Papen's indictment.
Papen was subsequently sentenced to eight years' hard labour by a West German denazification court, but he was released on appeal in 1949. Until 1954, Papen was forbidden to publish in West Germany, and so he wrote a series of articles in newspapers in Spain, attacking the Federal Republic from a conservative Catholic position in much the same terms that he had attacked the Weimar Republic.
Papen unsuccessfully tried to restart his political career in the 1950s; he lived at the Castle of Benzenhofen near Ravensburg in Upper Swabia. Pope John XXIII restored his title of Papal Chamberlain on 24 July 1959. Papen was also a Knight of Malta, and he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Pontifical Order of Pius IX.
Papen published a number of books and memoirs, in which he defended his policies and dealt with the years 1930 to 1933 as well as early Western Cold War politics. Papen praised the Schuman Plan to pacify relations between France and West Germany as "wise and statesmanlike" and believed in the economic and military unification and integration of Western Europe. In 1952 and 1953, Papen published his memoirs in two volumes in Switzerland. Right up until his death in 1969, Papen gave speeches and wrote articles in the newspapers, defending himself against the charge that he had played a crucial role in having Hitler appointed chancellor and that he had served a criminal regime; these led to vitriolic exchanges with West German historians, journalists and political scientists. Franz von Papen died in Obersasbach, West Germany, on 2 May 1969 at the age of 89.
Publications
Appell an das deutsche Gewissen. Reden zur nationalen Revolution, Stalling, Oldenburg, 1933 ()
Memoirs (German title: Der Wahrheit eine Gasse), Translated by Brian Connell, Andre Deutsch, London, 1952 ()
Europa, was nun? Betrachtungen zur Politik der Westmächte, Göttinger Verlags-Anstalt, Göttingen, 1954 ()
Vom Scheitern einer Demokratie. 1930 – 1933, Hase und Koehler, Mainz, 1968 ()
In popular culture
Franz von Papen has been portrayed by these actors in these film, television and theatrical productions:
Paul Everton (de) in the 1918 US film The Eagle's Eye
Curt Furburg in the 1943 US film Background to Danger
Walter Kingsford in the 1944 US film The Hitler Gang
John Wengraf in the 1952 US film 5 Fingers
Peter von Zerneck in the 1973 US TV production Portrait: A Man Whose Name Was John
Dennis St John in the 2000 Canadian/US TV production Nuremberg
Erland Josephson in the 2003 Italian/UK TV production The Good Pope: Pope John XXIII
Robert Russell in the 2003 Canadian/US TV production Hitler: The Rise of Evil
Georgi Novakov in the 2006 UK television docudrama Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial
See also
Hindu–German Conspiracy
List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
References
Citations
Sources
Sudoplatov, Pavel. Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness—A Soviet Spymaster. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1994.
Further reading
Bracher, Karl Dietrich Die Auflösung der Weimarer Republik; eine Studie zum Problem des Machtverfalls in der Demokratie Villingen: Schwarzwald, Ring-Verlag, 1971.
Bracher, Karl Dietrich. The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National Socialism. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970.
Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin, 2006.
Fest, Joachim C. and Bullock, Michael (trans.) "Franz von Papen and the Conservative Collaboration" in The Face of the Third Reich New York: Penguin, 1979 (orig. published in German in 1963), pp. 229–246. .
Jones, Larry Eugene. "From Democracy to Dictatorship: The Fall of Weimar and the Triumph of Nazism, 1930–1933". in The Oxford Handbook of the Weimar Republic (2022) pp 95–108. excerpt
External links
Biographical timeline
Vice-Chancellor Franz von Papen speaks in Trier about the Saarland referendum, 1934
Papen at the Republic Day celebrations in Turkey, 1941
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1879 births
1969 deaths
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World War I spies for Germany | [
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243791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System%20context%20diagram | System context diagram | A system context diagram (SCD) in engineering is a diagram that defines the boundary between the system, or part of a system, and its environment, showing the entities that interact with it. This diagram is a high level view of a system. It is similar to a block diagram.
Overview
System context diagrams show a system, as a whole and its inputs and outputs from/to external factors. According to Kossiakoff and Sweet (2011):
System context diagrams are used early in a project to get agreement on the scope under investigation. Context diagrams are typically included in a requirements document. These diagrams must be read by all project stakeholders and thus should be written in plain language, so the stakeholders can understand items within the document.
Building blocks
Context diagrams can be developed with the use of two types of building blocks:
Entities (Actors): labeled boxes; one in the center representing the system, and around it multiple boxes for each external actor
Relationships: labeled lines between the entities and system
For example, "customer places order." Context diagrams can also use many different drawing types to represent external entities. They can use ovals, stick figures, pictures, clip art or any other representation to convey meaning. Decision trees and data storage are represented in system flow diagrams.
A context diagram can also list the classifications of the external entities as one of a set of simple categories (Examples:), which add clarity to the level of involvement of the entity with regards to the system. These categories include:
Active: Dynamic to achieve some goal or purpose (Examples: "Article readers" or "customers").
Passive: Static external entities which infrequently interact with the system (Examples: "Article editors" or "database administrator").
Cooperative: Predictable external entities which are used by the system to bring about some desired outcome (Examples: "Internet service providers" or "shipping companies").
Autonomous (Independent): External entities which are separated from the system, but affect the system indirectly, by means of imposed constraints or similar influences (Examples: "regulatory committees" or "standards groups").
Alternatives
The best system context diagrams are used to display how a system interoperates at a very high level, or how systems operate and interact logically. The system context diagram is a necessary tool in developing a baseline interaction between systems and actors; actors and a system or systems and systems. Alternatives to the system context diagram are:
Architecture Interconnect Diagram: The figure gives an example of an Architecture Interconnect Diagram: A representation of the Albuquerque regional ITS architecture interconnects for the Albuquerque Police Department that was generated using the Turbo Architecture tool is shown in the figure. Each block represents an ITS inventory element, including the name of the stakeholder in the top shaded portion. The interconnect lines between elements are solid or dashed, indicating existing or planned connections.
Business Model Canvas, a strategic management template for developing new or documenting existing business models. It is a visual chart with elements describing a firm's value proposition, infrastructure, customers, and finances.[1] It assists firms in aligning their activities by illustrating potential trade-offs.
Enterprise data model: this type of data model according to Simsion (2005) can contain up to 50 to 200 entity classes, which results from specific "high level of generalization in data modeling".
IDEF0 Top Level Context Diagram: The IDEF0 process starts with the identification of the prime function to be decomposed. This function is identified on a "Top Level Context Diagram" that defines the scope of the particular IDEF0 analysis.
Problem Diagrams (Problem Frames): In addition to the kinds of things shown on a context diagram, a problem diagram shows requirements and requirements references.
Use case diagram: One of the Unified Modeling Language diagrams. They also represent the scope of the project at a similar level of abstraction. - Use Cases, however, tend to focus more on the goals of 'actors' who interact with the system, and do not specify any solution. Use Case diagrams represent a set of Use Cases, which are textual descriptions of how an actor achieves the goal of a use case. for Example Customer Places Order.
ArchiMate: ArchiMate is an open and independent enterprise architecture modeling language to support the description, analysis and visualization of architecture within and across business domains in an unambiguous way.
Most of these diagrams work well as long as a limited number of interconnects will be shown. Where twenty or more interconnects must be displayed, the diagrams become quite complex and can be difficult to read.
See also
Data flow diagram
Information flow diagram
Event partitioning
List of graphical methods
Network diagram
Requirements analysis
Software development process
Systems analysis
References
External links
Context Diagram Template
SYSMOD's System Context Diagram
Diagrams
Systems analysis
Software engineering | [
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243796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio%20Ironcat | Studio Ironcat | Studio Ironcat was a small publishing company based in Fredericksburg, Virginia, dedicated to publication of manga and later, Amerimanga. The company is most known for its publication of the first volume of Megatokyo, a prominent webcomic, as well as the flamboyant style of one of its founders, Steve Bennett. The company was also known for regular turmoil within its wake, primarily during the years 2001–2003. One of these led to a period where the company did business under a different name as I.C. Entertainment.
The company, commonly referred to as "Ironcat", published under the Studio Ironcat, I.C. Entertainment and Fuzzy Kitten imprints. They also had an adult imprint, Sexy Fruit. Over the course of its lifespan, Studio Ironcat published over fifty titles.
History
Founding years
From 1993 to 1997, Antarctic Press published several translated manga series, including Vampire Miyu and several miniseries by Ippongi Bang and her studio, Studio DoDo. However, facing declining sales and a change in the company's focus, Antarctic Press decided to cancel all of their translated manga titles in late 1997, laying off several employees in the process. One of the employees let go from Antarctic Press was head translator Kumi Kimura, who took several projects that had been in the planning stages to his new company, Studio Ironcat. Studio Ironcat was founded in 1997 by manga artists Kuni Kimura, Masaomi Kanzaki and Stephen R. Bennett IV. The new company started publication in January of the following year by releasing the Vampire Princess Miyu manga by Narumi Kakinouchi, then moving on to a series of other books under its Studio Ironcat and Sexy Fruit imprints. The company signed up other well-known artists and titles, working to become a strong player in the shōnen manga genre.
For the first few years of business, things were running somewhat smoothly, but this changed in 1999, with the first major problem for Ironcat.
Embezzlement and departure of co-founders
From its inception until 1999, there were financial issues with Kimura. A report by industry website Anime News Network (ANN) stated that a company employee reported multiple cases of fraud by Kimura, with the alleged cases of Ironcat funds being given to friends in Japan, took unauthorized trips to Thailand and frequently used company finances for personal expenses. The drain of funds was enough that the company ended up on shaky financial ground, and emptied Kanzaki (the primary financial backer)'s investment in the company.
On July 15, 1999 Kanzaki and Bennett fired Kimura, bringing on Steve Bennett's brother Kevin Bennett and their father, Stephen Bennett III, as Ironcat executives. Upon Kimura's departure, an internal investigation took place, and while no conclusive amount was determined, an estimated $15,000 had been allegedly stolen by Kimura from Ironcat coffers. However, no charges were filed against Kimura, who returned to Japan.
During the post-Kimura restructuring by Kanzaki and the Bennetts, Office assistant Kathryn Hofer left in January 2000 due to lack of pay and bias treatment, Chief Graphics Designer and Copy Editor Mark Hofmann departed in June 2000, citing an issue with internal, "high-school" company politics and lack of pay. Hofer's and Hofman's grievances would later prove to be tragically prophetic, as later employee departures would cite the same problems.
The company would have further turmoil when the elder Bennett died in late 2000; he had been a key executive in the company and vital to the day-to-day operations. Shortly after Bennett's death, Kanzaki departed Studio Ironcat, taking the rights to his titles as well as the "Studio Ironcat" name itself (having been named after his manga of the same name), leaving the company nameless, and with an uncertain future.
Name change and employee departures
The Bennetts responded by renaming the company International Comics and Entertainment, but it is unclear if the name change was simply a DBA, or a change to evoke "Iron Cat Entertainment". For the most part, rebranding the company as I.C. Entertainment was cosmetic, as the company was still referred to as "Ironcat" during this period. In 2002, the company expanded its lineup to include shōjo manga titles, such as Central City and horror titles such as Mantis Woman.
From this point on, a slow exodus of staff departed the company. Between May and August 2003, several key personnel departed the company, with one of the biggest departures occurring on July 31 (though not reported until October 6 of that year). Ten key employees departed, expressing grave personal and professional disagreements with Steve Bennett, with charges of exploitation through unfair work practices and withheld pay. On August 15, 2003, Domestic Affairs Manager Kei Blue, Senior Editor Stephanie Brown and Translator Duane Johnson, as well as four other employees, filed wage claims of over $7000 with the Virginia Department of Labor and Industry, which conducted an investigation of Ironcat, though the results were not made public.
On October 6, 2003, Brown, Johnson, and Graphics Editor Ellen Ohlmacher gave an interview to ANN, accusing Bennett of denying pay to themselves and several other company employees. A follow-up report by ANN stated that "[f]inancial documents obtained by ANN demonstrate a three-month gap in one employee's payment from March 31 to July 3, followed in September by back pay of only one-third of the $1,800 the employee claims to be owed. The records also indicate other former employees have not received some or all of their claimed back pay." ANN later reported both Brown and Johnson eventually received full back pay as of October 27, though it is unknown if anyone else had received their missing pay.
As Ironcat's finances deteriorated and internal politics began to leak to the public, the company gained a reputation as a hotbed of "chaos", filled with "high-school politics" amongst staffmembers. At one point the company held a "Save Ironcat" sale at the 2003 Otakon anime convention. During this time, the company returned to the Studio Ironcat name in October 2003, having settled amicably with Kanzaki over the name and other issues.
Megatokyo and Amerimanga
By mid-2002, the decision was made to get into the growing Amerimanga trend pioneered by competitor Antarctic Press and made notable at the time by TOKYOPOP's Rising Stars of Manga contest and compilation. This was brought about by Ironcat's biggest coup, obtaining the publishing licenses for Megatokyo and Maelyn Dean's Real Life, two major webcomics. It also began publishing an Amerimanga anthology magazine called, fittingly, AmeriManga.
However, the Amerimanga ventures turned out to be disastrous. The first volume of Megatokyo, released in January 2003, was a bonafide hit, with the entire first printing selling out. Ironcat prepared for the release of the second volume when the publishing deal between Ironcat and Fred Gallagher, Megatokyo'''s creator, fell through. Gallagher would later write on the Megatokyo web site that the parting between him and Ironcat was amicable, though rumors had it that Bennett stated that Gallagher demanded more money for the license. However, many Megatokyo fans noted that Ironcat never shipped out many of their pre-orders for Vol. 1 and also insisted that fans pay in full for pre-orders on Vol. 2 when it had not even gone to press. Gallagher would eventually take Megatokyo to rival publisher Dark Horse Comics.
AmeriManga magazine and author strife
By June of that year, however, AmeriManga magazine had become the focal point of Ironcat's products and a modest hit, boasting a subscription of 600 subscribers. However, at AnimeNEXT, on October 4 of that year, Bennett announced that AmeriManga would go on hiatus, and that it was awaiting responses from the represented artists before proceeding with plans for future issues.
However, while Ironcat had expressed an interest in continuing the series, it would have been difficult as Senior Editor Kei Blue had departed the company in July, and fourteen other AmeriManga artists followed suit. Blue told ANN that a clause specifying a timetable for product release and payment was included in the AmeriManga artists' contracts, and that when Ironcat failed to meet the timetable, the contracts were automatically voided. Afterwards, several artists publicly stated that they would not work with Ironcat again.
Additionally, Ironcat began to have problems with some of their other artists. The deal with Dean fell through, with Dean opting not to publish Real Life with Ironcat. A more public disagreement occurred when Bennett stated that Ironcat could not contact Japanese artist Saya, creator of Central City, blaming it on an ex-employee who allegedly took the artist's information. In turn, Saya made a public statement, voicing that she was easily able to be contacted via her website, that she had never received any payments from the company and that she would never work with Ironcat again. She also stated that Bennett "has no right to say this about his former employee. If they really wish to talk to me, my e-mail address is very easy to find because there were links from their former web page to mine."
Attempted comeback
In mid-2003, Ironcat received a bailout investment from aspiring author Rachel Ann Prellwitz, who encouraged Bennett to redouble Ironcat's production of books and to expand its offerings to include furry comics. Now a partial owner of Ironcat, Prellwitz began taking an active role in the management of Ironcat, relieving Bennett of some leadership pressures, and at the same time causing a culture clash with some longtime employees and members of the Ironcat "family". Prellwitz's involvement in Ironcat led to a surge of activity and some optimism about the company's prospects. In late 2003, attorney and animation journalist Brett D. Rogers was brought on board by Bennett as an investor in the company and adviser to management.
In late 2004, Ironcat signed artist Isabel Marks, licensing her webcomic Namir Deiter. For the launch, Ironcat created a third imprint, Fuzzy Kitten, as part of a planned imprint for furry-oriented comics. However, only one volume of Namir Deiter was released under this banner.Namir Deiter came too late to help Ironcat. Deep in debt and unable to obtain additional capital, Ironcat was forced to cease printing its current properties and to decline options to license promising manga titles.
On January 28, 2005, Studio Ironcat closed operations and made a statement regarding this matter on their website. From that point, the Studio Ironcat website remained open with orders still being taken for present stock, but the site served as a clearing house for the remainder of Ironcat's published stock. On January 12, 2006, a notice was placed on the front page that the catalog was being sent to a liquidator for final dissolution of remaining stock. The site is now closed.
Steve Bennett litigated matters related to the decline and shutdown of Ironcat in the Virginia Court System in 2006. Cases against Ironcat and Bennett personally were dismissed "with prejudice," leaving Bennett free and clear and closing the book on Studio Ironcat.
Titles published by Studio Ironcat
Comics, listed by imprint, include:
Ironcat/I.C. Entertainment
Iron Cat (from which the company took its name) Vampire Princess Miyu
New Vampire Princess Miyu
The Vampire Dahlia
Vampire Yui
Crusher Joe
Central City (Released 2002, by Saya)Dragon Wars
Futaba-kun Change! (Ironcat's flagship title for several years) Panku Ponk!
Makuukan Zero
You & Me (Released 2002, by Hiroshi Aro) Amerimanga (Magazine which serialized various series) MegaTokyo
My Code Name is Charmer
The Wanderer
Cutie Honey '90
Mantis Woman
Hyper Doll
Doctor! (Released 1997, by Ippongi Bang) Virtual Bang (Released 1998, by Ippongi Bang) Hanaukyo Maid Team
No Bra ‹---(Not in any particular order of publishing. Also, was delayed indefinitely in October 2003)
Fuzzy Kitten
Namir Deiter
SexyFruit
Ogenki Clinic (Ironcat's best-known SexyFruit title) Cool Devices
Bizzarian (Released 2000, by Senno Knife) Oh My! (Japanese title: いや！, Released 2002) Part Timer Rei (Licensed, but never released) Space Dreams (Released 1998, by Harumi Shimamoto) Bang's Sexplosion (Released 1999, by Ippongi Bang) Femme Kabuki (Released 1998) I Love You (Released 2003, by Lei Nekojima) Eden (Released 2002, by Senno Knife) Heart Core (Released 2002)''
Notes
References
External links
(archive)
Steve Bennett's official website
Comic book publishing companies of the United States
Defunct comics and manga publishing companies
Manga distributors
Publishing companies established in 1997
Companies disestablished in 2006
1997 establishments in Virginia
2006 disestablishments in Virginia | [
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243799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Gallagher%20%28cartoonist%29 | Fred Gallagher (cartoonist) | Frederick M. Gallagher III (born November 15, 1968) is an American illustrator and web cartoonist. He is best known as the artist, co-creator, and now full owner of Megatokyo. He also goes by the name of Piro, the main character of Megatokyo, who he has stated is an idealized version of himself when he was in college. He took this name from that of the cat in the visual novel Kanon.
Gallagher lives with his wife and their son in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Projects
The Fine Red Cat
The Fine Red Cat (1993) is a children's book by Jennifer Ann Gallagher, Fred Gallagher's sister. It is notable as the first published work Gallagher illustrated.
Megatokyo
The webcomic Megatokyo started its run on August 14, 2000 in collaboration with Rodney Caston, who owned the domain and wrote many of the scripts for the first year and a half, while Gallagher was responsible for the artwork. Due to creative differences, Caston agreed to sell his share in the venture to Gallagher in May 2002.
Megatokyo's success has allowed Gallagher to pursue it as a full-time occupation since October 2002, after being laid off from his job as an architect. Megatokyo in its entirety is available free of charge at the Megatokyo website, with strips being paired with comments from Gallagher. Gallagher's income from the strip comes from advertising, sales of Megatokyo books and merchandise sold through the Megagear store website which he owns.
Since Gallagher attained full control over the strip, it has become more reflective of his vision, with an increasingly complex cast of characters, and a far slower pace than the original strips. The influence of Japanese manga and computer dating sims can be seen in both the character design, plotline and storytelling. While this has earned praise from some critics, it has also alienated some fans of the earlier strips, which were more comical, relying more on humor, slapstick, gags, and simpler storylines.
Fredart
Fredart is a collection of Gallagher's works dating back several years. It includes development sketches from other projects, such as Warmth. Since Megatokyo began, most of the content has been focused on characters from that project.
Fredart Studios LLC is the name of the company that officially owns the trademark to Megatokyo and Fred's other works. Megagear Inc. is the company owned and operated by Fred and his wife Sarah that runs the MegaGear store which sells Megatokyo related merchandise.
envelop(e)
A doujinshi work of Gallagher's from 1999. As he describes it:
Using the format of an illustrated story, 'envelop(e)' tells the story of how a misplaced envelope and love letter causes confusion between childhood friends who never really understood how much they meant to each other before.
Warmth
Warmth is a more serious love story on which Gallagher was working before Megatokyo, but it was pushed into the background when Megatokyo became popular. A few chapters of Warmth were released in the early issues of I.C. Entertainment's AmeriManga magazine. Gallagher has stated a number of times that he has not given up on the property, and will continue it in the future. Gallagher had released a sample (but this was later deleted), and many other drawings that include characters who will be featured in Warmth.
The main characters of Warmth are called Tom Moore, Tobari Saeko, and Shizuhara Eimi. Both Saeko and Eimi have cameos in recent Megatokyo strips.
Blurred
Blurred was a semi-erotic experimental art website, created by Gallagher in 1998 using the pen name "blurri." Gallagher later took it offline for personal reasons, but a discussion on February 2, 2006 on 4chan started a coordinated attempt to discover the contents of this website. On June 8, 2006, Gallagher again allowed public access to the "blurred" site, and mentioned it in his newspost on Megatokyo, in order to end the controversy.
Title TBA
Fred Gallagher announced that, some time in 2007, megagear (the Megatokyo store) would release a mini doujinshi. Little to nothing was known about this project, but it was expected later in the year.
"We are looking forward to a great 2007. Megatokyo Volume 5 will be released in the Spring and we have lots of other new items planned including a skateboard deck, the first Megatokyo calendar, clocks, and a mini doujinshi for later in the year. "
It is possible that this is an endgames doujinshi.
"But maybe 2 regularly delivered comics with everything else you expect from these websites - rants, updates, etc - including some other projects like maybe 'warmth' getting off the ground (and that endgames doujin i want to do)... we'll see."
In 2009, he posted an endgames preview and called it a doujin.
In May 2011, it was announced that Endgames were being revamped in a light novel format, with a story written by webfiction author Thomas Knapp, with four light novels planned. A short story "Behind the Masque" was also announced, and released on Amazon's Kindle Store on June 10, 2011.
Achievements
One of the most popular artists at United States anime conventions, Fred Gallagher has appeared at Otakon in 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2005, and also has appeared frequently at A-Kon, Sakura-Con, and Comic-Con International. Anime Central was the first anime convention where he sat for a panel discussion. He is also credited with being the first American manga artist to be a guest at Anime Expo Tokyo.
At conventions, Fred Gallagher hosts a panel based on the "Naze Nani Megatokyo" ("The Hows and Whys of Megatokyo") omake comic strips, an idea borrowed from an anime series, Martian Successor Nadesico. The panel contained Gallagher ("Piro") and Rodney Caston ("Largo") (before Caston left the project due to creative differences), and was also known to contain Dominic Nguyen ("Dom"). Gallagher has also attended anime conventions outside of the United States. He was Guest of Honour at Ayacon, an anime con located in Northampton, UK, at the start of November 2003. He was slated to appear at the 2006 German convention Connichi in Kassel. However, due to errors in registering his wife's ticket, this was canceled.
See also
Rodney Caston
Notes
External links
Megatokyo, Gallagher's webcomic
fredarting at Twitch
Fredrin at Pixiv
Gallagher profiled at Anime Convention Personality of the Week (March 9, 2003)
American comic strip cartoonists
Megatokyo
American webcomic creators
Artists from Ann Arbor, Michigan
Living people
1968 births | [
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243800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine | Coroutine | Coroutines are computer program components that generalize subroutines for non-preemptive multitasking, by allowing execution to be suspended and resumed. Coroutines are well-suited for implementing familiar program components such as cooperative tasks, exceptions, event loops, iterators, infinite lists and pipes.
According to Donald Knuth, Melvin Conway coined the term coroutine in 1958 when he applied it to the construction of an assembly program. The first published explanation of the coroutine appeared later, in 1963.
Comparison with
Subroutines
Subroutines are special cases of coroutines. When subroutines are invoked, execution begins at the start, and once a subroutine exits, it is finished; an instance of a subroutine only returns once, and does not hold state between invocations. By contrast, coroutines can exit by calling other coroutines, which may later return to the point where they were invoked in the original coroutine; from the coroutine's point of view, it is not exiting but calling another coroutine. Thus, a coroutine instance holds state, and varies between invocations; there can be multiple instances of a given coroutine at once. The difference between calling another coroutine by means of "yielding" to it and simply calling another routine (which then, also, would return to the original point), is that the relationship between two coroutines which yield to each other is not that of caller-callee, but instead symmetric.
Any subroutine can be translated to a coroutine which does not call yield.
Here is a simple example of how coroutines can be useful. Suppose you have a consumer-producer relationship where one routine creates items and adds them to a queue and another removes items from the queue and uses them. For reasons of efficiency, you want to add and remove several items at once. The code might look like this:
var q := new queue
coroutine produce
loop
while q is not full
create some new items
add the items to q
yield to consume
coroutine consume
loop
while q is not empty
remove some items from q
use the items
yield to produce
call produce
The queue is then completely filled or emptied before yielding control to the other coroutine using the yield command. The further coroutines calls are starting right after the yield, in the outer coroutine loop.
Although this example is often used as an introduction to multithreading, two threads are not needed for this: the yield statement can be implemented by a jump directly from one routine into the other.
Threads
Coroutines are very similar to threads. However, coroutines are cooperatively multitasked, whereas threads are typically preemptively multitasked. Coroutines provide concurrency but not parallelism. The advantages of coroutines over threads are that they may be used in a hard-realtime context (switching between coroutines need not involve any system calls or any blocking calls whatsoever), there is no need for synchronization primitives such as mutexes, semaphores, etc. in order to guard critical sections, and there is no need for support from the operating system.
It is possible to implement coroutines using preemptively-scheduled threads, in a way that will be transparent to the calling code, but some of the advantages (particularly the suitability for hard-realtime operation and relative cheapness of switching between them) will be lost.
Generators
Generators, also known as semicoroutines, are a subset of coroutines. Specifically, while both can yield multiple times, suspending their execution and allowing re-entry at multiple entry points, they differ in coroutines' ability to control where execution continues immediately after they yield, while generators cannot, instead transferring control back to the generator's caller. That is, since generators are primarily used to simplify the writing of iterators, the yield statement in a generator does not specify a coroutine to jump to, but rather passes a value back to a parent routine.
However, it is still possible to implement coroutines on top of a generator facility, with the aid of a top-level dispatcher routine (a trampoline, essentially) that passes control explicitly to child generators identified by tokens passed back from the generators:
var q := new queue
generator produce
loop
while q is not full
create some new items
add the items to q
yield consume
generator consume
loop
while q is not empty
remove some items from q
use the items
yield produce
subroutine dispatcher
var d := new dictionary(generator → iterator)
d[produce] := start produce
d[consume] := start consume
var current := produce
loop
call current
current := next d[current]
call dispatcher
A number of implementations of coroutines for languages with generator support but no native coroutines (e.g. Python before 2.5) use this or a similar model.
Mutual recursion
Using coroutines for state machines or concurrency is similar to using mutual recursion with tail calls, as in both cases the control changes to a different one of a set of routines. However, coroutines are more flexible and generally more efficient. Since coroutines yield rather than return, and then resume execution rather than restarting from the beginning, they are able to hold state, both variables (as in a closure) and execution point, and yields are not limited to being in tail position; mutually recursive subroutines must either use shared variables or pass state as parameters. Further, each mutually recursive call of a subroutine requires a new stack frame (unless tail call elimination is implemented), while passing control between coroutines uses the existing contexts and can be implemented simply by a jump.
Common uses
Coroutines are useful to implement the following:
State machines within a single subroutine, where the state is determined by the current entry/exit point of the procedure; this can result in more readable code compared to use of goto, and may also be implemented via mutual recursion with tail calls.
Actor model of concurrency, for instance in video games. Each actor has its own procedures (this again logically separates the code), but they voluntarily give up control to central scheduler, which executes them sequentially (this is a form of cooperative multitasking).
Generators, and these are useful for streamsparticularly input/outputand for generic traversal of data structures.
Communicating sequential processes where each sub-process is a coroutine. Channel inputs/outputs and blocking operations yield coroutines and a scheduler unblocks them on completion events. Alternatively, each sub-process may be the parent of the one following it in the data pipeline (or preceding it, in which case the pattern can be expressed as nested generators).
Reverse communication, commonly used in mathematical software, wherein a procedure such as a solver, integral evaluator, ... needs the using process to make a computation, such as evaluating an equation or integrand.
Native support
Coroutines originated as an assembly language method, but are supported in some high-level programming languages.
Aikido
AngelScript
Ballerina
BCPL
Pascal (Borland Turbo Pascal 7.0 with uThreads module)
BETA
BLISS
C++ (Since C++20)
C# (Since 2.0)
Chapel
ChucK
CLU
D
Dynamic C
Erlang
F#
Factor
GameMonkey Script
GDScript (Godot's scripting language)
Go
Haskell
High Level Assembly
Icon
Io
JavaScript (since 1.7, standardized in ECMAScript 6) ECMAScript 2017 also includes await support.
Julia
Kotlin (since 1.1)
Limbo
Lua
Lucid
µC++
Modula-2
Nemerle
Perl 5 (using the Coro module)
PHP (with HipHop, native since PHP 5.5)
Picolisp
Prolog
Python (since 2.5, with improved support since 3.3 and with explicit syntax since 3.5)
Raku
Ruby
Rust (since 1.39)
Sather
Scheme
Self
Simula 67
Smalltalk
Squirrel
Stackless Python
SuperCollider
Tcl (since 8.6)
urbiscript
Since continuations can be used to implement coroutines, programming languages that support them can also quite easily support coroutines.
Implementations
, many of the most popular programming languages, including C and its derivatives, do not have direct support for coroutines within the language or their standard libraries. This is, in large part, due to the limitations of stack-based subroutine implementation. An exception is the C++ library Boost.Context, part of boost libraries, which supports context swapping on ARM, MIPS, PowerPC, SPARC and x86 on POSIX, Mac OS X and Windows. Coroutines can be built upon Boost.Context.
In situations where a coroutine would be the natural implementation of a mechanism, but is not available, the typical response is to use a closurea subroutine with state variables (static variables, often boolean flags) to maintain an internal state between calls, and to transfer control to the correct point. Conditionals within the code result in the execution of different code paths on successive calls, based on the values of the state variables. Another typical response is to implement an explicit state machine in the form of a large and complex switch statement or via a goto statement, particularly a computed goto. Such implementations are considered difficult to understand and maintain, and a motivation for coroutine support.
Threads, and to a lesser extent fibers, are an alternative to coroutines in mainstream programming environments today. Threads provide facilities for managing the real-time cooperative interaction of simultaneously executing pieces of code. Threads are widely available in environments that support C (and are supported natively in many other modern languages), are familiar to many programmers, and are usually well-implemented, well-documented and well-supported. However, as they solve a large and difficult problem they include many powerful and complex facilities and have a correspondingly difficult learning curve. As such, when a coroutine is all that is needed, using a thread can be overkill.
One important difference between threads and coroutines is that threads are typically preemptively scheduled while coroutines are not. Because threads can be rescheduled at any instant and can execute concurrently, programs using threads must be careful about locking. In contrast, because coroutines can only be rescheduled at specific points in the program and do not execute concurrently, programs using coroutines can often avoid locking entirely. This property is also cited as a benefit of event-driven or asynchronous programming.
Since fibers are cooperatively scheduled, they provide an ideal base for implementing coroutines above. However, system support for fibers is often lacking compared to that for threads.
C
In order to implement general-purpose coroutines, a second call stack must be obtained, which is a feature not directly supported by the C language. A reliable (albeit platform-specific) way to achieve this is to use a small amount of inline assembly to explicitly manipulate the stack pointer during initial creation of the coroutine. This is the approach recommended by Tom Duff in a discussion on its relative merits vs. the method used by Protothreads. On platforms which provide the POSIX sigaltstack system call, a second call stack can be obtained by calling a springboard function from within a signal handler to achieve the same goal in portable C, at the cost of some extra complexity. C libraries complying to POSIX or the Single Unix Specification (SUSv3) provided such routines as getcontext, setcontext, makecontext and swapcontext, but these functions were declared obsolete in POSIX 1.2008.
Once a second call stack has been obtained with one of the methods listed above, the setjmp and longjmp functions in the standard C library can then be used to implement the switches between coroutines. These functions save and restore, respectively, the stack pointer, program counter, callee-saved registers, and any other internal state as required by the ABI, such that returning to a coroutine after having yielded restores all the state that would be restored upon returning from a function call. Minimalist implementations, which do not piggyback off the setjmp and longjmp functions, may achieve the same result via a small block of inline assembly which swaps merely the stack pointer and program counter, and clobbers all other registers. This can be significantly faster, as setjmp and longjmp must conservatively store all registers which may be in use according to the ABI, whereas the clobber method allows the compiler to store (by spilling to the stack) only what it knows is actually in use.
Due to the lack of direct language support, many authors have written their own libraries for coroutines which hide the above details. Russ Cox's libtask library is a good example of this genre. It uses the context functions if they are provided by the native C library; otherwise it provides its own implementations for ARM, PowerPC, Sparc, and x86. Other notable implementations include libpcl, coro, lthread, libCoroutine, libconcurrency, libcoro, ribs2, libdill., libaco, and libco.
In addition to the general approach above, several attempts have been made to approximate coroutines in C with combinations of subroutines and macros. Simon Tatham's contribution, based on Duff's device, is a notable example of the genre, and is the basis for Protothreads and similar implementations. In addition to Duff's objections, Tatham's own comments provide a frank evaluation of the limitations of this approach: "As far as I know, this is the worst piece of C hackery ever seen in serious production code." The main shortcomings of this approximation are that, in not maintaining a separate stack frame for each coroutine, local variables are not preserved across yields from the function, it is not possible to have multiple entries to the function, and control can only be yielded from the top-level routine.
C++
C++20 introduced standardized coroutines as stackless functions that can be suspended in the middle of execution and resumed at a later point. The suspended state of a coroutine is stored on the heap. Implementation of this standard is ongoing, with the G++ and MSVC compilers currently fully supporting standard coroutines in recent versions.
Boost.Coroutine - created by Oliver Kowalke, is the official released portable coroutine library of boost since version 1.53. The library relies on Boost.Context and supports ARM, MIPS, PowerPC, SPARC and X86 on POSIX, Mac OS X and Windows.
Boost.Coroutine2 - also created by Oliver Kowalke, is a modernized portable coroutine library since boost version 1.59. It takes advantage of C++11 features, but removes the support for symmetric coroutines.
Mordor - In 2010, Mozy open sourced a C++ library implementing coroutines, with an emphasis on using them to abstract asynchronous I/O into a more familiar sequential model.
CO2 - stackless coroutine based on C++ preprocessor tricks, providing await/yield emulation.
ScummVM - The ScummVM project implements a light-weight version of stackless coroutines based on Simon Tatham's article.
tonbit::coroutine - C++11 single .h asymmetric coroutine implementation via ucontext / fiber
Coroutines landed in Clang in May 2017, with libc++ implementation ongoing.
elle by Docker
oatpp-coroutines - stackless coroutines with scheduling designed for high-concurrency level I/O operations. Used in the 5-million WebSocket connections experiment by Oat++. Part of the Oat++ web framework.
C#
MindTouch Dream - The MindTouch Dream REST framework provides an implementation of coroutines based on the C# 2.0 iterator pattern
Caliburn - The Caliburn screen patterns framework for WPF uses C# 2.0 iterators to ease UI programming, particularly in asynchronous scenarios.
Power Threading Library - The Power Threading Library by Jeffrey Richter implements an AsyncEnumerator that provides simplified Asynchronous Programming Model using iterator-based coroutines.
The Unity game engine implements coroutines.
Servelat Pieces - The Servelat Pieces project by Yevhen Bobrov provides transparent asynchrony for Silverlight WCF services and ability to asynchronously call any synchronous method. The implementation is based on Caliburn's Coroutines iterator and C# iterator blocks.
- The .NET 2.0+ Framework now provides semi-coroutine (generator) functionality through the iterator pattern and yield keyword.
C# 5.0 includes await syntax support.
Clojure
Cloroutine is a third-party library providing support for stackless coroutines in Clojure. It's implemented as a macro, statically splitting an arbitrary code block on arbitrary var calls and emitting the coroutine as a stateful function.
D
D implements coroutines as its standard library class Fiber A generator makes it trivial to expose a fiber function as an input range, making any fiber compatible with existing range algorithms.
Java
There are several implementations for coroutines in Java. Despite the constraints imposed by Java's abstractions, the JVM does not preclude the possibility. There are four general methods used, but two break bytecode portability among standards-compliant JVMs.
Modified JVMs. It is possible to build a patched JVM to support coroutines more natively. The Da Vinci JVM has had patches created.
Modified bytecode. Coroutine functionality is possible by rewriting regular Java bytecode, either on the fly or at compile time. Toolkits include Javaflow, Java Coroutines, and Coroutines.
Platform-specific JNI mechanisms. These use JNI methods implemented in the OS or C libraries to provide the functionality to the JVM.
Thread abstractions. Coroutine libraries which are implemented using threads may be heavyweight, though performance will vary based on the JVM's thread implementation.
JavaScript
node-fibers
Fibjs - fibjs is a JavaScript runtime built on Chrome's V8 JavaScript engine. fibjs uses fibers-switch, sync style, and non-blocking I/O model to build scalable systems.
Since ECMAScript 2015, stackless coroutine functionality through "generators" and yield expressions is provided.
Kotlin
Kotlin implements coroutines as part of a first-party library.
Modula-2
Modula-2 as defined by Wirth implements coroutines as part of the standard SYSTEM library.
The procedure NEWPROCESS() fills in a context given a code block and space for a stack as parameters, and the procedure TRANSFER() transfers control to a coroutine given the coroutine's context as its parameter.
Mono
The Mono Common Language Runtime has support for continuations, from which coroutines can be built.
.NET Framework
During the development of the .NET Framework 2.0, Microsoft extended the design of the Common Language Runtime (CLR) hosting APIs to handle fiber-based scheduling with an eye towards its use in fiber-mode for SQL server. Before release, support for the task switching hook ICLRTask::SwitchOut was removed due to time constraints. Consequently, the use of the fiber API to switch tasks is currently not a viable option in the .NET Framework.
Perl
Coro
Coroutines are natively implemented in all Raku backends.
PHP
Amphp
Coroutine implemented in a way that resembles Python functions, and some Go, many examples showing there code converted with same number of lines and behavior.
Python
Python 2.5 implements better support for coroutine-like functionality, based on extended generators (PEP 342)
Python 3.3 improves this ability, by supporting delegating to a subgenerator (PEP 380)
Python 3.4 introduces a comprehensive asynchronous I/O framework as standardized in PEP 3156, which includes coroutines that leverage subgenerator delegation
Python 3.5 introduces explicit support for coroutines with async/await syntax (PEP 0492).
Since Python 3.7, async/await have become reserved keywords.
Eventlet
Greenlet
gevent
stackless python
Ruby
Ruby 1.9 supports coroutines natively which are implemented as fibers, which are semi-coroutines.
An implementation by Marc De Scheemaecker
Ruby 2.5 and higher supports coroutines natively which are implemented as fibers
An implementation by Thomas W Branson
Rust
Rust supports coroutines since version 1.39 .
There are two popular libraries providing asynchronous runtimes: tokio and async-std
Scala
Scala Coroutines is a coroutine implementation for Scala. This implementation is a library-level extension that relies on the Scala macro system to statically transform sections of the program into coroutine objects. As such, this implementation does not require modifications in the JVM, so it is fully portable between different JVMs and works with alternative Scala backends, such as Scala.js, which compiles to JavaScript.
Scala Coroutines rely on the coroutine macro that transforms a normal block of code into a coroutine definition. Such a coroutine definition can be invoked with the call operation, which instantiates a coroutine frame. A coroutine frame can be resumed with the resume method, which resumes the execution of the coroutine's body, until reaching a yieldval keyword, which suspends the coroutine frame. Scala Coroutines also expose a snapshot method, which effectively duplicates the coroutine. A detailed descriptions of Scala coroutines with snapshots appeared at ECOOP 2018, along with their formal model.
Scheme
Since Scheme provides full support for continuations, implementing coroutines is nearly trivial, requiring only that a queue of continuations be maintained.
Smalltalk
Since, in most Smalltalk environments, the execution stack is a first-class citizen, coroutines can be implemented without additional library or VM support.
Swift
SwiftCoroutine - Swift coroutines library for iOS, macOS and Linux.
Tool Command Language (Tcl)
Since version 8.6, the Tool Command Language supports coroutines in the core language.
Vala
Vala implements native support for coroutines. They are designed to be used with a Gtk Main Loop, but can be used alone if care is taken to ensure that the end callback will never have to be called before doing, at least, one yield.
Assembly languages
Machine-dependent assembly languages often provide direct methods for coroutine execution. For example, in MACRO-11, the assembly language of the PDP-11 family of minicomputers, the “classic” coroutine switch is effected by the instruction "JSR PC,@(SP)+", which jumps to the address popped from the stack and pushes the current (i.e that of the next) instruction address onto the stack. On VAXen (in VAX MACRO) the comparable instruction is "JSB @(SP)+". Even on a Motorola 6809 there is the instruction "JSR [,S++]"; note the "++", as 2 bytes (of address) are popped from the stack. This instruction is much used in the (standard) 'monitor' Assist 09.
See also
Async/await
Pipeline, a kind of coroutine used for communicating between programs
Protothreads, a stackless lightweight thread implementation using a coroutine like mechanism
References
Further reading
External links
Simon Tatham's C oriented comprehensive introduction to coroutines
Softpanorama coroutine pagecontains extensive assembler coroutines links
Concurrent computing
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] |
243808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20Star%20%28disambiguation%29 | Dog Star (disambiguation) | The Dog Star is a nickname for Sirius, a star in the constellation Canis Major (Greater Dog).
Dog Star or Dogstar may also refer to:
Art, entertainment, and media
Dogstar (band), a rock group including Keanu Reeves
"Dog Star" (short story), a short story by Arthur C. Clarke
Dogstar (TV series), a 2006 animated Australian TV series
Dog Star, a fictional bar in The Returned (U.S. TV series)
"Dogstar", a song by Hybrid from the 2006 album I Choose Noise
"Dog Star", a song by Klaatu from the 1980 album Endangered Species
The Dog Star, a 1950 novel by Donald Windham
The Dog Stars, a 2012 novel by Peter Heller | [
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243810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta | Alta | Alta or ALTA may refer to:
Acronyms
Alt-A, short for Alternative A-paper, is a type of U.S. mortgage
American Land Title Association, a national trade association representing the land title industry
American Literary Translators Association, an association of literary translators in the US
Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance or ALTA, an initiative to conserve the Amur leopard and Amur tiger
Atlanta Lawn Tennis Association
Australasian Language Technology Association
Accelerated life testing or Accelerated life testing analysis
Places
Canada
Alta Creek, the official name of the River of Golden Dreams, in Whistler, British Columbia
Alta Lake (British Columbia), a lake in Whistler, British Columbia
Alta Lake, British Columbia, a community now part of Whistler, British Columbia
Mont Alta, a hill in the Laurentides zone of the Laurentian Mountains of Quebec, that is the basis of the Ski Mont Alta ski hill; see List of former ski areas of Quebec
Alberta, Canada (abbreviation ALTA)
Norway
Alta, Norway, a municipality in Finnmark county, Norway
Alta (town), a town in the municipality of Alta in Finnmark county, Norway
Alta Airport, an airport in Finnmark county, Norway
Alta Church, a church in Alta municipality, Finnmark county, Norway
Alta controversy, a series of protests over Sámi rights and dam on the Altaelva
Alta IF, Norwegian football club
Alta Museum
Altaelva (Alta River), Troms og Finnmark county
Sweden
Älta, a locality in Nacka Municipality
Ukraine
Alta (river), a small tributary of the Trubizh in Ukraine
United States
Alta, California, a community in Placer County, California
Alta California ("Upper California"), the Mexican territory that later became the U.S. state of California
Alta, Illinois, a community in Peoria County, Illinois
Alta, Indiana, a town in Vermillion County, Indiana
Alta, Iowa, a city in Buena Vista County, Iowa
Alta, Utah, a town in Salt Lake County, Utah
Alta Ski Area, a ski area located in the Wasatch Mountains, in Salt Lake County, Utah
Alta, Fayette County, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in Fayette County, West Virginia
Alta, Greenbrier County, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in Greenbrier County, West Virginia
Alta, Wyoming, a community in Teton County, Wyoming
Alta Lake State Park, a park in the northwest interior of the state of Washington
People
Alta (poet) (Alta Gerrey, born 1942), poet and prose writer from Oakland, California
Alta Cohen, Major League Baseball player
Art, entertainment, and media
Alta (novel), a 2004 fantasy novel by Mercedes Lackey
Alta, Spanish term equivalent to the dance Saltarello
Acqua Alta, a novel by Donna Leon
Alta capella, a 20th-century musicological term for Renaissance wind ensembles
Businesses
Alta (vehicles), a defunct Greek manufacturer of cars, light trucks and motorcycles
Alta Bike Share, a provider of bicycle sharing systems in the US and Australia
Alta Car and Engineering Company, an English automobile and a Formula One racing manufacturer
Alta Group Newspapers, a defunct newspaper publisher in the northeastern US
Alta Motors, a defunct American manufacturer of electric motorcycles
Alta Newspaper Group, a newspaper publisher in Western Canada and Quebec
Alta Records, Dallas, Texas
Treno Alta Velocità (Italian: High Velocity Train), a special purpose entity formed to plan and construct a high-speed rail network in Italy
Other uses
Alta (dye), a red paste used by women in Bangladesh and India, to paint the borders of the feet
MV Alta, a ship that was abandoned at sea in 2018 and ran aground in Ireland in 2020
Acqua alta (Italian: "high water"), the term used in Veneto for the exceptional tide peaks that occur periodically in the northern Adriatic Sea
See also
Altas (disambiguation)
Altamont (disambiguation)
AltaVista, search engine
Alto (disambiguation)
Arta (disambiguation)
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243811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy%20Dunnett | Dorothy Dunnett | Dorothy, Lady Dunnett (née Halliday, 25 August 1923 – 9 November 2001) was a Scottish novelist best known for her historical fiction. Dunnett is most famous for her six novel series set during the 16th century, which concern the fictitious adventurer Francis Crawford of Lymond. This was followed by the eight novel prequel series The House of Niccolò. Her other work include a novel concerning the historical Macbeth called King Hereafter (1982), and a series of mystery novels centered upon Johnson Johnson, a portrait painter and spy.
Life and work
Dunnett was educated at James Gillespie's High School for Girls in Edinburgh. She started her career as a press officer in the civil service, where she met her husband.
A leading light in the Scottish arts world and a renaissance woman, she was a professional portrait painter and exhibited at the Royal Scottish Academy on many occasions. She had portraits commissioned by a number of prominent public figures in Scotland. She had a keen interest in opera, was a trustee of the National Library of Scotland, a board member of the Edinburgh International Book Festival, a trustee of the Scottish National War Memorial, and a non-executive director of Scottish Television. In 1992 she was awarded an OBE for her services to literature. Writing in The Times Literary Supplement, Alexander Fiske-Harrison reviewed her final novel in 2000, Gemini, and through that her entire oeuvre of historical fiction: "Although Dunnett’s writing style is not the neutral prose of genre fiction and it can be opaque and hard to read, especially in the early works, at times, this works with the almost melodramatic content to produce a powerful, operatic mixture... It is neither as a literary novelist nor as a historian, but as a writer of historical fiction that Dorothy Dunnett deserves recognition... The publication of Gemini completes an ambitious literary circle."
In 2001 she founded the Dorothy Dunnett Society to promote interest in the historical periods about which she wrote and communication between her readers. Dorothy Dunnett's archive was left to the National Library of Scotland and articles from it appear in Whispering Gallery, the magazine of the Dorothy Dunnett Society.
Dorothy Dunnett was married in 1946 to Sir Alastair Dunnett, editor of The Scotsman newspaper, and appears in his autobiography, Among Friends, 1984. By virtue of his knighthood in 1995, she became Lady Dunnett. She died in Edinburgh, and was survived by her sons Ninian and Mungo Dunnett.
Historical fiction
Lymond Chronicles
The manuscript for the first book in the Lymond Chronicles, The Game of Kings, was rejected by five British publishers before being published by U.S. publisher Putnam in 1961. It was written in response to her husband's suggestion that she write something herself, when she complained of having run out of reading material.
The Lymond Chronicles is a series of six novels, set in mid-sixteenth-century Europe and the Mediterranean, which follows the life and career of a Scottish nobleman, Francis Crawford of Lymond, from 1547 through 1558. Meticulously researched, the series takes place in a wide variety of locations, including France, the Ottoman Empire, Malta, England, Scotland and Russia. In addition to a compelling cast of original characters, the novels feature many historical figures, often in important roles.
The House of Niccolò
The House of Niccolò is a series of eight historical novels set in the late-fifteenth-century European Renaissance. The protagonist of the series is Nicholas de Fleury (Niccolò, Nicholas van der Poele, or Claes), a talented boy of uncertain birth who rises to the heights of European merchant banking and international political intrigue. The series shares most of the locations in Dunnett's earlier series, the Lymond Chronicles, but it extends much further geographically to take in the important urban centres of Bruges, Venice, Florence, Geneva, and the Hanseatic League; Burgundy, Flanders, and Poland; Iceland; the Iberian Peninsula and Madeira; the Black Sea cities of Trebizond and Caffa; Persia; the Mediterranean islands of Cyprus and Rhodes; Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula; and West Africa and the city of Timbuktu. Nicholas's progress is intertwined with such historical characters as Anselm Adornes, James III of Scotland and James II of Cyprus.
As with the Lymond Chronicles, the series features a number of historical persons, many as important characters. Both the historical and fictional characters are, however, taken from a wider variety of occupations and social classes than in the Lymond Chronicles. There are significant differences in narrative approach and writing style between the series, reflecting in part the very different personal journey taken by the central character in each.
King Hereafter
King Hereafter (1982), her long novel set in Orkney and Scotland in the years just before the invasion of England by William the Conqueror, was in Dorothy Dunnett's eyes her masterpiece. It is about an Earl of Orkney uniting the people of Alba (Scotland) and becoming its king, and is based on the author's premise that the central character Thorfinn, Earl of Orkney and the historical Macbeth, Scottish King, were one and the same person (Thorfinn is his birth name and Macbeth his baptismal name).
The Dorothy Dunnett Companion and Companion II
Dunnett assisted in the compilation of The Dorothy Dunnett Companion (1994) and The Dorothy Dunnett Companion II (2002), which were written by Elspeth Morrison. These books provide background information to historical characters and events featured in the Lymond Chronicles and The House of Niccolò, as well as explanations of classical allusions and literary and other quotations used in the two series, notes to sources of these citations, and many maps. The second volume, which was written after the Niccolò series was completed,contains a bibliography of many of the hundreds of primary and secondary sources Dunnett used in her historical research. Dunnett contributed more to the second volume than the first and wrote many of the entries.
The Johnson Johnson series
This series of mystery thrillers was written over a long period, starting when she was writing the Lymond Chronicles. The final entry was published prior to the first House of Niccolò book.
Other works
"The Proving Climb"
A contemporary short story, "The Proving Climb", set on the Scottish Isle of St. Kilda, was published in the 1973 anthology Scottish Short Stories (Scottish Arts Council, published by Collins, ). It was republished by the Dorothy Dunnett Society and distributed to its members in 2008 with issue 100 of Whispering Gallery.
The Lymond Poetry
The Lymond Poetry, contains her versions and translations of some of the poems that appeared in The Lymond Chronicles. This was finalised after her death by Elspeth Morrison and edited by Richenda Todd ( published in 2003 by Penguin).
The Scottish Highlands
In collaboration with her husband, Alastair Dunnett, she wrote the text for the photography book The Scottish Highlands (Photographs: David Patterson), published in 1988.
Adaptations
In December 2016, it was announced that the rights to the Lymond Chronicles had been obtained by Mammoth Screen with a view to making a TV series.
Additional information
Dorothy Dunnett Society
Dorothy Dunnett founded the Dorothy Dunnett Society. Membership of this registered charity is open to all Dunnett readers, and aims to promote interest in the periods of history about which Dunnett wrote, to preserve her writings, and to promote appreciation of the literary merit of her works. It also encourages discussion and meetings between readers. Prior to 1 September 2011, the Society was known as the Dorothy Dunnett Readers' Association.
Memorial
On 22 April 2006, a memorial stone to Lady Dunnett was laid by her grandchildren, Hal and Bella Dunnett, alongside those for Robert Louis Stevenson, Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott in the Makars' Court in Lady Stair's Close on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh. The Lord Provost of Edinburgh was in attendance, and gave a speech, as did the Edinburgh Makar (Valerie Gillies), and the Ross Herald (Charles Burnett). The initiative to lay the stone, and the main funding for it, came from the members of the Dorothy Dunnett Society. The Stone contains Dorothy Dunnett's name, her coat of arms, and a brief quote from one of her books "Where are the links of the chain ... joining us to the past".
Edinburgh home
Dunnett's long-term home at 87 Colinton Road, Edinburgh was at an Edwardian era semi-detached villa in the Merchiston area, designed by Edward Calvert.
Gatherings
Dorothy Dunnett readers are devoted and active, and have held gatherings in Edinburgh in 1990, 1994, and in 2000 with over 300 people in attendance. Similar events were held in Boston, and in Philadelphia in 2000. Since her death smaller international gatherings of between 50 and 115 people have been held in Dublin (November 2001), New Orleans (November 2003), Malta (October 2005), Saddell in South West Scotland (April 2007), Orkney (September 2007), and Paris (2010).
A gathering, 'The Dunnett Siege of Constantinople', took place in Istanbul in September 2012. Places visited by the 115 Siegers focused on Pawn in Frankincense and also on John Grant in the Niccolὸ series, in which historical character John Grant had taken part in the 1453 Siege of Constantinople, this was followed by the 'Dunnett Carnival of Venice' in Venice in 2016 focusing primarily on the 'House of Niccolò'.
There are several meetings of readers in the UK each year, in locations such as Oxford, Bath, London, York, Warwick, Harrogate and Stamford. Also the formal Annual General Meeting (AGM) of the Dorothy Dunnett Society is held each spring in Edinburgh as part of its Dorothy Dunnett Weekend.
Occasional meetings are held in Australia and Canada, as well, with one SworDDplay held in Vancouver in April 2006 and another in Alexandria, Virginia in the United States in March 2008 and the Dunnett Confluence of Pittsburgh took place in Pennsylvania in October 2013. Smaller meetings also occur locally in several other countries, such as Germany (notably the annual meeting in Darmstadt) and Italy.
Readers also get together more informally to go on holiday to various Dunnett locations. In 2007 some readers visited Timbuktu and others Venice.
International Dorothy Dunnett Day (IDDD)
In 2011, the first International Dorothy Dunnett Day was announced by the Dorothy Dunnett Society to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the publication of The Game of Kings. It was held on Saturday 15 October 2011, with readers gathering in locations around the world at 13:00 (1pm) local time to toast the author. Meetings were held in Edinburgh, London, Vancouver, San Francisco, the Costa Del Sol, Boston, and other locations. The second IDDD was held on Saturday 10 November 2012, to commemorate the 11th anniversary of the death of Dorothy Dunnett on 9 November 2001. The last pre-COVID-19 event was held on 9 November 2019.
References
External links
Random House - Dorothy Dunnett
Dorothy Dunnett Society
Bill Marshall's Dunnett Site
New York Times obituary
Dorothy Dunnett - A Personal Perspective
Obituary by Guy Gavriel Kay
Desert Island Discs radio programme from 1982
1923 births
2001 deaths
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People associated with Edinburgh
Scottish historical novelists
Scottish women novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period
Writers of historical romances
People educated at James Gillespie's High School
20th-century British novelists
20th-century British women writers
20th-century Scottish writers
Women romantic fiction writers
Women historical novelists
People from Dunfermline
20th-century Scottish women
Wives of knights | [
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243812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing%20the%20Chasm | Crossing the Chasm | Crossing the Chasm: Marketing and Selling High-Tech Products to Mainstream Customers or simply Crossing the Chasm (1991, revised 1999 and 2014), is a marketing book by Geoffrey A. Moore that focuses on the specifics of marketing high tech products during the early start up period.
Synopsis
Moore begins with the diffusion of innovations theory from Everett Rogers, and argues there is a chasm between the early adopters of the product (the technology enthusiasts and visionaries) and the early majority (the pragmatists). Moore believes visionaries and pragmatists have very different expectations, and he attempts to explore those differences and suggest techniques to successfully cross the "chasm," including choosing a target market, understanding the whole product concept, positioning the product, building a marketing strategy, choosing the most appropriate distribution channel and pricing.
Crossing the Chasm is closely related to the technology adoption lifecycle where five main segments are recognized: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. According to Moore, the marketer should focus on one group of customers at a time, using each group as a base for marketing to the next group. The most difficult step is making the transition between visionaries (early adopters) and pragmatists (early majority). This is the chasm that he refers to. If a successful firm can create a bandwagon effect in which enough momentum builds, then the product becomes a de facto standard. That is, by creating a complete solution for one intractable problem in one business vertical before building out services in adjacent verticals and expanding on from there. However, Moore's theories are only applicable for disruptive or discontinuous innovations in a B2B marketplace. Adoption of continuous innovations (that do not force a significant change of behavior by the customer) are still best described by the original technology adoption lifecycle.
Pre-chasm
Pre-chasm, in technology entrepreneurship, describes the phase prior to Crossing the Chasm that focuses on the specifics of marketing high-tech products during the early start-up period. Pre-chasm was suggested as an extension to Moore's model, arguing that the phase prior to the "chasm" is left unintended and that it, driven by technology commoditization and lean startup principles, requires an ambidextrous approach to product development alongside marketing to achieve product-market fit.
Reception and legacy
The fundamental theories in Crossing the Chasm, including the concept of a gap or chasm between the early adopters of a product and the mainstream early majority, were developed in the late 1980s by Lee James, Bert Desmond, and Warren Schirtzinger, consultants working at Regis McKenna, Inc.
Moore and his publisher originally thought that the book would sell around 5,000 copies. By 2002, ten years after the first publication, more than 300,000 copies had been sold. Moore attributes this to word-of-mouth marketing, resonating initially with high-tech managers, then to engineers, venture capitalists and finally business schools.
In 2006, Tom Byers, director of the Stanford Technology Ventures Program, described it as "still the bible for entrepreneurial marketing 15 years later". The book's success has led to a series of follow-up books including Inside the Tornado, Living on the Fault Line, The Chasm Companion and a consulting company, The Chasm Group.
See also
Product life cycle management
References
External links
1991 non-fiction books
Marketing books
Product management
HarperCollins books | [
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243813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave%20River | Mojave River | The Mojave River is an intermittent river in the eastern San Bernardino Mountains and the Mojave Desert in San Bernardino County, California, United States. Most of its flow is underground, while its surface channels remain dry most of the time, with the exception of the headwaters and several bedrock gorges in the lower reaches.
History
A desert branch of the Serrano Native Americans called the Vanyume or Beñemé, as Father Garcés called them, lived beyond and along much of the length of the Mojave River, from east of Barstow to at least the Victorville region, and perhaps even farther upstream to the south, for up to 8,000 years. The Mohave's trail, later the European immigrants' Mojave Road, ran west from their villages on the Colorado River to Soda Lake, then paralleled the river from its mouth on the lake to the Cajon Pass. Native Americans used this trade route where water could easily be found en route to the coast. Garcés explored the length of the Mojave River in early 1776. He called the river Arroyo de los Mártires ("river of the martyrs") on March 9, 1776 but later Spaniards called it Río de las Ánimas ("spirit river or river of the (lost) souls"). In 1826 Jedediah Smith was the first American to travel overland to California by following the Mojave Indian Trail. He called this the Inconstant River.
A pack horse and livestock trail, the Old Spanish Trail, established by Antonio Armijo in 1829 between New Mexico and El Pueblo de Los Ángeles, joined the Mojave River at its mouth near what is now Soda Lake. It followed the river to where the trail reached the foot of the mountains at Summit Valley and turned westward to pass over Cajon Pass and descend into the coastal valleys of southern Alta California. In 1830, Wolfskill and Yount pioneered what became the Main Route of the Old Spanish Trail, which followed a different route than Armijo, farther south just west of the Colorado River and then followed Jedediah Smith's path on the old Mohave Trail west to the Mojave River mouth at Soda Lake, to meet with Armijo's route coming south from Salt Spring.
Sometime before 1844, a cutoff developed on the Old Spanish Trail that cut the distance traveled along the upper river, by cutting across what is now Victor Valley, from the Cajon Pass to a crossing just below the Lower Narrows of the river. John C. Frémont intercepted this route to the river, riding east southeast from Lake Elizabeth, north of the foot of the San Gabriel Mountains on April 20, 1844.
Frémont named the river Mohahve after the Mohave people on April 23, 1844, although these people lived two mountain ranges away on the Colorado River. He had met six travelling Mohaves that day. Some early Mormon ranchers called it the Macaby River. Additionally another cutoff to the Old Spanish Trail had developed before 1844, where the trail forked northeastward from the Mojave River and Mohave Trail, east of what is now Yermo, California running over Alvord Mountain, to Bitter Spring, then through Red Pass, to join the Armijo route near Salt Spring in the Silurian Valley. The fork of the trails there on the Mojave River, later became known as Fork of the Road.
From 1847, Mormons pioneered the wagon road that became the Mormon Road from Salt Lake City to Los Angeles closely following the route of the Old Spanish Trail from Parowan, Utah. They followed the Mojave River from the Fork of the Road to the Lower Narrows, and left the river for the Cajon Pass on the route Frémont had found. In 1849, Forty-niners late on the main trail to California used the Mormon Road as a winter alternative route to California, referring to it as the "Southern Route" of the California Trail. Later emigrants to California followed the same route during the winter months. In 1855, the Mormon Road was improved and the route changed in places, becoming a major commercial wagon route between Utah and southern California, ending Utah's winter isolation until the railroads arrived there in 1869.
In 1859, as part of the Mohave War, the Mohave people's trail was improved as the wagon route of the Mojave Road. It followed the Mojave River from where the Mormon Road turned north away from the river at Fork of the Road, near Daggett, to where historic Camp Cady was located. It then followed the river to Soda Lake, where the road turned eastward to Fort Mojave, and in 1862 following the gold and silver strikes on the Colorado River, to Hardyville and the mining districts near it, and its connection at the head of the toll road to Prescott and the mines in the interior of Arizona Territory.
From 1863 to 1864, the Mojave River valley was a refuge from the great drought in California in those years; cattle of some resourceful ranchers of southern California were preserved by its resources.
Course
The river's source is in the San Bernardino Mountains, one of the Transverse Ranges, above Hesperia-San Bernardino. The West Fork of the Mojave flows into Silverwood Lake, formed by Cedar Springs Dam, which overflows in the Mojave River Forks Reserve area. On occasion, the lake releases water into the river. Downstream, Deep Creek meets the West Fork, forming the Mojave River immediately upstream of the Mojave Forks Dam, which provides flood control. Downstream of the dam, the Mojave River flows north and east, underground in most places, through Hesperia, Victorville, and Barstow.
Near its terminus, the Mojave River flows out onto a large inland delta called the Mojave River Wash at the western edge of Mojave National Preserve. During heavy flows, the river reaches Soda Lake near Baker at the north end of the Wash, and has reached Silver Lake, even further north, in historic times. For example, during the unusually wet winter of 2004–2005, the Mojave River flowed on the surface all the way to Silver Lake and filled both Soda and Silver Lakes to a depth of several feet.
The water in the river is mostly underground. The channel at the surface remains dry most of the time, but extreme flooding is possible. For example, during a heavy El Niño in the Mojave Desert, rains caused the Mojave River to overflow onto overpassing bridges on February 22, 1993, the most damaged being on Bear Valley Road, where Victorville and Apple Valley are separated. The water comes to the surface only in areas with impermeable rock, such as the upper and lower narrows near Victorville and in the Afton Canyon area northeast of Barstow.
Afton Canyon Natural Area
The Afton Canyon Natural Area is within Mojave Trails National Monument, and is managed by the Bureau of Land Management. It is located northeast of Barstow along Interstate 15 between the Afton Road and Basin Road exits.
Afton Canyon is designated as an Area of Critical Environmental Concern to protect plant and wildlife habitat, and to preserve scenic values of the Mojave River's riparian area within the canyon. The Rasor Off-Highway Vehicle Area boundary enforcement has begun to reverse the heavy off-road vehicles use and damage that occurred in the riverbed and canyon. Restoration projects are ongoing, and have already brought the river's "proper functioning condition" from a "non-functioning" to a "functioning at risk" status. The objectives of the ambitious restoration project are to control exotic plants, particularly the phreatophyte Saltcedar - Tamarix (primarily Tamarix ramosissima and Tamarix parviflora), and restoring critical desert California native plant community "structural elements" for a functioning flora and fauna habitat.
References
Bibliography
External links
Mojave National Preserve website
Mojave River - Digital Desert
The Mojave River and Associated Lakes
Mojave River through the Victorville Narrows
Official Afton Canyon Natural Area website
Rivers of Southern California
Mojave Desert
Rivers of San Bernardino County, California
Rivers of Los Angeles County, California
Subterranean rivers of the United States
Mojave National Preserve
San Bernardino Mountains
Natural history of the Mojave Desert
Hesperia, California
Rivers of the Great Basin
Old Spanish Trail (trade route)
Mohave Trail | [
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243816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector | Vector | Vector may refer to:
Biology
Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism; a disease vector
Vector (molecular biology), a DNA molecule used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell
Cloning vector, a small piece of DNA into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted for cloning purposes
Shuttle vector, a plasmid constructed so that it can propagate in two different host species
Viral vector, a tool commonly used by molecular biologists to deliver genetic materials into cells
Business
Vector Informatik, a software tool and components provider for development of embedded electronics
Vector Engineering, multinational engineering, procurement, construction management, and operations service provider
Vector Graphic, an early manufacturer of 8-bit microcomputers
Vector Group, a publicly traded holding company, focusing on tobacco and real estate
Vector Limited, a New Zealand gas and electricity supplier
Vector Marketing, a multi-level knife marketing company
Vector Motors, an automobile manufacturer
Vector Launch, an American space technology company, 2016–2019
State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, a biological research center in Russia
Computer science
A one-dimensional array data structure
Vector (C++), a type in the C++ Standard Template Library
Vector (malware), approach used, or vulnerability exploited, in attacking a computer system
Distance-vector routing protocol, a class of routing protocols
Dope vector, a data structure used to store information about an array
Feature vector, an n-dimensional vector of numerical features that represent some object
Initialization vector, a fixed-size input to a cryptographic primitive
Interrupt vector, the location in memory of an interrupt handling routine
Vector clock, an algorithm
Vector game, any video game that uses a vector graphics display
Vector graphics, images defined by geometric primitives as opposed to bitmaps
Vector monitor, a display device used for early computers
Vector processor, a computer processor which works on arrays of several numbers at once
Vector space model, an algebraic model for representing text documents
Literature
Vector (magazine), the critical journal of the British Science Fiction Association
Vectors: Journal of Culture and Technology in a Dynamic Vernacular, an online journal
The Vector (newspaper), a student-run newspaper of the New Jersey Institute of Technology
Vector (novel), a 1999 novel by Robin Cook
Vector Prime, a 1999 Star Wars novel written by R. A. Salvatore
Vector 13, a comic strip in the 2000 AD anthology
Entertainment
Characters and fictional elements
Vector (Battle Angel Alita), a character in the Battle Angel Alita manga series
Vector (comics), a character in the Marvel Comics Universe
Vector (G.I. Joe), a fictional vehicle from the G.I. Joe Battleforce 2000 toy line
Vector the Crocodile, a character in the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series
Septima Vector, a Hogwarts professor in the Harry Potter universe
Vector, a Barian Emperor from Yu-Gi-Oh! Zexal
Vector class, a beginner racing class in Wipeout video game series
Victor "Vector" Perkins, the main antagonist of the 2010 animated film Despicable Me
Vector, a character in the video game Resident Evil: Operation Raccoon City
Vector, an invisible arm telepathically controlled as a weapon by Diclonii in the series Elfen Lied
Vector, a robot in "Greetings from Earth" (1979), an episode of the Battlestar Galactica (1978 TV series)
Vector, a location in the video game Final Fantasy VI
Vector Industries, an organization in the Xenosaga video game series
Vector manipulation, an ability held by the character "Accelerator" in the series A Certain Magical Index
Games
Vector (game), a 1970 board game
Vector (video game), a 2010 platform video game
Vectorman, a 1995 game for Sega Genesis platform
Music
Vector (band), a 1980s New Wave rock band
Vector (Haken album), 2018 album by British progressive metal band Haken
Vector (rapper) (born 1983), Nigerian rap artist
Vector Lovers, moniker used by British electronic music producer Martin Wheeler
"Vectors", a song by the band Area 11
Other entertainment
Vector, an entertainment robot by the company Anki
Mathematics and physics
Vector (mathematics and physics)
Euclidean vector, a geometric object that has magnitude (or length) and direction
Row and column vectors, matrices consisting of a single column or row
Vector space, a collection of objects called vectors, which may be added together and multiplied by scalars
Vector field, assignment of a vector to each point in a subset of space
Transportation
Vehicles
Aircraft
Aerodyne Systems Vector, an ultralight aircraft
Hall Vector 1, a glider
Nautical vessels
, a Philippine tanker ship
, a 1967 hydrographic survey vessel in the Canadian Coast Guard
Automotive vehicles
Pinzgauer High-Mobility All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) (Vector), a military patrol vehicle
VECTOR, a Dutch light utility vehicle
Vector, a variant of the Saab 9-3 automobile
Vector Motors sports cars
Vector M12, a vehicle designed by Vector Motors based on the Lamborghini Diablo
Vector W2, a concept car created by Vector Motors
Vector W8, a production car produced by Vector Motors
Vector WX-3, a prototype automobile created by Vector Motors in 1992
Vector SRV8, a prototype automobile created by Vector Motors in 1999
Other transportation
Lift vector, an upwards force acting on aircraft
Thrust vectoring, the ability of an aircraft or other vehicle to direct the thrust from its main engine(s)
Other uses
Interval vector, the interval content of a given set in musical set theory
KRISS Vector, a .45 ACP submachine gun
Light verb, or vector, in grammar, a verb participating in complex predication
Parker Vector, a family of pens
Vector Arena, an arena for sports and cultural events in Auckland, New Zealand
Vector Map, a vector graphics-based collection of geographic information system data about Earth
Vector, a programmed call handling scenario on an Avaya telephone exchange
See also
Vectra (disambiguation)
Vectorization (disambiguation)
Vector graphics (disambiguation)
Vektor (disambiguation) | [
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243819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Woodville%2C%202nd%20Earl%20Rivers | Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers | Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers (c. 144025 June 1483), was an English nobleman, courtier, bibliophile and writer. He was the brother of Queen Elizabeth Woodville who married King Edward IV. He was one of the leading members of the Woodville family, which came to prominence during the reign of King Edward IV. After Edward's death, he was arrested and then executed by the Duke of Gloucester (the future King Richard III) as part of a power-struggle between Richard and the Woodvilles. His English translation of The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers is one of the first books printed in England.
Origins
He was the eldest son to survive childhood of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, by his wife Jacquetta of Luxembourg. His sister was Elizabeth Woodville, who married King Edward IV and became queen.
Career
Like his father, he was originally a Lancastrian, fighting on that side at the Battle of Towton, but later became a Yorkist. The Woodvilles became very influential at the royal court after his sister Elizabeth Woodville married Edward IV and became queen. Anthony was made a Knight of the Garter. He is known to have been a great tournament champion, and once fought a two-day "duel" with Antoine, bastard of Burgundy.
The Yorkists, fighting for Edward IV, were defeated at the Battle of Edgecote Moor, on 26 July 1469, and Richard Woodville and his second son John Woodville were taken prisoners at Chepstow. After a hasty and controversial trial, they were both beheaded at Kenilworth on 12 August 1469 and Anthony succeeded his father in the earldom.
Career as Earl Rivers
He joined the king in his temporary exile in 1470, and returned with him the next year, where he was wounded at the Battle of Barnet. As a result of this battle, Edward IV regained the throne.
In 1472, Edward IV sent Rivers and his younger brother Edward Woodville to Brittany at the head of 1000 archers to help the Bretons fend off a threatened French invasion of the duchy. The French withdrew when faced with determined resistance.
In 1473, King Edward IV appointed Rivers Governor of the Prince of Wales' household, and Rivers went with the prince to Ludlow Castle. He was also appointed High Sheriff of Caernarvonshire for life. His duties included the administration of justice throughout the principality.
Death and succession
When the king died suddenly in 1483, Rivers was ordered by his sister to bring the Prince of Wales, now King Edward V, straight back to London under an armed guard. They were intercepted by Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later King Richard III), who arrested the Earl, along with his nephew Sir Richard Grey, the young king's half-brother. Rivers was imprisoned and then beheaded at Pontefract Castle on 25 June 1483 as part of the duke's path towards kingship (as Richard III).
Anthony was succeeded by his brother Richard Woodville, 3rd Earl Rivers. The Scales lands inherited from his wife were bequeathed to his younger brother Edward Woodville, but King Richard III ignored Anthony's wishes as Edward had joined Henry Tudor.
Marriages
He married twice, without legitimate progeny, as follows:
Firstly to Elizabeth de Scales, suo jure Baroness Scales (d. 1473), daughter and heiress of Thomas de Scales, 7th Baron Scales, and widow of Henry Bourchier, younger son of Henry Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex. Before succeeding to his father's earldom, Anthony was summoned to Parliament, in right of his wife, as Baron Scales.
Secondly he married Mary FitzLewis, daughter of Henry FitzLewis.
Mistresses and illegitimate progeny
By his mistress Gwenlina Stradling, a daughter of William Stradling<ref>Maclean, Sir John & Heane, W.C., (Eds.), The Visitation of the County of Gloucester Taken in the Year 1623 by Henry Chitty and John Phillipot as Deputies to William Camden Clarenceux King of Arms, etc, London, 1885, p.133</ref> of St Donat's Castle in Glamorgan, Wales, he had one illegitimate daughter named Margaret, who married Sir Robert Poyntz (d. 1520) lord of the manor of Iron Acton in Gloucestershire, who built the Poyntz Chapel within the Gaunt's Chapel in Bristol. The stone ceiling boss of the Poyntz Chapel displays in relief sculpture the arms of Poyntz (of 4 quarters) impaling the arms of Woodville (of 6 quarters, 3rd quarter Woodville), and the two wooden end-panels of his monumental coffin, decorated with the heraldry of Poyntz and Woodville, survive in the Gaunt's Chapel in which he was buried. The Heraldic Visitation of Gloucestershire records that:"A testimony of this match apereth by indenture of covenant of the mariag yett extant under the hand and seale of the said Erle, by letters written by the hand of the reverend ffather Morton, Cardinall, also by the armes of the Erle impaled w(i)th Poyntz on the top of a Chappell near Bristowe where they lye buried".
Literary interests
Rivers had met the earliest English printer William Caxton when in exile in Bruges, and there in 1475–76 Caxton published Cordyale, or Four last thinges, Rivers' English translation from the French of Jean Miélot of Les quattres choses derrenieres, itself a translation of the Cordiale quattuor novissimorum. After both of them had returned to England, one of the first, if not the first, books printed in England was Rivers' translation from French of the Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, printed by Caxton at Westminster in 1477. Lambeth Palace Library has a manuscript illustration showing Rivers presenting a copy of this book to Edward IV.
Notes
References
Ives, E. W. "Andrew Dymmock and the Papers of Anthony Earl Rivers," Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 41 (1968): 216–229.
Lowe, D. E. "Patronage and Politics: Edward IV, the Wydevills, and the Council of the Prince of Wales, 1471-83," The Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 29 (1981): 545–573.
Pidgeon, Lynda. "Antony Wydevile, Lord Scales and Earl Rivers: Family, Friends and Affinity. Part 1," The Ricardian 15 (2005): 1–19. Richard III Society.
Pidgeon, Lynda. "Antony Wydevile, Lord Scales and Earl Rivers: Family, Friends and Affinity. Part 2," The Ricardian 15 (2006): 1–14. Richard III Society.
Scofield, Cora L. "The Capture of Lord Rivers and Sir Anthony Woodville, 19 January 1460," The English Historical Review'' 37:146 (April 1922): 253–255.
1440s births
1483 deaths
Anthony
Knights of the Garter
Earls Rivers
Scales, Anthony Woodville, 8th Baron
French–English translators
High Sheriffs of Caernarvonshire
People executed under the Yorkists
Executed English people
People executed under the Plantagenets by decapitation
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243822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutination | Agglutination | In linguistics, agglutination is a morphological process in which words are formed by stringing together morphemes which each correspond to a single syntactic feature. Languages that use agglutination widely are called agglutinative languages. Turkish is one example of an agglutinative language since, for example, the word evlerinizden ("from your houses") consists of the morphemes ev-ler-iniz-den, literally translated morpheme-by-morpheme as house-plural-your(plural)-from. Agglutinative languages are often contrasted with isolating languages where words are monomorphemic and fusional languages in which words can be complex, but morphemes may correspond to multiple features.
Examples of agglutinative languages
Although agglutination is characteristic of certain language families, this does not mean that when several languages in a certain geographic area are all agglutinative they are necessarily related phylogenetically. In the past, this assumption led linguists to propose the so-called Ural–Altaic language family, which included (in the largest scope ever proposed) the Uralic and Turkic languages, as well as Mongolian, Korean, and Japanese. Contemporary linguistics views this proposal as controversial.
Another consideration when evaluating the above proposal is that some languages, which developed from agglutinative proto-languages, lost their agglutinative features. For example, contemporary Estonian, which is so closely related to Finnish that the two languages are mutually intelligible, has shifted towards the fusional type. (It has also lost other features typical of the Uralic families, such as vowel harmony.)
Eurasia
Examples of agglutinative languages include the Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian. These have highly agglutinated expressions in daily usage, and most words are bisyllabic or longer. Grammatical information expressed by adpositions in Western Indo-European languages is typically found in suffixes.
Hungarian uses extensive agglutination in almost every part of it. The suffixes follow each other in special order based on the role of the suffix, and many can be heaped, one upon the other, resulting in words conveying complex meanings in compacted forms. An example is fiaiéi, where the root "fi(ú)-" means "son", the subsequent four vowels are all separate suffixes, and the whole word means "[plural properties] belong to his/her sons". The nested possessive structure and expression of plurals are quite remarkable (note that Hungarian uses no genders).
Almost all Austronesian languages, such as Malay, and most Philippine languages, also belong to this category, thus enabling them to form new words from simple base forms. The Indonesian and Malay word mempertanggungjawabkan is formed by adding active-voice, causative and benefactive affixes to the compound verb tanggung jawab, which means "to account for". In Tagalog (and its standardised register, Filipino), nakakapágpabagabag ("that which is upsetting/disturbing") is formed from the root bagabag ("upsetting" or "disquieting").
Japanese is also an agglutinating language, adding information such as negation, passive voice, past tense, honorific degree and causality in the verb form. Common examples would be , which combines causative, passive or potential, and conditional conjugations to arrive at two meanings depending on context "if (subject) had been made to work..." and "if (subject) could make (object) work", and , which combines desire, negation, and past tense conjugations to mean "I/he/she/they did not want to eat".
Turkish, along with all other Turkic languages, is another agglutinating language: as an extreme example, the expression Muvaffakiyetsizleştiricileştiriveremeyebileceklerimizdenmişsinizcesine is pronounced as one word in Turkish, but it can be translated into English as "as if you were of those we would not be able to turn into a maker of unsuccessful ones" (the "-siniz" refers to plural form of you with "-sin" being the singular form, the same way "-im" being "I" (“-I’m” means “my” not “I”. The original editor must have mistaken it for “-yim.” This second suffix is used as such “Oraya gideyim” meaning “May I go there” or “When I get there.”) and "-imiz" making it become "we")(Similarly, this suffix means “our” and not “we”).
All Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu are agglutinative.
Agglutination is also a notable feature of Basque. The conjugation of verbs, for example, is done by adding different prefixes or suffixes to the root of the verb: dakartzat, which means "I bring them", is formed by da (indicates present tense), kar (root of the verb ekarri → bring), tza (indicates plural) and t (indicates subject, in this case, "I"). Another example would be the declension: Etxean = "In the house" where etxe = house.
Americas
Agglutination is used very heavily in most Native American languages, such as the Inuit languages, Nahuatl, Mapudungun, Quechua, Tz'utujil, Kaqchikel, Cha'palaachi and K'iche, where one word can contain enough morphemes to convey the meaning of what would be a complex sentence in other languages. Conversely, Navajo contains affixes for some uses, but overlays them in such unpredictable and inseparable ways that it is often referred to as a fusional language.
Slots
As noted above, it is a typical feature of agglutinative languages that there is a one-to-one correspondence between suffixes and syntactic categories. For example, a noun may have separate markers for number, case, possessive or conjunctive usage etc. The order of these affixes is fixed; so we may view any given noun or verb as a stem followed by several inflectional "slots", i.e. positions in which inflectional suffixes may occur (and/or preceded by several inflectional "slots" for prefixes). It is often the case that the most common instance of a given grammatical category is unmarked, i.e. the corresponding affix is empty.
The number of slots for a given part of speech can be surprisingly high. For example, a finite Korean verb has seven slots (the inner round brackets indicate parts of morphemes which may be omitted in some phonological environments):
honorific: -(eu)si ((으)시) is used when the speaker is honouring the subject of the sentence
tense: (eo)ss (었) for completed (past) action or state; when this slot is empty, the tense is interpreted as present(The 'ss' is pronounced as 't' if it is placed behind a consonant. For example, -었어(eoss-eo) is pronounced as (eosseo), but -었다(eoss-ta) is pronounced as (eotta). Please note that the same rule applies to all instances of the 'ss' ending.)
experiential-contrastive aspect: (eo)ss (었) doubling the past tense marker means "the subject has had the experience described by the verb"
modal: gess (겠) is used with first-person-subjects only for definite future and with second-or-third-person-subjects also for probable present or past
formal: (eu)pni ((으)ㅂ니) expresses politeness to the hearer
retrospective aspect: deo; (더) indicates that the speaker recollects what he observed in the past and reports in the present situation
mood: da (다) for declarative, kka (까) for interrogative, ra/la (라) for imperative, ja (자) for propositive, yo (요) for polite declarative and a large number of other possible mood markers
Moreover, passive and causative verbal forms can be derived by adding suffixes to the base, which could be seen as the null-th slot.
Even though some combinations of suffixes are not possible (e.g. only one of the aspect slots may be filled with a non-empty suffix), over 400 verb forms may be formed from a single base. Here are a few examples formed from the word root ga 'to go'; the numbers indicate which slots contain non-empty suffixes:
7 (imperative mood marker): imperative suffix -ra (라) combines with the root ga- (가) to express imperative: ga-ra (가라) 'Go!';
7 (propositive mood marker): if we want to express proposition rather than command, the propositive mood marker is used: -ja (자) instead of -ra (라): ga-ja (가자) 'Let's go!'
5 and 7: If the speaker wants to show respect for the hearer, he uses the politeness marker -(eu)pni ((으)ㅂ니) (in slot 5); various mood markers may be simultaneously used (in slot 7, therefore after the politeness marker): gap-ni-da (갑니다) 'He is going.', gap-ni-kka? (갑니까) 'Is he going?'
6: retrospective aspect: Jon-i jib-e ga-deo-ra (존이 집에 가더라) 'I observed that John was going home and now I am reporting that to you.'
7: simple indicative: seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e gan-da (선생님이 집에 간다) 'The teacher is going home. (not expressing respect or politeness)'
5 and 7: politeness towards the hearer: seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e gap-ni-da (선생님이 집에 갑니다) or seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-yo (선생님이 집에 가요) 'The teacher is going home.',
1 and 7: respect towards the subject: seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-sin-da (선생님이 집에 가신다) 'The (respected) teacher is going home.'
1, 5 and 7: two kinds of politeness in one sentence: seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-syeo-yo (선생님이 집에 가셔요) or seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-sip-ni-da (선생님이 집에 가십니다) 'The teacher is going home. (expressing respect both to the hearer and the teacher)'
2, 3 and 7: past forms: Jon-i hak-gyo-e ga-ss-da/gat-ta (존이 학교에 갔다) 'John has gone to school (and is there now).', Jon-i hak-gyo-e gass-eoss-da/gass-eot-ta (존이 학교에 갔었다) 'John has been to school (and has come back).'
4 and 7: first person modal: nae-ga nae-il ga-gess-da/ga-get-ta (내가 내일 가겠다) 'I will go tomorrow.'
4 and 7: third person modal: Jon-i nae-il ga-gess-da/ga-get-ta (존이 내일 가겠다) 'I suppose that John will go tomorrow.', Jon-i eo-je gass-gess-da/gat-get-ta (존이 어제 갔겠다) 'I suppose that John left yesterday.'
Suffixing or prefixing
Although most agglutinative languages in Europe and Asia are predominantly suffixing, the Bantu languages of southern Africa are known for a highly complex mixture of prefixes, suffixes and reduplication. A typical feature of this language family is that nouns fall into noun classes. For each noun class, there are specific singular and plural prefixes, which also serve as markers of agreement between the subject and the verb. Moreover, the noun determines prefixes of all words that modify it and subject determines prefixes of other elements in the same verb phrase.
For example, the Swahili nouns -toto ("child") and -tu ("person") fall into class 1, with singular prefix m- and plural prefix wa-. The noun -tabu ("book") falls into class 7, with singular prefix ki- and plural prefix vi-. The following sentences may be formed:
'That one tall person who read that long book.'
'Those two tall people who read those long books.'
In the context of quantitative linguistics
The American linguist Joseph Harold Greenberg in his 1960 paper proposed to use the so-called agglutinative index to calculate a numerical value that would allow a researcher to compare the "degree of agglutitativeness" of various languages. For Greenberg, agglutination means that the morphs are joined only with slight or no modification. A morpheme is said to be automatic if it either takes a single surface form (morph), or if its surface form is determined by phonological rules that hold in all similar instances in that language. A morph juncture – a position in a word where two morphs meet – is considered agglutinative when both morphemes included are automatic. The index of agglutination is equal to the average ratio of the number of agglutinative junctures to the number of morph junctures. Languages with high values of the agglutinative index are agglutinative and with low values of the agglutinative index are fusional.
In the same paper, Greenberg proposed several other indices, many of which turn out to be relevant to the study of agglutination. The synthetic index is the average number of morphemes per word, with the lowest conceivable value equal to 1 for isolating (analytic) languages and real-life values rarely exceeding 3. The compounding index is equal to the average number of root morphemes per word (as opposed to derivational and inflectional morphemes). The derivational, inflectional, prefixial and suffixial indices correspond respectively to the average number of derivational and inflectional morphemes, prefixes and suffixes.
Here is a table of sample values:
Phonetics and agglutination
The one-to-one relationship between an affix and its grammatical function may be somewhat complicated by the phonological processes active in the given language. For example, the following two phonological phenomena appear in many of the Uralic and Turkic languages:
consonant gradation, meaning that there is alternation between certain pairs of consonant clusters such that one member of the pair appears at the beginning of an open syllable and the other at the beginning of a closed syllable; (in Uralic languages)
consonant devoicing assimilation: similar but different process from above, assimilating devoicing of a stem-final unvoiced consonant; (in some Turkic languages)
vowel harmony, meaning that only specific subclasses of vowels coexist in a non-compounded word.
Several examples from Finnish will illustrate how these two rules and other phonological processes lead to diversions from the basic one-to-one relationship between morphs and their syntactic and semantic function. No phonological rule is applied in the declension of talo 'house'. However, the second example illustrates several kinds of phonological phenomena.
Extremes
It is possible to construct artificially extreme examples of agglutination, which have no real use, but illustrate the theoretical capability of the grammar to agglutinate. This is not a question of "long words", because some languages permit limitless combinations with compound words, negative clitics or such, which can be (and are) expressed with an analytic structure in actual usage.
English is capable of agglutinating morphemes of solely native (Germanic) origin, as un-whole-some-ness, but generally speaking the longest words are assembled from forms of Latin or Ancient Greek origin. The classic example is antidisestablishmentarianism. Agglutinative languages often have more complex derivational agglutination than isolating languages, so they can do the same to a much larger extent. For example, in Hungarian, a word such as , which means "for [the purposes of] undenationalizationability" can find actual use.<ref>Used for example in the book of Dr. József Végváry: "És mégsem mozog ..."</ref> In the same way, there are the words that have meaning, but probably are never used such as , which means "like the most of most undesecratable ones of you", but is hard to decipher even for native speakers. Using inflectional agglutination, these can be extended. For example, the official Guinness world record is Finnish "I wonder if – even with his/her quality of not having been made unsystematized". It has the derived word as the root and is lengthened with the inflectional endings -llänsäkäänköhän. However, this word is grammatically unusual, because -kään "also" is used only in negative clauses, but -kö (question) only in question clauses.
A very popular Turkish agglutination is , meaning "You are one of those that we were not able to convert into Czechoslovakians". This historical reference is used as a joke for the individuals who are hard to change or those who stick out in a group.
On the other hand, is a longer word that does not surprise people and means "As if you were one of those we were able to make resemble people from Afyonkarahisar". A recent addition to the claims has come with the introduction of the following word in Turkish , which means something like "(you are talking) as if you are one of those that we were unable to turn into a maker of unsuccessful people" (someone who un-educates people to make them unsuccessful).
Georgian is also a highly agglutinative language. For example, the word () would mean "(someone not specified) said that it is also for those who are like the ones who need to be to again/back counter-revolutionized".
Aristophanes' comedy Assemblywomen includes the Greek word , a fictional dish named with a word that enumerates its ingredients. It was created to ridicule a trend for long compounds in Attic Greek at the time.
Slavic languages are not considered agglutinative but fusional. However, extreme derivations similar to ones found in typical agglutinative languages do exist. A famous example is the Bulgarian word непротивоконституциослователствувайте, meaning don't speak against the constitution and secondarily don't act against the constitution. It is composed of just three roots: против against, конституция constitution, a loan word and therefore devoid of its internal composition and слово word. The remaining are bound morphemes for negation (не, a proclitic, otherwise written separately in verbs), noun intensifier (-ателств), noun-to-verb conversion (-ува), imperative mood second person plural ending (-йте). It is rather unusual, but finds some usage, e.g. newspaper headlines on 13 July 1991, the day after the current Bulgarian constitution was adopted with much controversies, debate and even scandals.
Other uses of the words agglutination and agglutinative
The words agglutination and agglutinative come from the Latin word agglutinare, 'to glue together'. In linguistics, these words have been in use since 1836, when Wilhelm von Humboldt's posthumously published work Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts [lit.: On the differences of human language construction and its influence on the mental development of mankind] introduced the division of languages into isolating, inflectional, agglutinative and incorporating.
Especially in some older literature, agglutinative is sometimes used as a synonym for synthetic. In that case, it embraces what we call agglutinative and inflectional languages, and it is an antonym of analytic or isolating. Besides the clear etymological motivation (after all, inflectional endings are also "glued" to the stems), this more general usage is justified by the fact that the distinction between agglutinative and inflectional languages is not a sharp one, as we have already seen.
In the second half of the 19th century, many linguists believed that there is a natural cycle of language evolution: function words of the isolating type are glued to their head-words, so that the language becomes agglutinative; later morphs become merged through phonological processes, and what comes out is an inflectional language; finally inflectional endings are often dropped in quick speech, inflection is omitted and the language goes back to the isolating type.
The following passage from Lord (1960) demonstrates well the whole range of meanings that the word agglutination may have.
(Agglutination...) consists of the welding together of two or more terms constantly occurring as a syntagmatic group into a single unit, which becomes either difficult or impossible to analyse thereafter.
Agglutination takes various forms. In French, welding becomes complete fusion. Latin hanc horam 'at this hour' is the French adverbial unit encore. Old French tous jours becomes toujours, and dès jà ('since now') déjà ('already'). In English, on the other hand, apart from rare combinations such as good-bye from God be with you, walnut from Wales nut, window from wind-eye (O.N. vindauga), the units making up the agglutinated forms retain their identity. Words like blackbird and beefeater are a different kettle of fish; they retain their units but their ultimate meaning is not fully deducible from these units. (...)
Saussure preferred to distinguish between compound words and truly synthesised or agglutinated combinations.
Agglutinative languages in natural language processing
In natural language processing, languages with rich morphology pose problems of quite a different kind than isolating languages. In the case of agglutinative languages, the main obstacle lies in the large number of word forms that can be obtained from a single root. As we have already seen, the generation of these word forms is somewhat complicated by the phonological processes of the particular language. Although the basic one-to-one relationship between form and syntactic function is not broken in Finnish, the authoritative institution Institute for the Languages of Finland (Kotus) lists 51 declension types for Finnish nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals.
Even more problems occur with the recognition of word forms. Modern linguistic methods are largely based on the exploitation of corpora; however, when the number of possible word forms is large, any corpus will necessarily contain only a small fraction of them. Hajič (2010) claims that computer space and power are so cheap nowadays that all possible word forms may be generated beforehand and stored in a form of a lexicon listing all possible interpretations of any given word form. (The data structure of the lexicon has to be optimized so that the search is quick and efficient.) According to Hajič, it is the disambiguation of these word forms which is difficult (more so for inflective languages where the ambiguity is high than for agglutinative languages).
Other authors do not share Hajič's view that space is no issue and instead of listing all possible word forms in a lexicon, word form analysis is implemented by modules which try to break up the surface form into a sequence of morphemes occurring in an order permissible by the language. The problem of such an analysis is the large number of morpheme boundaries typical for agglutinative languages. A word of an inflectional language has only one ending and therefore the number of possible divisions of a word into the base and the ending is only linear with the length of the word. In an agglutinative language, where several suffixes are concatenated at the end of the word, the number of different divisions which have to be checked for consistency is large. This approach was used for example in the development of a system for Arabic, where agglutination occurs when articles, prepositions
and conjunctions are joined with the following word and pronouns are joined with the preceding word. See Grefenstette et al. (2005) for more details.
See also
Affix
Agglutinative language
Noun adjunct
Word formation
Notes
References
Bibliography
Kimmo Koskenniemi & Lingsoft Oy: Finnish Morphological Analyser, Lingsoft Language Solutions, 1995–2011.
Bernard Comrie (editor): The World's Major Languages, Oxford University Press, New York – Oxford 1990.
Keith Denning, Suzanne Kemmer (ed.): On language: selected writings of Joseph H. Greenberg, Stanford University Press, 1990. Selected parts are available on googlebooks.
Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams: An Introduction to Language, Thompson Wadsworth, 2007.
Joseph H. Greenberg: A quantitative approach to the morphological typology of language, 1960. Available through JSTOR and in Denning et al. (1990), p. 3–25. There is also a good a short summary.
Gregory Grefenstette, Nasredine Semmar, Faïza Elkateb-Gara: Modifying a Natural Language Processing System for European Languages to Treat Arabic in Information Processing and Information Retrieval Applications, Computational Approaches to Semitic Languages – Workshop Proceedings, University of Michigan 2005, p. 31-38. Available at .
Jan Hajič: Reliving the history: the beginnings of statistical machine translation and languages with rich morphology, IceTAL'10 Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Advances in natural language processing, Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010. Abstract available at .
Helena Lehečková: Úvod do ugrofinistiky, Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, Praha 1983.
Robert Lord: Teach Yourself Comparative Linguistics, The English Universities Press Ltd., St Paul's House, London 1967 (first edition 1966).
Hans Christian Luschützky: Uvedení do typologie jazyků'', Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy, Praha 2003.
J. Vendryes: Language – A Linguistic Introduction to History, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner Co., Ltd., London 1925 (translated by Paul Radin)
External links
Mwana Simba, a web-page about Swahili grammar.
Linguistic morphology
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243824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.%20M.%20Hare | R. M. Hare | Richard Mervyn Hare (21 March 1919 – 29 January 2002), usually cited as R. M. Hare, was a British moral philosopher who held the post of White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Oxford from 1966 until 1983. He subsequently taught for a number of years at the University of Florida. His meta-ethical theories were influential during the second half of the twentieth century.
Hare is best known for his development of prescriptivism as a meta-ethical theory, the analysis of formal features of moral discourse justifying preference utilitarianism.
Some of Hare's students, such as Brian McGuinness, John Lucas, and Bernard Williams went on to become well-known philosophers. Peter Singer, known for his involvement with the animal liberation movement (who studied Hare's work as an honours student at the University of Melbourne and came to know Hare personally whilst he was an Oxford BPhil graduate student), has explicitly adopted some elements of Hare's thought, though not his doctrine of universal prescriptivism.
Life and career
Richard Hare was born on 21 March 1919 in Backwell, Somerset. He attended Rugby School in Warwickshire, followed in 1937 by Balliol College, Oxford, where he read greats (classics). Having joined the officer training corps whist still at Rugby, on the outbreak of World War II, he volunteered to serve with the Royal Artillery.
Hare was taken as a prisoner of war by the Japanese from the fall of Singapore in 1942 to the end of the Second World War. Hare's wartime experience had a lasting impact on his philosophical views, particularly his view that moral philosophy has an obligation to help people live their lives as moral beings. His earliest work in philosophy, which has never been published, dates from this period, and in it, he tried to develop a system that might "serve as a guide to life in the harshest conditions", according to C. C. W. Taylor.
He returned to Oxford after the war, and in 1947, married Catherine Verney, a marriage that produced a son and three daughters. (Hare's son, John E. Hare, is also a philosopher.) He was elected fellow and tutor in philosophy at Balliol from 1947 to 1996; honorary fellow at Balliol from 1974 to 2002; and was appointed Wilde Lecturer in Natural Religion, 1963–66; and White's Professor of Moral Philosophy, 1966–1983, which accompanied a move to Corpus Christi. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1972 to 1973. He left Oxford in 1983 to become Graduate Research Professor of Philosophy at the University of Florida at Gainesville, a post he held until 1994.
After suffering a series of strokes, R. M. Hare died in Ewelme, Oxfordshire, on 29 January 2002.
At his memorial service held at St Mary's Church, Oxford, in May of that year, Peter Singer delivered (as he felt Hare would have wished) a lecture on Hare's "Achievements in Moral Philosophy" which concluded by giving three "major, lasting" ones, namely, "restoring reason to moral argument, distinguishing intuitive and critical levels of moral thinking, and pioneering the development of ... applied ethics".
Influences
Hare was greatly influenced by the emotivism of A. J. Ayer and Charles L. Stevenson, the ordinary language philosophy of J. L. Austin, a certain reading of the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, utilitarianism, and Immanuel Kant.
Hare held that ethical rules should not be based on a principle of utility, though he took into account utilitarian considerations. His hybrid approach to meta-ethics distinguishes him from classical utilitarians like Jeremy Bentham. His book Sorting Out Ethics might be interpreted as saying that Hare is as much a Kantian as he is a utilitarian, but other sources disagree with this assessment. Although Hare used many concepts from Kant, especially the idea of universalisability, he was still a consequentialist, rather than a deontologist, in his normative ethical views. Hare himself addressed the possibility that Kant was a utilitarian like himself, in his "Could Kant Have Been a Utilitarian?"
Universal prescriptivism
In a series of books, especially The Language of Morals (1952), Freedom and Reason (1963), and Moral Thinking (1981), Hare gave shape to a theory that he called universal prescriptivism. According to this, moral terms such as 'good', 'ought' and 'right' have two logical or semantic properties: universalizability and prescriptivity. By the former, he meant that moral judgments must identify the situation they describe according to a finite set of universal terms, excluding proper names, but not definite descriptions. By the latter, he meant that moral agents must perform those acts they consider themselves to have an obligation to perform whenever they are physically and psychologically able to do so. In other words, he argued that it made no sense for someone to say, sincerely: "I ought to do X", and then fail to do X. This was identified by Frankena, Nobis and others as a major flaw in Hare's system, as it appeared to take no account of akrasia, or weakness of the will.
Hare argued that the combination of universalizability and prescriptivity leads to a certain form of consequentialism, namely, preference utilitarianism. In brief, this means that we should act in such a way as to maximise the satisfaction of people's preferences.
Importance of specificity
Hare departs from Kant's view that only the most general maxims of conduct be used (for example, "do not steal"), but the consequences ignored, when applying the categorical imperative. To ignore consequences leads to absurdity: for example, that it would be wrong to steal a terrorist's plans to blow up a nuclear facility. All the specific facts of a circumstance must be considered, and these include probable consequences. They also include the relevant, universal properties of the facts: for example, the psychological states of those involved.
Applied ethics and political philosophy
While Hare was primarily interested in meta-ethics, he also made some important contributions to the fields of political philosophy and applied ethics. Among his essays within these fields those on the wrongness of slavery, abortion and the Golden Rule, and on demi-vegetarianism have received the most attention. Hare's most important work in political philosophy and applied ethics is collected in the two volumes Essays on Political Morality (1989) and Essays on Bioethics (1993), both published by Oxford University Press.
Select works
See also
Faculty of Philosophy, University of Oxford
Tanner Lectures on Human Values
Notes
References
Further reading
Price, A. W. ‘Hare, Richard Mervyn’, Proceedings of the British Academy 124 (2004), 117–37
External links
R. M. Hare. (in Italian)
R. M. Hare in Conversation (on his 80th birthday) [Archived by Wayback Machine]
R. M. Hare - resources page containing Hare's writings, secondary literature, reviews, obituaries and a bibliography
1919 births
2002 deaths
20th-century British non-fiction writers
20th-century British philosophers
21st-century British non-fiction writers
21st-century British philosophers
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Analytic philosophers
Anglican philosophers
Aristotelian philosophers
British Army personnel of World War II
Royal Artillery officers
British ethicists
British male non-fiction writers
British World War II prisoners of war
Burma Railway prisoners
Consequentialists
English Anglicans
Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford
Meta-ethics
Moral philosophers
People educated at Rugby School
People from Backwell
Philosophers of ethics and morality
Political philosophers
Presidents of the Aristotelian Society
Royal Artillery personnel
Social philosophers
University of Florida faculty
Utilitarians
White's Professors of Moral Philosophy
Wittgensteinian philosophers
World War II prisoners of war held by Japan | [
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243831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodcock | Woodcock | The woodcocks are a group of seven or eight very similar living species of wading birds in the genus Scolopax. The genus name is Latin for a snipe or woodcock, and until around 1800 was used to refer to a variety of waders. The English name was first recorded in about 1050. According to the Harleian Miscellany, a group of them is called a "fall."
Taxonomy
The genus Scolopax was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The genus name is Latin for a snipe or woodcock. The type species is the Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola).
Only two woodcocks are widespread, the others being localized island endemics. Most are found in the Northern Hemisphere but a few range into the Greater Sundas, Wallacea and New Guinea. Their closest relatives are the typical snipes of the genus Gallinago. As with many other sandpiper genera, the lineages that led to Gallinago and Scolopax likely diverged around the Eocene, some 55.8-33.9 million years ago, although the genus Scolopax is only known from the late Pliocene onwards.
Woodcock species are known to undergo rapid speciation in island chains, with the extant examples being the Amami woodcock in the Ryukyu Islands and the several species of woodcock in the Indonesian islands, the Philippines, and New Guinea. Subfossil evidence indicates the presence of another radiation of woodcock species in the Greater Antilles; these Caribbean woodcocks may have been more closely related to the Old World woodcock species than the New World ones, and were likely wiped out by human incursion into the region.
Species
The genus contains eight species:
widespread species
American woodcock, Scolopax minor (large North American range)
Eurasian woodcock, Scolopax rusticola (large Eurasian range)
localized island endemic species
Amami woodcock, Scolopax mira (endemic to the Amami Islands in Japan)
Bukidnon woodcock, Scolopax bukidnonensis (endemic to Luzon and Mindanao in the Philippines)
Javan woodcock, Scolopax saturata (endemic to Sumatra and Java in Indonesia)
New Guinea woodcock, Scolopax rosenbergii (endemic to New Guinea)
Moluccan woodcock, Scolopax rochussenii (endemic to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia)
Sulawesi woodcock, Scolopax celebensis (endemic to Sulawesi in Indonesia)
Fossil record
A number of woodcocks are extinct and are known only from fossil or subfossil bones.
"Scolopax baranensis" (fossil, Early Pliocene of Hungary; a nomen nudum)
Scolopax carmesinae (fossil, Early/Middle Pliocene? of Menorca, Mediterranean)
Scolopax hutchensi (fossil, Late Pliocene – Early Pleistocene of Florida, USA)
Scolopax anthonyi (prehistoric, Holocene of Puerto Rico)
Scolopax brachycarpa (subfossil, Holocene of Haiti)
Description and ecology
Woodcocks have stocky bodies, cryptic brown and blackish plumage and long slender bills. Their eyes are located on the sides of their heads, which gives them 360° vision. Unlike in most birds, the tip of the bill's upper mandible is flexible.
As their common name implies, the woodcocks are woodland birds. They feed at night or in the evenings, searching for invertebrates in soft ground with their long bills. This habit and their unobtrusive plumage makes it difficult to see them when they are resting in the day. Most have distinctive displays known as "roding", usually given at dawn or dusk.
The range of breeding habits of the Eurasian woodcock extends from the west of Ireland eastwards across Europe and Asia preferring mostly boreal forest regions engulfing northern Japan, and also from the northern limits of the tree zone in Norway. Continuing south to the Pyrenees and the northern limits of Spain. Nests have been found in Corsica and there are three isolated Atlantic breeding stations in Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. In Asia the sites can be seen as far south as Kashmir and the Himalayas.
Hunting
Some woodcocks being popular gamebirds, the island endemic species are often quite rare due to overhunting. The pin feathers (coverts of the leading primary feather of the wing) of the Eurasian woodcock are sometimes used as brushtips by artists, who use them for fine painting work. The dog breed cocker spaniel is named after the bird, and were originally bred to hunt the woodcock.
References
External links
Arthur Cleveland Bent. Life Histories of Familiar North American Birds: American Woodcock (Scolopax minor). Published in 1927: Smithsonian Institution United States National Museum Bulletin 142 (Part 1): 61–78.
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Wading birds | [
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243835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yip%20Kai%20Foon | Yip Kai Foon | Yip Kai Foon (; 12 June 1961 – 19 April 2017, born in Haifeng, China), also known as "Teeth Dog" and "Goosehead", was an infamous Chinese illegal immigrant turned gangster who was most active in Hong Kong from the early 1980s to 1990s. He and his gang specialised in robbing jewellery stores with assault rifles. Their weapon of choice was the AK-47 assault rifle, which they acquired from black markets hosted by triads. He is also the first person to have used an AK-47 during an armed-robbery in Hong Kong.
Early crimes
In October 1984, when he was 23, Yip led a gang of five armed mainland men into Hong Kong. They robbed two jewelry stores, King Fook Jewellery Co. Ltd on 10 October 1984 and Dickson Jewellery Co. Ltd. on 27 October 1984; they managed to obtain more than million worth of precious items as a result. In the course of both robberies, shots were fired. An undercover policeman posed as a potential buyer for the stolen goods as part of a sting operation. During the subsequent 28 December 1984 meeting, once the policeman identified himself, Yip attempted to shoot him and a violent struggle occurred. After Yip was subdued, he was found with two handguns, later linked by ballistics to the October robberies.
Yip was convicted on four counts (two counts of handling stolen goods for each robbery, possession of firearms, and use of a firearm with intent to resist arrest) and sentenced to 18 years in prison. Yip contested the conviction, claiming that he was asked only to find a buyer for what he thought were sub-standard watches produced in local factories; his appeal was dismissed in 1987. But he escaped on 24 August 1989, when he faked appendicitis and was transferred to Queen Mary Hospital. In the toilet, he jumped his two officers with broken bottles and made off in a van parked at the hospital entrance. He hijacked the van with two occupants inside, a 37-year-old van driver and driver's 6-year-old son. While driving, he forced the driver to take off shoes and clothes so Yip could put them on. He got off at Wong Chuk Hang and left the scene by bus. He is presumed to have fled into mainland China.
On the run
AK-47 heists
On 9 June 1991, he and his gang, armed with AK-47s and pistols, robbed five goldsmiths shops on the "Golden" Mut Wah Street in Kwun Tong. They fired 54 shots at police and escaped with gold and jewelry worth million. Many onlookers believed the gun battle was being staged for a film.
The gang was linked to a robbery of two jewelers on Tai Po Road in Sham Shui Po on 10 March 1992. During the course of that robbery, gang members fired 65 shots at police and members of the public, escaping with million worth of jewelry.
Yip is thought to have been involved in a 6 January 1993 jewelry store robbery on Nathan Road in Mong Kok, when a gang fired 30 rounds from AK-47s, killing a woman passerby. One robber was shot by police during the chase; the others dumped his body on the street when they switched getaway cars.
Macau police suspected Yip was involved in an April 1994 armed heist of million in gambling chips from the casino at the Hyatt Regency Hotel on Taipa.
In 1995, Yip moved his crime operation to Shenzhen, participating in the January abduction and murder of a Tianjin businessman and the November murder of a police informant.
The total worth of his stolen goods is estimated at million (Approximately $2,576,920 US). Yip achieved notoriety by escaping police custody multiple times.
Capture and trial
His career finally came to an end on 13 May 1996 when he was arrested following a Kennedy Town gunfight with police that left him paralyzed from the waist down. At the time he had a million reward on his head, but the two officers involved did not receive the reward. Two police officers had surprised Yip and his gang in an alley near the waterfront. Since they had just debarked from a boat, the police suspected they were illegal immigrants and asked for identification. The rest of the gang fled, but Yip pulled a gun from a bag and began shooting. During an ensuing foot pursuit, the officers testified they ordered him to drop his gun, which he refused to do, instead shooting at the officers. After his gun jammed, he was captured. He was found with a machine gun, a pistol, and 1.8 kg of explosives.
He was charged with possession of firearms and ammunition without a licence and shooting with intent to do grievous bodily harm stemming from wounds one of the officers received in the course of the arrest. While Yip was recovering from his injuries, additional charges of escaping custody and kidnapping (during the van hijack) were added stemming from his 1989 escape.
During the lead-up to the trial, a fictionalized version of Yip's life was filmed as King of Robbery (), also known as Life Will Never Be Twice, starring Simon Yam and Roy Cheung), but its planned August 1996 release was delayed by court order.
Yip's trial began on 18 February 1997, with the defence claiming the police shot Yip in the back and then stole from him. He dismissed his defence team two days later, apparently falling asleep when given the chance to cross-examine a prosecution witness.
On 10 March 1997, he was convicted of all charges and sentenced to 41 years in prison, which consists of the 11 years he had left on his original sentence and 30 years on the new charges, to be served consecutively. The earliest year in which he could have been released was 2022.
Imprisonment and death
Yip's lawyers appealed his conviction, stating the publicity surrounding his arrest was prejudicial to the jury, but lost the appeal on 8 December 1998.
A separate appeal to reduce his sentence, based on his injuries and subsequent care, was heard in March 1999. The Court of Appeal reduced his sentence by approximately five years.
Yip subsequently went to the Court of Final Appeal seeking a reduction in his sentence based on his 'catastrophic' medical condition, but the appeal was denied.
He was married to his mainland wife in August 2003. He had been previously married (to the same woman) under a false name before his imprisonment.
Yip continued to maintain his innocence over the 1996 shootout, offering a substantial reward for a witness he alleges saw the events leading up to his arrest.
Yip converted to Christianity in March 2004.
Yip was sentenced on 11 January 2010 to an additional six months in jail for assaulting an officer at Stanley Prison on 30 April 2009. He had complained that he had been badly treated by prison guards.
On 1 April 2017, he was hospitalized at Queen Mary Hospital for cancer treatment. He died on 19 April 2017 of lung cancer.
Cultural influence
Several documentaries detail Yip's exploits and several fictional movies are adapted from his criminal history.
The Most Dangerous Man (2010, ). Yim Foon portrayed by Karel Wong
King of Robbery (1996, ). Chan Sing portrayed by Simon Yam
Hong Kong's King of Thieves (). Yip Kai-foon portrayed by Chan Wah
Trivisa (2016). Yip Kwok-foon portrayed by Richie Jen
References
Notes
Bibliography
1961 births
2017 deaths
Chinese gangsters
Converts to Christianity
Deaths from lung cancer
Fugitives
Hong Kong gangsters
Jewel thieves
People from Haifeng County
Triad members | [
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243840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curlew | Curlew | The curlews () are a group of nine species of birds in the genus Numenius, characterised by their long, slender, downcurved bills and mottled brown plumage. The English name is imitative of the Eurasian curlew's call, but may have been influenced by the Old French corliu, "messenger", from courir , "to run". It was first recorded in 1377 in Langland's Piers Plowman "Fissch to lyue in þe flode..Þe corlue by kynde of þe eyre". In Europe "curlew" usually refers to one species, the Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata).
Description
They are one of the most ancient lineages of scolopacid waders, together with the godwits which look similar but have straight bills. Curlews feed on mud or very soft ground, searching for worms and other invertebrates with their long bills. They will also take crabs and similar items.
Distribution
Curlews enjoy a worldwide distribution. Most species show strong migratory habits and consequently one or more species can be encountered at different times of the year in Europe, Ireland, Britain, Iberia, Iceland, Africa, Southeast Asia, Siberia, North America, South America and Australasia. The distribution of curlews has altered considerably in the past hundred years as a result of changing agricultural practices. Reclamation and drainage of marshy fields and moorland, and afforestation of the latter, have led to local decreases, while conversion of forest to grassland in some parts of Scandinavia has led to increases there. There are now only a small number of curlews in Ireland and Britain raising concerns that the bird will go extinct in those countries.
The stone-curlews are not true curlews (family Scolopacidae) but members of the family Burhinidae, which is in the same order Charadriiformes, but only distantly related within that.
Taxonomy
The genus Numenius was erected by the French scientist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his Ornithologie published in 1760. The type species is the Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata). The Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus had introduced the genus Numenius in the 6th edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1748, but Linnaeus dropped the genus in the important tenth edition of 1758 and put the curlews together with the woodcocks in the genus Scolopax. As the publication date of Linnaeus's sixth edition was before the 1758 starting point of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, Brisson and not Linnaeus is considered as the authority for the genus. The name Numenius is from Ancient Greek noumenios, a bird mentioned by Hesychius. It is associated with the curlews because it appears to be derived from neos, "new" and mene "moon", referring to the crescent-shaped bill.
The genus contains nine species:
Eurasian whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Hudsonian whimbrel Numenius hudsonicus
Slender-billed curlew Numenius tenuirostris
Eurasian curlew Numenius arquata
Long-billed curlew Numenius americanus
Far Eastern curlew Numenius madagascariensis
Little curlew Numenius minutus
Eskimo curlew Numenius borealis – critically endangered, possibly extinct (early 1960s?)
Bristle-thighed curlew Numenius tahitiensis
The Late Eocene (Montmartre Formation, some 35 mya) fossil Limosa gypsorum of France was originally placed in Numenius and may in fact belong there. Apart from that, a Late Pleistocene curlew from San Josecito Cave, Mexico has been described. This fossil was initially placed in a distinct genus, Palnumenius, but was actually a chronospecies or paleosubspecies related to the long-billed curlew.
The upland sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda) is an odd bird which is the closest relative of the curlews. It is distinguished from them by its yellow legs, long tail, and shorter, less curved bill.
References
Further reading
(originally published in 1954) | [
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243844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial%20intelligence | Extraterrestrial intelligence | Extraterrestrial intelligence (often abbreviated ETI) refers to hypothetical intelligent extraterrestrial life. The question of whether other inhabited worlds might exist has been debated since ancient times. The modern form of the concept emerged when the Copernican Revolution demonstrated that the Earth was a planet revolving around the Sun, and other planets were, conversely, other worlds. The question of whether other inhabited planets or moons exist was a natural consequence of this new understanding. It has become one of the most speculative questions in science and is a central theme of science fiction and popular culture.
Intelligence
Intelligence is along with the more precise concept of sapience used to describe extraterrestrial life with similar cognitive abilities as humans. Another interchangeable term is sophoncy first coined by Karen Anderson and published in the 1966 works by her husband Poul Anderson.
Sentience, like consciousness are concepts sometimes mistakenly used for the concept of extraterrestrial sapience and intelligence, since they insufficiently describe such life.
The term extraterrestrial civilization frames a more particular case of extraterrestrial intelligence. It is the possible long term result of intelligent and specifically sapient extraterrestrial life.
Probability
The Copernican principle is generalized to the relativistic concept that humans are not privileged observers of the universe. Many prominent scientists, including Stephen Hawking have proposed that the sheer scale of the universe makes it improbable for intelligent life not to have emerged elsewhere. However, Fermi's Paradox highlights the apparent contradiction between high estimates of the probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilization and humanity's lack of contact with, or evidence for, such civilizations.
The Kardashev scale is a speculative method of measuring a civilization's level of technological advancement, based on the amount of energy a civilization is able to utilize.
The Drake equation is a probabilistic argument used to estimate the number of active, communicative extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy.
Search for extraterrestrial intelligence
There has been a search for signals from extraterrestrial intelligence for several decades, with no solid results. Active SETI (Active Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) is the attempt to send messages to intelligent extraterrestrial life. Active SETI messages are usually sent in the form of radio signals. Physical messages like that of the Pioneer plaque may also be considered an active SETI message.
Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence (CETI) is a branch of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence that focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by another technological civilization. The best-known CETI experiment was the 1974 Arecibo message composed by Frank Drake and Carl Sagan. There are multiple independent organizations and individuals engaged in CETI research.
The U.S. government's position is that "chances of contact with an extraterrestrial intelligence are extremely small, given the distances involved." This line of thinking has led some to conclude that first contact will most likely be made with extraterrestrial artificial intelligence, rather than with biological beings.
The Wow! signal remains the best candidate for an extraterrestrial radio signal ever detected.
Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
The potential changes from extraterrestrial contact could vary greatly in magnitude and type, based on the extraterrestrial civilization's level of technological advancement, degree of benevolence or malevolence, and level of mutual comprehension between itself and humanity. Some theories suggest that an extraterrestrial civilization could be advanced enough to dispense with biology, living instead inside of advanced computers. The medium through which humanity is contacted, be it electromagnetic radiation, direct physical interaction, extraterrestrial artefact, or otherwise, may also influence the results of contact. Incorporating these factors, various systems have been created to assess the implications of extraterrestrial contact.
The implications of extraterrestrial contact, particularly with a technologically superior civilization, have often been likened to the meeting of two vastly different human cultures on Earth, an historical precedent being the Columbian Exchange. Such meetings have generally led to the destruction of the civilization receiving contact (as opposed to the "contactor", which initiates contact), and therefore destruction of human civilization is a possible outcome. However, the absence of any such contact to date means such conjecture is largely speculative.
UFOlogy
The extraterrestrial hypothesis is the idea that some UFOs are vehicles containing or sent by extraterrestrial beings (usually called aliens in this context). As an explanation for UFOs, ETI is sometimes contrasted with EDI (extradimensional intelligence), for example by Allen Hynek.
See also
Extraterrestrial life
Rare Earth hypothesis
Cosmic pluralism
Fermi Paradox
Extraterrestrials in fiction
First contact (science fiction)
Contact (1997 American film)
Messaging to Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (METI or Active SETI)
Sapience
References
External links
An astrophysicist's view of UFOs (Adam Frank; NYT; 30 May 2021)
Extraterrestrial life
Hypothetical objects | [
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243846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning%20theory | Learning theory | Learning theory may refer to:
Education
Learning theory (education), the process of how humans learn
Connectivism
Educational philosophies, an academic field that examines the definitions, goals and meaning of education, or of specific educational philosophies.
Behaviorism (philosophy of education)
Cognitivism (philosophy of education)
Constructivism (philosophy of education)
Humanism (philosophy of education)
E-learning (theory), a cognitive science of effective multimedia e-learning
Instructional theory
Social cognitive theory
Social learning theory
Computer science
Algorithmic learning theory, a branch of computational learning theory. Sometimes also referred to as algorithmic inductive inference.
Computational learning theory, a mathematical theory to analyze machine learning algorithms.
Online machine learning, the process of teaching a machine.
Statistical learning theory | [
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243848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleosiberian%20languages | Paleosiberian languages | Paleosiberian (or Paleo-Siberian) languages or Paleoasian (Paleo-Asiatic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, "ancient") are several linguistic isolates and small families of languages spoken in parts of northeastern Siberia and the Russian Far East. They are not known to have any genetic relationship to each other; their only common link is that they are held to have antedated the more dominant languages, particularly Tungusic and latterly Turkic languages, that have largely displaced them. Even more recently, Turkic (at least in Siberia) and especially Tungusic have been displaced in their turn by Russian.
Classifications
Four small language families and isolates are usually considered to be Paleo-Siberian languages:
The Chukotko-Kamchatkan family, sometimes known as Luoravetlan, includes Chukchi and its close relatives, Koryak, Alutor and Kerek. Itelmen, also known as Kamchadal, is also distantly related. Chukchi, Koryak and Alutor are spoken in easternmost Siberia by communities numbering in the thousands (Chukchi) or hundreds (Koryak and Alutor). Kerek is extinct, and Itelmen is now spoken by fewer than 5 people, mostly elderly, on the west coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula.
Nivkh (Gilyak, Amuric) consists of two or three languages spoken in the lower Amur basin and on the northern half of Sakhalin island. It has a recent modern literature.
Yukaghir is spoken in two mutually unintelligible varieties in the lower Kolyma and Indigirka valleys. Other languages, including Chuvantsy, spoken further inland and further east, are now extinct. Yukaghir is held by some to be related to the Uralic languages.
The Yeniseian languages were a small family formerly spoken on the middle Yenisei River and its tributaries, but are now represented only by Ket, spoken in the Turukhansk district of Krasnoyarsk Krai by no more than 200 people.
On the basis of morphological, typological, and lexical evidence, Michael Fortescue suggests that Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Nivkh (Amuric) are related, forming a larger Chukotko-Kamchatkan-Amuric language family. Fortescue does not consider Yukaghir and Yeniseian to be genetically related to Chukotko-Kamchatkan-Amuric.
Other languages
The Eskimo–Aleut family is also often considered to be Paleosiberian.
Relationships
Together with Japanese, these "poor relations" resist any easy or obvious linguistic classification, either with other groups or with each other. Languages within the Paleosiberian group are considered by some scholars, including Edward Vajda, to be related to the Na-Dené and Eskimo–Aleut families of Alaska and northern Canada. This would back the majority consensus that North America's aboriginal peoples migrated from present-day Siberia and other regions of Asia when the two continents were joined during the last ice age.
Ket, or more precisely Yeniseian as a whole, has been linked in a generally well-received proposal to the Na-Dené languages of North America. Dené–Yeniseian has been called "the first demonstration of a genealogical link between Old World and New World language families that meets the standards of traditional comparative-historical linguistics". In the past, attempts have been made to relate it to Sino-Tibetan, North Caucasian, and Burushaski.
Kim Bang-han proposed that placename glosses in the Samguk sagi reflect the original language of the Korean peninsula and a component in the formation of both Korean and Japanese. He proposed that this language was related to Nivkh.
Juha Janhunen suggests the possibility that similar consonant stop systems in Koreanic and Nivkh may be due to ancient contact.
Two additional groups of languages predating the expansion of Turkic, Tungusic and Russian are known from Western Siberia, namely the Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic languages. They are however not considered Paleosiberian, as they are part of the established larger Uralic family. Yukaghir has often been suggested as a more distant relative of Uralic as part of the Uralic-Yukaghir languages, as well as Eskimo-Aleut as part of the Uralo-Siberian languages. However, these hypotheses are controversial and not universally accepted.
Vocabulary comparison
Below are selected basic vocabulary items in proto-languages reconstructed for Paleosiberian languages and language families. Proto-Yeniseian, Proto-Uralic, Proto-Ainu, Ainu and Proto-Japanese are also given for comparison.
Notes: C = Proto-Chukotian; I = Proto-Inuit
See also
Ostyak, a Russian name for indigenous languages of Siberia
Uralo-Siberian languages
Eurasiatic languages
Dene-Yeniseian languages
Notes
Further reading
External links
Вернер Г. К. Палеоазиатские языки // Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. — М.: СЭ, 1990.
History of Northeast Asia | [
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243849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective%20geometry | Projective geometry | In mathematics, projective geometry is the study of geometric properties that are invariant with respect to projective transformations. This means that, compared to elementary Euclidean geometry, projective geometry has a different setting, projective space, and a selective set of basic geometric concepts. The basic intuitions are that projective space has more points than Euclidean space, for a given dimension, and that geometric transformations are permitted that transform the extra points (called "points at infinity") to Euclidean points, and vice-versa.
Properties meaningful for projective geometry are respected by this new idea of transformation, which is more radical in its effects than can be expressed by a transformation matrix and translations (the affine transformations). The first issue for geometers is what kind of geometry is adequate for a novel situation. It is not possible to refer to angles in projective geometry as it is in Euclidean geometry, because angle is an example of a concept not invariant with respect to projective transformations, as is seen in perspective drawing. One source for projective geometry was indeed the theory of perspective. Another difference from elementary geometry is the way in which parallel lines can be said to meet in a point at infinity, once the concept is translated into projective geometry's terms. Again this notion has an intuitive basis, such as railway tracks meeting at the horizon in a perspective drawing. See projective plane for the basics of projective geometry in two dimensions.
While the ideas were available earlier, projective geometry was mainly a development of the 19th century. This included the theory of complex projective space, the coordinates used (homogeneous coordinates) being complex numbers. Several major types of more abstract mathematics (including invariant theory, the Italian school of algebraic geometry, and Felix Klein's Erlangen programme resulting in the study of the classical groups) were motivated by projective geometry. It was also a subject with many practitioners for its own sake, as synthetic geometry. Another topic that developed from axiomatic studies of projective geometry is finite geometry.
The topic of projective geometry is itself now divided into many research subtopics, two examples of which are projective algebraic geometry (the study of projective varieties) and projective differential geometry (the study of differential invariants of the projective transformations).
Overview
Projective geometry is an elementary non-metrical form of geometry, meaning that it is not based on a concept of distance. In two dimensions it begins with the study of configurations of points and lines. That there is indeed some geometric interest in this sparse setting was first established by Desargues and others in their exploration of the principles of perspective art. In higher dimensional spaces there are considered hyperplanes (that always meet), and other linear subspaces, which exhibit the principle of duality. The simplest illustration of duality is in the projective plane, where the statements "two distinct points determine a unique line" (i.e. the line through them) and "two distinct lines determine a unique point" (i.e. their point of intersection) show the same structure as propositions. Projective geometry can also be seen as a geometry of constructions with a straight-edge alone. Since projective geometry excludes compass constructions, there are no circles, no angles, no measurements, no parallels, and no concept of intermediacy. It was realised that the theorems that do apply to projective geometry are simpler statements. For example, the different conic sections are all equivalent in (complex) projective geometry, and some theorems about circles can be considered as special cases of these general theorems.
During the early 19th century the work of Jean-Victor Poncelet, Lazare Carnot and others established projective geometry as an independent field of mathematics
. Its rigorous foundations were addressed by Karl von Staudt and perfected by Italians Giuseppe Peano, Mario Pieri, Alessandro Padoa and Gino Fano during the late 19th century. Projective geometry, like affine and Euclidean geometry, can also be developed from the Erlangen program of Felix Klein; projective geometry is characterized by invariants under transformations of the projective group.
After much work on the very large number of theorems in the subject, therefore, the basics of projective geometry became understood. The incidence structure and the cross-ratio are fundamental invariants under projective transformations. Projective geometry can be modeled by the affine plane (or affine space) plus a line (hyperplane) "at infinity" and then treating that line (or hyperplane) as "ordinary". An algebraic model for doing projective geometry in the style of analytic geometry is given by homogeneous coordinates. On the other hand, axiomatic studies revealed the existence of non-Desarguesian planes, examples to show that the axioms of incidence can be modelled (in two dimensions only) by structures not accessible to reasoning through homogeneous coordinate systems.
In a foundational sense, projective geometry and ordered geometry are elementary since they involve a minimum of axioms and either can be used as the foundation for affine and Euclidean geometry. Projective geometry is not "ordered" and so it is a distinct foundation for geometry.
History
The first geometrical properties of a projective nature were discovered during the 3rd century by Pappus of Alexandria. Filippo Brunelleschi (1404–1472) started investigating the geometry of perspective during 1425 (see the history of perspective for a more thorough discussion of the work in the fine arts that motivated much of the development of projective geometry). Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) and Gérard Desargues (1591–1661) independently developed the concept of the "point at infinity". Desargues developed an alternative way of constructing perspective drawings by generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away. He made Euclidean geometry, where parallel lines are truly parallel, into a special case of an all-encompassing geometric system. Desargues's study on conic sections drew the attention of 16-year-old Blaise Pascal and helped him formulate Pascal's theorem. The works of Gaspard Monge at the end of 18th and beginning of 19th century were important for the subsequent development of projective geometry. The work of Desargues was ignored until Michel Chasles chanced upon a handwritten copy during 1845. Meanwhile, Jean-Victor Poncelet had published the foundational treatise on projective geometry during 1822. Poncelet examined the projective properties of objects (those invariant under central projection) and, by basing his theory on the concrete pole and polar relation with respect to a circle, established a relationship between metric and projective properties. The non-Euclidean geometries discovered soon thereafter were eventually demonstrated to have models, such as the Klein model of hyperbolic space, relating to projective geometry.
In 1855 A. F. Möbius wrote an article about permutations, now called Möbius transformations, of generalised circles in the complex plane. These transformations represent projectivities of the complex projective line. In the study of lines in space, Julius Plücker used homogeneous coordinates in his description, and the set of lines was viewed on the Klein quadric, one of the early contributions of projective geometry to a new field called algebraic geometry, an offshoot of analytic geometry with projective ideas.
Projective geometry was instrumental in the validation of speculations of Lobachevski and Bolyai concerning hyperbolic geometry by providing models for the hyperbolic plane: for example, the Poincaré disc model where generalised circles perpendicular to the unit circle correspond to "hyperbolic lines" (geodesics), and the "translations" of this model are described by Möbius transformations that map the unit disc to itself. The distance between points is given by a Cayley-Klein metric, known to be invariant under the translations since it depends on cross-ratio, a key projective invariant. The translations are described variously as isometries in metric space theory, as linear fractional transformations formally, and as projective linear transformations of the projective linear group, in this case SU(1, 1).
The work of Poncelet, Jakob Steiner and others was not intended to extend analytic geometry. Techniques were supposed to be synthetic: in effect projective space as now understood was to be introduced axiomatically. As a result, reformulating early work in projective geometry so that it satisfies current standards of rigor can be somewhat difficult. Even in the case of the projective plane alone, the axiomatic approach can result in models not describable via linear algebra.
This period in geometry was overtaken by research on the general algebraic curve by Clebsch, Riemann, Max Noether and others, which stretched existing techniques, and then by invariant theory. Towards the end of the century, the Italian school of algebraic geometry (Enriques, Segre, Severi) broke out of the traditional subject matter into an area demanding deeper techniques.
During the later part of the 19th century, the detailed study of projective geometry became less fashionable, although the literature is voluminous. Some important work was done in enumerative geometry in particular, by Schubert, that is now considered as anticipating the theory of Chern classes, taken as representing the algebraic topology of Grassmannians.
Paul Dirac studied projective geometry and used it as a basis for developing his concepts of quantum mechanics, although his published results were always in algebraic form. See a blog article referring to an article and a book on this subject, also to a talk Dirac gave to a general audience during 1972 in Boston about projective geometry, without specifics as to its application in his physics.
Description
Projective geometry is less restrictive than either Euclidean geometry or affine geometry. It is an intrinsically non-metrical geometry, meaning that facts are independent of any metric structure. Under the projective transformations, the incidence structure and the relation of projective harmonic conjugates are preserved. A projective range is the one-dimensional foundation. Projective geometry formalizes one of the central principles of perspective art: that parallel lines meet at infinity, and therefore are drawn that way. In essence, a projective geometry may be thought of as an extension of Euclidean geometry in which the "direction" of each line is subsumed within the line as an extra "point", and in which a "horizon" of directions corresponding to coplanar lines is regarded as a "line". Thus, two parallel lines meet on a horizon line by virtue of their incorporating the same direction.
Idealized directions are referred to as points at infinity, while idealized horizons are referred to as lines at infinity. In turn, all these lines lie in the plane at infinity. However, infinity is a metric concept, so a purely projective geometry does not single out any points, lines or planes in this regard—those at infinity are treated just like any others.
Because a Euclidean geometry is contained within a projective geometry—with projective geometry having a simpler foundation—general results in Euclidean geometry may be derived in a more transparent manner, where separate but similar theorems of Euclidean geometry may be handled collectively within the framework of projective geometry. For example, parallel and nonparallel lines need not be treated as separate cases; rather an arbitrary projective plane is singled out as the ideal plane and located "at infinity" using homogeneous coordinates.
Additional properties of fundamental importance include Desargues' Theorem and the Theorem of Pappus. In projective spaces of dimension 3 or greater there is a construction that allows one to prove Desargues' Theorem. But for dimension 2, it must be separately postulated.
Using Desargues' Theorem, combined with the other axioms, it is possible to define the basic operations of arithmetic, geometrically. The resulting operations satisfy the axioms of a field — except that the commutativity of multiplication requires Pappus's hexagon theorem. As a result, the points of each line are in one-to-one correspondence with a given field, , supplemented by an additional element, ∞, such that , , , , , , except that , , , , and remain undefined.
Projective geometry also includes a full theory of conic sections, a subject also extensively developed in Euclidean geometry. There are advantages to being able to think of a hyperbola and an ellipse as distinguished only by the way the hyperbola lies across the line at infinity; and that a parabola is distinguished only by being tangent to the same line. The whole family of circles can be considered as conics passing through two given points on the line at infinity — at the cost of requiring complex coordinates. Since coordinates are not "synthetic", one replaces them by fixing a line and two points on it, and considering the linear system of all conics passing through those points as the basic object of study. This method proved very attractive to talented geometers, and the topic was studied thoroughly. An example of this method is the multi-volume treatise by H. F. Baker.
There are many projective geometries, which may be divided into discrete and continuous: a discrete geometry comprises a set of points, which may or may not be finite in number, while a continuous geometry has infinitely many points with no gaps in between.
The only projective geometry of dimension 0 is a single point. A projective geometry of dimension 1 consists of a single line containing at least 3 points. The geometric construction of arithmetic operations cannot be performed in either of these cases. For dimension 2, there is a rich structure in virtue of the absence of Desargues' Theorem.
The smallest 2-dimensional projective geometry (that with the fewest points) is the Fano plane, which has 3 points on every line, with 7 points and 7 lines in all, having the following collinearities:
[ABC]
[ADE]
[AFG]
[BDG]
[BEF]
[CDF]
[CEG]
with homogeneous coordinates , , , , , , , or, in affine coordinates, , , , , , and . The affine coordinates in a Desarguesian plane for the points designated to be the points at infinity (in this example: C, E and G) can be defined in several other ways.
In standard notation, a finite projective geometry is written where:
is the projective (or geometric) dimension, and
is one less than the number of points on a line (called the order of the geometry).
Thus, the example having only 7 points is written .
The term "projective geometry" is used sometimes to indicate the generalised underlying abstract geometry, and sometimes to indicate a particular geometry of wide interest, such as the metric geometry of flat space which we analyse through the use of homogeneous coordinates, and in which Euclidean geometry may be embedded (hence its name, Extended Euclidean plane).
The fundamental property that singles out all projective geometries is the elliptic incidence property that any two distinct lines and in the projective plane intersect at exactly one point . The special case in analytic geometry of parallel lines is subsumed in the smoother form of a line at infinity on which lies. The line at infinity is thus a line like any other in the theory: it is in no way special or distinguished. (In the later spirit of the Erlangen programme one could point to the way the group of transformations can move any line to the line at infinity).
The parallel properties of elliptic, Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries contrast as follows:
Given a line and a point not on the line,
Elliptic there exists no line through that does not meet
Euclidean there exists exactly one line through that does not meet
Hyperbolic there exists more than one line through that does not meet
The parallel property of elliptic geometry is the key idea that leads to the principle of projective duality, possibly the most important property that all projective geometries have in common.
Duality
In 1825, Joseph Gergonne noted the principle of duality characterizing projective plane geometry: given any theorem or definition of that geometry, substituting point for line, lie on for pass through, collinear for concurrent, intersection for join, or vice versa, results in another theorem or valid definition, the "dual" of the first. Similarly in 3 dimensions, the duality relation holds between points and planes, allowing any theorem to be transformed by swapping point and plane, is contained by and contains. More generally, for projective spaces of dimension N, there is a duality between the subspaces of dimension R and dimension N−R−1. For N = 2, this specializes to the most commonly known form of duality—that between points and lines.
The duality principle was also discovered independently by Jean-Victor Poncelet.
To establish duality only requires establishing theorems which are the dual versions of the axioms for the dimension in question. Thus, for 3-dimensional spaces, one needs to show that (1*) every point lies in 3 distinct planes, (2*) every two planes intersect in a unique line and a dual version of (3*) to the effect: if the intersection of plane P and Q is coplanar with the intersection of plane R and S, then so are the respective intersections of planes P and R, Q and S (assuming planes P and S are distinct from Q and R).
In practice, the principle of duality allows us to set up a dual correspondence between two geometric constructions. The most famous of these is the polarity or reciprocity of two figures in a conic curve (in 2 dimensions) or a quadric surface (in 3 dimensions). A commonplace example is found in the reciprocation of a symmetrical polyhedron in a concentric sphere to obtain the dual polyhedron.
Another example is Brianchon's theorem, the dual of the already mentioned Pascal's theorem, and one of whose proofs simply consists of applying the principle of duality to Pascal's. Here are comparative statements of these two theorems (in both cases within the framework of the projective plane):
Pascal: If all six vertices of a hexagon lie on a conic, then the intersections of its opposite sides (regarded as full lines, since in the projective plane there is no such thing as a "line segment") are three collinear points. The line joining them is then called the Pascal line of the hexagon.
Brianchon: If all six sides of a hexagon are tangent to a conic, then its diagonals (i.e. the lines joining opposite vertices) are three concurrent lines. Their point of intersection is then called the Brianchon point of the hexagon.
(If the conic degenerates into two straight lines, Pascal's becomes Pappus's theorem, which has no interesting dual, since the Brianchon point trivially becomes the two lines' intersection point.)
Axioms of projective geometry
Any given geometry may be deduced from an appropriate set of axioms. Projective geometries are characterised by the "elliptic parallel" axiom, that any two planes always meet in just one line, or in the plane, any two lines always meet in just one point. In other words, there are no such things as parallel lines or planes in projective geometry.
Many alternative sets of axioms for projective geometry have been proposed (see for example Coxeter 2003, Hilbert & Cohn-Vossen 1999, Greenberg 1980).
Whitehead's axioms
These axioms are based on Whitehead, "The Axioms of Projective Geometry". There are two types, points and lines, and one "incidence" relation between points and lines. The three axioms are:
G1: Every line contains at least 3 points
G2: Every two distinct points, A and B, lie on a unique line, AB.
G3: If lines AB and CD intersect, then so do lines AC and BD (where it is assumed that A and D are distinct from B and C).
The reason each line is assumed to contain at least 3 points is to eliminate some degenerate cases. The spaces satisfying these
three axioms either have at most one line, or are projective spaces of some dimension over a division ring, or are non-Desarguesian planes.
Additional axioms
One can add further axioms restricting the dimension or the coordinate ring. For example, Coxeter's Projective Geometry, references Veblen in the three axioms above, together with a further 5 axioms that make the dimension 3 and the coordinate ring a commutative field of characteristic not 2.
Axioms using a ternary relation
One can pursue axiomatization by postulating a ternary relation, [ABC] to denote when three points (not all necessarily distinct) are collinear. An axiomatization may be written down in terms of this relation as well:
C0: [ABA]
C1: If A and B are two points such that [ABC] and [ABD] then [BDC]
C2: If A and B are two points then there is a third point C such that [ABC]
C3: If A and C are two points, B and D also, with [BCE], [ADE] but not [ABE] then there is a point F such that [ACF] and [BDF].
For two different points, A and B, the line AB is defined as consisting of all points C for which [ABC]. The axioms C0 and C1 then provide a formalization of G2; C2 for G1 and C3 for G3.
The concept of line generalizes to planes and higher-dimensional subspaces. A subspace, AB...XY may thus be recursively defined in terms of the subspace AB...X as that containing all the points of all lines YZ, as Z ranges over AB...X. Collinearity then generalizes to the relation of "independence". A set {A, B, ..., Z} of points is independent, [AB...Z] if {A, B, ..., Z} is a minimal generating subset for the subspace AB...Z.
The projective axioms may be supplemented by further axioms postulating limits on the dimension of the space. The minimum dimension is determined by the existence of an independent set of the required size. For the lowest dimensions, the relevant conditions may be stated in equivalent
form as follows. A projective space is of:
(L1) at least dimension 0 if it has at least 1 point,
(L2) at least dimension 1 if it has at least 2 distinct points (and therefore a line),
(L3) at least dimension 2 if it has at least 3 non-collinear points (or two lines, or a line and a point not on the line),
(L4) at least dimension 3 if it has at least 4 non-coplanar points.
The maximum dimension may also be determined in a similar fashion. For the lowest dimensions, they take on the following forms. A projective space is of:
(M1) at most dimension 0 if it has no more than 1 point,
(M2) at most dimension 1 if it has no more than 1 line,
(M3) at most dimension 2 if it has no more than 1 plane,
and so on. It is a general theorem (a consequence of axiom (3)) that all coplanar lines intersect—the very principle Projective Geometry was originally intended to embody. Therefore, property (M3) may be equivalently stated that all lines intersect one another.
It is generally assumed that projective spaces are of at least dimension 2. In some cases, if the focus is on projective planes, a variant of M3 may be postulated. The axioms of (Eves 1997: 111), for instance, include (1), (2), (L3) and (M3). Axiom (3) becomes vacuously true under (M3) and is therefore not needed in this context.
Axioms for projective planes
In incidence geometry, most authors give a treatment that embraces the Fano plane PG(2, 2) as the smallest finite projective plane. An axiom system that achieves this is as follows:
(P1) Any two distinct points lie on a unique line.
(P2) Any two distinct lines meet in a unique point.
(P3) There exist at least four points of which no three are collinear.
Coxeter's Introduction to Geometry gives a list of five axioms for a more restrictive concept of a projective plane attributed to Bachmann, adding Pappus's theorem to the list of axioms above (which eliminates non-Desarguesian planes) and excluding projective planes over fields of characteristic 2 (those that don't satisfy Fano's axiom). The restricted planes given in this manner more closely resemble the real projective plane.
Perspectivity and projectivity
Given three non-collinear points, there are three lines connecting them, but with four points, no three collinear, there are six connecting lines and three additional "diagonal points" determined by their intersections. The science of projective geometry captures this surplus determined by four points through a quaternary relation and the projectivities which preserve the complete quadrangle configuration.
An harmonic quadruple of points on a line occurs when there is a complete quadrangle two of whose diagonal points are in the first and third position of the quadruple, and the other two positions are points on the lines joining two quadrangle points through the third diagonal point.
A spacial perspectivity of a projective configuration in one plane yields such a configuration in another, and this applies to the configuration of the complete quadrangle. Thus harmonic quadruples are preserved by perspectivity. If one perspectivity follows another the configurations follow along. The composition of two perspectivities is no longer a perspectivity, but a projectivity.
While corresponding points of a perspectivity all converge at a point, this convergence is not true for a projectivity that is not a perspectivity. In projective geometry the intersection of lines formed by corresponding points of a projectivity in a plane are of particular interest. The set of such intersections is called a projective conic, and in acknowledgement of the work of Jakob Steiner, it is referred to as a Steiner conic.
Suppose a projectivity is formed by two perspectivities centered on points A and B, relating x to X by an intermediary p:
The projectivity is then Then given the projectivity the induced conic is
Given a conic C and a point P not on it, two distinct secant lines through P intersect C in four points. These four points determine a quadrangle of which P is a diagonal point. The line through the other two diagonal points is called the polar of P and P is the pole of this line. Alternatively, the polar line of P is the set of projective harmonic conjugates of P on a variable secant line passing through P and C.
See also
Projective line
Projective plane
Incidence
Fundamental theorem of projective geometry
Desargues' theorem
Pappus's hexagon theorem
Pascal's theorem
Projective line over a ring
Joseph Wedderburn
Grassmann–Cayley algebra
Notes
References
Santaló, Luis (1966) Geometría proyectiva, Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires
External links
Projective Geometry for Machine Vision — tutorial by Joe Mundy and Andrew Zisserman.
Notes based on Coxeter's The Real Projective Plane.
Projective Geometry for Image Analysis — free tutorial by Roger Mohr and Bill Triggs.
Projective Geometry. — free tutorial by Tom Davis.
The Grassmann method in projective geometry A compilation of three notes by Cesare Burali-Forti on the application of exterior algebra to projective geometry
C. Burali-Forti, "Introduction to Differential Geometry, following the method of H. Grassmann" (English translation of book)
E. Kummer, "General theory of rectilinear ray systems" (English translation)
M. Pasch, "On the focal surfaces of ray systems and the singularity surfaces of complexes" (English translation) | [
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243855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin%20York | Alvin York | Alvin Cullum York (December 13, 1887 – September 2, 1964), also known as Sergeant York, was one of the most decorated United States Army soldiers of World War I. He received the Medal of Honor for leading an attack on a German machine gun nest, gathered 35 machine guns, killing at least 25 enemy soldiers and capturing 132 prisoners. York's Medal of Honor action occurred during the United States-led portion of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in France, which was intended to breach the Hindenburg line and force the Germans to surrender. He earned decorations from several allied countries during WWI, including France, Italy and Montenegro.
York was born in rural Tennessee, in what is now the community of Pall Mall in Fentress County. His parents farmed, and his father worked as a blacksmith. The eleven York children had minimal schooling because they helped provide for the family, including hunting, fishing, and working as laborers. After the death of his father, York assisted in caring for his younger siblings and found work as a blacksmith. Despite being a regular churchgoer, York also drank heavily and was prone to fistfights. After a 1914 conversion experience, he vowed to improve and became even more devoted to the Church of Christ in Christian Union. York was drafted during World War I; he initially claimed conscientious objector status on the grounds that his religious denomination forbade violence. Persuaded that his religion was not incompatible with military service, York joined the 82nd Division as an infantry private and went to France in 1918.
In October 1918, Private First Class (Acting Corporal) York was one of a group of seventeen soldiers assigned to infiltrate German lines and silence a machine gun position. After the American patrol had captured a large group of enemy soldiers, German small arms fire killed six Americans and wounded three. Several of the Americans returned fire while others guarded the prisoners. York and the other Americans attacked the machine gun position, killing several German soldiers. The German officer responsible for the machine gun position had emptied his pistol while firing at York but failed to hit him. This officer then offered to surrender and York accepted. York and his men marched back to their unit's command post with more than 130 prisoners. York was later promoted to sergeant and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. An investigation resulted in the upgrading of the award to the Medal of Honor. York's feat made him a national hero and international celebrity among allied nations.
After Armistice Day, a group of Tennessee businessmen purchased a farm for York, his new wife, and their growing family. He later formed a charitable foundation to improve educational opportunities for children in rural Tennessee. In the 1930s and 1940s, York worked as a project superintendent for the Civilian Conservation Corps and managed construction of the Byrd Lake reservoir at Cumberland Mountain State Park, after which he served for several years as park superintendent. A 1941 film about his World War I exploits, Sergeant York, was that year's highest-grossing film; Gary Cooper won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of York, and the film was credited with enhancing American morale as the US mobilized for action in World War II. In his later years, York was confined to bed by health problems. He died in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1964 and was buried at Wolf River Cemetery in his hometown of Pall Mall, Tennessee.
Early life and ancestry
Alvin Cullum York was born in a two-room log cabin in Fentress County, Tennessee. He was the third child born to William Uriah York and Mary Elizabeth (Brooks) York. William Uriah York was born in Jamestown, Tennessee, to Uriah York and Eliza Jane Livingston, who had moved to Tennessee from Buncombe County, North Carolina. Mary Elizabeth York was born in Pall Mall to William Brooks, who took his mother's maiden name as an alias of William H. Harrington after deserting from Company A of the 11th Michigan Cavalry Regiment during the American Civil War, and Nancy Pyle, and was the great-granddaughter of Conrad "Coonrod" Pyle, an English settler who settled Pall Mall, Tennessee.
William York and Mary Brooks married on December 25, 1881, and had eleven children: Henry Singleton, Joseph Marion, Alvin Cullum, Samuel John, Albert, Hattie, George Alexander, James Preston, Lillian Mae, Robert Daniel, and Lucy Erma. The York family is mainly of English ancestry, with Scots-Irish ancestry as well. The family resided in the Indian Creek area of Fentress County. The family was impoverished, with William York working as a blacksmith to supplement the family's income. The men of the York family farmed and harvested their own food, while the mother made all of the family's clothing. The York sons attended school for only nine months and withdrew from education because William York needed them to help work on the family farm, hunt, and fish to help feed the family. When William York died in November 1911, his son Alvin helped his mother raise his younger siblings. Alvin was the oldest sibling still residing in the county, since his two older brothers had married and relocated. To supplement the family's income, York worked in Harriman, Tennessee, first in railroad construction and then as a logger. By all accounts, he was a skilled laborer who was devoted to the welfare of his family, and a crack shot. York was also a violent alcoholic prone to fighting in saloons. In one of the saloon fights his best friend was killed. York also accumulated several arrests within the area. His mother, a member of a pacifist Protestant denomination, tried to persuade York to change his ways.
World War I
Despite his history of drinking and fighting, York attended church regularly and often led the hymn singing. A revival meeting at the end of 1914 led him to a conversion experience on January 1, 1915. His congregation was the Church of Christ in Christian Union, a Protestant denomination that shunned secular politics and disputes between Christian denominations. This church had no specific doctrine of pacifism but it had been formed in reaction to the Methodist Episcopal Church, South's support of slavery, including armed conflict during the American Civil War, and it opposed all forms of violence. In a lecture later in life, York reported his reaction to the outbreak of World War I: "I was worried clean through. I didn't want to go and kill. I believed in my Bible."
On June 5, 1917, at the age of 29, Alvin York registered for the draft as all men between 21 and 30 years of age were required to do as a result of the Selective Service Act. When he registered for the draft, he answered the question "Do you claim exemption from draft (specify grounds)?" by writing "Yes. Don't Want To Fight." When his initial claim for conscientious objector status was denied, he appealed. During World War I, conscientious objector status did not exempt the objector from military duty. Such individuals could still be drafted and were given assignments that did not conflict with their anti-war principles. In November 1917, while York's application was considered, he was drafted and began his army service at Camp Gordon, Georgia.
From the day he registered for the draft until he returned from the war on May 29, 1919, York kept a diary of his activities. In his diary, York wrote that he refused to sign documents provided by his pastor seeking a discharge from the Army on religious grounds and similar documents provided by his mother asserting a claim of exemption as the sole support of his mother and siblings. Despite his initial, signed request for an exemption, he later disclaimed ever having been a conscientious objector.
Entry into service
York served in Company G, 328th Infantry, 82nd Division. Deeply troubled by the conflict between his pacifism and his training for war, he spoke at length with his company commander, Captain Edward Courtney Bullock Danforth Jr. (1894–1974) of Augusta, Georgia, and his battalion commander, Major G. Edward Buxton of Providence, Rhode Island, a devout Christian himself. Biblical passages about violence ("He that hath no sword, let him sell his cloak and buy one." "Render unto Caesar ..." "... if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight.") cited by Danforth persuaded York to reconsider the morality of his participation in the war. Granted a 10-day leave to visit home, he returned convinced that God meant for him to fight and would keep him safe, as committed to his new mission as he had been to pacifism. He served with his division in the St. Mihiel Offensive.
Medal of Honor action
In an October 8, 1918, attack that occurred during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, York's battalion aimed to capture German positions near Hill 223 () along the Decauville railroad north of Chatel-Chéhéry, France. His actions that day earned him the Medal of Honor. He later recalled:
The Germans got us, and they got us right smart. They just stopped us dead in our tracks. Their machine guns were up there on the heights overlooking us and well hidden, and we couldn't tell for certain where the terrible heavy fire was coming from ... And I'm telling you they were shooting straight. Our boys just went down like the long grass before the mowing machine at home. Our attack just faded out ... And there we were, lying down, about halfway across [the valley] and those German machine guns and big shells getting us hard.
Under the command of Cpl. (Acting Sergeant) Bernard Early, four non-commissioned officers, including Acting Corporal York, and thirteen privates were ordered to infiltrate the German lines to take out the machine guns. The group worked their way behind the Germans and overran the headquarters of a German unit, capturing a large group of German soldiers who were preparing a counter-attack against the U.S. troops. Early's men were contending with the prisoners when German machine gun fire suddenly peppered the area, killing six Americans and wounding three others. Several of the Americans returned fire while others guarded the prisoners. From his advantageous position, York fought the Germans. York recalled:
And those machine guns were spitting fire and cutting down the undergrowth all around me something awful. And the Germans were yelling orders. You never heard such a racket in all of your life. I didn't have time to dodge behind a tree or dive into the brush ... As soon as the machine guns opened fire on me, I began to exchange shots with them. There were over thirty of them in continuous action, and all I could do was touch the Germans off just as fast as I could. I was sharp shooting ... All the time I kept yelling at them to come down. I didn't want to kill any more than I had to. But it was they or I. And I was giving them the best I had.
During the assault, a German officer led several Germans to the scene of the fighting and ran into York who shot several of them with his pistol.
Imperial German Army First Lieutenant Paul Jürgen Vollmer, commanding the 120th Reserve Infantry Regiment's 1st Battalion, emptied his pistol trying to kill York while he was contending with the machine guns. Failing to injure York, and seeing his mounting losses, he offered in English to surrender the unit to York who accepted. At the end of the engagement, York and his seven men marched their German prisoners back to the American lines. Upon returning to his unit, York reported to his brigade commander, Brigadier General Julian Robert Lindsey, who remarked: "Well York, I hear you have captured the whole German army." York replied: "No sir. I got only 132."
York's actions silenced the German machine guns and were responsible for enabling the 328th Infantry to renew its attack to capture the Decauville Railroad.
Post-battle
York was promptly promoted to sergeant and received the Distinguished Service Cross. A few months later, an investigation by York's chain of command resulted in an upgrade of his Distinguished Service Cross to the Medal of Honor, which was presented by the commanding general of the American Expeditionary Forces, General John J. Pershing. The French Republic awarded him the Croix de Guerre, Medaille Militaire and Legion of Honor.
In addition to his French medals, Italy awarded York the Croce al Merito di Guerra and Montenegro decorated him with its War Medal. He eventually received nearly 50 decorations.
York's Medal of Honor citation reads:
In attempting to explain his actions during the 1919 investigation that resulted in the Medal of Honor, York told General Lindsey "A higher power than man guided and watched over me and told me what to do." Lindsey replied "York, you are right."
Biographer David D. Lee (2000) wrote:
Homecoming and fame
Before leaving France, York was his division's noncommissioned officer delegate to the caucus which created the American Legion, of which York was a charter member.
York's heroism went unnoticed in the United States press, even in Tennessee, until the publication of the April 26, 1919, issue of the Saturday Evening Post, which had a circulation in excess of 2 million. In an article titled "The Second Elder Gives Battle", journalist George Pattullo, who had learned of York's story while touring battlefields earlier in the year, laid out the themes that have dominated York's story ever since: the mountaineer, his religious faith and skill with firearms, patriotic, plainspoken and unsophisticated, an uneducated man who "seems to do everything correctly by intuition." In response, the Tennessee Society, a group of Tennesseans living in New York City, arranged celebrations to greet York upon his return to the United States, including a 5-day furlough to allow for visits to New York City and Washington, D.C. York arrived in Hoboken, New Jersey, on May 22, stayed at the Waldorf Astoria, and attended a formal banquet in his honor. He toured the subway system in a special car before continuing to Washington, where the House of Representatives gave him a standing ovation and he met Secretary of War Newton D. Baker and the President's secretary Joe Tumulty, as President Wilson was still in Paris.
York proceeded to Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, where he was discharged from the service, and then to Tennessee for more celebrations. He had been home for barely a week when, on June 7, 1919, York and Gracie Loretta Williams were married by Tennessee Governor Albert H. Roberts in Pall Mall. More celebrations followed the wedding, including a week-long trip to Nashville where York accepted a special medal awarded by the state.
York refused many offers to profit from his fame, including thousands of dollars offered for appearances, product endorsements, newspaper articles, and movie rights to his life story. Instead, he lent his name to various charitable and civic causes. To support economic development, he campaigned for the Tennessee government to build a road to service his native region, succeeding when a highway through the mountains was completed in the mid-1920s and named Alvin C. York Highway. The Nashville Rotary organized the purchase, by public subscription, of a farm, the one gift that York accepted. However, it was not the fully equipped farm he was promised, requiring York to borrow money to stock it. He subsequently lost money in the farming depression that followed the war. Then the Rotary was unable to continue the installment payments on the property, leaving York to pay them himself. In 1921, he had no option but to seek public help, resulting in an extended discussion of his finances in the press, some of it sharply critical. Debt in itself was a trial: "I could get used to most any kind of hardship, but I'm not fitted for the hardship of owing money." Only an appeal to Rotary Clubs nationwide and an account of York's plight in the New York World brought in the required contributions by Christmas 1921.
After the war
In the 1920s, York formed the Alvin C. York Foundation with the mission of increasing educational opportunities in his region of Tennessee. Board members included the area's congressman, Cordell Hull, who later became Secretary of State under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Secretary of the Treasury William G. McAdoo, who was President Wilson's son-in-law, and Tennessee Governor Albert Roberts. Plans called for a non-sectarian institution providing vocational training to be called the York Agricultural Institute. York concentrated on fund-raising, though he disappointed audiences who wanted to hear about the Argonne when he instead explained that "I occupied one space in a fifty mile front. I saw so little it hardly seems worthwhile discussing it. I'm trying to forget the war in the interest of the mountain boys and girls that I grew up among." He fought first to win financial support from the state and county, then battled local leaders about the school's location. Refusing to compromise, he resigned and developed plans for a rival York Industrial School. After a series of lawsuits he gained control of the original institution and was its president when it opened in December 1929. As the Great Depression deepened, the state government failed to provide promised funds, and York mortgaged his farm to fund bus transportation for students. Even after he was ousted as president in 1936 by political and bureaucratic rivals, he continued to donate money.
In 1935 York, sensing the end of his time with the institute, began to work as a project superintendent with the Civilian Conservation Corps overseeing the creation of Cumberland Mountain State Park's Byrd Lake, one of the largest masonry projects the program ever undertook. York served as the park's superintendent until 1940. In the second half of 1930s and early 1940s, in the run-up to the America's entry in World War II, York was a forceful and public advocate for interventionism, calling for U.S. involvement in the war against Germany, Italy and Japan. At the time, U.S. public opinion was overwhelmingly in favor of the isolationist and non-interventionist approach, and York's unpopular views led to accusations that he was engaged in war-mongering. York became a relatively rare high-profile public voice for intervention. In a speech at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in May 1941, York said: "We must fight again! The time is not now ripe, nor will it ever be, to compromise with Hitler, or the things he stands for."
York's speeches attracted the attention of President Roosevelt, who frequently quoted York, particularly a passage from York's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier speech:
By our victory in the last war, we won a lease on liberty, not a deed to it. Now after 23 years, Adolf Hitler tells us that lease is expiring, and after the manner of all leases, we have the privilege of renewing it, or letting it go by default ... . We are standing at the crossroads of history. The important capitals of the world in a few years will either be Berlin and Moscow, or Washington and London. I, for one, prefer Congress and Parliament to Hitler's Reichstag and Stalin's Kremlin. And because we were for a time, side by side, I know this Unknown Soldier does too. We owe it to him to renew that lease of liberty he helped us to get.
During World War II, York attempted to re-enlist in the Army.
However, at fifty-four years of age, overweight, near-diabetic, and with evidence of arthritis, he was denied enlistment as a combat soldier. Instead, he was commissioned as a major in the Army Signal Corps and he toured training camps and participated in bond drives in support of the war effort, usually paying his own travel expenses. Gen. Matthew Ridgway later recalled that York "created in the minds of farm boys and clerks ... the conviction that an aggressive soldier, well-trained and well-armed, can fight his way out of any situation." He also raised funds for war-related charities, including the Red Cross. He served on his county draft board and, when literacy requirements forced the rejection of large numbers of Fentress County men, he offered to lead a battalion of illiterates himself, saying they were "crack shots". Although York served during the war as a Signal Corps major and as a colonel with the 7th Regiment of the Tennessee State Guard, newspapers continued to refer to him as "Sergeant York".
Legacy and film story
Biographer David Lee explored the reason Americans responded so favorably to his story:
York cooperated with journalists in telling his life story twice in the 1920s. He allowed Nashville-born freelance journalist Sam Cowan to see his diary and submitted to interviews. The resulting 1922 biography focused on York's Appalachian background, describing his upbringing among the "purest Anglo-Saxons to be found today", emphasizing popular stereotypes without bringing the man to life. A few years later, York contacted a publisher about an edition of his war diary, but the publisher wanted additional material to flesh out the story. Then Tom Skeyhill, an Australian-born veteran of the Gallipoli campaign, visited York in Tennessee and the two became friends. On York's behalf, Skeyhill wrote an "autobiography" in the first person and was credited as the editor of Sergeant York: His Own Life Story and War Diary. With a preface by Newton D. Baker, Secretary of War in World War I, it presented a one-dimensional York supplemented with tales of life in the Tennessee mountains. Reviews noted that York only promoted his life story in the interest of funding educational programs: "Perhaps York's bearing after his famous exploit in the Argonne best reveals his native greatness. ... He will not exploit himself except for his own people. All of which gives his book an appeal beyond its contents."
The mountaineer persona Cowan and Skeyhill promoted reflected York's own beliefs. In a speech at the 1939 New York World's Fair, he said:
We, the descendants of the pioneer long hunters of the mountains, have been called Scotch-Irish and pure Anglo-Saxon, and that is complimentary, I reckon. But we want the world to know that we are Americans. The spiritual environment and our religious life in the mountains have made our spirit wholly American, and that true pioneer American spirit still exists in the Tennessee mountains.
Even today, I want you all to know, with all the clamor of the world and its evil attractions, you still find in the little humble log cabins in the Tennessee mountains that old-fashioned family altar of prayer—the same that they used to have in grandma's and grandpa's day—which is the true spirit of the long hunters. We in the Tennessee mountains are not transplanted Europeans; every fiber in our body and every emotion in our hearts is American.
For many years, York employed a secretary, Arthur S. Bushing, who wrote the lectures and speeches York delivered. Bushing prepared York's correspondence as well. Like the works of Cowan and Skeyhill, words commonly ascribed to York, though doubtless representing his thinking, were often composed by professional writers. York had refused several times to authorize a film version of his life story. Finally, in 1940, as York was looking to finance an interdenominational Bible school, he yielded to a persistent Hollywood producer and negotiated the contract himself. In 1941 the movie Sergeant York, directed by Howard Hawks with Gary Cooper in the title role, told about his life and Medal of Honor action. The screenplay included much fictitious material though it was based on York's Diary. The marketing of the film included a visit by York to the White House where FDR praised the film. Some of the response to the film divided along political lines, with advocates of preparedness and aid to Great Britain enthusiastic ("Hollywood's first solid contribution to the national defense", said Time) and isolationists calling it "propaganda" for the administration. It received 11 Oscar nominations and won two, including the Academy Award for Best Actor for Cooper. It was the highest-grossing picture of 1941. York's earnings from the film, about $150,000 in the first two years as well as later royalties, resulted in a decade-long battle with the Internal Revenue Service. York eventually built part of his planned Bible school, which hosted 100 students until the late 1950s.
Political views
York originally believed in the morality of America's intervention in World War I. By the mid-1930s, he looked back more critically: "I can't see that we did any good. There's as much trouble now as there was when we were over there. I think the slogan 'A war to end war' is all wrong." He fully endorsed American preparedness, but showed sympathy for isolationism by saying that he would fight only if war came to America.
A consistent Democrat – "I'm a Democrat first, last, and all the time", he said – in January 1941 he praised FDR's support for Great Britain and in an address at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier on Memorial Day of that year he attacked isolationists and said that veterans understood that "liberty and freedom are so very precious that you do not fight and win them once and stop." They are "prizes awarded only to those peoples who fight to win them and then keep fighting eternally to hold them!" At times he was blunt: "I think any man who talks against the interests of his own country ought to be arrested and put in jail, not excepting senators and colonels." Everyone knew that the colonel in question was Charles Lindbergh.
In the late 1940s he called for toughness in dealing with the Soviet Union and did not hesitate to recommend using the atomic bomb in a first strike: "If they can't find anyone else to push the button, I will." He questioned the failure of United Nations forces to use the atomic bomb in Korea. In the 1960s he criticized Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara's plans to reduce the ranks of the National Guard and reserves: "Nothing would please Khrushchev better."
Personal life and death
York and his wife Grace had ten children, seven sons and three daughters, most named after American historical figures: Infant son (1920, died at 4 days), Alvin Cullum, Jr. (1921–1983), George Edward Buxton (1923–2018), Woodrow Wilson (1925–1998), Samuel Huston (1928–1929), Andrew Jackson (born 1930), Betsy Ross (born 1933), Mary Alice (1935–1991), Thomas Jefferson (1938–1972), and Infant daughter (1940, died same day). His son, Thomas Jefferson was killed in the line of duty on May 7, 1972, while serving as a Constable in Fentress County, Tennessee.
York suffered from health problems throughout his life. He had gallbladder surgery in the late 1920s and suffered from pneumonia in 1942. Described in 1919 as a "red-haired giant with the ruddy complexion of the outdoors" and "standing more than 6 feet ... and tipping the scale at more than 200 pounds", by 1945 he weighed 250 pounds and in 1948 he had a stroke. More strokes and another case of pneumonia followed, and he was confined to bed from 1954, further handicapped by failing eyesight. He was hospitalized several times during his last two years. York died at the Veterans Hospital in Nashville, Tennessee, on September 2, 1964, of a cerebral hemorrhage at age 76. After a funeral service in his Jamestown church, with Gen. Matthew Ridgway representing President Lyndon Johnson, York was buried at the Wolf River Cemetery in Pall Mall. His funeral sermon was delivered by Richard G. Humble, General Superintendent of the Churches of Christ in Christian Union. Humble also preached Mrs. York's funeral sermon in 1984.
Awards and decorations
Legacy
Controversy
Beginning soon after York's return to the United States at the end of the war, doubt and controversy periodically surfaced over whether the events detailed in his Medal of Honor documents had taken place as officially described, and whether other soldiers in York's unit should also have been recognized for their heroism. Otis Merrithew (William Cutting) and Bernard Early were among those who argued against the official version. Of the 17 American soldiers who were involved in York's Medal of Honor action, six were killed. York received the Medal of Honor, and over the years, three of the others who lived through that day's fighting also received valor awards, including the Distinguished Service Cross for Early in 1929, and the Silver Star for Merrithew in 1965.
Discovery of 'lost' battlefield
In October 2006, United States Army Colonel Douglas Mastriano, head of the Sergeant York Discovery Expedition (SYDE), conducted research to locate the York battle site. Among the Mastriano expedition's finds were 46 American rifle rounds. In addition, his research located pieces of German ammunition and weaponry. Without the official support of the French government, Mastriano excavated the site and bulldozed the area in order to build two monuments and a historic trail.
However, another team lead by Dr. Tom Nolan, head of the Sergeant York Project and a geographer at the R.O. Fullerton Laboratory for Spatial Technology at Middle Tennessee State University, placed the site 600 meters south of the location identified by Mastriano. Nolan's research relied on contemporary army graves registration Forms, the 82nd Division's wartime history, and maps drawn by G.E. Buxton and Captain E.C.B. Danforth, both of whom walked the ground with York during the Medal of Honor investigation.
Monuments and memorials
Many places and monuments throughout the world have been named in honor of York, most notably his farm in Pall Mall, which is now open to visitors as the Sgt. Alvin C. York State Historic Park.
Several government buildings have been named for York, including the Alvin C. York Veterans Hospital located in Murfreesboro.
The Alvin C. York Institute was founded in 1926 as a agricultural high school by York and residents of Fentress County and continues to serve as Jamestown's high school.
York Avenue on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, New York City was named for York in 1928.
Pulitzer Prize-winning author Robert Penn Warren used York as the model for characters in two of his novels, both explorations of the burden of fame faced by battlefield heroes in peacetime. In At Heaven's Gate (1943), a Tennessee mountaineer who was awarded the Medal of Honor in World War I returns from combat, becomes a state legislator, and then a bank president. Others exploit his decency and fame for their own selfish ends as the novel explores the real-life experience of an old-fashioned hero in a cynical world. In The Cave (1959), a similar hero from a similar background has aged and become an invalid. He struggles to maintain his identity as his real self diverges from the robust legend of his youth.
A monumental statue of York by sculptor Felix de Weldon was placed on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol in 1968.
In the 1980s, the United States Army named its DIVAD weapon system "Sergeant York"; the project was cancelled because of technical problems and cost overruns.
In 1993, York was among 35 Medal of Honor recipients whose portraits were painted and biographies included in a boxed set of "Congressional Medal of Honor Trading Cards," issued by Eclipse Enterprises under license from the Medal of Honor Society. The text is by Kent DeLong, the paintings by Tom Simonton, and the set edited by Catherine Yronwode.
On May 5, 2000, the United States Postal Service issued the "Distinguished Soldiers" stamps, one of which honored York.
The riderless horse in the 2004 funeral procession of President Ronald Reagan was named Sergeant York.
Laura Cantrell's 2005 song "Old Downtown" talks about York in depth.
In 2007, the 82nd Airborne Division's movie theater at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, was named York Theater.
The traveling American football trophy between UT Martin, Austin Peay, Tennessee State, and Tennessee Tech is called the Alvin C. York trophy.
The U.S. Army ROTC's Sergeant York Award is presented to cadets who excel in the program and devote additional time and effort to maintaining and expanding it.
A memorial to graduates of the East Tennessee State University ROTC program who have given their lives for their country carries a quotation from York.
The Third Regiment of the Tennessee State Guard is named for York.
The Association of the United States Army published a digital graphic novel about York in 2018.
Swedish power metal band Sabaton's 2019 album The Great War contained a track titled "82nd All the Way", a tribute to York's Medal of Honor action.
See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War I
List of members of the American Legion
List of people from Tennessee
List of people on stamps of the United States
Notes
References
Lee, David D. (2000)( "York, Alvin Cullum" American National Biography (online 2000) online
Further reading
online free
Skeyhill, Thomas. Sergeant York: Last of the Long Hunters (1930);
Yockelson, Mitchell. Forty-Seven Days: How Pershing's Warriors Came of Age to Defeat at the German Army in World War I. New York: NAL, Caliber, 2016. .
External links
Official
Alvin C. York Institute
Sgt. Alvin C. York State Historic Park
Find A Grave
General information
Alvin Cullum York (1887–1964) at Medal of Honor Recipients Portrayed On Film (lylefrancispadilla.com)
Sergeant York Project
The Sergeant York Discovery Expedition (SYDE)
1887 births
1964 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army personnel of World War II
American community activists
American conscientious objectors
American diarists
American people of English descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American Protestants
Burials in Tennessee
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Civilian Conservation Corps
Military personnel from Tennessee
Organization founders
People from Harriman, Tennessee
People from Pall Mall, Tennessee
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the War Merit Cross (Italy)
Tennessee Democrats
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
United States Army soldiers
World War I recipients of the Medal of Honor
Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage
American anti-communists | [
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243860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Prescott | William Prescott | William Prescott (February 20, 1726 – October 13, 1795) was an American colonel in the Revolutionary War who commanded the patriot forces in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Prescott is known for his order to his soldiers, "Do not fire until you see the whites of their eyes", such that the rebel troops may shoot at the enemy at shorter ranges, and therefore more accurately and lethally, and so conserve their limited stocks of ammunition. It is debated whether Prescott or someone earlier coined this memorable saying.
Life
Prescott was born in Groton, Massachusetts, when East Pepperell was considered Groton, to Benjamin Prescott (1696–1738) and Abigail Oliver Prescott (1697–1765). He married Abigail Hale (1733–1821) on April 13, 1758, and they had one child, who is named William Prescott Jr. William Prescott owned a house in Pepperell, Massachusetts, on Prescott Street. Pepperell was then a frontier town bordering upon Hollis N.H. In fact, the Indians long continued to be his neighbors, so that there when it was considered unsafe to go into the field to their daily labor without their rifles. Col. Prescott held his lands as his son, Hon. Wm. Prescott, late of Boston, and his grandson Wm. H. Prescott, the historian, continued to hold them, under the original Indian title.
Prescott served in the provincial militia in King George's War where he served in the 1745 Siege of Louisbourg under William Pepperrell. He may have played a role in the naming of the town of Pepperell, Massachusetts, after his commander when it was separated from Groton in 1753. Col. Prescott was a lieutenant in the Provincial troops which were sent to remove the neutral French from Nova Scotia in 1755. After his return he married Miss Hale, as above, and was promoted to the office of captain. In 1755, when the French and Indian War widened, he saw action at the Battle of Fort Beausejour. He turned down an offer to join the British Army for his service in that war.
American Revolutionary War
In 1774 he was appointed colonel of a regiment of “minute men,” enrolled in Pepperell and vicinity. On receiving intelligence of the “regulars’” (British) attack on Lexington on the memorable 19 April 1775, the alarm that was raised, that British troops were marching on Concord reached Pepperell about 10 a.m. on April 19. Prescott immediately gave order for the company in Pepperell and the company in Hollis, to march to Groton and thence to the scene of action, but arriving there before the Groton Companies were ready, they, after a short halt, proceeded on their way in advance of the Groton companies. Col. Prescott hastened on, with as many of his regiment as he could collect, to Concord and thence to Cambridge, but did not overtake the retreating British troops. The companies arrived too late to participate in the day's battles, but they became part of the small army that laid siege to Boston afterward. He and most of his men enlisted for eight months, the period of the first enlistment.
When the American military commanders were alerted to British plans to capture undefended high ground at Dorchester Heights and Charlestown, Prescott was chosen to lead 1,200 men onto the Charlestown peninsula and erect defenses on Bunker Hill. The actual defenses were built on Breeds Hill, as it was lower and closer to the harbor. "On the 16th of June, 1775, Gen. Artemas Ward, the commander-in-chief, issued an order for placing three Massachusetts regiments (Col. Prescott's, Col. Frye's and Col. Bridge's) and one hundred and twenty men from a Connecticut regiment (under the brave command of Thomas Knowlton), about one thousand in all, all under the command of Col. Prescott, directing them to proceed to Bunker Hill and there erect a fortification.
The detachment started from Cambridge Common at dark, who proceeded silently to Bunker Hill, where the troops, at about 1 1 o'clock, P. M., commenced building the intrenchments as laid out by Captain Richard Gridley. “The breast work or redoubt was only constructed of such earth as the party had thrown up after the middle of the night and was not more than breast high to a man of medium height. Colonel Prescott being a very tall man, six feet and two or three inches in height, his head and shoulders and a considerable portion of his body must have been exposed during the whole of the engagement. He wore a three-cornered cocked hat and a ban-yan or calico coat. After one of his men was killed by cannon ball, Prescott, perceiving that this had made some of the soldier’s sick at heart, mounted tile para-pet and walked leisurely around it, cheering his soldiers by approbation and humor. His clothing was repeatedly spattered with the blood and the brains of the killed and wounded. The writer (Dr. O. Prescott Jr.) saw the waistcoat and the ban-yan coat after the engagement, and they had several holes pierced by the bayonets of the British in their attempts at his life.” The Americans, although raw troops, fought with the bravery and obstinacy of veterans, until their ammunition was exhausted. Col. Prescott was always confident that he could have maintained his position, even with the handful of men under him, if he had been supplied with ammunition. The next day, his troops, who were tired from working to construct a redoubt and other defensive works, and had only limited ammunition, formed the centerpiece of the American defenses when the British attacked the position. The British began firing from the ship Lively at 4 a.m. and attacked at 3 p.m. Prescott ordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend the left flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, and topped it with fence rails and hay. They also constructed three small v-shaped trenches between this dirt wall and Prescott's breastwork. Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included about 200 men from the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments, under Colonels John Stark and James Reed] In spirited battle, Prescott's men twice threw back British assaults on the redoubt. When the British made a third attempt, his men were almost out of ammunition; after an initial volley, he ordered a retreat from the redoubt. He was one of the last men to leave the redoubt, parrying bayonet thrusts with his ceremonial saber. The men on the left flank played a key part in the cover of the retreat.
Prescott told General Artemas Ward the Commander-in-Chief, that he would retake the place that night or perish in the attempt, if he would give him three regiments, with bayonets and sufficient ammunition. But from prudential reasons it was declined." While the British successfully captured Bunker Hill, the poorly organized colonial forces inflicted significant casualties, and the British were unable to capitalize their victory. They lost 50 percent of the force (killed or wounded) commanded by General Howe. Prescott is widely seen as having played a key role in the battle, keeping the relatively poorly trained militia under his command well-disciplined. As it was, however, the British were left in possession of the field, for they had carried the position at the point of the bayonet and technically the day was theirs. Among the many Americans who distinguished themselves at Bunker Hill the names of Prescott, Putnam and Warren stand out most clearly. While General Putnam was on the scene at Bunker Hill by some writers he was not in the redoubt at Breeds Hill at any time during the action, but was attempting to direct affairs, to unit commanders who often misunderstood or disobeyed orders from that position. Joseph Warren, a Massachusetts politician and member of the colony's Committee of safety (American Revolution), volunteered to serve under Colonel William Prescott in the defense of the redoubt as a private and wanted to be close to the battle. It is during the retreat from the redoubt on Breeds Hill that Joseph Warren was killed.
When the Second Continental Congress established the Continental Army it sent George Washington to take command of the forces besieging Boston. Prescott received a colonel's commission, and his unit became the 7th Continental Regiment. The regiment saw service in the 1776 defense of New York. While he appears to have given up command of the regiment after that campaign, he apparently participated in some capacity in the 1777 Saratoga campaign, for he is depicted in the painting of the Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga by John Trumbull,
which hangs in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda. In his person he was tall, with a large and muscular frame, but not corpulent, his features strong and indicative of intelligence. He was courteous and benevolent, and possessed a strong mind. Not having had the advantages of an early education he was most emphatically a self-made man. His departure from military service may have been due to injuries sustained in an accident on his farm.
Later life
Col. Prescott continued in the service until the end of 1776. He was stationed at Governor's Island, N. Y., until the Americans were obliged to retire from the city. In the autumn of 1777, he went as a volunteer, to assist in the capture of the army under General Burgoyne, which was his last military service. He was elected a member of the Provincial Congress held at Salem. After his retirement from the army he served the town as town clerk, selectman, representative to the General Court for three years, and was an acting magistrate for the remainder of his life. When Shay's rebellion broke out, he hastened to Concord, and assisted in protecting the courts of justice and of preserving law and order. Prescott served in the Massachusetts General Court in later years. He also served in the militia called out in 1786 to suppress Shays' Rebellion. His brother Oliver Prescott was said to be influential in the suppression of that outbreak. " " The following anecdote the writer had from Colonel Prescott himself: While stationed with his regiment near New York in 1776, the out guards brought in a British deserter. As they approached the camp the deserter observed to the guards, ' that officer yonder is Colonel Prescott.' The guard informed the Colonel of the fact. ' How come you to know me ^ ' inquired Colonel Prescott. ' I saw you on Bunker Hill,' replied the soldier, 'and recollected you immediately.' ' Why did you not kill me at that time? ' asked Colonel Prescott. ' I tried my best,' said the soldier, ' I took deliberate aim at you more than once when I thought it impossible for you to escape. I also palsied at you several times with my bayonet when you were as near as I could have wished, and after several of us had taken possession of your works.' ' You are a brave fellow,' said Colonel Prescott, ' come into my tent and I will treat you.' " " While on the retreat from the scene of conflict Colonel Prescott came to a house on Charlestown street, near the ' neck,' where were three or four men who had just prepared a bowl of punch, and which they presented to Colonel Prescott before having tasted it. This, to a man suffering with fatigue and parched with thirst, was a most gratifying and acceptable offering. Prescott took the bowl, but before he had time to partake of its contents a cannon ball passed through the house, upon which the men immediately fled, leaving Colonel Prescott to drain the bowl by himself and at his leisure." Dr. O. Prescott further relates that Colonel Prescott was a true patriot. As a neighbor, kind and benevolent, and a peacemaker in to his vain, and was universally loved and respected. William died of dropsy of the chest, in Pepperell and was buried with military honors suitable to his rank, life and character at Walton Cemetery. He fell at a ripe old age, full of honors, and highly esteemed and respected. His widow died Oct. 21, 1821, aged 88 years.
Slavery
William Prescott never owned slaves, and spoke out against the practice of slavery. Prescott advocated that Massachusetts outlaw slavery. When Massachusetts did abolish slavery in 1783, Prescott celebrated publicly. Prescott was also outspoken about his praise for African-American soldier Salem Poor who fought with Prescott at Bunker Hill, going so far as to sign a letter to the court of Massachusetts praising his conduct in battle and advocating that he be rewarded for it.
Legacy
Prescott's likeness was made into a statue for a memorial for the Battle of Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts and was dedicated in 1881.
The former town of Prescott, Massachusetts, was named in his honor. The town was disincorporated in 1938 as part of the building of the Quabbin Reservoir, and the land now makes up Prescott Peninsula, which divides the main branches of the reservoir.
Colonel Prescott's famous order, "Do not fire until you see the whites of their eyes," is a significant part of the Schoolhouse Rock video and song, "The Shot Heard round the World."
In 1856, the Prescott School, named in his honor, was built on the northeasterly portion of the Bunker Hill Burying Ground in Charlestown, Massachusetts. The Prescott School later merged with the Warren School to form the Warren-Prescott School.
Prescott's house is located in Pepperell, Massachusetts.
Prescott appears as a character in Thomas Wm. Hamilton's science fiction novel Time for Patriots, .
Cambridge, Massachusetts, has a small granite monument to the place where, on the night of June 16, 1775, 1,200 Patriot men assembled and were addressed by Prescott and Harvard President Langdon, before their march to Bunker and Breed's Hills. See citation for picture of its inscription, which erroneously calls him a general. This monument is located on the lawn west of Harvard's Littauer Center, itself west of Harvard's Science Center, just outside Harvard Yard. See citation for location map.
However, Prescott Street, two blocks from Harvard Yard in Cambridge is not named after Colonel William Prescott, but after his grandson, William Hickling Prescott (May 4, 1796 – January 28, 1859). This grandson became a noted historian and author, who (in a remarkable moment of historical reconciliation) married the granddaughter of Captain John Linzee, captain of HMS Falcon, one of the British ships that fired on Bunker Hill Patriots. The city of Prescott, Arizona, is also named in honor of the scholarly grandson.
William Prescott Elementary School, in Scranton, PA, is named in his honor. Built in 1966, their mascot is the Patriots.
Footnotes
References
(Paperback: )
The Prescott memorial, or, A genealogical memoir of the Prescott families in America by Prescott, William, 1788-1875. Published 1870.
External links
1726 births
1795 deaths
Continental Army officers from Massachusetts
People from Groton, Massachusetts
People of Massachusetts in the French and Indian War
People of colonial Massachusetts
Members of the Massachusetts General Court
People from Pepperell, Massachusetts
18th-century American politicians | [
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243871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan%20script | Tibetan script | The Tibetan script is a segmental writing system (abugida) of Indic origin used to write certain Tibetic languages, including Tibetan, Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Ladakhi, Jirel and Balti. It has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages in close cultural contact with Tibet, such as Thakali. The printed form is called uchen script while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday writing is called umê script. This writing system is used across the Himalayas, and Tibet.
The script is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. The Tibetan script is of Brahmic origin from the Gupta script and is ancestral to scripts such as Meitei, Lepcha, Marchen and the multilingual ʼPhags-pa script.
History
According to Tibetan historiography, the Tibetan script and the rules of grammar were introduced by Thonmi Sambhota in the first half of the 7th century, mainly for the codification of the sacred Buddhist texts. From a contemporary academic perspective, this is merely a legend invented in the second half of the 11th century (cf. Miller 1963; Róna-Tas 1985: 183–303; Zeisler 2005). New research and writings suggest that there were one or more Tibetan scripts in use prior to the introduction of the current script by Songtsen Gampo and Thonmi Sambhota. The Tunhong manuscripts are key evidence for this hypothesis.
Three orthographic standardisations were developed. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of Buddhist scriptures, emerged during the early 9th century. Standard orthography has not altered since then, while the spoken language has changed by, for example, losing complex consonant clusters. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects and in particular in the Standard Tibetan of Lhasa, there is a great divergence between current spelling (which still reflects the 9th-century spoken Tibetan) and current pronunciation. This divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of spelling reform, to write Tibetan as it is pronounced; for example, writing Kagyu instead of Bka'-rgyud.
The nomadic Amdo Tibetan and the western dialects of Ladakhi, as well as Balti, come very close to the Old Tibetan spellings. But the grammar of these varieties has considerably changed. To write the modern varieties according to the classical orthography and grammar of Classical Tibetan would be the same as to write Italian according to that of Latin, or to write Hindi according to that of Sanskrit. However, modern Buddhist elites in the Indian subcontinent insisted the classical orthography should not be altered even when used for lay purposes. This became an obstacle for many modern Tibetic languages to modernize or to introduce a written tradition. Amdo Tibetan was one of a few examples where the Buddhist elites initiated a spelling reform. A spelling reform in Ladakhi was so controversial, however, partly because it was first initiated by Christian missionaries.
Description
Basic alphabet
In the Tibetan script, the syllables are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a tsek (་); since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, this mark often functions almost as a space. Spaces are not used to divide words.
The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants. As in other Indic scripts, each consonant letter assumes an inherent vowel; in the Tibetan script it is /a/. The letter is also the base for dependent vowel marks.
Although some Tibetan dialects are tonal, the language had no tone at the time of the script's invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features, they can usually be correctly predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words.
Consonant clusters
One aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be written either as radicals or they can be written in other forms, such as subscript and superscript forming consonant clusters.
To understand how this works, one can look at the radical /ka/ and see what happens when it becomes /kra/ or /rka/. In both cases, the symbol for /ka/ is used, but when the /ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, it is added as a superscript. /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants; thus rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster /rɲa/. Similarly, the consonants /wa/, /ra/, and /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants; thus /kwa/; /kra/; /kja/.
Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, or post-postscript positions. For instance, the consonants /ʰka/, /ʰta/, /ʰpa/, /ma/ and /a/ can be used in the prescript position to the left of other radicals, while the position after a radical (the postscript position), can be held by the ten consonants /ʰka/, /na/, /ʰpa/, /ʰta/, /ma/, /a/, /ra/, /ŋa/, /sa/, and /la/. The third position, the post-postscript position is solely for the consonants /ʰta/ and /sa/.
Head letters
The superscript position above a radical is reserved for the consonants /ra/, /la/, and /sa/.
When /ra/, /la/, and /sa/ are in superscript position with /ka/, /tʃa/, /ta/, /pa/ and /tsa/, there are no changes in the sound in Central Lhasa Tibetan. In that language,they look and sound like:
/ka/, /ta/, /pa/, /tsa/
/ka/, /tʃa/, /ta/, /pa/,
/ka/, /tʃa/, /ta/, /pa/, /tsa/
When /ra/, /la/, and /sa/ are in superscript position with /ʰka/, /ʰtʃa/, /ʰta/, /ʰpa/ and /ʰtsa/, they lose their aspiration and become voiced in Central Lhasa Tibetan. In that language,they look and sound like:
/ga/, /d͡ʒa/, /da/, /ba/, /dza/
/ga/, /d͡ʒa/, /da/, /ba/,
/ga/, /d͡ʒa/, /da/, /ba/, /dza/
When /ra/, /la/, and /sa/ are in superscript position with /ŋa/, /ɲa/, /na/ and /ma/, the nasal sound gets high in Central Lhasa Tibetan. In that language,they look and sound like:
/ŋa/, /ɲa/, /na/, /ma/
/ŋa/, /ma/
/ŋa/, /ɲa/, /na/, /ma/
Sub-joined letters
The subscript position under a radical is for the consonants /ja/, /ra/, /la/, and /wa/.
Vowel marks
The vowels used in the alphabet are /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/. While the vowel /a/ is included in each consonant or radical, the other vowels are indicated by marks; thus /ka/, /ki/, /ku/, /ke/, /ko/. The vowels /i/, /e/, and /o/ are placed above consonants as diacritics, while the vowel /u/ is placed underneath consonants. Old Tibetan included a reversed form of the mark for /i/, the gigu 'verso', of uncertain meaning. There is no distinction between long and short vowels in written Tibetan, except in loanwords, especially transcribed from the Sanskrit.
Numerals
Modifiers
Extended use
The Tibetan alphabet, when used to write other languages such as Balti and Sanskrit, often has additional and/or modified graphemes taken from the basic Tibetan alphabet to represent different sounds.
Extended alphabet
In Balti, consonants ka, ra are represented by reversing the letters (ka, ra) to give (qa, ɽa).
The Sanskrit "retroflex consonants" ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ṇa, ṣa are represented in Tibetan by reversing the letters (ta, tha, da, na, sha) to give (Ta, Tha, Da, Na, Sa).
It is a classical rule to transliterate Sanskrit ca, cha, ja, jha, to Tibetan (tsa, tsha, dza, dzha), respectively. Nowadays, (ca, cha, ja, jha) can also be used.
Extended vowel marks and modifiers
Romanization and transliteration
Romanization and transliteration of the Tibetan script is the representation of the Tibetan script in the Latin script. Multiple Romanization and transliteration systems have been created in recent years, but do not fully represent the true phonetic sound. While the Wylie transliteration system is widely used to Romanize Standard Tibetan, others include the Library of Congress system and the IPA-based transliteration (Jacques 2012).
Below is a table with Tibetan letters and different Romanization and transliteration system for each letter, listed below systems are: Wylie transliteration (W), Tibetan pinyin (TP), Dzongkha phonetic (DP), ALA-LC Romanization (A) and THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription (THL).
Input method and keyboard layout
Tibetan
The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS Windows Vista. The layout has been available in Linux since September 2007. In Ubuntu 12.04, one can install Tibetan language support through Dash / Language Support / Install/Remove Languages, the input method can be turned on from Dash / Keyboard Layout, adding Tibetan keyboard layout. The layout applies the similar layout as in Microsoft Windows.
Mac OS-X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani.
Dzongkha
The Dzongkha keyboard layout scheme is designed as a simple means for inputting Dzongkha text on computers. This keyboard layout was standardized by the Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) and the Department of Information Technology (DIT) of the Royal Government of Bhutan in 2000.
It was updated in 2009 to accommodate additional characters added to the Unicode & ISO 10646 standards since the initial version. Since the arrangement of keys essentially follows the usual order of the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet, the layout can be quickly learned by anyone familiar with this alphabet. Subjoined (combining) consonants are entered using the Shift key.
The Dzongkha (dz) keyboard layout is included in Microsoft Windows, Android, and most distributions of Linux as part of XFree86.
Unicode
Tibetan was originally one of the scripts in the first version of the Unicode Standard in 1991, in the Unicode block U+1000–U+104F. However, in 1993, in version 1.1, it was removed (the code points it took up would later be used for the Burmese script in version 3.0). The Tibetan script was re-added in July, 1996 with the release of version 2.0.
The Unicode block for Tibetan is U+0F00–U+0FFF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks and special symbols used in religious texts:
See also
Tibetan calligraphy
Tibetan Braille
Dzongkha Braille
Tibetan typefaces
Wylie transliteration
Tibetan pinyin
THDL Simplified Phonetic Transcription
Tise, input method for Tibetan script
Limbu script
Notes
References
Asher, R. E. ed. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press, 1994. 10 vol.
Beyer, Stephan V. (1993). The Classical Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
Chamberlain, Bradford Lynn. 2008. Script Selection for Tibetan-related Languages in Multiscriptal Environments. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 192:117–132.
Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander. (1983). A Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander (1980–1982). Sanskrit-Tibetan-English Vocabulary. 2 vols. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Das, Sarat Chandra: "The Sacred and Ornamental Characters of Tibet". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 57 (1888), pp. 41–48 and 9 plates.
Das, Sarat Chandra. (1996). An Introduction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Jacques, Guillaume 2012. A new transcription system for Old and Classical Tibetan, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 35.3:89-96.
Jäschke, Heinrich August. (1989). Tibetan Grammar. Corrected by Sunil Gupta. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
External links
Tibetan Calligraphy—Online guide for writing Tibetan script.
Elements of the Tibetan writing system.
Unicode area U0F00-U0FFF, Tibetan script (162KB)
Encoding Model of the Tibetan Script in the UCS
Digital Tibetan—Online resource for the digitalization of Tibetan.
Tibetan Scripts, Fonts & Related Issues—THDL articles on Unicode font issues; free cross-platform OpenType fonts—Unicode compatible.
Free Tibetan Fonts Project
Ancient Scripts: Tibetan
Dzongkha language
Brahmic scripts
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243875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20China | Languages of China | There are several hundred languages in China. The predominant language is Standard Chinese, which is based on central Mandarin, but there are hundreds of related Chinese languages, collectively known as Hanyu (, 'Han language'), that are spoken by 92% of the population. The Chinese (or 'Sinitic') languages are typically divided into seven major language groups, and their study is a distinct academic discipline. They differ as much from each other morphologically and phonetically as do English, German and Danish, but meanwhile share the same writing system (Hanzi) and are mutually intelligible in written form. There are in addition approximately 300 minority languages spoken by the remaining 8% of the population of China. The ones with greatest state support are Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur and Zhuang.
According to the 2010 edition of Nationalencyklopedin, 955 million out of China's then-population of 1.34 billion spoke some variety of Mandarin Chinese as their first language, accounting for 71% of the country's population. According to the 2019 edition of Ethnologue, 904,000,000 people in China spoke some variety of Mandarin as their first language in 2017.
Standard Chinese, known in China as Putonghua, based on the Mandarin dialect of Beijing, is the official national spoken language for the mainland and serves as a lingua franca within the Mandarin-speaking regions (and, to a lesser extent, across the other regions of mainland China). Several other autonomous regions have additional official languages. For example, Tibetan has official status within the Tibet Autonomous Region and Mongolian has official status within Inner Mongolia. Language laws of China do not apply to either Hong Kong or Macau, which have different official languages (Cantonese, English and Portuguese) from the mainland.
Spoken languages
The spoken languages of nationalities that are a part of the People's Republic of China belong to at least nine families:
The Sino-Tibetan family: 19 official ethnicities (including the Han and Tibetans)
The Tai–Kadai family: several languages spoken by the Zhuang, the Bouyei, the Dai, the Dong, and the Hlai (Li people). 9 official ethnicities.
The Hmong–Mien family: 3 official ethnicities
The Austroasiatic family: 4 official ethnicities (the De'ang, Blang, Gin (Vietnamese), and Wa)
The Turkic family: Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Salars, etc. 7 official ethnicities.
The Mongolic family: Mongols, Dongxiang, and related groups. 6 official ethnicities.
The Tungusic family: Manchus (formerly), Hezhe, etc. 5 official ethnicities.
The Koreanic family: Korean language
The Indo-European family: 2 official ethnicities (the Russians and Tajiks (actually Pamiri people). There is also a heavily Persian-influenced Äynu language spoken by the Äynu people in southwestern Xinjiang who are officially considered Uyghurs.
The Austronesian family: 1 official ethnicity (the Gaoshan, who speak many languages of the Formosan branch), 1 unofficial (the Utsuls, who speak the Tsat language but are considered Hui.)
Below are lists of ethnic groups in China by linguistic classification. Ethnicities not on the official PRC list of 56 ethnic groups are italicized. Respective Pinyin transliterations and Chinese characters (both simplified and traditional) are also given.
Sino-Tibetan
Sinitic
Chinese, 汉语, 漢語
Mandarin Chinese, 官话, 官話
Beijing Mandarin, 北京官话, 北京官話
Standard Chinese, 普通话, 普通話
Singaporean Mandarin, 新加坡华语, 新加坡華語
Malaysian Mandarin, 马来西亚华语, 馬來西亞華語
Taiwanese Mandarin, 台湾华语, 臺灣華語
Taipei Mandarin, 台北腔/国语, 臺北腔/國語
Northeastern Mandarin, 东北官话, 東北官話
Jilu Mandarin, 冀鲁官话, 冀魯官話
Jiaoliao Mandarin, 胶辽官话, 膠遼官話
Zhongyuan Mandarin, 中原官话, 中原官話
Lanyin Mandarin, 兰银官话, 蘭銀官話
Lower Yangtze Mandarin, 江淮官话, 江淮官話
Southwestern Mandarin, 西南官话, 西南官話
Jin Chinese, 晋语, 晉語
Wu Chinese, 吴语, 吳語
Shanghainese, 上海话, 上海話
Huizhou Chinese, 徽语, 徽語
Yue Chinese, 粤语, 粤語
Cantonese, 广东话, 廣東話
Ping Chinese, 平话, 平話
Gan Chinese, 赣语, 贛語
Xiang Chinese, 湘语, 湘語
Hakka language, 客家话, 客家話
Min Chinese, 闽语, 閩語
Southern Min, 闽南语, 閩南語
Hokkien, 泉漳话, 泉漳話
Teochew dialect, 潮州话, 潮州話
Eastern Min, 闽东语, 閩東語
Pu-Xian Min, 莆仙话, 莆仙話
Leizhou Min, 雷州话, 雷州話
Hainanese, 海南话, 海南話
Northern Min, 闽北语, 閩北語
Central Min, 闽中语, 閩中語
Shao-Jiang Min, 邵将语, 邵將語
Bai, 白語
Dali language, 大理語
Dali dialect(Bai: Darl lit)
Xiangyun dialect
Yitdut language/Jianchuan language, 剑川语, 劍川語
Yitdut dialect(Bai: Yit dut)
Heqing dialect(Bai: hhop kait)
Bijiang language
Bijiang dialect
Lanping dialect(Bai: ket dant)
Tibeto-Burman
Tujia
Qiangic
Qiang
Northern Qiang
Southern Qiang
Prinmi
Baima
Tangut
Bodish
Tibetan
Central Tibetan (Standard Tibetan)
Amdo Tibetan
Khams Tibetan
Lhoba
Monpa/Monba
Lolo–Burmese–Naxi
Burmish
Achang
Loloish
Yi
Lisu
Lahu
Hani
Jino
Nakhi/Naxi
Jingpho–Nungish–Luish
Jingpho
Derung
Nu
Nusu
Rouruo
Kra–Dai
(Possibly the ancient Bǎiyuè 百越)
Be
Kra
Gelao
Kam–Sui
Dong
Sui
Maonan
Mulao/Mulam
Hlai/Li
Tai
Zhuang (Vahcuengh)
Northern Zhuang
Southern Zhuang
Bouyei
Dai
Tai Lü language
Tai Nüa language
Tai Dam language
Tai Ya language
Tai Hongjin language
Turkic
Karluk
Ili Turki
Uyghur
Uzbek
Kipchak
Kazakh
Kyrgyz
Tatar
Oghuz
Salar
Siberian
Äynu
Fuyu Kyrgyz
Western Yugur
Tuvan
Old Uyghur (extinct)
Old Turkic (extinct)
Mongolic
Mongolian
Oirat
Torgut Oirat
Buryat
Daur
Southeastern
Monguor
Eastern Yugur
Dongxiang
Bonan
Kangjia
Tuoba (extinct)
Para-Mongolic
Khitan (extinct)
Tuyuhun (extinct)
Tungusic
Southern
Manchu
Jurchen
Xibe
Nanai/Hezhen
Northern
Evenki
Oroqen
Korean
Korean
Hmong–Mien
(Possibly the ancient Nánmán 南蛮, 南蠻)
Hmong
Mien
She
Austroasiatic
Palaung-Wa
Palaung/Blang
De'ang
Wa/Va
Vietnamese/Kinh
Austronesian
Formosan languages
Tsat
Indo-European
Russian
Tocharian (extinct)
Saka (extinct)
Pamiri, (mislabelled as "Tajik")
Sarikoli
Wakhi
Portuguese (spoken in Macau)
English (spoken in Hong Kong)
Yeniseian
Jie (Kjet) (extinct) (?)
Unclassified
Ruan-ruan (Rouran) (extinct)
Mixed
Wutun (Mongolian-Tibetan mixed language)
Macanese (Portuguese creole)
Written languages
The following languages traditionally had written forms that do not involve Chinese characters (hanzi):
The Dai – Tai Lü language or Tai Nüa language – Tai Lü alphabet or Tai Nüa alphabet
The Kazakhs – Kazakh language – Kazakh Arabic alphabet
The Koreans – Korean language – Chosŏn'gŭl alphabet
The Kyrgyz – Kyrgyz language – Kyrgyz Arabic alphabet
The Lisu people - Lisu language - Lisu script
The Manchus – Manchu language – Manchu alphabet
The Mongols – Mongolian language – Mongolian alphabet
The Naxi – Naxi language – Dongba characters
The Sui – Sui language – Sui script
The Tibetans – Tibetan language – Tibetan alphabet
The Uyghurs – Uyghur language – Uyghur Arabic alphabet
The Xibe – Xibe language – Manchu alphabet
The Yi – Yi language – Yi syllabary
Many modern forms of spoken Chinese languages have their own distinct writing system using Chinese characters that contain colloquial variants.
These typically are used as sound characters to help determine the pronunciation of the sentence within that language:
Written Cantonese
Chữ nôm – Vietnamese
Written Hokkien
Shanghainese
Some non-Sinitic peoples have historically used Chinese characters:
The Koreans – Korean language – Hanja
The Zhuang (Tai people) – Zhuang languages – Sawndip
The Bai people - Bai language - Bai writing(僰文)
The Dong people - Dong language (China) - Dong writing(方塊侗字)
The Bouyei people - Bouyei language - Bouyei writing(方塊布依字)
Other languages, all now extinct, used separate logographic scripts influenced by, but not directly derived from, Chinese characters:
The Jurchens (Manchu ancestors) – Jurchen language – Jurchen script
The Khitans (Mongolic people) – Khitan language – Khitan large and small scripts
The Tanguts (Sino-Tibetan people) – Tangut language – Tangut script
During Qing dynasty, palaces, temples, and coins have sometimes been inscribed in five scripts:
Chinese
Manchu
Mongol
Tibetan
Chagatai
During the Mongol Yuan dynasty, the official writing system was:
'Phags-pa script
Chinese banknotes contain several scripts in addition to Chinese script. These are:
Mongol
Tibetan
Arabic (for Uyghur)
Latin (for Zhuang)
Other writing system for Chinese languages in China include:
Nüshu script
Ten nationalities who never had a written system have, under the PRC's encouragement, developed phonetic alphabets. According to a government white paper published in early 2005, "by the end of 2003, 22 ethnic minorities in China used 28 written languages."
Language policy
One decade before the demise of the Qing dynasty in 1912, Mandarin was promoted in the planning for China's first public school system.
Mandarin has been promoted as the commonly spoken language for the country since 1956, based phonologically on the dialect of Beijing. The North Chinese language group is set up as the standard grammatically and lexically. Meanwhile, Mao Tse-Tung and Lu-Hsün writings are used as the basis of the stylistic standard. Pronunciation is taught with the use of the romanized phonetic system known as pinyin. Pinyin has been criticized for fear of an eventual replacement of the traditional character orthography.
The Chinese language policy in mainland China is heavily influenced by the Soviet nationalities policy and officially encourages the development of standard spoken and written languages for each of the nationalities of China. Language is one of the features used for ethnic identification. In September 1951, the All-China Minorities Education Conference established that all minorities should be taught in their language at the primary and secondary levels when they count with a writing language. Those without a writing language or with an "imperfect" writing language should be helped to develop and reform their writing languages.
However, in this schema, Han Chinese are considered a single nationality and the official policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC) treats the different varieties of Chinese differently from the different national languages, even though their differences are as significant, if not more so, as those between the various Romance languages of Europe.
While official policies in mainland China encourage the development and use of different orthographies for the national languages and their use in educational and academic settings, realistically speaking it would seem that, as elsewhere in the world, the outlook for
minority languages perceived as inferior is grim.
The Tibetan Government-in-Exile argue that social pressures and political efforts result in a policy of sinicization and feels that Beijing should promote the Tibetan language more.
Because many languages exist in China, they also have problems regarding diglossia. Recently, in terms of Fishman's typology of the relationships between bilingualism and diglossia and his taxonomy of diglossia (Fishman 1978, 1980) in China: more and more minority communities have been evolving from "diglossia without bilingualism" to "bilingualism without diglossia." This could be an implication of mainland China's power expanding.
In 2010, Tibetan students protested against changes in the Language Policy on the schools that promoted the use of Mandarin Chinese instead of Tibetan. They argued that the measure would erode their culture. In 2013, China's Education Ministry said that about 400 million people were unable to speak the national language Mandarin. In that year, the government pushed linguistic unity in China, focusing on the countryside and areas with ethnic minorities.
Mandarin Chinese is the prestige language in practice, and failure to protect ethnic languages does occur. In summer 2020, the Inner Mongolian government announced an education policy change to phase out Mongolian as the language of instructions for humanities in elementary and middle schools, adopting the national instruction material instead. Thousands of ethnic Mongolians in northern China gathered to protest the policy. The Ministry of Education describes the move as a natural extension of the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language () of 2000.
Study of foreign languages
English has been the most widely-taught foreign language in China, as it is a required subject for students attending university. Other languages that have gained some degree of prevalence or interest are Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian. During the 1950s and 1960s, Russian had some social status among elites in mainland China as the international language of socialism.
In the late 1960s, English replaced the position of Russian to become the most studied foreign language in China. After the Reform and Opening-up policy in 1988, English was taught in public schools starting in the third year of primary school.
Russian, French, and German language classes have been made widely available in universities and colleges. In Northeast China, there are many bilingual schools (Mandarin-Japanese; Mandarin-Korean; Mandarin-Russian), in these schools, students learn languages other than English.
The Economist reported in 2006 that up to one fifth of the population was learning English. Gordon Brown, the former British prime minister, estimated that the total English-speaking population in China would outnumber the native speakers in the rest of the world in two decades.
There have been a growing number of students studying Arabic, due to reasons of cultural interest and belief in better job opportunities. The language is also widely studied amongst the Hui people. In the past, literary Arabic education was promoted in Islamic schools by the Kuomintang when it ruled mainland China.
There have also been a growing number of students choosing to learn Urdu, due to interest in Pakistani culture, close ties between the respective nations, and job opportunities provided by the CPEC.
Interest in Portuguese and Spanish have increased greatly, due in part to Chinese investment in Latin America as well as in African nations such as Angola, Mozambique, and Cape Verde. Portuguese is also one of the official languages in Macau, although its use had stagnated since the nation's transfer from Portugal to the PRC. It was estimated in 2016 that 2.3% of Macau's locals spoke the language, although with government backing since then, interest in it has increased.
Use of English
In China, English is used as a lingua franca in several fields, especially for business settings, and in schools to teach Standard Mandarin to people who are not Chinese citizens. English is also one of the official languages in Hong Kong.
See also
Language Atlas of China
Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
Varieties of Chinese
List of varieties of Chinese
Han Chinese subgroups
Demographics of China
Racism in China
Hong Kong English
Languages of Hong Kong
Culture of Macau
Macanese Portuguese
List of ethnic groups in China
Classification of Southeast Asian languages
Cantonese
Standard Chinese
Chinglish
References
Further reading
External links
Minzu Yuwen (民族语文): Minority Languages of China journal
Linguistic maps of China on Muturzikin.com
Audio Bible recordings in various minority languages of China
Separatism in China | [
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243877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Hyde%2C%203rd%20Earl%20of%20Clarendon | Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon | Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon (28 November 1661 – 31 March 1723), styled Viscount Cornbury between 1674 and 1709, was an English aristocrat and politician. Better known by his noble title Lord Cornbury, he was propelled into the forefront of English politics when he and part of his army defected from the Catholic King James II to support the newly arrived Protestant contender, William III of Orange. These actions were part of the beginning of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Cornbury's choice to support his cousin Anne instead of William after the rebellion cost him his military commission. However, Cornbury's support of King William's reign eventually earned him the governorship of the provinces of New York and New Jersey; he served between 1701 and 1708.
As a High Tory governor, his primary mission was to protect the colonies during the War of the Spanish Succession (known in the Americas as Queen Anne's War, or the 2nd French and Indian War; 1701–1714). His administration successfully prevented French incursions into the middle colonies. However, he became mired in the region's many factional conflicts and accrued powerful political enemies such as Lewis Morris, who would go on to become Governor of New Jersey in 1738.
By 1708, war-weariness led to a shift in the political tide in Great Britain. Governor Cornbury was recalled from the colonies but was soon after installed as a member of Queen Anne's privy council. Lord Cornbury's fortunes changed again when George I was crowned King of Great Britain on 1 August 1714. Out of favour, Lord Cornbury died in Chelsea, London on 31 March 1723.
Lord Cornbury's conduct as governor has been generally remembered as scandalous. He was accused by his political enemies of being a cross-dresser, a moral profligate, and wildly corrupt. Few contemporary accounts exist of his conduct; and modern writers disagree as to whether or not Cornbury was actually a cross-dresser, or if Cornbury was possibly transgender.
Early life
The Honourable Edward Hyde, was born the only child of Henry, Viscount Cornbury & 2nd Earl of Clarendon (1638–1709) and Theodosia Capell (1640–1662), daughter of Arthur Capell, 1st Baron Capell of Hadham, and sister of Arthur Capell. Henry and Theodosia gave birth to Edward eleven months into their marriage. Only three months after Edward's birth, in March 1662, his mother Theodosia died of smallpox.
The Hyde family had close ties to the monarchy: Edward's grandfather, also named Edward, was the 1st Earl of Clarendon (1609–1674). He was born a commoner but became an important advisor to King Charles I (after 1641) and to Charles II (after 1651). He was best known for negotiating the Restoration of the English Monarchy in 1660 through a series of provisions known as the Clarendon Code. The same year Charles II regained the throne, Clarendon's daughter, Anne Hyde (1637–1671), married the new king's younger brother & heir, James, Duke of York. Meanwhile, Clarendon's eldest son, Henry, married into the Capells of Hadham, one of the richest families in England. Edward's aunt Anne, Duchess of York was the mother of two English Queens, Mary II and Anne.
At age 13, Edward matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford on 23 January 1675. Only a year earlier he had inherited the title Viscount Cornbury when his father succeeded as 2nd Earl of Clarendon. Oxford was followed by three years at l'Academie de Calvin in Geneva.
Military service
After graduation, Lord Cornbury joined the elite Royal Regiment of Dragoons under the command of John Churchill, the future Duke of Marlborough. He became lieutenant colonel in 1683. He was stationed in Vienna, Austria by the beginning of 1685, protecting the city from the Ottoman Empire. Cornbury first rose to prominence later that year, due to a struggle for the throne set in motion by King Charles II's death on 6 February 1685. James II was the legitimate heir, but he was a staunch Catholic. His nephew, James Fitzroy, the Duke of Monmouth, was illegitimate but a Protestant. On 11 June 1685, Monmouth landed in England hoping to gather popular support for his claim to the throne, triggering the Monmouth Rebellion.
In response, King James II appointed John Churchill as second in command of the Royalist armies, while Lord Cornbury was promoted to command the Royal Dragoons. The rebellion was quickly crushed, with the Royal Dragoons playing a prominent role. As a reward for his service, Cornbury was given a seat in the Loyal Parliament of 1685. He continued to distinguish himself, and was a member of parliament for Wiltshire until 1695, and for Christchurch from 1695 until 1701. He earnt the role of Master of the Horse to the King of Denmark in 1685.
Glorious Revolution
Cornbury played a crucial role in the Glorious Rebellion, becoming the first English officer to defect to the invading William III of Orange. The rebellion originated on 18 June 1688, when prominent English nobles (the "Immortal Seven") sent a letter to William III of Orange requesting his intervention in English politics on the Protestant side. In response, William arrived in Brixham, in southwest England on 5 November with over 450 ships, 15,000–18,000 men, and 3,660 cavalry. Cornbury's Dragoons was the first royalist unit to make contact with the invasion force – without engaging. A small skirmish was fought at Sherborne on 20 November, but shortly thereafter Lord Cornbury defected to William's side, bringing many of his dragoons with him. Four days later on 24 November Cornbury's mentor, Lord Churchill, also switched sides. Though a relatively small number of Cornbury's men defected with him, accounts range from a low of 27 to a high of 100, the effect of Cornbury and Churchill's actions were devastating to Loyalist morale, and rumours spread that the entirety of their regiments had defected with them. His father despaired at hearing his son was a rebel, but would eventually help negotiate between James and William.
By late December James had disbanded his army and fled to France. With James gone, Parliament debated whether William would rule as King in his own right, or as Queen Mary's consort. Lord Cornbury argued for placing his cousin Anne next in succession after Mary, bypassing William. In the end, Parliament favoured William, who viewed Cornbury's support of Anne as disloyal, and reneged on his battlefield vow that he would never forget Cornbury's service. He punished Cornbury by dismissing him from his regiment on 17 July 1689, and from his ceremonial post as Master of Horse in May 1690.
Post Revolution
Cornbury now found himself and his family without income and in increasing debt. As a noble, he could not simply get a job, he would need to find income through royal or political means. He struggled to get by from 1690 through 1698. However, he continued to represent parliament, and his political support of William paid off in multiple ways. In 1698, William agreed to pay £10 a week to Cornbury, easing his financial burdens. In the spring of 1701, William rewarded Cornbury's continued support and service and appointed Cornbury as Governor of New York.
William died before Cornbury become governor, and the crown went to Queen Mary II's younger sister Anne. Cornbury's support of her for the throne in the Glorious Revolution, combined with being her first cousin, served Cornbury well. Anne continued to support Cornbury, and would reward him generously on his return from the governorship.
Governor of New York and New Jersey
Lord Cornbury arrived in New York on 3 May 1702, to begin his governorship and was graciously welcomed by the local aristocracy. Hyde assumed the governorship amidst Queen Anne's War, which threatened the colonies. When Lord Cornbury was appointed governor, he was also made "captain-general of all forces by sea and land" for all colonies north of Virginia. Upon arrival, the new governor inspected the colony's ring of defensive forts and found them in total disrepair, with the key defensive fort at Albany essentially unusable.
In August 1703, the newly formed Province of New Jersey was added to Cornbury's responsibilities by Queen Anne.
The governor immediately dismissed Colonel Wolfgang William Römer, the imperial engineer who had responsibility for maintaining the forts. He then assumed direct oversight over a vast project to construct a large fortress ringed with stone ramparts (later named Fort Frederick). In August 1702, Governor Cornbury toured the site with representatives of the Iroquois Five Nations. In a report to the Lords of Trade dated 18 June 1703, Imperial Inspector Colonel Robert Quary reported on the construction of the forts:
Invasion by sea was the other threat to New York. The approaches to New York harbour were fortified by a rebuilt Fort William Henry on the tip of Manhattan Island, in addition to a line of forts and stockades on both banks of the Hudson River as far as the East River. A breastwork with cannon lined the island's riverbanks. Some of the cannon had been commandeered from ships in the harbuor. Fears of attack from the sea were realised on 26 July 1706, when the French 16-gun brig Queen Anne suddenly appeared off Sandy Hook at the harbour entrance. Rumours quickly spread that 10 more ships were on the way from the Virginia Capes.
The resulting panic was magnified by the fact that fortifications at the Verrazano narrows were as yet incomplete. The local populace rushed to the site and quickly dug defensive embankments. The French ship sailed away without attacking, and the approaching fleet turned out to be 10 ships that had been captured from the French. In 1703, the New York Assembly had assigned Mayor William Peartree to raise £1500 to complete the project. However, blame was quickly shifted to Governor Cornbury, with accusations of embezzlement. The charge prompted the New York Assembly to cut off funding to the governor and manage the colonial budget directly. No French or native incursions into New York Colony occurred throughout the 11-year war.
Religious issues and politics
Despite an Anglican minority, Governor Cornbury was determined to secure the Church of England as the state religion in the colonies. He was shocked to discover that public funds had been used to build and maintain a Presbyterian church in the village of Jamaica on Long Island. On 4 July 1704, the church, parsonage, and associated buildings were confiscated for use by the Anglican Church.
Cornbury's most notorious religious scandal involved Reverend Francis Makemie (1658–1708), the "Father of American Presbyterianism". During 1683–1706, the minister established the first Presbyterian congregations in America, primarily in Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. While passing through New York in January 1707, Reverend Makemie led a worship service in a private home. During the service, he performed an infant baptism. In doing so, he violated several English laws prohibiting the practice of "dissenter" religions.
It was a time of increased tension: the Acts of Union (1706 & 1707) had just united England and Scotland under a single government. Most Scots vehemently disapproved of the change, Presbyterians in particular. Rumours circulated about dissenter groups plotting subversion, riot or revolution. High Tories like Cornbury rallied to the cry of "The Church in Danger" – the supposed threat posed by Whigs and Nonconformists. Governor Cornbury duly arrested the visiting minister for preaching without a license. Seven weeks later Makemie faced trial by the Supreme Court of New York and was acquitted. Furious, the governor ordered the minister to pay all expenses for the trial.
During this period Cornbury found himself at odds with the Lewis Morris (1671–1746), then a member of the New Jersey Provincial Council and eventual rival of Cornbury. Cornbury responded by suspending Morris from the upper house in September 1704. Morris apologised to the governor and was reinstated, but in December 1704 Cornbury suspended him again.
Meanwhile, the Anglican Church prospered. Trinity Church, the first meetinghouse in New York, had opened for worship on 3 Mar 1698. In 1705, Governor Cornbury and Lewis Morris – despite the animosity between the two – arranged to add 215 acres from Morris's holdings, known as The Queen's Farm, to the Trinity Church holdings. The site was earmarked for a new college, which was finally founded in 1754 as King's College. On 1 May 1784 the name was changed to Columbia University. Columbia University denies having ties to the former governor:
The first street in New York was paved, with sidewalks install in 1648 by Anneke Lockermans Van Cortland, when the city was still New Amsterdam. This set the tone for the English to follow. During the second half of Cornbury's term, the streets and sidewalks were paved with cobblestone (in the area around Trinity Church), fire-buckets were positioned throughout the town, and a fledgling fire department was created with two hooks and eight ladders.
End of governorship
Meanwhile, in New York, Tory Governor Cornbury had become another casualty of the Whig revolution (he was recalled in June 1708). The cabinet believed that he had been too passive militarily. It also seemed unlikely that he would be able to procure the necessary funding from the contentious colonial assembly.
Post-governorship
In December 1708, he was put under house arrest by the sheriff of New York City for outstanding debts. Since 1705, both the New York & New Jersey Assemblies had refused to appropriate funds for the governor's salary and support of the colonial garrison. Both were forced to survive on borrowed funds, which had led to Cornbury accruing large debts. As a result, the ex-governor was still in town to welcome his successor, John Lovelace, Baron of Hurley (who arrived on 18 December 1708.) Unfortunately, the new governor died five months later. Administration of the colony then fell to Richard Ingoldsby, who had been Cornbury's Lieutenant Governor and avid supporter. Thus colonial policy continued unchanged. Colonists continued to beg for Cornbury's intervention in local affairs for at least another decade. After a series of acting governors, General Robert Hunter arrived in 1710 to fill the post permanently. He served until 1720.
Cornbury's fortunes found reversal soon after his recall as governor. His father's death elevated him to the Peerage, and with it, Parliamentary immunity against civil actions, thus rescuing him from debtors' prison (31 Oct 1709). Upon his return to England, the queen awarded him a pension and lodging at Somerset House, one of the royal palaces. He joined the Harley Ministry as first commissioner of the admiralty in December 1711.
Although a member of Harley's cabinet, Cornbury was able to remain untainted by the series of scandals that rocked the Tory leadership during this period: His old mentor, the Duke of Marlborough was removed from his place as Captain-General (29 December 1711), charged with bribery and embezzlement. Several "High Tories" were implicated in the (Catholic) Jacobite rising of 1715, which supported James Francis Edward Stuart as the successor to the dying queen. And finally, he was not linked to Harley's South Seas Bubble, which caused the ruin and bankruptcy of many aristocrats and office holders in 1720–1721.
Special emissary to Hanover and death
Amid political turmoil, Queen Anne sent Cornbury as a replacement for Harley's emissary to her successor, George, Elector of Hannover (1660–1727; King 1714–1727). From his arrival in August 1714 until the Queen's death in November, Cornbury dined and spent his evenings with the royal family. "My Lord Clarendon is very much approved of at Court", wrote his secretary, John Gay.
Once King George I assumed the British throne following the Hanoverian Succession, his animosity toward the Tories became apparent, and Cornbury lost his position as an emissary. Cornbury continued to be active in the House of Lords until about 1720. He died on 31 March 1723 at Chelsea, London, his death received little notice. He is interred in the Henry VII chapel in Westminster Abbey, in the Hyde family crypt.
Conduct in office
Hyde has maintained a scandalous reputation for much of history, known for being highly corrupt and being an easy caricature of the wrongs and incompetence that American colonists perceived came as a result of being under British colonial rule. Author and journalist Shelly Ross agreed with this viewpoint and saw Cornbury as corrupt, in both moral and governmental terms. Ross wrote that Cornbury's alleged conduct helped to start the American Revolution, and that framers of the constitution had Lord Cornbury in mind when they wrote the articles of impeachment. The only modern biography that focuses solely on Hyde was written by New York University professor Patricia Bonomi in 1998 and takes a more nuanced view of Cornbury.
Alleged cross-dressing
Lord Cornbury was infamously alleged to have opened the 1702 New York Assembly in drag. He wore a "hooped gown and elaborate headdress and carrying a fan, much in the style of the fashionable Queen Anne." Ross, writing in 1988, called him a transvestite and takes his cross-dressing as fact. However, Bonomi (1998) concluded that he was not a crossdresser, as a royal governor could not have publicly cross-dressed without severe censure. Bonomi further states that the contemporary descriptions of Cornbury do not comport with him being either a homosexual or heterosexual transvestite, but that the sporadic nature of his alleged cross-dressing would might place him at the more heterosexual end of the "broad middle category of transvestites", especially as the "evidence regarding Cornbury's personal life is devoid of any of the traits of transgenderism or transexualism that occupy the rest of this category." She writes that it is possible to speculate that his attachment to "the military and to manly honour was a way of compensating for an incompletely devloped masculine identity." Or his transvestitic fetish, if he had one, and the guilt and psychological distress it caused might have found outlet in his alleged rages. She speculates that this fetish might have intensified after the death of his wife, emboldening him to attempt to "pass" as a woman in public. Bonomi ultimately concludes that Lord Cornbury's crossdressing was invented by his political enemies in order to "assassinate" Cornbury's character.
Monetary corruption
According to Ross, Cornbury dispensed thousands of state acres in a corrupt fashion. The most solid evidence of misappropriation of land by Lord Cornbury came in 1706 when he granted a swath of government land south of Albany to nine friends of his, which included his secretary. The transaction, which included part of the Great Nine Partners Patent, was likely illegal and was sold by Hyde for cash. The land would eventually become Hyde Park (named for Lord Cornbury), famous for being the home of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Virtually every reference written about Lord Cornbury has described him in disparaging terms. The criticisms can be traced back to a spring 1706 complaint written to the newly appointed Whig ministry by Lewis Morris (1671–1746), and Samuel Jennings (about 1660–1708) in behalf of the New Jersey Assembly. In 1708, the New York Assembly followed suit with their letter. Specific accusations included:
Asserting royal prerogative over locally elected assemblies
Accepting bribes
Persecution of the Presbyterians by confiscating church property and imprisoning their ministers
Embezzlement of defense funds
Fiscal mismanagement, leading to a large amount of public & personal debt
Such complaints were commonplace during that era. Similar allegations were made about the royal governors who preceded and succeeded Cornbury – both in New York & New Jersey, and in the other colonies. What was unique about Governor Cornbury was the allegation of wearing women's clothes.
A generation later, the story was told of a conversation about Lord Cornbury between the famous Whig minister & author Horace Walpole (1717–1797) and author George James Williams (1719–1805). Walpole recounted that:
Williams reply was reportedly:
Family
Lord Cornbury eloped with Katherine O'Brien, the 8th Baroness Clifton on 10 July 1685. She was the daughter of Henry O'Brien, Lord Ibrackan, 7th Earl of Thomond. Lady Cornbury died at the age of 33 in New York on 11 August 1706 and was buried at Trinity Church, New York.
Children:
Catherine Hyde. Died young.
Mary Hyde (–1697)
Edward Hyde, Viscount Cornbury & 9th Baron Clifton (1691–February 1713), Died unmarried at age 22 due to fever.
Theodosia Hyde, 10th Baroness Clifton (9 November 1695 – 30 July 1722) Married August 1713 to John Bligh, the 1st Earl of Darnley (1687–1728). Died of sepsis at age 26 shortly after the birth of her 7th child.
Portrait
No confirmed contemporary portraits of Cornbury exist. An uncaptioned 18th-century portrait that hangs in the New-York Historical Society has been commonly believed to be Governor Cornbury wearing a dress. Professor Bonomi suggested that the subject was not Cornbury. However, other art historians have remained unconvinced.
The Dallas Museum of Art has a different portrait of unknown provenance also ascribed to be Lord Cornbury in a Dress, painted sometime between 1705 and 1750.
In popular culture
Androboros ["man-eater" in corrupted Greek], a play by Robert Hunter, Cornbury's successor as Governor of New York (1710–1719) was a satire that ridiculed prominent New York citizens, including Lord Cornbury (as "Lord Oinobaros" ["heavy with wine"]). Crossdressing was a central theme in the play. It was one of the first plays written and published in Britain's American colonies. It was recently revived by the Peculiar Works Project of New York City on 4–6 November 2016, under the direction of Ralph Lewis.
Cornbury was the lead character in the play Cornbury: The Queen's Governor – first presented as a staged reading at The Public Theater on 12 April 1976, the play was written by William M. Hoffman and Anthony Holland. Joseph Papp produced and Holland directed, with Joseph Maher in the role of Cornbury. The play was revived in 2009 at the Hudson Guild Theater under the direction of Tim Cusack. David Greenspan played Cornbury.
He also made appearances in Edward Rutherfurd's historical saga novel New York, in Daniel Pinkwater's "The Adventures of a Cat-Whiskered Girl", and in Robert McCammon's "Matthew Corbett" series of novels.
See also
List of deserters from James II to William of Orange
Notes
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bonomi, Patricia (1998). The Lord Cornbury Scandal: The Politics of Reputation in British America. University of North Carolina Press.
Booth, Mary L (1859). History of the City of New York from its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. New York: Clark & Meeker, esp. Chapter IX. Available at: https://archive.org/details/historycitynewy03bootgoog
Cody, Edward J. (1982). The Governors of New Jersey 1664–1974. Edited by Paul A. Stellham and Michael J. Birkner. Trenton, NJ: The Commission. Pages 36–39.
Stone, Wiliam L (1892). Chapter II: The Administration of Lord Cornbury, 1702–1708 (pages 55–92), in The Memorial History of the City of New York, Vol II, ed James Wilson; New York: New York History Company available at: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_6202415_002/index.html
Reynolds, Cuyler Ed (1906). Albany Chronicles: A History of the City Arranged Chronologically from the Earliest Settlement to the Present Time, Albany: Lyon Co Printers. [archive.org/details/albanychronicles01reyn]
External links
Royal Berkshire History: Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon
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243879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoarchaeum%20equitans | Nanoarchaeum equitans | Nanoarchaeum equitans is a species of marine archaea that was discovered in 2002 in a hydrothermal vent off the coast of Iceland on the Kolbeinsey Ridge by Karl Stetter. It has been proposed as the first species in a new phylum. Strains of this microbe were also found on the Sub-polar Mid Oceanic Ridge, and in the Obsidian Pool in Yellowstone National Park. Since it grows in temperatures approaching boiling, at about 80 degrees Celsius, it is considered to be a thermophile. It grows best in environments with a pH of 6, and a salinity concentration of 2%. Nanoarchaeum appears to be an obligate symbiont on the archaeon Ignicoccus; it must be in contact with the host organism to survive. Nanoarchaeum equitans cannot synthesize lipids but obtains them from its host. Its cells are only 400 nm in diameter, making it one of the smallest known cellular organisms, and the smallest known archaeon.
N. equitans genome consists of a single circular chromosome, and has an average GC-content of 31.6%. It lacks almost all of the genes required for the synthesis of amino acids, nucleotides, cofactors, and lipids, but encodes everything needed for repair and replication. N. equitans contains several genes that encode proteins employed in recombination, suggesting that N. equitans can undergo homologous recombination. A total of 95% of its DNA encodes for proteins or stable RNA molecules.
N. equitans has small appendages that come out of its circular structure. The cell surface is covered by a thin, lattice-shaped S-layer, which provides structure and protection for the entire cell.
Genome
Mycoplasma genitalium (580 Kbp in size, with 515 protein-coding genes) was regarded as a cellular unit with the smallest genome size until 2003 when Nanoarchaeum was sequenced (491 Kbp, with 536 protein-coding genes).
Genetically, Nanoarchaeum is peculiar in that its 16S RNA sequence is undetectable by the most common methods. Initial examination of single-stranded ribosomal RNA indicated that the organism most likely belonged to the Archaea domain. However, its difference from the existing phyla, Euryarchaeota and Crenarchaeota, was as great as the difference between the phyla. Therefore, it was given its own phylum, called Nanoarchaeota. However, another group (see References) compared all of the open reading frames to the other Archaea. They argue that the initial sample, ribosomal RNA only, was biased and Nanoarchaeum actually belongs to the Euryarchaeota phylum.
The sequencing of the Nanoarchaeum genome has revealed a wealth of information about the organism's biology. The genes for several vital metabolic pathways appear to be missing. Nanoarchaeum cannot synthesize most nucleotides, amino acids, lipids, and cofactors. The cell most likely obtains these biomolecules from Ignicoccus. In particular, N. equitans lacks all of the genes that encode purine nucleotide biosynthesis in other organisms. However, unlike many parasitic microbes, Nanoarchaeum has many DNA repair enzymes, as well as everything necessary to carry out DNA replication, transcription, and translation. This may explain why the genome lacks the large stretches of non-coding DNA characteristic of other parasites.
The organism's ability to produce its own ATP is also in question.
Nanoarchaeum lacks the ability to metabolize hydrogen and sulfur for energy, as many thermophiles do. It does have five subunits of an ATP synthase as well as pathways for oxidative deamination. Whether it obtains energy from biological molecules imported from Ignicoccus, or whether it receives ATP directly is currently unknown. The genome and proteome composition of N. equitans are marked with the signatures of dual adaptation – one to high temperature and the other to obligate parasitism (or symbiosis).
See also
Archaea
Candidatus Carsonella ruddii, Rickettsia, and other Proteobacteria
Ignicoccus
Mycoplasma
References
(This paper represents the first discovery of Nanoarchaeum.)
(This paper describes the genome sequence of Nanoarchaeum.)
(Recent work suggesting that Nanoarchaeum is not a new phylum of archaea, but is a type of euryarchaeon.)
(This paper describes the genome and proteome analysis of Nanoarchaeum.)
Further reading
External links
NCBI taxonomy page for Nanoarchaeota
Tree of Life Nanoarchaeota
LSPN page for Nanoarchaeota
MicrobeWiki page for Nanoarchaeum
Archaea
Archaea described in 2002
Organisms living on hydrothermal vents | [
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243880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoarchaeota | Nanoarchaeota | Nanoarchaeota (Greek, "dwarf or tiny ancient one") are a phylum of the Archaea. This phylum currently has only one representative, Nanoarchaeum equitans.
Taxonomy
Phylum "Nanoarchaeota" Huber et al. 2002
Class "Nanoarchaeia"
Order "Nanoarchaeales" Huber et al. 2011
Family "Nanoarchaeaceae" Huber et al. 2011
Genus "Nanoarchaeum" Huber et al. 2002
"Nanoarchaeum equitans" Huber et al. 2002
Family "Nanopusillaceae" Huber et al. 2011
Genus "Candidatus Nanoclepta" St. John et al. 2019
"Candidatus Nanoclepta minuta" St. John et al. 2019
Genus "Candidatus Nanopusillus" Wurch et al. 2016
"Ca. N. acidilobi" Wurch et al. 2016
"Ca. N. stetteri" (Castelle et al. 2015) Rinke et al. 2020
References
Further reading
Scientific journals
Scientific books
Scientific databases
External links
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243881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%20%28programming%20language%29 | D (programming language) | D, also known as Dlang, is a multi-paradigm system programming language created by Walter Bright at Digital Mars and released in 2001. Andrei Alexandrescu joined the design and development effort in 2007. Though it originated as a re-engineering of C++, D is a distinct language. It has redesigned some core C++ features, while also sharing characteristics of other languages, notably Java, Python, Ruby, C#, and Eiffel.
The design goals of the language attempted to combine the performance and safety of compiled languages with the expressive power of modern dynamic languages. Idiomatic D code is commonly as fast as equivalent C++ code, while also being shorter. The language as a whole is not memory-safe but does include optional attributes designed to check memory safety.
Type inference, automatic memory management and syntactic sugar for common types allow faster development, while bounds checking, design by contract features and a concurrency-aware type system help reduce the occurrence of bugs.
Features
D was designed with lessons learned from practical C++ usage, rather than from a purely theoretical perspective. Although the language uses many C and C++ concepts, it also discards some, or uses different approaches (and syntax) to achieve some goals. As such, it is not source compatible (nor does it aim to be) with C and C++ source code in general (some simpler code bases from these languages might by luck work with D, or require some porting). D has, however, been constrained in its design by the rule that any code that was legal in both C and D should behave in the same way.
D gained some features before C++, such as closures, anonymous functions, compile-time function execution, ranges, built-in container iteration concepts and type inference. D adds to the functionality of C++ by also implementing design by contract, unit testing, true modules, garbage collection, first class arrays, associative arrays, dynamic arrays, array slicing, nested functions, lazy evaluation, scoped (deferred) code execution, and a re-engineered template syntax. C++ multiple inheritance was replaced by Java-style single inheritance with interfaces and mixins. On the other hand, D's declaration, statement and expression syntax closely matches that of C++.
D retains C++'s ability to perform low-level programming including inline assembler, which typifies the differences between D and application languages like Java and C#. Inline assembler lets programmers enter machine-specific assembly code within standard D code, a method used by system programmers to access the low-level features of the processor needed to run programs that interface directly with the underlying hardware, such as operating systems and device drivers, as well as writing high-performance code (i.e. using vector extensions, SIMD) that is hard to generate by the compiler automatically.
D supports function overloading and operator overloading, as well as dynamic arrays and associative arrays by default. Symbols (functions, variables, classes) can be declared in any order - forward declarations are not required. Similarly imports can be done almost in any order, and even be scoped (i.e. import some module or part of it inside a function, class or unittest only). D has built-in support for documentation comments, allowing automatic documentation generation.
In D, text character strings are just arrays of characters, and arrays in D are bounds-checked, unlike those in C++. Specific operators for string handling exist, visually distinct from mathematical corellaries. D has first class types for complex and imaginary numbers, and evaluates expressions involving such types, efficiently.
Programming paradigms
D supports five main programming paradigms:
concurrent (actor model)
object-oriented
imperative
functional
metaprogramming
Imperative
Imperative programming in D is almost identical to that in C. Functions, data, statements, declarations and expressions work just as they do in C, and the C runtime library may be accessed directly. On the other hand, some notable differences between D and C in the area of imperative programming include D's foreach loop construct, which allows looping over a collection, and nested functions, which are functions that are declared inside another and may access the enclosing function's local variables.
import std.stdio;
void main() {
int multiplier = 10;
int scaled(int x) { return x * multiplier; }
foreach (i; 0 .. 10) {
writefln("Hello, world %d! scaled = %d", i, scaled(i));
}
}
Object-oriented
Object-oriented programming in D is based on a single inheritance hierarchy, with all classes derived from class Object. D does not support multiple inheritance; instead, it uses Java-style interfaces, which are comparable to C++'s pure abstract classes, and mixins, which separates common functionality from the inheritance hierarchy. D also allows the defining of static and final (non-virtual) methods in interfaces.
Interfaces and inheritance in D support covariant types for return types of overridden methods.
D supports type forwarding, as well as optional custom dynamic dispatch.
Classes (and interfaces) in D can contain invariants which are automatically checked before and after entry to public methods, in accordance with the design by contract methodology.
Many aspects of classes (and structs) can be introspected automatically at compile time (a form of reflection using type traits) and at run time (RTII / TypeInfo), to facilitate generic code or automatic code generation (usually using compile-time techniques).
Functional
D supports functional programming features such as function literals, closures, recursively-immutable objects and the use of higher-order functions. There are two syntaxes for anonymous functions, including a multiple-statement form and a "shorthand" single-expression notation:
int function(int) g;
g = (x) { return x * x; }; // longhand
g = (x) => x * x; // shorthand
There are two built-in types for function literals, function, which is simply a pointer to a stack-allocated function, and delegate, which also includes a pointer to the surrounding environment. Type inference may be used with an anonymous function, in which case the compiler creates a delegate unless it can prove that an environment pointer is not necessary. Likewise, to implement a closure, the compiler places enclosed local variables on the heap only if necessary (for example, if a closure is returned by another function, and exits that function's scope). When using type inference, the compiler will also add attributes such as pure and nothrow to a function's type, if it can prove that they apply.
Other functional features such as currying and common higher-order functions such as map, filter, and reduce are available through the standard library modules std.functional and std.algorithm.
import std.stdio, std.algorithm, std.range;
void main()
{
int[] a1 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9];
int[] a2 = [6, 7, 8, 9];
// must be immutable to allow access from inside a pure function
immutable pivot = 5;
int mySum(int a, int b) pure nothrow // pure function
{
if (b <= pivot) // ref to enclosing-scope
return a + b;
else
return a;
}
// passing a delegate (closure)
auto result = reduce!mySum(chain(a1, a2));
writeln("Result: ", result); // Result: 15
// passing a delegate literal
result = reduce!((a, b) => (b <= pivot) ? a + b : a)(chain(a1, a2));
writeln("Result: ", result); // Result: 15
}
Alternatively, the above function compositions can be expressed using Uniform function call syntax (UFCS) for more natural left-to-right reading:
auto result = a1.chain(a2).reduce!mySum();
writeln("Result: ", result);
result = a1.chain(a2).reduce!((a, b) => (b <= pivot) ? a + b : a)();
writeln("Result: ", result);
Parallelism
Parallel programming concepts are implemented in the library, and do not require extra support from the compiler. However the D type system and compiler ensure that data sharing can be detected and managed transparently.
import std.stdio : writeln;
import std.range : iota;
import std.parallelism : parallel;
void main()
{
foreach (i; iota(11).parallel) {
// The body of the foreach loop is executed in parallel for each i
writeln("processing ", i);
}
}
iota(11).parallel is equivalent to std.parallelism.parallel(iota(11)) by using UFCS.
The same module also supports taskPool which can be used for dynamic creation of parallel tasks, as well as map-filter-reduce and fold style operations on ranges (and arrays), which is useful when combined with functional operations. std.algorithm.map returns a lazily evaluated range rather than an array. This way, the elements are computed by each worker task in parallel automatically.
import std.stdio : writeln;
import std.algorithm : map;
import std.range : iota;
import std.parallelism : taskPool;
/* On Intel i7-3930X and gdc 9.3.0:
* 5140ms using std.algorithm.reduce
* 888ms using std.parallelism.taskPool.reduce
*
* On AMD Threadripper 2950X, and gdc 9.3.0:
* 2864ms using std.algorithm.reduce
* 95ms using std.parallelism.taskPool.reduce
*/
void main()
{
auto nums = iota(1.0, 1_000_000_000.0);
auto x = taskPool.reduce!"a + b"(
0.0, map!"1.0 / (a * a)"(nums)
);
writeln("Sum: ", x);
}
Concurrency
Concurrency is fully implemented in the library, and it does not require support from the compiler. Alternative implementations and methodologies of writing concurrent code are possible. The use of D typing system does help ensure memory safety.
import std.stdio, std.concurrency, std.variant;
void foo()
{
bool cont = true;
while (cont)
{
receive( // Delegates are used to match the message type.
(int msg) => writeln("int received: ", msg),
(Tid sender) { cont = false; sender.send(-1); },
(Variant v) => writeln("huh?") // Variant matches any type
);
}
}
void main()
{
auto tid = spawn(&foo); // spawn a new thread running foo()
foreach (i; 0 .. 10)
tid.send(i); // send some integers
tid.send(1.0f); // send a float
tid.send("hello"); // send a string
tid.send(thisTid); // send a struct (Tid)
receive((int x) => writeln("Main thread received message: ", x));
}
Metaprogramming
Metaprogramming is supported through templates, compile-time function execution, tuples, and string mixins. The following examples demonstrate some of D's compile-time features.
Templates in D can be written in a more imperative style compared to the C++ functional style for templates. This is a regular function that calculates the factorial of a number:
ulong factorial(ulong n) {
if (n < 2)
return 1;
else
return n * factorial(n-1);
}
Here, the use of static if, D's compile-time conditional construct, is demonstrated to construct a template that performs the same calculation using code that is similar to that of the function above:
template Factorial(ulong n) {
static if (n < 2)
enum Factorial = 1;
else
enum Factorial = n * Factorial!(n-1);
}
In the following two examples, the template and function defined above are used to compute factorials. The types of constants need not be specified explicitly as the compiler infers their types from the right-hand sides of assignments:
enum fact_7 = Factorial!(7);
This is an example of compile-time function execution (CTFE). Ordinary functions may be used in constant, compile-time expressions provided they meet certain criteria:
enum fact_9 = factorial(9);
The std.string.format function performs printf-like data formatting (also at compile-time, through CTFE), and the "msg" pragma displays the result at compile time:
import std.string : format;
pragma(msg, format("7! = %s", fact_7));
pragma(msg, format("9! = %s", fact_9));
String mixins, combined with compile-time function execution, allow for the generation of D code using string operations at compile time. This can be used to parse domain-specific languages, which will be compiled as part of the program:
import FooToD; // hypothetical module which contains a function that parses Foo source code
// and returns equivalent D code
void main() {
mixin(fooToD(import("example.foo")));
}
Memory management
Memory is usually managed with garbage collection, but specific objects may be finalized immediately when they go out of scope. This is what majority of programs and libraries written in D use.
In case more control about memory layout and better performance is needed, explicit memory management is possible using the overloaded operators new and delete, by calling C's malloc and free directly, or implementing custom allocator schemes (i.e. on stack with fallback, RAII style allocation, reference counting, shared reference counting). Garbage collection can be controlled: programmers may add and exclude memory ranges from being observed by the collector, can disable and enable the collector and force either a generational or full collection cycle. The manual gives many examples of how to implement different highly optimized memory management schemes for when garbage collection is inadequate in a program.
In functions, structs are by default allocated on the stack, while classes by default allocated on the heap (with only reference to the class instance being on the stack). However this can be changed for classes, for example using standard library template std.typecons.scoped, or by using new for structs and assigning to pointer instead to value-based variable.
In function, static arrays (of known size) are allocated on stack. For dynamic arrays one can use core.stdc.stdlib.alloca function (similar to C function alloca, to allocate memory on stack. The returned pointer can be used (recast) into a (typed) dynamic array, by means of a slice (however resizing array, including appending must be avoided; and for obvious reasons they must not be returned from the function).
A scope keyword can be used both to annotate parts of code, but also variables and classes/structs, to indicate they should be destroyed (destructor called) immediately on scope exit. Whatever the memory is deallocated also depends on implementation and class-vs-struct differences.
std.experimental.allocator contains a modular and composable allocator templates, to create custom high performance allocators for special use cases.
SafeD
SafeD
is the name given to the subset of D that can be guaranteed to be memory safe (no writes to memory that has not been allocated or that has been recycled). Functions marked @safe are checked at compile time to ensure that they do not use any features that could result in corruption of memory, such as pointer arithmetic and unchecked casts, and any other functions called must also be marked as @safe or @trusted. Functions can be marked @trusted for the cases where the compiler cannot distinguish between safe use of a feature that is disabled in SafeD and a potential case of memory corruption.
Scope Lifetime Safety
Initially under the banners of DIP1000 and DIP25 (now part of the language specification), D provides protections against certain ill-formed constructions involving the lifetimes of data.
The current mechanisms in place primarily deal with function parameters and stack memory however it is a stated ambition of the leadership of the programming language to provide a more thorough treatment of lifetimes within the D programming language. (Influenced by ideas from Rust programming language).
Lifetime Safety of Assignments
Within @safe code, the lifetime of an assignment involving a reference type is checked to ensure that the lifetime of the assignee is longer than that of the assigned.
For example:
@safe void test()
{
int tmp = 0; // #1
int* rad; // #2
rad = &tmp; // If the order of the declarations of #1 and #2 is reversed, this fails.
{
int bad = 45; // Lifetime of "bad" only extends to the scope in which it is defined.
*rad = bad; // This is kosher.
rad = &bad; // Lifetime of rad longer than bad, hence this is not kosher at all.
}
}
Function Parameter Lifetime Annotations within @safe code
When applied to function parameter which are either of pointer type or references, the keywords return and scope constrain the lifetime and use of that parameter.
The Standard Dictates the following behaviour:
An Annotated Example is given below.@safe:
int* gp;
void thorin(scope int*);
void gloin(int*);
int* balin(return scope int* p, scope int* q, int* r)
{
gp = p; // error, p escapes to global gp
gp = q; // error, q escapes to global gp
gp = r; // ok
thorin(p); // ok, p does not escape thorin()
thorin(q); // ok
thorin(r); // ok
gloin(p); // error, gloin() escapes p
gloin(q); // error, gloin() escapes q
gloin(r); // ok that gloin() escapes r
return p; // ok
return q; // error, cannot return 'scope' q
return r; // ok
}
Interaction with other systems
C's application binary interface (ABI) is supported, as well as all of C's fundamental and derived types, enabling direct access to existing C code and libraries. D bindings are available for many popular C libraries. Additionally, C's standard library is part of standard D.
On Microsoft Windows, D can access Component Object Model (COM) code.
As long as memory management is properly taken care of, many other languages can be mixed with D in a single binary. For example GDC compiler allow to link C, C++, and other supported language codes to be intermixed. D code (functions) can also be marked as using C, C++, Pascal ABIs, and thus be passed to the libraries written in these languages as callbacks. Similarly data can be interchanged between the codes written in these languages in both ways. This usually restricts use to primitive types, pointers, some forms of arrays, unions, structs, and only some types of function pointers.
Because many other programming languages often provide the C API for writing extensions or running the interpreter of the languages, D can interface directly with these languages as well, using standard C bindings (with a thin D interface file). For example, there are bi-directional bindings for languages like Python, Lua and other languages, often using compile-time code generation and compile-time type reflection methods.
Interaction with C++ code
D takes a permissive but realistic approach to interoperation with C++ code.
For D code marked as extern(C++), the following features are specified:
The name mangling conventions shall match those of C++ on the target.
For Function Calls, the ABI shall be equivalent.
The vtable shall be matched up to single inheritance (The only level supported by the D language specification).
C++ namespaces are used via the syntax extern(C++, namespace) where namespace is the name of the C++ namespace.
An Example of C++ interoperation
The C++ side
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Base
{
public:
virtual void print3i(int a, int b, int c) = 0;
};
class Derived : public Base
{
public:
int field;
Derived(int field) : field(field) {}
void print3i(int a, int b, int c)
{
cout << "a = " << a << endl;
cout << "b = " << b << endl;
cout << "c = " << c << endl;
}
int mul(int factor);
};
int Derived::mul(int factor)
{
return field * factor;
}
Derived *createInstance(int i)
{
return new Derived(i);
}
void deleteInstance(Derived *&d)
{
delete d;
d = 0;
}
The D side
extern(C++)
{
abstract class Base
{
void print3i(int a, int b, int c);
}
class Derived : Base
{
int field;
@disable this();
override void print3i(int a, int b, int c);
final int mul(int factor);
}
Derived createInstance(int i);
void deleteInstance(ref Derived d);
}
void main()
{
import std.stdio;
auto d1 = createInstance(5);
writeln(d1.field);
writeln(d1.mul(4));
Base b1 = d1;
b1.print3i(1, 2, 3);
deleteInstance(d1);
assert(d1 is null);
auto d2 = createInstance(42);
writeln(d2.field);
deleteInstance(d2);
assert(d2 is null);
}
Better C
The D programming language has an official subset known as "". This subset forbids access to D features requiring use of runtime libraries other than that of C.
Enabled via the compiler flags "-betterC" on DMD and LDC, and "-fno-druntime" on GDC, may only call into D code compiled under the same flag (and linked code other than D) but code compiled without the option may call into code compiled with it: this will, however, lead to slightly different behaviours due to differences in how C and D handle asserts.
Features included in Better C
Unrestricted use of compile-time features (for example, D's dynamic allocation features can be used at compile time to pre-allocate D data)
Full metaprogramming facilities
Nested functions, nested structs, delegates and lambdas
Member functions, constructors, destructors, operating overloading, etc.
The full module system
Array slicing, and array bounds checking
RAII
Memory safety protections
Interfacing with C++
COM classes and C++ classes
assert failures are directed to the C runtime library
switch with strings
final switch
unittest blocks
printf format validation
Features excluded from Better C
Garbage collection
TypeInfo and ModuleInfo
Built-in threading (e.g. core.thread)
Dynamic arrays (though slices of static arrays work) and associative arrays
Exceptions
synchronized and core.sync
Static module constructors or destructors
History
Walter Bright started working on a new language in 1999. D was first released in December 2001 and reached version 1.0 in January 2007. The first version of the language (D1) concentrated on the imperative, object oriented and metaprogramming paradigms, similar to C++.
Some members of the D community dissatisfied with Phobos, D's official runtime and standard library, created an alternative runtime and standard library named Tango. The first public Tango announcement came within days of D 1.0's release. Tango adopted a different programming style, embracing OOP and high modularity. Being a community-led project, Tango was more open to contributions, which allowed it to progress faster than the official standard library. At that time, Tango and Phobos were incompatible due to different runtime support APIs (the garbage collector, threading support, etc.). This made it impossible to use both libraries in the same project. The existence of two libraries, both widely in use, has led to significant dispute due to some packages using Phobos and others using Tango.
In June 2007, the first version of D2 was released. The beginning of D2's development signaled D1's stabilization. The first version of the language has been placed in maintenance, only receiving corrections and implementation bugfixes. D2 introduced breaking changes to the language, beginning with its first experimental const system. D2 later added numerous other language features, such as closures, purity, and support for the functional and concurrent programming paradigms. D2 also solved standard library problems by separating the runtime from the standard library. The completion of a D2 Tango port was announced in February 2012.
The release of Andrei Alexandrescu's book The D Programming Language on 12 June 2010, marked the stabilization of D2, which today is commonly referred to as just "D".
In January 2011, D development moved from a bugtracker / patch-submission basis to GitHub. This has led to a significant increase in contributions to the compiler, runtime and standard library.
In December 2011, Andrei Alexandrescu announced that D1, the first version of the language, would be discontinued on 31 December 2012. The final D1 release, D v1.076, was on 31 December 2012.
Code for the official D compiler, the Digital Mars D compiler by Walter Bright, was originally released under a custom license, qualifying as source available but not conforming to the open source definition. In 2014, the compiler front-end was re-licensed as open source under the Boost Software License. This re-licensed code excluded the back-end, which had been partially developed at Symantec. On 7 April 2017, the whole compiler was made available under the Boost license after Symantec gave permission to re-license the back-end, too. On 21 June 2017, the D Language was accepted for inclusion in GCC.
Implementations
Most current D implementations compile directly into machine code for efficient execution.
Production ready compilers:
DMD – The Digital Mars D compiler by Walter Bright is the official D compiler; open sourced under the Boost Software License. The DMD frontend is shared by GDC (now in GCC) and LDC, to improve compatibility between compilers. Initially the frontend was written in C++, but now most of it is now written in D itself (self-hosting). The backend and machine code optimizers are based on the Symantec compiler. At first it supported only 32-bit x86, with support added for 64-bit amd64 and PowerPC by Walter Bright. Later the backend and almost the entire compiler was ported from C++ to D for full self-hosting.
GCC – The GNU Compiler Collection, merged GDC into GCC 9 on 29 October 2018. The first working versions of GDC with GCC, based on GCC 3.3 and GCC 3.4 on 32-bit x86 on Linux and macOS was released on 22 March 2004. Since then GDC has gained support for additional platforms, improved performance, and fixed bugs, while tracking upstream DMD code for the frontend and language specification.
LDC – A compiler based on the DMD front-end that uses LLVM as its compiler back-end. The first release-quality version was published on 9 January 2009. It supports version 2.0.
Toy and proof-of-concept compilers:
D Compiler for – A back-end for the D programming language 2.0 compiler. It compiles the code to Common Intermediate Language (CIL) bytecode rather than to machine code. The CIL can then be run via a Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) virtual machine. The project has not been updated in years and the author indicated the project is not active anymore.
SDC – The Stupid D Compiler uses a custom front-end and LLVM as its compiler back-end. It is written in D and uses a scheduler to handle symbol resolution in order to elegantly handle the compile-time features of D. This compiler currently supports a limited subset of the language.
Using above compilers and toolchains, it is possible to compile D programs to target many different architectures, including x86, amd64, AArch64, PowerPC, MIPS64, DEC Alpha, Motorola m68k, Sparc, s390, WebAssembly. The primary supported operating systems are Windows and Linux, but various compilers also support Mac OS X, FreeBSD, NetBSD, AIX, Solaris/OpenSolaris and Android, either as a host or target, or both. WebAssembly target (supported via LDC and LLVM) can operate in any WebAssembly environment, like modern web browser (Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Apple Safari), or dedicated Wasm virtual machines.
Development tools
Editors and integrated development environments (IDEs) supporting syntax highlighting and partial code completion for the language include SlickEdit, Emacs, vim, SciTE, Smultron, Zeus, and Geany among others.
Dexed (formerly Coedit), a D focused graphical IDE written in Object Pascal
Mono-D is a feature rich cross-platform D focused graphical IDE based on MonoDevelop / Xamarin Studio, mainly written in C Sharp.
Eclipse plug-ins for D include DDT and Descent (dead project).
Visual Studio integration is provided by VisualD.
Visual Studio Code integration with extensions as Dlang-Vscode or Code-D.
A bundle is available for TextMate, and the Code::Blocks IDE includes partial support for the language. However, standard IDE features such as code completion or refactoring are not yet available, though they do work partially in Code::Blocks (due to D's similarity to C).
The Xcode 3 plugin "D for Xcode" enables D-based projects and development.
KDevelop (as well as its text editor backend, Kate) autocompletion plugin is available.
Open source D IDEs for Windows exist, some written in D, such as Poseidon, D-IDE, and Entice Designer.
D applications can be debugged using any C/C++ debugger, like GDB or WinDbg, although support for various D-specific language features is extremely limited. On Windows, D programs can be debugged using Ddbg, or Microsoft debugging tools (WinDBG and Visual Studio), after having converted the debug information using cv2pdb. The ZeroBUGS debugger for Linux has experimental support for the D language. Ddbg can be used with various IDEs or from the command line; ZeroBUGS has its own graphical user interface (GUI).
DustMite is a powerful tool for minimizing D source code, useful when finding compiler or tests issues.
dub is a popular package and build manager for D applications and libraries, and is often integrated into IDE support.
Examples
Example 1
This example program prints its command line arguments. The main function is the entry point of a D program, and args is an array of strings representing the command line arguments. A string in D is an array of characters, represented by immutable(char)[].
import std.stdio: writefln;
void main(string[] args) {
foreach (i, arg; args)
writefln("args[%d] = '%s'", i, arg);
}
The foreach statement can iterate over any collection. In this case, it is producing a sequence of indexes (i) and values (arg) from the array args. The index i and the value arg have their types inferred from the type of the array args.
Example 2
The following shows several D capabilities and D design trade-offs in a short program. It iterates over the lines of a text file named words.txt, which contains a different word on each line, and prints all the words that are anagrams of other words.
import std.stdio, std.algorithm, std.range, std.string;
void main() {
dstring[] [dstring] signature2words;
foreach (dchar[] w; lines(File("words.txt"))) {
w = w.chomp().toLower();
immutable signature = w.dup.sort().release().idup;
signature2words[signature] ~= w.idup;
}
foreach (words; signature2words) {
if (words.length > 1) {
writeln(words.join(" "));
}
}
}
signature2words is a built-in associative array that maps dstring (32-bit / char) keys to arrays of dstrings. It is similar to defaultdict(list) in Python.
lines(File()) yields lines lazily, with the newline. It has to then be copied with idup to obtain a string to be used for the associative array values (the idup property of arrays returns an immutable duplicate of the array, which is required since the dstring type is actually immutable(dchar)[]). Built-in associative arrays require immutable keys.
The ~= operator appends a new dstring to the values of the associate dynamic array.
toLower, join and chomp are string functions that D allows the use of with a method syntax. The name of such functions are often similar to Python string methods. The toLower converts a string to lower case, join(" ") joins an array of strings into a single string using a single space as separator, and chomp removes a newline from the end of the string if one is present. The w.dup.sort().release().idup is more readable, but equivalent to release(sort(w.dup)).idup for example. This feature is called UFCS (Uniform Function Call Syntax), and allows extending any built-in or third party package types with method-like functionality. The style of writing code like this is often referenced as pipeline (especially when the objects used are lazily computed, for example iterators / ranges) or Fluent interface.
The sort is an std.algorithm function that sorts the array in place, creating a unique signature for words that are anagrams of each other. The release() method on the return value of sort() is handy to keep the code as a single expression.
The second foreach iterates on the values of the associative array, it is able to infer the type of words.
signature is assigned to an immutable variable, its type is inferred.
UTF-32 dchar[] is used instead of normal UTF-8 char[] otherwise sort() refuses to sort it. There are more efficient ways to write this program using just UTF-8.
Uses
Notable organisations that use the D programming language for projects include Facebook, eBay, and Netflix.
D has been successfully used for AAA games, language interpreters, virtual machines, an operating system kernel, GPU programming, web development, numerical analysis, GUI applications, a passenger information system, machine learning, text processing, web and application servers and research.
See also
Ddoc
D Language Foundation
References
Further reading
(distributed under CC-BY-NC-SA license). This book teaches programming to novices, but covers many advanced D topics as well.
External links
Digital Mars
Turkish Forum
Programming languages
C programming language family
Class-based programming languages
Cross-platform software
Free compilers and interpreters
High-level programming languages
Multi-paradigm programming languages
Object-oriented programming languages
Procedural programming languages
Programming languages created in 2001
Statically typed programming languages
Systems programming languages
2001 software
Software using the Boost license
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243883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession%20to%20the%20Norwegian%20throne | Succession to the Norwegian throne | The line of succession to the Norwegian throne consists of people entitled to become head of state of Norway.
The succession is currently governed by Article 6 of the Constitution, altered most recently in 1990 to introduce absolute primogeniture among the grandchildren and further eligible descendants of King Harald V. The King's children are still ranked according to male-preference cognatic primogeniture, which was the norm between 1971 and 1990; Crown Prince Haakon and his eligible descendants thus take precedence over his older sister, Princess Märtha Louise, and her eligible descendants.
Only legitimate descendants of the reigning monarch and the reigning monarch's siblings and their legitimate descendants can be in line to the throne. However, the King's elder sister, Princess Astrid and her descendants, along with descendants of the King's deceased eldest sister, Princess Ragnhild, are excluded from the line of succession due to the agnatic primogeniture which was the norm prior to 1971.
In the event that there is no-one in the line of succession, the Storting (Parliament) has the right to elect a successor under Article 7 (if the king is alive) or Article 48 (if the king has died).
Upon acceding to the throne (and being of age), the Norwegian monarch is required by Article 9 of the Constitution to take an oath before members of the Storting.
Line of succession
King Harald V (born 1937)
(1) Crown Prince Haakon (b. 1973)
(2) Princess Ingrid Alexandra (b. 2004)
(3) Prince Sverre Magnus (b. 2005)
(4) Princess Märtha Louise (b. 1971)
(5) Maud Angelica Behn (b. 2003)
(6) Leah Isadora Behn (b. 2005)
(7) Emma Tallulah Behn (b. 2008)
See also
Norwegian Law of Succession
References
Norwegian throne
Norwegian monarchy
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243885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%20Peace%20Treaties%2C%201947 | Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 | The Paris Peace Treaties () were signed on 10 February 1947 following the end of World War II in 1945.
The Paris Peace Conference lasted from 29 July until 15 October 1946. The victorious wartime Allied powers (principally the United Kingdom, Soviet Union, United States and France) negotiated the details of peace treaties with Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria and Finland. The treaties allowed the defeated Axis powers to resume their responsibilities as sovereign states in international affairs and to qualify for membership in the United Nations.
The settlement elaborated in the peace treaties included payment of war reparations, commitment to minority rights, and territorial adjustments including the end of the Italian colonial empire in Africa, Greece, and Albania, as well as changes to the Italian–Yugoslav, Hungarian–Czechoslovak, Soviet–Romanian, Hungarian–Romanian, French–Italian, and Soviet–Finnish borders. The treaties also obliged the various states to hand over accused war criminals to the Allied powers for war crimes trials.
Political clauses
The political clauses stipulated that the signatory should "take all measures necessary to secure to all persons under (its) jurisdiction, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion, the enjoyment of human rights and of the fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, of press and publication, of religious worship, of political opinion and of public meeting."
No penalties were to be visited on nationals because of wartime partisanship for the Allies. Each government undertook measures to prevent the resurgence of fascist organizations or any others "whether political, military or semi-military, whose purpose it is to deprive the people of their democratic rights".
Border changes
Italy
Italy lost the colonies of Italian Libya and Italian East Africa. The latter consisted of Italian Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland. Italy continued to govern the former Italian Somaliland as a UN trust territory until 1960. In the peace treaty, Italy recognized the independence of Albania (in personal union with the Italian monarchy after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939). Italy also lost its concession in Tianjin, which was turned over to China, and the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean Sea were ceded to Greece.
Italy lost Istria: the provinces of Fiume, Zara, and most of Gorizia and Pola were ceded to Yugoslavia; the rest of Istria and the province of Trieste formed a new sovereign State (Free Territory of Trieste) divided in two administrative zones under a provisional government for which the United Nations Security Council was responsible. In 1954, Italy incorporated the Province of Trieste (Zone A) and Yugoslavia incorporated the rest of Istria (Zone B). This was officially recognized with the Treaty of Osimo in 1975.
The villages of the Tende valley and La Brigue were ceded to France but Italian diplomats were able to maintain in place the Treaty of Turin (1860), according to which the French-Italian alpine border passes through the summit of Mont Blanc, despite French designs on the Aosta Valley. The French Republic has never made provision for the Italian language in the ceded formerly Italian towns of Briga and Tenda, effectively opting for a policy of linguistic assimilation. The province of South Tyrol was also kept by Italy despite the territorial demands of Austria, largely thanks to the Gruber–De Gasperi Agreement signed some months before.
Finland
Finland was restored to its borders of 1 January 1941 (thus confirming its territorial losses after the Winter War of 1939-40), except for the former province of Petsamo, which was ceded to the Soviet Union. In Finland, the reparations and the dictated border adjustment were perceived as a major injustice and a betrayal by the Western powers, after the sympathy Finland had received from the West during the Soviet-initiated Winter War. However, this sympathy had been eroded by Finland's collaboration with Nazi Germany between 1941 and 1944. During this time, Finland not only recaptured territory it had lost in 1940, but continued its offensive deeper into Soviet lands, occupying a broad strip of Soviet territory. This prompted the United Kingdom to declare war on Finland in December 1941, further weakening political support in the West for the country. The Soviet Union's accessions of Finnish territory was based on the Moscow Armistice signed in Moscow on 19 September 1944 and resulted in an extension of the accessions in the Moscow Peace Treaty that ended the Winter War.
Hungary
Hungary was restored to its borders before 1938. This meant restoring the southern border with Yugoslavia, as well as declaring the First and Second Vienna Awards null and void, cancelling Hungary's gains from Czechoslovakia and Romania. Furthermore, three villages (namely Horvátjárfalu, Oroszvár, and Dunacsún) situated south of Bratislava were also transferred to Czechoslovakia, in order to form the so-called "Bratislava bridgehead".
Romania
Romania was restored to its borders of 1 January 1941, with the exception of the border with Hungary giving Northern Transylvania back to Romania. This confirmed the 1940 loss of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union and the Treaty of Craiova, which returned Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria was restored to its borders of 1 January 1941, returning Vardar Macedonia to Yugoslavia and Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace to Greece, but keeping Southern Dobruja per the Treaty of Craiova, leaving Bulgaria as the only former Axis power to keep territory that was gained during the Second World War.
War reparations
The war reparation problem proved to be one of the most difficult arising from post-war conditions. The Soviet Union, the country most heavily ravaged by the war, felt entitled to the maximum amounts possible, with the exception of Bulgaria, which was perceived as being the most sympathetic of the former enemy states. (Bulgaria was part of the Axis but did not declare war on the Soviet Union). In the cases of Romania and Hungary, the reparation terms as set forth in their armistices were relatively high and were not revised.
War reparations at 1938 prices, in United States dollar amounts:
$360,000,000 from Italy:
$125,000,000 to Yugoslavia;
$105,000,000 to Greece;
$100,000,000 to the Soviet Union;
$25,000,000 to Ethiopia;
$5,000,000 to Albania.
$300,000,000 Finnish war reparations to the Soviet Union
$300,000,000 from Hungary:
$200,000,000 to the Soviet Union;
$100,000,000 to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
$300,000,000 from Romania to the Soviet Union;
$70,000,000 from Bulgaria:
$45,000,000 to Greece;
$25,000,000 to Yugoslavia.
Aftermath
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s did not lead to any renegotiation of the Paris Peace Treaties. However, in 1990 Finland unilaterally cancelled the restrictions the treaty had placed on its military.
See also
Aftermath of World War II
Allied Commission
Potsdam Agreement (1945, regarding Germany)
Moscow Conference (1945)
Treaty of San Francisco (1951, regarding Japan)
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (1990)
Soviet occupation of Romania
World War II reparations towards Yugoslavia
References
External links
United States Department of State Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. Paris Peace Conference Proceedings
United States Department of State Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. Paris Peace Conference Documents
United Nations Treaty Series volume 49 (Full text of the treaties as registered at the United Nations. French, English and Russian texts are authentic).
"Paris-WWII Peace Conference-1946: Settling Romania's Western Frontiers", at the Honorary Consulate of Romania in Boston, has pictures of the Romanian delegation
International Paris Peace Conference (1946) Records at the United Nations Archives
Aftermath of World War II
1947 in Finland
1947 in Bulgaria
1947 in Romania
1947 in Italy
1947 in the Soviet Union
Bulgaria–Soviet Union relations
Finland–Soviet Union relations
Hungary–Soviet Union relations
Italy–Soviet Union relations
Italy–United States relations
Italy–Yugoslavia relations
Romania–Soviet Union relations
Paris, 1947
Paris, 1947
Peace treaties of France
Peace treaties of Hungary
Paris, 1947
Paris, 1947
Paris, 1947
Peace treaties of the United Kingdom
Peace treaties of the United States
Treaties concluded in 1947
Treaties entered into force in 1947
Treaties of the French Fourth Republic
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of the Kingdom of Romania
Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria
Treaties of Yugoslavia
World War II treaties
1947 in Paris
United Kingdom in World War II
February 1947 events | [
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243887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20New%20Zealand%20Returned%20and%20Services%27%20Association | Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association | The Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association, best known simply as the RSA, is one of the largest voluntary welfare organisations in New Zealand and one of the oldest ex-service organisations in the world.
Wounded soldiers returning from the Gallipoli Campaign founded the organisation in 1916, and it received royal patronage in 1920. The RNZRSA celebrated its 100th Anniversary in 2016.
The RSA's commitment to service personnel in need is embodied in Poppy Day when red poppies are exchanged for donations to hundreds of thousands of New Zealanders to raise funds for the welfare of all service personnel and their families. Poppy Day is usually observed on the Friday before ANZAC Day (25 April), New Zealand's national day of commemoration.
Remembrance plays a special part in the life of the RSA. A moment of silence is generally observed daily at RSA club rooms in memory of comrades. On ANZAC Day and on other special anniversaries, local RSAs play a significant part in wreath-laying ceremonies of remembrance. As of 2014, 103,574 members support a network of 180 local RSAs throughout New Zealand. RSA membership is open to everyone. The badge is still one of the most familiar icons in New Zealand.
The 'local RSA' is a well-known meeting place or restaurant where anyone is welcome.
References
External links
New Zealand Veterans Affairs
Royal New Zealand Returned and Services Association
Veterans' organizations
Charities based in New Zealand
New Zealand in World War I
Organisations based in New Zealand with royal patronage | [
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243890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine%20geometry | Affine geometry | In mathematics, affine geometry is what remains of Euclidean geometry when ignoring (mathematicians often say "forgetting") the metric notions of distance and angle.
As the notion of parallel lines is one of the main properties that is independent of any metric, affine geometry is often considered as the study of parallel lines. Therefore, Playfair's axiom (Given a line L and a point P not on L, there is exactly one line parallel to L that passes through P.) is fundamental in affine geometry. Comparisons of figures in affine geometry are made with affine transformations, which are mappings that preserve alignment of points and parallelism of lines.
Affine geometry can be developed in two ways that are essentially equivalent.
In synthetic geometry, an affine space is a set of points to which is associated a set of lines, which satisfy some axioms (such as Playfair's axiom).
Affine geometry can also be developed on the basis of linear algebra. In this context an affine space is a set of points equipped with a set of transformations (that is bijective mappings), the translations, which forms a vector space (over a given field, commonly the real numbers), and such that for any given ordered pair of points there is a unique translation sending the first point to the second; the composition of two translations is their sum in the vector space of the translations.
In more concrete terms, this amounts to having an operation that associates to any ordered pair of points a vector and another operation that allows translation of a point by a vector to give another point; these operations are required to satisfy a number of axioms (notably that two successive translations have the effect of translation by the sum vector). By choosing any point as "origin", the points are in one-to-one correspondence with the vectors, but there is no preferred choice for the origin; thus an affine space may be viewed as obtained from its associated vector space by "forgetting" the origin (zero vector).
The idea of forgetting the metric can be applied in the theory of manifolds. That is developed in the article on the affine connection.
History
In 1748, Leonhard Euler introduced the term affine (Latin affinis, "related") in his book Introductio in analysin infinitorum (volume 2, chapter XVIII). In 1827, August Möbius wrote on affine geometry in his Der barycentrische Calcul (chapter 3).
After Felix Klein's Erlangen program, affine geometry was recognized as a generalization of Euclidean geometry.
In 1918, Hermann Weyl referred to affine geometry for his text Space, Time, Matter. He used affine geometry to introduce vector addition and subtraction at the earliest stages of his development of mathematical physics. Later, E. T. Whittaker wrote:
Weyl's geometry is interesting historically as having been the first of the affine geometries to be worked out in detail: it is based on a special type of parallel transport [...using] worldlines of light-signals in four-dimensional space-time. A short element of one of these world-lines may be called a null-vector; then the parallel transport in question is such that it carries any null-vector at one point into the position of a null-vector at a neighboring point.
Systems of axioms
Several axiomatic approaches to affine geometry have been put forward:
Pappus' law
As affine geometry deals with parallel lines, one of the properties of parallels noted by Pappus of Alexandria has been taken as a premise:
Suppose are on one line and on another. If the lines and are parallel and the lines and are parallel, then the lines and are parallel.
The full axiom system proposed has point, line, and line containing point as primitive notions:
Two points are contained in just one line.
For any line l and any point P, not on l, there is just one line containing P and not containing any point of l. This line is said to be parallel to l.
Every line contains at least two points.
There are at least three points not belonging to one line.
According to H. S. M. Coxeter:
The interest of these five axioms is enhanced by the fact that they can be developed into a vast body of propositions, holding not only in Euclidean geometry but also in Minkowski’s geometry of time and space (in the simple case of 1 + 1 dimensions, whereas the special theory of relativity needs 1 + 3). The extension to either Euclidean or Minkowskian geometry is achieved by adding various further axioms of orthogonality, etc.
The various types of affine geometry correspond to what interpretation is taken for rotation. Euclidean geometry corresponds to the ordinary idea of rotation, while Minkowski's geometry corresponds to hyperbolic rotation. With respect to perpendicular lines, they remain perpendicular when the plane is subjected to ordinary rotation. In the Minkowski geometry, lines that are hyperbolic-orthogonal remain in that relation when the plane is subjected to hyperbolic rotation.
Ordered structure
An axiomatic treatment of plane affine geometry can be built from the axioms of ordered geometry by the addition of two additional axioms:
(Affine axiom of parallelism) Given a point and a line not through , there is at most one line through which does not meet .
(Desargues) Given seven distinct points , such that , , and are distinct lines through and is parallel to and is parallel to , then is parallel to .
The affine concept of parallelism forms an equivalence relation on lines. Since the axioms of ordered geometry as presented here include properties that imply the structure of the real numbers, those properties carry over here so that this is an axiomatization of affine geometry over the field of real numbers.
Ternary rings
The first non-Desarguesian plane was noted by David Hilbert in his Foundations of Geometry. The Moulton plane is a standard illustration. In order to provide a context for such geometry as well as those where Desargues theorem is valid, the concept of a ternary ring was developed by Marshall Hall.
In this approach affine planes are constructed from ordered pairs taken from a ternary ring. A plane is said to have the "minor affine Desargues property" when two triangles in parallel perspective, having two parallel sides, must also have the third sides parallel. If this property holds in the affine plane defined by a ternary ring, then there is an equivalence relation between "vectors" defined by pairs of points from the plane. Furthermore, the vectors form an abelian group under addition; the ternary ring is linear and satisfies right distributivity:
(a + b) c = ac + bc.
Affine transformations
Geometrically, affine transformations (affinities) preserve collinearity: so they transform parallel lines into parallel lines and preserve ratios of distances along parallel lines.
We identify as affine theorems any geometric result that is invariant under the affine group (in Felix Klein's Erlangen programme this is its underlying group of symmetry transformations for affine geometry). Consider in a vector space V, the general linear group GL(V). It is not the whole affine group because we must allow also translations by vectors v in V. (Such a translation maps any w in V to w + v.) The affine group is generated by the general linear group and the translations and is in fact their semidirect product . (Here we think of V as a group under its operation of addition, and use the defining representation of GL(V) on V to define the semidirect product.)
For example, the theorem from the plane geometry of triangles about the concurrence of the lines joining each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side (at the centroid or barycenter) depends on the notions of mid-point and centroid as affine invariants. Other examples include the theorems of Ceva and Menelaus.
Affine invariants can also assist calculations. For example, the lines that divide the area of a triangle into two equal halves form an envelope inside the triangle. The ratio of the area of the envelope to the area of the triangle is affine invariant, and so only needs to be calculated from a simple case such as a unit isosceles right angled triangle to give i.e. 0.019860... or less than 2%, for all triangles.
Familiar formulas such as half the base times the height for the area of a triangle, or a third the base times the height for the volume of a pyramid, are likewise affine invariants. While the latter is less obvious than the former for the general case, it is easily seen for the one-sixth of the unit cube formed by a face (area 1) and the midpoint of the cube (height 1/2). Hence it holds for all pyramids, even slanting ones whose apex is not directly above the center of the base, and those with base a parallelogram instead of a square. The formula further generalizes to pyramids whose base can be dissected into parallelograms, including cones by allowing infinitely many parallelograms (with due attention to convergence). The same approach shows that a four-dimensional pyramid has 4D hypervolume one quarter the 3D volume of its parallelepiped base times the height, and so on for higher dimensions.
Kinematics
Two types of affine transformation are used in kinematics, both classical and modern. Velocity v is described using length and direction, where length is presumed unbounded. This variety of kinematics, styled as Galilean or Newtonian, uses coordinates of absolute space and time. The shear mapping of a plane with an axis for each represents coordinate change for an observer moving with velocity v in a resting frame of reference.
Finite light speed, first noted by the delay in appearance of the moons of Jupiter, requires a modern kinematics. The method involves rapidity instead of velocity, and substitutes squeeze mapping for the shear mapping used earlier. This affine geometry was developed synthetically in 1912. to express the special theory of relativity.
In 1984, "the affine plane associated to the Lorentzian vector space L2" was described by Graciela Birman and Katsumi Nomizu in an article entitled "Trigonometry in Lorentzian geometry".
Affine space
Affine geometry can be viewed as the geometry of an affine space of a given dimension n, coordinatized over a field K. There is also (in two dimensions) a combinatorial generalization of coordinatized affine space, as developed in synthetic finite geometry. In projective geometry, affine space means the complement of a hyperplane at infinity in a projective space. Affine space can also be viewed as a vector space whose operations are limited to those linear combinations whose coefficients sum to one, for example 2x − y, x − y + z, (x + y + z)/3, ix + (1 − i)y, etc.
Synthetically, affine planes are 2-dimensional affine geometries defined in terms of the relations between points and lines (or sometimes, in higher dimensions, hyperplanes). Defining affine (and projective) geometries as configurations of points and lines (or hyperplanes) instead of using coordinates, one gets examples with no coordinate fields. A major property is that all such examples have dimension 2. Finite examples in dimension 2 (finite affine planes) have been valuable in the study of configurations in infinite affine spaces, in group theory, and in combinatorics.
Despite being less general than the configurational approach, the other approaches discussed have been very successful in illuminating the parts of geometry that are related to symmetry.
Projective view
In traditional geometry, affine geometry is considered to be a study between Euclidean geometry and projective geometry. On the one hand, affine geometry is Euclidean geometry with congruence left out; on the other hand, affine geometry may be obtained from projective geometry by the designation of a particular line or plane to represent the points at infinity. In affine geometry, there is no metric structure but the parallel postulate does hold. Affine geometry provides the basis for Euclidean structure when perpendicular lines are defined, or the basis for Minkowski geometry through the notion of hyperbolic orthogonality. In this viewpoint, an affine transformation is a projective transformation that does not permute finite points with points at infinity, and affine transformation geometry is the study of geometrical properties through the action of the group of affine transformations.
See also
Non-Euclidean geometry
References
Further reading
Emil Artin (1957) Geometric Algebra, chapter 2: "Affine and projective geometry", via Internet Archive
V.G. Ashkinuse & Isaak Yaglom (1962) Ideas and Methods of Affine and Projective Geometry (in Russian), Ministry of Education, Moscow.
M. K. Bennett (1995) Affine and Projective Geometry, John Wiley & Sons .
H. S. M. Coxeter (1955) "The Affine Plane", Scripta Mathematica 21:5–14, a lecture delivered before the Forum of the Society of Friends of Scripta Mathematica on Monday, April 26, 1954.
Felix Klein (1939) Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Standpoint: Geometry, translated by E. R. Hedrick and C. A. Noble, pp 70–86, Macmillan Company.
Bruce E. Meserve (1955) Fundamental Concepts of Geometry, Chapter 5 Affine Geometry,, pp 150–84, Addison-Wesley.
Peter Scherk & Rolf Lingenberg (1975) Rudiments of Plane Affine Geometry, Mathematical Expositions #20, University of Toronto Press.
Wanda Szmielew (1984) From Affine to Euclidean Geometry: an axiomatic approach, D. Reidel, .
Oswald Veblen (1918) Projective Geometry, volume 2, chapter 3: Affine group in the plane, pp 70 to 118, Ginn & Company.
External links
Peter Cameron's Projective and Affine Geometries from University of London.
Jean H. Gallier (2001). Geometric Methods and Applications for Computer Science and Engineering, Chapter 2: "Basics of Affine Geometry" (PDF), Springer Texts in Applied Mathematics #38, chapter online from University of Pennsylvania. | [
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243891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinghy%20sailing | Dinghy sailing | Dinghy sailing is the activity of sailing small boats by using five essential controls:
the sails
the foils (i.e. the daggerboard or centreboard and rudder and sometimes lifting foils as found on the Moth)
the trim (forward/rear angle of the boat in the water)
side-to-side balance of the dinghy by hiking or movement of the crew, particularly in windy weather ("move fast or swim")
the choice of route (in terms of existing and anticipated wind shifts, possible obstacles, other water traffic, currents, tides etc.)
When racing, the above skills need to be refined and additional skills and techniques learned, such as the application of the "racing rules of sailing", boat handling skills when starting and when rounding marks, and knowledge of tactics and strategy. Racing tactics include positioning the boat at different angles. To improve speed when racing, sailors should position themselves at the windward direction (closest to the direction of the wind) in order to get "clean air".
The RYA, the regulating authority for sail training in the UK, states that, "With a reliance on nature and the elements, sailing ... is about adventure, exploration, teamwork and fun."
Development of the dinghy
Early beginnings
There has always been a need for small tender boats for transporting goods and personnel to and from anchored sailing ships. Together with other smaller work craft such as fishing and light cargo, small inshore craft have always been in evidence. Charles II of England had a private sailing boat presented to him when he returned from exile to England in the 17th century, and he sailed for recreation and competition.
In 1887 Thomas Middleton, a Dublin solicitor, considered that yacht racing was becoming an excessively expensive activity, with boats becoming eclipsed by better designs each year. He proposed the 'One Model' principle. He wanted yacht racing to be an exercise of skill with all boats being built to the same design. He assembled a group of potential owners who agreed to call the boat 'The Water Wag'. The Water Wag Club still prospers in Dún Laoghaire harbour, with racing each Wednesday evening during the Summer season.
Towards the end of the 19th century people began to use these small boats for sport and recreational sailing, utilising the opportunities for leisure afforded by the Industrial Revolution. Larger privately used sailing boats had developed separately, and have resulted in the yachts of today. There has been some crossover, in that the sloop sail plan was adopted as standard and most convenient by early dinghy designers.
Planing and trapezing
The development of the sailing dinghy was helped in the early 20th century by Uffa Fox (1898–1972), an English boat designer and sailing enthusiast. He developed and contributed to many dinghy classes that are still with us nearly a century later: the Albacore, International 14, National 12, Jet 14, Firefly and Flying Fifteen. The Scorpion was designed in 1959 by Taprell Dorling.
He also introduced the major advance of hull shapes that can plane, and which can therefore reach beyond the usual speed limits for small sailing boats. In effect, a boat which is planing is skimming along the surface, with the bow of the boat not in the water. This results in less friction because of reduced waterline length, reduced displacement (the amount of water needing to be pushed aside by the boat), and reduced 'wetted area'. The driving force provided by the sails has to overcome less resistance, and therefore speed increases dramatically.
In 1928 Uffa Fox introduced planing to the English dinghy racing world in his International 14 boat, the Avenger. He gained 52 first places, two second places and three third places out of 57 race starts that year. Note: Graham Anderson in his 1999 book Fast Light Boats, a Century of Kiwi Innovation argues that planing centreboard sailing boats were introduced into New Zealand in the early 20th century – well before Uffa Fox popularised the concept.
Another advance in dinghy sailing was introduced in the 1930s, when the technique of trapezing was introduced. This involves using the crew to provide more leverage (than possible by hiking out) to keep the sails vertical and the boat balanced; doing this can prevent the boat from capsizing, by hanging outside the boat on a harness and rope attached to the 'hounds' or upper mast. As a result, the boat is easier to keep upright, and the sails can deliver maximum power most of the time. While trapezing can be helpful and increase speed, it can also be very dangerous if the crew is not wearing a quick-release harness or is inexperienced. The quick-release harness allows the crew to unstrap themselves quickly so as to not get forced under the boat if it were to capsize.
Trapezing during a race first appeared in 1934, on the Amazon A Class Rater.
Uffa Fox started building 14s in 1923, and was designing them by 1925. He was to transform the class with the introduction of his first planing hull design, Avenger, in 1927. The construction and finish of his 14s was considered by many to be the ultimate in quality and craftsmanship, and Thunder and Lightning built in 1938 was no exception.
The hull was built of two thin veneers; diagonal internally and fore and aft externally, and stiffened by tiny rock elm frames, all fastened with thousands of copper nails. His aim was to achieve as light a construction as possible using the materials of the day – there was no carbon fibre or Kevlar then.
Within a week of being launched, Thunder & Lightning won one of yachting's premier racing trophies, the Prince of Wales Cup, held that year at Falmouth. It was during this series that the boat's owners, Peter Scott (son of the famous Scott of the Antarctic), and John Winter, used a device now commonly known as the trapeze. At that time it was known as King George's Jubilee Truss. The device was immediately banned by the Yacht Racing Committee on the grounds that it was unsporting and gave an unfair advantage to its users. Thunder & Lightning is now in the National Maritime Museum Cornwall
The innovative technique was immediately banned, and received little development until it was reintroduced on the Osprey and Fiveohfive Class (505) in 1954 by John Westell and the Flying Dutchman class in the early 1960s.
Post WWII developments
During the Second World War plywood had become a major building material for aircraft. After the war, plywood was adapted for building sailing dinghies. Two primary methods of construction were adopted: stitch and glue and timber-framed construction. Jack Holt designed many dinghies to be built by home handymen using these construction techniques. The Mirror Dinghy was predominantly built using stitch and glue, while the Enterprise and Heron is an example of a boat built using plywood on a timber frame.
Modern developments
At the beginning of the 21st century, dinghy sailing is still a rapidly developing sport. It is losing its image of being expensive, time-consuming, and exclusive. This is because of the earlier work of pioneers such as Uffa Fox, and through the use of modern designs and techniques such as lighter hull materials (e.g., fibreglass and foam sandwich hull construction, which eliminate time-consuming maintenance and constant care that wooden hulls required, although they are rare and only a few people make them some still sail with wooden boats), more responsive sail materials and design, easily transportable boats (many car-toppable), and simpler rigs such as gennakers instead of more complex spinnakers. These advances are more economical in time and money, and have greatly extended the appeal of dinghy sailing.
In Britain, the RYA regulates racing and provides modular and accredited training courses for leisure and competitive sailing. A basic sailing course can be completed in several days. Similar organisations exist worldwide to administer and promote both leisure and competitive sailing.
Types of dinghies
Some dinghies come into more than one category, either because boundaries overlap or because different categories are measuring different things; e.g. both "one design" boats and boats of much freer design can be found in each of the main categories below.
Dinghy designs are often referred to as "classes"; these classes are usually categorised as one design, open, or restricted. A more formal term for open is "Development Class". One design dinghies are supposed to be identical, though in reality this is not always the case. Only the most restrictive one design classes will restrict individual fittings. Then there becomes a sliding scale of allowable modification or design differences; restricted classes would typically allow the movement of fittings or even parts of the boat around, but are unlikely to allow major changes to hull shape or sails. Truly open development classes are also almost unknown, the famous line about the 18 ft skiff "the boat shall be 18ft long and the race starts at 2 o'clock" is a myth but open classes will usually allow pretty radical changes within usually some kind of box rule which specifies depth, length, width of hull height of mast and sometimes a minimum weight and sail area.
Classes which are not development classes are usually referred to as "One design". The idea is that One Designs provide a fair and level playing field for even competition, whereas Development Classes drive boat speed and technology forwards. The first one design was the Water Wag designed by Thomas Middleton, which first sailed in Dublin Bay in 1887. The class is still sailed today, well over a hundred years later. The first International one-design class was the B.R.A. 12 foot dinghy which was designed by George Cockshott in 1914 for West Kirby marine lake. This design expanded to Holland, Netherlands, Germany, France, Ireland etc. and further afield.
All of the following classes can be used for recreational as well as racing purposes. Some function better for recreation use because they require less maintenance and can be left on a mooring, while other (usually racing) boats can't be left on mooring because they will capsize, which can cause certain parts like the mast and hull to be damaged.
Sailing skiffs are the fastest and arguably most difficult type of dinghy to sail. A skiff has a flat narrow hull with a disproportionately large sailplan, usually consisting of an asymmetric spinnaker, blade jib and fully battened main. Sailors manage the rig with the use of racks (wings) and trapeze. Examples are the 49er, an Olympic boat, 18 Footers (see below) and the advanced International 14.
High-performance dinghies are fast and powerful dinghies designed for racing around an Olympic triangle (Olympic Racing Course). Examples of such dinghies are the International Flying Dutchman, the International 505, the Jet 14, the Fireball, the Osprey, the Thistle, the 14 ft John Spencer Javelin and the International 470. They can all plane easily, even upwind and they use trapeze and a symmetric spinnaker. Not all are two handed boats: the International Contender and the RS600 are high performance single handed boats equipped with a trapeze, but not a spinnaker, and demonstrate a comparable performance. Skiffs are usually classed as High performance dinghies.
Racing dinghies are designed for racing, but not all have necessarily the same calibre of performance as the above. However, in many cases they can still offer equally close competition, at the very highest standards, which for many racing helmsmen and crews is the most important consideration. They cover a wide range, and many are descended from Uffa Fox's seminal International 14. People often "travel" with their dinghies to international races in famous sailing spots such as Lake Garda in Italy. The Snipe International Class still stands as one of the strongest classes, after reaching the status of world's largest fleet of dinghies in July 1936. Other examples include the GP14, Enterprise, Scorpion, Solo, Graduate, Firefly, Lark. A specialized subgroup is the Scow, which typically uses two bilgeboards instead of a centerboard, and may have two rudders. Many racing dinghies require two or more people to sail the boat, the skipper is in charge or steering and the main sail depending on the boat, and the crew is in charge of the jib, the spinnaker,(which can only be flown while going downwind) and keeping the boat level
Cruising dinghies are designed for leisure and family sailing and are usually more stable than high-performance dinghies. This is provided by a 'chined' (less rounded) hull, greater displacement, and proportionally smaller sail area. Some are specifically designed for longer passage-making, and/or for camping aboard. Examples of these include the Wayfarer, arguably the GP14, the Tideway, the Laser Stratos, the Drascombe series of dinghies, the CL 16 and the Laser 16, the Roamer Cruising Dinghy, designed by Eric Coleman an early member of the Dinghy Cruising Association, plus many designs of Iain Oughtred, John Welsford and François Vivier. Sailing these boats can still give much excitement.
Cruiser-racer dinghies successfully combine elements of both the immediately previous two groups, offering good racing performance and also being very viable cruising boats. Arguably the only two world-class cruiser-racer dinghies, in terms of both the extensive availability of top class racing and their suitability for serious cruising, are the Wayfarer and the GP14; of these the Wayfarer has the edge for cruising, once on the water, in part because she is the larger boat, while the GP14 has the edge for racing. However the Mirror and her larger sisters, and the Heron, can also be regarded as coming into this category.
Classic dinghies are typically used as yacht tenders or shore boats, and emphasize beauty and versatility over sailing performance. Although some are still made entirely from wood, the majority of the most popular classic sailing dinghies combine a fiberglass hull with enough finely finished teak or mahogany to represent the "best of two worlds" approach. The fiberglass hull makes the boat maintenance easier and some think they are sturdier and will not corrode like wood. Examples of classic sailing dinghies are Minto, Mirror Dinghy, Fatty Knees, Trinka, Bauer, Whitehall and Gig Harbor.
Safety dinghies were designed to be used as yacht tenders with the added function of proactive self-rescue boat that can be sailed to safety. These boats are also used as recreational sailboats. Some of them can be fitted out with exposure canopies, sea anchors, and other survival gear. Examples of safety dinghies are the Portland Pudgy dinghy and the Clam dinghy.
Multihulls are fast twin or three hulled boats that fall under the definition of dinghy. Unlike dinghies, multihulls have high aspect ratio rigs with fully battened mainsails and sometimes, a rotating mast. This allows the rig to be highly aerodynamic and the reduced drag from the thin hulls, gives a multihull its great speed advantage over traditional monohulls. Dinghy-sized multihulls are sometimes referred to as "Beach Catamarans or Beach Trimarans".
The International 14 remains a popular racing class, having acquired racks (for trapezing crews) and a gennaker since its original design. The Laser Standard, Laser Radial and Laser 4.7 are the variants of the Laser dinghy, a single-hander whose combination of simplicity, portability and performance has done much to advance dinghy racing and training. More modern dinghies like the Phil Morrison designed RS200, RS400, RS800 and RS Vareo Dinghies, the Musto Skiff, Splash and RS600 have also increased dinghy sailing participation around the UK. Two popular dinghies used in high school and college racing are the 420 and Flying Junior.
Sports boats: These classes are larger off-shore racing dinghies which shade off into classes of yachts with fixed keels. Usually they have several crew members as well as the helm. Melges 24 and Laser SB3 are current examples of this type.
Development classes: Most dinghy classes have a fairly fixed layout of sails and hull design, and changes are very infrequent. However, some classes can compete and sail with less rigid definitions and measurements. This encourages experiment which often leads to innovation in techniques and construction. Examples are the International 14, National 12, the 18ft Skiff, the Puddle Duck Racer and the Moth. The International Moth is worth noting because of its use of lifting foils on the rudder and daggerboard. These generate enough lift to push the hull above the water, significantly reducing friction and allowing speeds in excess of .
Learning to sail
Many people learn to sail at accredited sailing schools, or through their local sailing club. Many books and training DVDs are also available, allowing the novice sailor to reinforce the learning in their own time.
Boats that many children learn to sail in are the Optimist, Topper and the Laser Funboat and Laser Picos. The Optimist is primarily used in supervised racing situations because it is easily capsized and very difficult to right from the water. In the US, the Portland Pudgy safety dinghy has become a popular beginners' sailing dinghy for non-racing, recreational use because it is unsinkable and very stable.
It is easier for children to learn on small boats and work their way up to larger boats as they grow. Children learn better in a protected harbor or cove because there is less wind than the wide open ocean. The Wayfarer was the standard teaching boats for adult schemes; however, many centres have moved onto more modern 'Centre-Main' boats such as the Laser Stratos and Topaz Omega. In Australia the main boats children learn in are Sabot (dinghy), Manly Junior, Heron, Topaz Dinghy, Flying Eleven, Optimist with the O'pen BIC becoming more popular. Adults often learn in Spirals or Sabres or by crewing in NS14s or Tasars.
In the UK, the Royal Yachting Association is the governing body of all dinghy sailing qualifications, offering Youth Stage 1 through 4 certificates, and Adult Level 1 through 3 certificates. More and more boat hire companies ask to see certificates before they will allow you to hire out a boat. In Australia Yachting Australia fulfils a similar role. On yachts in Australia a Competent Crew course is usually the first formal learn to sail course.
Dinghy racing
Racing is one of the most popular forms of dinghy sailing, and it contributes to the development of sailing skills as well as to improvements in dinghy and sail construction and design. Sometimes the Olympic triangle is used as a course for dinghy races where space permits, particularly for events where there ought to be little local advantage such as State and National titles and for classes which are mainly displacement sailing such as the Heron (dinghy). The olympic triangle is the most popular choice for dinghy racing, but a windward leeward course is another popular option.
See also
Dinghy
Dinghy racing
References
Bibliography
Bob Bond "The Handbook of Sailing" DK & Pelham Books revised 1996
Further reading
External links
Sabre Dinghy
Puddle Duck Racer
Dick Harrington, "Dinghy Cruising in a Wayfarer"
Classic Boat Class Notes
RYA website
General information about dinghy sailing
News, Opinion and Controversy from the Racing world of Sailing
Hostellers Sailing Club: "All About Dinghy Cruising"
Dinghy Cruising Association
"Dinghy Cruising With Phillips"
"National Maritime Museum Cornwall"
Tideway Dinghy Owners Association
Sailing
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243895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stendal | Stendal | The Hanseatic City of Stendal () is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is the capital of the Stendal District and the unofficial capital of the Altmark region.
Geography
Situated west of the Elbe valley, the Stendal town centre is located some west of Berlin, around east of Hanover, and north of the state capital Magdeburg. Stendal is the seat of a University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule) and preserves a picturesque old town including a historic market and several churches. The nearby village Uchtspringe is home to a psychiatric rehabilitation clinic.
Stendal station is the most important interchange and rail hub in the north of Saxony-Anhalt. Located on the Berlin–Lehrte railway and the parallel Hanover–Berlin high-speed railway line, it is regularly served by Intercity and Intercity-Express (ICE) trains. A direct connection to the German Autobahn network is planned with the extension of the BAB 14 from Magdeburg to Schwerin.
Divisions
The town Stendal consists of Stendal proper and the following 18 Ortschaften or municipal divisions:
Bindfelde
Borstel
Buchholz
Dahlen
Groß Schwechten
Heeren
Insel
Jarchau
Möringen
Nahrstedt
Staats
Staffelde
Uchtspringe
Uenglingen
Vinzelberg
Volgfelde
Wahrburg
Wittenmoor
History
A settlement named Steinedal in the Eastphalian Balsamgau of Saxony, then a possession of Saint Michael’s Abbey in Hildesheim, was mentioned in a deed allegedly issued by Emperor Henry II in 1022. However, the entry has proven to be a 12th-century forgery, as the original document contained no such record. The fortified town near the Elbe crossing at Tangermünde was actually founded and granted Magdeburg rights by the first Brandenburg margrave Albert the Bear about 1160.
The parish church of St Mary's was first mentioned in 1283. Stendal quickly prospered as a centre of commerce and trade; it received city walls about 1300, the citizens joined the Hanseatic League in 1358 and purchased the privilege of minting from the Brandenburg margraves in 1369. A Latin school is documented from 1338. In 1456 the Hohenzollern elector Frederick II Irontooth founded a convent of Augustinian nuns, which today is the site of a museum. In 1502 his descendant Elector Joachim I Nestor married Princess Elizabeth of Denmark at Stendal. Magnificent churches, the town hall and the two remaining city gates are still proof of Stendal's former wealth.
The Stendal citizens turned Protestant in 1539; with the reformator Konrad Cordatus serving as superintendent. For centuries part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, Stendal with the Altmark region passed to the Prussian Province of Saxony after the Napoleonic Wars. A Prussian garrison town since the 17th century, it hosted the 10th (Magdeburg) Hussars regiment from 1884.
Stendal was the site of a Luftwaffe airfield in World War II, which had been the site of the first German Fallschirmjäger training school from 1936; the famous boxer Max Schmeling was trained as a paratrooper here in 1940/41. The town suffered from strategic bombing. In April 1945, the aerodrome served as starting place of the Sonderkommando Elbe unit, only a few days before the local authorities surrendered to the US Army. On May 4, the commander of the Wehrmacht 12th Army, General Maximilian von Edelsheim, signed the capitulation document at the Stendal town hall.
From 1949 until German reunification in 1990, the town belonged to East Germany, part of Bezirk Magdeburg from 1952. Until 1994, the Stendal barracks served as home base for a riflemen division of the Soviet 2nd Guards Tank Army. In 1974 the construction of the Stendal Nuclear Power Plant was begun north of the town, but abandoned after reunification. In 2009 the Stendal citizens voted for the prefix Hansestadt ("Hanseatic City").
On 1 January 2010, the town Stendal absorbed the former municipalities Buchholz, Groß Schwechten, Heeren, Möringen, Nahrstedt, Staats, Uchtspringe, Uenglingen, Volgfelde, and Wittenmoor. On 29 April 2010, it absorbed Vinzelberg, and on 1 September 2010 Dahlen and Insel.
Main sights
Theatre of the Altmark
The area has a theatre named Theater der Altmark, Stendal. It was founded in 1946 and has always had a particular involvement in youth and children's theatre. Theatrical performances and dance events are staged, as well as concerts, conferences and meetings.
Winckelmann Museum
The Winckelmann Museum is named after Johann Joachim Winckelmann, the founder of classical archaeology. Its holdings include biographical documents, works, designs and diagrams as well as Greek sculptures or casts, along with other small artworks from antiquity. Since summer 2003 the museum has been the owner of the world's biggest Trojan horse. With its size of 15.60 m high, 13 m long, 9.50 m wide and its weight of 45 tons it offers a beautiful view over Stendal.
Exhibitions are held relating to archaeology and the history of art from the 18th and 19th centuries; there is also a modern art museum. The museum is the seat of the Winckelmann-Gesellschaft (the Winckelmann Society).
In addition, the museum has exhibits relating to the history and cultural history of the city of Stendal and of the Altmark dating from the prehistoric period through the area's early history right up to the present. There are exhibits pertaining to the Hanseatic League, Romanesque art and local archaeological material.
Fire Brigade Museum
The town also has the Landesfeuerwehrmuseum (Fire Brigade Museum), showing the development of fire fighting and protection from the leather bucket to modern fire engines.
Other
Other buildings include the Gothic cathedral, St. Nicholas Church, the Town Hall with the statue of Roland and the two mediaeval town gates. There are also other churches in the area.
Stendal is also part of the Altmark cycle path. Information and maps about this cycle path can be had for free from the tourist information office.
Politics
Mayor
The Lord Mayor of Stendal is Klaus Schmotz (born 1952). He was elected in 2001 with 74.9% of the votes. He was re-elected in 2008 and 2015.
Local council
Seats in the town's assembly (Stadtrat) as of 2015 local elections:
Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU): 14
The Left: 11
Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD): 8
Free Democratic Party (FDP): 1
Alliance '90/The Greens: 1
Alternative for Germany (AfD): 1
Pirate Party Germany: 1
Independent: 3
After allegations of falsification were raised, the 2014 elections had to be held again.
Twin towns – sister cities
Stendal is twinned with:
Grenoble, France
Lemgo, Germany
Puławy, Poland
Svitavy, Czech Republic
Yartsevo, Russia
Notable people
Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768), archaeologist and art historian
Johann Christian Dieterich (1722–1800), publisher
Rudolf Dulon (1807–1870), theologian and revolutionary
Leo August Pochhammer (1841–1920), mathematician
Otto Schoetensack (1850–1912), paleoanthropologist
Richard Zeckwer (1850–1922), composer
Max Ebert (1879–1929), prehistorian and professor
Irina Korschunow (1925–2013), writer
Kurt Liebrecht (born 1936), footballer
Wilfried Klingbiel (born 1939), footballer
Gerd Gies (born 1943), politician, prime minister of Saxony-Anhalt
Heinz-Ulrich Walther (born 1943), figure skater
Carola Hornig (born 1962), rower
Associated with the town
Stendhal (1783–1842), French writer; lived near Stendal in 1807–08 as an official of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia. According to general belief, he used the alias Stendhal from 1817 in homage to Johann Joachim Winckelmann
Honorary citizens
Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), chancellor, since 1872
Friedrich Hermann Haacke (1824–1899), physician who dedicated his life to fighting against the cholera epidemics which affected Stendal in the 19th century. The Haacke-Brunnen, a well in the Sperlingsberg quarter, honours him
Gustav Nachtigal (1834–1885), doctor and explorer in Africa. He is honored with bust at the Gustav Nachtigal Square
References
External links
Towns in Saxony-Anhalt
Military facilities of the Soviet Union in Germany
Stendal (district)
Province of Saxony
Bezirk Magdeburg | [
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243898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menkaure | Menkaure | Menkaure (also Menkaura, Egyptian transliteration mn-k3w-Rˁ), was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the fourth dynasty during the Old Kingdom, who is well known under his Hellenized names Mykerinos () (by Herodotus) and Menkheres () (by Manetho). According to Manetho, he was the throne successor of king Bikheris, but according to archaeological evidence, he was almost certainly the successor of Khafre. Africanus (from Syncellus) reports as rulers of the fourth dynasty Sôris, Suphis I, Suphis II, Mencherês, Ratoisês, Bicheris, Sebercherês, and Thamphthis in this order. Menkaure became famous for his tomb, the Pyramid of Menkaure, at Giza and his statue triads, showing the king together with his wives Rekhetre and Khamerernebty and with various deities.
Family
Menkaure was the son of Khafre and the grandson of Khufu. A flint knife found in the mortuary temple of Menkaure mentioned a king's mother Khamerernebty I, suggesting that Khafre and this queen were the parents of Menkaure. Menkaure is thought to have had at least two wives.
Queen Khamerernebty II is the daughter of Khamerernebti I and the mother of a king's son Khuenre. The location of Khuenre's tomb suggests that he was a son of Menkaure, making his mother the wife of this king.
Queen Rekhetre is known to have been a daughter of Khafre and as such the most likely identity of her husband is Menkaure.
Not many children are attested for Menkaure:
Khuenre was the son of queen Khamerernebti II. Menkaure was not succeeded by Prince Khuenre, his eldest son, who predeceased Menkaure, but rather by Shepseskaf, a younger son of this king.
Shepseskaf was the successor to Menkaure and likely his son.
Sekhemre is known from a statue and possibly a son of Menkaure.
A daughter who died in early adulthood is mentioned by Herodotus. She was placed at a decorated hall of the palatial area at Sais, in a hollow gold layered wooden zoomorphic burial feature in the shape of a kneeling cow covered externally with a layer of red decoration except the neck area and the horns that were covered with adequate layers of gold.
Khentkaus I – possible Menkaure's daughter
The royal court included several of Menkaure's half brothers. His brothers Nebemakhet, Duaenre, Nikaure, and Iunmin served as viziers during the reign of their brother. His brother Sekhemkare may have been younger than he was and became vizier after the death of Menkaure.
Reign
The length of Menkaure's reign is uncertain. The ancient historian Manetho credits him with rulership of 63 years, but this is surely an exaggeration. The Turin Canon is damaged at the spot where it should present the full sum of years, but the remains allow a reconstruction of "..?.. + 8 years of rulership". Egyptologists think that 18-year rulership was meant to be written, which is generally accepted. A contemporary workmen's graffito reports about the "year after the 11th cattle count". If the cattle count was held every second year (as was tradition at least up to king Sneferu), Menkaure might have ruled for 22 years.
In 2013, a fragment of the sphinx of Menkaure was discovered at Tel Hazor at the entrance to the city palace.
Pyramid complex
Menkaure's pyramid at Giza was called Netjer-er-Menkaure, meaning "Menkaure is Divine". This pyramid is the smallest of the three main pyramids at Giza. This pyramid measures at the base and in height. There are three subsidiary pyramids associated with Menkaure's pyramid.
These other pyramids are sometimes labeled G-IIIa (East subsidiary pyramid), G-IIIb (Middle subsidiary pyramid) and G-IIIc (West subsidiary pyramid). In the chapel associated with G-IIIa a statue of a queen was found. It is possible that these pyramids were meant for the queens of Khafre. It may be that Khamerernebti II was buried in one of the pyramids.
Valley temple
The Valley temple was a mainly brick built structure that was enlarged in the fifth or sixth Dynasty. From this temple come the famous statues of Menkaure with his queen and Menkaure with several deities. A partial list includes:
Nome triad, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore seated, and King and Hare-nome goddess standing, greywacke, in Boston Mus. 09.200.
Nome triad, King, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore and Theban nome-god standing, greywacke. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 40678.)
Nome triad, King, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore and Jackal-nome goddess standing, greywacke. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 40679.)
Nome triad, King, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore and Bat-fetish nome -goddess standing, greywacke. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 46499.)
Nome triad, King, Hathor, and nome-god standing, greywacke. (Middle part in Boston Mus. 11.3147, head of King in Brussels, Mus. Roy. E. 3074.)
Double-statue,’ King and wife (Khamerernebti II) standing, uninscribed, greywacke. (Now in Boston Mus. 11.1738.)
King seated, life-size, fragmentary, alabaster. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 40703.)
King seated, lower part, inscribed seat, alabaster. (Now in Boston Mus. 09.202)
Mortuary Temple
At his mortuary temple more statues and statue fragments were found. An interesting find is a fragment of a wand from Queen Khamerernebty I. The piece is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Khamerernebti is given the title King's Mother on the fragment.
Sarcophagus
In 1837, English army officer Richard William Howard Vyse, and engineer John Shae Perring began excavations within the pyramid of Menkaure. In the main burial chamber of the pyramid they found a large stone sarcophagus long, in width, and in height, made of basalt. The sarcophagus was not inscribed with hieroglyphs although it was decorated in the style of palace facade. Adjacent to the burial chamber were found wooden fragments of a coffin bearing the name of Menkaure and a partial skeleton wrapped in a coarse cloth. The sarcophagus was removed from the pyramid and was sent by ship to the British Museum in London, but the merchant ship Beatrice carrying it was lost after leaving port at Malta on October 13, 1838. The other materials were sent by a separate ship, and those materials now reside at the museum, with the remains of the wooden coffin case on display.
It is now thought that the coffin was a replacement made during the much later Saite period, nearly two millennia after the king's original interment. Radio carbon dating of the bone fragments that were found, place them at an even later date, from the Coptic period in the first centuries AD.
Records from later periods
According to Herodotus (430 BC), Menkaure was the son of Khufu (Greek Cheops), and that he alleviated the suffering his father's reign had caused the inhabitants of ancient Egypt. Herodotus adds that he suffered much misfortune: his only daughter, whose corpse was interred in a wooden bull (which Herodotus claims survived to his lifetime), died before him. Subsequently the oracle at Buto predicted he would only rule six more years.
Trivia
Menkaure was the subject of a poem by the nineteenth century English poet Matthew Arnold, entitled "Mycerinus".
Menkaure, using the Greek version of his name, Mencheres, is a major character in the Night Huntress series of books by Jeaniene Frost, depicted as an extremely old and powerful vampire living in modern times. He is a protagonist of one book in the series.
Gallery of images
References
External links
Menkaure and His Queen by Dr. Christopher L.C.E. Witcombe.
View photos, videos, current status and other information on the pyramid of Menkaure at Talking Pyramids
26th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
3rd-millennium BC births
3rd-millennium BC deaths
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] |
243902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ormond | Ormond | Ormond may refer to:
People
Ormond (surname)
Earl of Ormond (Ireland)
Earl of Ormond (Scotland)
Ormond Wilson (1907–1988), New Zealand politician
Places
Ireland
Ormond (ancient Irish kingdom), in the province of Munster
Two baronies in North Tipperary
Ormond Upper
Ormond Lower
Ormonde Castle, an Irish castle, from 1315 home of the Butler family
Birr Aerodrome, the Ormand flying club
Scotland
Ormond Castle, a Scottish castle, home of the Douglas family
England
Great Ormond Street Hospital, a children's hospital in London
United States
Ormond Beach (California), a portion of the California coastline
Ormond Beach, Florida, a city in Florida
Ormond Beach Middle School, a middle school located in the city of Ormond Beach
Ormond Beach Municipal Airport, An airport close to Ormond Beach
Ormond Yacht Club, a yacht club of Ormond Beach, Florida
Ormond-By-The-Sea, Florida, a city in Florida
Ormond Plantation House, Historic plantation house in St. Charles, Parish, LA
Ormond Memorial Art Museum, Art Museum in Ormond Beach, Florida
Australia
Ormond College, a residential college of The University of Melbourne
Ormond, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne, Australia
Ormond railway station, in the suburb
Ormond Primary School, Ormond, Victoria
Ormond Amateur Football Club
New Zealand
Ormond, New Zealand, a small settlement inland from Gisborne
Others
Ormond Pursuivant, Scottish officer of arms.
Ormond's disease, Retroperitoneal fibrosis named for Dr. John Kelso Ormond
Ormond (novel), a book by Maria Edgeworth
Ormond Hotel, at one time the largest wooden building in the world
Ormond (steam automobile company), 1904–1905
Ormond; or, the Secret Witness, a 1799 novel by Charles Brockden Brown
Ormond Shops, American women's apparel retailer, 1933-1994
See also
Ormonde (disambiguation) | [
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243903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnter%20Blobel | Günter Blobel | Günter Blobel (; May 21, 1936 – February 18, 2018) was a Silesian German and American biologist and 1999 Nobel Prize laureate in Physiology for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell.
Biography
Günter Blobel was born in Waltersdorf in the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia, then located in eastern Germany. In January 1945 his family fled from native Silesia to Dresden to escape from the advancing Red Army. During the bombing of Dresden, Blobel, then 8, stayed with his family at a relative's farm to the west of the city. After the war, Blobel grew up and attended gymnasium in the Saxon town of Freiberg. He studied medicine and graduated from the University of Tübingen in 1960. After two years service in a medical internship, he moved to Madison, Wisconsin, following an older brother, enrolling in the University of Wisconsin–Madison and, joining the lab of Van R. Potter for his graduate work. Blobel matriculated in 1967 with a Ph.D. He then moved to Rockefeller University as a postdoctoral fellow with George Palade, and was soon appointed as a professor.
Blobel was appointed to the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in 1986. Blobel was the sole recipient of the 1999 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of signal peptides. Signal peptides form an integral part of protein targeting, a mechanism for cells to direct newly synthesized protein molecules to their proper location by means of an "address tag" (i.e., a signal peptide) within the molecule.
Blobel died of cancer in Manhattan at New York-Presbyterian Weill Cornell Medical Center on February 18, 2018 at the age of 81. By the time of his death, Blobel was described as having "ushered cell biology into the molecular age" through his work on the fractionation and reconstitution of functional protein complexes and sub-cellular components in vitro.
Philanthropy
Blobel became well known for his direct and active support for the rebuilding of Dresden in Germany, becoming, in 1994, the founder and president of the nonprofit "Friends of Dresden, Inc." He donated all of the Nobel award money to the restoration of Dresden, in particular for the rebuilding of the Frauenkirche (completed in 2005) and the building of a new synagogue. In Leipzig he pursued a rebuilding of the Paulinerkirche, the university church of the University of Leipzig, which had been blown up by the communist regime of East Germany in 1968, arguing "this is a shrine of German cultural history, connected to the most important names in German cultural history." Gunter was also a founding member of the board of directors of Research Foundation to Cure AIDS, a U.S. not-for-profit research organization.
Personal life
Blobel lost his older sister to aerial bombing of a train she was on in 1945, shortly after the bombing of Dresden, while an older brother survived the war and became a veterinarian in the United States. Blobel worked at the Rockefeller University in New York City from 1968. He lived in Manhattan's Upper East Side with his wife, Laura Maioglio (owner of Barbetta). He was on the board of directors for Nestlé and the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute. Furthermore, he was Co-Founder and Chairman of the Scientific Advisory Board for Chromocell Corporation. He sat on the Selection Committee for Life Science and Medicine which chooses winners of the Shaw Prize. Blobel had a passion for opera and architecture, in addition to his passion for experimental science.
Scientific awards
1978: NAS Award in Molecular Biology
1982: Gairdner Foundation International Award
1983: Otto Warburg Medal
1983: Richard Lounsbery Award
1983: Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
1986: V. D. Mattia Award
1986: E.B. Wilson Medal
1986: Keith R. Porter Lecture
1987: Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University
1989: Waterford Bio-Medical Science Award
1992: Max Delbrück Medal
1993: Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
1995: Ciba Drew Award in Biomedical Research
1996: King Faisal International Prize
1997: Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology
1999: Massry Prize from the Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California
1999: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
2001: Pontifical Academy of Sciences
2001: Pour le Mérite
2008: Foreign Member of the Russian Academy of Science
2014: AACR Academy
See also
Distinguished German-American of the Year
References
External links
Blobel's page at Rockefeller University
Freeview video 'An Interview with Günter Blobel' by the Vega Science Trust
Official site of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
Information about Blobel as Distinguished German-American of the Year 2005 (German-American Heritage Foundation)
1936 births
2018 deaths
People from Żagań County
American Nobel laureates
20th-century German biologists
Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization
German Nobel laureates
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Directors of Nestlé
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
People from the Province of Lower Silesia
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Richard-Lounsbery Award laureates
Scripps Research
Goethe University Frankfurt alumni
University of Freiburg alumni
University of Kiel alumni
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
University of Tübingen alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Howard Hughes Medical Investigators
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
Massry Prize recipients
Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Fellows of the AACR Academy
20th-century American biologists
Members of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina | [
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] |
243904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galton%20board | Galton board | The Galton board, also known as the Galton box or quincunx or bean machine, is a device invented by Sir Francis Galton to demonstrate the central limit theorem, in particular that with sufficient sample size the binomial distribution approximates a normal distribution. Among its applications, it afforded insight into regression to the mean or "reversion to mediocrity".
Description
The Galton board consists of a vertical board with interleaved rows of pegs. Beads are dropped from the top and, when the device is level, bounce either left or right as they hit the pegs. Eventually they are collected into bins at the bottom, where the height of bead columns accumulated in the bins approximate a bell curve. Overlaying Pascal's triangle onto the pins shows the number of different paths that can be taken to get to each bin.
Large-scale working models of this device created by Charles and Ray Eames can be seen in the Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond exhibits permanently on view at the Boston Museum of Science, the New York Hall of Science, or the Henry Ford Museum. Another large-scale version is displayed in the lobby of Index Fund Advisors in Irvine, California.
Boards can be constructed for other distributions by changing the shape of the pins or biasing them towards one direction, and even bimodal boards are possible. A board for the log-normal distribution (common in many natural processes, particularly biological ones), which uses isosceles triangles of varying widths to 'multiply' the distance the bead travels instead of fixed sizes steps which would 'sum', was constructed by Jacobus Kapteyn while studying and popularizing the statistics of the log-normal in order to help visualize it & demonstrate its plausibility. As of 1963, it was preserved in the University of Groningen. An improved log-normal machine, using skewed triangles, which avoids shifting the median of the beads to the left.
Distribution of the beads
If a bead bounces to the right k times on its way down (and to the left on the remaining pegs) it ends up in the kth bin counting from the left. Denoting the number of rows of pegs in a Galton Board by n, the number of paths to the kth bin on the bottom is given by the binomial coefficient . Note that the leftmost bin is the 0-bin, next to it is the 1-bin, etc. and the furthest one to the right is the n-bin - making thus the total number of bins equal to n+1 (each row does not need to have more pegs than the number that identifies the row itself, e.g. the first row has 1 peg, the second 2 pegs, until the n-th row that has n pegs which correspond to the n+1 bins). If the probability of bouncing right on a peg is p (which equals 0.5 on an unbiased level machine) the probability that the ball ends up in the kth bin equals . This is the probability mass function of a binomial distribution. The number of rows correspond to the size of a binomial distribution in number of trials, while the probability p of each pin is the binomial's p.
According to the central limit theorem (more specifically, the de Moivre–Laplace theorem), the binomial distribution approximates the normal distribution provided that the number of rows and the number of balls are both large. Varying the rows will result in different standard deviations or widths of the bell-shaped curve or the normal distribution in the bins.
Another interpretation more accurate from the physical view is given by the Entropy: since the energy that is carried by every falling bead is finite, so even that on any tip their collision are chaotic because the derivative is undefined (there is no way to previously figure out for which side is going to fall), the mean and variance of each bean is restricted to be finite (they will never bound out of the box), so the Gaussian shape arises because is the Maximum entropy probability distribution for a continuous process with defined mean and variance. So, the rise of the Normal distribution could be interpreted as that all possible information carried by each bean related to which path it has travel have been already completely lost through their downhill collisions.
Examples
History
Sir Francis Galton was fascinated with the order of the bell curve that emerges from the apparent chaos of beads bouncing off of pegs in the Galton Board. He eloquently described this relationship in his book Natural Inheritance (1889):
Order in Apparent Chaos: I know of scarcely anything so apt to impress the imagination as the wonderful form of cosmic order expressed by the Law of Frequency of Error. The law would have been personified by the Greeks and deified, if they had known of it. It reigns with serenity and in complete self-effacement amidst the wildest confusion. The huger the mob, and the greater the apparent anarchy, the more perfect is its sway. It is the supreme law of Unreason. Whenever a large sample of chaotic elements are taken in hand and marshalled in the order of their magnitude, an unsuspected and most beautiful form of regularity proves to have been latent all along.
Games
Several games have been developed utilizing the idea of pins changing the route of balls or other objects:
Bagatelle
Pachinko
Payazzo
Peggle
Pinball
Plinko
The Wall
References
External links
Galton Board informational website with resource links
An Sir Francis: the Probability Machine - From Chaos to Order - Randomness in Stock Prices from Index Fund Advisors IFA.com
Quincunx and its relationship to normal distribution from Math Is Fun
A multi-stage bean machine simulation (JS)
Pascal's Marble Run: a deterministic Galton board
Log-normal Galton board (animation)
A music video featuring a Galton board by Carl McTague
Central limit theorem
Normal distribution | [
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243906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht%20Kossel | Albrecht Kossel | Ludwig Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht Kossel (; 16 September 1853 – 5 July 1927) was a German biochemist and pioneer in the study of genetics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1910 for his work in determining the chemical composition of nucleic acids, the genetic substance of biological cells.
Kossel isolated and described the five organic compounds that are present in nucleic acid: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. These compounds were later shown to be nucleobases, and are key in the formation of DNA and RNA, the genetic material found in all living cells.
Kossel was an important influence on and collaborator with other important researchers in biochemistry, including Henry Drysdale Dakin, Friedrich Miescher, Edwin B. Hart, and his professor and mentor, Felix Hoppe-Seyler. Kossel was editor of the Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie (Journal of Physiological Chemistry) from 1895 until his death. Kossel also conducted important research into the composition of protein, and his research predicted the discovery of the polypeptide nature of the protein molecule.
The Albrecht Kossel Institute for Neuroregeneration at the University of Rostock is named in his honor.
Early life and education
Kossel was born in Rostock, Germany as the son of the merchant and Prussian consul Albrecht Karl Ludwig Enoch Kossel and his wife Clara Jeppe Kossel. As a youth, Kossel attended the Gymnasium at Rostock, where he evidenced substantial interest in chemistry and botany.
In 1872, Kossel attended the University of Strassburg to study medicine. He studied under Felix Hoppe-Seyler, who was head of the department of biochemistry, the only such institution in Germany at the time. He attended lectures by Anton de Bary, Waldeyer, August Kundt, and Baeyer. He completed his studies at University of Rostock, and passed his German medical license exam in 1877.
Early research and collaboration
After completing his university studies, Kossel returned to the University of Strassburg as research assistant to Felix Hoppe-Seyler. At the time, Hoppe-Seyler was intensely interested in research concerning an acidic substance that had first been chemically isolated from pus cells by one of his former students, Friedrich Miescher, in 1869. Unlike protein, the substance contained considerable amounts of phosphorus, but with its high acidity, it was unlike any cellular substance that had yet been observed.
Kossel showed that the substance, called "nuclein", consisted of a protein component and a non-protein component. Kossel further isolated and described the non-protein component. This substance has become known as nucleic acid, which contains the genetic information found in all living cells.
Isolation and description of nucleobases
In 1883, Kossel left Strassburg to become Director of the Chemistry Division of the Physiological Institute at the University of Berlin. In this post, he succeeded Eugen Baumann and worked under the supervision of Emil du Bois-Reymond.
Kossel continued his previous work on the nucleic acids. During the period 1885 to 1901, he was able to isolate and name its five constituent organic compounds: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. These compounds are now known collectively as nucleobases, and they provide the molecular structure necessary in the formation of stable DNA and RNA molecules.
Research into the chemical composition of protein
In 1895, Kossel was professor of physiology as well as director of the Physiological Institute at the University of Marburg. Around this time, he began investigations into the chemical composition of proteins, the alterations in proteins during transformation into peptone, the peptide components of cells, and other investigations.
In 1896, Kossel discovered histidine, then worked out the classical method for the quantitative separation of the "hexone bases" (the alpha-amino acids arginine, histidine, and lysine). He was also the first to isolate theophylline, a therapeutic drug found naturally in tea and cocoa beans.
In 1901, Kossel was named to a similar post at Heidelberg University, and became director of the Heidelberg Institute for Protein Investigation. His research predicted the discovery of the polypeptide nature of the protein molecule.
Nobel prize
Kossel was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1910 for his research in cell biology, the chemical composition of the cell nucleus, and for his work in isolating and describing nucleic acids. The award was presented on 10 December 1910.
In the autumn of 1911, Kossel was invited to the United States to deliver the Herter Lecture at Johns Hopkins. Traveling with his wife Luise and daughter Gertrude, he took the opportunity to travel and to visit acquaintances, one of which was Eugene W. Hilgard, professor emeritus of agricultural chemistry at the University of California at Berkeley, who was also his wife's cousin. He also visited and delivered lectures at several other universities, including the University of Chicago.
On the occasion of his visit to New York City, Kossel was interviewed by a reporter from The New York Times. Kossel's English was reportedly very good, and his self-effacing modesty is voluminously mentioned in the reporter's account.
His Herter lecture at Johns Hopkins was titled, "The Proteins". This was the only time Kossel ever visited the United States.
Later research and collaboration
With his distinguished English pupil Henry Drysdale Dakin, Kossel investigated arginase, the ferment which hydrolyses arginine into urea and ornithine. Later, he discovered agmatine in herring roe and devised a method for preparing it.
Another of Kossel's students was American biochemist Edwin B. Hart, who would later return to the United States to participate in the "Single-grain experiment" (1907–1911) and be part of research teams that would determine the nutritive causes of anemia and goiter. Another was Otto Folin, an American chemist who discovered Phosphocreatine.
In 1923, Kossel was honored by being named Germany's representative to the Eleventh Physiological Congress in Edinburgh, Scotland. When he appeared before the assembled scientists, they gave him an ovation that lasted several minutes. At the congress, he was conferred an honorary degree by the University of Edinburgh.
In 1924, Kossel became professor emeritus, but continued to lecture at Heidelberg University. In April 1927, he attended the Lister Centenary Celebration held in England.
During the last years of Kossel's life, he conducted important research into the composition of the protein types protamines and histones, and introduced flavianic acid for the quantitative separation of arginine, histidine and lysine in proteins. A monograph describing this work was published shortly after his death.
Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie
Kossel contributed to early issues of the Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie (Journal of Physiological Chemistry). This publication was founded by his professor and mentor, Felix Hoppe-Seyler, in 1877, the same year that Kossel started work as his research assistant. After Hoppe-Seyler's death in 1895, Kossel took over editorship of the Zeitschrift and continued in that role until his own death in 1927.
Personal life
In 1886, Kossel married Luise Holtzman, daughter of Adolf Holtzmann. Holtzmann was Professor at the University of Heidelberg, lecturing in German literature as well as Sanskrit. He was also a noted philologist of his day. The couple had three children, two of whom survived to maturity: Walther, born in 1888, and daughter Gertrude, born in 1889.
Son Walther Kossel (1888–1956) became a prominent physicist and was professor of theoretical physics and director of the Physics Institute at the University of Tübingen. He is known for his theory of the chemical bond (ionic bond/octet rule), the Sommerfeld–Kossel displacement law, and other achievements.
Albrecht Kossel was apparently not greatly interested in politics, but in 1914 he did not sign the propaganda Pronunciamento of German professors at the start of the war. He suffered under the lies which filled the world in war time. In 1917 Kossel was summoned by the government to pronounce that the allotted food provisions were sufficient. He refused this demand, would never declare untruths as truths
Through his marriage to Luise, Kossel was related to several prominent Americans, including soil science pioneer Eugene W. Hilgard, journalist and financier Henry Villard, and abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison.
Luise Kossel died in 1913 of acute pancreatitis. Kossel died quietly on 5 July 1927, after a recurring attack of angina pectoris. He is buried in Heidelberg, Germany.
Legacy
Albrecht Kossel is considered one of the great scientists of biochemistry and genetics. By isolating and defining nucleic acid and the nucleobases, he provided the necessary precursors that led to the double-helix model of DNA, devised by James D. Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.
" … his elucidation of the chemical nature of some building blocks that make up nucleic acids and chromatine has secured immortality for this exeedingly modest and almost shy man."
The Albrecht Kossel Institute for Neuroregeneration at the University of Rostock is named in his honor.
Selected works
Untersuchungen über die Nukleine und ihre Spaltungsprodukte ("Investigations into the nucleins and their cleavage products", 1881)
Die Gewebe des menschlichen Körpers und ihre mikroskopische Untersuchung ("The tissues in the human body and their microscopic investigation", 1889–1891)
Leitfaden für medizinisch-chemische Kurse ("Textbook for medical-chemical courses", 1888)
Die Probleme der Biochemie ("The problems of biochemistry", 1908)
Die Beziehungen der Chemie zur Physiologie ("The relationships between chemistry and physiology", 1913)
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture on December 12, 1910 The Chemical Composition of the Cell Nucleus
1853 births
1927 deaths
People from Rostock
People from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
German physiologists
History of genetics
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
German Nobel laureates
University of Strasbourg alumni
University of Rostock alumni
University of Marburg faculty
Heidelberg University faculty
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Physicians of the Charité | [
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243907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial%20authorities%20of%20New%20Zealand | Territorial authorities of New Zealand | Territorial authorities are the second tier of local government in New Zealand, below regional councils. There are 67 territorial authorities: 13 city councils, 53 district councils and the Chatham Islands Council. District councils serve a combination of rural and urban communities, while city councils administer the larger urban areas. Five territorial authorities (Auckland, Nelson, Gisborne, Tasman and Marlborough) also perform the functions of a regional council and thus are unitary authorities. The Chatham Islands Council is a sui generis territorial authority that is similar to a unitary authority.
Territorial authority districts are not subdivisions of regions, and some of them fall within more than one region. Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas territorial authorities are based on community of interest and road access. Regional councils are responsible for the administration of many environmental and public transport matters, while the territorial authorities administer local roading and reserves, water supply and sanitation, building consents, the land use and subdivision aspects of resource management, and other local matters. Some activities are delegated to council-controlled organisations. The scope of powers is specified by the Local Government Act 2002.
List of territorial authorities
There are currently 67 territorial authorities. Before the Auckland Council "super merge" in November 2010, there were 73 territorial authorities. Before the Banks Peninsula District Council merged with the Christchurch City Council in 2006, there were 74 territorial authorities.
Population as of
Total of Christchurch City and Banks Peninsula areas
Includes Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Solander Islands.
Offshore islands
There are a number of islands where the Minister of Local Government is the territorial authority, two of which have a 'permanent population and/or permanent buildings and structures.' The main islands are listed below (population according to 2001 census in parenthesis):
Bare Island
Mayor Island (3)
Motiti Island (30)
Moutohora Island
White Island
In addition, seven of the nine groups of the New Zealand outlying islands are outside of any territorial authority:
Kermadec Islands (3)
New Zealand Subantarctic Islands
Antipodes Islands
Auckland Islands
Bounty Islands
Campbell Islands
Snares Islands
Three Kings Islands
Mayors
Territorial authorities have a mayor–council government. Mayors in New Zealand are directly elected—at large, by all eligible voters within a territorial authority—in the local elections to a three-year term. The Local Government Act 2002 defines the role of a mayor as having to provide leadership to the other elected members of the territorial authority, be a leader in the community and perform civic duties.
History
1989 local government reforms
For many decades until the local government reforms of 1989, a borough with more than 20,000 people could be proclaimed a city. The boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, so little distinction was made between the urban area and the local government area.
New Zealand's local government structural arrangements were significantly reformed by the Local Government Commission in 1989 when approximately 700 councils and special purpose bodies were amalgamated to create 87 new local authorities. Regional councils were reduced in number from 20 to 13, territorial authorities (city/district councils) from 200 to 75, and special purpose bodies from over 400 to 7. The new district and city councils were generally much larger and most covered substantial areas of both urban and rural land. Many places that once had a city council were now being administered by a district council.
As a result, the term "city" began to take on two meanings.
City also came to be used in a less formal sense to describe major urban areas independent of local body boundaries. This informal usage is jealously guarded. Gisborne, for example, adamantly described itself as the first city in the world to see the new millennium. Gisborne is administered by a district council, but its status as a city is not generally disputed.
Under current law, an urban area has to be at least 50,000 residents before it can be officially proclaimed as a city.
Changes since 1989
Since the 1989 reorganisations, there have been few major reorganisations or status changes in local government. Incomplete list:
1991: Invercargill re-proclaimed a city.
1992: Nelson-Marlborough Regional Council abolished by a Local Government Amendment Act. Of its territorial authorities, Kaikoura District was transferred to the Canterbury Region, and Nelson City and Tasman and Marlborough districts became unitary authorities.
1995: The Chatham Islands County was dissolved and reconstituted by an Act of Parliament as the "Chatham Islands Territory", with powers similar to those of territorial authorities and some functions similar to those of a regional council.
2004: Tauranga became a city again on 1 March.
2006: The Banks Peninsula District merged into Christchurch as a result of a 2005 referendum.
2010: Auckland Council, a unitary authority, replaced seven local councils and the regional council.
Reports on completed reorganisation proposals since 1999 are available on the Local Government Commission's site (link below).
2007–2009 Royal Commission on Auckland Governance
On 26 March 2009, the Royal Commission on Auckland Governance recommended the Rodney, North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland City, Manukau, Papakura and Franklin territorial councils and the Auckland Regional Council be abolished and the entire Auckland region to be amalgamated into one "supercity". The area would consist of one city council (with statutory provision for three Māori councillors), four urban local councils, and two rural local councils:
Rodney local council would lose Orewa, Dairy Flat, and Whangaparaoa but retain the remainder of the current Rodney District. The split areas as well as the current North Shore City would form a Waitemata local council.
Waitakere local council would consist of the current Waitakere City as well as the Avondale area.
Tamaki Makaurau would consist of the current Auckland City and Otahuhu (excluding CBD)
Manukau local council would consist of the urban parts of the current Manukau City and of the Papakura District.
Hunua local council would consist of the entire Franklin District, much of which is currently in the Waikato Region, along with rural areas of the current Papakura District and Manukau City.
The entire Papakura District would be dissolved between urban and rural councils.
The National-led Government responded within about a week. Its plan, which went to a Select Committee, accepted the proposal for supercity and many community boards, but rejected proposals for local councils and, initially, no separate seats for Māori.
Public reaction to the Royal Commission report was mixed, especially in regards to the Government's amended proposal. Auckland Mayor John Banks supported the amended merger plans.
Criticism of the amended proposal came largely from residents in Manukau, Waitakere and North Shore Cities. In addition, Māori Affairs Minister Pita Sharples spoke against the exclusion of the Māori seats, as recommended by the Royal Commission. Opposition Leader Phil Goff called for a referendum on the issue.
Creation of Auckland Council
Auckland Council was created on 1 November 2010 — a unitary authority that is classed as both a region and a territorial authority. It incorporated the recommendations of the Royal Commission and was established via legislation. Auckland Council is uniquely divided into "local boards" representing the lowest tier of local government.
Failed proposed changes
2015: Proposals to amalgamate local councils in Wellington and Northland were accepted by the Local Government Commission for consideration, although following consultation they ultimately were not formed into a final proposal. The status quo remains.
2015: Amalgamation of four local councils and the regional council in Hawke's Bay was proposed by the Local Government Commission. A district wide referendum was held in Sep-2015, and the proposal was defeated by 66% of voters.
2015: The Local Government Commission received a proposal to review local government arrangements on the West Coast. In August 2016 the Commission decided to progress the application. The Commission then invited alternative applications to the original application. The Commission’s call for alternative reorganisation applications or other proposals for change to West Coast local government arrangements closed on 15 March 2017. The Commission received 23 responses, 19 of which made specific proposals for change. In December 2017 the Local Government Commission determined its preferred option for local government reorganisation on the West Coast to be the transfer of district plan preparation from the Buller, Grey and Westland district councils to the West Coast Regional Council.
See also
Community board
Districts of New Zealand
List of cities in New Zealand
List of former territorial authorities in New Zealand
List of towns in New Zealand
Local Government New Zealand
References
Footnotes
External links
Local Councils (maintained by the Department of Internal Affairs)
Local Government Services at the Department of Internal Affairs site (includes the Local Government Directory at the bottom of the page)
Administration of Offshore Islands
Local Government Commission site
Local Government Online Limited site (portal site owned by the Society of Local Government Managers and the Association of Local Government Information Management)
Local Government New Zealand region and district boundaries – North Island
Local Government New Zealand region and district boundaries – South Island
Statistics New Zealand clickable map for local body and area unit detail over all of New Zealand
Territorial authorities
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243913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace%20of%20Beaulieu | Palace of Beaulieu | The Palace of Beaulieu ( ) is a former Royal Palace in Boreham, Essex, England, north-east of Chelmsford. The surviving part is a Grade I listed building. The property is currently occupied by New Hall School.
History
The estate on which it was built – the manor of Walhfare in Boreham – was granted to the Canons of Waltham Abbey in 1062. After various changes of possession, it was granted by the Crown to Thomas Butler, 7th Earl of Ormond in 1491. By this time, it had a house called New Hall.
In 1516, New Hall was sold by Thomas Boleyn, father of Anne Boleyn, to King Henry VIII for £1,000. The king rebuilt the house in brick at a cost of £17,000. He gave his new palace the name Beaulieu, meaning "beautiful place" in French. The name expressed Henry's desire for fine things, though the name change did not outlast the century.
On 23 July 1527 Henry's court arrived at Beaulieu on his summer progress, staying, unusually, for over a month in the company of a large number of nobles and their wives, including Anne Boleyn's father who had been created Viscount Rochford, the Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk, the Marquess of Exeter, the Earls of Oxford, Essex, and Rutland, and Viscount Fitzwalter. It was here that Henry devised a scheme to allow him to cohabit with his intended successor of Queen Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, by obtaining a Papal bull that declared Henry's marriage to Catherine invalid, effectively allowing him to commit bigamy by claiming he was technically unmarried in the first place. This plan was dropped when Cardinal Wolsey discovered the plan, though Pope Clement VII did, in fact, issue a bull to the same effect that December.
In October 1533, the daughter of Queen Catherine, Mary, who had been staying at Beaulieu for some time, was evicted, as the king had recently granted the palace to George Boleyn (Anne Boleyn's brother). George had been a keeper at Beaulieu when the palace was in the hands of the king. The royal inventory of 1547 noted 29 great beds, four bathing rooms with wooden floors and beds set in the wall, and a library with 37 titles.
After Anne Boleyn was beheaded and Henry married Jane Seymour, he was convinced by his new wife to bring his daughters back to court. In 1537, when Queen Jane died after giving birth to a son, Edward, Mary, Henry's eldest daughter was made godmother to her half-brother Edward and acted as chief mourner at the Queen's funeral. Henry granted her a household and Mary was permitted to reside in royal palaces. Her privy purse expenses for nearly the whole of this period have been published and show that Hatfield Palace, the Palace of Beaulieu (also called New Hall), Richmond, and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence.
Queen Elizabeth I granted the estate in 1573 to Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, who seems to have largely rebuilt the north wing. It is not known though whether he rebuilt other parts of the palace; a fire had occurred in Henry VIII's time and the palace could have been mostly rebuilt then. Soon after the north range was completed, Thomas installed Elizabeth's coat of arms above the main entrance which is still visible today. In 1622, Robert Radcliffe, 5th Earl of Sussex, sold it to George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham for £30,000.
During the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell took possession of the estate for the sum of five shillings. After reverting to the 2nd Duke of Buckingham at the Restoration, it was sold to George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, and the court of King Charles II was frequently entertained there. Cosimo de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, visited in 1669 and a member of his retinue produced a view of the house. A copy of this view was published in 1821.
Benjamin Hoare acquired the property in 1713, but it was in a poor state when purchased in 1737 by John Olmius, elevated to the peerage as Baron Waltham in 1762, who demolished and rebuilt much of the former palace. The north wing was left largely untouched and forms the present house. John was succeeded in 1762 by his son Drigue who died childless in 1787, aged 40, when New Hall devolved on his sister, the Honourable Elizabeth. However, she died the same year and her husband John Luttrell, later the Earl of Carhampton, took on the Olmius name; but, already owning the Carhampton estate including Painshill, he sold New Hall in 1798.
The purchasers in 1798 were the English nuns of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, who opened a Catholic school there the following year. New Hall School remains a school to this day. The Royal Arms of Henry VIII are in the school chapel. In 2006 a book, New Hall and its School, was published by Tony Tuckwell.
The Beaulieu name is now remembered in the name of the nearby housing estate, Beaulieu Park, Boreham.
In February 2009, Channel 4's Time Team visited and excavated the grounds of the former palace. The special programme was broadcast on 13 April 2009. In the excavations, the team uncovered the chapel, west wing and the gatehouse.
Notes and references
Notes
Citations
External links
Henry VIII & Catherine of Aragon Coat of Arms
New Hall history
Read a detailed historical record on Beaulieu Palace
Beaulieu, Palace of
History of Essex
Beaulieu, Palace of
Beaulieu, Palace of
Beaulieu, Palace of
Country houses in Essex
Boreham | [
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243916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head%20louse | Head louse | The head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis) is an obligate ectoparasite of humans. Head lice are wingless insects that spend their entire lives on the human scalp and feeding exclusively on human blood. Humans are the only known hosts of this specific parasite, while chimpanzees host a closely related species, Pediculus schaeffi. Other species of lice infest most orders of mammals and all orders of birds.
Lice differ from other hematophagic ectoparasites such as fleas in spending their entire lifecycle on a host. Head lice cannot fly, and their short, stumpy legs render them incapable of jumping, or even walking efficiently on flat surfaces.
The non-disease-carrying head louse differs from the related disease-carrying body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus) in preferring to attach eggs to scalp hair rather than to clothing. The two subspecies are morphologically almost identical, but do not normally interbreed. From genetic studies, they are thought to have diverged as subspecies about 30,000–110,000 years ago, when many humans began to wear a significant amount of clothing. A much more distantly related species of hair-clinging louse, the pubic or crab louse (Pthirus pubis), also infests humans. It is morphologically different from the other two species and is much closer in appearance to the lice which infest other primates. Louse infestation of the body is known as pediculosis, pediculosis capitis for head lice, pediculosis corporis for body lice, and phthiriasis for pubic lice.
Head lice (especially in children) have been, and still are, subject to various eradication campaigns. Unlike body lice, head lice are not the vectors of any known diseases, however rare secondary infections can result from scratching at bites. Head louse infestations may be beneficial in helping to foster a natural immune response against lice which helps humans in defense against the far more dangerous body louse, which is capable of transmitting dangerous diseases.
Adult morphology
Like other insects of the suborder Anoplura, adult head lice are small (2.5–3 mm long), dorsoventrally flattened (see anatomical terms of location), and wingless. The thoracic segments are fused, but otherwise distinct from the head and abdomen, the latter being composed of seven visible segments. Head lice are grey in general, but their precise color varies according to the environment in which they were raised. After feeding, consumed blood causes the louse body to take on a reddish color.
Head
One pair of antennae, each with five segments, protrudes from the insect's head. Head lice also have one pair of eyes. Eyes are present in all species within the Pediculidae family, but are reduced or absent in most other members of the Anoplura suborder. Like other members of the Anoplura, head louse mouthparts are highly adapted for piercing the skin and sucking blood. These mouth parts are retracted into the insect's head except during feeding.
Thorax
Six legs project from the fused segments of the thorax. As is typical in the Anoplura, these legs are short and terminate with a single claw and opposing "thumb". Between its claw and thumb, the louse grasps the hair of its host. With their short legs and large claws, lice are well adapted to clinging to the hair of their host. These adaptations leave them incapable of jumping, or even walking efficiently on flat surfaces. Lice can climb up strands of hair very quickly, allowing them to move quickly and reach another host.
Abdomen
Seven segments of the louse abdomen are visible. The first six segments each have a pair of spiracles through which the insect breathes. The last segment contains the anus and (separately) the genitalia.
Sex differences
In male lice, the front two legs are slightly larger than the other four. This specialized pair of legs are used for holding the female during copulation. Males are slightly smaller than females and are characterized by a pointed end of the abdomen and a well-developed genital apparatus visible inside the abdomen. Females are characterized by two gonopods in the shape of a W at the end of their abdomens.
Eggs and nits
Like most insects, head lice are oviparous. Females lay about three or four eggs per day. Louse eggs (also known as nits), are attached near the base of a host hair shaft. Eggs are usually laid on the base of the hair, 3–5 mm off the scalp surface. In warm climates, and especially the tropics, eggs may be laid or more down the hair shaft.
To attach an egg, the adult female secretes a glue from her reproductive organ. This glue quickly hardens into a "nit sheath" that covers the hair shaft and large parts of the egg except for the operculum, a cap through which the embryo breathes. The glue was previously thought to be chitin-based, but more recent studies have shown it to be made of proteins similar to hair keratin.
Each egg is oval-shaped and about 0.8 mm in length. They are bright, transparent, and tan to coffee-colored so long as they contain an embryo, but appear white after hatching. Head lice hatch typically six to nine days after oviposition.
After hatching, the louse nymph leaves behind its egg shell, still attached to the hair shaft. The empty egg shell remains in place until physically removed by abrasion or the host, or until it slowly disintegrates, which may take six or more months.
Empty shells are mat, collapsed and white in color. The term nit may include any of the following:
Viable eggs that will eventually hatch
Remnants of already-hatched eggs (nits)
Nonviable eggs (dead embryo) that will never hatch
Of these three, only eggs containing viable embryos have the potential to infest or reinfest a host. However, a no nit policy is a common public health measure to prevent transmission of lice. Some authors have therefore restricted the definition of nit to describe only a hatched or nonviable egg:
Others have retained the broad definition, while simultaneously attempting to clarify its relevance to infestation:
In British and Irish slang the term "nit" is often used, across different age groups, to refer to the head lice themselves.
Development and nymphs
Head lice, like other insects of the order Phthiraptera, are hemimetabolous. Newly hatched nymphs will moult three times before reaching the sexually-mature adult stage. Thus, mobile head lice populations may contain eggs, nits, three nymphal instars, and the adults (male and female) (imago). Metamorphosis during head louse development is subtle. The only visible differences between different instars and the adult, other than size, is the relative length of the abdomen, which increases with each molt., as well as the existence of reproductive organs in the adults. Aside from reproduction, nymph behavior is similar to the adult. Like adults, nymphs feed also only on human blood (hematophagia), and cannot survive long away from a host. Outside their hosts lice can't survive more than 24 hrs. The time required for head lice to complete their nymph development to the imago lasts for 12-15 days.
Nymph mortality in captivity is about 38%, especially within the first two days of life. In the wild, mortality may instead be highest in the third instar. Nymph hazards are numerous. Failure to completely hatch from the egg is invariably fatal. Death during molting can also occur, although it is reportedly uncommon. During feeding, the nymph gut can rupture, dispersing the host's blood throughout the insect body. This results in death within a day or two. Whether the high mortality recorded under experimental conditions is representative of conditions in the wild is unclear.
Reproduction and lifespan
Head lice reproduce sexually, and copulation is necessary for the female to produce fertile eggs. Parthenogenesis, the production of viable offspring by virgin females, does not occur in Pediculus humanus. Pairing can begin within the first 10 hours of adult life. After 24 hours, adult lice copulate frequently, with mating occurring during any period of the night or day. Mating attachment frequently lasts more than an hour. Young males can successfully pair with older females, and vice versa.
Experiments with P. h. humanus (body lice) emphasize the attendant hazards of lice copulation. A single young female confined with six or more males will die in a few days, having laid very few eggs. Similarly, death of a virgin female was reported after admitting a male to her confinement. The female laid only one egg after mating, and her entire body was tinged with red—a condition attributed to rupture of the alimentary canal during the sexual act. Old females frequently die following, if not during, copulation. During its lifespan of 4 weeks a female louse lays 50-150 eggs. Eggs hatch within 6-9 days, each nymphal stage last for 4-5 days and accordingly the period from egg to adults lasts for 18-24 days. Adult lice live for an additional 3-4 weeks.
Factors affecting infestation
The number of children per family, the sharing of beds and closets, hair washing habits, local customs and social contacts, healthcare in a particular area (e.g. school), and socioeconomic status were found to be significant factors in head louse infestation. Girls are two to four times more frequently infested than boys. Children between 4 and 14 years of age are the most frequently infested group.
Behaviour
Feeding
All stages except eggs are blood-feeders and bite the skin four to five times daily to feed. They inject saliva which contains an anticoagulant and suck blood. The digested blood is excreted as dark red frass.
Position on host
Although any part of the scalp may be colonized, lice favor the nape of the neck and the area behind the ears, where the eggs are usually laid. Head lice are repelled by light and move towards shadows or dark-coloured objects in their vicinity.
Transmission
Lice have no wings or powerful legs for jumping, so they move using the claws on their legs to move from hair to hair. Normally, head lice infest a new host only by close contact between individuals, making social contacts among children and parent-child interactions more likely routes of infestation than shared combs, hats, brushes, towels, clothing, beds, or closets. Head-to-head contact is by far the most common route of lice transmission.
Distribution
About 6–12 million people, mainly children, are treated annually for head lice in the United States alone. In the UK, it is estimated that two thirds of children will experience at least one case of head lice before leaving primary school. High levels of louse infestations have also been reported from all over the world, including Australia, Denmark, France, Ireland, Israel, and Sweden.
Archaeogenetics
Analysis of the DNA of lice found on Peruvian mummies may indicate that some diseases (such as typhus) may have passed from the New World to the Old World, instead of the other way around.
Genome
The sequencing of the genome of the body louse was first proposed in the mid-2000s and the annotated genome was published in 2010. An analysis of the body and head louse transcriptomes revealed these two organisms are extremely similar genetically.
Mitochondrial clades
Human lice are divided into three deeply divergent mitochondrial clades known as A, B, and C. Three subclades have been identified, D (a sister clade of A), E (a sister clade of C), and F (a sister clade of B).
Clade A
head and body: worldwide
found in ancient Roman Judea
Clade D (sister of clade A)
head and body: Central Africa, Ethiopia, United States
Clade B
head only: worldwide
found in ancient Roman Judea and 4,000-year-old Chilean mummy
Clade F (sister of clade B)
head and body: South America
Clade C
head only: Ethiopia, Nepal, Thailand
Clade E (sister of clade C)
head only: West Africa
See also
Body louse
Crab louse
Lindane
List of parasites of humans
Nitpicking
Pediculosis
Treatment of human head lice
References
External links
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Division of Parasitic Diseases
James Cook University, Australia: Head Lice Information Sheet
University of Nebraska: Head Lice Resources You Can Trust
body and head lice on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
Lice
Insects described in 1767
Parasitic arthropods of humans
Ectoparasites
Subspecies
Taxa named by Charles De Geer | [
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243919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Whitehouse | Mary Whitehouse | Constance Mary Whitehouse ( Hutcheson; 13 June 1910 – 23 November 2001) was a British teacher and conservative activist. She campaigned against social liberalism and the mainstream British media, both of which she accused of encouraging a more permissive society. She was the founder and first president of the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association, through which she led a longstanding campaign against the BBC. A hard-line social conservative, she was termed a reactionary by her socially liberal opponents. Her motivation derived from her traditional Christian beliefs, her aversion to the rapid social and political changes in British society of the 1960s, and her work as a teacher of sex education.
Whitehouse became an art teacher, at the same time becoming involved in evangelical Christian groups such as the Student Christian Movement (which became increasingly more liberal leading up to, and after, a 1928 split with the Universities and Colleges Christian Fellowship) and Moral Re-Armament. She became a public figure via the Clean-Up TV pressure group, established in 1964, in which she was the most prominent figure. The following year she founded the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association, using it as a platform to criticise the BBC for what she perceived as a lack of accountability and excessive use of bad language and portrayals of sex and violence in its programmes. As a result, she was often treated as a figure of fun. During the 1970s she broadened her activities and was a leading figure in the Nationwide Festival of Light, a Christian campaign that gained mass support for a period. She initiated a successful private prosecution against Gay News on the grounds of blasphemous libel, the first such case for more than 50 years. Another private prosecution was against the director of the play, The Romans in Britain, which had been performed at the National Theatre.
Whitehouse's campaigns continue to divide opinion. Her critics have accused her of being a highly censorious, bigoted figure, and her traditional moral convictions brought her into direct conflict with advocates of the sexual revolution, feminism, children's rights and LGBT rights. Others see her more positively and believe she was attempting to halt a decline in what they perceived as Britain's moral standards. According to Ben Thompson, the editor of an anthology of Whitehouse-related letters published in 2012: "From ... feminist anti-pornography campaigns to the executive naming and shaming strategies of UK Uncut, her ideological and tactical influence has been discernible in all sorts of unexpected places in recent years."
Early life
Born in Croft Road, Nuneaton, Warwickshire (in a house she incorrectly stated in her autobiography later became a sex shop) Whitehouse was the second of four children of a "less-than-successful businessman" and a "necessarily resourceful mother". She won a scholarship to Chester City Grammar School, where she was keen on hockey and tennis, and after leaving she did two years of unpaid apprentice teaching at St John's School in Chester, Cheshire. At the Cheshire County Teacher Training College in Crewe, specialising in secondary school art teaching, she was involved with the Student Christian Movement before qualifying in 1932. She became an art teacher at Lichfield Road School in Wednesfield, where she stayed for eight years, and at Brewood Grammar School, both in Staffordshire.
She joined the Wolverhampton branch of the Oxford Group, later known as Moral Re-Armament (MRA), in 1935. At MRA meetings, she met Ernest Raymond Whitehouse; they married at Chester on 23 March 1940 and remained married until he died in Colchester, Essex, aged 87, in 2000. The couple had five sons, two of whom (twins) died in infancy.
After raising her sons in their earliest years, Whitehouse returned to teaching in 1953. That year she broadcast on Woman's Hour on the day before the coronation of Elizabeth II "as a loyal housewife and subject" and wrote an extensive article on homosexuality for The Sunday Times. According to Ben Thompson this concerned how a mother might "best avoid inadvertently pressuring her sons towards that particular orientation" and gained enough attention to be republished as a pamphlet.
She taught art and was senior mistress at Madeley Modern School in Madeley, Shropshire from 1960, taking responsibility for sex education. Shocked at the moral beliefs of her pupils, she became concerned about what she and many others perceived as declining moral standards in the British media, especially in the BBC. She gave up her teaching work at Christmas 1964 to concentrate more fully on her campaigning.
Clean Up TV campaign and the NVALA
Beginnings
Whitehouse began her activism in 1963 with a letter to the BBC requesting to see Hugh Greene, the BBC's Director-General. Greene was out of the country at the time, so she accepted an invitation to meet Harman Grisewood, his deputy, a Roman Catholic who she felt listened to her with understanding. Over the next few months though, she continued to be dissatisfied with what she saw on television.
With Norah Buckland, the wife of a vicar, she launched the Clean Up TV Campaign in January 1964 with a manifesto appealing to the "women of Britain". The campaign's first public meeting, on 5 May 1964, was held in Birmingham's Town Hall. Richard Whitehouse, one of her sons, recalled in 2008: "Coaches arrived from all over the country. Two thousand people poured in and suddenly there was my mother on a podium inspiring them to rapturous applause. Her hands were shaking. But she didn't stop".
Although he regularly clashed with Whitehouse, the academic Richard Hoggart shared some of her opinions and was present on the platform with her at this meeting. The Times commented the following day: "Perhaps never before in the history of the Birmingham Town Hall has such a successful meeting been sponsored by such a flimsy organisation".
Sir Hugh Greene at the BBC
Greene, knighted in January 1964, became her bête noire. He was, according to Whitehouse, "the devil incarnate" who "more than anybody else ... [was] responsible for the moral collapse in this country". The CUTV manifesto asserted that the BBC under Greene spread "the propaganda of disbelief, doubt and dirt ... promiscuity, infidelity and drinking". In place of this, the authors argued, the corporation's activities should "encourage and sustain faith in God and bring Him back to the hearts of our family and national life". Interviewed by The Catholic Herald for its Christmas 1965 issue, Whitehouse thought the BBC loaded its programmes in favour of the 'new morality'. She commented about one unnamed television programme, believing it to be "unbalanced" and biased, in which "youngsters were asking questions [and] there was not a single member of the panel who was prepared to say outright that pre-marital relations were wrong. In fact, when a girl asked a clergyman, 'Do you think that fornication is sin?' he replied, 'It depends on what you mean by sin and what you mean by fornication. Whitehouse thought it was a "big hazard" for "present-day children" that "so many adults do not stand for anything" and affirmed that it was the responsibility of the BBC to have a "missionary role" to compensate for this social deficiency.
The Clean Up TV petition, using the manifesto, gained 500,000 signatures. Whitehouse complained in 1993 that during Greene's period at the BBC, "hardly a week went by without a sniping reference to me". Whitehouse's critics responded quickly. The playwright David Turner had heckled her at Birmingham Town Hall; his work was criticised during the meeting. Within a few months, an episode of Swizzlewick, a twice-weekly serial he created, featured a parody of her as Mrs Smallgood.
In a speech Greene delivered in 1965, he argued, without naming Whitehouse directly, that the critics of his liberalisation of broadcasting policy would "attack whatever does not underwrite a set of prior assumptions" and saw the potential for "a dangerous form of censorship ... which works by causing artists and writers not to take risks". He defended the right of the BBC "to be ahead of public opinion". Greene ignored Whitehouse, blocked her from participation in BBC broadcasts, and purchased a painting of Whitehouse with five breasts by James Lawrence Isherwood.
The National Viewers' and Listeners' Association (later known as Mediawatch-UK) was launched to succeed CUTV in November 1965, with Whitehouse's then home in Claverley, Shropshire hosting its first office, replacing what they themselves perceived as CUTV's negativity with an active campaign for legislative change. The former cabinet minister Bill Deedes, later editor of The Daily Telegraph, supported the group in this period and was the leading speaker at NVALA's founding conference in Birmingham on 30 April 1966, and acted as a contact between his parliamentary colleagues and Whitehouse. Quintin Hogg, better known as Lord Hailsham, was another high-profile politician who gave his support to NVALA and Whitehouse at this time.
Through the letters she frequently sent to Harold Wilson, the Prime Minister, Whitehouse caused particular difficulties for civil servants at 10 Downing Street. Reportedly, for some time Downing Street intentionally "lost" her letters to avoid having to respond to them. It has though been suggested that her contact with parliamentarians helped give her some leverage over the BBC which her own direct communication with the corporation's executives could not achieve. Although accepting the differences between them, Whitehouse wrote to Wilson on 1 January 1968: "You have always treated our approaches to you seriously and with courtesy."
Geoffrey Robertson, QC, suggests that when Greene left the BBC in 1969, contrary to the view that it was because of disagreements over the appointment of the Conservative Lord Hill as BBC chairman in 1967, whereby she could be given some credit for his departure, it was more to do with a political struggle between the BBC and Wilson. However, Hill was prepared to meet Whitehouse at Broadcasting House.
Television and war
War coverage met with her objections. During his brief period as editor of Panorama (1965–66), Jeremy Isaacs received a letter from Whitehouse complaining about his decision to repeat Richard Dimbleby's coverage of the liberation of the Belsen concentration camp. She complained about this "filth" being allowed on air as "it was bound to shock and offend". In a 1994 interview, Whitehouse continued to maintain that it was "an awful intrusion" and "very off-putting".
Later in 1965, the decision by the BBC not to broadcast Peter Watkins' The War Game on 6 August 1965 led to Whitehouse writing to Sir Hugh Greene and Harold Wilson on 5 September, and again to the Home Secretary Frank Soskice on 6 October. In her view, a decision over whether to broadcast Watkins' film should be taken by the Home Office rather than the BBC. Nuclear war was "too serious a matter to be treated as entertainment. For a producer to be allowed, as now appears possible, to prejudice the effectiveness of our Civil Defence Services, or the ability of the British people to re-act with courage, initiative and control in a crisis, surely goes far beyond the responsibility" which should be given to someone in this role. The letter was leaked at the time and extracts were published.
The contemporary coverage of the Vietnam War, "the first 'television war, demonstrated for Whitehouse that television was "an ally of pacifism". In a 1970 speech to the Royal College of Nursing she argued that "[h]owever good the cause [...] the horrific effects on men and terrain of modern warfare as seen on the television screen could well sap the will of a nation to safeguard its own freedom, let alone resist the forces of evil abroad." Trying to reconcile this "pacifism" with her objection to fictional violence, she saw such news coverage as "desensitisation" in which the media use the "techniques of violence" to raise "impact" in order "to satisfy an apparently insatiable demand for realism".
Programmes: comedy and drama from the mid-1960s to 1980
The situation comedy Till Death Us Do Part attacked many of the things Whitehouse cherished. She objected to its profane language: "I doubt if many people would use 121 bloodies in half-an-hour", and "Bad language coarsens the whole quality of our life. It normalises harsh, often indecent language, which despoils our communication."
Whitehouse and the NVALA won a libel action against the BBC and its writer Johnny Speight in July 1967 with a full apology and substantial damages, after Speight implied in a BBC radio interview that the organisation's members and its head were fascists. Shortly after Speight's interview, she was mocked in an episode of the series entitled "Alf's Dilemma" (27 February 1967). Alf Garnett is shown reading her book Cleaning Up TV, and agreeing with every word, but the episode ends with the book being burned to exclamations of "Unclean, unclean".
Whitehouse was critical of comedians such as Benny Hill and his use of dancers; she described Dave Allen as "offensive, indecent and embarrassing" after a comic account of a conversation following sexual intercourse. In return, comedy writers during this era saw her as possessing humorous potential. The Goodies comedy team created an episode ("Gender Education", 1971) with the principal objective of irritating her.
Whitehouse criticised the work of Dennis Potter from Son of Man (1969) onwards, arguing that the BBC was at the centre "of a conspiracy to remove the myth of god from the minds of men", and also A Clockwork Orange (1971). In the case of the violence in A Clockwork Orange, she rejected any attempt to show a 'copycat' correlation in academic studies, but urged its acceptance as a fact arrived at by common sense. In December 1974, she wrote of the "deliberate propagation" of the idea that there is no proof of the effects of television on "standards and behaviour". To reject its effect, and its ability to "declaim or pervert truth, is to deny the potency of communication itself, it is crazily to question the ability of education to affect the social conscience and to train the human mind".
Chuck Berry's novelty song "My Ding-a-Ling" was one of several pop songs to receive Whitehouse's disapproval in this period. She was unsuccessful in trying to persuade the BBC to ban it, but her campaign to stop Alice Cooper's "School's Out" being featured on Top of the Pops was successful. Cooper sent her a bunch of flowers, since he believed the publicity helped the song to reach number one. In 1977, one of the regular presenters of Top of the Pops in this era, Jimmy Savile, won an award from NVALA for his "wholesome family entertainment" on Jim'll Fix It. After his death, a police investigation revealed Savile had molested multiple children during the making of the show.
The NVALA had around 150,000 members at its peak, but claimed 30,000 in April 1977.
Doctor Who
Doctor Who met with her heaviest disapproval during Philip Hinchcliffe's tenure as producer between 1975 and 1977. She described the serial Genesis of the Daleks (1975) as consisting of "teatime brutality for tots", said The Brain of Morbius (1976) "contained some of the sickest and most horrific material seen on children's television", and on The Seeds of Doom (1976), in which the Doctor (Tom Baker) survives an encounter with a giant carnivorous plant monster, she commented: "Strangulation—by hand, by claw, by obscene vegetable matter—is the latest gimmick, sufficiently close up so they get the point. And just for a little variety, show the children how to make a Molotov cocktail."
Following her complaint about The Deadly Assassin (broadcast later in 1976), Whitehouse received an apology from the Director-General of the BBC, Sir Charles Curran. A freeze-frame cliffhanger ending to the third episode, in which the Doctor appeared to drown, was altered for repeat showings. The series' next producer, Graham Williams, was told to lighten the tone and reduce the violence following Whitehouse's complaints. Senior television executives commented that at this time her views were not disregarded lightly.
Philip Hinchcliffe later remarked, "I always felt that Mary Whitehouse thought of Doctor Who as a children's programme, for little children, and it wasn't ... so she was really coming at the show from the wrong starting-point."
After 1980
Whitehouse criticised the ITV adventure/drama series Robin of Sherwood (1984–1986). Simon Farquhar, in an obituary for The Independent of the series' creator, Richard Carpenter, wrote that Whitehouse "objected to the [show's] relentless slaughter and blasphemous religious elements, but was deftly silenced by Carpenter in public when he introduced himself to her and the audience by saying "I'm Richard Carpenter, and I'm a professional writer. And you're a professional... what?"
Within a week of the launch of Channel 4 in November 1982, Whitehouse was objecting to swear words in the soap opera Brookside and two feature films the channel screened, Woodstock (1970) and Network (1976). On 25 November, she called for the resignation of the channel's chief executive Jeremy Isaacs over a scene in Brookside "in which a young thug had tried to force a schoolgirl to have sex with him", according to an item in The Times.
In 1984, Whitehouse won a case in the High Court against John Whitney, director-general of the Independent Broadcasting Authority, who had failed to forward the feature film Scum (1979) for consideration by other IBA board members to decide if Channel 4 should transmit it. Based on a then-banned BBC television play, the channel had screened the theatrical remake in June 1983. The High Court decision was overturned on appeal when it reached the House of Lords.
Whitehouse's supporters have asserted that her campaigns helped end Channel 4's "red triangle" series of films in 1986, so named for the warning preceding them which featured a red triangle with a white centre. The broadcasting of these films with the triangle had received criticism from opponents of Whitehouse. She was said to have had a role in the establishment of the Broadcasting Standards Council in 1988, which later became the Broadcasting Standards Commission and was subsumed into the Office of Communications in 2004.
In August 1989, in a broadcast of In the Psychiatrist's Chair on BBC Radio, Whitehouse confused the playwright with his hero in The Singing Detective. She claimed that Dennis Potter's mother had "committed adultery with a strange man and that the shock of witnessing this had caused her son to be afflicted" with psoriatic arthropathy. Potter's mother won substantial damages from the BBC and The Listener. Whitehouse alleged she had a blackout at the interview's halfway point and claimed her comments were not intentional.
Some years earlier, Potter had publicly defended Whitehouse on several occasions without agreeing with her arguments.
Whitehouse stepped down as President of the National Viewers and Listeners Association in May 1994. Michael Grade, at the time the Chief Executive of Channel 4, reflected on her career:
At the same time William Rees-Mogg, Chairman of the Broadcasting Standards Commission, commented that she was "on the whole a force for the good, an important woman".
Other campaigns and private prosecutions
Permissiveness
Whitehouse had taken up other campaigns against the permissive society by the early 1970s. She objected to the UK edition of The Little Red Schoolbook, "a manual of children's rights" on sex, drugs and attitudes to adults, which was successfully prosecuted for obscenity in July 1971. It was originally published in Denmark where, according to Whitehouse, it had done "incalculable damage" and was "a revolutionary primer", in which "open rebellion against the 'system', be it school, parents or authority generally, was openly advocated, while children were constantly exhorted to collect evidence against teachers of alleged injustices or anything which was likely to enhance revolution."
She was "greatly relieved—for the sake of the children" at the £50 fine and £115.50 costs imposed on Richard Handyside and Geoffrey Collins, its publishers, who also had works by Che Guevara and Fidel Castro on their small list of publications. For Whitehouse it was a "fundamental right of a child to be a child" and "the duty of mature people to ensure that childhood is protected against the inroads of those who would exploit its immaturity for political, social or personal gain." A modified second edition was allowed to be published in the UK, but the original verdict in the prosecution was sustained in the Appeal Court and the European Court of Human Rights (see Handyside v United Kingdom). An unexpurgated edition of the book, bar one minor cut, was published in the UK during July 2014.
Along with the (Catholic) Labour peer Lord Longford, Malcolm Muggeridge and Cliff Richard, Whitehouse was a leading figure in the Nationwide Festival of Light, which protested against the commercial exploitation of sex and violence. The Festival's mass "rally against permissiveness" in Trafalgar Square was attended by 50,000 people in September 1971. On 25 August that year she had an audience with Pope Paul VI regarding 'moral pollution', in which she attempted to present the pontiff with Oz28 and the Little Red School Book, but these items found their way to an official of the Papal See instead. In his foreword to Whitehouse's book, Who Does She Think She Is? (1971), Malcolm Muggeridge wrote: "It is literally true that but for her the total demolition of all Christian decencies and values in this country would have taken place virtually without a word of public protest."
Following the release on appeal of the defendants in the Oz trial, "an unmitigated disaster for the children of our country", Whitehouse launched the Nationwide Petition for Public Decency in January 1972, which gained 1.35 million signatures by the time it was presented to Edward Heath in April 1973. She had around 300 speaking engagements during the period of her highest profile. A pornographic magazine Whitehouse was launched in 1975 by publisher David Sullivan, who deliberately named it after her.
Opposition to paedophilia and child pornography
The Paedophile Information Exchange had been asked to help the Albany Trust, which received public money, to produce a booklet on paedophilia, which was to have been published by the Trust. Whitehouse mentioned the connection in a speech, asserting that public funds were being used to subsidise paedophile groups, and the Trust withdrew its support for the production of the pamphlet in 1977. However, PIE itself did not receive public funding.
Her subsequent petition against paedophilia and child pornography was signed by 1½ million people. Whitehouse urged the Conservative opposition to push for a bill on the subject, in the absence of interest from the Labour government. The private member's bill proposed by Conservative MP Cyril Townsend became the Protection of Children Act 1978.
Gay News and other cases of alleged blasphemy
Whitehouse took private prosecutions in a number of cases where official action was not forthcoming. The action against Gay News in 1977 concerned "The Love That Dares to Speak Its Name", a poem by James Kirkup, a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, the theme of which was the sexual fantasies of a Roman centurion about the body of Jesus Christ. She was the plaintiff in a charge of blasphemous libel against Gay News (Whitehouse v Lemon), a trial at the Old Bailey between 4 and 7 July 1977. It was the first prosecution for the offence since 1922. "I simply had to protect Our Lord", said Whitehouse at the time, Kirkup's poem being in her opinion "the recrucifixion of Christ by 20th-century weapons". The prosecution counsel John Smyth, representing Whitehouse, told the jury: "It may be said that this is a love poem—it is not, it is a poem about buggery", while the defence case was that the poem suggested all of mankind could love Jesus Christ. The Archbishop of Canterbury Donald Coggan and Cardinal Basil Hume both declined Whitehouse's invitation for them to give evidence at the trial.
Denis Lemon, the editor and owner of Gay News, published the poem in the 3–16 June 1976 issue on the basis that the "message and intention of the poem was to celebrate the absolute universality of God's love". Whitehouse told Michael Tracey and David Morrison, the authors of a book about her: "I think it shook me more than anything I had seen or come into contact with all the time I had been campaigning. ... I don't think Jesus Christ has ever been more real to me as a person than he was at that particular moment."
Gay News lost the case; the jury decided the case on a 10–2 majority. Lemon and his paper were fined, and Lemon received a nine-month suspended prison sentence. A Guardian editorial after the verdict said of the trial: "No evidence was called, or allowed to be called, about the merits of the poem in literature or theology", despite the case concerning blasphemy, or to suggest that Kirkup's intention had been to "scandalise" which, given the poet's "list of serious works", the newspaper thought should have been proven. The judge in at the prosecution, Alan King-Hamilton, QC, had only allowed novelist Margaret Drabble and journalist Bernard Levin to appear as "character" witnesses for the newspaper. The Spectator editorial on 15 July commented: "The prosecution was perverse, the verdict misguided. As for the punishments, given that this was in effect a test case, they are excessive" and "left the law on obscenity even more muddled and confused than it was before, and have served no useful purpose whatsoever, except to delight Mrs Whitehouse". The Court of Appeal and the House of Lords dismissed appeals, although Lemon's sentence was overturned.
Geoffrey Robertson, QC, the barrister for Gay News in the case, described Whitehouse as homophobic in The Times in 2008, saying: "Her fear of homosexuals was visceral". He describes the beliefs she reveals in her book, Whatever Happened to Sex?, as "nonsense", such as her assertion that "homosexuality was caused by abnormal parental sex 'during pregnancy or just after'", saying that for her, "being gay was like having acne: 'Psychiatric literature proves that 60 per cent of homosexuals who go for treatment get completely cured.
Whitehouse had hoped to use the blasphemy laws against material other than Kirkup's poem and was interested in pursuing a possible action against allegedly blasphemous content for some time. She had hoped that it could be used as a basis for prosecution if a planned pornographic film on the life of Jesus Christ had been made in Britain. The intended work, containing both homosexual and heterosexual content, was a project by the Danish filmmaker Jens Jørgen Thorsen. This time, Whitehouse, whose organisation had commissioned a translation of the script, gained more widespread support. NVALA organised a publicity campaign, which resulted in Thorsen's intentions gaining significant public condemnation in September 1976 from leading public figures, including the Queen. Thorsen was forced to abandon his plans.
Whitehouse and a letter writing campaign from the Festival of Light, after unsuccessfully lobbying the British Board of Film Classification to refuse the film a certificate, were successful in persuading some councils in Britain to ban screenings of Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979) in their areas on unproven grounds that the film is blasphemous. Nearly a decade later, a threatened campaign by Whitehouse against Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ (1988), with the law against blasphemy still in force at the time, failed to materialise.
The Romans in Britain
In 1982 she pursued a private prosecution against Michael Bogdanov, the director of a National Theatre production of Howard Brenton's The Romans in Britain, a play that "drew a direct parallel between the Roman invasion of Celtic Britain in 54 BC and the contemporary British presence in Northern Ireland". The first act contains "a brief scene" of (simulated) anal rape—the police had visited the production three times and found no basis for legal action. In the prosecution Whitehouse's counsel claimed Section 13 of the Sexual Offences Act 1956, which described the offence of "procuring an act of gross indecency", was applicable. Because this was a general Act, there was no possibility of defence on the basis of artistic merit, unlike that permitted under the Obscene Publications Act 1959.
Since Whitehouse had not seen the play, the prosecution evidence rested on the testimony of her solicitor, Graham Ross-Cornes, who claimed he saw the actor's penis. However, cross-examination revealed that he had seen a performance of the play from the back row of the stalls, 90 feet from the stage. Lord Hutchinson, counsel for Bogdanov, was able to demonstrate the nature of the illusion performed on stage. This was achieved by suggesting that it might have been the actor's thumb protruding from his fist, rather than his erect penis. The defence had argued that the Act did not apply to the theatre; the judge Mr Justice Staughton then ruled that it did. After three days, the action was withdrawn after the prosecution counsel told Whitehouse that he was unable to continue with the case; the litigation was ended by the Attorney General putting forward a plea of nolle prosequi. Both sides claimed a victory; Whitehouse's side asserted that the important legal point had been made with the ruling on the applicability of the Sexual Offences Act, while Bogdanov said it was because she knew that he would not be convicted. Whitehouse had to meet £20,000 costs, most of which was paid by an anonymous donor.
Whitehouse's account of the trial is recorded in A Most Dangerous Woman (); she wrote that she was of the opinion that the legal point had been established, and they had no wish to criminalise Bogdanov, the play's director.
Margaret Thatcher's government
By the 1980s, Whitehouse had found a powerful ally in the Conservative government, particularly in Margaret Thatcher herself, whose support base partially consisted of social conservatives. It has been claimed by the Conservative journalist Bruce Anderson that the market orientation of the Thatcher government prejudiced it against Whitehouse in private.
It has been claimed by commentators not necessarily in agreement with her that Whitehouse's efforts played a part in the passage of the Protection of Children Act 1978, the Indecent Displays (Control) Act 1981, which concerned sex shops, and the Video Recordings Act 1984, which banned 'video nasties', a term reportedly coined by Whitehouse. She screened edited highlights from these films for MPs at the House of Commons in late 1983, which included extracts from The Evil Dead (1981) considered by her "the number one nasty". It was "a highly effective means of lobbying the government to introduce tight state controls on the burgeoning video industry".
Around 1986, papers released in late December 2014 indicate, Whitehouse met with Thatcher on at least two occasions to discuss the possibility of banning sex toys using a potential extension of the "deprave and corrupt" provision in the Obscene Publications Act 1959. The plan was abandoned because home secretary Leon Brittan thought the concept of public taste would be a problematic concept for legal action.
Later years and assessments of her influence
Whitehouse was appointed a CBE in 1980. In 1988, she suffered a spinal injury in a fall, which severely curbed her campaigning activities. Whitehouse retired as president of the NVALA in 1994. She died, aged 91, in a nursing home in Colchester, Essex, on 23 November 2001. Whitehouse is buried in the churchyard of the parish church of St Mary the Virgin at Dedham in Essex.
The journalist Mary Kenny believes "Mary Whitehouse was a significant figure. Some of her battles were justified, even prophetic. Today her attacks on 'kiddie porn' would be widely supported." The academic Richard Hoggart observed: "her main focus was on sex, followed by bad language and violence. Odd: if she had reversed the order, she might have been more effective."
Writing in the Dictionary of National Biography, the philosopher Mary Warnock opined, "Even if her campaigning did not succeed in 'cleaning up TV', still less in making it more fit to watch in other ways, she was of serious intent, and was an influence for good at a crucial stage in the development both of the BBC and of ITV. She was not, as the BBC seemed officially to proclaim, a mere figure of fun."
The papers of the NVALA for 1970–1990 have been deposited at the Library of the University of Essex.
Whitehouse's early campaign and her disagreements with the BBC under Greene were the basis of a drama first broadcast in 2008 entitled Filth: The Mary Whitehouse Story, written by Amanda Coe. Julie Walters played Whitehouse, Alun Armstrong played her husband Ernest, and Hugh Bonneville played Greene.
Her favourite programmes were Dixon of Dock Green (winner of NVALA's Best Family Viewing Award in 1967), Neighbours, and coverage of snooker. She had privately expressed gratitude to Dennis Potter and the BBC for his television play Where Adam Stood in 1976.
In 1984, the NVALA gave an award to Antony Jay and Jonathan Lynn, writers of the situation comedy Yes Minister and Thatcher, who had declared the show her favourite programme, presented the award. Whitehouse sat laughing next to Thatcher as the Prime Minister acted out a sketch, written principally by her press secretary Bernard Ingham, alongside a reluctant Paul Eddington and Nigel Hawthorne, the lead actors in the programme. In accepting the award, Lynn thanked Whitehouse and the NVALA and congratulated Thatcher for "taking her rightful place in the world of situation comedy".
In 1989, a sketch comedy show began on BBC Radio 1 called The Mary Whitehouse Experience, starring alternative comedians David Baddiel, Rob Newman, Steve Punt and Hugh Dennis. The title was an oblique reference to Whitehouse's campaigning against her perception of declining values on TV and radio, although she was rarely satirised directly. The show later transferred to television and made household names of its four protagonists.
In 2017, episode 15 of Endeavour, "Canticle", the character Mrs Pettibon is loosely based on Mary Whitehouse.
See also
Censorship
Pornography
"Mary Long", a song in Deep Purple's 1973 album Who Do We Think We Are
"Pigs (Three Different Ones)", a song in Pink Floyd's 1977 album Animals, which mentions Whitehouse.
Whitehouse (band)
References
Further reading
Ramsey Campbell (1987) "Turn Off: The Whitehouse Way" (an account of a public appearance by Mary Whitehouse) in Ramsey Campbell, Probably, PS Publishing,
Max Caulfield (1976) Mary Whitehouse, Mowbray,
Mary Whitehouse (1967) Cleaning-up TV: From Protest to Participation, Blandford, ISBN B0000CNC3I
Mary Whitehouse (1971) Who Does She Think She is?, New English Library,
Mary Whitehouse (1977) Whatever Happened to Sex?, Wayland, (pbk: Hodder & Stoughton, )
Mary Whitehouse (1982) Most Dangerous Woman?, Lion Hudson,
Mary Whitehouse (1985) Mightier Than the Sword, Kingsway Publications,
Mary Whitehouse (1993) Quite Contrary: An Autobiography, Sidgwick & Jackson,
External links
1910 births
2001 deaths
Anti-pornography activists
British lobbyists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English Christians
People from Nuneaton
Schoolteachers from Warwickshire | [
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243927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e | Ustaše | The Ustaše (), also known by anglicised versions Ustasha or Ustashe, was a Croatian fascist and ultranationalist organization active, as one organization, between 1929 and 1945, formally known as the Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Movement (). Its members murdered hundreds of thousands of Serbs, Jews, and Roma as well as political dissidents in Yugoslavia during World War II.
The ideology of the movement was a blend of fascism, Roman Catholicism and Croatian nationalism. The Ustaše supported the creation of a Greater Croatia that would span the Drina River and extend to the border of Belgrade. The movement emphasized the need for a racially "pure" Croatia and promoted genocide against Serbs—due to the Ustaše's beliefs grounded in anti-Serb sentiment—and Jews and Roma via Nazi racial theory, and persecution of anti-fascist or dissident Croats and Bosniaks. The Ustaše viewed the Bosniaks as "Muslim Croats", and as a result, Bosniaks were not persecuted on the basis of race.
Fiercely Roman Catholic, the Ustaše espoused Roman Catholicism and Islam as the religions of the Croats and Bosniaks and condemned Orthodox Christianity, which was the main religion of the Serbs. Roman Catholicism was identified with Croatian nationalism, while Islam, which had a large following in Bosnia and Herzegovina, was praised by the Ustaše as the religion that "keeps true the blood of Croats."
It was founded as a nationalist organization that sought to create an independent Croatian state. When the Ustaše came to power in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a quasi-protectorate puppet state established by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany during World War II, its military wings became the Croatian Home Guard and the Ustaše Militia (). However, the Ustaše lacked support among ordinary Croats and never accrued any significant support among the populace. The Ustaše regime was backed by parts of the Croat population that during the interwar period had felt oppressed in the Serb-led Yugoslavia. Most of the support it had initially gained by creating a Croat national state was lost because of the brutal practices it used.
The movement functioned as a terrorist organization before World War II but in April 1941, they were appointed to rule a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia as the NDH, which has been described as both an Italian-German quasi-protectorate, and as a puppet state of Nazi Germany.
Name
The word ustaša (plural: ustaše) is derived from the intransitive verb ustati (Croatian for rise up).
"" () was a military rank in the Imperial Croatian Home Guard (1868–1918). The same term was the name of Croatian third-class infantry regiments () during World War I (1914–1918). Another variation of the word ustati is ustanik (plural: ustanici) which means an insurgent, or a rebel. The name ustaša did not have fascist connotations during the early years of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia as the term "ustat" was itself used in Herzegovina to denote the insurgents from the Herzegovinian rebellion of 1875. The full original name of the organization appeared in April 1931 as the or UHRO (Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Organization); in 1933 it was renamed the (Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Movement), a name it kept until World War II. In English, Ustasha, Ustashe, Ustashas and Ustashi are used for the movement or its members.
Ideology
Ideological roots
One of the major ideological influences on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustaše was 19th century Croatian activist Ante Starčević, an advocate of Croatian unity and independence, who was both anti-Habsburg and anti-Serbian in outlook.
He envisioned the creation of a Greater Croatia that would include territories inhabited by Bosniaks, Serbs, and Slovenes, considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to Islam and Orthodox Christianity, while considering the Slovenes to be "mountain Croats". Starčević argued that the large Serb presence in territories claimed by a Greater Croatia was the result of recent settlement, encouraged by Habsburg rulers, and the influx of groups like Vlachs who took up Orthodox Christianity and identified themselves as Serbs. Starčević admired Bosniaks because in his view they were Croats who had adopted Islam in order to preserve the economic and political autonomy of Bosnia and Croatia under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ustaše used Starčević's theories to promote the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Croatia and recognized Croatia as having two major ethnocultural components: Catholics and Muslims. The Ustaše sought to represent Starčević as being connected to their views. Josip Frank seceded his extreme fraction from Starčević's Party of Rights and formed his own, the Pure Party of Rights, which became the main pool of members of the subsequent Ustaše movement. Historian John Paul Newman stated that Austro-Hungarian officers' "unfaltering opposition to Yugoslavia provided a blueprint for the Croatian radical right, the Ustaše".
The Ustaše promoted the theories of Dr Milan Šufflay, who is believed to have claimed that Croatia had been "one of the strongest ramparts of Western civilization for many centuries", which he claimed had been lost through its union with Serbia when the nation of Yugoslavia was formed in 1918. Šufflay was killed in Zagreb in 1931 by government supporters.
The Ustaše accepted the 1935 thesis by a Franciscan friar, Father Krunoslav Draganović, who claimed that many Catholics in southern Herzegovina had been converted to Orthodox Christianity in the 16th and 17th centuries, in order to justify a policy of forcible conversion of Orthodox Christians in the area to Catholicism.
The Ustaše were heavily influenced by Nazism and fascism. Its leader, Ante Pavelić, held the position of Poglavnik, which was based on the similar positions of Duce held by Benito Mussolini and Führer held by Adolf Hitler. The Ustaše, like fascists, promoted a corporatist economy. Pavelić and the Ustaše were allowed sanctuary in Italy by Mussolini after being exiled from Yugoslavia. Pavelić had been in negotiations with Fascist Italy since 1927 that included advocating a territory-for-sovereignty swap in which he would tolerate Italy annexing its claimed territory in Dalmatia in exchange for Italy supporting the sovereignty of an independent Croatia. The Ustaše ideology has also been characterized as clerical fascism by several authors, who emphasize the importance the movement attached to Roman Catholicism.
Mussolini's support of the Ustaše was based on pragmatic considerations, such as maximizing Italian influence in the Balkans and the Adriatic. After 1937, with the weakening of French influence in Europe following Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland and with the rise of a quasi-fascist government in Yugoslavia under Milan Stojadinović, Mussolini abandoned support for the Ustaše from 1937 to 1939 and sought to improve relations with Yugoslavia, fearing that continued hostility towards Yugoslavia would result in Yugoslavia entering Germany's sphere of influence.
The collapse of the quasi-fascist Stojadinović regime resulted in Italy restoring its support for the Ustaše, whose aim was to create an independent Croatia in personal union with Italy. However, distrust of the Ustaše grew. Mussolini's son-in-law and Italian foreign minister Count Galeazzo Ciano noted in his diary that "The Duce is indignant with Pavelić, because he claims that the Croats are descendants of the Goths. This will have the effect of bringing them into the German orbit".
Hungary strongly supported the Ustaše for two aims. One, in order to weaken Yugoslavia, Little Entente, in order to ultimately regain some of its lost territories. The other, Hungary also wished to establish later in the future a strong alliance with the Independent State of Croatia and possibly enter a personal union.
Nazi Germany initially didn't support an independent Croatia, nor did it support the Ustaše, with Hitler stressing the importance of a "strong and united Yugoslavia". Nazi officials, including Hermann Göring, wanted Yugoslavia stable and officially neutral during the war so Germany could continue to securely gain Yugoslavia's raw material exports. The Nazis grew irritated with the Ustaše, among them Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler, who was dissatisfied with the lack of full compliance by the NDH to the Nazis' agenda of extermination of the Jews, as the Ustaše permitted Jews who converted to Catholicism to be recognized as "honorary Croats", thus putatively exempt from persecution.
Political programme and main agendas
In 1932, an editorial in the first issue of the Ustaše newspaper, signed by the Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić, proclaimed that violence and terror would be the main means for the Ustaše to attain their goals:The KNIFE, REVOLVER, MACHINE GUN and TIME BOMB; these are the idols, these are bells that will announce the dawning and THE RESURRECTION OF THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF CROATIA.
In 1933, the Ustaše presented "The Seventeen Principles" that formed the official ideology of the movement. The Principles stated the uniqueness of the Croatian nation, promoted collective rights over individual rights and declared that people who were not Croat by "blood" would be excluded from political life.
Those considered "undesirables" were subjected to mass murder. These principles called for the creation of a new economic system that would be neither capitalist nor communist and which emphasized the importance of the Roman Catholic Church and the patriarchial family as means to maintain social order and morality. (The name given by modern historian to this particular aspect of Ustaše ideology varies; "national Catholicism", "political Catholicism" and "Catholic Croatism" have been proposed among others.) In power, the Ustaše banned contraception and tightened laws against blasphemy.
The Ustaše accepted that Croats are part of the Dinaric race, but rejected the idea that Croats are primarily Slavic, claiming they are primarily descended from Germanic roots with the Goths. The Ustaše believed that a government must naturally be strong and authoritarian. The movement opposed parliamentary democracy for being "corrupt" and Marxism and Bolshevism for interfering in family life and the economy and for their materialism. The Ustaše considered competing political parties and elected parliaments to be harmful to its own interests.
The Ustaše recognized both Roman Catholicism and Islam as national religions of the Croatian people but initially rejected Orthodox Christianity as being incompatible with their objectives. Although the Ustaše emphasized religious themes, it stressed that duty to the nation took precedence over religious custom.
In power, the Ustaše banned the use of the term "Serbian Orthodox faith", requiring "Greek-Eastern faith" in its place. The Ustaše forcefully converted many Orthodox to Catholicism, murdered and expelled 85% of Orthodox priests, and plundered and burnt many Orthodox Christian churches. The Ustaše also persecuted Old Catholics who did not recognize papal infallibility. On 2 July 1942 the Croatian Orthodox Church was founded, as a further means to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church, but this new Church gained very few followers.
The Ustaše attached conditions to the Croatian citizenship of Muslims, such as asserting that a Muslim who supported Yugoslavia would not be considered a Croat nor a citizen but would instead be considered a "Muslim Serb" who could be denied property and imprisoned. The Ustaše claimed that such "Muslim Serbs" had to earn Croat status.
Antisemitism
While initial focus was against Serbs, as the Ustaše grew closer to the Nazis they adopted antisemitism. In 1936, in "The Croat Question", Ante Pavelić placed Jews third among "the Enemies of the Croats" (after Serbs and Freemasons, but before Communists): writing:″Today, practically all finance and nearly all commerce in Croatia is in Jewish hands. This became possible only through the support of the state, which thereby seeks, on one hand, to strengthen the pro-Serbian Jews, and on the other, to weaken Croat national strength. The Jews celebrated the establishment of the so-called Yugoslav state with great joy, because a national Croatia could never be as useful to them as a multi-national Yugoslavia; for in national chaos lies the power of the Jews... In fact, as the Jews had foreseen, Yugoslavia became, in consequence of the corruption of official life in Serbia, a true Eldorado of Jewry."
Once in power, the Ustaše immediately introduced a series of Nazi-style Racial Laws. On 30 April 1941, the Ustaše proclaimed the "Legal Decree on Racial Origins", the "Legal Decree on the Protection of Aryan Blood and the Honor of the Croatian People", and the "Legal Provision on Citizenship". These decrees defined who was a Jew, and took away the citizenship rights of all non-Aryans, i.e. Jews and Roma. By the end of April 1941, months before the Nazis implemented similar measures in Germany and over a year after being implemented in occupied Poland, the Ustaše required all Jews to wear insignia, typically a yellow Star of David. The Ustaše declared the "Legal Provision on the Nationalization of the Property of Jews and Jewish Companies", on 10 October 1941, and with it they confiscated all Jewish property.
Already on their first day, 10–11 April 1941, Ustaše arrested a group of prominent Zagreb Jews and held them for ransom. On 13 April the same was done in Osijek, where Ustaše and Volksdeutscher mobs also destroyed the synagogue and Jewish graveyard. This process was repeated multiple times in 1941 with groups of Jews. Simultaneously, the Ustaše initiated extensive antisemitic propaganda, with Ustaše papers writing that Croatians must "be more alert than any other ethnic group to protect their racial purity, ... We need to keep our blood clean of the Jews". They also wrote that Jews are synonymous with "treachery, cheating, greed, immorality and foreigness", and therefore "wide swaths of the Croatian people always despised the Jews and felt towards them natural revulsion".
In May 1941, the Ustaše rounded up 165 Jewish youth in Zagreb, members of the Jewish sports club Makabi, and sent them to the Danica concentration camp (all but 3 were later killed by the Ustaše). The Ustaše sent most Jews to Ustaše and Nazi concentration camps—including the notorious, Ustaše-run Jasenovac concentration camp—where nearly 32,000, or 80% of the Jews in the Independent State of Croatia, were exterminated. In October 1941, the Ustaše mayor of Zagreb ordered the demolition of the Zagreb Synagogue, which was completely demolished by April 1942. The Ustaše persecuted Jews who practiced Judaism but authorized Jewish converts to Catholicism to be recognized as Croatian citizens and be given honorary Aryan citizenship that allowed them to be reinstated at the jobs from which they had previously been separated. After they stripped Jews of their citizenship rights, the Ustaše allowed some to apply for Aryan rights via bribes and/or through connections to prominent Ustaše. The whole process was highly arbitrary. Only 2% of Zagreb's Jews were granted Aryan rights, for example. Also, Aryan rights did not guarantee permanent protection from being sent to concentration camps or other persecution.
Other measures
Economically, the Ustaše supported the creation of a corporatist economy. The movement believed that natural rights existed to private property and ownership over small-scale means of production free from state control. Armed struggle, revenge and terrorism were glorified by the Ustaše.
The Ustaše introduced widespread measures, to which many Croats themselves fell victim. Jozo Tomasevich in his book War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941-1945, states that "never before in history had Croats been exposed to such legalized administrative, police and judicial brutality and abuse as during the Ustaša regime." Decrees enacted by the regime formed the basis that allowed it to get rid of all unwanted employees in state and local government and in state enterprises, the "unwanted" being all Jews, Serbs and Yugoslav-oriented Croats who were all thrown out except for some deemed specifically needed by the government. This would leave a multitude of jobs to be filled by Ustašes and pro-Ustaše adherents, and would lead to government jobs being filled by people with no professional qualifications.
History
Before World War II
During the 1920s, Ante Pavelić, lawyer, politician and one of the followers Frank's party, became the leading advocate of Croatian independence. In 1927, he secretly contacted Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy and founder of fascism, and presented his separatist ideas to him. Pavelić proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats. Historian Rory Yeomans claimed that as early as 1928, there are signs that Pavelić was considering the formation of a nationalist insurgency group.
In October 1928, after the assassination of leading Croatian politician Stjepan Radić, Croatian Peasant Party President in the Yugoslav Assembly by radical Montenegrin politician Puniša Račić, a youth group named the Croat Youth Movement was founded by Branimir Jelić at the University of Zagreb. A year later Ante Pavelić was invited by the 21-year-old Jelić into the organization as a junior member. A related movement, the Domobranski Pokret—which had been the name of the legal Croatian army in Austria-Hungary—began publication of Hrvatski Domobran, a newspaper dedicated to Croatian national matters. The Ustaše sent Hrvatski Domobran to the United States to garner support for them from Croatian-Americans. The organization around the Domobran tried to engage with and radicalize moderate Croats, using Radić's assassination to stir up emotions within the divided country. By 1929 two divergent Croatian political streams had formed: those who supported Pavelić's view that only violence could secure Croatia's national interests, and the Croatian Peasant Party, led then by Vladko Maček, successor to Stjepan Radić, which had much greater support among Croats.
Various members of the Croatian Party of Rights contributed to the writing of the Domobran, until around Christmas 1928 when the newspaper was banned by authorities of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In January 1929 the king banned all national parties, and the radical wing of the Party of Rights was exiled, including Pavelić, Jelić and Gustav Perčec. This group was later joined by several other Croatian exiles. On 22 March 1941 Zvonimir Pospišil and Mijo Babić murdered Toni Šlegel, the chief editor of newspaper Novosti from Zagreb and president of Jugoštampa, which was the beginning of the terrorist actions of Ustaše. On 20 April 1929 Pavelić and others co-signed a declaration in Sofia, Bulgaria, with members of the Macedonian National Committee, asserting that they would pursue "their legal activities for the establishment of human and national rights, political freedom and complete independence for both Croatia and Macedonia". The Court for the Preservation of the State in Belgrade sentenced Pavelić and Perčec to death on 17 July 1929.
The exiles started organizing support for their cause among the Croatian diaspora in Europe, as well as North and South America. In January 1932 they named their revolutionary organization "Ustaša". The Ustaše carried out terrorist acts, to cause as much damage as possible to Yugoslavia. From their training camps in fascist Italy and Hungary, they planted time bombs on international trains bound for Yugoslavia, causing deaths and material damage. In November 1932 ten Ustaše, led by Andrija Artuković and supported by four local sympathizers, attacked a gendarme outpost at Brušani in the Lika/Velebit area, in an apparent attempt to intimidate the Yugoslav authorities. The incident has sometimes been termed the "Velebit uprising".
Assassination of King Alexander I
The Ustaše's most famous terrorist act was carried out on 9 October 1934, when working with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), they assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia. The perpetrator, a Bulgarian revolutionary, Vlado Chernozemski, was killed by French police. Three Ustaše members who had been waiting at different locations for the king—Mijo Kralj, Zvonimir Pospišil and Milan Rajić—were captured and sentenced to life imprisonment by a French court.
Ante Pavelić, along with Eugen Kvaternik and Ivan Perčević, were subsequently sentenced to death in absentia by a French court, as the real organizers of the deed. The Ustaše believed that the assassination of King Alexander had effectively "broken the backbone of Yugoslavia" and that it was their "most important achievement."
Soon after the assassination, all organizations related to the Ustaše as well as the Hrvatski Domobran, which continued as a civil organization, were banned throughout Europe. Under pressure from France, the Italian police arrested Pavelić and several Ustaše emigrants in October 1934. Pavelić was imprisoned in Turin and released in March 1936. After he met with Eugen Dido Kvaternik, he stated that assassination was "the only language Serbs understand". While in prison, Pavelić was informed of the 1935 election in Yugoslavia, when the coalition led by Croat Vladko Maček won. He stated that his victory was aided by the activity of Ustaše. By the mid-1930s, graffiti with the initials ŽAP meaning "Long live Ante Pavelić" () had begun to appear on the streets of Zagreb. During the 1930s, a split developed between the "home" Ustaše members who stayed behind in Croatia and Bosnia to struggle against Yugoslavia and the "emigre" Ustaše who went abroad. The "emigre" Ustaše who had a much lower educational level were viewed as violent, ignorant and fanatical by the "home" Ustaše while the "home" Ustaše were dismissed as "soft" by the "emigres" who saw themselves as a "warrior-elite".
After March 1937, when Italy and Yugoslavia signed a pact of friendship, Ustaše and their activities were banned, which attracted the attention of young Croats, especially university students, who would become sympathizers or members. In 1936, the Yugoslav government offered amnesty to those Ustaše abroad provided they promised to renounce violence; many of the "emigres" accepted the amnesty and returned home to continue the struggle. In the late 1930s, the Ustaše started to infiltrate the para-military organizations of the Croat Peasant Party, the Croatian Defense Force and the Peasant Civil Party. At the University of Zagreb, an Ustaše-linked student group become the largest single student group by 1939. In February 1939 two returnees from detention, Mile Budak and Ivan Oršanić, became editors of the pro-Ustaše journal Hrvatski narod, known in English as The Croatian Nation.
World War II
The Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. Vladko Maček, the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), which was the most influential party in Croatia at the time, rejected German offers to lead the new government. On 10 April the most senior home-based Ustaše, Slavko Kvaternik, took control of the police in Zagreb and in a radio broadcast that day proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH). The name of the state was an attempt to capitalise on the Croat struggle for independence. Maček issued a statement that day, calling on all Croatians to cooperate with the new authorities.
Meanwhile, Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše left their camps in Italy for Zagreb, where he declared a new government on 16 April 1941. He accorded himself the title of "Poglavnik"—a Croatian approximation to "Führer". The Independent State of Croatia was declared on Croatian "ethnic and historical territory", what is today Republic of Croatia (without Istria), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Syrmia and the Bay of Kotor. However, a few days after the declaration of independence, the Ustaše were forced to sign the Treaty of Rome where they surrendered part of Dalmatia and Krk, Rab, Korčula, Biograd, Šibenik, Split, Čiovo, Šolta, Mljet and part of Konavle and the Bay of Kotor to Italy. De facto control over this territory varied for the majority of the war, as the Yugoslav Partisans grew more successful, while the Germans and Italians increasingly exercised direct control over areas of interest. The Germans and Italians split the NDH into two zones of influence, one in the southwest controlled by the Italians and the other in the northeast controlled by the Germans. As a result, the NDH has been described as "an Italian-German quasi-protectorate". In September 1943, after Italian capitulation, the NDH annexed the whole territory which was annexed by Italy according to Treaty of Rome.
The decline in support for the Ustaše regime among ethnic Croats of those initially for the government began with the ceding of Dalmatia to Italy, considered as the heartland of the state and worsened with the internal lawlessness from Ustaše persecutions.
Ustaše Militia
The Army of the Independent State of Croatia was composed of enlistees who did not participate in Ustaše activities. The Ustaše Militia was organised in 1941 into five (later 15) 700-man battalions, two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion (later Brigade). They were predominantly recruited among uneducated population and working class.
On 27 April 1941 a newly formed unit of the Ustaše army killed members of the largely Serbian community of Gudovac, near Bjelovar. Eventually all who opposed and/or threatened the Ustaše were outlawed. The HSS was banned on 11 June 1941, in an attempt by the Ustaše to take their place as the primary representative of the Croatian peasantry. Vladko Maček was sent to the Jasenovac concentration camp, but later released to serve a house arrest sentence due to his popularity among the people. Maček was later again called upon by foreigners to take a stand and oppose the Pavelić government, but refused. In early 1941 Jews and Serbs were ordered to leave certain areas of Zagreb.
In the months after Independent State of Croatia has been established, most of Ustaše groups were not under centralized control: besides 4,500 regular Ustaše Corps troops, there was some 25,000–30,0000 "Wild Ustaše" (hrv. "divlje ustaše"), boosted by government-controlled press as "peasant Ustaše" "begging" to be sent to fight enemies of the regime. After mass crimes against Serb populace committed during the Summer months of 1941, the regime decided to blame all the atrocities to the irregular Ustaše—thoroughly undisciplined and paid for the service only with the booty; authorities even sentenced to death and executed publicly in August and September 1941 many of them for unauthorized use of extreme violence against Serbs and Gypsies. To put an end to Wild Ustaše uncontrolled looting and killing, the central government used some 6,000 gendarmes and some 45,000 newly recruited members of regular "Domobranstvo" forces.
Pavelić first met with Adolf Hitler on 6 June 1941. Mile Budak, then a minister in Pavelić's government, publicly proclaimed the violent racial policy of the state on 22 July 1941. Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, a chief of the secret police, started building concentration camps in the summer of the same year. Ustaše activities in villages across the Dinaric Alps led the Italians and the Germans to express their disquiet. According to writer/historian Srđa Trifković, as early as 10 July 1941 Wehrmacht Gen. Edmund Glaise von Horstenau reported the following to the German High Command, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW):Our troops have to be mute witnesses of such events; it does not reflect well on their otherwise high reputation . . . I am frequently told that German occupation troops would finally have to intervene against Ustaše crimes. This may happen eventually. Right now, with the available forces, I could not ask for such action. Ad hoc intervention in individual cases could make the German Army look responsible for countless crimes which it could not prevent in the past.
Historian Jonathan Steinberg describes Ustaše crimes against Serbian and Jewish civilians: "Serbian and Jewish men, women and children were literally hacked to death". Reflecting on the photos of Ustaše crimes taken by Italians, Steinberg writes: "There are photographs of Serbian women with breasts hacked off by pocket knives, men with eyes gouged out, emasculated and mutilated".
A Gestapo report to Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler, dated 17 February 1942, stated:
In September 1942 an Ustaše Defensive Brigade was formed, and during 1943 the Ustaše battalions were re-organised into eight four-battalion brigades (1st to 8th). In 1943 the Germans suffered major losses on the Eastern Front and the Italians signed an armistice with the Allies, leaving behind significant caches of arms which the Partisans would use.
By 1944 Pavelić was almost totally reliant on Ustaše units, now 100,000 strong, formed in Brigades 1 to 20, Recruit Training Brigades 21 to 24, three divisions, two railway brigades, one defensive brigade and the new Mobile Brigade. In November 1944 the army was effectively put under Ustaše control when the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia were combined with the units of the Ustaše to form 18 divisions, comprising 13 infantry, two mountain and two assault divisions and one replacement division, each with its own organic artillery and other support units. There were several armored units.
Fighting continued for a short while after the formal surrender of German Army Group E on 9 May 1945, as Pavelić ordered the NDH forces to attempt to escape to Austria, together with a large number of civilians. The Battle of Poljana, between a mixed German and Ustaše column and a Partisan force, was the last battle of World War II on European soil. Most of those fleeing, including both Ustaše and civilians, were handed over to the Partisans at Bleiburg and elsewhere on the Austrian border. Pavelić hid in Austria and Rome, with the help of Catholic clergy, later fleeing to Argentina.
After the war
After World War II, many of the Ustaše went underground or fled to countries such as Canada, Australia, Germany and some countries in South America, notably Argentina, with the assistance of Roman Catholic churches and their own grassroots supporters.
For several years some Ustaše tried to organize a resistance group called the Crusaders, but their efforts were largely foiled by the Yugoslav authorities. With the defeat of the Independent State of Croatia, the active movement went dormant. Infighting fragmented the surviving Ustaše. Pavelić formed the Croatian Liberation Movement, which drew in several of the former state's leaders. Vjekoslav Vrančić founded a reformed Croatian Liberation Movement and was its leader. Maks Luburić formed the Croatian National Resistance. Branimir Jelić founded the Croatian National Committee.
Blagoje Jovović, a Montenegrin, shot Pavelić near Buenos Aires on 9 April 1957; Pavelić later died of his injuries.
Ethnic and religious persecution
The Ustaše intended to create an ethnically "pure" Croatia, and they viewed the Serbs living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina as the biggest obstacle to this goal. Ustaše ministers Mile Budak, Mirko Puk and Milovan Žanić declared in May 1941 that the goal of the new Ustaše policy was an ethnically pure Croatia. The strategy to achieve their goal was:
One third of the Serbs were to be killed
One third of the Serbs were to be expelled
One third of the Serbs were to be forcibly converted to Catholicism
The NDH government cooperated with Nazi Germany in the Holocaust and exercised their own version of the genocide against Serbs, Jews and Roma (aka "gypsies") inside its borders. State policy towards Serbs had first been declared in the words of Milovan Žanić, a minister of the NDH Legislative council, on 2 May 1941:
This country can only be a Croatian country, and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs, who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity.
The Ustaše enacted race laws patterned after those of the Third Reich, which persecuted Jews, Romani and Serbs, who were collectively declared to be enemies of the Croatian people. Serbs, Jews, Roma and Croatian and Bosniak dissidents, including Communists, were interned in concentration camps, the largest of which was Jasenovac. By the end of the war the Ustaše, under Pavelić's leadership, had exterminated an estimated 30,000 Jews and 26–29,000 Roma, while the number of Serb victims ranges as low as 200,000 to as high as 500,000 with historians generally listing between 300,000 and 350,000 deaths.
The history textbooks in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cited 700,000 as the total number of victims at Jasenovac. This was promulgated from a 1946 calculation of the demographic loss of population (the difference between the actual number of people after the war and the number that would have been, had the pre-war growth trend continued). After that, it was used by Edvard Kardelj and Moša Pijade in the Yugoslav war reparations claim sent to Germany. In its entry on Jasenovac, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum says:
Determining the number of victims is highly problematic, due to the destruction of many relevant documents, the long-term inaccessibility to independent scholars of those documents that survived, and the ideological agendas of postwar partisan scholarship and journalism, which has been and remains influenced by ethnic tension, religious prejudice, and ideological conflict.The Ustaše murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau.
The USHMM notes that estimates on the number of Serb victims, the Ustaše's primary victims, vary tremendously and that "the most reliable figures place the number between 330,000 and 390,000, with 45,000 to 52,000 Serbs murdered in Jasenovac."
The Jasenovac Memorial Area maintains a list of 83,145 names of Jasenovac victims that was gathered by government officials in Belgrade in 1964, as well as names and biographical data for the victims identified in recent inquiries. As the gathering process was imperfect, they estimated that the list represented between 60%–75% of the total victims, putting the number of killed in that complex at between roughly 80,000–100,000. The previous head of the Memorial Area Simo Brdar estimated at least 365,000 dead at Jasenovac. The analyses of statisticians Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović were similar to those of the Memorial Area. In all of Yugoslavia, the estimated number of Serb deaths was 487,000 according to Kočović, and 530,000 according to Žerjavić, out of a total of 1.014 million or 1.027 million deaths (respectively). Žerjavić further stated there were 197,000 Serb civilians killed in NDH (78,000 as prisoners in Jasenovac and elsewhere) as well as 125,000 Serb combatants.
The Belgrade Museum of Holocaust compiled a list of over 77,000 names of Jasenovac victims. It was previously headed by Milan Bulajić, who supported the claim of a total of 700,000 victims. The current administration of the Museum has further expanded the list to include a bit over 80,000 names. During World War II various German military commanders and civilian authorities gave different figures for the number of Serbs, Jews and others killed inside the territory of the Independent State of Croatia. Historian Prof. Jozo Tomasevich has posited that some of these figures may have been a "deliberate exaggeration" fostered to create further hostility between Serbs and Croats so that they would not unite in resisting the Axis. These figures included 400,000 Serbs (Alexander Löhr); 500,000 Serbs (Lothar Rendulic); 250,000 to March 1943 (Edmund Glaise von Horstenau); more than "3/4 of a million Serbs" (Hermann Neubacher) in 1943; 600,000–700,000 in concentration camps until March 1944 (Ernst Fick); 700,000 (Massenbach).
Concentration camps
The first group of camps was formed in the spring of 1941. These included:
Danica near Koprivnica
Slana and Metajna on the Island of Pag
Jadovno near Gospić
Kruščica near Vitez and Travnik in Bosnia
Đakovo
Loborgrad in Zagorje
Tenja near Osijek
These camps were closed by October 1942. The Jasenovac complex was built between August 1941 and February 1942. The first two camps, Krapje and Bročica, were closed in November 1941. The three newer camps continued to function until the end of the war:
Ciglana (Jasenovac III)
Kozara (Jasenovac IV)
Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V) – concentration camp for women and children
There were also other camps in:
Sisak Children's Concentration Camp
Jastrebarsko Children's Concentration Camp
Gospić
Kerestinec prison near Zagreb
Lepoglava near Varaždin
Numbers of prisoners:
between 300,000 and 350,000 up to 700,000 in Jasenovac (disputed)
around 35,000 in Gospić
around 8,500 in Pag
around 3,000 in Đakovo
1,018 in Jastrebarsko
around 1,000 in Lepoglava
Massacres of Serb civilians
Beyond mass killings in concentration camps, the Ustaše perpetrated many massacres of civilians in the field. The first mass killing of Serbs was carried out on 30 April 1941, when the Ustaše rounded up and killed 196 Serb villagers at Gudovac. Many other massacres soon followed, including at Blagaj, Glina, Korita, Nevesinje, Prebilovci, Metkovic, Otočac, Vočin, Šargovac, etc. Here is how the Croatian Catholic Bishop of Mostar, Alojzije Mišić, described the mass killings of Serb civilians just in one small area of Herzegovina, just during the first 6 months of the war:People were captured like beasts. Slaughtered, killed, thrown live into the abyss. Women, mothers with children, young women, girls and boys were thrown into pits. The vice-mayor of Mostar, Mr. Baljić, a Mohammedan, publicly states, although as an official he should be silent and not talk, that in Ljubinje alone 700 schismatics [i.e. Serb Orthodox Christians] were thrown into one pit. Six full train carriages of women, mothers and girls, children under age 10, were taken from Mostar and Čapljina to the Šurmanci station, where they were unloaded and taken into the hills, with live mothers and their children tossed down the cliffs. Everyone was tossed and killed. In the Klepci parish, from the surrounding villages, 3,700 schismatics were killed. Poor souls, they were calm. I will not enumerate further. I would go too far. In the city of Mostar, hundreds were tied up, taken outside the city and killed like animals.
German accounts of Ustaše massacres
German officers in Croatia and Bosnia repeatedly expressed abhorrence at Ustaše mass killings of Serbs, using words like “slaughter”, “atrocities”, “butchery” and “terror”, while citing hundreds of thousands of victims. Thus Major Walter Kleinenberger, officer with the 714th division, complained that Ustaše brutality “was in defiance of all laws of civilization. The Ustaše murder without exception men, women and children”. German Captain Konopatzki called the Ustaše Black Legion slaughter of Serb civilians in Eastern Bosnia “a new wave of butchery of innocents”. Ustaše “wholesale butchery” (Abschlachtung) of Serbs in Srem, in ISC-occupied Serbia, triggered German concerns of Serb uprisings. Lieutenant Colonel von Wedel wrote that in western Bosnia Ustaše killed women and children “like cattle” in a series of “bestial executions”. This is how Hitler's Plenipotentiary to Croatia, General von Horstanau, described the aftermath of slaughter committed by Jasenovac concentration camp guards in a nearby village:
At Crkveni Bok, an unfortunate place, over which about five hundred 15- to 20-year-old thugs descended under the leadership of an Ustasha lieutenant colonel, people were killed everywhere, women were raped and then tortured to death, children were killed. I saw in the Sava River the corpse of a young woman with her eyes dug out and a stake driven into her sexual parts. This woman was at most twenty years old when she fell into the hands of these monsters. All around, pigs devoured unburied human beings. "Fortunate” residents were shipped in terrifying freight cars; many of these involuntary "passengers" cut their veins during transport to the camp [Jasenovac]"
The German military even took the extraordinary step of trying the Ustaše chaplain, Miroslav Filipović, for the massacre of 2,300 civilians in 3 villages around Banja Luka in February 1942, including 52 children at a school. On March 3, 1943, General von Horstanau, wrote "Thus far 250,000 Serbs have been killed". General Lothar Rendulić wrote how in August 1942 he remarked to an Ustaše official that he could not conceive how 500,000 Serbs had been killed, to which the Ustaše replied "Half-a-million is a slanderous accusation, the number is not higher than 200,000". Other German sources put the total Serb victim numbers in the ISC, as high as 600,000 to 700,000.
Religious persecution
As part of their policy to eliminate Serbs entirely, by killing one-third, converting one-third and expelling one-third, the Ustaše conducted forcible conversions of Christian Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism, with the participation of Catholic priests. On occasion they used the prospect of conversion as a means to gather Serbs together so they could kill them, which is what occurred at Glina. On 18 May 1943, Archbishop Stepinac wrote a letter to the pope, in which he estimated 240,000 conversions to date. The Ustaše killed 157 Orthodox priests, among them 3 Serb Orthodox bishops (cutting the throat of the bishop of Banja Luka and killing the archbishop of Sarajevo), while they jailed and tortured the Orthodox archbishop of Zagreb. The Ustaše expelled to Serbia 327 Orthodox priests and one bishop, while 2 other bishops and 12 priests left on their own.
According to NDH laws only uneducated Serbs were eligible for conversion to Catholicism; educated people (merchants, intelligentia, and especially Orthodox clergy) were to be exterminated or expelled.
Thus 85% of the Orthodox priests in the Independent State of Croatia were either killed or expelled by the Ustaše, in order to "leave the Orthodox population without spiritual leadership so the Ustašas' policy of forced or fear-induced conversions to Catholicism would be easier to carry out" The Ustaše destroyed and desecrated numerous Orthodox Churches, forbade the Cyrillic script and Julian calendar (both used in the Orthodox Church), even prohibited the term "Serbian Orthodox Church". Orthodox schools were shut down, and the Church was prohibited from collecting contributions from believers, robbing it of income. Orthodox Church properties were confiscated by the Ustaše, some turned over to the Croatian Catholic Church. Finally, to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Ustaše tried to create its own alternative Croatian Orthodox Church with an imported Russian priest, but failed to gain adherents.
Despite these many actions by the Ustaše to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church, the historian Jozo Tomasevich found no condemnations of these crimes, public or private, by Catholic Archbishop Stepinac or any other members of the Croatian Catholic Church. On the contrary, he states that this massive Ustaše attack on the Serbian Orthodox Church "was approved and supported by many Croatian Catholic priests", and that the Croatian Roman Catholic Church hierarchy and the Vatican "regarded Ustaše policies against the Serbs and Serbian Orthodox Church as advantageous to Roman Catholicism".
Connections with the Catholic Church
The historian Mark Biondich observes that the Catholic Church had historically been on the fringes of Croatian politics and public life, and that Church influence had further eroded during the interwar period due to the royal dictatorship and the popularity of the anti-clerical Croatian Peasant Party. During the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Catholic Clergy was deeply dissatisfied with the regime: "... a massive press campaign was launched to mobilize Croatia's nearly three million Catholics against the central government's measures penalizing Saint Peter's apostolate. First of all its inequality in treatment was denounced: 'the budget for religion totals 141 million dinars, 70 of which go to the Serbian Church, and 34 to the Catholic one.(...) Pašić's government is kind in Serbia, where each citizen pays 55 dinars in yearly taxes, while it is cruel in Croatia and Slovenia, largely Catholic districts, where each citizen pays 165 dinars in taxes.'"
Croatian Catholic Church antagonism toward the Orthodox Church became an important part of Ustaše antagonism toward Serbs, with fateful consequences during the war. The Ustaše supported violent aggression or force to convert Serbo-Croatian speaking Orthodox believers to Roman Catholicism. The Ustaše held the position that Eastern Orthodoxy, as a symbol of Serbian nationalism, was their greatest foe and never recognized the existence of a Serb people on the territories of Croatia or Bosnia—they recognized only "Croats of the Eastern faith". Under the Ustaše policy of entirely eliminating Serbs, the Catholic Church in Croatia participated in the forced conversion of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism. However, even conversion did not necessarily protect Serbs and Jews from slaughter. Bishop Alojzije Mišić of Mostar described how while Serb converts to Catholicism "were at Church attending holy Mass, they (Ustaše) seized them, the young and the old, men and women, drove them like cattle...and soon sent them to eternity, en masse"."
The Ustaše called Bosniaks "Croats of the Islamic faith" and in general tolerated Muslims; in turn the Bosniak community did not demonstrate any particular hostility to the Ustaše government. An important number of Muslim conscripts served in the armed forces of Independent State of Croatia, or in its police forces; only a very small number of Muslims served in the ranks of the communist Partisans until the closing days of the war. It should be noted though that October 12, 1941 Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by 108 notable Muslim condemned Ustaše atrocities against Serbs.
On 28 April 1941, the head of the Catholic Church in Croatia, Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac, issued a public letter in support of the new Independent State of Croatia (under Ustaše-led government), and asked the clergy to pray for its leader, Ante Pavelić. This despite the fact that the Ustaše had already proclaimed measures prohibiting Serbs, Jews and Gipsies to serve as policemen, judges and soldiers, and making easy for the state officials to fire members of those ethnic/religious groups from the public administration, and he knew they were preparing Nazi-style racial laws, which Pavelić signed only 2 days after.
While Stepinac later objected to certain Ustaše policies and helped some Jews and Serbs, he continued to publicly support the survival of Independent State of Croatia until its very end, served as the state's War Vicar, and in 1944 received a medal from Pavelić. During the ongoing war, Stepinac publicly objected Ustaše policies—in fact, as regards for the relations with head of the Ustaše regime Ante Pavelić, "it is generally agreed that they thoroughly hated each other... archbishop also opposed Fascist and Nazi ideologies, especially Nazi racist ideology, and many Ustasha policies", unlike some other members of the Croatian Catholic clergy. According to Historian Martin Gilbert, "Aloysius Stepinac, who in 1941 had welcomed Croat independence, subsequently condemned Croat atrocities against both Serbs and Jews, and himself saved a group of Jews in an old age home."
The vast majority of the Catholic clergy in Croatia supported the Ustaše at the moment they succeeded in forming Independent State of Croatia; but later when it was clear the Allies would win, the Catholic hierarchy tried to distance the Church from the regime which involved itself in various abuses and war crimes. Yet in its pastoral letter of 24 March 1945, the Croatian Catholic Church still proclaimed its support for the puppet state and its rulers, despite the fact that most senior regime figures were preparing to flee the country. The Catholic press also maintained its support of Pavelić right to the end, and Stepinac himself performed a final Te Deum to the NDH on the anniversary of its founding, on 10 April 1945, while the NDH was carrying out the final mass killings to liquidate the Jasenovac concentration camp.
Some priests, mostly Franciscans, particularly in, but not limited to, Herzegovina and Bosnia, took part in the atrocities themselves. Priests like Ivan Guberina served as Pavelić's bodyguards, while Dionizije Juričev, responsible for the forced conversion of Serbs in the Ustaše government, wrote that it was no longer a crime to kill seven-year-olds if they stood in the way of the Ustaše movement. In his diocesan newspaper, the Archbishop of Sarajevo, Ivan Šarić, published that the "liberation of the world from the Jews is a movement for the renewal of humanity". In Bosnia the Ustaše largely ruled through the Catholic clergy, with the priest Božidar Bralo serving as a chief Ustaše delegate for Bosnia.
Miroslav Filipović was a Franciscan friar (from the Petrićevac monastery) who allegedly joined the Ustaše as chaplain and, on 7 February 1942, joined in the massacre of roughly 2730 Serbs of the nearby villages, including some 500 children. He was allegedly subsequently dismissed from his order and defrocked, although he wore his clerical garb when he was hanged for war crimes. He became Chief Guard of Jasenovac concentration camp where he was nicknamed "Fra Sotona" (Father Satan) by fellow Croats. Mladen Lorković, the Croat minister of foreign affairs, formulated it like this: "In Croatia, we can find few real Serbs. The majority of Pravoslavs are as a matter of fact Croats who were forced by foreign invaders to accept the infidel faith. Now it's our duty to bring them back into the Roman Catholic fold."For the duration of the war, "in accordance with Vatican's long-term diplomatic practice of not recognizing new states in wartime before they were legitimazed by peace treaties, the pope did not send a nuncio or diplomat to Croatia as requested, but an apostolic visitor, the abbot Giuseppe Marcone, who was to represent the Vatican to Croatian Catholic Church, not to the government. The government ignored this nuance, bestowing a prominent place for Marcone at all official functions". After World War II ended, the Ustaše who had managed to escape from Yugoslav territory (including Pavelić) were smuggled to South America. This was largely done through ratlines operated by Catholic priests who had previously secured positions at the Vatican. Some of the more infamous members of the Illyrian College of San Girolamo in Rome involved in this were Franciscan friars Krunoslav Draganović and Dominik Mandić, and a third friar surnamed Petranović (first name unknown).
The Ustaše regime had deposited large amounts of gold—including the gold plundered from Serbs and Jews during World War II into—Swiss bank accounts. It seems a substantial quantity of gold was additionally transported by Ustaše to Austria at the end of the WWII. Out of a total, by some estimates, of 350 million Swiss francs, an intelligence report estimated 200 million (ca. $47 million) reached the Vatican. The question remains unclarified.
Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac, Archbishop of Zagreb was accused sentenced to prison after the end of World War II by Yugoslav communist authorities of supporting the Ustaše and of exonerating those in the clergy who collaborated with them and were hence complicit in forced conversions. Stepinac stated on 28 March 1941, noting early attempts to unite Croatians and Serbs: "All in all, Croats and Serbs are of two worlds, northpole and southpole, never will they be able to get together unless by a miracle of God. The schism (between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy) is the greatest curse in Europe, almost greater than Protestantism. There is no moral, no principles, no truth, no justice, no honesty." On 22 July 2016, the Zagreb County Court annulled his post-war conviction due to "gross violations of current and former fundamental principles of substantive and procedural criminal law".
In 1998 Stepinac was beatified by Pope John Paul II. On 22 June 2003 John Paul II visited Banja Luka. During the visit he held a Mass at the aforementioned Petrićevac monastery. This caused public uproar due to the connection of the monastery with Filipović. At the same location the Pope proclaimed the beatification of a Roman Catholic layman Ivan Merz (1896–1928), who was the founder of the "Association of Croatian Eagles" in 1923, which some view as a precursor to the Ustaše. Roman Catholic apologists defend the Pope's actions by stating the convent at Petrićevac was one of the places that went up in flames, causing the death of 80-year-old Friar Alojzije Atlija. Further, it was claimed by the apologists that the war had produced "a total exodus of the Catholic population from this region"; that the few who remained were "predominantly elderly"; and that the church in Bosnia then allegedly risked "total extinction" due to the war.
Ustaše-Chetnik collaboration
Despite representing opposing nationalisms, when confronted with the growing strength of their common enemy (i.e. the partisans), Ustaše and Chetniks throughout the Independent State of Croatia signed collaboration agreements in the spring of 1942, which for the most part held until the very end of the war. The introduction to these agreements stated:As long as there is a danger of armed partisan gangs, Chetnik formations will voluntarily cooperate with the Croatian armed forces in fighting and destroying the partisans and will be under the command of the Croatian armed forces in these operations.Beyond that, the agreements specified that the NDH military will supply Chetniks with arms and ammunition, Chetniks wounded in anti-partisan operations will be treated at NDH military hospitals, and widows and orphans of killed Chetnik soldiers, will receive state financial aid equal to aid received by widows and orphans of NDH soldiers. The NDH authorities arranged for Serbs in Ustaše concentration camps to be released, but only on the special recommendation of Chetnik commanders (thus, not partisans and their sympathizers). On 30 June 1942, the Chief Headquarters of the Poglavnik (i.e. Ante Pavelić), sent a statement, signed by Marshall Slavko Kvaternik, to other NDH ministries, summarizing these agreements with NDH Chetniks.
The Ustaše signed collaboration agreements with key NDH Chetnik commanders, in the following order:
Momčilo Đujić (commander of Chetnik Dinara Division), Brane Bogunović (commander of Gavrilo Princip Corps, Dinara Division), Mane Rokvić (commander of King Alexander I Corps, Dinara Division), Pajica Omčikus (King Petar II Corps, Dinara Division) and Pajo Popović (commander of Onisin Popović Corps, Dinara Division) in December 1941 first started negotiations with the Ustaše mayor of Knin, David Sinčić, in Knin.
Uroš Drenović, the commander of the Chetnik »Kočić« detachment, signed an agreement with the Ustaše in Mrkonjić Grad on 27. April, 1942.
Lazar Tešanović, commander of the Chetnik battalion, »Mrkonjić«, signed an agreement with the NDH on 23. May, 1942.
Cvijetin Todić and Savo Božić, commanders of the Chetnik Ozren and Trebava detachments, signed agreements with the NDH on 28. May 1942. in the village LipacZAPISNIK O SPORAZUMU IZMEĐU PREDSTAVNIKA OZRENSKOG, TREBAVSKOG I ODREDA »KRALj PETAR II« I NDH OD 28. MAJA 1942. O SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP-a U ISTOČNOJ BOSNI, Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR-a, tom XIV (četnički dokumenti), knjiga 1 (1941. i 1942. godina), Vojnoizdavački zavod, Beograd - dokument broj 89
Representatives of the Majevica Chetnik detachment, signed agreements with the NDH on 30 May 1942.
Rade Radić, commander of the Chetnik detachment, "Borja", reached agreement with the NDH authorities on 9 June 1942.
Slavko Bjelajac and Jovan Dabović, Chetnik commanders from the Otočac area, signed agreements with the NDH on 17 December 1942.
On 26 May 1942, the Ustaše minister, Mladen Lorković, wrote in a communique to local NDH authorities, that pursuant to these agreements "Home Guard Headquarters agrees with your proposal to grant one million kuna aid to the leaders of the Greek-Eastern community [i.e. Serb Orthodox], Momčilo Djujić, Mane Rokvić, [Branko] Bogunović, Paja Popović and Paja Omčikus, 200 Yugoslav guns and 10 machine guns". Ustaše and Chetniks simultaneously participated, alongside German and Italian forces, in major battles against the Partisans in the NDH: the Kozara Offensive, Case White, Operation Rösselsprung, the Battle for Knin (1944), etc.
In 1945, the Chetnik commander, Momčilo Djujić and his troops, with Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić's permission, escaped across the NDH to the West. In April 1945, by his own admission, Ante Pavelić received “two generals from the headquarters Draža Mihailović and reached an agreement with them on a joint fight against Tito's communists", while in the first days of May, Chetnik units passed through Ustaše-held Zagreb, on their way to Bleiburg, after which Chetniks and members of the Ustaše army, were killed by the Partisans in various sites, including Tezno near Maribor.
Structure
At the top of the command was the Poglavnik (meaning "head") Ante Pavelić. Pavelić was appointed the office as Head of State of Croatia after Adolf Hitler had accepted Benito Mussolini's proposal of Pavelić, on 10 April 1941. The Croatian Home Guard was the armed forces of Croatia, it subsequently merged into the Croatian Armed Forces.
Symbols
The symbol of the Ustaše was a capital blue letter "U" with an exploding grenade emblem within it.
The flag of the Independent State of Croatia was a red-white-blue horizontal tricolor with the shield of the Coat of Arms or Croatia in the middle and the U in the upper left. Its currency was the NDH kuna.
The Ustaše greeting was "Za dom – spremni!":
Salute: Za dom! For home(land)! Reply: Spremni! (We are) ready!This was used instead of the Nazi greeting Heil Hitler by the Ustaše. Today it is nominally associated with Ustaše sympathisers by Serbs or non-Ustaše conservatives associated with the Croatian Party of Rights. However, some Croats see it as a patriotic salute, emphasising defending one's home and country. On the internet, it is sometimes abbreviated as ZDS.
Legacy
In popular culture
The Ustaše plays an important role in Harry Turtledove's short alternate history story, Ready for the Fatherland. It plays a brief background role in In the Presence of Mine Enemies, an unrelated work by the same author. In both these works, the regime founded by Pavelić lasted several decades beyond the 1940s.
The popular Croatian singer, Thompson, regularly starts his concerts with the Ustaše salute. The Wiesenthal Center has protested this, along with other attempts at revisionism and Holocaust-denial in Croatia.
Modern-day Croatia
Seeking to unify support for Croatia's independence, Franjo Tuđman, Croatia's first president, in the late 1980s advocated "pomirba", i.e. national reconciliation between Ustaše and Partisans. This led to a revival of pro-Ustaše views, symbols and salutes among the Croatian political right. Following Croatia's Independence in the 1990s, streets were renamed to carry the name of Ustaše leaders, such as Mile Budak and Jure Francetić. Although some of these were later removed, Radio Free Europe noted that of some 20 streets dedicated to Mile Budak in the '90s, half of these still remained in Croatia in 2019.
Jewish and Serb organizations, Croat historians and antifascists, as well as international observers, have repeatedly warned of revisionism in Croatia, which seeks to minimize Ustaše crimes, even celebrates the Ustaše regime. Recent examples include the publication of a book celebrating "the Croatian knight", Maks Luburic, who as head of Ustaše concentration camps was responsible for over 100,000 deaths, during Ustaše genocides against Jews, Serbs and Roma, and a documentary minimizing children's deaths in Ustaše concentration camps. The Luburic book was promoted with the assistance of the Croatian Catholic Church, and Church sources minimized children's deaths in concentration camps. Croat historians have noted that the Church has been a leader in promoting revisionism and minimizing Ustaše crimes. In 2013, the newspaper of Croatian Catholic archdioceses, Glas Koncila, published a series on Jasenovac, by the Jasenovac-denier Igor Vukic, who claims Jasenovac was a "mere work-camp", where no mass executions took place. In 2015, the head of the Croatian Bishops' Conference asked that the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute be adopted by the Croatian army.
Croatian soccer fans have repeatedly chanted the Ustaše, "Za dom spremni" salute, for which FIFA and UEFA have repeatedly leveled penalties against the Croatian soccer federation, for "fascists outburst". In 2014, the Croatian soccer player Josip Šimunić was banned from the FIFA World Cup for leading a stadium full of fans in the Ustaše salute.
In 2014 the then-mayor of Split, Croatia unveiled a monument dedicated to the 1990s HOS brigade named "The Knight Rafael Boban", after the Ustaše commander, which includes the HOS emblem with the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute. Since then the HOS organization has organized annual commemorations at the memorial on 10 April (the anniversary of the founding of the Ustaše Independent State of Croatia), during which the black-uniformed participants shout the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute.
In 2016 the Croatian HOS war veterans' organization, posted a plaque at Jasenovac concentration camp with the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute. Despite protests by Jewish and other organizations, this was allowed to remain until criticism by the US State Department special envoy on Holocaust issues, forced the government to move it to a nearby town. As a result of this, and allegations of the government's tolerance for the minimization of Ustaše crimes, Jewish, Serb and Croat WWII resistance groups refused to appear with government representatives at the annual Jasenovac commemoration.
In 2019 the Austrian government passed a law forbidding the display of Ustaše symbols, along with previously banned Nazi symbols, largely as a result of the display of same by Croatian nationalists at the annual, Croatian government-sponsored Bleiburg commemoration, where Austrian police have repeatedly arrested Croat nationalists for Nazi and fascist salutes. Three Austrian EU parliamentarians declared the Bleiburg ceremony, which tens-of-thousands of Croat nationalist attend, "the largest fascist gathering in Europe" The Austrian Catholic Church banned a Mass by the Croatian Catholic Church at Bleiburg because, as they stated, "the Mass at Bleiburg has become part of a manifestation that is politically instrumentalised and is part of a political-national ritual that serves to selectively experience and interpret history", adding that it misuses "a religious service for political purposes while not distancing itself from the Fascist worldview."
Modern usage of the term "Ustaše"
After World War II, the Ustaše movement was split into several organizations and there is presently no political or paramilitary movement that claims its legacy as their "successor". The term "ustaše" is today used as a derogatory term for Croatian ultranationalism. The term "Ustaše" is sometimes used among Serbs to describe Serbophobia or more generally to defame political opponents.
Use by Serbian nationalists
Since the end of World War II, Serbian historians have used the Ustaše to promote that Serbs resisted the Axis, while Croats and Bosniaks widely supported them. However, the Ustaše lacked support among ordinary Croats and never accrued any significant support among the populace. The Ustaše regime was backed by parts of the Croatian population that during the interwar period had felt oppressed in the Serbian-led Yugoslavia. Most of the support it had initially gained by creating a Croat national state was lost because of the brutal practices it used. In the 1980s, Serbian historians produced many works about the forced conversion during World War II of Serbs to Catholicism in Ustaše Croatia. These debates between historians openly became nationalistic and also entered the wider media. Historians in Belgrade during the 1980s who had close government connections often went on television during the evenings to discuss invented or real details about the Ustaše genocide against Serbs during World War II. Serb clergy and nationalists blamed all Croats for crimes committed by the Ustaše, and for planning a genocide against Serb people. These propagandistic activities were aimed at justifying planned crimes and ethno-demographic engineering in Croatia.
See also
Independent State of Croatia
World War II in Yugoslavia
Notes
References
Bibliography
Aarons, Mark and Loftus, John: Unholy Trinity: How the Vatican's Nazi Networks Betrayed Western Intelligence to the Soviets. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. 372 pages; .
Neubacher, Hermann. Sonderauftrag Suedost 1940–1945, Bericht eines fliegendes Diplomaten, 2. durchgesehene Auflage, Goettingen, 1956.
Srdja Trifkovic: Ustaša: Croatian Separatism and European Politics 1929–1945'' Lord Byron Foundation for Balkan Studies, London, 1998.
Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Israel Gutman (editor-in-chief), Vol. 4, "Ustase" entry. Macmillan, 1990.
at Google Books at znaci.net
External links
Holocaust era in Croatia: Jasenovac 1941–1945, an on-line museum by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Fund For Genocide Research, Jasenovac death camp, guskova.ru
Eichmann Trial, Tel Aviv 1961, nizkor.org
Lawsuit against the Vatican Bank and Franciscans for return of the Ustaše Treasury by Holocaust victims
Croatian nationalism
Independent State of Croatia
War crimes of the Independent State of Croatia
Defunct political parties in Croatia
The Holocaust in Yugoslavia
Parties of one-party systems
Jewish Croatian history
History of the Romani people during World War II
Articles containing video clips
Catholicism and far-right politics
Fascism in Yugoslavia
1929 establishments in Croatia
1945 disestablishments in Croatia
Organizations disestablished in 1945
Banned far-right parties
Anti-communist organizations
Collaboration with the Axis Powers
Fascist organizations
Far-right terrorism
Anti-Serbian sentiment
Terrorism in Croatia | [
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243928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix%20security | Unix security | Unix security refers to the means of securing a Unix or Unix-like operating system. A secure environment is achieved not only by the design concepts of these operating systems, but also through vigilant user and administrative practices.
Design concepts
Permissions
A core security feature in these systems is the file system permissions. All files in a typical Unix filesystem have permissions set enabling different access to a file.
Permissions on a file are commonly set using the chmod command and seen through the ls command. For example:
-r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 745720 Sep 8 2002 /bin/sh
Unix permissions permit different users access to a file. Different user groups have different permissions on a file.
More advanced Unix filesystems include the Access Control List concept which allows permissions to be granted to multiple users or groups. An Access Control List may be used to grant permission to additional individual users or groups. For example:
/pvr [u::rwx,g::r-x,o::r-x/u::rwx,u:sue:rwx,g::r-x,m::rwx,o::r-x]
In this example, which is from the command on the Linux operating system, the user sue is granted write permission to the /pvr directory.
User groups
Users under Unix style operating systems often belong to managed groups with specific access permissions. This enables users to be grouped by the level of access they have to this system. Many Unix implementations add an additional layer of security by requiring that a user be a member of the wheel user privileges group in order to access the su command.
Root access
Most Unix and Unix-like systems have an account or group which enables a user to exact complete control over the system, often known as a root account. If access to this account is gained by an unwanted user, this results in a complete breach of the system. A root account however is necessary for administrative purposes, and for the above security reasons the root account is seldom used for day to day purposes (the sudo program is more commonly used), so usage of the root account can be more closely monitored.
Root access "as it should be" can be visualised by those familiar with the Superman stories using the following analogy:
Using a root account is rather like being Superman; an administrator's regular user is more like Clark Kent. Clark Kent becomes Superman for only as long as necessary, in order to save people. He then reverts to his "disguise". Root access should be used in the same fashion. The Clark Kent disguise doesn't really restrict him though, as he is still able to use his super powers. This is analogous to using the sudo program.
User and administrative techniques
Unix has many tools that can improve security if used properly by users and administrators.
Passwords
Selecting a strong password and guarding it properly are probably the most important things a user can do to improve Unix security.
In Unix systems, the essential information about users is stored under the file /etc/passwdThis file keeps track of the users registered in the system and their main definitions. Passwords, or more correctly, the hash of the password, can also be stored in the same place. The entries in /etc/passwd occupy exactly one line each, and have the following form:
nickname:password_hash:UserID:GroupID:Complete_Name:home_dir:shell_bin
An example would be:
xfze:$$1zuW2nX3sslp3qJm9MYDdglEApAc36r/:1000:100:Daniel Ernesto Ortiz Costa:/home/xfze:/bin/bash
Since all users must have read access to the /etc/passwd file to do many common tasks (ls -l /home will use /etc/passwd to map UIDs to login names for example), anyone could also read the password hashes of other users. To solve this problem, the file /etc/shadow was created to store the password hashes, with only root having read access. Under password shadowing, the 2nd field (password hash) is replaced by an 'x' which tells the system to retrieve the corresponding user's password via the /etc/shadow file.
The /etc/shadow file often only contains values for the first two fields:
xfze:$$1zuW2nX3sslp3qJm9MYDdglEApAc36r/:::::
The remaining fields in the /etc/shadow file include:
The minimum number of days between password changes
The maximum number of days until the password must be changed
The number of days of warning given before the password must be changed
The number of days after the password must be changed when the account becomes unusable
The date (expressed as the number of days since January 1st, 1970) when the account is expired
These fields may be used to improve Unix security by enforcing a password security policy.
Users and accounts
Administrators should delete old accounts promptly.
su, sudo, ssh only, no remote root logins
Software maintenance
Patching
Operating systems, like all software, may contain bugs in need of fixing or may be enhanced with the addition of new features. Patching the operating system in a secure manner requires that the software come from a trustworthy source and not have been altered since it was packaged. Common methods for verifying that operating system patches have not been altered include the use of the digital signature of a cryptographic hash, such as a SHA-256 based checksum, or the use of read-only media.
From a security standpoint, the specific packaging method, such as the dpkg package manager or the RPM Package Manager format originally from Debian and Red Hat Linux, respectively is not as important as the use of features which ensure the integrity of the patch itself.
Source distributions
Source distributions include the ability to examine the code for suspicious content. The drawback, absent an accompanying cryptographic hash value, is that the user must be able to perform a security analysis of the code themselves.
RPM packages
Linux distributions which use the RPM Package Manager format for providing base functionality and software updates make use of cryptographic hashes and GPG to ensure content integrity. The hash values are packaged with the RPM file and verified when the package is installed.
Debian packages
Linux distributions which use the Debian .deb package format for providing base functionality and software updates make use of GPG signatures to ensure content integrity. A signature is computed when the package is constructed and verified later when the package is installed.
Other vendors and distributions
Regardless of the vendor or distribution, all software distributions should provide a mechanism for verifying that the software is legitimate and has not been modified since it was originally packaged.
Services
Unnecessary system software should not be installed or configured on a system. Software which is no longer required should be removed completely, if possible.
Identify what services are running
netstat -na
lsof
nmap
sockstat -4 (FreeBSD)
The commands inetd and xinetd act as super-servers for a variety of network protocols such as rlogin, telnet and ftp.
Turning off unnecessary services
using update-rc.d on Debian
using chkconfig on Red Hat Linux
using /etc/rc.conf and /usr/local/etc/rc.d on FreeBSD (mention /etc/rc.local)
using rc-update on Gentoo Linux
This approach is usually called proactive security. There are some operating systems which are secure by default. Amongst others, the free BSD flavours (FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD) are proactively secure. For example, the output of netstat on a NetBSD 3.0 workstation clearly outlines this technique:
$ netstat -a
Active Internet connections (including servers)
Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State
tcp 0 0 localhost.smtp *.* LISTEN
tcp 0 0 *.ssh *.* LISTEN
Active Internet6 connections (including servers)
Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address (state)
tcp6 0 0 localhost.smtp *.* LISTEN
tcp6 0 0 *.ssh *.* LISTEN
Active UNIX domain sockets
Address Type Recv-Q Send-Q Inode Conn Refs Nextref Addr
c0d10d80 dgram 0 0 0 c0cd8680 0 c0cb7000 -> /var/run/log
c0cb7000 dgram 0 0 0 c0cd8680 0 0 -> /var/run/log
c0cd8680 dgram 0 0 cb9639e8 0 c0d10d80 0 /var/run/log
The following example from a BSD system
$ sockstat -4
USER COMMAND PID FD PROTO LOCAL ADDRESS FOREIGN ADDRESS
root sendmail 569 4 tcp localhost.smtp *.*
root sshd 593 4 tcp *.ssh *.*
shows that on this machine only the SSH service is listening to all public network interfaces of the computer. sendmail is listening to the loopback interface only. Access to a service may be further restricted by using a firewall.
File systems
File system security
File system security within UNIX and Unix-like systems is based on 9 permission bits, set user and group ID bits, and the sticky bit, for a total of 12 bits. These permissions apply almost equally to all filesystem objects such as files, directories and devices.
The 9 permission bits are divided into three groups of three bits each. The first group describes the permissions of the file owner, the second group describes the permissions of the GID assigned to the file, which by default is the group associated with the file owner or the directory containing the file when it is set-GID, and the third group describes the permissions associated with any process which does not have the same user ID as the file. Each group of three bits contains a bit indicating the read, write or execute access is granted. In the case of directories, execute access is interpreted as the permission to perform a filename lookup within the directory.
The set user ID and set group ID bits, commonly abbreviated set-UID and set-GID respectively, are used to change the identity of the process which executes a file having either or both of those bits set. A file having the set-UID permission bit set will cause a process which executes that file to temporarily switch the effective user ID to that of the file owner. A file having the set-GID permission bit set will cause a process which executes that file to temporarily switch the effective group ID to that of the file group. A process may then alternate between the effective user or group ID which it inherited from the file and the real user or group ID which it inherited when the user logged on to the system. This provides a mechanism by which a process may limit the access rights it possesses to those code regions which require those access rights. This is a form of a security technique known as privilege separation and improves program security by limiting the unintended or undesirable actions of a processes.
A directory having the set-GID permission bit set will cause a newly created file to have an initial file group value equal to the file group of the directory. This provides a mechanism whereby a subsystem, such as the system's mail subsystem, can create files which have a common file group value so that set-GID processes within that subsystem are then able to read or write the file.
The sticky bit, formally known as the save text on swap bit, derives its name from its original purpose. Originally the sticky bit caused a process's initial memory image to be stored as a contiguous image on the disk drive which was used to store real memory pages when they were not in use. This improved the performance of commonly executed commands by making the initial memory image readily available. Modern UNIX systems no longer perform that function when the bit is set, but the name has been preserved nonetheless. In the case of files, the sticky-bit may be used by the system to indicate the style of file locking to be performed. In the case of directories, the sticky bit prevents any process, other than one which has super-user privileges or one having an effective user ID of the file owner, from deleting a file within that directory. The sticky bit is most commonly used on publicly writable directories, such as the various temporary working space directories on the system.
Root squash
Root squash is a special mapping of the remote superuser (root) identity when using identity authentication (local user is the same as remote user). Under root squash, a client's uid 0 (root) is mapped to 65534 (nobody). It is primarily a feature of NFS but may be available on other systems as well.
Root squash is a technique to avoid privilege escalation on the client machine via suid executables Setuid. Without root squash, an attacker can generate suid binaries on the server that are executed as root on other client, even if the client user does not have superuser privileges. Hence it protects client machines against other malicious clients. It does not protect clients against a malicious server (where root can generate suid binaries), nor does it protect the files of any user other than root (as malicious clients can impersonate any user).
SELinux
SELinux is the set of kernel extensions to control access more precisely, strictly defining both if and how files, folders, network ports and other resources can be accessed by the confined process. This system is mostly used to restrict processes (database, server) rather than human users. It can also limit processes that run as root. Other distributions use comparable alternatives like AppArmor.
Viruses and virus scanners
Unix-like operating systems are immune to most Microsoft Windows viruses because binaries created to run on Windows generally won't run on other platforms. However, many Unix like installations provide file storage services to Microsoft Windows clients, such as through the use of Samba software, and may unintentionally become a repository for viruses stored by users. It is common for Unix servers to act as mail transfer agents and as a consequence email virus scanning is often installed. The ClamAV virus scanner is available in source code form and may be used to scan Unix file systems for viruses which infect other operating systems.
There are viruses and worms that target Unix-like operating systems. In fact, the first computer worm—the Morris worm—targeted Unix systems.
Firewalls
Network firewall protects systems and networks from network threats which exist on the opposite side of the firewall. Firewalls can block access to strictly internal services, unwanted users and in some cases filter network traffic by content.
iptables
iptables is the current user interface for interacting with Linux kernel netfilter functionality. It replaced ipchains. Other Unix like operating systems may provide their own native functionality and other open source firewall products exist. More detailed information about iptables is contained elsewhere. A brief discussion is contained here in order to describe how iptables may be used to configure a Linux firewall.
netfilter provides a state-full packet filter which can be configured according to network interface, protocol, source and/or destination address, source and/or destination port and the state of the packet. A network packet traverses several chains between the time it is received by a network interface and the time it is accepted by the host or forwarded to another host. The common chains are INPUT, OUTPUT and FORWARD. The INPUT chain is traversed for all packets as they are received by a network interface, regardless of whether they are to be accepted by the host or forwarded to another host. The OUTPUT chain is traversed for all packets as they are transmitted by a network interface. The FORWARD chain is traversed for those packets are being routed through the host from one network interface to another, such as is the case for a multi-homed system (a system with more than one physical network interface).
Each of the built-in chains has a default policy which defines what action is taken for a packet which reaches the end of the chain. Packet traversal ends when a rule matches the packet and has an action of ACCEPT, DROP, REJECT or RETURN.
The simplest iptables firewall consists of rules for each desired service, followed by a rule which indicates that any packets which reach this rule are dropped. A system which only permitted, for example, incoming email traffic would have a rule which accepted connections on the SMTP port, and then dropped others. A rule would be required which indicated that all established connections were also permitted so that outgoing connections would receive responses from other systems.
INPUT chain
The following example shows a simple packet filter for the INPUT chain for the above described example:
Chain INPUT (policy DROP 0 packets, 0 bytes)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
0 0 ACCEPT all—any any anywhere anywhere state ESTABLISHED
0 0 ACCEPT tcp—any any anywhere anywhere tcp dpt:smtp
0 0 LOG all—any any anywhere anywhere LOG level warning
0 0 DROP all—any any anywhere anywhere
The addition of an explicit DROP action ensures that the packets are discarded should the default policy of the INPUT chain accidentally be changed to ACCEPT.
OUTPUT chain
There is less need for an OUTPUT chain and the default policy of the OUTPUT chain can safely be set to ACCEPT. In some instances it may be desirable for a firewall to limit certain outgoing connections to a certain set of approved systems. This is known as egress filtering and may be used to prevent viruses within the firewall from escaping to other systems. For example, it may be the policy of a network to limit outgoing email connections to a single authorized email servers as a way of combating e-mail spam. This could be achieved by the following example:
Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
0 0 DROP tcp—any any !server anywhere tcp dpt:smtp
There is no need to include any other rules in this example as the default policy for the OUTPUT chain is ACCEPT. This rule assumes that the host which is acting as the firewall will not be sending email itself, such as to the email server. This is a good assumption as typically a firewall system contains the minimal amount of system code needed to act as a firewall.
A more restrictive OUTPUT chain would contain permissive (ACCEPT) entries for those services which may be accessed outside the firewall and then a restrictive (DROP) policy for the chain itself.
General
Secure network communication:
Layer 7: GPG/PGP
Layers 4,5: SSL/TLS/Stunnel/S/MIME
Layer 3: VPN, IPsec
Layer 2: PPTP
Packet sniffing:
tcpdump, Wireshark
Attacks:
Man in the middle attack
LAND, ping of death, Christmas tree packet, Denial of service et al.
Software tools based password/passphrase/key stealing attacks on the system. Such as strace/truss/tusc/dtrace/SystemTap based ones.
Advanced
rootkits, kernel modules, chkrootkit
exploit details, buffer overflows, local vs remote
Service details
banners
SMTP - spam
Sendmail - banners help header version etc.
Domain Name System - reverse mapping dnssec
References
General
Practical UNIX and Internet Security, Simson Garfinkel and Gene Spafford, O'Reilly & Associates, 2003.
External links
The Unix Security Model for web server administration Robert K. Moniot 2000
An Architectural Overview of UNIX Network Security Robert B. Reinhardt 1993
Unix security papers
Operating system security
System administration
Unix
Linux administration
Linux security software | [
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243931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futures%20exchange | Futures exchange | A futures exchange or futures market is a central financial exchange where people can trade standardized futures contracts defined by the exchange. Futures contracts are derivatives contracts to buy or sell specific quantities of a commodity or financial instrument at a specified price with delivery set at a specified time in the future. Futures exchanges provide physical or electronic trading venues, details of standardized contracts, market and price data, clearing houses, exchange self-regulations, margin mechanisms, settlement procedures, delivery times, delivery procedures and other services to foster trading in futures contracts. Futures exchanges can be organized as non-profit member-owned organizations or as for-profit organizations. Futures exchanges can be integrated under the same brand name or organization with other types of exchanges, such as stock markets, options markets, and bond markets. Non-profit member-owned futures exchanges benefit their members, who earn commissions and revenue acting as brokers or market makers. For-profit futures exchanges earn most of their revenue from trading and clearing fees.
Role in futures contracts standardization
Futures exchanges establishes standardized contracts for trading on their trading venues, and they usually specifies the following: assets to be delivered in the contract, delivery arrangements, delivery months, pricing formula for daily and final settlement, contract size, and price position and limits. For assets to be delivered, futures exchanges usually specify one or more grades of a commodity acceptable for delivery and for any price adjustments applied to delivery. For example, the standard deliverable grade for CME Group's corn futures contract is "No. 2 Yellow", but holders of short positions in the contract can deliver "No. 3 Yellow" corn for 1.5 cents less the delivery price per bushel. The location where assets are delivered are also specified by the futures exchanges, and they may also specify alternative delivery locations and any price adjustments available when delivering to alternative locations. Delivery locations accommodate the particular delivery, storage, and marketing needs of the deliverable asset. For example, ICE frozen concentrate orange juice contracts specify delivery locations as exchange-licensed warehouses in Florida, New Jersey, or Delaware, while in the case of CME live cattle contracts, delivery is to exchange-approved livestock yards and slaughter plants in the Midwest. The futures exchange also determines the amount of deliverable assets for each contract, which determines a contract's size. Contract sizes that are too large will dissuade trading and hedging of small positions, while contract sizes that are too small will increase transaction costs since there are costs associated with each contract. In some cases, futures exchanges have created "mini" contracts to attract smaller traders. For example, the CME Group's Mini Nasdaq 100 contract is on 20 times the Nasdaq 100 index.
Clearing and margin mechanisms
Futures exchanges provide access to clearing houses that stands in the middle of every trade. Suppose trader A purchases $145,000 of gold futures contracts from trader B, trader A really bought a futures contract to buy $145,000 of gold from the clearing house at a future time, and trader B really has a contract to sell $145,000 to the clearing house at that same time. Since the clearing house took on the obligation of both sides of that trade, trader A do not have worry about trader B becoming unable or unwilling to settle the contract - they do not have to worry about trader B's credit risk. Trader A only has to worry about the ability of the clearing house to fulfill their contracts.
Even though clearing houses are exposed to every trade on the exchange, they have more tools to manage credit risk. Clearing houses can issue Margin Calls to demand traders to deposit Initial Margin moneys when they open a position, and deposit Variation Margin (or Mark-to-Market Margin) moneys when existing positions experience daily losses. A margin in general is collateral that the holder of a financial instrument has to deposit to cover some or all of the credit risk of their counterparty, in this case the central counterparty clearing houses. Traders on both sides of a trade has to deposit Initial Margin, and this amount is kept by the clearing house and not remitted to other traders. Clearing houses calculate day-to-day profit and loss amounts by 'marking-to-market' all positions by setting their new cost to the previous day's settlement value, and computing the difference between their current day settlement value and new cost. When traders accumulate losses on their position such that the balance of their existing posted margin and their new debits from losses is below a thresh-hold called a maintenance margin (usually a fraction of the initial margin) at the end of a day, they have to send Variation Margin to the exchange who passes that money to traders making profits on the opposite side of that position. When traders accumulate profits on their positions such that their margin balance is above the maintenance margin, they are entitled to withdraw the excess balance.
The margin system ensures that on any given day, if all parties in a trade closed their positions after variation margin payments after settlement, nobody would need to make any further payments as the losing side of the position would have already sent the whole amount they owe to the profiting side of the position. The clearinghouse do not keep any variation margin. When traders cannot pay the variation margin they owe or are otherwise in default the clearing house closes their positions and tries to cover their remaining obligations to other traders using their posted initial margin and any reserves available to the clearing house. Several popular methods are used to compute initial margins. They include the CME-owned SPAN (a grid simulation method used by the CME and about 70 other exchanges), STANS (a Monte Carlo simulation based methodology used by the Options Clearing Corporation (OCC)), TIMS (earlier used by the OCC, and still being used by a few other exchanges).
Traders do not interact directly with the exchange, they interact with clearing house members, usually futures brokers, that pass contracts and margin payments on to the exchange. Clearing house members are directly responsible for initial margin and variation margin requirements at the exchange even if their clients default on their obligations, so they may require more initial margin (but not variation margin) from their clients than is required by the exchange to protect themselves. Since clearing house members usually have many clients, they can net out margin payments from their client's offsetting positions. For example, if a clearing house member have half of their clients holding a total of 1000 long position in a contract, and half of their clients holding a total of 500 short position in a contract, the clearing house member is only responsible for the initial and variation margin of a net 500 contracts.
Nature of contracts
Exchange-traded contracts are standardized by the exchanges where they trade. The contract details what asset is to be bought or sold, and how, when, where and in what quantity it is to be delivered. The terms also specify the currency in which the contract will trade, minimum tick value, and the last trading day and expiry or delivery month. Standardized commodity futures contracts may also contain provisions for adjusting the contracted price based on deviations from the "standard" commodity, for example, a contract might specify delivery of heavier USDA Number 1 oats at par value but permit delivery of Number 2 oats for a certain seller's penalty per bushel.
Before the market opens on the first day of trading a new futures contract, there is a specification but no actual contracts exist. Futures contracts are not issued like other securities, but are "created" whenever open interest increases; that is, when one party first buys (goes long) a contract from another party (who goes short). Contracts are also "destroyed" in the opposite manner whenever open interest decreases because traders resell to reduce their long positions or rebuy to reduce their short positions.
Speculators on futures price fluctuations who do not intend to make or take ultimate delivery must take care to "zero their positions" prior to the contract's expiry. After expiry, each contract will be settled, either by physical delivery (typically for commodity underlyings) or by a cash settlement (typically for financial underlyings). The contracts ultimately are not between the original buyer and the original seller, but between the holders at expiry and the exchange. Because a contract may pass through many hands after it is created by its initial purchase and sale, or even be liquidated, settling parties do not know with whom they have ultimately traded.
Regulators
Each exchange is normally regulated by a national governmental (or semi-governmental) regulatory agency:
In Australia, this role is performed by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission.
In the Chinese mainland, by the China Securities Regulatory Commission.
In Hong Kong, by the Securities and Futures Commission.
In India, by the Securities and Exchange Board of India
In South Korea, by the Financial Supervisory Service.
In Japan, by the Financial Services Agency.
In Pakistan, by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan.
In Singapore by the Monetary Authority of Singapore.
In the UK, futures exchanges are regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority.
In the US, by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission.
In Malaysia, by the Securities Commission Malaysia.
In Spain, by the Comisión Nacional del Mercado de Valores (CNMV).
In Brazil, by the Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (CVM).
In South Africa, by the Financial Sector Conduct Authority (South Africa).
In Mauritius, by the Financial Services Commission (FSC)
In Indonesia, by the Commodity Futures Trading Regulatory Agency (BAPPEPTI)
History
Ancient times
In Ancient Mesopotamia, around 1750 BC, the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, created one of the first legal codes: the Code of Hammurabi.
Hammurabi's Code allowed sales of goods and assets to be delivered for an agreed price at a future date; required contracts to be in writing and witnessed; and allowed assignment of contracts. The code facilitated the first derivatives, in the form of forward and futures contracts. An active derivatives market existed, with trading carried out at temples.
One of the earliest written records of futures trading is in Aristotle's Politics. He tells the story of Thales, a poor philosopher from Miletus who developed a "financial device, which involves a principle of universal application". Thales used his skill in forecasting and predicted that the olive harvest would be exceptionally good the next autumn. Confident in his prediction, he made agreements with local olive-press owners to deposit his money with them to guarantee him exclusive use of their olive presses when the harvest was ready. Thales successfully negotiated low prices because the harvest was in the future and no one knew whether the harvest would be plentiful or pathetic and because the olive-press owners were willing to hedge against the possibility of a poor yield. When the harvest-time came, and a sharp increase in demand for the use of the olive presses outstripped supply (availability of the presses), he sold his future use contracts of the olive presses at a rate of his choosing, and made a large amount of money. This is a very loose example of futures trading and, in fact, more closely resembles an option contract, given that Thales was not obliged to use the olive presses if the yield was poor.
Modern era
The first modern organized futures exchange began in 1710 at the Dojima Rice Exchange in Osaka, Japan.
The London Metal Market and Exchange Company (London Metal Exchange) was founded in 1877, but the market traces its origins back to 1571 and the opening of the Royal Exchange, London. Before the exchange was created, business was conducted by traders in London coffee houses using a makeshift ring drawn in chalk on the floor. At first only copper was traded. Lead and zinc were soon added but only gained official trading status in 1920. The exchange was closed during World War II and did not re-open until 1952. The range of metals traded was extended to include aluminium (1978), nickel (1979), tin (1989), aluminium alloy (1992), steel (2008), and minor metals cobalt and molybdenum (2010). The exchange ceased trading plastics in 2011. The total value of the trade is around $11.6 trillion annually.
Chicago has the largest future exchange in the world, the CME Group. Chicago is located at the base of the Great Lakes, close to the farmlands and cattle country of the Midwest, making it a natural center for transportation, distribution, and trading of agricultural produce. Gluts and shortages of these products caused chaotic fluctuations in price, and this led to the development of a market enabling grain merchants, processors, and agriculture companies to trade in "to arrive" or "cash forward" contracts to insulate them from the risk of adverse price change and enable them to hedge. In March 2008 the CME announced its acquisition of NYMEX Holdings, Inc., the parent company of the New York Mercantile Exchange and Commodity Exchange. CME's acquisition of NYMEX was completed in August 2008.
For most exchanges, forward contracts were standard at the time. However, forward contracts were often not honored by either the buyer or the seller. For instance, if the buyer of a corn forward contract made an agreement to buy corn, and at the time of delivery the price of corn differed dramatically from the original contract price, either the buyer or the seller would back out. Additionally, the forward contracts market was very illiquid and an exchange was needed that would bring together a market to find potential buyers and sellers of a commodity instead of making people bear the burden of finding a buyer or seller.
In 1848 the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) was formed. Trading was originally in forward contracts; the first contract (on corn) was written on March 13, 1851. In 1865 standardized futures contracts were introduced.
The Chicago Produce Exchange was established in 1874, renamed the Chicago Butter and Egg Board in 1898 and then reorganised into the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1919. Following the end of the postwar international gold standard, in 1972 the CME formed a division called the International Monetary Market (IMM) to offer futures contracts in foreign currencies: British pound, Canadian dollar, German mark, Japanese yen, Mexican peso, and Swiss franc.
In 1881 a regional market was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and in 1883 introduced futures for the first time. Trading continuously since then, today the Minneapolis Grain Exchange (MGEX) is the only exchange for hard red spring wheat futures and options.
Futures trading used to be very active in India in the early to late 19th Century in the Marwari business community. Several families made their fortunes in opium futures trading in Calcutta and Bombay. There are records available of standardized opium futures contracts made in the 1870-1880s in Calcutta. There are strong grounds to believe that commodity futures could have existed in India for thousands of years before then, with references to the existence of market operations similar to the modern day futures market in Kautilya's Arthashastra written in the 2nd century BCE. The first organised futures market was established in 1875 by the Bombay Cotton Trade Association to trade in cotton contracts. This occurred soon after the establishment of trading in cotton Futures in UK, as Bombay was a very important hub for cotton trade in the British Empire. Futures trading in raw jute and jute goods began in Calcutta with the establishment of the Calcutta Hessian Exchange Ltd., in 1919. In modern times, most of the futures trading happens in the National Multi commodity Exchange (NMCE) which commenced futures trading in 24 commodities on 26 November 2002 on a national scale. Currently (August 2007) 62 commodities are being traded on the NMCE.
Recent developments
The 1970s saw the development of the financial futures contracts, which allowed trading in the future value of interest rates. These (in particular the 90‑day Eurodollar contract introduced in 1981) had an enormous impact on the development of the interest rate swap market.
The London International Financial Futures Exchange (LIFFE), was launched in 1982, to take advantage of the removal of currency controls in the UK in 1979. The exchange modelled itself after the Chicago Board of Trade and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. LIFFE was acquired by Euronext in 2002, which in turn was acquired by NYSE in 2006. The combined NYSE Euronext, including LIFFE, was purchased by ICE in 2014.
Today, the futures markets have far outgrown their agricultural origins. With the addition of the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) the trading and hedging of financial products using futures dwarfs the traditional commodity markets, and plays a major role in the global financial system, trading over $1.5 trillion per day in 2005.
The recent history of these exchanges (Aug 2006) finds the Chicago Mercantile Exchange trading more than 70% of its futures contracts on its "Globex" trading platform and this trend is rising daily. It counts for over $45.5 billion of nominal trade (over 1 million contracts) every single day in "electronic trading" as opposed to open outcry trading of futures, options and derivatives.
In June 2001 Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) acquired the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE), now ICE Futures, which operated Europe's leading open-outcry energy futures exchange. Since 2003 ICE has partnered with the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) to host its electronic marketplace. In April 2005 the entire ICE portfolio of energy futures became fully electronic.
In 2005, The Africa Mercantile Exchange (AfMX®) became the first African commodities market to implement an automated system for the dissemination of market data and information online in real-time through a wide network of computer terminals. As at the end of 2007, AfMX® had developed a system of secure data storage providing online services for brokerage firms. The year 2010, saw the exchange unveil a novel system of electronic trading, known as After®. After® extends the potential volume of processing of information and allows the Exchange to increase its overall volume of trading activities.
In 2006 the New York Stock Exchange teamed up with the Amsterdam-Brussels-Lisbon-Paris Exchanges "Euronext" electronic exchange to form the first transcontinental futures and options exchange. These two developments as well as the sharp growth of internet futures trading platforms developed by a number of trading companies clearly points to a race to total internet trading of futures and options in the coming years.
In terms of trading volume, the National Stock Exchange of India in Mumbai is the largest single-stock futures trading exchange in the world.
See also
Bond market
Commodity markets
Currency market
List of futures exchanges
List of traded commodities
Paper trading
Prediction market
Stock market
Trader (finance)
References
Further reading
Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Financial Markets Group | [
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243933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegra%20Coleman | Allegra Coleman | Allegra Coleman was a fictional celebrity invented by writer Martha Sherrill for the purposes of a hoax magazine article. Then model (later actress) Ali Larter portrayed the imaginary actress in Sherrill's feature, "Dream Girl," which appeared in Esquire (November 1996).
History
In a parody of celebrity profiles, the article described Coleman's role in an upcoming movie with Woody Allen, her tempestuous relationship with David Schwimmer (including a scandal involving nude photographs taken by paparazzi), and her friendship with Deepak Chopra. She is said to be 22 years old, the daughter of "pop-art photographer Max A.F. Coleman" and "actress Kay Garland, who played the spoiled daughter in Mildred Pierce", both fictitious. Her father left his marriage and family in 1981, and her mother abandoned the family in 1985, leaving Allegra, then 11, to raise her siblings with assistance from relatives and friends. Coleman was married briefly at 17 to "Mike Mumy", the (fictitious) brother of actor Billy Mumy.
Within the context of the article, Coleman is already a successful actress, having appeared in the TV series Melrose Place, and the films Down Periscope, Guarding Tess and Cliffhanger, amongst others. Also within the context of the article, her life has been the subject of tabloid reportage and speculation for some time. By the end of the article, in a surrealistic turn, serious ambiguities are raised about Allegra's actual existence, as she seems to have disappeared after a car crash and it is noted that "We would always have her, and the idea of her — this glorious, young, alive vision — which is all we want in the end, it turns out. Actual existence was a minor issue."
The many deliberate (and easily spotted) inaccuracies were meant to be indicative that the article was a satire of a typically breathless style of celebrity profile articles, and indeed Salon magazine identified the article as a hoax immediately upon publication. The hoax was formally revealed by Esquire editor Edward Kosner in a press release to the news wire services.
The article was photographed by photographer Troy House, who knew Ali Larter from previous jobs and approached her about doing the parody.
Sherrill later wrote a satirical novel on Hollywood life that was essentially both an expansion and continuation of the original "Dream Girl" article, and featured Allegra Coleman as a prominent character. The novel, My Last Movie Star, was published by Random House in 2003.
Reaction
Writing in Salon, David Futrelle commented that the article seemed to hearken back to Esquire's mid-1960s heyday.
The article written about Coleman as the new "It Girl" prompted calls from studios and talent scouts eager to offer Coleman scripts. The incident jump-started Ali Larter's acting career, and she went on to appear in TV shows (including the Niki Sanders role in NBC's Heroes) and movies (including Varsity Blues, Legally Blonde, and Final Destination).
References
External links
"Dream Girl" by Martha Sherrill. Esquire (November 1, 1996).
"Dream On" by David Futrelle. Salon (November 1, 1996).
Nonexistent people used in hoaxes
Journalistic hoaxes
Fictional actors
Fictional characters introduced in 1996 | [
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243934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortenaukreis | Ortenaukreis | Ortenaukreis (; ) is a Landkreis (district) in the west of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (clockwise from north) Rastatt, Freudenstadt, Rottweil, Schwarzwald-Baar and Emmendingen. To the west it borders the French Bas-Rhin département.
History
The district was created in 1973 by merging the districts of Kehl, Lahr, Offenburg, Wolfach and the southern part of the district of Bühl.
Geography
The western part of the district is located in the Upper Rhine Valley, the eastern part belongs to the northern Black Forest. The highest elevation of the district, the Hornisgrinde (1164 m), is located in the north-east of the district. The lowest elevation (124.3 m) is in the Rhine valley to the north. The district is named after the historical territory of the Ortenau.
Partnerships
The district has a friendship with the Altenburger Land district in Thuringia. Offenburg district already had a city partnership with Altenburg so, after German reunification in 1990, Ortenaukreis chose to help modernize the Altenburger Land administration to the West German standard.
France and Germany have created the Strasbourg-Ortenau eurodistrict straddling the Rhine and combining Ortenaukreis and Greater Strasbourg, with an overall population of 860,000.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms is identical with that of the former Offenburg, and is based on the coat of arms of the Ortenau canton of the League of Imperial Knights. It shows an imperial eagle with two heads, which also stands for the free imperial cities of Offenburg, Gengenbach and Zell. In an escutcheon on the breast of the eagle is the patron Saint George, depicted killing the dragon.
Cities and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
History & Pictures (German)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg
Freiburg (region) | [
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243937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RWTH%20Aachen%20University | RWTH Aachen University | RWTH Aachen University () or Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen is an elite German public research university located in Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With more than 47,000 students enrolled in 144 study programs, it is the largest technical university in Germany.
RWTH Aachen in 2019 emerged successfully from the final of the third federal and state excellence strategy. The university will be funded as a university of excellence for the next seven years. RWTH Aachen was already part of the federal and state excellence initiative in 2007 and 2012.
Since 2007, RWTH Aachen has been continuously funded by the DFG and the German Council of Science and Humanities as one of eleven (previously nine) German Universities of Excellence for its future concept RWTH 2020: Meeting Global Challenges and the follow-up concept The Integrated Interdisciplinary University of Science and Technology: Knowledge, Impact, Networks, also receiving grants for associated graduate schools and clusters of excellence. The university regularly accounts for the highest amount of third-party funds among all German universities, placing first per faculty member and second overall in the most recent survey from 2018.
RWTH Aachen is a founding member of IDEA League, a strategic alliance of five leading universities of technology in Europe, as well as its German counterpart TU9. It is also a member of DFG and the Top Industrial Managers for Europe network.
History
On 25 January 1858, prince Frederick William of Prussia (later German emperor), was given a donation of 5,000 talers from the Aachener und Münchener Feuer-Versicherungs-Gesellschaft, the precursor of the AachenMünchener insurance company, for charity. In March, the prince chose to use the donation to found the first Prussian institute of technology somewhere in the Rhine province. The seat of the institution remained undecided over years; while the prince initially favored Koblenz, the cities of Aachen, Bonn, Cologne and Düsseldorf also applied, with Aachen and Cologne being the main competitors. Aachen finally won with a financing concept backed by the insurance company and by local banks. Groundbreaking for the new Polytechnikum took place on 15 May 1865 and lectures started during the Franco-Prussian War on 10 October 1870 with 223 students and 32 teachers. The new institution had as its primary purpose the education of engineers, especially for the mining industry in the Ruhr area; there were schools of chemistry, electrical and mechanical engineering as well as an introductory general school that taught mathematics and natural sciences and some social sciences.
The unclear position of the new Prussian polytechnika (which officially were not universities) affected the first years. Polytechnics lacked prestige in society and the number of students decreased. This began to change in 1880 when the early RWTH, amongst others, was reorganized as a Royal Technical University, gained a seat in the Prussian House of Lords and finally won the right to bestow Dr.-Ing. (1899) degrees and Dipl.-Ing. titles (introduced in 1902). In the same year, over 800 male students enrolled. In 1909 the first women were admitted and the artist August von Brandis succeeded Alexander Frenz at the Faculty of Architecture as a "professor of figure and landscape painting", Brandis became dean in 1929.
World War I, however, proved a serious setback for the university. Many students voluntarily joined up and died in the war, and parts of the university were shortly occupied or confiscated.
While the (then no more royal) TH Aachen (Technische Hochschule Aachen) flourished in the 1920s with the introduction of more independent faculties, of several new institutes and of the general students' committee, the first signs of nationalist radicalization also became visible within the university. The Third Reich's Gleichschaltung of the TH in 1933 met with relatively low resistance from both students and faculty. Beginning in September 1933, Jewish and (alleged) Communist professors (and from 1937 on also students) were systematically persecuted and excluded from the university. Vacant Chairs were increasingly given to NSDAP party-members or sympathizers. The freedom of research and teaching became severely limited, and institutes important for the regime's plans were systematically established, and existing chairs promoted. Briefly closed in 1939, the TH continued courses in 1940, although with a low number of students. On 21 October 1944, when Aachen capitulated, more than 70% of all buildings of the university were destroyed or heavily damaged.
After World War II ended in 1945 the university recovered and expanded quickly. In the 1950s, many professors who had been removed because of their alleged affiliation with the Nazi party were allowed to return and a multitude of new institutes were founded. By the late 1960s, the TH had 10,000 students, making it the foremost of all German technical universities. With the foundation of philosophical and medical faculties in 1965 and 1966, respectively, the university became more "universal". The newly founded faculties in particular began attracting new students, and the number of students almost doubled twice from 1970 (10,000) to 1980 (more than 25,000) and from 1980 to 1990 (more than 37,000). Now, the average number of students is around 42,000, with about one third of all students being women. By relative terms, the most popular study-programs are engineering (57%), natural science (23%), economics and humanities (13%) and medicine (7%).
Recent developments
In December 2006, RWTH Aachen and the Sultanate of Oman signed an agreement to establish a private German University of Technology in Muscat. Professors from Aachen aided in developing the curricula for the currently five study-programs and scientific staff took over some of the first courses.
In 2007, RWTH Aachen was chosen as one of nine German Universities of Excellence for its future concept RWTH 2020: Meeting Global Challenges, earning it the connotation of being a "University of Excellence". However, although the list of universities honored for their future concepts mostly consists of large and already respected institutions, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research claimed that the initiative aimed at promoting universities with a dedicated future concept so they could continue researching on an international level. Having won funds in all three lines of funding, the process brought RWTH Aachen University an additional total funding of € 180 million from 2007–2011. The other two lines of funding were graduate schools, where the Aachen Institute for Advanced Study in Computational Engineering Science received funding and so-called "clusters of excellence", where RWTH Aachen managed to win funding for the three clusters: Ultra High-Speed Mobile Information and Communication (UMIC), Integrative Production Technology for High-wage Countries and Tailor-Made Fuels from Biomass (TMFB).
RWTH was selected to receive funding from the German federal and state governments for the third Universities of Excellence funding line starting 2019. RWTH's proposal was called "The Integrated Interdisciplinary University of Science and Technology – Knowledge. Impact. Networks." and has secured funding for a seven-year period.
2019 Clusters of Excellence
The Fuel Science Center (FSC) Adaptive Conversion Systems for Renewable Energy and Carbon Sources
Internet of Production
ML4Q – Matter and Light for Quantum Computing
RWTH was already awarded funding in the first and second Universities of Excellence funding lines, in 2007 and 2012 respectively.
Campus
RWTH Aachen University's campus is located in the north-western part of the city Aachen. There are two core areas – midtown and Melaten district. The Main Building, SuperC student's center and the Kármán Hall are 500 m away from the city centre with the Aachen Cathedral, the Audimax (biggest lecture hall) and the main refectory are 200 m farther. Other points of interest include the university's botanical garden (Botanischer Garten Aachen).
A new building, the so-called Central Auditorium for Research and Learning (CARL) was opened in 2017. It offers space for 4000 students and replaces Audimax as the largest lecture hall building. The name of the new central auditorium, which is going to contain different lecture halls, is a reference to Charlemagne, who reigned his empire from Aachen in the middle-ages.
The RWTH has external facilities in Jülich and Essen and owns, together with the University of Stuttgart, a house in Kleinwalsertal in the Austrian Alps.
The university is currently expanding in the city center and Melaten district. The SuperC, the new central service building for students, was opened in 2008. The groundbreaking for the new Campus-Melaten was in 2009.
Internationality
Double degrees and student mobility are promoted with other technology universities through the TIME (Top Industrial Managers for Europe) network. Furthermore, the RWTH is member of the IDEA League, which is a strategic partnership among four of Europe's leading research universities, including TU Delft, Chalmers University of Technology, and ETH Zürich, and was the first German university starting an Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program in 2008.
Compared to other German universities the RWTH Aachen received the highest amount of funds granted by third-party donors in the last years.
More than 7,000 international students are currently enrolled within the undergraduate, graduate or PhD programme. Compared to other German universities the portion of international students at the RWTH Aachen is higher-than-average. The proximity of Aachen to the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg combined with the subsequent exposure to a variety of cultural heritages has placed RWTH Aachen University in a unique position with regards to the reflection and promotion of international aspects and intensive interaction with other universities.
Rankings
The RWTH Aachen took 3rd place in 2018 based on the number of top managers in the Germany economy measured by the number of DAX board of management members. In 2019, RWTH Aachen took 2nd place. The top 3 universities in 2019 with the most top managers were the LMU Munich, the RWTH Aachen and the Technische Universität Darmstadt.
According to the Stepstone Salary Report for Graduates 2019/2020, graduates of RWTH Aachen are amongst the highest earners in Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. From 2001 to 2013, national rankings regularly identified RWTH Aachen as one of the best universities in Germany in the fields of engineering (especially mechanical engineering, electrical engineering), as well as amongst the top three in computer science, physics, chemistry, and medicine.
The 2019 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 19th in the world in engineering – mechanical, aeronautical & manufacturing (by subject) and 44th in engineering and technology.
In 2009, two prominent German newspapers, "Handelsblatt" and "Wirtschaftswoche", ranked RWTH Aachen the first place in Germany in the fields of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, industrial engineering, and computer science. In 2012, Handelsblatt ranked The RWTH School of Business and Economics amongst top 10 within Germany. In the 2015 ranking published by DAAD together with Centre for Higher Education Development and Die Zeit, RWTH Aachen also stands on top among other German universities in the aforementioned fields of engineering and computer science.
Internationally, in the 2020 QS Faculty Rankings RWTH Aachen is placed 20 (Mechanical Engineering), 34 (Electrical Engineering), =40 (Physics & Astronomy), 36 (Chemical Engineering), 21 (Materials Science), =42 (Chemistry), =26 (Mineral and Mining Engineering. The 2019 The Times Higher Education Subject Rankings ranked RWTH 27th in Engineering and Technology, 72nd in Physical Sciences, 47th in Computer Science.
Organisation
Almost all basic lectures are held in German, but an increasing number of master programs require proficiency in English for admission.
Fees
RWTH Aachen is run by the federal state of
North Rhine-Westphalia. Since the summer semester of 2004 the state of North Rhine-Westphalia allowed universities to request a maximum of €500 per semester as tuition fees. In the past, tuition fees applied solely for long-term students and second studies. Since the summer semester of 2007, all students enrolled at the RWTH Aachen had to pay these €500, if they were not exempt for one of several reasons put forth by the State of North Rhine-Westphalia.
Since 24 February 2011 study fees were abolished by the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia (Legislation for the Improvement of Equal Opportunities to University Admission) with effect from Winter Term 2011/12. Universities will receive 249 Mio Euro of national funding for measures that improve the quality of teaching (e.g., through additional teachers and tutors) as compensation. Tuition fees per semester are still being charged.
Faculties
The RWTH is divided into nine (previously ten) faculties:
Faculty nine was pedagogical sciences, but it was abandoned in 1989. Teacher education, however, continued.
Fraunhofer-Institutes
The university cooperates with the Fraunhofer-Institutes situated in the Melaten district of Aachen. The institutes offer workshops, courses and lectures for the students of RWTH Aachen.
Applied Information Technology (FIT) Sankt Augustin and Aachen
Fraunhofer-Institute for Laser Technology ILT
Fraunhofer-Institute for Production Technology IPT
Fraunhofer-Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology
Jülich-Aachen Research Alliance (JARA)
The Jülich-Aachen Research Alliance (JARA) was founded by the RWTH Aachen and Forschungszentrum Jülich in 2007. Five sections are coordinated by the research facilities:
JARA-Brain (Diagnosis and therapy of neurologic sickness)
JARA-Fit (Fundamentals of future information technology)
JARA-HPC (High Performance Computing)
JARA-Energy (Energy research)
JARA-FAME (Forces and matter experiments)
Graduate Schools
Aachen Institute for advanced study in Computational Engineering Science
The Aachen Institute for advanced study in Computational Engineering Science (AICES) is a graduate school established in 2006 under the German Universities Excellence Initiative at the RWTH Aachen University. Research at AICES is broadly in the area of Computational engineering, solving inverse problems that find applications in mathematics, computer science and engineering, mechanical engineering and natural sciences. AICES is a collaborative effort of 47 principal investigators from 8 academic divisions of RWTH Aachen University, as well as Max Planck Institute for Iron Research and Forschungszentrum Jülich.
Associations
RWTH Aachen – North American Alumni Association: Prof. Dr. Burkhard Rauhut, former president of the RWTH, and Prof. Dr. Laszlo Baksay, President of the newly founded "Association of Alumni, Friends and Supporters of RWTH Aachen University in North-America" signed the founding statement for a new branch of the RWTH Alumni Community in Melbourne (Florida) in May 2006.
AStA (Students' Union)
AISA (Assoc. of Indian Students in Aachen)
GATS (Association of Thai Students in Aachen)
Pakistan Student Association.
MexAS – Mexikanische Aachener Studierende ( Mexican Students´ Association)
Flugwissenschaftliche Vereinigung Aachen (abbreviation: FVA, English: Flight Research Association Aachen). The FVA academic flying group is closely affiliated with RWTH Aachen and overseen by IDAFLIEG (Interessengemeinschaft deutscher akademischer Fliegergruppen e.V.).
Team Sonnenwagen Aachen Student team founded in late 2015 with the goal to develop and build solar cars for the World Solar Challenge in Australia. In 2017, the team participated for the first time in the challenge.
Ecurie Aix – Student team founded in 1999 to compete in the formula student
Notable faculty and alumni
RWTH Aachen University has educated several notable individuals, including some Nobel laureates in physics and chemistry.
The scientists and alumni of the RWTH Aachen played a major role in chemistry, medicine, electrical, and mechanical engineering. For example, Nobel laureate Peter Debye received a degree in electrical engineering from RWTH Aachen and is known for the Debye model and Debye relaxation. Another example, Helmut Zahn and his team of the Institute for Textile Chemistry were the first who synthesised insulin in 1963 and they were nominated for Nobel Prize. Another example is B.J. Habibie, the third President of Indonesia that contributed in many aviation advancements. Franz Josef Och was the chief architect of Google Translate. Werner Tietz is one of the leading engineers of the Volkswagen Group and Vice President of SEAT.
Trivia
Together with the lord mayor and the cathedral provost of Aachen, the rector of RWTH Aachen University is one of three automatic members of the board of directors of the International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen. The prize is awarded annually for exceptional contributions towards European unity and ranks amongst the most prestigious European prizes.
Notes
References
External links
RWTH Aachen
Education in Aachen
Technical universities and colleges in Germany
Educational institutions established in 1870
Universities and colleges in North Rhine-Westphalia
Engineering universities and colleges in Germany
1870 establishments in Prussia | [
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243943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhrdeutsch | Ruhrdeutsch | Ruhrdeutsch (Ruhr German) is a German variety spoken in the Ruhr area. Most linguists consider it a regiolect. Ruhrdeutsch as a concept has to be understood as a group of many differing regional and local variants, based on the different dialects existing in this partly Rhenish, partly Westphalian area before the industrialization.
Through immigration its vocabulary has been influenced by Polish and Yiddish to a small extent, although this influence has proved to be smaller than thought.
Languages of Germany
German dialects | [
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243946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinear%20algebra | Multilinear algebra | Multilinear algebra is a subfield of mathematics that extends the methods of linear algebra. Just as linear algebra is built on the concept of a vector and develops the theory of vector spaces, multilinear algebra builds on the concepts of p-vectors and multivectors with Grassmann algebras.
Origin
In a vector space of dimension n, normally only the vectors are used. However; according to Hermann Grassmann and others, this presumption misses the complexity of considering the structures of pairs, triples, and general multivectors. With the several combinatorial possibilities, the space of multivectors has 2n dimensions. The abstract formulation of the determinant is the most immediate application. Multilinear algebra also has applications in mechanical study of material response to stress and strain with various moduli of elasticity. This practical reference led to the use of the word tensor to describe the elements of the multilinear space. The extra structure in a multilinear space has led it to play an important role in various studies in higher mathematics. Though Grassmann started the subject in 1844 with his Ausdehnungslehre, which was also republished in 1862, his work was slow to find acceptance as ordinary linear algebra provided sufficient challenges to comprehension.
The topic of multilinear algebra is applied in some studies of multivariate calculus and manifolds where the Jacobian matrix comes into play. The infinitesimal differentials of single variable calculus become differential forms in multivariate calculus, and their manipulation is done with exterior algebra.
After Grassmann, developments in multilinear algebra were made in 1872 by Victor Schlegel when he published the first part of his System der Raumlehre, and by Elwin Bruno Christoffel. A major advance in multilinear algebra came in the work of Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and Tullio Levi-Civita (see references). It was the absolute differential calculus form of multilinear algebra that Marcel Grossmann and Michele Besso introduced to Albert Einstein. The publication in 1915 by Einstein of a general relativity explanation for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, established multilinear algebra and tensors as physically important mathematics.
Use in algebraic topology
Around the middle of the 20th century the study of tensors was reformulated more abstractly. The Bourbaki group's treatise Multilinear Algebra was especially influential—in fact the term multilinear algebra may have originated there.
One reason at the time was a new area of application, homological algebra. The development of algebraic topology during the 1940s gave additional incentive for the development of a purely algebraic treatment of the tensor product. The computation of the homology groups of the product of two topological spaces involves the tensor product; but only in the simplest cases, such as a torus, is it directly calculated in that fashion (see Künneth theorem). The topological phenomena were subtle enough to need better foundational concepts; technically speaking, the Tor functors had to be defined.
The material to organise was quite extensive, including also ideas going back to Hermann Grassmann, the ideas from the theory of differential forms that had led to de Rham cohomology, as well as more elementary ideas such as the wedge product that generalises the cross product.
The resulting rather severe write-up of the topic, by Bourbaki, entirely rejected one approach in vector calculus (the quaternion route, that is, in the general case, the relation with Lie groups), and instead applied a novel approach using category theory, with the Lie group approach viewed as a separate matter. Since this leads to a much cleaner treatment, there was probably no going back in purely mathematical terms. (Strictly, the universal property approach was invoked; this is somewhat more general than category theory, and the relationship between the two as alternate ways was also being clarified, at the same time.)
Indeed, what was done is almost precisely to explain that tensor spaces are the constructions required to reduce multilinear problems to linear problems. This purely algebraic attack conveys no geometric intuition.
By re-expressing problems in terms of multilinear algebra, there is a clear and well-defined "best solution": the constraints the solution exerts are exactly those needed in practice. In general there is no need to invoke any ad hoc construction, geometric idea, or recourse to co-ordinate systems. In the category-theoretic jargon, everything is entirely natural.
Topics in multilinear algebra
The subject matter of multilinear algebra has evolved less than the presentation down the years. Here are further pages centrally relevant to it:
Bilinear operator
Component-free treatment of tensors
Cramer's rule
Dual space
Einstein notation
Exterior algebra
Exterior derivative
Inner product
Kronecker delta
Levi-Civita symbol
Metric tensor
Mixed tensor
Multilinear map
Multilinear form
Symmetric algebra, Symmetric power
Symmetric tensor
Tensor
Tensor algebra, Free algebra
Tensor contraction
There is also a glossary of tensor theory.
Applications
Some of the ways in which multilinear algebra concepts are applied:
Classical treatment of tensors
Dyadic tensor
Bra–ket notation
Geometric algebra
Clifford algebra
Pseudoscalar
Pseudovector
Spinor
Outer product
Hypercomplex number
Multilinear subspace learning
References
Hermann Grassmann (2000) Extension Theory, American Mathematical Society. Translation by Lloyd Kannenberg of the 1862 Ausdehnungslehre.
Ronald Shaw (1983) "Multilinear algebra and group representations", volume 2 of Linear Algebra and Group Representations, Academic Press .
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] |
243948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenite | Yemenite | Yemenite (Arabic: يماني, romanized: Yamāni) is someone whose ancestors are from Yemen, or something that is linked to Yemen. It may refer to:
Al-Yamani, a pre-messianic figure in Shia Islamic eschatology
Yemenite Hebrew, dialect of the Hebrew language
Yemenite Jews
Yemenite Kaaba
Yemenite step, an Israeli folk dance step originating from Yemen
See also
Yemen (disambiguation) | [
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243950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godwit | Godwit | The godwits are a group of large, long-billed, long-legged and strongly migratory waders of the bird genus Limosa. Their long bills allow them to probe deeply in the sand for aquatic worms and molluscs. In their winter range, they flock together where food is plentiful. They frequent tidal shorelines, breeding in northern climates in summer and migrating south in winter. A female bar-tailed godwit made a flight of 29,000 km (18,000 mi), flying of it without stopping. In 2020 a male bar-tailed godwit flew about non-stop in its migration from Alaska to New Zealand, a record for avian non-stop flight.
The godwits can be distinguished from the curlews by their straight or slightly upturned bills, and from the dowitchers by their longer legs. The winter plumages are fairly drab, but three species have reddish underparts when breeding. The females are appreciably larger than the males.
Godwits were once a popular British dish. Sir Thomas Browne writing in about 1682 noted that godwits "were accounted the daintiest dish in England".
Taxonomy
The genus Limosa was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the black-tailed godwit (Limosa limosa) as the type species. The genus name Limosa is from Latin and means "muddy", from limus, "mud". The English name "godwit" was first recorded in about 1416–17 and is believed to imitate the bird's call.
The genus contains four living species:
Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica
Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa
Hudsonian godwit, Limosa haemastica
Marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa
Fossil species
In addition, there are two or three species of fossil prehistoric godwits. Limosa vanrossemi is known from the Monterey Formation (Late Miocene, approx. 6 mya) of Lompoc, United States. Limosa lacrimosa is known from the Early Pliocene of Western Mongolia (Kurochkin, 1985). Limosa gypsorum of the Late Eocene (Montmartre Formation, some 35 mya) of France may have actually been a curlew or some bird ancestral to both curlews and godwits (and possibly other Scolopacidae), or even a rail, being placed in the monotypic genus Montirallus by some (Olson, 1985). Certainly, curlews and godwits are rather ancient and in some respects primitive lineages of scolopacids, further complicating the assignment of such possibly basal forms.
In a 2001 study comparing the ratios cerebrum to brain volumes in various dinosaur species, Hans C. E. Larsson found that more derived dinosaurs generally had proportionally more voluminous cerebrum. Limosa gypsorum, then regarded as a Numenius species, was a discrepancy in this general trend. L. gypsorum was only 63% of the way between a typical reptilian ratio and that of modern birds. However, this may be explainable if the endocast was distorted, as it had been previously depicted in the past by Deschaseaux, who is described by Larsson as calling the endocast "slightly anteroposteriorly sheared and laterally compressed."
Citations
General sources
Larsson, H. C. E. 2001. Endocranial anatomy of Carcharodontosaurus saharicus (Theropoda: Allosauroidea) and its implications for theropod brain evolution. pp. 19–33. In: Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Tanke, D. H., Carpenter, K., Skrepnick, M. W. (eds.). Indiana University Press.
Olson, Storrs L. (1985): Section X.D.2.b. "Scolopacidae". In: Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): Avian Biology 8: 174–175. Academic Press, New York.
Taxa named by Mathurin Jacques Brisson | [
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243964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gtk-gnutella | Gtk-gnutella | gtk-gnutella is a peer-to-peer file sharing application which runs on the gnutella network. gtk-gnutella uses the GTK+ toolkit for its graphical user interface. Released under the GNU General Public License, gtk-gnutella is free software.
History
Initially gtk-gnutella was written to look like the original Nullsoft Gnutella client. The original author Yann Grossel stopped working on the client in early 2001. After a while Raphael Manfredi took over as the main software architect, and the client has been in active development ever since. Versions released after July 2002 do not look like the original Nullsoft client.
Features
gtk-gnutella is programmed in C with an emphasis on efficiency and portability without being minimalistic but rather head-on with most of the modern features of the gnutella network. Therefore, it requires fewer resources (such as CPU and/or RAM) than the major gnutella clients. It can also be used as headless gnutella client not requiring GTK+ at all.
gtk-gnutella has a filtering engine that can reduce the amount of spam and other irrelevant results. gtk-gnutella supports a large range of the features of modern gnutella clients. gtk-gnutella was the first gnutella client to support IPv6 and encryption using TLS. It can handle and export magnet links. It has strong internationalization features, supporting English, German, Greek, French, Hungarian, Spanish, Japanese, Norwegian, Dutch and Chinese. gtk-gnutella also has support to prevent spamming and other hostile peer activity.
Several software distributions provide pre-compiled packages, but they are usually outdated as many distributions version freeze old stable releases. The gnutella network benefits from running the latest version obtainable as peer and hostile IP address lists change rapidly, making building the latest SVN snapshot the best option. There are also pre-compiled packages for many Linux distributions available online. Persons concerned about security might wish to compile their own. The gtk-gnutella sources use dist as build and configuration system instead of Autoconf. Most users are only familiar with the configure scripts generated by the latter. Another hazard for novices is configuring NAT devices to enable full network connectivity for gtk-gnutella. gtk-gnutella, like any gnutella client, is still usable behind a firewall or a router, but with some reduced functionality, if it cannot receive incoming TCP connections or UDP packets. In an attempt to mitigate the issue for newcomers, gtk-gnutalla implements the UPnP and NAT-PMP client protocols.
gtk-gnutella supports features for downloading larger files (videos, programs, and disk images). Version 0.96.4 supports Tiger tree hash serving and versions after 0.96.5 support tiger tree hashes for uploads and downloads. Tiger tree hashing and other gtk-gnutella features make file transfers as efficient as BitTorrent. Specifically, gtk-gnutella supports partial file sharing, remote queueing and files larger than 4 GiB. Overlap checking was the only mechanism to guard against bad data prior to versions 0.96.4. Overlap checking does not guard against malicious corruption like Tiger tree hashing does.
Version 0.96.6 introduced preliminary support for a Kademlia DHT, which was completed in version 0.96.7. The DHT is replacing search by SHA-1, when locating alternate sources for a known file or looking for push-proxies. In version 0.96.7, the DHT is enabled by default. LimeWire first developed the DHT and named it Mojito DHT.
Version 0.96.9 introduced full native support for UPnP and NAT-PMP, making the usage behind a compatible router much easier since there is no longer any need to manually forward ports on the firewall. In this version the code was also ported to Microsoft Windows however the Windows port is still considered beta due to lack of wide testing so far.
Version 0.96.9 also introduced important DHT protection against Sybil attacks, using algorithms based on statistical properties.
Version 0.97 was a major release, introducing client-side support for HTTP pipelining, "What's New?" queries, MIME type query filtering, GUESS support (Gnutella UDP Extension for Scalable Searches) and partial file querying. Although many Gnutella vendors already supported server-side GUESS, gtk-gnutella introduced the client-side as well, also enhancing the original specifications of the protocol to make it truly usable.
Version 0.98.2 employs a minor patch to correct malloc memory allocations and multiple threads issues, mainly on Ubuntu 11.10 operating systems. This 2011 gtk-gnutella version was also dedicated to the memory of Dennis Ritchie, 1941-2011.
Version 0.98.4 added RUDP (reliable UDP) and improved partial file transfers.
Version 1.1 is a major release which added G2 support: gtk-gnutella will now connect to the G2 network in leaf mode. This allows searches from G2 nodes and lets local queries be propagated to the G2 network as well. File exchanges with G2 hosts are fully inter-operable and are permitted without restriction.
Popularity
gtk-gnutella does not rank as one of the most popular clients on GnutellaNet crawls. gtk-gnutella developers' proposals have been incorporated into many gnutella clients.
In 2011, gtk-gnutella vendor extensions are the third most prolific on the GDF (Gnutella Developer Forum), following Limewire and Bearshare.
Salon listed gtk-gnutella as one of the five most popular gnutella applications in 2002. XoloX and Toadnode, also in the list, are no longer actively developed.
Notes
References
External links
gtk-gnutella homepage
Free file sharing software
Gnutella clients
File sharing software that uses GTK
File sharing software for Linux
Free software programmed in C
Cross-platform software | [
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243966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20universities%20in%20Finland | List of universities in Finland | This is a list of the universities in Finland. Institutions of higher education are designated as universities by Finnish legislation. Only universities have the right to confer degrees in the categories of alempi korkeakoulututkinto/lägre högskoleexamen (bachelor's degree) and ylempi korkeakoulututkinto/högre högskoleexamen (master's degree) and doctoral degrees.
In addition to the universities, Finland has another, separate system of tertiary education consisting of the ammattikorkeakoulus/yrkeshögskolas, which used to be translated as polytechnics but now call themselves universities of applied sciences according to international usage (see the list of polytechnics in Finland). The universities of applied sciences have the right to confer degrees in the categories of ammattikorkeakoulututkinto/yrkeshögskoleexamen and ylempi ammattikorkeakoulututkinto/högre yrkeshögskoleexamen. In international usage, these degrees have the same names as those conferred by Finnish (normal) universities, i.e. bachelor's and master's degrees.
Universities
Multidisciplinary universities
The Finnish universities are (sorted by the year of establishment):
Specialised universities
In Finland, there are also some institutions of higher education that have full university status, but which specialise in certain academic fields:
The National Defence University is not considered a university by Finnish law, although it has the authority to award bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees and to pursue free research, and its rector is a member of the Council of Finnish University rectors. The practical effect of this distinction is minor, and most notable in the administrative organisation of the university, which is military instead of civilian.
See also
University Admissions Finland
List of polytechnics in Finland
List of colleges and universities
List of colleges and universities by country
List of schools in Finland
References
Universities
Finland
Finland
Universities | [
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243969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular%20%28software%29 | Singular (software) | Singular (typeset Singular) is a computer algebra system for polynomial computations with special emphasis on the needs of commutative and non-commutative algebra, algebraic geometry, and singularity theory. Singular has been released under the terms of GNU General Public License. Problems in non-commutative algebra can be tackled with the Singular offspring Plural. Singular is developed under the direction of Wolfram Decker, Gert-Martin Greuel, Gerhard Pfister, and Hans Schönemann, who head Singular's core development team within the Department of Mathematics of the Technische Universität Kaiserslautern.
In the DFG Priority Program 1489, interfaces to GAP, Polymake and Gfan are being developed in order to cover recently established areas of mathematics involving convex and algebraic geometry, such as toric and tropical geometry.
See also
Comparison of computer algebra systems
References
Further reading
External links
Online Manual – PLURAL
Computer algebra system software for Linux
Computer algebra system software for MacOS
Computer algebra system software for Windows
Free computer algebra systems | [
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243970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge%20United%20F.C. | Cambridge United F.C. | Cambridge United Football Club is a professional association football club based in the city of Cambridge, England. In the 2021–22 season, the club competes in League One, the third tier of the English football league system, following promotion from League Two. The club is based at the Abbey Stadium on Newmarket Road, approximately east of Cambridge city centre. The stadium has a capacity of 8,127, made up of terracing and seated areas.
The club was founded in 1912 as Abbey United, and took the name Cambridge United in 1951. They played in local amateur leagues before joining the Southern League after finishing as runners-up of the Eastern Counties League in 1957–58. Under Bill Leivers's stewardship they were crowned Southern League Premier Division champions in 1968–69 and 1969–70, which helped to secure their election into the Football League in 1970. They won promotion out of the Fourth Division in 1972–73, but suffered immediate relegation. They won the Fourth Division title in 1976–77, and then secured promotion out of the Third Division the following season. They remained in the Second Division for six seasons, before they suffered consecutive relegations.
Manager John Beck led United to promotion out of the Fourth Division via play-offs in 1990 and then the Third Division title in 1990–91, with the club reaching the Second Division play-offs the following season. Two relegations in three years left Cambridge back in the fourth tier, before promotion was secured at the end of the 1998–99 campaign. They entered the Conference in 2005, after two relegations in four seasons, where they remained for nine seasons. They finished as Conference runners-up three times, being beaten in the play-off finals in 2008 and 2009, before eventually securing promotion after winning the 2014 play-off final. After spending seven seasons in League Two, Cambridge were promoted to League One as runners-up under Mark Bonner.
Although the club has traditionally worn amber and black at home, it has experimented with a number of designs of shirts including plain amber with black trim, amber and black squares, stripes and, amber with a black sash. The club had close links with Cambridge Regional College, a team that operated as a de facto reserve team between 2006 and 2014. The Cambridge United Community Trust perform a lot of charity work in the local community.
History
Formation and early years
The club was founded in 1912 as Abbey United, named after the Abbey district of Cambridge. A club called Cambridge United existed in Cambridge from 1909, but it was not linked to the club that exists today. The club played in local amateur leagues for many of its early years, moving from ground to ground around Cambridge (see Stadium below) before settling at the Abbey Stadium. In 1949 the club turned professional, and changed its name to Cambridge United in 1951. They played in the Eastern Counties League until finishing as runners-up in 1957–58, which saw them promoted to the Southern League. Three years later, Cambridge United reached the Premier Division of the Southern League.
First League era: 1970–2005
After election to the Football League in 1970, to replace Bradford (Park Avenue), the club was promoted from the Fourth Division after three seasons, but went straight back down.
Following the appointment of Ron Atkinson as manager, Cambridge won successive promotions which took them into the Second Division in 1978 – a mere eight years after joining the Football League. Atkinson had gone to West Bromwich Albion, a First Division club, in January 1978, and was succeeded by John Docherty, who oversaw the second promotion.
Cambridge peaked at eighth place in the Second Division in 1980. However, a terrible season in 1983–84 (setting a league record for most successive games without a win, 31, which was surpassed by Derby County in 2008) was followed by a further relegation in 1984–85 (equalling the then league record for most losses in a season, 33). These successive relegations, which also had a negative effect on the club's attendances as well as its finances, placed Cambridge back in the Fourth Division, the lowest professional league in English football at the time. They had to apply for re-election in their first season back in the Fourth Division, and promotion would not be achieved for another four years.
The early 1990s was the U's most successful period. Soon after the appointment of new manager John Beck, the club won the first ever appearance as a professional club at Wembley Stadium, the Fourth Division playoff final in May 1990, which secured promotion to the Third Division – the club's first promotion for 12 years. Dion Dublin scored the only goal in a game against Chesterfield. Under Beck, United gained promotion from the Fourth Division and had already reached the FA Cup quarter finals in 1990, and reached them again a year later, and winning the Third Division in 1991. United reached the play-offs in 1992, after finishing 5th in the Second Division, but failed in their bid to become founder members of the Premier League. This was the club's highest final league placing to date. The following season the club sacked John Beck and were relegated from the new First Division. Further relegation followed two seasons later. United returned to Division Two but were relegated in 2002 despite a successful run in the Football League Trophy which saw them reach the final which they lost 1–4 to Blackpool at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.
In 2005, after 35 years in the Football League, Cambridge United were relegated into the Football Conference. This brought with it financial difficulties and the club filed for administration on 29 April. On 22 July 2005 the club came out of administration with a deal being struck with HM Revenue and Customs at the eleventh hour after the intervention of then sports minister Richard Caborn. Cambridge had sold their Abbey Stadium home earlier in the season for £1.9 million to keep the club afloat.
In the Conference: 2005–2014
On the eve of the 2006–07 season, it was announced that former Norwich City striker Lee Power would be the club's new chairman taking over from Brian Attmore's caretaking reign. Johnny Hon was also to rejoin the board as vice-chairman after John Howard's resignation on conflict of interests grounds (owing to his ownership of Bideawhile 445 Ltd, United's landlords). Jimmy Quinn was appointed manager soon after Power took charge and, after a difficult settling-in period which included a humiliating 5–0 loss to local rivals Histon, he guided Cambridge United away from another possible relegation by achieving five wins from their last seven games of the season.
After signing several respected and experienced players at the non-league level in the following close season Quinn led Cambridge to their then longest ever unbeaten start to a season (2007–08), which stretched to twelve games. Off the field, United reported several major sponsorship deals which seemed to point towards increased financial security. Halfway through the season the chairman, Lee Power, resigned. He was replaced by Wayne Purser. United finished the season in 2nd place, qualifying for the play-offs. They beat Burton Albion in the semi-final, 4–3 on aggregate, but lost 1–0 to Exeter City in the final, played at Wembley Stadium.
Following the play-off defeat many players left the club, culminating in the departure of manager Jimmy Quinn. Quinn was succeeded by former Southport manager Gary Brabin, who appointed Paul Carden as player-assistant manager. United finished the 2008–09 season again 2nd in the league, and also again reached the play-off final, overturning a 3–1 deficit to beat Stevenage Borough 4–3 on aggregate in the semi-final; however, they were beaten again at Wembley Stadium, 2–0 by Torquay United. Brabin was named as the Conference's Manager of the Season, but was sacked in the close-season after reportedly falling out with the chairman. He was replaced by Martin Ling, who resigned just eight days into the job, before the start of the 2009–10 season and was followed days later by chairman George Rolls. The new board re-appointed Ling as manager the following week.
Cambridge finished Ling's first season in 10th place – not enough for a playoff place. The following season, on 6 January 2011, with Cambridge in a similar position to where they finished the previous season, the club's owners put the club up for sale citing the need for new funds to take the club forward. Despite interest being expressed from a number of parties, no new owner has yet been found. Later the same month, the club's landlords Grosvenor Group revealed the plans for a new community stadium, including potential new locations both within the city and outside it. At the start of 2011 Martin Ling was removed from his position as manager and replaced on a temporary basis by CRC manager Jez George. He managed to steer the club towards safety, finishing 17th, which led to George's role being made permanent. After having rebuilt the squad with players from the club's youth system and with astute signings in Harrison Dunk and Tom Shaw, George managed to lead Cambridge to a 9th-place finish, a huge improvement on their previous season. As well as the league, Jez George also took Cambridge to the quarter-final of the FA Trophy (which was the furthest they had reached at the time), but lost 2–1 at home to minnows, Wealdstone. Eleven games into the following season Jez George became Director of Football, and Richard Money was announced as the new head coach of the club. The club spent much of the season in mid-table, finishing in 14th position with 59 points. The squad was greatly revamped, and United started 2013–14 with a record-breaking 16 games unbeaten. Cambridge finished the season in second place, qualifying for the play-offs. After beating FC Halifax Town 2–1, on aggregate, in the semi-final, they won 2–1 against Gateshead in the final, held at Wembley Stadium, gaining promotion back to the Football League after a nine-year absence. The club also reached their first FA Trophy final, held at Wembley Stadium, where they beat Gosport Borough 4–0.
2014–present: Back in The Football League
In their first season back in the Football League, Cambridge United progressed to the fourth round of the FA Cup, where they drew at home with Premier League team Manchester United. The match at the Abbey Stadium ended in a goalless draw, forcing a replay at Old Trafford, which Manchester United won 3–0. In the league, Cambridge finished 19th with 51 points, 10 points above the relegation zone. The following season started poorly, and Richard Money was sacked in November 2015, to be replaced by Shaun Derry the same month. A six-match unbeaten run saw Derry win the League Two Manager of the Month award for December 2015, and the U's finished the league in 9th place with 68 points. They finished 2016–17 season in 11th place, in a season that took in extended runs of both good and poor form. Derry was dismissed in February 2018 and was replaced on a permanent basis by his assistant, Joe Dunne, on the final day of 2017–18.
Cambridge started 2018–19 poorly, and manager Dunne was dismissed after 20 games with the club in 21st place. Colin Calderwood was appointed as his replacement in December 2018. Cambridge's second half under Calderwood was more successful, however, they could only finish in 21st place, only six points clear of the relegation zone. Following a successful start to the 2019–20 season, Calderwood was offered a new contract. However, after three heavy defeats in one month, Calderwood was sacked following a 4–0 defeat to Salford City. With the U's in 18th place, Calderwood's assistant manager Mark Bonner was placed in temporary charge until the end of the season. Under Bonner, Cambridge won four from their final seven matches before the disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic forced the cancellation of the season. Final league positions were decided on a points per game basis with Cambridge finishing in 16th place. This good form resulted in Bonner being handed the permanent role of head coach. During the 2020–21 season, Bonner guided Cambridge to promotion from League Two as runners-up after seven seasons in that division. Promotion was clinched on the final day with an emphatic 3–0 victory over Grimsby Town. Following this success, Bonner was handed a new three-year contract.
Colours and badge
Cambridge United have traditionally worn amber and black home kits in a variety of designs, including plain amber with black trim (e.g. 1979–1991), amber and black quarters (1996–1998) and halves (e.g. 1924–25), and a variety of stripes (e.g. 1926–1936. Only between 1957–1960 and 1970–1972 have shirts not been predominantly amber, when the club opted for white with a small amber and black detail on the shirt's sleeves. Away from home, kits have often been white with some amber and/or black detail, although recently shirts have been blue at the request of the away shirts sponsors, Kershaw.
A sponsor first appeared on a Cambridge United shirt for the 1985–86 season when the shirt was changed mid-season from plain amber to amber and black stripes. Spraymate were the club's first shirt sponsor, and have since been followed by an array of local and national companies: Lynfox, Howlett, Fujitsu, Beaumont Stainless Steels, Premier Travel, C and R Windows, Quicksilver (couriers), Capital Sports, The Global Group, Haart, Global Self Drive, and in 2009–10 Greene King IPA.
The teams kits have been manufactured by a number of companies, with Admiral providing the first strip on which a maker's logo appeared. The club have subsequently worn kits created by, among others, Nike, Patrick, Sporta and, Vandanel, with the latter providing the strip for the 2007–08 season and subsequently an amber shirt featuring a dramatic black sash design that polarised the opinions of fans. In the summer of 2010 the Club parted company with Vandanel, citing concerns regards the company's ability to continue to service their needs, signing a deal with Italian company Erreà. For the start of the 2013–14 season, The U's signed a deal with Genesis Sports to provide Puma teamwear for the club. This deal has been continued into the 2014–15 season and saw the home shirts make a return to amber and black stripes. Since the beginning of the 2019-2020 Campaign they have switched to Sportswear Company Hummel
The club's current crest, a large football over which the letters 'CU' are emblazoned, with three turrets on top, has been worn on its shirts since the 1986–87 season, with a brief change to a more 'elaborate' design between 1996 and 1998. Previously, shirts had simply been embroidered with the club's acronym 'CUFC' or a 'Book & Ball' badge used during the late 1970s. The club used a special badge to commemorate their centenary in the 2012–13 season.
Stadium
Cambridge United currently play their home matches at the Abbey Stadium, which has been their home since 1932. The stadium is located in the Abbey area of the city on Newmarket Road, approximately 3 kilometres (1.8miles) east of the city centre. The stadium currently has a capacity of 8,127, of which 4,376 are seated.
Before opening the Abbey with a victory over Cambridge University Press in a friendly on 31 August 1932, United had played matches at a number of venues around the city. When playing under the Abbey United name, games were played on Midsummer Common until the outbreak of World War I. When the war ended, the club moved to Stourbridge Common and, after promotion to the Cambridgeshire League Division One in 1923, moved once again to land just off Newmarket Road in Cambridge. This ground, affectionately known as the 'Celery Trenches' due to the poor state of the pitch, was christened with a 1–0 league victory over Histon Institute and became United's home for a decade. While based at the Trenches, the club established its offices at the 'Dog & Pheasant' pub on Newmarket Road, which it used as an away dressing room on matchdays, as well as a store for equipment including the pitch's goalposts. However, the Cambridgeshire FA were unhappy with the state of the pitch at this new home, and the club moved to Parker's Piece at the start of the 1930–31 season. Despite the special significance of Parker's Piece in the history of football, it being the first place where the Cambridge Rules were played out, the lack of spectator capacity and disruption caused during games meant this move was not a successful one.
In January 2006, John Howard announced plans to move out of the Abbey Stadium to a new purpose built stadium in Milton. This was supported by Cambridgeshire Horizons. These were criticised by fans as risking the club's identity by moving out of the city and, despite Howard describing them as crucial to the club's future, little else was heard of them publicly. Subsequently, a new community stadium, that would also include conference facilities, was ruled out by a Planning Inspector's report which described it as unsuitable development in the green belt and in October 2009, Cambridge United announced its intentions to redevelop the Abbey Stadium with chairman.
The Stadium was sold by Bideawhile to Grosvenor Estates in June 2010. Soon after, the new landlords, in combination with the club and supporters group Cambridge Fans United, announced that they had signed a Memorandum of Understanding to positively work together to achieve the relocation of the club to a new stadium. In January 2011, plans for a new community stadium were unveiled at an open meeting, including potential new locations both within the city and outside it.
In September 2011, Grosvenor Estates announced that they, in partnership with property firm Wrenbridge had managed to cut down the potential sites to just two, both on greenbelt land. This was later cut to one, Trumpington Meadows, to the South West of the city. They revealed they plan for the new community stadium to be an 8,000 seated and terraced stadium to be built within a new Cambridge Sporting Village incorporating housing and retail development with the stadium as the focal point. However, objections from residents and local councils saw the proposal blocked in 2013. Plans announced in January 2015 keep the sporting village development at Trumpington, but without the new stadium. Instead Cambridge United will redevelop the Abbey Stadium.
In May 2015, Grosvenor had released their first sketches of potential designs for the redeveloped stadium, with plans to change the name to the Cambridge Community Stadium. At present, the main plans are to increase the capacity in the Newmarket Road End to 3,500 and to introduce safe standing. The new design will also include community facilities for public use. The Habbin Terrace will also be completely redeveloped, which will see it become fully seated and expanded as well. The main stand will also be expanded slightly and redeveloped.
Due to sponsorship reasons, the ground has also been known as The R. Costings Abbey Stadium and the Cambs Glass Stadium.
Supporters
Cambridge United have a number of supporters' groups and associations, some of which are independently run and some are run by the club itself. These include: an Away Travel Club, who provide travel to every away game as well as hosting fundraising events and sponsoring senior players; youth group Junior U's; Cambridge United Supporters Association, a group giving a voice to the fans in communications with the club and the media; Vice-presidents Club, who offer match day hospitality packages; and regional associations in St Ives, East Cambridgeshire, Royston, St Neots, Bedfordshire and Saffron Walden.
Cambridge Fans United is an independent supporters group who are now a significant shareholder in the club with representation on the fans' behalf on the board of directors. In addition to these supporters' groups, the club currently has one independent fanzine, United in Endeavour, which raises funds for Cambridge Fans United and is sold at home games.
During their time in the Conference, attendances at the Abbey were amongst the highest in the league. Cambridge United's first two seasons in the Conference saw them post the fourth-highest average attendance figures in both years (2,607 in 2005–06 and 2,815 in 2006–07). They had the third-highest attendances in their final season in the Conference, averaging 3,085 for 2013–14.
Rivalries
Prior to election into the Football League, Cambridge City were regarded as the club's biggest rivals, although the rivalry has since waned significantly. Peterborough United are considered to be their current main rivals, something that was recognised in a survey by the Football Fans Census as a reciprocated feeling, despite the fact the two clubs have experienced many seasons in separate divisions. Other lesser rivalries include those with Northampton Town, Colchester United, Luton Town, Stevenage and Histon.
Players
Current squad
Out on loan
Reserves and Centre of Excellence
Before relegation from the Football League in 2005, Cambridge United entered a reserve team in the Football Combination. However, this ceased following financial difficulties which meant the club could not guarantee being able to put out a team for every game. In 2006 United formed Cambridge Regional College as a de facto reserve team and entered them in the Eastern Counties League Premier Division. FA rules prohibit reserve teams playing at certain levels of the football pyramid, and so the CRC name was adopted in recognition of the college's financial support, and because the team is made up almost entirely of the college's students.
Cambridge United's Centre of Excellence is widely regarded throughout professional football circles as one of the best in England. Many players have come through the youth team to establish themselves as first team players at Cambridge (for example Dan Gleeson, Daniel Chillingworth, Robbie Willmott and Josh Coulson) and go on to play at a higher level (recent examples include John Ruddy, Michael Morrison and Josh Simpson). Wales international Jack Collison was in the youth squads for several years before joining West Ham United's youth academy after the centre closed down following relegation to the Conference Premier.
The youth team won their division of the Football League Youth Alliance in both 2003–04 and 2004–05, showing the strength of the club's Centre of Excellence. The club's success in the FA Youth Cup in recent years has also far surpassed its expectation given the level of the parent club – in 2006–07 the team was the highest placed non-league team reaching the Fourth Round after seven games (including qualifying games).
Notable former players
For all former players with a Wikipedia article see :Category:Cambridge United F.C. players
Notable players include Wilf Mannion, the only former Cambridge United player to be inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame, former Charlton Athletic manager Les Reed, Brian Moore, former West Ham United player who scored a club record 68 goals in 1957–58 despite blindness in one eye, and Lindsey Smith, voted Cambridge United's all-time cult hero in a poll for BBC Sport's Football Focus in August 2004.
Club management
Club staff
Managerial history
Since joining the Football League in 1970, Cambridge United has had twenty-five full-time managers as well as many caretakers and player-managers.
Honours and achievements
League
Football League Third Division / League One (third tier)
Champions (1): 1990–91
Runners-up (1): 1977–78
Football League Fourth Division / League Two (fourth tier)
Champions (1): 1976–77
Runners-up (2): 1998–99, 2020–21
Promotion (1): 1972–73
Play-off winners (1): 1989–90
National League (fifth tier)
Runners-up (3): 2007–08, 2008–09, 2013–14
Play-off winners (1): 2013–14
Play-off finalists (2): 2007–08, 2008–09
Southern League Premier Division (old fifth tier)
Winners (2): 1968–69, 1969–70
Cups
FA Cup
Quarter-finalists (2): 1989-90, 1990-91
FA Trophy
Winners (1): 2013–14
Football League Cup
Quarter-finalists (1): 1992-93
Football League Trophy
Runners-up (1): 2001–02
Southern Area finalists (1): 2002–03
Southern League Cup
Winners (1): 1968–69
Club records
Scorelines
Biggest League Win:
7 – 0 (v Morecambe, League Two, 19 April 2016)
7 – 0 (v Weymouth, Conference Premier, March 2007)
7 – 0 (v Forest Green Rovers, Conference Premier, September 2009)
Biggest Cup Win:
5 – 1 (v Bristol City, FA Cup 5th Round Second Replay, February 1990)
4 – 0 (v Sheffield Wednesday, FA Cup 5th Round, February 1991)
4–0 (v Coventry City FA Cup 2nd Round, December 2016)
Biggest League Defeat:
0 – 7 (v Luton Town, League Two, November 2017)
Biggest Cup Defeat:
0 – 7 (v Sunderland, League Cup Second Round, October 2002)
Players
Most goals in one game: 5 – Steve Butler (v Exeter City, April 1994)
Most League appearances: 416 – Steve Spriggs (1975–1987)
Most League goals in one season: 32 – Paul Mullin (EFL League Two, 2020–21)
Youngest player: Ben Worman – 16 years (v Peterborough United, 7 November 2017)
Oldest player: John Taylor – 39 years (during 2003–04 season)
Highest transfer fee paid: £190,000 – Steve Claridge (from Luton Town, November 1992)
Highest transfer fee received: £1,500,000 – Trevor Benjamin (to Leicester City, July 2000)
Club
Highest league finish: 5th in Football League Second Division (second tier)
Best FA Cup performance: Quarter-finalists, 1989–90, 1990–91
Best League Cup performance: Quarter-finalists, 1992–93
Best EFL Trophy performance: Runners-up, 2001–02
Best FA Trophy performance: Winners, 2013–14
Most League Points in a Season: 86 (Division Three, 1990–91), (Conference, 2007–08 & 2008–09)
Most League Goals in a Season: 87 (Division Four, 1976–77)
Record Attendance: 14,000 (v Chelsea, May 1970)
Charity (Cambridge United Community Trust)
Cambridge United Community Trust (CUCT) is the charity wing of Cambridge United Football Club.
CUCT was founded after Cambridge United were relegated from the Football League in 2005. The charity's stated mission is: "To place Cambridge United at the heart of a community where individuals respect each other and themselves, are empowered to maximise their potential and have the inspiration to fulfil this potential."
The charity operates in primary schools across Cambridgeshire including in a partnership with AstraZenenca. CUCT also delivers both health and inclusion work in the city of Cambridge.
The charity's current CEO is Ben Szreter.
Women's team
There is an affiliated women's team called Cambridge United WFC.
References
Further reading
External links
The Cambridge United website: official website of the club
Cambridge United news: Cambridge United news from Cambridge News
Cambridge Fans United: website of Cambridge Fans United, the main fans' group associated with Cambridge United and a significant shareholder in the club
Association football clubs established in 1912
1912 establishments in England
Sport in Cambridge
Football clubs in England
East Anglian League
Eastern Counties Football League
Southern Football League clubs
National League (English football)
Football clubs in Cambridgeshire
English Football League clubs
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom | [
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243972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitive | Partitive | In linguistics, the partitive is a word, phrase, or case that indicates partialness. Nominal partitives are syntactic constructions, such as "some of the children", and may be classified semantically as either set partitives or entity partitives based on the quantifier and the type of embedded noun used. Partitives should not be confused with quantitives (also known as pseudopartitives), which often look similar in form, but behave differently syntactically and have a distinct meaning.
In many Romance and Germanic languages, nominal partitives usually take the form:
[DP Det. + of + [DP Det. + NP]]
where the first determiner is a quantifier word, using a prepositional element to link it to the larger set or whole from which that quantity is partitioned. The partitive constructions of the following languages all have the same translation, with a very similar form:
Some languages, for example Estonian and Finnish, have a special partitive case. In Latin, German and Russian, the partitive is expressed by the genitive case, sometimes called the partitive genitive.
Set partitives and entity partitives
Partitives can be distinguished semantically based on whether they involve a part of a whole, called entity partitives, or a subset of a larger set, called set partitives. The embedded NPs in entity partitives denote either entities at the individual level, such as "a cookie" or entities at the group level, such as "Bob and Sue". Some phrases such as ‘the linguists’ can be interpreted as either a group level entity and thus participate in an entity partitive – "half of the linguists"; alternatively, it can be interpreted as a set of entities, and thus participate in a set partitive – "one of the linguists".
Set partitives contain plural countable nouns in their embedded noun phrase (NP), and can be combined with quantifier determiners such as "many", and specific numbers such as "three". Entity partitives can contain either singular countable nouns or mass nouns (and sometimes even plural countable nouns), combining with determiners such as ‘much’, or those with a fractional meaning, like ‘half’. Other determiners can be combined with either type of partitive, including ‘some’, ‘many’, and ‘all’. The following is a list of different quantifier determiners in English and their classification as either participating in entity partitives, set partitives, or both:
The partitive constraint
Given the following syntactic structure of partitives, [DP Det. + of + [DP Det. + NP]], the first determiner is a quantifier word which quantifies over a subset or part of the embedded DP, which either denotes a set or a whole respectively. The second determiner is usually an article, a demonstrative, a possessive determiner, or even another quantifier.
Jackendoff proposed a version of the partitive constraint in which the embedded determiner phrase (DP) must be definite, and thus must be headed by a definite determiner, such as "the", "these", or "my".
However, this approach fails to account for phrases such as "half of a cookie," that are partitives and yet lack a definite determiner. De Hoop instead points to the existence of set partitives and entity partitives in formulating the partitive constraint, rather than the definiteness of the NP. She states that:
Only NPs that can denote entities are allowed in entity partitives and only NPs that can denote sets of entities are allowed in set partitives.
1. a) *one of a cookie
b) half of a cookie
2. a) *one of the water
b) half of the water
(2a) is ungrammatical even though it has a definite article because the denoted entity does not match. "The water" denotes an entity, and "one" is a set entity partitive determiner. (1b) is correct because indefinite and definite singular count nouns denote single entities rather than a set of entities, therefore it is grammatical when proceeded by "half", an entity partitive determiner.
It should also be noted that some linguists consider the partitive constraint to be problematic, since there may be cases where the determiner is not always obligatory. Linguists do, however, agree that universal quantifiers, such as: every, and each, cannot be embedded in the partitive position. Furthermore, the second determiner can be "all" only if the first determiner is a superlative, or fractional expression.
3. a) "The best of all the wines"
b) "15% of all the relationships"
It has also been hypothesized that perhaps "of" in sentences, such as the above, do not act as the partitive themselves, but rather the superlative in the sentence provides the role of partition.
Anti-uniqueness
Barker claims that partitives are anti-unique; that is, a partitive cannot refer to a unique individual or set of individuals, but must have at least two individuals or sets of individuals in its extension, causing a degree of indefiniteness.
In addition, he limits a partitive to being only able to refer to a proper subset, which he calls proper partitivity. This means that, for example, in the partitive phrase "one of John’s friends", that John must have at least two friends for this to be a proper partitive, and in order for it to satisfy anti-uniqueness by not referring to a unique individual. Similarly, "three of John’s friends" would imply that John has at least four friends, from which an indeterminate three are being referred to.
4. a) I met [one of John's friends].
b) *I met the [one of John's friends].
c) I met the [one of John’s friends] that you pointed out this morning.
Furthermore, Barker states that DP partitive constructions cannot be headed by a definite determiner without being modified by a relative clause, that there is some inherent indefiniteness in partitives according to their property of anti-uniqueness. This explains why 4b) is ill-formed, since it is unclear which of John’s friends is being singled out, yet can be made to take a definite determiner by adding context, such as in 4c), which now refers to a single specific friend of John matching the modifier clause.
Partitives and quantitatives
A true partitive should be distinguished from a very similar construction called a quantitative (often called a pseudopartitive, or sometimes a non-partitive).
5. a) A box of those chocolates
b) A box of chocolates
6. a) *The three of those cars
b) The three cars
A true partitive, as shown in 5a), has the interpretation of a quantity being a part or subset of an entity or set. Quantitives, simply denote either a quantity of something or the number of members in a set, and contain a few important differences in relation to true partitives.
First off, while partitives cannot be preceded by a definite determiner, such as in 6a), quantitatives can be; 6b) is a well-formed quantitive.
While the NP in partitives is usually preceded by a definite determiner, the NP in quantitive constructions containing "of" cannot be preceded by any determiner; this distinguishes the true partitive in 5a) from the quantitative in 5b), which denotes a quantity of chocolates, but does not denote a smaller quantity of chocolates taken from a larger quantity of chocolates, as 5a) does.
Quantitives can be interpreted as partitives, though, when modified. Consider the example, "three children in the class"; this means "three children out of the children that are in the class", which has a partitive meaning.
One point which is important in distinguishing between partitives and pseudopartitives in English is a separation between two semantically different "of"s. The first is a genitive "of", which indicates a kind-of or type-of relation demonstrated in the phrase "a book of history", in which "of" is used to modify the kind of book denoted, alternatively phrased as the compound noun "a history book". Similarly, "a piece of chocolate" can be analyzed as a certain kind of piece, namely a chocolate piece. The second is a partitive "of", which indicates a part-of relation and means "out of the total number of" in the case of set partitives. A partitive like "a piece of this chocolate" does not refer to any chocolate piece, but a piece taken from the whole of a certain chocolate.
Although the syntactic distribution of partitives and pseudo-partitives seems to be complementary, cross-linguistic data suggests this is not always true. Non-partitives can display an identical syntactic structure as true partitives and the ultimate difference is a semantic one. Vos pointed out that Dutch contains nominals fulfilling the syntactic criterion but lacking a partitive interpretation; they are therefore classified as non-partitives.
The first Dutch phrase above is classified as a non-partitive. This is counter-intuitive at first glance because the phrase has a Det+of+Det+N sequence which is a consistent structure observed in partitives. A closer look at the Dutch data reveals that in denoting relativation and extraction relationships, non-partitives (or weak indirect partitive construction in Vos’s terminology) function as an adjectival modifier as opposed to ordinary partitives (strong indirect partitive construction) carrying a determiner-like element. Therefore, diew contains an adjectival meaning closer to 'such' and indicates funny examples of a certain type. In the second example, dies is truly a definite determiner and is referring to a particular larger set of funny examples.
Structural approaches to partitives
While a number of linguists have proposed different approaches to account for the partitive structure, three approaches will be introduced here.
A functional projection approach
In 1995, Guillermo Lorenzo proposed a partitive (π), which is equivalent to the meaning of "out of" in English, is a functional category by itself and projects to a phrasal level. A partitive phrase (πP) is selected by the Numeral (Num) and in turn the partitive head (π) selects the following DP. A Spanish example is shown below:
8. [NumP muchos [πP de[DP estos [NumP [Num° [libr-i+-os] [NP ti]]]]]
many of these book +s
Partitive prepositional phrase approach
Advocates of the partitive prepositional phrase (partitive PP) approach claim that the partitive meaning is integrated into a PP. Structurally, a quantifier is followed by a noun, and a preposition in between denotes the quantifier is a subset of the following noun.
Within a partitive PP construct, the preposition "of" contains lexical content similar to ‘out of’ and always projects to a PP, hence the name partitive PP. Supporters of partitive PP often assume the presence of an empty noun following the quantifier in order to specify the two sets in relation and the preposition introduces the bigger set. Catalan provides evidence for this underlying structure:
9. a) [tres [N e][PP d’aquells [N homes] d’allá]
three of-those men over-there
b) tres homes d’aquells homes d’allá
three men of-those men over-there
c) tres homes d’aquells e d’allá
three men of-those over-there
In the first example, the notion denotes the set of "three men" is a subset of "those men". The second example has an overt noun inserted between the quantifier and the partitive PP and is still considered grammatical, albeit odd and redundant to a native speaker of Catalan. The third sentence has an empty noun holding the final noun position. Altogether this is taken as strong evidence that an empty noun category should be posited to license a partitive meaning.
Alternatively, some linguists argued an empty noun placement is unnecessary if one considers the quantifier’s role to be quantifying a subset. The noun following the partitive PP automatically becomes the bigger set and the whole nominal represents a subset-set relation.
Quantifier-based approach
Closely related to the partitive PP approach, some authors propose an alternate analysis which also focuses on looking at partitive distribution in nominals. Vos claims that it is the relationship between the quantifier and the noun collectively determine the partitive meaning.
Under this view, the preposition belongs to a functional category and its existence is solely for grammatical reasons. In other words, the preposition is not registered with any lexical content. Vos claims the internal relation between the first and second noun in a nominal partitive implicitly denotes a subset-set, possessive or part-whole relation. Similarly, de Hoop embraces the idea that only when a quantifier pairs with a desired type of DP, specific kind of partitive relation can then be determined. The preposition "of" plays a crucial role in enabling the selected DP to surface.
The deciding factor to label a partitive construction concerns with the presence of an internal DP, as demonstrated in the English examples below:
The nouns in the partitives all refer to a particular bigger set since they are preceded by an internal definite determiner (possessive: my, demonstrative: this and those, and definite article: the). On the other hand, their pseudo-counterparts lack this implication. Without a definite determiner, pseudo-partitives can only denote an amount of things, and the characteristics of a set are determined by the context of the discourse. In addition, the set denoted in a pseudopartitive does not necessarily have to be bigger.
Intuitively, the last two phrases under the pseudo-partitive column do indicate some kind of partition. However, when they are broken down into syntactic constituents, noted in true partitives, the noun always projects to a DP. In contrast, the noun in the phrase-final position projects to a NP (noun phrase) in non-partitives.
Partitive constructions
The partitive nominal construction consists of structure [DP Det. + of + [DP Det. + NP]], as shown in 10a).
10. a) Three of John’s friends.
b) Three friends of John’s.
A related construction traditionally called the double genitive has been argued by Barker to actually be a partitive, which he terms the possessive partitive (shown in 10b), rather than simply a redundant application of the genitive marker ‘s.
Barker claims that this is a use of the partitive "of", rather than the gentitive ‘of’, distinguishing it from being a gentitive construction. To support this, he notes that prenominal possessives such as "Mary’s child" cannot occur with a following possessor introduced by the genitive "of" such as, "Mary’s child ofGEN John". This phrase is illogical, since nominals are syntactically constrained to only allow one possessor. Yet, prenominal possessives can be combined with possessive partitives, containing the partitive "of", such as "my favorite story ofPART yours". This phrase is grammatical, taking the meaning "my favourite story out of your stories".
11. a) a picture of John
b) a picture of John's
Similarly, 11a) does not mean the same as 11b). The first is an instance of the genitive "of", and means that John is in the picture. The second is an instance of the partitive "of", and hence is a possessive partitive; in contrast, it means a picture from the collection of pictures that belong to John, but does not say anything about whether John is in the picture.
12. a) a friend of John's
b) a friend of John's friend
Nor do 12a) and 12b) mean the same. The first is a possessive partitive, referring to someone who is a member of the set of John’s friends. The second includes a postnominal genitive "of" phrase, and refers instead to someone who is a friend in relation to a member of the set of John’s friends, but not necessarily to John himself.
13. a) three friendsi of [John’s friendsi]
b) three [ei] of [John’s friendsi]
c) three friendsi of [John’s [ei]]
The difference between the nominal partitive and the partitive possessive constructions may in fact be a matter of ellipsis in the phonetic forms, as suggested by Zamparelli.
He proposes that the two constructions have the same logical form, for example 13a), where the word friend has the same referent in both positions. Variations then arise in the phonetic form depending on which "friend" word is ellipsed. In the nominal partitive, the first "friend" is ellipsed, becoming 13b), whereas the possessive partitive ellipses the second instance of "friend", yielding 13c).
Partitive case: Finnish morphology
Finnish indicates the partitive by inflecting nouns in the partitive case. An object takes the partitive case under the following three conditions:
The aspectual condition is if the object is governed by an unbounded (or atelic) verb, that is, one which does not indicate the result of an action. The NP-related (quantity) condition is if the object is quantitatively indeterminate, which means indefinite bare plurals or mass nouns. Lastly, the negative condition applies when a predicate is negated, in which case nearly all objects are marked with the partitive.
These three conditions are generally considered to be hierarchically ranked according to their strength such that negation > aspect > quantity. Negation is strongest in that it applies so pervasively to negated events, regardless of aspect or quantity.
An example of the NP-related condition is shown below, borrowed from Huumo:
In (a), the object is a mass noun, where the partitive case indicates an open, unspecified quantity of butter using the suffix -ta'', as opposed to a closed quantity or total object, which Finnish would specify by using the accusative suffix –n, as in (b).
These two examples above show the contrast that exists in Finnish between the partitive object and total object, the former indicating incompleteness of an event or an open quantity. Whereas the partitive object takes the partitive case, the total object can be marked with nominative, genitive, or accusative and indicates aspectual completeness or closed quantity.
In the case of (c), the partitive object is triggered by the unbounded aspect of the verb, not the quantity of the object, since the openness of the quantity is irrelevant. Unboundedness in verbs denotes whether there is a direct consequence following the action of the verb. The verb's aspect is progressive, involving an ongoing action without a specified endpoint, and is therefore unbounded. This aspectual unboundedness requires the partitive object, and has the effect of concealing the quantity of the object. This shows that aspect is stronger than quantity in conditioning the partitive.
In (d) and (e), "to shoot" in Finnish is an intrinsically neither bound nor unbound verb since the shooting can cause the three different results of the target being killed or only wounded or not being hit. (In English, "to shoot" with a direct object has the first two senses and requires additions such as "dead" or "and killed" to not be ambivalent, and the third sense is only possible by adding the preposition "at".) "To kill" would be an intrinsically bound verb, where the consequence is someone/something being dead. In the data, the morpheme "–a" is the partitive morpheme. In (d), the verb "shot" takes a partitive object and specifies the activities of "shooting without killing" or "shooting at but not necessarily hitting". In (e), the verb takes an accusative object and denotes accomplishment of hitting and killing. Hence, the difference of unboundness or boundness in the verb, whether the bear was hit (and killed) by the bullet or not, is reflected by the difference in the morphology of the object.
The common factor between aspectual and NP-related functions of the partitive case is the process of marking a verb phrase's (VP) unboundness. A VP has the semantic property of having either an unbounded head or unbounded argument. For example, in Finnish the partitive case suffix denotes an unbound event, while the accusative case suffix denotes a bounded event. Note that when translating Finnish into English, the determiners could surface as "a", "the", "some" or numerals in both unbound and bound events.
References
See also
English articles
English determiners
Finnish noun cases
Partitive case
Grammatical cases
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243975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elative | Elative | Elative can refer to:
Elative case, a grammatical case in Finno-Ugric languages and others
Elative (gradation), an inflection used in Arabic for the comparative and the superlative
The absolutive superlative (a superlative used without any compared object, expressing an intense degree) in some languages, such as Latin | [
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243979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Rod | Black Rod | Black Rod (officially known as the Lady Usher of the Black Rod or, if male, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod) is an official in the parliaments of several Commonwealth countries. The position originates in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The position is similar to one known as a serjeant-at-arms in other bodies.
In the United Kingdom, Black Rod is principally responsible for controlling access to and maintaining order within the House of Lords and its precincts, as well as for ceremonial events within those precincts. Since early 2018, the post has been held for the first time by a woman, Sarah Clarke.
Origin
The office was created in 1350 by royal letters patent, though the current title dates from 1522. The position was adopted by other members of the Commonwealth when they adopted the British Westminster system. The title is derived from the staff of office, an ebony staff topped with a golden lion, which is the main symbol of the office's authority.
A ceremonial rod or staff is a common type of symbol indicating the authority of the office-holder. Depictions of ancient authority figures in many cultures include such a rod (alternatively called a sceptre). Another early example was the fasces (literally a bound bundle of rods) carried by guards ("lictors") who accompanied certain high-level officials in the Roman Republic and later Empire.
United Kingdom
Appointment
Black Rod is formally appointed by the Crown based on a recruitment search performed by the Clerk of the Parliaments, who is the employer of all House of Lords officials. Prior to 2002, the office rotated among retired senior officers from the Royal Navy, the British Army and the Royal Air Force. It is now advertised openly. Black Rod is an officer of the English Order of the Garter, and is usually appointed Knight Bachelor if not already knighted. Their deputy is the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod.
Official duties
Black Rod is principally responsible for controlling access to and maintaining order within the House of Lords and its precincts, as well as for ceremonial events within those precincts. Previous responsibilities for security, and the buildings and services of the Palace of Westminster, have been passed, respectively, to the Parliamentary Security Director (as of the post's creation in January 2016) and Lords Director of Facilities (as of that post's creation and the retirement of the then-Black Rod in May 2009).
Black Rod's official duties also include responsibility as the usher and doorkeeper at meetings of the Most Noble Order of the Garter; the personal attendant of the Sovereign in the Lords; as secretary to the Lord Great Chamberlain and as the Serjeant-at-Arms and Keeper of the Doors of the House, in charge of the admission of strangers to the House of Lords. Either Black Rod or their deputy, the Yeoman Usher, is required to be present when the House of Lords, the upper house of Parliament, is in session, and plays a role in the introduction of all new Lords Temporal in the House (but not of bishops as new Lords Spiritual). Black Rod also arrests any Lord guilty of breach of privilege or other Parliamentary offence, such as contempt or disorder, or the disturbance of the House's proceedings. Their equivalent in the House of Commons is the Serjeant at Arms.
Former Black Rod, David Leakey, said that 30% of his work as Black Rod was within or for the House of Commons.
Black Rod, along with their deputy, is responsible for organising ceremonial events within the Palace of Westminster, providing leadership in guiding the significant logistics of running such events.
Ceremonial duties
Mace
Black Rod is in theory responsible for carrying the Mace into and out of the chamber for the Speaker of the House of Lords (formerly the Lord Chancellor, now the Lord Speaker), though this role is delegated to the Yeoman Usher and Deputy Serjeant-at-Arms, or on judicial occasions, to the Lord Speaker's deputy, the Assistant Serjeant-at-Arms. The mace was introduced in 1876.
State Opening of Parliament
Black Rod is best known for their part in the ceremonies surrounding the State Opening of Parliament and the Speech from the throne. They summon the Commons to attend the speech and lead them to the Lords. As part of the ritual, the doors to the chamber of the House of Commons are slammed in the approaching Black Rod's face. This is to symbolise the Commons' independence of the Sovereign. Black Rod then strikes the door three times with the staff, and is then admitted and issues the summons of the monarch to attend.
This ritual also happens whenever the Lords have a commission to be read and Black Rod summons MPs to hear it. For example, on Tuesday 17 December 2019 this ritual happened twice.
This ritual is derived from the attempt by King Charles I to arrest Five Members in 1642, in what was seen as a breach of the constitution. This and prior actions of the King led to the Civil War. After that incident, the House of Commons has maintained its right to question the right of the monarch's representative to enter their chamber, although they cannot bar them from entering with lawful authority.
List of Black Rods in England, Great Britain and the UK from 1361
This list is derived from one published by the Parliamentary Archives in 2011, with alterations from later research.
c.1361–1387: Walter Whitehorse
1387–1399: John Cray
1399–1410: Thomas Sy
1410–1413: John Sheffield
1413–1415: John Athelbrigg
1415–1418: William Hargroave
1418–1423: John Clifford
1423–1428: John Carsons
1428–1459: William Pope
1438–1459: Robert Manfield (joint)
1459–1461: John Penycok
1461–1471: Vacant ?
1471–1485: William Evington
1483–1485: Edward Hardgill (joint)
1485–1489: Robert Marleton
1489–1513: Ralph Assheton
1495–30 December 1511: Hugh Denys (jointly with Assheton until Denys's death)
1513–1526: Sir William Compton
1526–1536: Henry Norreys
1536–1543: Anthony Knyvett
1543–1554: Sir Philip Hoby
1554–1565: John Norreys
1554–1591: Sir William Norreys (joint)
1591–1593: Anthony Wingfield
1593–1598: Simon Bowyer
1598–1620: Richard Coningsby
1605–1620: George Pollard (joint)
1620–1642: James Maxwell
1642–1649: Alexander Thayne (as recognised by Parliament); jointly with James Maxwell until c. 1646. The Lords was abolished in 1649 and Thayne made a claim to the title at the Restoration in 1661, but was denied.
2 March 1645 – 1661: Peter Newton (as recognised by the Royalists; Edward Ellis discharged the duties in 1642 and Newton in 1644, but neither seems to have been formally appointed at the time.)
1671–1675: Sir John Ayton
1671–1683: Sir Edward Carteret
1683–25 April 1694: Sir Thomas Duppa
1694–25 August 1698: Sir Fleetwood Sheppard
5 December 1698 – 1 June 1710: Admiral Sir David Mitchell
1710–1718: Sir William Oldes
1718–1727: Sir William Sanderson, 1st Baronet
1727–1747: Sir Charles Dalton
1747–1760: Sir Henry Bellenden
1760 – 6 September 1765: Sir Septimus Robinson
1765 – 1812: Sir Francis Molyneux, 7th Baronet
1812 – 25 July 1832: Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt
25 July 1832 – 8 February 1877: Admiral Sir Augustus Clifford
3 May 1877 – 23 June 1883: General Sir William Knollys
24 July 1883 – 7 October 1895: Admiral Sir James Drummond
16 December 1895 – 23 July 1901: General Sir Michael Biddulph
August 1904 – 16 December 1919: Admiral Sir Henry Stephenson
January 1920 – 14 May 1941: Lieutenant-General Sir William Pulteney
October 1941 – 15 August 1944: Air Chief Marshal Sir William Mitchell
January 1945 – 18 January 1949: Vice Admiral Sir Geoffrey Blake
18 January 1949 – 18 June 1963: Lieutenant-General Sir Brian Horrocks
18 June 1963 – October 1970: Air Chief Marshal Sir George Mills
October 1970 – 18 January 1978: Admiral Sir Frank Twiss
10 January 1978 – January 1985: Lieutenant-General Sir David House
January 1985 – January 1992: Air Chief Marshal Sir John Gingell
January 1992 – 8 May 1995: Admiral Sir Richard Thomas
9 May 1995 – 8 May 2001: General Sir Edward Jones
9 May 2001 – 30 April 2009: Lieutenant-General Sir Michael Willcocks
30 April 2009 – 28 October 2010: Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Viggers
21 December 2010 – 21 December 2017: Lieutenant-General David Leakey
12 February 2018 – present: Sarah Clarke
List of Serjeants-at-Arms of the House of Lords
Technically the serjeant at arms attending the Lord Chancellor (the former presiding officer of the House of Lords) was regarded as an officer of the House of Lords. He was appointed for life until 1713 and during good behaviour thereafter, originally receiving a daily remuneration and from 1806 an annual salary. The post was merged with that of Black Rod in 1971.
Incomplete before 1660
1660: Humphrey Leigh
1668: Edward Wood (in Extraordinary; did not succeed to the reversion)
1671: Sir George Charnock (in Extraordinary)
1673: Sir George Charnock (in Ordinary) jointly with Roger Charnock
1697: Peter Persehouse
1713: Sarles Goatley
1713: Charles Stone
1716: Francis Jephson
1745: Richard Jephson
1789: William Watson
1818: George Francis Seymour
1841: Alexander Perceval
1858: Colonel Sir Wellington Patrick Manvers Chetwynd Talbot
1899: Major-General Sir Arthur Edward Augustus Ellis
1901: Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Fleetwood Isham Edwards
1910: Major-General Sir Stanley de Astel Clarke
5 November 1910: Captain Sir Seymour John Fortescue
1 February 1936: Major-General Sir Charles Edward Corkran
17 March 1939: Admiral Sir Herbert Meade-Fetherstonhaugh
2 December 1946: Air Vice-Marshal Sir Paul Copeland Maltby
17 March 1962: Captain Kenneth Lachlan Mackintosh
1 January 1971: Admiral Sir Frank Twiss
Since 1971 the office of Serjeant at Arms has been held by the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod.
Gentlemen Ushers of the Black Rod in Ireland
Before the Act of Union of 1800, which united the Kingdom of Ireland with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, there was also a Black Rod in the Irish House of Lords. From 1783 the Irish Black Rod was also Usher of the Order of St Patrick, so the office continued after the Union. No one was appointed to the office after the creation of the Irish Free State in December 1922.
1707: Andrew Fountaine
c.1708–1709: Thomas Ellys
1711–17??: Brinsley Butler, 1st Viscount Lanesborough (died 1735)
1745–17??: Robert Langrishe
1745–1747: Solomon Dayrolles
1747–17??: William FitzWilliam
1757: James Gisborne
1761–1763: George Montagu
1763–1765: Sir Archibald Edmonstone
1772?: Robert Weston
1780–1781: Sir John Lees
1783: Sir John Freemantle
1783–1784: Sir Willoughby Ashton
1784–1790: Colonel Andrew Barnard
1787–1789: Scrope Morland
1790–1796: The Honourable Henry Fane
1796–1799: Nicholas Price
1799–1806: Thomas Linsay
1806–1835: Sir Charles Hawley Vernon
1835–1838: Major The Honourable Sir Francis Charles Stanhope
1838–1841: Sir William Edward Leeson
1841–1858: Lieutenant Colonel Sir George Morris
1858–1878: Sir George Burdett L'Estrange
1879–1913: Colonel James Alfred Caulfeild, 7th Viscount Charlemont
1915–1917: Sir John Olphert
1918–1933: Sir Samuel Murray Power
The Senate of Northern Ireland also had a Black Rod throughout its existence.
Other UK ushers
Before the Acts of Union 1707 united the English and Scottish parliaments, there was a Heritable Usher of the White Rod who had a similar role in the Estates of Parliament in Scotland. This office is currently held by The Rt Rev. John Armes, Bishop of Edinburgh, but the role carries no duties.
Gentleman ushers exist for all the British orders of chivalry, and are coloured as follows:
The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod – Most Noble Order of the Garter
The Gentleman Usher of the Green Rod – Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle
The Gentleman Usher of the Scarlet Rod – Most Honourable Order of the Bath
The Gentleman Usher of the Blue Rod – Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George
The Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod – Most Excellent Order of the British Empire
In other Commonwealth countries
As in the United Kingdom, Black Rod is responsible for arresting any senator or intruder who disrupts the proceedings.
Canada
The Black Rod for the Senate of Canada is the equivalent to the office for the House of Lords. The Legislatures of Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Alberta, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island have also incorporated Black Rods into their respective parliamentary systems.
Australia
Both the Australian Senate and houses in the parliament in each Australian state (except Queensland, which does not have an upper house) have their own Usher of the Black Rod. The current Usher of the Black Rod for the Australian Senate is John Begley. In the Australian Senate, the Usher of the Black Rod assists with the administration and security of the Senate and has the power to take anyone into custody who causes a disturbance in or near the Senate chamber.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, where the Legislative Council was abolished in 1951, the Usher of the Black Rod continues to summon MPs to the chamber for the Throne Speech. It is not a full-time position. Colonel William "Bill" Nathan, OBE, ED was Usher of the Black Rod 1993 to 2005. the first female Black Rod is Sandra McKie.
South Africa
The Senate of South Africa had a Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod from its inception in 1910 to abolition in 1980. When the Senate was restored in 1994 the renamed position of Usher of the Black Rod returned with it, continuing in the new National Council of Provinces.
Gentlemen Ushers of the Black Rod in Jamaica
1820–1836: Anthony Davis
References
External links
The records of Black Rod's Department are held by the UK Parliamentary Archives
The British Parliament's information about the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod
The Canadian Parliament's information about Black Rod
The Australian Parliamentary Education Office's information about the Usher of the Black Rod
Ushers of the Black Rod
Westminster system
Positions within the British Royal Household
Officers of the House of Lords of the United Kingdom
Ceremonial officers in the United Kingdom | [
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243987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documenta | Documenta | documenta is an exhibition of contemporary art which takes place every five years in Kassel, Germany. It was founded by artist, teacher and curator Arnold Bode in 1955 as part of the Bundesgartenschau (Federal Horticultural Show) which took place in Kassel at that time. It was an attempt to bring Germany up to speed with modern art, both banishing and repressing the cultural darkness of Nazism. This first documenta featured many artists who are generally considered to have had a significant influence on modern art (such as Picasso and Kandinsky). The more recent documentas feature art from all continents; nonetheless most of it is site-specific.
Every documenta is limited to 100 days of exhibition, which is why it is often referred to as the "museum of 100 days". Documenta is not a selling exhibition. It rarely coincides with the three other major art world events: the Venice Biennale, Art Basel and Skulptur Projekte Münster, but in 2017, all four were open simultaneously.
Etymology of documenta
The name of the exhibition is an invented word. The term is supposed to demonstrate the intention of every exhibition (in particular of the first documenta in 1955) to be a documentation of modern art which was not available for the German public during the Nazi era. Rumour spread from those close to Arnold Bode that it was relevant for the coinage of the term that the Latin word documentum could be separated into docere (Latin for teach) and mens (Latin for intellect) and therefore thought it to be a good word to describe the intention and the demand of the documenta.
Each edition of documenta has commissioned its own visual identity, most of which have conformed to the typographic style of solely using lowercase letters, which originated at the Bauhaus.
History
Art professor and designer Arnold Bode from Kassel was the initiator of the first documenta. Originally planned as a secondary event to accompany the Bundesgartenschau, this attracted more than 130,000 visitors in 1955. The exhibition centred less on "contemporary art“, that is art made after 1945: instead, Bode wanted to show the public works which had been known as "Entartete Kunst" in Germany during the Nazi era: Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, Blauer Reiter, Futurism and Pittura Metafisica. Therefore, abstract art, in particular the abstract paintings of the 1920s and 1930s, was the focus of interest in this exhibition.
Over time, the focus shifted to contemporary art. At first, the show was limited to works from Europe, but soon covered works by artists from the Americas, Africa and Asia. 4. documenta, the first ever to turn a profit, featured a selection of Pop Art, Minimal Art, and Kinetic Art. Adopting the theme of Questioning Reality – Pictorial Worlds Today, the 1972 documenta radically redefined what could be considered art by featuring minimal and conceptual art, marking a turning point in the public acceptance of those styles. Also, it devoted a large section to the work of Adolf Wolfli, the great Swiss outsider, then unknown. Joseph Beuys performed repeatedly under the auspices of his utopian Organization for Direct Democracy. Additionally, the 1987 documenta show signaled another important shift with the elevation of design to the realm of art – showing an openness to postmodern design. Certain key political dates for wide-reaching social and cultural upheavals, such as 1945, 1968 or 1976/77, became chronological markers of documenta X (1997), along which art's political, social, cultural and aesthetic exploratory functions were traced. Documenta11 was organized around themes like migration, urbanization and the post-colonial experience, with documentary photography, film and video as well as works from far-flung locales holding the spotlight. In 2012, documenta (13) was described as "[a]rdently feminist, global and multimedia in approach and including works by dead artists and selected bits of ancient art".
Criticism
documenta typically gives its artists at least two years to conceive and produce their projects, so the works are often elaborate and intellectually complex. However, the participants are often not publicised before the very opening of the exhibition. At documenta (13), the official list of artists was not released until the day the show opened. Even though curators have often claimed to have gone outside the art market in their selection, participants have always included established artists. In the documenta (13), for example, art critic Jerry Saltz identified more than a third of the artists represented by the renowned Marian Goodman Gallery in the show.
Directors
The first four documentas, organized by Arnold Bode, established the exhibition's international credentials. Since the fifth documenta (1972), a new artistic director has been named for each documenta exhibition by a committee of experts. Documenta 8 was put together in two years instead of the usual five. The original directors, Edy de Wilde and Harald Szeemann, were unable to get along and stepped down. They were replaced by Manfred Schneckenburger, Edward F. Fry, Wulf Herzogenrath, Armin Zweite, and Vittorio Fagone. Coosje van Bruggen helped select artists for documenta 7, the 1982 edition. documenta IX'''s team of curators consisted of Jan Hoet, Piero Luigi Tazzi, Denys Zacharopoulos, and Bart de Baere. For documenta X Catherine David was chosen as the first woman and the first non-German speaker to hold the post. It is also the first and unique time that its website Documenta x was conceived by a curator (swiss curator Simon Lamunière) as a part of the exhibition. The first non-European director was Okwui Enwezor for Documenta11.
The salary for the artistic director of documenta is around €100,000 a year.
2012's edition was organized around a central node, the trans-Atlantic melding of two distinct individuals who first encountered each other in the "money-soaked deserts of the United Arab Emirates". As an organizing principle it is simultaneously a commentary on the romantic potentials of globalization and also a critique of how digital platforms can complicate or interrogate the nature of such relationships. Curatorial agents refer to the concept as possessing a "fricative potential for productive awkwardness," wherein a twosome is formed for the purposes of future exploration.
Venuesdocumenta is held in different venues in Kassel. Since 1955, the fixed venue has been the Fridericianum. The documenta-Halle was built in 1992 for documenta IX and now houses some of the exhibitions. Other venues used for documenta have included the Karlsaue park, Schloss Wilhelmshöhe, the Neue Galerie, the Ottoneum, and the Kulturzentrum Schlachthof. Though Okwui Enezor notably tried to subvert the euro-centric approach documenta had taken, he instigated a series of five platforms before the Documenta11 in Vienna, Berlin, New Delhi, St Lucia, and Lagos, in an attempt to take documenta into a new post-colonial, borderless space, from which experimental cultures could emerge. documenta 12 occupied five locations, including the Fridericianum, the Wilhelmshöhe castle park and the specially constructed "Aue-Pavillon," or meadow pavilion, designed by French firm Lacaton et Vassal. At documenta (13) (2012), about a fifth of the works were unveiled in places like Kabul, Afghanistan, and Banff, Canada.
There are also a number of works that are usually presented outside, most notably in Friedrichsplatz, in front of the Fridericianum, and the Karlsaue park. To handle the number of artworks at documenta IX, five connected temporary "trailers" in glass and corrugated metal were built in the Karlsaue. For documenta (13), French architects Anne Lacaton and Jean-Philippe Vassal constructed the temporary "Aue-Pavillon" in the park.
Permanent installations
A few of the works exhibited at various documentas remained as purchases in Kassel museums. They include 7000 Eichen by Joseph Beuys; Rahmenbau (1977) by Haus-Rucker-Co; Laserscape Kassel (1977) by Horst H. Baumann; Traumschiff Tante Olga (1977) by Anatol Herzfeld; Vertikaler Erdkilometer by Walter De Maria; Spitzhacke (1982) by Claes Oldenburg; Man walking to the sky (1992) by Jonathan Borofsky; and Fremde by Thomas Schütte (one part of the sculptures are installed on Rotes Palais at Friedrichsplatz, the other on the roof of the Concert Hall in Lübeck).
documenta archive
The extensive volume of material that is regularly generated on the occasion of this exhibition prompted Arnold Bode to create an archive in 1961. The heart of the archive’s collection comes from the files and materials of the documenta organization. A continually expanding video and image archive is also part of the collection as are the independently organized bequests of Arnold Bode and artist Harry Kramer.
Management
Visitors
In 1992, on the occasion of documenta IX, for the first time in the history of the documenta, more than half a million people traveled to Kassel. The 2002 edition of documenta attracted 650,000 visitors, more than triple Kassel's population. In 2007, documenta 12 drew 754,000 paying visitors, with more than one-third of the visitors coming from abroad and guests from neighboring Netherlands, France, Belgium and Austria among the most numerous. In 2012, documenta (13) had 904,992 visitors.
Budget
In 2007, half of documenta's budget of 19 million euros ($25.7 million) came from the city of Kassel, the state of Hessen and Germany's Kulturstiftung des Bundes. The rest came from sponsors, donors, and ticket sales. Documenta 14’s budget was at 37 million euros ($40 million), spread between 2013 and 2018; by the end of 2017, its deficit was expected to reach 5.4 million euros. Overspending in Athens led to a liquidity shortfall of 7 million euros, forcing the shareholders of Documenta — the city of Kassel and the German state of Hesse — to step in with emergency loan guarantees worth 8 million euros.
References
Further reading
Nancy Marmer, "Documenta 8: The Social Dimension?" Art in America'', vol. 75, September 1987, pp. 128–138, 197–199.
External links
Official web page of the documenta
Official archive of the documenta X
City Panorama, interactive panorama at the Documenta Hall
"Transforming the Art World: The History of the Documenta Art Exhibition" by Mélissa Leclézio, Culture Trip, 29 December 2016
Contemporary art exhibitions | [
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243988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Left%20%28Ireland%29 | Democratic Left (Ireland) | Democratic Left () was a left-wing political party in Ireland between 1992 and 1999. It came into being after a split in the Workers' Party, and after seven years in existence it was incorporated into the Labour Party in 1999. Democratic Left served in a three-party coalition government with Fine Gael and the Labour Party, termed the Rainbow Coalition, from December 1994 to June 1997.
Origins
Democratic Left was formed after a split in the Workers' Party, which in turn had its origins in the 1970 split in Sinn Féin. Although never formally styled as a communist party, the Workers' Party had an internal organisation based on democratic centralism, strong links with the Soviet Union, and campaigned for socialist policies. The party gained support during the 1980s - a decade of cutbacks and hardship in Ireland - winning 7 TDs in the 1989 general election and 24 councillors in the 1991 local elections.
However between 1989 and 1992 the Workers' Party was beset by a number of problems. The collapse of communism in eastern Europe had put many Soviet-aligned parties on the defensive and had caused a number of them to reconsider their core ideological beliefs. A faction led by Proinsias De Rossa wanted to move the party towards an acceptance of free-market economics, viewing the party's Marxist stance as an obstacle to further electoral success. The party was languishing in opinion polls and there was increasing tension between the party's elected representatives such as De Rossa, Pat Rabbitte and Eamon Gilmore and another grouping involving activists and organisers on the party's Central Executive Committee, led by Sean Garland. Finally the broadcast of a BBC Spotlight programme in June 1991 had raised questions on the party's links to the Official IRA. The Official IRA had been on ceasefire since 1972 but was frequently accused of being involved in fund-raising robberies, money-laundering and other forms of criminality.
On 15 February 1992, a special conference was held in Dún Laoghaire to reconstitute the party. Over the preceding two weeks there were clashes at a number of party meetings between supporters of De Rossa and Garland. A motion proposed by De Rossa and general secretary Des Geraghty sought to stand down the existing membership, elect an 11-member provisional executive council and make several other significant changes in party structures. Initially supporters believed that the motion would pass but it was defeated by 9 votes. After the announcement of the results, De Rossa told the delegates "You have your decision. I honestly believe it is a bad decision, but you have made it,".
Both sides accused each other "packing votes".
Formation
After the conference it was clear a split was inevitable. At an Ard Chomhairle meeting held on 22 February in Wynns Hotel in Dublin City, six of the party's TDs resigned from the party along with more than half of the Ard Chomhairle. The members who left included the party leader Proinsias De Rossa and five more of the party's seven members of Dáil Éireann (Pat Rabbitte, Eamon Gilmore, Eric Byrne, Pat McCartan and Joe Sherlock). The party's President for most of the previous 30 years, Tomás Mac Giolla refused to join the breakaway and remained with the Workers' Party although he had reluctantly supported the constitutional amendments and had considered departing the party after the conference. The new party was provisionally named New Agenda with De Rossa becoming leader of the new party.
There was speculation that the Labour TD Emmet Stagg would join the new grouping. Stagg, who was on the left of the Labour Party, had resigned the party whip before the Workers' Party split and it was indicated that he might join the new group. However Stagg eventually opted not to join. The party was hampered by the fact that it immediately lost Dáil privileges such as speaking rights, the ability to table priority questions and the allocation of private members time it had enjoyed as the Workers' Party as it did not meet the minimum requirement of 7 TDs. The new party did not qualify for the party leader's allowance scheme depriving it of a vital source of funding.
The party was renamed Democratic Left at its founding conference held on 28 March 1992. The new party was defined as a:
Electoral history and participation in government
The party's first contest was the 1992 UK general election, in which it stood in two constituencies in Northern Ireland and polled 2,133 votes. The election was fought under the "New Agenda" label.
In the North the party contested elections in 1996 for the Northern Ireland Forum but with less than 1% of the vote they failed to have any members elected. The party inherited two councillors at its foundation: Seamus Lynch lost his Belfast City Council seat in 1993, Gerry Cullen had been elected for the Workers' Party in 1989 in Dungannon Town and was re-elected in 1993 and 1997 local elections.
In the 1992 Irish general election the party lost two of its six Dáil seats (Eric Byrne narrowly following a week of counting and recounting, Pat McCartan and Joe Sherlock losing their seats, and Liz McManus winning a seat in Wicklow), gaining 2.8% of the vote compared to 5% for the pre-split Workers' Party in the preceding general election.
Joe Sherlock was elected on the Labour Panel to Seanad Éireann as part of an election pact with their politically polar opposites Progressive Democrats.
The party subsequently won two seats in by-elections, Eric Byrne regaining his seat in Dublin South Central and Kathleen Lynch in Cork North Central.
After the collapse of the Fianna Fáil-Labour Party coalition government in 1994, Democratic Left joined the new coalition government with Fine Gael and the Labour Party. Proinsias De Rossa served as Minister for Social Welfare, initiating Ireland's first national anti-poverty strategy.
Election results
Dáil Éireann
House of Commons
Northern Ireland Forum for Political Dialogue
Local elections (Republic of Ireland)
Local elections (Northern Ireland)
European Parliament (Republic of Ireland)
Merger with Labour
In the 1997 general election Democratic Left lost two of its six seats, both of its by-election victors being unseated. The party won 2.5% of the vote. The party also was in significant financial debt because of a lack of access to public funds, due to its size. Between 1998 and 1999 the party entered discussions with the Labour Party which culminated in the parties' merger in 1999, keeping the name of the larger partner but excluding members in Northern Ireland from organising. This left Gerry Cullen, their councillor in Dungannon Borough Council, in a state of limbo, representing a party for whom he could no longer seek election. The launch of the merged party was in the Pillar Room of the Rotunda Hospital in Dublin on 24 January 1999. Labour Party leader Ruairi Quinn remained leader of the unified party, while De Rossa took up the largely titular position of party president. Only 10% of Democratic Left delegates at the special conference had voted against the merger. In 1999 De Rossa successfully contested the European Parliament election in Dublin. He held his Dáil seat until he stood down at the 2002 general election. He held his European Parliament seat in the 2004 election and 2009 election
In 2002, the former Democratic Left TDs Pat Rabbitte and Liz McManus were elected as Labour Party leader and deputy leader respectively. When Rabbite stepped down as Labour leader after the 2007 general election, Gilmore was elected unopposed as his successor.
Historical Archives
The party archives were donated to the National Library of Ireland by the Labour Party in 2014. The records can be accessed by means of the call number: MS 49,807.
See also
:Category:Democratic Left (Ireland) politicians
References
1992 establishments in Ireland
All-Ireland political parties
Defunct political parties in Northern Ireland
Defunct political parties in the Republic of Ireland
Political parties disestablished in 1999
Political parties established in 1992
1999 disestablishments in Ireland
Labour Party (Ireland) | [
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243997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ott%C3%B3%20Bl%C3%A1thy | Ottó Bláthy | Ottó Titusz Bláthy (11 August 1860 – 26 September 1939) was a Hungarian electrical engineer. In his career, he became the co-inventor of the modern electric transformer, the tension regulator, the AC watt-hour meter.motor capacitor for the single-phase (AC) electric motor, the turbo generator, and the high-efficiency turbo generator.
Bláthy's career as an inventor began during his time at the Ganz Works in 1883. There, he conducted experiments for creating a transformer. The name "transformer" was created by Bláthy. In 1885 the ZBD model alternating-current transformer was invented by three Hungarian engineers: Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri and Károly Zipernowsky. (ZBD comes from the initials of their names). In the autumn of 1889 he patented the AC watt-meter.
Early life
He attended schools in Tata and Vienna, where he obtained diploma of machinery in 1882.
Between 1881 and 1883 he worked at the machinery workshop of the Hungarian Railways (MAV). Attracted by the successes of Károly Zipernowsky, he joined his team on 1 July 1883. He admitted he had learnt nothing about electrotechnics in university, so he started to learn about the theory himself. Using the Maxwell equations he invented a practical approach of sizing magnetic coils.
Kapp and Hopkinson (for whom Hopkinson's law is named) published their findings only later in 1886 and 1887, respectively.
Professional life
His practical calculation method was crucial in building the first practical transformer. Based on his findings, he rebuilt his machines in 1883 and obtained better efficiency with the same weight. He was the first to investigate the heat dissipation problems of electric motors, and at that time the connection between current density and heat was determined.
At the Turin Italian National Exhibition in 1884, he saw Gaulard and Gibbs's "secondary generator"' (i.e. AC transformer) system, and he decided to improve it. Including a closed-loop magnetic field, based on the findings of Faraday, he conducted experiments with Miksa Déri in the summer of 1884 at the Ganz factory. Based on these experiments, they invented the transformer in 1885, which was unveiled at the Budapest National Exhibition in 1885. In the autumn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (ZBD), three Hungarian engineers associated with the Ganz Works, had determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers), they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either wound around an iron wire ring core or surrounded by an iron wire core. The two designs were the first application of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day, termed "core form" or "shell form" . The Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world's first five high-efficiency AC transformers, the first of these units having been shipped on September 16, 1884. This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications: 1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, one-phase, shell form.
In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air (see Toroidal cores below). The new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs. The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations: one concerning the use of parallel connected, instead of series connected, utilization loads, the other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred). When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems, closed-core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces. Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections, and Déri had performed the experiments; In early 1885, the three engineers also eliminated the problem of eddy current losses with the invention of the lamination of electromagnetic cores.
The first specimen of the AC kilowatt-hour meter produced on the basis of Hungarian Ottó Bláthy's patent and named after him was presented by the Ganz Works at the Frankfurt Fair in the autumn of 1889, and the first induction kilowatt-hour meter was already marketed by the factory at the end of the same year. These were the first alternating-current watt-hour meters, known by the name of Bláthy-meters. The AC kilowatt hour meters used at present operate on the same principle as Bláthy's original invention.
In 1886 Blathy undertook a journey to America, where he also visited the Edison Works. It was there that he observed that the parameters of the exciting coils of the machines to be produced were established on the basis of empirically set charts. Blathy proved that these data can be derived from rigorous calculations as well, thus winning the admiration of the engineers at the factory. He did not stay in America for a long time.
Based on the opinions of Galileo Ferraris, the Italian government ordered a power transformer for Rome, which was installed in October 1886. Later, they designed a power plant for Tivoli, built by Ganz, with six water turbines and 5000 V, which were worked in parallel with the old steam engine generators. This was the first time in history two high-voltage power plants were connected.
Chess works
Besides his scientific work, Bláthy is well known as an author of chess problems. He specialized in the field of very long moremovers, also known as longmovers. (see grotesque (chess) for one of his problems).
References
External links
Bláthy's Inventions
Technical University of Budapest, "Ottó Titusz Bláthy".Budapest, 1996 .
Blathy's problems on PDB Server
Biography and inventions of Otto Titusz Bláthy
1860 births
1939 deaths
Hungarian electrical engineers
Hungarian inventors
Hungarian scientists
Hungarian chess players
Austro-Hungarian engineers
Austro-Hungarian inventors
Chess composers
Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Burials at Kerepesi Cemetery | [
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244000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miksa%20D%C3%A9ri | Miksa Déri | Miksa Déri (27 October 1854 November, Bács, Kingdom of Hungary, (now: Bač, Serbia) – 3 March 1938) was a Hungarian electrical engineer, inventor, power plant builder. He contributed with his partners Károly Zipernowsky and Ottó Bláthy, in the development of the closed iron core transformer and the ZBD model. His other important invention was the constant voltage AC electrical generator in the Ganz Works in 1883. The missing link of a full Voltage sensitive - voltage intensive (VSVI) system was the reliable AC Constant Voltage generator. Therefore, the invention of the constant voltage generator at the Ganz Works had crucial role in the beginnings of the industrial scale AC power generating, because only these type of generators can produce a stated output voltage, regardless of the value of the actual load.
ZBD was an abbreviation of the three men's names: Zipernowsky, Bláthy and Déri.
Déri is also noted for inventing the single phase type of repulsion motor
Education
There is a secondary school named after Miksa Déri in Budapest, Hungary.
There is a secondary school named after Miksa Déri in Szeged, Hungary that offers courses preparing students for the engineering fields.
References
External links
Hungarian Patent Office's Miksa Déri (1854 - 1938)
Biography of Miksa Déri
1854 births
1938 deaths
Hungarian inventors
Hungarian electrical engineers
Austro-Hungarian engineers
Austro-Hungarian inventors | [
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244001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1roly%20Zipernowsky | Károly Zipernowsky | Károly Zipernowsky (born as Carl Zipernowsky, 4 April 1853 in Vienna – 29 November 1942 in Budapest) was an Austrian-born Hungarian electrical engineer. He invented the transformer with his colleagues (Miksa Déri and Ottó Bláthy) at the famous Hungarian manufacturing company Ganz Works and he contributed significantly with his works also to other AC technologies.
Biography
Zipernowsky, with Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri, all of Ganz and Company, were researching ways of increasing efficiency of electrical power transmission. They experimented with power supplies and current transformation, which led to the invention of the ZBD alternating current transformer in 1885. The ZBD system is based on a closed-iron ring core with an arbitrary diameter and a coil around the core, which conducts AC current. Their system converted higher voltage suitable for energy transmission to lower "service"-level voltage (step-down transformer). Nikola Tesla then proposed the use of step-up transformers, which would output higher voltage than they received. This principle is widely used for power transmission over long distances all over the world.
References
External links
Technical University of Budapest. "Károly Zipernowsky". Budapest, 1996.
His life
¨
1853 births
1942 deaths
Hungarian inventors
Hungarian electrical engineers
Hungarian expatriates in Austria
Austro-Hungarian engineers
Austro-Hungarian inventors
Engineers from Vienna | [
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244002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquire%20%28magazine%29 | Esquire (magazine) | Esquire is an American men's magazine. Currently published in the United States by Hearst Communications, it also has more than 20 international editions.
Founded in 1933, it flourished during the Great Depression and World War II under the guidance of founders Arnold Gingrich, David A. Smart and Henry L. Jackson while during the 1960s it pioneered the New Journalism movement. After a period of quick and drastic decline during the 1990s, the magazine revamped itself as a lifestyle-heavy publication under the direction of David Granger.
History
Esquire was first issued in October 1933 as an offshoot of trade magazine Apparel Arts (which later became Gentleman's Quarterly; both Esquire and GQ would share common ownership for almost 45 years). The magazine was first headquartered in Chicago and then, in New York City. It was founded and edited by David A. Smart, Henry L. Jackson and Arnold Gingrich. Jackson died in the crash of United Airlines Flight 624 in 1948, while Gingrich led the magazine until his own death in 1976. Smart died in 1952, although he left Esquire in 1936 to found a different magazine for the company, Coronet. The founders all had different focuses; Gingrich specialized in publishing, Smart led the business side of the magazine while Jackson led and edited the fashion section, which made up most of the magazine in its first fifteen years of publishing. Additionally, Jackson's Republican political viewpoints contrasted with the liberal Democratic views of Smart, which allowed for the magazine to publish debates between the two.
Esquire initially was supposed to have a quarterly press run of a hundred thousand copies. It cost fifty cents per copy (equivalent to $ today). However, demand was so high that by its second issue (January 1934), it transformed itself into a more refined periodical with an emphasis on men's fashion and contributions by Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Alberto Moravia, André Gide, and Julian Huxley.
In the 1940s, the popularity of the Petty Girls and Varga Girls, particularly among the Armed Forces provided a circulation boost, but also proved controversial: in 1943, the Democratic United States Postmaster General Frank Comerford Walker brought charges against the magazine on behalf of the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, which alleged that Esquire had used the US Postal Service to promote "lewd images". Republicans opposed the lawsuit and in 1946 the United States Supreme Court found in Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc., 327 U.S. 146 (1946), that Esquire right to use the Postal Service was protected by the First Amendment of the United States Constitution.
During the 1950s, Al Moore replaced Petty and Vargas as the main pinup illustrator for Esquire. Petty illustrated for Esquire from 1933 to 1956, Vergas was hired to replace Petty in 1940 and was active until 1946.
Beginning with its second number, a blond, pop-eyed, mustachioed character named "Esky" (created by cartoonists E. Simms Campbell and Sam Berman), graced almost every Esquire front page for over a quarter of a century, depicting the refined character of the magazine and its readership, mostly in the form of figurines, although during the 1950s, a stylized design of his face would often appear. Beginning in 1962, Esky would be featured as the dot on the "I" of the logo until it was changed in 1978. After then, the character would be occasionally revived, most notably during the 1980s and 1990s, a short-lived "Esky" award given to popular rock bands during the 2000s and during Jay Fielden's tenure in the 2010s.
Under Harold Hayes, who ran it from 1961 to 1973, Esquire became as distinctive as its oversized pages, helping pioneer the trend of New Journalism by publishing such writers as Norman Mailer, Tim O'Brien, John Sack, Gay Talese, Tom Wolfe, and Terry Southern. In the mid 1960s, Esquire partnered with Verve Records to release a series of "Sound Tour" vinyl LPs that provided advice and music for traveling abroad. In August 1969, Esquire published Normand Poirier's piece, "An American Atrocity", one of the first reports of American atrocities committed against Vietnamese civilians. Like many other magazines of the era, Esquire shrank from the traditional large-magazine format (about 10-1/4"x13-3/8") to the smaller standard 8½×11 inches in 1971.
The magazine was sold by the original owners to Clay Felker in 1977 (although Esquire Inc. kept its name until its acquisition by Gulf + Western in 1983). Felker reinvented the magazine as a fortnightly in 1978, under the title of Esquire Fortnightly, ditching the script logo that had been used (with minor tweaks) since 1933. However, the fortnightly experiment proved to be a failure, and by the end of that year, the magazine lost US$5 million. Felker sold Esquire in 1979 to the 13-30 Corporation, a Tennessee-based publisher, which reverted the magazine into a monthly, beginning with the July issue (dated both as of July 3 and 19). During this time, New York Woman magazine was launched as something of a spin-off version of Esquire aimed at a female audience. In 1986, the 13-30 Corporation (renamed as the Esquire Magazine Group) launched the New York Woman magazine as something of a spin-off version of Esquire aimed at a female audience. The company split up at the end of the year, and Esquire was sold to Hearst, with New York Woman going its separate way to American Express Publishing, being published until 1992.
The arrival of male-oriented lifestyle publications during the early 1990s and the problems of the magazine industry during the middle of the decade led to a sustained decline in circulation that threatened the future of Esquire, which had relied upon an elegant, highly-literate audience (during the second half of the 1980s it published a year-end register featuring leading cultural figures under 40 years of age) but did not appeal to younger men. David M. Granger was named editor-in-chief of the magazine in June 1997, fresh from a six-year stint at GQ, which he turned around from its fashion-heavy tradition. After his arrival, the magazine received numerous awards, including multiple National Magazine Awards. Its award-winning staff writers include Tom Chiarella, Scott Raab, Mike Sager, Chris Jones, John H. Richardson, Cal Fussman, Lisa Taddeo, and Tom Junod. Famous photographers have also worked for the magazine, among which fashion photographer Gleb Derujinsky, and Richard Avedon. In spite of its success, the magazine under Granger became increasingly criticized for its focus on the so-called metrosexual culture (a criticism he previously had late in his GQ tenure). David Granger stepped down in 2016, being replaced by Jay Fielden, who revamped the magazine into its more classical up-market style. At the same time, its political coverage became more comprehensive, following a trend among American magazine publications in general. After a series of shake-ups at Hearst's magazine division, Michael Sebastian became editor in mid-2019, reverting to its 2000s-era style.
In September 2006, the magazine launched a special style-focused issue entitled The Big Black Book, which beginning in 2009 was published twice a year until the Spring/Summer issue ran for the last time in 2018.
In 2010, the June and July issues were merged as were the December and January issues in 2015, and in 2018 the magazine moved to eight issues per year.
Blog
In January 2009 Esquire launched a new blog—the Daily Endorsement Blog. Each morning the editors of the magazine recommend one thing for readers' immediate enjoyment: "not a political candidate or position or party, but a breakthrough idea or product or Web site." The concept of the "Daily Endorsement Blog" was said to have emerged from Esquires November 2008 issue called the "Endorsement Issue", in which, after 75 years, Esquire publicly endorsed a presidential candidate for the first time. The Daily Endorsement Blog was officially discontinued in April 2011.
Fiction
From 1969 to 1976, Gordon Lish served as fiction editor for Esquire and became known as "Captain Fiction" because of the authors whose careers he assisted. Lish helped establish the career of writer Raymond Carver by publishing his short stories in Esquire, often over the objections of Hayes. Lish is noted for encouraging Carver's minimalism and publishing the short stories of Richard Ford. Using the influential publication as a vehicle to introduce new fiction by emerging authors, he promoted the work of such writers as T. Coraghessan Boyle, Barry Hannah, Cynthia Ozick, Reynolds Price and William Harrison.
In February 1977, Esquire published "For Rupert – with no promises" as an unsigned work of fiction: this was the first time it had published a work without identifying the author. Readers speculated that it was the work of J. D. Salinger, the reclusive author best known for The Catcher in the Rye. Told in first-person, the story features events and Glass family names from the story "For Esmé – with Love and Squalor". Gordon Lish is quoted as saying, "I tried to borrow Salinger's voice and the psychological circumstances of his life, as I imagine them to be now. And I tried to use those things to elaborate on certain circumstances and events in his fiction to deepen them and add complexity."
Other authors appearing in Esquire at that time included William F. Buckley, Truman Capote, Murray Kempton, Malcolm Muggeridge, Ron Rosenbaum, Andrew Vachss and Garry Wills.
During the mid-late 1980s, the magazine's June "Summer Reading" issues featured a full-length fiction story accompanied by shorter pieces, all written for the magazine.
Although the magazine greatly reduced its fiction content during the 1990s in line with most other magazines, it has nevertheless continued to publish fiction in occasion. Writer Elizabeth Gilbert debuted in Esquire in 1993, while Chris Adrian, Nathan Englander, Benjamin Percy, and Patrick Somerville among others have also contributed to the magazine. Other writers who have recently appeared in Esquire include Ralph Lombreglia, James Lee Burke, and Stephen King.
The Napkin Fiction Project
In 2007 Esquire launched the Napkin Fiction Project, in which 250 cocktail napkins were mailed to writers all over the country by the incoming fiction editor, in a playful attempt to revive short fiction—"some with a half dozen books to their name, others just finishing their first." In return, the magazine received nearly a hundred stories. Rick Moody, Jonathan Ames, Bret Anthony Johnston, Joshua Ferris, Yiyun Li, Aimee Bender, and ZZ Packer are among the notable writers included.
Dubious Achievement Awards
For many years, Esquire has published its annual Dubious Achievement Awards, lampooning events of the preceding year. As a running gag, the annual article almost always displayed an old photo of Richard Nixon laughing, with the caption, "Why is this man laughing?" However, the February 2006 "Dubious Achievement Awards" used the caption under a photo of W. Mark Felt, the former FBI official revealed in 2005 to be "Deep Throat", the source for Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein to uncover the Watergate scandal. The magazine did continue the Nixon photo in February 2007, referring to a poll stating that George W. Bush had surpassed Nixon as the "worst president ever".
A popular running gag featured in the "Dubious Achievements of 1990" edition involved especially egregious achievements headlined with "And then they went to Elaine's.", referring to a popular restaurant in New York City that closed in May 2011.
Esquire did not publish "Dubious Achievement Awards" for 2001, but resumed them with the 2002 awards, published in the February 2003 issue.
"Dubious Achievement Awards" were discontinued in 2008, according to an editor's note in the January 2008 issue, considering that the overabundance of imitators had made the feature superfluous. However, after a nine-year hiatus, the feature was revived in the January 2017 issue with a skewering of 2016 events.
Sexiest Woman Alive
The annual Sexiest Woman Alive feature ran between 2003 and 2015, billed as a benchmark of female attractiveness.
Originally, it was a part of the "Women We Love" issue that had appeared yearly since 1988 (after being a section of "The Passions of Men" issue, June 1987), being initially titled "Woman of the Year". To build interest, the magazine would do a tease, releasing partial images of the woman in the issues preceding the November issue. By 2007, it had become the dominating story of the issue and to create an element of surprise the hints were abandoned.
Criticism
The Sexiest Woman Alive feature consists of a photoshoot of the woman selected alongside a profile about her. Over the years, the profile in particular has been criticized for being perceived as objectifying and heavily male gaze-centric. Following Penélope Cruz being selected as the 2014 choice, Katy Waldman ran an article on Slate titled "Is It Impossible to Write a Decent Sexiest Woman Alive Profile?", writing that the profile is the "latest icky entry in the icky genre", and describing it as using "rapt, creepy, overheated language to say practically nothing about his subject, except that she is 'impossibly beautiful,' 'has no physical flaws,' 'looks like a thousand different women,' and 'can be whatever we want her to be.' (So, nothing.)". Waldman in particular criticizes profile author Chris Jones' use of a metaphor comparing Cruz eating a steak with bullfighting, saying that "The whole thing is pretentious, overwritten, and too satisfied with itself […]".
Waldman is also critical of previous Sexiest Woman Alive profiles, saying "Esquires Sexiest Woman Alive profiles are generally terrible.", writing, "They traffic in weirdo pious metaphors and exaggerations that aim to winkingly indicate how overcome a guy gets in the face of a gorgeous lady. But they just make men seem like drooling louts." She cites two examples: 2005's choice Jessica Biel ("Those liquid lips, those pearly ankles, those Boulder shoulders—Jessica Biel is a woman of many parts. … Now, at last, she is whole. Behold.") and 2011's choice Rihanna ("She grabs her own radiant ass—she handles it, offers it—like it's a rump roast."). Waldman highlights Ross McCammon's profile on 2012 choice Mila Kunis as one of the "less objectionable instances" for "Instead of fogging up the page with lurid masturbatory descriptions, they create space for the subject's voice by asking questions and quoting answers.", but adds that even "the McCammon solution—don't talk about looks!—feels like a bit of a runaround", since the theme of the Sexiest Woman Alive feature "is, straight up, the carnal allure of a female celebrity." Waldman ultimately ends asking, "Do we want to declare that theme unacceptable, at least in the hands of a male journalist? Or is there a way for men to write about ladies' physical appeal without sounding like obnoxious creeps?"
Esquires style of writing about the women selected as Sexiest Woman Alive has been brought up when discussing other articles criticized for their language towards women described in them. Following a 2016 Vanity Fair article on Margot Robbie that received such criticism, Anne Helen Petersen at BuzzFeed compared "this sort of language – and the imposition of a (male) writer's gaze onto the image of a burgeoning (woman) star", directly comparing it with the Penélope Cruz article, describing it as the author "watching Penélope Cruz eat steak against the backdrop of a forced matador metaphor"; while a Lainey Gossip article said of the Vanity Fair article on Robbie, which is described as having "so much derisive, condescending, misogynistic language", "One paragraph in and we've already been treated to some Esquire-level bullshit."
Awards and honors
2000–present
National Magazine Awards
International editions
Bulgaria (since 2014)
China Shishang xiansheng (时尚先生) (since 1999)
Colombia (2012–2019)
Czechia
Greece
Germany (1987–1992)
El Salvador (since 2009)
Hong Kong (published by SCMP Group)
Indonesia (launched 2007, published by MRA Group)
Italy (2018)
Japan (launched 1987, published by Esquire Magazine Japan Co., Ltd.)
Kazakhstan
Korea
Malaysia (launched April 2011)
Mexico
The Middle East (launched November 2009)
Netherlands – (from 1990) – ,
Philippines (launched October 2011, published by Summit Media)
Poland (2015–2019)
Republic of China (Taiwan)
Romania
Russia
Serbia (launched October 2013, published by Attica Media Serbia)
Singapore (launched September 2012)
South Korea (launched November 2007, published by Kaya Media)
Spain (from 2007) – ,
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey
Ukraine (launched in March 2012, closed in 2014)
United Kingdom (from 1991) – ,
Vietnam (launched April 2013)
See also
Allegra Coleman
Esquire Network – A defunct television network based on the magazine
Meyer Levin
Men's Health UK
Nat Mags (UK publisher)
Roberto Parada
Yulia Spiridonova (Russian photographer)
References
External links
(US)
Official website (UK)
Official website (Hong Kong)
C Net News article about the experiment of the Esquire writer in Wikipedia
Magazines established in 1933
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Hearst Communications publications
Men's magazines published in the United States
Men's fashion magazines
Lifestyle magazines published in the United States
Literary magazines published in the United States
Political magazines published in the United States
Magazines published in Chicago
Magazines published in New York City | [
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244004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapageria | Lapageria | Lapageria is a genus of flowering plants with only one known species, Lapageria rosea, commonly known as Chilean bellflower or copihue (copeeway, from Mapudungun kopiwe). Lapageria rosea is the national flower of Chile. It grows in forests in the southern part of Chile, being part of the Valdivian temperate rain forests flora.
Description
Lapageria rosea is an evergreen climbing plant reaching over high among shrubs and trees. The leaves are arranged alternately and are evergreen, leathery, lanceolate and feature three to seven prominent parallel veins. The vines twine counterclockwise in the Southern hemisphere and clockwise when grown in the Northern hemisphere (likely due to the apparent motion of the sun).
The flowers have six thick, waxy tepals which are red, spotted with white. They are most frequently produced in late summer and fall, although they may be produced at other times. The fruit is an elongated berry with a tough skin containing numerous small seeds about the size of a tomato seed, which are covered in an edible fleshy arils. In the wild the plant is pollinated by hummingbirds.
Pollination
Pollen is distributed by birds, insects and other animals. Insect pollinators include: Bombus dahlbomii (native species to southern South America) and Bombus terrestris and Bombus ruderatus (both of which are not native to southern South America, and, instead, invasive).
Historical usage
In the past its fruit was sold in markets, but the plant has now become rare through over-collection and forest clearance.
The roots were once collected and used as a substitute for sarsaparilla. In 1977 the plant was given legal protection in Chile.
Etymology
Lapageria is named for Marie Joséphine Rose Tascher de la Pagerie (1763-1814), also known as Napoleon's Empress Josephine, who was a keen collector of plants for her garden at Château de Malmaison. Rosea means 'flushed rose' or 'flushed pink'.
The name of the fruit in Mapudungun is actually kopiw (derived from kopün, "to be upside down"), which is the etymon of Spanish copihue; the Mapuche call the plant kolkopiw (colcopihue in Spanish, which may also refer to the whole plant). The flower is called kodkülla in the indigenous language.
Botany
Lapageria rosea is related to Philesia magellanica (syn. P. buxifolia), another plant from the Valdivian flora, having similar flowers, but shrubby rather than climbing. ×Philageria veitchii is a hybrid between L. rosea and P. magellanica. It is more similar in appearance to the former.
Cultivation
The plant was introduced to Europe by William Lobb during his plant collecting expedition to the Valdivian temperate rain forests in 1845–1848 and was growing at Kew in 1847.
In cultivation the plant requires a shaded, sheltered position with acid or neutral soil. It is hardy down to , so in the UK can be grown outside in mild or coastal areas. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Cultivars
There are numerous named garden cultivars, mostly developed at one nursery in Chile, with flower colour varying from deep red through pink to pure white (L. rosea 'Albiflora'), and some with variegated flowers.
In the United States, UC Botanical Garden at the University of California at Berkeley has one of the largest collections of the Lapageria genus with around 24 named and unnamed cultivars in its collection. This collection was started by T Harper Goodspeed, botany professor at UCB and alternately curator or director of the gardens from 1919–1957. The University established a relationship with El Vergel Farm, a Methodist mission and agricultural school in Angol, Chile which housed the largest collection of named cultivars and wild lapagerias in the world.
Propagation
To obtain fruit in cultivation it is generally necessary to pollinate by hand if there are not native hummingbirds. Chilean bellflower can be propagated from cuttings, layering and fresh seeds. Some cultivars are self-fruitful, but better pollination is achieved with differing parents. Germination is best with fresh moist seed; dried seeds take special treatment and have a much poorer germination rate. Propagation of cultivars is by cuttings (usually rooted under mist), layering, or division. Seedlings take from three to ten years to flower. Cuttings usually flower more quickly.
Gallery
References
Bibliography
(Page 9 in the book illustrates clockwise and counterclockwise twining.)
Reproduced at
External links
Lapageria rosea in Chilebosque
Lapageria rosea
Liliales
Monotypic Liliales genera
Endemic flora of Chile
Garden plants of South America
Plants described in 1802
National symbols of Chile | [
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244007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coburg%20%28district%29 | Coburg (district) | Coburg () is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the east and clockwise) the districts of Kronach, Lichtenfels, Bamberg and Haßberge, and by the state of Thuringia (districts Hildburghausen and Sonneberg). The district surrounds, but does not include the city of Coburg.
History
The city of Coburg largely influences the history of the district. From 1826 to 1918, the region was part of the small duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (see Thuringia). In a referendum from 1919, the Coburg portion of this state decided to join Bavaria (united in 1920). The present district is identical to that portion but excludes Coburg and the exclave of Königsberg, which is part of Haßberge district. The city of Neustadt was a district-free city until 1972 and was then incorporated into the district.
Geography
The district is located in the hilly country between the Thuringian Slate Mountains and the Main valley.
Economy
In 2017 (latest data available) the GDP per inhabitant was €27,145. This places the district 89th out of 96 districts (rural and urban) in Bavaria (overall average: €46,698).
Coat of arms
The arms consist of the blue and white checkered pattern of Bavaria and the arms of the Wettin dynasty of Saxony. These arms represent the historic affiliations to both states.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
(German)
Districts of Bavaria | [
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244024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%C3%A1t%20B%C3%A1nki | Donát Bánki | Donát Bánki (born as Donát Lőwinger, 6 June 1859 – 1 August 1922)
was a Hungarian mechanical engineer and inventor of Jewish heritage. In 1893 he invented the carburetor for the stationary engine, together with János Csonka (known as the Bánki-Csonka engine). The invention is often, incorrectly credited to the German Wilhelm Maybach, who submitted his patent half a year after Bánki and Csonka. Bánki also greatly contributed to the design of compressors for combustion engines.
In 1898, Donát Bánki invented the high-compression engine with a dual carburetor, an evaporation method used ever since.
The invention of the carburetor helped the development of automobiles, as previously no method was known to correctly mix the fuel and air for engines.
Some sources say that the idea of the carburetor came from a flower girl. One evening, Bánki saw her while walking home from the Budapest Technical University. She was sprinkling water onto her flowers by blowing spray from her mouth.
Bánki is also given partial credit for the invention of the crossflow turbine.
References
External links
Donát Bánki Biography
THEHUNGARYPAGE.COM at www.thehungarypage.com
1859 births
1922 deaths
Hungarian inventors
People from Komárom-Esztergom County
Hungarian Jews
Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Hungarian automotive pioneers
Fluid dynamicists
Burials at Farkasréti Cemetery | [
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244026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi%20Fred%20McDowell | Mississippi Fred McDowell | Fred McDowell (January 12, 1904 – July 3, 1972), known by his stage name Mississippi Fred McDowell, was an American hill country blues singer and guitar player.
Career
McDowell was born in Rossville, Tennessee, United States. His parents were farmers, who both died while Fred was in his youth. He took up the guitar at the age of 14 and was soon playing for tips at dances around Rossville. Seeking a change from plowing fields, he moved to Memphis in 1926, where he worked in the Buck-Eye feed mill, which processed cotton into oil and other products. In 1928, he moved to Mississippi to pick cotton. He finally settled in Como, Mississippi, in 1940 or 1941 (or maybe the late 1930s), where he worked as a full-time farmer for many years while continuing to play music on weekends at dances and picnics.
After decades of playing for small local gatherings, McDowell was recorded in 1959 by roving folklore musicologist Alan Lomax and Shirley Collins, on their Southern Journey field-recording trip. With interest in blues and folk music rising in the United States at the time, McDowell's field recordings for Lomax caught the attention of blues aficionados and record producers, and within a couple of years, he had finally become a professional musician and recording artist in his own right. His LPs proved quite popular, and he performed at festivals and clubs all over the world.
McDowell continued to perform blues in the north Mississippi style much as he had for decades, sometimes on electric guitar rather than acoustic guitar. He was particularly renowned for his mastery of slide guitar, a style he said he first learned using a pocketknife for a slide and later a polished beef rib bone. He ultimately settled on the clearer sound he got from a glass slide, which he wore on his ring finger. While he famously declared, "I do not play no rock and roll," he was not averse to associating with younger rock musicians. He coached Bonnie Raitt on slide guitar technique and was reportedly flattered by The Rolling Stones' rather straightforward version of his "You Gotta Move" on their 1971 album Sticky Fingers. In 1965, he toured Europe with the American Folk Blues Festival, together with Big Mama Thornton, John Lee Hooker, Buddy Guy, Roosevelt Sykes and others.
McDowell's 1969 album I Do Not Play No Rock 'n' Roll, recorded in Jackson, Mississippi, and released by Malaco Records, was his first featuring electric guitar. It contains parts of an interview in which he discusses the origins of the blues and the nature of love. His live album Live at the Mayfair Hotel (1995) was from a concert he gave in 1969. Tracks included versions of Bukka White's "Shake 'Em On Down," Willie Dixon's "My Babe," Mance Lipscomb's "Evil Hearted Woman," plus McDowell's self-penned "Kokomo Blues." AllMusic noted that the album "may be the best single CD in McDowell's output, and certainly his best concert release". McDowell's final album, Live in New York (Oblivion Records), was a concert performance from November 1971 at the Village Gaslight (also known as The Gaslight Cafe), in Greenwich Village, New York.
McDowell’s version of the folk song "John Henry" from 1969 is included on the Ann Arbor Blues Festival 1969: Vols 1&2, 2019 release.
McDowell died of cancer in 1972, aged 66, and was buried at Hammond Hill Baptist Church, between Como and Senatobia, Mississippi. On August 6, 1993, a memorial was placed on his grave by the Mount Zion Memorial Fund. The ceremony was presided over by the blues promoter Dick Waterman, and the memorial with McDowell's portrait on it was paid for by Bonnie Raitt. The memorial stone was a replacement for an inaccurate (McDowell's name was misspelled) and damaged marker. The original stone was subsequently donated by McDowell's family to the Delta Blues Museum, in Clarksdale, Mississippi. McDowell was a Freemason and was associated with Prince Hall Freemasonry; he was buried in Masonic regalia.
References
Bibliography
Ferris, William (1988). Blues from the Delta. Rev. ed. Da Capo Press. . .
Ferris, William (2009). Give My Poor Heart Ease: Voices of the Mississippi Blues. University of North Carolina Press. . (with CD and DVD).
Ferris, William, and Hinson, Glenn (2009). The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. Vol. 14, Folklife. University of North Carolina Press. . .
Gioia, Ted (2009). Delta Blues: The Life and Times of the Mississippi Masters Who Revolutionized American Music. W. W. Norton. . .
Harris, Sheldon (1979). Blues Who's Who. Da Capo Press.
Herzhaft, Gérard, Encyclopedia of the Blues (Arkansas Press)
Lomax, Alan (1993). The Land Where the Blues Began. New York: Pantheon.
Nicholson, Robert (1999). Mississippi Blues Today! Da Capo Press. , .
Palmer, Robert (1982). Deep Blues: A Musical and Cultural History of the Mississippi Delta. Penguin reprint ed. . .
Wilson, Charles Reagan; Ferris, William; Adadie, Ann J. (1989). Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. 2nd ed. University of North Carolina Press. . .
External links
Short documentary about Fred McDowell with performance
Illustrated Fred McDowell discography
Fred McDowell on Oblivion Records
1906 births
1972 deaths
African-American guitarists
American blues singers
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
American Prince Hall Freemasons
Country blues singers
Blues musicians from Mississippi
Blues revival musicians
Electric blues musicians
Fat Possum Records artists
Slide guitarists
Deaths from cancer in Mississippi
People from Fayette County, Tennessee
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from Mississippi
Sire Records artists
Transatlantic Records artists
Black Lion Records artists
Arhoolie Records artists
20th-century African-American male singers | [
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244027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytohaemagglutinin | Phytohaemagglutinin | Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA, or phytohemagglutinin) is a lectin found in plants, especially certain legumes. PHA actually consists of two closely related proteins, called leucoagglutinin (PHA-L) and PHA-E. These proteins cause blood cells to clump together. PHA-E cause erythrocytes (red blood cells) to clump. PHA-L causes leukocytes (white blood cells) to clump. Phytohaemagglutinin has carbohydrate-binding specificity for a complex oligosaccharide containing
galactose, N-acetylglucosamine, and mannose.
It is found in the highest concentrations in uncooked red kidney beans and white kidney beans (also known as cannellini), and it is also found in lower quantities in many other types of green beans and other common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), as well as broad beans (Vicia faba) such as fava beans. It has a number of physiological effects and is used in medical research. In high doses, it is a toxin.
The lectin has a number of effects on cell metabolism; it induces mitosis, and affects the cell membrane in regard to transport and permeability to proteins. It agglutinates most mammalian red blood cell types.
As a toxin, it can cause poisoning in monogastric animals, such as humans, through the consumption of raw or improperly prepared legumes (e.g., beans.) Measured in haemagglutinating units (hau), a raw red kidney bean may contain up to 70,000 hau, but this is reduced to between 200 and 400 hau when properly cooked. Studies done by British scientists recommend soaking beans for at least five hours, discarding the water, and then boiling the beans in fresh water at for at least thirty minutes. A pressure cooker at 15 psi may be used to cook beans in 45 minutes without presoaking. Insufficient cooking, such as in a slow cooker at 75 °C/ 167 °F, may not completely destroy the toxins.
Beans also contain alpha amylase inhibitor, but not in sufficient quantities to affect the digestion of starch after consumption of beans.
Poisoning can be induced from as few as four raw beans. Symptoms usually begin with extreme nausea and vomiting within one to three hours of ingestion, followed by diarrhea. Abdominal pain has been reported in some people. Recovery is usually spontaneous and rapid, occurring within three to four hours after onset of symptoms, although some cases have required hospitalization.
In medicine these proteins are useful and are used as a mitogen to trigger T-lymphocyte cell division and to activate latent HIV-1 from human peripheral lymphocytes. In neuroscience, anterograde tracing is a research method that uses the protein product phytohaemagglutinin PHA-L as a molecular tracer that can be taken up by the cell and transported across the synapse into the next cell thereby tracing the path of axonal projections and relative connections that nerve impulses travel beginning with the source located at the perikaryon (cell body or soma) and through the presynaptic part located on neuron's efferent axon all the way to the point of termination at the efferent synapse which then provides input to another neuron.
Lymphocytes cultured with phytohaemagglutinin can be used for karyotype analysis. Stimulation of peripheral blood lymphocytes by phytohaemagglutinin presents a classic model of transition of cells from the quiescent G0 phase of the cell cycle into G1-, and subsequently progression through S-, G2- and M- phases of the cycle.
History
Prior to 1960, crude extracts of PHA were known to coat the surface of red blood cells, make them heavier, and thereby improve the separation of the white cell buffy coat. Peter Nowell, an immunologist and pathologist at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, was using PHA for this purpose in 1960 when he discovered it also had the ability to stimulate mitotic division of lymphocytes from normal peripheral blood. Prior to his discovery, these cells were assumed to be the terminal end-products of differentiation. This work had tremendous implications for the constitutional study of chromosomal disorders. T. C. Hsu's 1979 book "Human and Mammalian Cytogenetics an Historical Perspective" (ISBN: 978-1-4612-6159-9) is an excellent resource for this history.
References
External links
Proteins
Lectins
Foodborne illnesses
Legume lectins | [
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244035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20men%27s%20magazines | List of men's magazines | This is a list of magazines primarily marketed to men. The list has been split into subcategories according to the target audience of the magazines. This list includes 'adult' pornographic magazines as well as more mainstream ones. Not included here are automobile, trains, modelbuilding periodicals and gadget magazines which happen to have a predominantly male audience.
General male audience
These publications appeal to a broad male audience. Some skew toward men's fashion, others to health. Most are marketed to a particular age and income demographic. In the US, some are marketed mainly to a specific ethnic group, such as African Americans or Mexicans.
Americas
Europe
Asia
Oceania
Ethnic men's magazines
African American men's magazines
Black Enterprise
King (US) (defunct)
Smooth (US)
Latin American men's magazines
Hombre
Open Your Eyes (defunct)
Gay male audience
Also refer to List of LGBT periodicals.
The Advocate
Attitude
AXM (defunct)
Badi
Bear Magazine
bent
Blue
Boyz
Butt
DNA
fab (defunct)
FourTwoNine
G Magazine (defunct)
G-Men
Gay Times
Genre (defunct)
Hello Mr. (defunct)
Instinct
Männer
MyKali
Next Magazine
Out
Outlooks (defunct)
QX
Siegessäule
Têtu
XY
Zero (defunct)
Men's lifestyle magazines
Men's lifestyle magazines (lad mags in the UK and specifically men's magazines in North America) were popular in the 1990 and 2000s focusing on a mix of "Sex, sport, gadgets and grooming tips". From the early 2000s, sales of these magazines declined very substantially as the internet provided the same content (and particularly more graphic pornography) for free.
International
FHM
Maxim
Stuff
Zoo Weekly (defunct)
Americas
Europe
Oceania
People (Australia) (defunct)
Ralph (Australia) (defunct)
M2 Magazine (New Zealand)
See also
List of health and fitness magazines
List of women's magazines
Men's adventure magazine
List of pornographic magazines
References
Bibliography
External links
Calcutt, Andrew. Changing the Subject: from the Gentleman’s Magazine to GQ and Barack Obama at maglab.org.uk (November 2009)
Men's magazines | [
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244039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogi%20variant | Shogi variant | A shogi variant is a game related to or derived from shogi (Japanese chess). Many shogi variants have been developed over the centuries, ranging from some of the largest chess-type games ever played to some of the smallest. A few of these variants are still regularly played, though none are as popular as shogi itself.
The drop rule, often considered the most notable feature of shogi, is absent from most shogi variants, which therefore play more like other forms of chess, with the board becoming less crowded as pieces are exchanged. This is especially true for variants larger than shogi itself − in fact, the largest well-known variant that features the drop rule is the 11×11 game wa shogi.
Predecessors of modern shogi
Some form of chess had almost certainly reached Japan by the 9th century, if not earlier, but the earliest surviving Japanese description of the rules of chess dates from the early 12th century, during the Heian period. Unfortunately, this description does not give enough information to play the game, but this has not stopped people from trying to reconstruct this early form of shogi, which is usually referred to as Heian shogi (平安将棋). Piece movements were as in modern shogi, but there was no rook or bishop. The board appears to have been either 9x8 or 8x8. The setup is unknown, but can reasonably be assumed to have been the same as in modern shogi (minus the rook and bishop, and minus a gold general in the 8×8 case), but possibly the pawns started on the second rank rather than the third. It can safely be assumed that the game was played without drops, since the weak pieces promote strictly to gold, instead of just moving like gold.
By the 16th century the game had taken a form closer to the modern game: it was played on a 9×9 board with the same setup as in modern shogi except that an extra piece (an elephant) stood in front of the king. This form of the game is known as sho shogi (小将棋), which means "small shogi". (While 9×9 may not seem small, despite the name, it was smaller than the other shogi variants prevalent at the time.) The elephant was eliminated by the Emperor Go-Nara (reign 1526–1557), and it is assumed that the drop rule was introduced at about the same time, giving rise to shogi as we know it today.
Historical variants
There are a number of shogi variants played on boards larger than 9×9. These variants are all quite old, and were possibly all played without drops. Michael C. Vanier says, "It is thought that the really huge games (dai dai and up) were never really played to any significant extent [...] and were devised merely so that the creators could have the fun of inventing enormous games, amazing their friends and confounding their enemies. However, the games up to tenjiku shogi at least appear to be quite playable, assuming one has the time."
The same 12th-century document which describes the Heian form of shogi also describes a variant played on a 13×13 board, which is now called Heian dai shogi (平安大将棋). As with the smaller Heian shogi, the rules for this game have not been completely preserved.
The most popular large-board variant is chu shogi (中将棋), played on a 12×12 board. The name means medium shogi, and the game is sometimes so called (or called middle shogi) in English. Chu shogi has existed since at least the 14th century; there are earlier references, but it is not clear that they refer to the game as we now know it. Chu shogi is best known for a piece called the lion, which moves like a king but twice per turn. The game was still commonly played in Japan in the early 20th century, but has now largely died out. It has, however, gained some adherents in the West. The main reference work in English is the Middle Shogi Manual by George Hodges.
Other large medieval shogi variants were wa shogi (11×11, sometimes played with drops), dai shogi (大将棋, "great shogi", 15×15), tenjiku shogi (天竺将棋, literally "Indian shogi", but meant "exotic shogi", 16×16), dai dai shogi (大大将棋, "great great shogi", 17×17), maka dai dai shogi (摩訶大大将棋, "ultra great great shogi", 19×19) and tai shogi (泰将棋, "grand shogi", 25×25). These variants date back at least to the 17th century. Tai shogi was thought to be the world's largest chess variant, but recently records of an even larger variant, taikyoku shogi (大局将棋, "ultimate shogi", 36×36), was discovered. However, there is no evidence that any of them were commonly played apart from dai shogi. While a few sets for dai dai shogi, maka dai dai shogi, and tai shogi are known to have been made, they appear to have been intended as display pieces and not for actual playing. Furthermore, the sources for the rules of the larger variants tend to disagree with each other on many particular issues, even including the very moves of the pieces, such that only for chu shogi and dai shogi is it well-known what the historical rules were, and some small lacunae still arise in the latter with rare situations. In the cases of wa shogi and tenjiku shogi, the historical rules can be guessed with some confidence, but they are by no means universally accepted among contemporary players.
Of the historical large-board variants, only wa (11×11), chu (12×12), tenjiku (16×16), and maka dai dai shogi (19×19) have gained a limited following today. There is a society for chu shogi in Japan, as well as some efforts to revive maka dai dai shogi, though both efforts have changed the rules slightly from the historical ones – more significantly for maka dai dai shogi, unlike for chu shogi whose former popularity still lies within living memory. Tenjiku shogi gained some Western following around the turn of the millennium, although not with the historical rules.
Modern variants
These are some of the new and old shogi variants which have been invented. Time will show which if any of the many recently invented variants stand the test of usage and competition from other games, and stay in use.
Small variants
Standard-size variants
Large variants
The most recent large board variant is ko shogi (廣将棋 or 廣象棋 "wide shogi", 19×19), which is played on a go board and incorporates elements of Chinese chess. Ko shogi is unusual for the interdependence of its pieces and the complex rules of promotion, but likewise there is no evidence that it was ever played.
Multiplayer variants
Three-dimensional variants
References
External links
Shogi variants
WinBoard Shogi Variants – freeware for playing some Shogi variants on modern PCs by H. G. Muller; some of this software (Shokidoki) has participated in the International Computer Games Association (ICGA) Computer Olympiad, where it has won prizes
Games related to chaturanga | [
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244041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky%20Futurity | Kentucky Futurity | The Kentucky Futurity is a stakes race for three-year-old trotters, held annually at The Red Mile in Lexington, Kentucky since 1893. It is part of the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters.
In the 2007 race, Donato Hanover's winning time of 1:51.1 set the world record for a 1-mile trotting horse.
In winning the 2016 running of the Kentucky Futurity, Marion Marauder became the ninth horse from 124 runnings to win the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters.
Winners of the Kentucky Futurity
2021 - Jujubee
2020 - Amigo Volo
2019 - Greenshoe
2018 - Six Pack
2017 - Snowstorm Hanover
2016 - Marion Marauder
2015 - Pinkman
2014 - Nuncio
2013 - Creatine
2012 - My MVP
2011 - Manofmanymissions
2010 - Wishing Stone
2009 - Muscle Hill
2008 - Deweycheatumnhowe
2007 - Donato Hanover
2006 - Glidemaster
2005 - Strong Yankee
2004 - Windsong's Legacy
2003 - Mr. Muscleman
2002 - Like a Prayer
2001 - Chasing Tail
2000 - Credit Winner
1999 - Self Possessed
1998 - Trade Balance
1997 - Take Chances
1996 - Running Sea
1995 - CR Track Master
1994 - Bullville Victory
1993 - Pine Chip
1992 - Armbro Keepsake
1991 - Whiteland Janice
1990 - Star Mystic
1989 - Peace Corps
1988 - Huggie Hanover
1987 - Napoletano
1986 - Sugarcane Hanover
1985 - Flak Bait
1984 - Fancy Crown
1983 - Power Seat
1982 - Jazz Cosmos
1981 - Filet of Sole
1980 - Final Score
1979 - Classical Way
1978 - Doublemint
1977 - Texas
1976 - Quick Pay
1975 - Noble Rogue
1974 - Waymaker
1973 - Arnie Almahurst
1972 - Super Bowl
1971 - Savoir
1970 - Timothy T
1969 - Lindy's Pride
1968 - Nevele Pride
1967 - Speed Model
1966 - Governor Armbro
1965 - Armbro Flight
1964 - Ayres
1963 - Speedy Scot
1962 - Safe Mission
1961 - Duke Rodney
1960 - Elaine Rodney
1959 - Diller Hanover
1958 - Emily's Pride
1957 - Cassin Hanover
1956 - Nimble Colby
1955 - Scott Frost
1954 - Harlan
1953 - Kimberly Kid
1952 - Sharp Note
1951 - Ford Hanover
1950 - Star's Pride
1949 - Bangaway
1948 - Egan Hanover
1947 - Hoot Mon
1946 - Victory Song
1941 - Bill Gallon
1940 - Spencer Scott
1939 - Peter Astra
1938 - McLin Hanover
1937 - Twilight Song
1936 - Rosalind
1935 - Lawrence Hanover
1934 - Princess Peg
1933 - Meda
1932 - The Marchioness
1931 - The Protector
1930 - Hanover's Bertha
1929 - Walter Dear
1928 - Spencer
1927 - Iosola's Worthy
1926 - Guy McKinney
1925 - Aileen Guy
1924 - Mr McElwyn
1923 - Ethelinda
1922 - Lee Worthy
1921 - Rose Scott
1920 - Arion Guy
1919 - Periscope
1918 - Nella Dillon
1917 - The Real Lady
1916 - Volga
1915 - Mary Putney
1914 - Peter Volo
1913 - Etowah
1912 - Manrico B
1911 - Peter Thompson
1910 - Grace
1909 - Baroness Virginia
1908 - The Harvester
1907 - General Watts
1906 - Siliko
1905 - Miss Adbell
1904 - Grace Bond
1903 - Sadie Mac
1902 - Nella Jay
1901 - Peter Sterling
1900 - Fereno
1899 - Boralma
1898 - Peter the Great
1897 - Thorn
1896 - Rose Croix
1895 - Oakland Baron
1894 - Beuzetta
1893 - Oro Wilkes
External links
Kentucky Quarter Horse Association
The Red Mile
References
Harness races in the United States
Harness races for three-year-old trotters
United States Triple Crown of Harness Racing
Recurring sporting events established in 1893
Sports in Kentucky
1893 establishments in Kentucky | [
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244044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenard%20P.%20Lipscomb | Glenard P. Lipscomb | Glenard Paul (Glen) Lipscomb (August 19, 1915 – February 1, 1970) was a United States Congressman from the state of California from 1953 to 1970.
Biography
Born in Jackson County, Michigan, Lipscomb moved to California with his parents in 1920, where the family settled in Los Angeles. He was educated in the Los Angeles public schools, including Belmont High School (Los Angeles, California). After attending the University of Southern California and Woodbury College (now in Burbank), he became an accountant.
He served in the Army's Financial Corps during World War II and in 1947 was elected to the California State Assembly 56th district, where he served until 1953.
Congress
That year he won a special election to the U.S. House to replace Norris Poulson, representing California's twenty-fourth district. Lipscomb voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, but voted against the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968.
Death
Lipscomb continued to serve in the House for the remainder of his life. He died of cancer at Bethesda Naval Hospital at the age of 54 on February 1, 1970 and is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery, Hollywood Hills. The submarine USS Glenard P. Lipscomb was named after him.
Lipscomb was married to Virginia Sognalian Lipscomb, a classmate at Belmont.
For a short time a BSA camp near Big Bear Lake was named after him: Camp Lipscomb.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1950–99)
References
External links
LIPSCOMB, Glenard Paul, (1915 - 1970)
Join California Glenard P. Lipscomb
1915 births
1970 deaths
Belmont High School (Los Angeles) alumni
University of Southern California alumni
Members of the United States House of Representatives from California
California Republicans
United States Army officers
Deaths from cancer in Maryland
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
People from Jackson County, Michigan
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
20th-century American politicians
United States Army personnel of World War II
Members of the California State Assembly
Military personnel from Michigan | [
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244047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian%20sandpiper | Polynesian sandpiper | The two to five species of Polynesian sandpipers, the only members of the genus Prosobonia, are small wading birds confined to remote Pacific islands of French Polynesia. Only one species now exists, and it is rare and little known. This bird is sometimes separated in the genus Aechmorhynchus, restricting the genus to the extinct southern forms.
List of species
Tuamotu sandpiper, P. parvirostris
† Tahiti sandpiper, P. leucoptera
† Moorea sandpiper, P. ellisi
† Kiritimati sandpiper, P. cancellata
† Henderson sandpiper P. sauli
Indeterminate species are also known from the Marquesas and the Cook Islands.
Description
The Tuamotu sandpiper, P. parvirostris, is a unique short-billed all-brown wader previously found over a large area of the Pacific, but now confined to a few islands in the Tuamotu archipelago and still declining. Its decline appears to be due to human habitation encroachment and introduced mammals. It feeds on insects, but takes some vegetable material from its coastal haunts. It nests on the ground, and has a soft piping call.
The extinct Tahiti sandpiper, P. leucoptera of Tahiti was similar in size and shape to P. cancellata. It had brown upperparts, reddish underparts, a white wingbar, and some white on the face and throat. It became extinct in the 19th century, and little is known of it.
There was a similar bird on Moorea which differed in some minor details from P. leucoptera, notably the larger extent of white in the wing, and has been described as Moorea sandpiper (P. ellisi). However, although two species are generally listed, the question whether they actually did constitute separate species is probably unresolvable as only a single specimen of it exists today, apart from some contemporary paintings.
From Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Ua Huka in the Marquesas, and the remote South Pacific Henderson Island (Wragg 1995), subfossil remains of Prosobonia have been recovered but not yet named. The first of these was almost certainly more closely related to the Tahiti and Moorea populations than to the Tuamotu sandpiper, but the exact nature of their relationship is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. It disappeared in the early-mid 1st millennium AD, probably not long after 300 AD.
The Ua Huka and Henderson forms can be assumed to have been closer to the living species. The latter, a distinct species with long legs and short wings (Wragg & Weisler 1994), became extinct only about 1000 years after the Mangaia form, some time after 1200.
In 2020 a new extinct species, Prosobonia sauli was described from specimens found on Henderson Island, part of the Pitcairn Islands. A genetic analysis found that the genus was sister to the clade containing Arenaria and Calidris.
References
Bonaparte, Charles Lucien Jules Laurent (1850): Note sur plusieurs familles naturelles d'Oiseaux, et descriptions d'espèces nouvelles. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaire des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris 31: 561–564. [Article in French] Fulltext at Gallica
Wragg, Graham M. (1995): The fossil birds of Henderson Island, Pitcairn Group: natural turnover and human impact, a synopsis. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 56(1-2): 405–414. HTML abstract
Wragg, Graham M. and Weisler, Marshall I. (1994): Extinctions and new records of birds from Henderson Island, Pitcairn Group, South Pacific Ocean. Notornis 41(1): 60–70.
Birds of Polynesia
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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244050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorea%20sandpiper | Moorea sandpiper | The Moorea sandpiper (Prosobonia ellisi) is an extinct member of the large wader family Scolopacidae that was endemic to the Moorea in French Polynesia, where the locals called it te-te in the Tahitian language.
Two specimens were collected by Georg Forster and William Anderson between September 30 and October 11, 1777, during Captain Cook's third voyage, but both have since disappeared and the bird became extinct in the nineteenth century. The only hint at its former existence are Anderson's notes and the descriptions based on them, a painting by William Ellis and a plate by J. Webber which apparently depicts the other specimen.
These show a somewhat lighter brown bird than the Tahiti specimen, with no white spot behind the eye, a more conspicuous light rusty eye-ring, two white wing-bars and rusty secondary and primary coverts; one of Latham's specimens had yellow legs and feet. The exact relationships between the Moorea bird and the Tahiti sandpiper are still not fully resolved.
The bird was found "close to small brooks" and it was still at least moderately common around 1776 - 1779 during Cook's last voyage. Invasive rats may have been a contributing factor in its demise.
References
Further reading
Greenway, James C. (1967): Tahitian Sandpiper. In: Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World (2nd ed.): 263–264. Dover Publications, New York.
Latham, John (1785): "White-winged Sandpiper": In: A general synopsis of birds 3: 172, plate 82. London.
Latham, John (1824): "White-winged Sandpiper": In: A general history of birds 9: 296.
External links
BirdLife species factsheet. Retrieved 11-SEP-2006.
Prosobonia
Bird extinctions since 1500
Birds described in 1906
Birds of the Society Islands
Extinct birds of Oceania
Controversial bird taxa
Taxa named by Richard Bowdler Sharpe
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244052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conn%20Smythe%20Trophy | Conn Smythe Trophy | The Conn Smythe Trophy () is awarded annually to the most valuable player (MVP) of his team during the National Hockey League's (NHL) Stanley Cup playoffs. It is named after Conn Smythe, the longtime owner, general manager, and head coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs. The Conn Smythe Trophy has been awarded 53 times to 46 players since the 1964–65 NHL season. Each year, at the conclusion of the final game of the Stanley Cup Finals, members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association vote to elect the player deserving of the trophy. The trophy is handed out prior to the presentation of the Stanley Cup by the NHL Commissioner and only the winner is announced, in contrast to most of the other NHL awards which name three finalists and are presented at a ceremony.
Unlike the playoff MVP awards presented in the other major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada (the Super Bowl MVP, the NBA Finals MVP, the MLS Cup MVP and the World Series MVP), the Conn Smythe is based on a player's performance during the entire NHL postseason instead of just the championship game or series.
The most recent winner is Andrei Vasilevskiy.
History
The Conn Smythe Trophy was introduced in 1964 by Maple Leaf Gardens Limited to honor Conn Smythe, the former owner, general manager and coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs and a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame as a builder. The centerpiece of the trophy is a stylized silver replica of Maple Leaf Gardens, the arena built under Smythe's ownership of the Maple Leafs, and their home from 1931 to 1999. Backing the arena replica is a large silver botanically-accurate maple leaf. The arena replica and leaf are set atop a square wooden foundation, the front of which bears a dedication plaque. Additional tiers below the foundation, sloping outward, contain maple leaf-shaped plates bearing the inscriptions of the winners' names.
The base of the Conn Smythe Trophy has been expanded twice over the years to accommodate more winners. Although the 16 nameplates on the original base tier were filled up after 1980, a new tier was not added until the 1983–84 season. Following the 2000 Stanley Cup playoffs, the 20 nameplates on the new tier were filled up, so the first nine winners' nameplates were moved up to the remaining three sides of the foundation tier, with the remaining nameplates shifted accordingly to keep the winners in chronological order. Due to the cancellation of the 2004–05 season, the trophy wasn't filled up again until 2010, after which a new tier was added, making room for 24 more names.
The first winner of the trophy was center Jean Beliveau of the Montreal Canadiens in 1965. The first player and only defenseman to win it twice was Bobby Orr, who scored the Cup-clinching goals for the Boston Bruins in 1970 and 1972. Goaltender Bernie Parent (for the Philadelphia Flyers) and centers Wayne Gretzky (for the Edmonton Oilers), Mario Lemieux, and Sidney Crosby (for the Pittsburgh Penguins) have also won it twice each, with Parent, Lemieux, and Crosby each winning theirs back to back (1974/1975, 1991/1992, and 2016/2017 respectively). Goaltender Patrick Roy is the only player to win the trophy three times, and also the only player to win it as a member of two different teams (with the Canadiens in 1986 and 1993, and with the Colorado Avalanche in 2001); his wins also fall into three different decades. Ken Dryden, the 1971 Smythe winner, is the only NHL player to win this trophy before winning the Calder Trophy as rookie of the year (in 1972): Montreal called him up to play only six regular season games, which is not enough to qualify as a rookie season. Dave Keon's eight playoff points in 1967 is the fewest ever by a non-goalie Conn Smythe winner, as he was a defensive forward and is the only Maple Leafs player to win the trophy donated by his club's parent company.
Though the trophy rewards a player who performed particularly well over the entirety of the playoffs, it has never been given to a player whose team did not at least reach the Stanley Cup Finals. The trophy has been awarded to members of the team that lost the Finals five times, most recently Jean-Sebastien Giguere of the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in 2003, who backstopped his team's surprise run to the Finals, where they pushed the New Jersey Devils to seven games. The only skater to win the award in a losing effort is Philadelphia's Reggie Leach, who won it in 1976 as he had set a league record for most goals in the playoffs (19), which included a five-goal game in the semifinals and four goals in the Finals, even though the Canadiens swept his Flyers.
Only ten players born outside of Canada have won the Conn Smythe Trophy. The non-Canadian winners are Americans Brian Leetch, who won it in 1994, Tim Thomas in 2011, Jonathan Quick in 2012, and Patrick Kane in 2013; Russians Evgeni Malkin, Alexander Ovechkin and Andrei Vasilevskiy who won it in 2009, 2018 and 2021, respectively; and Swedes Nicklas Lidstrom, Henrik Zetterberg and Victor Hedman, who won it in 2002, 2008 and 2020, respectively.
Only three players have won the Conn Smythe Trophy and the Hart Memorial Trophy for Most Valuable Player during the regular season in the same year: Orr in 1970 and 1972, Guy Lafleur in 1977 and Wayne Gretzky in 1985. These three players also won the Art Ross Trophy as regular season leading scorer, while Orr also won the James Norris Memorial Trophy as top defenceman to give him a record four individual original NHL awards in 1970.
As of 2019, the Conn Smythe Trophy has been awarded to centers 19 times, to goaltenders 17 times, to defencemen ten times, and to right wingers seven times, while the only left wingers to have won the award are Bob Gainey of Montreal in 1979 and Alexander Ovechkin of Washington in 2018. The Montreal Canadiens have received the most Conn Smythe Trophies with nine. The Detroit Red Wings and Pittsburgh Penguins have each received five, and the Edmonton Oilers, Philadelphia Flyers, and New York Islanders have each received four.
Winners
By position
Conn Smythe Trophy winners by position
See also
List of National Hockey League awards
List of Stanley Cup champions
List of NHL statistical leaders
References
General
Conn Smythe Trophy at NHL.com
Conn Smythe Trophy history at HHOF.net
Specific
National Hockey League trophies and awards
Awards established in 1964
Most valuable player awards | [
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244053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20ensign | British ensign | In British maritime law and custom, an ensign is the identifying flag flown to designate a British ship, either military or civilian. Such flags display the United Kingdom Union Flag in the canton (the upper corner next to the staff), with either a red, white or blue field, dependent on whether the vessel is civilian, naval, or in a special category. These are known as the red, white, and blue ensigns respectively.
Outside the nautical sphere, ensigns are used to designate many other military units, government departments and administrative divisions. These flags are modelled on the red, white, and blue naval ensigns, but may use different colours for the field, and be defaced by the addition of a badge or symbol, for example the sky blue with concentric red, white and blue circles of the Royal Air Force ensign.
The Union Flag (also known as the Union Jack) should be flown as a jack by Royal Navy ships only when moored or at anchor. If flown while underway, the ship must be dressed for a special occasion or celebration with masthead ensigns, otherwise it signals that the Monarch or an Admiral of the Fleet is on board. The Union Flag may also signal that a court martial is in progress.
The use of the Union Flag as an ensign on a civilian craft is still illegal, unless it has a white border, ever since Charles I ordered it be restricted to His Majesty's ships "upon pain of Our high displeasure" in the 17th century, mainly due to its unauthorised use by merchant mariners to avoid paying harbour duties by passing themselves off as Royal vessels.
Modern usage
British ensigns currently in use can be classified into five categories, in descending order of exclusivity:
the White Ensign
the Blue Ensign
the Blue Ensign defaced
the Red Ensign
the Red Ensign defaced
The traditional order of seniority was red, white and blue, with the red as the senior ensign.
White
Today's white ensign, as used by Royal Navy ships, incorporates the St George's Cross (St George's Ensign). British yachts owned by members of the Royal Yacht Squadron are authorised to apply for a permit to wear this ensign. Defaced white ensigns include that of the British Antarctic Territory.
Since the reorganisation of the Royal Navy in 1864, use of the White Ensign (a red St George's Cross on a white field with the Union Flag in the canton) has been restricted to ships, boats, submarines and on-shore establishments of the Royal Navy. The Royal Yacht Squadron also fly the white ensign by special dispensation.
Blue
The Blue Ensign (dark blue field with the Union Flag in the canton) undefaced is worn by masters of vessels in possession of a warrant issued by the Director of Naval Reserves, and by the members of certain yacht clubs. Such warrants are issued to officers in the active or retired lists of the Royal Naval Reserve and the maritime reserve forces of other Commonwealth realms and territories. The master must be of the rank of lieutenant RN or above, and fishing vessels must be crewed by at least four other Royal Naval reservists or pensioners. The Ensign of the Sea Cadet Corps is a blue ensign defaced by the SCC badge. Under the terms of a Memorandum of Understanding with the Ministry of Defence, officers of the Sea Cadet Corps hold their ranks as (SCC) RNR on a 'nominal honorific' basis, and are included on the Navy List as a courtesy (though they are not commissioned, but 'appointed' within the Corps).
Defaced
British government departments use a variety of blue ensigns defaced in the fly with the department badge, and colonial governments use blue ensigns defaced with the colonial badge. Other defaced ensigns were used by vessels of the Port of London Authority, Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, the Humber Conservancy, Custom House, the Board of Trade, Lloyd's of London, the Post Office, submarine cable laying ships, and other departments including War Office Ordnance. The flag of Australia and those of its states as well as the flag of New Zealand are defaced blue ensigns. Several yacht clubs are also entitled to fly blue ensigns defaced by their club badge.
Red
The Red Ensign (red field with the Union Flag in the canton) defaced by a badge is flown by Trinity House and various organisations and yacht clubs. Merchant ships and private vessels registered in British territories and dependencies, and in several Commonwealth realms, fly the Red Ensign defaced by the badge of their territory.
The Red Ensign undefaced is for the use of all other British merchant navy ships and private craft. The Red Ensign is the correct flag to be worn as courtesy flag by foreign private vessels in United Kingdom waters. Merchant vessels from British overseas territories and Crown dependencies are entitled to red ensigns defaced with the badge of their territory.
Other ensigns
The flag of the British East India Company, like the Cambridge or Grand Union Flag of the American colonies, had a red and white striped field. There were similar red-and-white and green-and-white striped ensigns in the English Navy in the 16th century. Similarly in flag plates from the 17th and 18th centuries there are representations of the Guinea Jack of the Royal Africa Company in various forms; the jack consisted of St George's Cross within a double border of red and white chequers. The flag of Hawaii is a British ensign with a background of white, red and blue stripes.
Also in existence is a Royal Air Force (RAF) ensign and a civil air ensign, both of which have a sky-blue field, with the Union Flag in the canton. The RAF Ensign is defaced with the red-white-blue RAF roundel, while the field of the civil air ensign is charged with a large dark-blue cross fimbriated white. During World War II, the Belgian section of the RAF used a variant of RAF Ensign defaced with the black-yellow-red roundel. The flag of Tuvalu and that of Fiji are also defaced sky blue ensigns.
The white ensign of the commissioner of the Northern Lighthouse Board is unique in that it remains the only example of a pre-1801 Union Flag in official use today. This flag is flown only from vessels with commissioners aboard.
There are two "yellow" ensigns in use in the South Pacific, both featuring the Southern Cross. The personal flag of the governor of Victoria, Australia, has been the flag of Victoria with a yellow instead of a dark blue background. The flag of Niue, a self-governing dependency of New Zealand, is also a yellow ensign. More unusually, it is the Union Flag canton rather than the fly which is defaced with a modified Southern Cross.
There is some evidence of the existence of a Green Ensign in British Ireland, defaced with a gold Irish harp in the fly. It is not clear to what extent this unofficial ensign was ever in use by Irish merchant ships at the time.
The flag of the British Antarctic Territory has a white field defaced with the territory's badge, while the British Indian Ocean Territory flag has a white and blue wavy-striped field, also defaced.
Finally, there is one "orange" ensign, used by the Orange Order in Canada. This flag is an orange ensign defaced with a white shield, and a red maple leaf within it.
Cornish Ensign
The Cornish Ensign or St Piran's Ensign, is a Cornish flag defaced with the Union flag in the canton. This flag is used widely among Cornish mariners. Often flown by leisure craft and occasionally flown by Cornish merchant vessels.
Devon Ensign
First flown in 2003 the Devon Regatta Ensign adds a Union flag into the canton of the Devon Flag – the flag is described as for use at regattas, high days and holidays, weddings and burials at sea.
This flag can also be referred to as the St Petroc's Ensign, due to its link with the saint. This flag is widely used among Devonian mariners. Often flown by leisure craft.
Colours
The colours used in most British ensigns are the colours of the Union Flag; Union Jack (royal) blue, Union Flag red and white:
All HEX, CMYK and RGB specifications for the Pantone colours are taken from the official Pantone website on the webpages of the corresponding colours. Although the colour schemes are official, not all of the colours are completely congruent. This is due to different specifications for different types of media (for example, screen and print).
The Royal Hospital School
The Royal Hospital School is the only independent school in the United Kingdom to have been continuously awarded the "Queens Banner" and its own distinctive school ensign.
History
Prior to 1864, red, white, and blue were the colours of the three squadrons of the Royal Navy, which were created as a result of the reorganisation of the navy in 1652 by Admiral Robert Blake. Each squadron flew one of the three ensigns. In addition to the Admiral of the Fleet (who was Admiral of the Red), each squadron had its own admirals, vice admirals and rear admirals, e.g. Lord Nelson was Vice Admiral of the White at the time of his death.
The red squadron tended to patrol the Caribbean and north Atlantic, the white the coasts of Britain, France and the Mediterranean, while the blue patrolled the south Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. The flags of the various former British colonies often have grounds of the same colour as their protective squadron. Hence Bermuda has a red ground and Australia and New Zealand blue. Canada's flag was a red ensign from founding until the adoption of the more familiar maple leaf flag in 1965.
The flag of the United States also follows this pattern; early flags of the American Revolution were modified Red Ensigns. The Grand Union Flag added six white stripes to the Red Ensign; this flag was used during the fight for independence until the Union Flag in the canton was replaced by the stars in 1777.
Reference was sometimes made to "the yellow squadron". This squadron did not actually exist but was a term used unofficially to describe those naval personnel who worked ashore or did not have a ship. Therefore, there was no 'Yellow ensign'.
Canadian ensigns
In 1868, the British Admiralty made the Canadian Blue Ensign the proper flag for ships of the Canadian government, and in 1892, the Admiralty approved the use of the Canadian Red Ensign by Canadian merchant ships.
From about 1870, Canada unofficially used a Red Ensign with the arms of its provinces on one shield as its national flag (the Canadian Red Ensign). In 1924, an order-in-council made the flag official (for certain purposes) and replaced the provincial arms with the royal arms of Canada. The red ensign was replaced by the current red and white maple-leaf flag in 1965. In that same year, the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba adopted red ensigns defaced by their provincial arms as their provincial flags. (see Flag of Ontario and Flag of Manitoba)
Gallery
See also
Blue Ensign
Red Ensign
Green Ensign
Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories
Lists of flags
Maritime flag
Jack (flag)
Union Flag
Flags based on British ensigns
Flag of Australia
Flag of Canada
Flag of New Zealand
Flag of Tuvalu
List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
References
Sources
Flags and flag etiquette. In Fowler, Jean (Ed.): Reed's Nautical Almanac 1992, pp. 13:1–13:8. East Molesey: Thomas Reed Publications.
External links
Flags of the United Kingdom
Ensigns
Blue Ensigns
Red Ensigns
White Ensigns
National symbols of the United Kingdom
Flags by design | [
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244056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20party | Free party | A free party is a party "free" from the restrictions of the legal club scene, similar to the free festival movement. It typically involves a sound system playing electronic dance music from late at night until the time when the organisers decide to go home. A free party can be composed of just one system or of many and if the party becomes a festival, it becomes a teknival. The parties can be thought of as autonomous zones where all the people present create and enforce the rules. This typically means that drugs are readily available and noise levels are usually illegally high. The word free in this context is used both to describe the entry fee and the lack of restrictions and law enforcement.
Motivations for organisers range from political protest to simply wanting to have fun. An example of free parties as political protest was their prominence during the M11 link road protest. At most parties no money is asked for entrance since the aim is not to make profit. However, at some (most often indoor) events it is requested at the door to make a donation to cover costs. Typically organisers make little profit or make a loss setting them up. The term free party is used more widely in Europe than in the US. In Canada and some parts of Europe they are also referred to as Freetekno parties. A free party might have once been described as a rave, and the origins of the two are similar. Since the birth of nightclubs in town centres in Europe the use of the word rave had largely fallen out of fashion, however in recent times it is increasingly being used again.
The term squat party defines the free parties with secret indoor locations. The address is obtained on the day of the event personally from organizers as the buildings are squatted. The parties often last over 24 hours.
History
After the emergence of the Acid House parties in the late 1980s up to 4,000 people were known to attend a rave. These events happened almost every weekend. The noise and disturbance of thousands of people appearing at parties in rural locations, such as Genesis '88, caused outrage in the national media. The British government made the fine for holding an illegal party £20,000 and six months in prison.
Police crackdowns on these often-illegal parties drove the scene into the countryside. The word "rave" somehow caught on to describe these semi-spontaneous weekend parties occurring at various locations outside the M25 Orbital motorway that now attracted up to 25 000. Sound systems from this time include Spiral Tribe and DiY.
In the 1990s raves began to expand into a global phenomenon. Around 1989-1992 people who had travelled to attend the first raves began setting up promotion companies in each region to organize their own parties. This happened on a grassroots basis, often informally. By the mid-1990s, major corporations were sponsoring events and adopting the scene's music and fashion for their "edgier" advertising, making the scene become more commercialized.
After sensational coverage in the tabloids, culminating in a particularly large rave (near Castlemorton) in May 1992, the government acted on what was depicted as a growing menace. In 1994, the United Kingdom's Criminal Justice Bill passed as the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 which contained several sections designed to suppress the growing free party and anti-road protest movements (sometimes embodied by ravers and travellers).
By the early 2000s, the term "rave" had fallen out of favour among some people in the electronic dance music community, particularly in Europe. Many Europeans identify themselves as "clubbers" rather than ravers. The term 'free party' has been used for sometime and can be seen on the Spiral Tribe video 'Forward the Revolution' in 1992. It tried to disconnect raves from big commercial events of the early nineties to a more anarchist version of a party.
Some communities preferred the term "festival", while others simply referred to "parties". With less constrictive laws allowing raves to continue long after the United Kingdom tried to ban them, more anarchic raves continue to occur in Central Europe and France, where the law says there can be only 4 teknivals per year (2 in the south, 2 in the north). In France the larger teknivals can attract up to 30 000 people in a three-day period. The terms free party and squat party have become the predominant terms used to describe an illegal party.
The term "rave" is still often used to describe an unlicensed party in some parts of the United Kingdom, particularly the South East – perhaps because larger licensed "rave" events have become less common due to anti-drugs enforcement causing venue owners to be wary of hosting them.
Free parties tend to be on the boundaries of law and are strongly discouraged by government authorities, occasionally using aggressive police tactics.
Typical party
Free parties are much like other rave parties, their main distinction being that the venue is free to use. The result is that they are often held in isolated outdoor venues or abandoned buildings, where they are also known as squat parties. If the building has a power source that is used but if not then the organisers will use generators.
Often free parties involve a lot of (mostly illegal) dance drug use. The music played at free parties is very bass heavy. It is for this reason that they are usually held in isolated venues or places where police interference is unlikely, such as protected squatting residences (particularly in the UK, where police used not to be able to enter a squat easily).
The types of music played are usually various forms of dance music with fast repetitive beats, but, due to the lack of a commercial interest, the genre chosen is often far from popular mainstream tastes and is decided purely by the tastes of the DJs who play for the sound systems putting the event on. Each sound system has its own music policy, following and entourage. The current trend is towards breakcore and gabba or, in another musical direction, psy-trance but many sound systems still play traditional techno, Acid Techno, Hard Trance and Electro House/Techno, Drum & Bass/Jungle, Hardtek, Tekstep and more recently – it's not uncommon to hear Dubstep being played. Some parties in England, but also across Europe such as in the Netherlands, now incorporate elements of performance art ("synthetic circus") as well as electronic dance music.
Due to the lack of licensing restrictions, these parties often start after midnight and continue through the night until morning, often longer. Parties lasting several days are not uncommon; some large teknivals can go on for a week.
Squat parties have an overt or implied radical left-wing stance. The squat party community embraces autonomous, anarchistic principles by refusing to recognize the right of any third-party authority to decide when and how people should congregate. Squat party organizers also eschew capitalistic values by putting on parties which benefit the community and its artists instead of to turn a profit.
Occasionally, squat parties act as ad-hoc information points where political pamphlets are distributed or petitions signed in order to raise awareness about a variety of causes, usually of a left-wing nature. London's Reclaim the Streets movement, which brought traffic and commerce to a standstill once a year in an attempt to draw public attention to inner city problems, was itself a highly visible and politicized affiliate of the U.K. squat party scene.
Squat parties are occasionally held for the sole purpose of fund-raising, usually for humanitarian causes.
Law and police
Missing laws regulating free parties outside the UK, see Talk:Free party
UK
Under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 the definition of music played at a rave was given as:
Sections 63, 64 & 65 of the Act targeted electronic dance music played at raves. The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act empowered police to stop a rave in the open air during any period of time, day or night when a hundred or more people are attending, or where two or more are making preparations for a rave. Section 65 allows any uniformed constable who believes a person is on their way to a rave within a five-mile radius to stop them and direct them away from the area; non-compliant citizens may be subject to a maximum fine not exceeding level 3 on the standard scale (£1 000). The Act was ostensibly introduced because of the noise and disruption caused by all night parties to nearby residents, and to protect the countryside. It has also been claimed that it was introduced to kill a popular youth movement that was taking many drinkers out of town centres drinking taxable alcohol and into fields to take untaxed drugs.
The number of people attending and organising such an event for it to be deemed illegal were altered in the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 section 58 to cover indoor parties and outdoor parties of more than 20 people. It is also a crime if, within 24 hours of being told by a police officer to leave a rave, a person makes preparations to attend a rave.
More recently in the United Kingdom, anti-social behaviour orders (ASBOs) have been used against unlicensed rave organisers if the police receive repeated complaints about noise and littering from locals.
Despite these laws, free parties continue to exist. They do so in a number of ways. They can be small (with fewer than 100 people) and remote so that they are unlikely to cause distress to the local residents. If the police find out about the party and turn up, it is rarely worth the use of resources to attempt to arrest people and seize equipment. The people at the rave would then have to leave without having time to tidy up and potentially still incapable of driving safely. The other way free parties continue is to be large enough to make breaking them up difficult. When there are more than 500 or so people then there is a potential for a riot.
A typical police response to why a rave was not stopped is:
"officers had decided not to stop the rave because they had only received one complaint about noise and the amount of resources needed to stop it would not be justified."
In August 2006, an unlicensed party organised by united sounds – Aztek, LowKey, One Love, Mission, Illicit, Monolith & Brains-Kan Sound Systems in Essex, England was broken up after 24 hours resulting in approx 60 injuries from both sides and over 50 arrests. This was one of the largest confrontations between police and ravers that had occurred at an unlicensed event for many years. The Chief Superintendent in charge of the police operation said "These sorts of raves are quite unheard of in this county - I have not seen this sort of violence since the old days of acid house."
Squat party
A squat party is a party that takes place either in a disused building (broken into and secured for the party) or in an already existing squat.
Squat parties are usually advertised either by word of mouth, postings on internet bulletin boards, flyers handed out at other similar events and through phone lines set up by the sound system(s) organising the event. This is for security reasons, since the organisers do not want the authorities finding out about them and trying to stop them. Other events might be much smaller acoustic nights run more like a cafe. Squatted buildings are often used as social centres and creative spaces for people to use.
Most squat parties usually run for 12 to 24 hours, finishing when the organisers have had enough or if they are shut down by police. Most large cities in the UK have a squat party scene with London considered the most active location in the country. The majority of London squat parties occur in mainly industrial sectors e.g. East London, as abandoned warehouses make ideal venues and a smaller chance of residential noise complaints. The London squat party scene of recent years has seen an influx of European travellers, largely from the East, where there is also a large rave culture, for example events such as Czechtek.
Squat parties are typically either free or charge a small donation on the door. Typically the organisers also try to make additional money through selling alcohol inside.
Squat 'eviction' parties occur when the squatters residing in a building have been given a final date for their eviction, and as a final act of resistance organise a large scale party and protest in order to try to withstand the police or bailiffs.
Drugs
Drugs sale and use is long standing and accepted, most commonly MDMA (ecstasy), amphetamine, cocaine, LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, cannabis, nitrous oxide, and ketamine. Drugs are easily available at almost all free parties and people often use stimulants to reduce the fatigue resulting from dancing for many hours, as well as for the recreational effects. While psychedelics are often used to achieve altered states of consciousness, especially in psy trance festivals.
In early years MDMA was the most common drug taken at parties, however over the last ten years there has been a steady increase in the popularity of ketamine in Europe, most noticeably in the London scene, where ketamine has a massive presence and has been said by some to have spoiled the atmosphere found at earlier parties. Since 2000 ketamine has crossed over from being almost entirely a drug found in the free party scene to one commonly found in mainstream clubs as well.
Security
Due to the drug culture and unregulated environment, security has become a problem for many party organisers. Some free party sound systems hire private security at events but security is only an issue in squat parties or very urban outdoor events. Outdoor parties have very little trouble.
Parties become autonomous zones, with self-policing and control being established by all attendance. If people make trouble calling the police is not an option so sometimes the music is stopped and the trouble makers are simply told by all the party goers to leave.
Locations
Typical parties in the London scene range from small parties with a couple of hundred people up to huge multi-riggers involving a thousand or more people. The number of sound systems involved also varies – small parties may have just one or two sound systems, larger parties may have anything up to 20 or more, including several "link-ups" where two or more sound systems will combine their rigs into a single large system.
Although London is the central location for squat parties, they exist outside the capital and places such as Three Counties Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire & Cambridgeshire also Buckinghamshire have popular scenes dating pre 1995. Modern parties are usually hosted in Bedford, Norfolk, or London; but Cambridgeshire, Northampton and Suffolk still have a contemporary underground scene, along with Derbyshire, South Yorkshire and South Wales. Outdoor parties are popular all over Wales and the South West and can attract up to a thousand people. Outdoor parties are organised so that noise pollution is not a factor. If the local residents complain then the party is much more at risk of being stopped. In most big cities there is an underground counterculture centred around free parties which are predominantly outdoor parties in the summer and squat parties when it is too cold. Most organisers will try to secure a warehouse, if not they will look for a wooded area to hide themselves and try and soften the music and enjoy the outdoor environment also to avoid being discovered by the authorities.
List of free parties
The following is an incomplete list of notable free parties:
Sunrise/Back to the Future
Castlemorton Common Festival
Czechtek
KaZantip
Love Parade
Street Parade
Fuckparade
EggTek
UKtek
Tunnel vision by bustanut from Sheffield UK
See also
Freetekno
Teknival
References
Further reading
St John, Graham. 2009. Technomad: Global Raving Countercultures (pp 36-64). London: Equinox. .
External links
Partyvibe Free party resource.
How to Have a Free Party – SchNEWS DIY Guide
Fantazia Free Party information – Reviews of Castlemorton etc.
Squatjuice online bulletin board about the free party/ squatting culture.
Survivors of Hardcore Belgium and Toronto hardcore & speedcore party organizers
Dungeons Flyer Gallery Oldskool flyers
fanat3k radio
Counterculture festivals
DIY culture
Electronic music
Free parties
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244061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derrick%20Green | Derrick Green | Derrick Leon Green (born January 20, 1971) is an American musician best known as the vocalist of Brazilian heavy metal band Sepultura. He joined the band in 1997 after the departure of band founder Max Cavalera.
Early life
Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Green is the youngest of three children; his sister Renée Green is an artist, writer, and filmmaker. Green's father, Friendly, an electrician, and mother, Gloria, a music teacher, moved the family from inner-city Cleveland to surbuban Shaker Heights when Green was 7. "This was my first live interaction with white people," Green later recalled.
From an early age, Green knew he wanted to leave the United States and he lived in Berlin for a time before moving from New York to São Paulo.
Music career
Pre-Sepultura
Green became a friend and roadie of the already formed thrash metal/hardcore band Outface which was formed in 1985. He then joined the band in 1986 at the age of 15 after the departure of their two former singers. The band consisted of guitarist Charlie Garriga (CIV), bassist Frank Cavanagh (Prong and Filter) and drummer Mark Konopka. They recorded two demos, one in 1987 and the other in 1989. They were then offered a recording deal by a friend from New York, Walter Schreifels (Quicksand, Youth of Today, Gorilla Biscuits) for a recording deal to record for his new sub label of Crisis Records for one studio album, Friendly Green (named after Green's father), released in 1992. Stylistically, their music varied between rock, heavy metal and punk with ska elements. Green was credited as Simon Verde on the Outface release ("Green" is translated as "Verde" in Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian). With this lineup they toured and played in many places on the east coast and the south of the United States and one tour in Europe.
Once back from the tour in Europe, Green and Garriga decided that they wanted to move to New York City. Cavanagh stayed and later went on to join the band Filter. Konopka also decided to stay and recorded one album with the band Integrity.
In New York, Green and Garriga teamed up with drummer Sammy Siegler (Side by Side, Youth of Today, Judge), bass player Eric Thrice (Orange 9mm), who was replaced by Sara Cox, to form Overfiend. The band was named after the brutal Japanese animated film Legend of the Overfiend. They recorded a three-song demo with the help of Schreifels, the direction was much heavier with influences of metal and heavy rock. Their first show was played in Staten Island opening for Sick of It All. This would be their only show. Garriga and Siegler would leave the band to join and form CIV.
In 1996, Green would start to play guitar and sing with Sara Cox, they would then form the band Alpha Jerk. They later recruited drummer Luke Abby (Warzone, Gorilla Biscuits), who was then replaced by Nick Heller (Sweet Diesel). They would release one self-titled album on Toybox Records. They managed to play a few shows in the New York area and doing a few shows together with the bands Lunachicks and Demonspeed. Two songs were featured on New York's Hardest, Vol. 2 compilation.
Sepultura
Green was approached in 1997 by A&R rep Mike Gitter from Roadrunner Records. He told him that Sepultura frontman Max Cavalera had left the band in 1996 and they were searching for a new vocalist. He suggested Green try out for the position. Sepultura had recorded one song with no vocals to see what people all around the world could come up with. Green got a hold of the tape from Gitter and he recorded his idea for the song "Choke" and sent it to Brazil. A month later he received a phone call from Sepultura's drummer, Igor Cavalera. He was then asked to fly down to São Paulo, Brazil to meet everyone and audition for the position. Green flew out a week later and met everyone and auditioned for two weeks. Green was asked to come back to Brazil to start recording his first album, Against, with Sepultura.
Most of Against was written before Green entered the band. Against was released in 1998 and the group set out on a world tour. Green moved from New York and decided to live in Amsterdam while on a promo tour. The album was critically and commercially less successful than previous Sepultura albums, as many fans were still coming to terms with the absence of Max Cavalera from the band. AllMusic gave the album 3 stars out of 5, and gave an optimistic note of the band's future by stating that "there are enough flashes of the old Sepultura brilliance to suggest that great things are still to come".
Nation would be the first album that Green would take part in the writing process for, from beginning to end. He decided to move to São Paulo to be closer to the group and work on the new material. Nation, the band's eighth album with Roadrunner Records, was released in 2001 and sold poorly. Allmusic.com gave the album 3 stars out of 5 and said, "As Green scrapes the lining of his vocal chords through the brash, impassioned tracks, he's singing about more than just 'one tribe, Sepulnation'; he's suggesting something bigger, something worth shouting about and fighting for". In an interview, Derrick said about the album that "every song will be related to the idea of building this idea of a positive nation. We will have our own flag, our own anthem, our own army".
Nation was the group's last studio album with Roadrunner Records, as their contract ran out. The contract had an option for one more album but the group felt the label was not supportive enough. A recording of Max Cavalera's last live show with Sepultura, titled Under a Pale Grey Sky, was released in 2002 by Roadrunner Records, against the wishes of the band.
Revolusongs, an EP of cover songs was released by the band. The EP was exclusively released in Brazil and Japan, but then the band was picked up by record label SPV and Revolusongs was later included as a bonus disc on the digipak edition of Roorback, the next full-length studio album with Green. A collaboration between the video director Ricardo Della Rosa and Green created the idea of the music video of U2's song "Bullet the Blue Sky". It won best photography in the 2003 Brazil MTV music awards show.
Despite Roorback receiving critical acclaim, sales remained low. Allmusic gave the album 4 stars out of 5 and said, "if there are still any lingering doubts about the Green/Sepultura match, 2003's excellent Roorback should put them to rest for good. Green is passionate and focused throughout the album —he has no problem going that extra mile— and the writing is consistently strong".
All the tracks on the DVD Live in São Paulo were recorded on April 3, 2005, at a concert in São Paulo, Brazil. A CD of the same name was also recorded. Both were released on November 8, 2005, through SPV Records. The second DVD features a documentary of the band's career from 1998 on, filmed and co-edited by Green.
Dante XXI was released on March 14, 2006. It is a concept album based on Dante's The Divine Comedy, a book that Green read in high school and suggested to the band for the concept for the album. In "Convicted in Life" video, Green collaborated with the video director Luis Carone for the idea. The video won for best editing in a video and best direction in a video at the Brazil MTV music awards show in 2006.
Allmusic gave the album 3.5 stars out of 5 and said that, "Overall, Dante XXI is easily one of Sepultura's strongest releases to feature Green on vocals". Igor Cavalera left the band after the release of Dante XXI. He was replaced by Brazilian drummer Jean Dolabella who they continued with and toured with for the most part of the Dante XXI tour.
Sepultura released the album A-Lex on January 26, 2009. A-Lex is a concept album based on Anthony Burgess' book A Clockwork Orange. Allmusic gave the album 4 stars out of 5 and said that "personnel changes can have a very negative effect on a band, but Sepultura have maintained their vitality all these years – and that vitality is alive and well on the superb A-Lex".
On July 6, 2010, it was announced that Sepultura have signed a deal with Nuclear Blast Records, and will release their first album Kairos for the label in 2011. Roy Z (Judas Priest, Halford, Iron Maiden's Bruce Dickinson, Helloween) was the producer for the new album.
Musica Diablo
Green joined another band, Musica Diablo, in 2008, a thrash metal band with members of Nitrominds, Ação Direta and Dead Fish. On May 28, 2010, the band released their self-titled debut album on both CD and MP3 download. CD Universe said that "Musica Diablo's extreme fast thrash metal, with the characteristic Brazilian style and a strong root into the 1980s veterans made them unique, and the need of recording a proper album was eminent. The band recorded their first album in January 2010 with the well known producer Rafael Ramos in Rio de Janeiro. A month later, Derrick Green recorded his vocals in São Paulo, again under Rafael's production. The result is a killer, blast-in-your-face album with 11 songs of sheer violence and pure Brazilian Thrash Metal!". Green has since left Musica Diablo.
Collaborations
Green was a guest vocalist on a few CDs including Biohazard's Uncivilization and the soundtrack of the Brazilian movie Lisbela e o Prisioneiro.
Green appeared with Sepultura in a successful ad campaign for Volkswagen that aired nationally throughout Brazil in 2008. The spot said that "it's the first time you've seen Sepultura like this. And a sedan like this one too". This Volkswagen TV spot shows Sepultura playing bossa nova, the opposite of its Heavy Metal style, to say that "you never saw something like this, as you never saw a car like the new Voyage".
Green is working on a three volume book set of his photography and writings due to be released in late 2011/2012. Each volume will be released at different times.
In 2013, Green worked on a side project called Maximum Hedrum.
Personal life
In 2011, when asked about his religious views, Green replied:
Green speaks fluent Portuguese with a noticeable American accent. He previously lived in Carapicuíba, São Paulo, but now lives in Los Angeles.
Green is a vegan. He has been a vegetarian since 1986. He made this publicly clear in a PETA video interview regarding Sepultura's 2006 video of the song "Convicted in Life". Derrick stated in the interview that the subject of this video is that some kind of "karma" is inflicted on those that damage the environment and its wildlife.
Discography
Outface – Friendly Green (1992)
Alpha Jerk – S/T (1996)
Various – New York's Hardest, Vol. 2 Comp (1998)
Sepultura – Against (1998)
Sepultura – Nation (2001)
Sepultura – Revolusongs (2002)
Sepultura – Roorback (2003)
Sepultura – Live in São Paulo (2005)
Sepultura – Dante XXI (2006)
Sepultura – A-Lex (2009)
Música Diablo – Música Diablo (2010)
Sepultura – Kairos (2011)
Maximum Hedrum – S/T (2013)
Sepultura – The Mediator Between Head and Hands Must Be the Heart (2013)
Sepultura – Machine Messiah (2017)
Sepultura – Quadra (2020)
References
1971 births
Living people
Sepultura members
American expatriates in the Czech Republic
American heavy metal singers
American heavy metal guitarists
African-American rock musicians
Rhythm guitarists
Death metal musicians
African-American rock singers
Musicians from Cleveland
Portuguese-language singers
American expatriates in Brazil
Guitarists from Ohio
American male guitarists
21st-century American singers
African-American guitarists | [
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244071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20ark | Interstellar ark | An interstellar ark is a conceptual space vehicle designed for interstellar travel. Interstellar arks may be the most economically feasible method of traveling such distances. The ark has also been proposed as a potential habitat to preserve civilization and knowledge in the event of a global catastrophe.
Such a ship would have to be large, requiring a large power plant. The Project Orion concept of propulsion by nuclear pulses has been proposed. The largest spacecraft design analyzed in Project Orion had a 400 m diameter and weighed approximately 8 million tons. It could be large enough to host a city of 100,000 or more people.
Thrust concepts
Another concern is selection of power sources and mechanisms which would remain viable for the long time spans involved in interstellar travel through the desert of space. The longest lived space probes are the Voyager program probes, which use radioisotope thermoelectric generators having a useful lifespan of a mere 50 years.
One propulsion method for a crewed spacecraft could be a fusion microexplosion nuclear pulse propulsion system, like that proposed in Project Daedalus that may allow it to obtain an interstellar cruising velocity of up to 10% of the speed of light. However, if the ship is capable of transits requiring hundreds of thousands of years, chemical and gravitational slingshot propulsion may be sufficient.
Specific proposals and research projects
The Enzmann starship proposed in 1964 is a large fusion-powered spacecraft that could function as an interstellar ark, supporting a crew of 200 with extra space for expansion, on multi-year journeys at subluminal speeds to nearby star systems.
In 1955 Project Orion considered nuclear propulsion for spacecraft, suitable for deep space voyages.
In 1973–1978 Project Daedalus was conducted by the British Interplanetary Society to study unmanned interstellar spacecraft.
See also
Generation ship
References
External links
News article
Lifeboat Foundation
Science fiction themes
Space colonization
Ark
Interstellar travel
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244072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Laffer | Arthur Laffer | Arthur Betz Laffer (; born August 14, 1940) is an American economist and author who first gained prominence during the Reagan administration as a member of Reagan's Economic Policy Advisory Board (1981–89). Laffer is best known for the Laffer curve, an illustration of the concept that there exists some tax rate between 0% and 100% that will result in maximum tax revenue for government. In certain circumstances, this would allow governments to cut taxes, and simultaneously increase revenue and economic growth.
Laffer was an economic advisor to Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign. On June 19, 2019, President Donald Trump awarded Laffer with the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his contributions in the field of economics.
Early life and education
Laffer was born in Youngstown, Ohio, the son of Marian Amelia "Molly" (née Betz), a homemaker and politician, and William Gillespie Laffer, president of the Clevite Corporation. He was raised in the Cleveland, Ohio area. He is a Presbyterian, and graduated from Cleveland's University School high school in 1958. Laffer earned a B.A. in economics from Yale University (1963) and an M.B.A. (1965) and a Ph.D. in economics (1972) from Stanford University.
Academia
Laffer was an Associate Professor of Business Economics at the University of Chicago from 1970 to 1976 and a member of the Chicago faculty from 1967 through 1976. From 1976 to 1984 Laffer held the status as the Charles B. Thornton Professor of Business Economics at the University of Southern California School of Business. During this time Laffer helped pass Proposition 13, the California initiative that drastically cut property taxes in the state in 1978. In the mid-1980s, Laffer was the Distinguished University Professor at Pepperdine University in Malibu, and a member of the Pepperdine Board of Directors.
Politics
Laffer was the first to hold the title of Chief Economist at the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) under George Shultz from October 1970 to July 1972. During the years 1972 to 1977, Laffer was a consultant to Secretary of the Treasury William Simon, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and Secretary of the Treasury George Shultz.
Laffer was a member of President Reagan's Economic Policy Advisory Board for both of his terms (1981–1989) and was a founding member of the Reagan Executive Advisory Committee for the presidential race of 1980. Laffer served as a member of the Executive Committee of the Reagan/Bush Finance Committee in 1984.
In 1986, Laffer was a candidate for the Republican nomination for the U.S. Senate—which he lost in the California primary to U.S. Congressman Ed Zschau, who lost in the general election to the incumbent, Democrat Alan Cranston. Laffer identifies himself as a staunch fiscal conservative. However, he has stated publicly that he voted for President Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996. Laffer references President Clinton's conservative fiscal and unregulated market policies as cornerstones of his support.
In 2018, Laffer wrote the book Trumponomics with conservative economic commentator Stephen Moore, wherein they lauded the Trump administration's economic policies. In the book, Moore and Laffer argue that the Trump administration's 2017 tax plan would raise growth rates to as much as 6% and not increase budget deficits. In a 2019 review of the book, Greg Mankiw, a conservative economics professor at Harvard University, characterized Laffer and Moore as "rah-rah
partisans" who "do not build their analysis on the foundation of professional consensus or serious studies from peer-reviewed journals...The Laffer curve is undeniable as a matter of economic theory. There is certainly some level of taxation at which cutting tax rates would be win-win. But few economists believe that tax rates in the United States have reached such heights in recent years; to the contrary, they are likely below the revenue-maximizing level." The one issue where Moore and Laffer disagree with Trump is on the issue of free trade, which the duo supports. Previously, in 2016, Laffer said that he believed that then-candidate Trump was "going to be okay on trade" and lauded Trump's understanding of trade.
Laffer regularly writes opinion articles in The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Times.
On April 15, 2019, Laffer blamed the Great Recession on Barack Obama, "who I believe was the reason why we had the Great Recession. As he got closer and closer to winning the markets collapsed."
In 2020, Laffer advised the Trump administration on how to re-open the economy during the COVID-19 pandemic. Laffer argued for halting stimulus, calling instead for payroll tax cuts. He advocated for taxes on non-profit organizations in education and the arts, as well as for salary reductions for professors and government officials. He argued against expansion of unemployment aid, arguing it discouraged people from working.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
In 2019, President Trump awarded Laffer the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor. The Trump White House said Laffer was receiving the award for "public service and contributions to economic policy that have helped spur prosperity for our Nation" and that Laffer was "one of the most influential economists in American history" due to popularizing the "Laffer Curve." Trump praised Laffer for policies that he said brought "greater opportunity for all Americans."
Laffer curve
Although he does not claim to have invented the Laffer curve concept (Laffer, 2004), it was popularized with policy-makers following an afternoon meeting with Nixon/Ford Administration officials Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld in 1974 in which he reportedly sketched the curve on a napkin to illustrate his argument. The term "Laffer curve" was coined by Jude Wanniski, who was also present. The basic concept was not new; Laffer himself says he learned it from Ibn Khaldun and John Maynard Keynes.
The Laffer curve is an economic theory that shows the relationship between tax rates and the amount of tax revenue collected by governments. The Laffer Curve shows that there is a certain point between 0% and 100% where tax revenues are maximized. The curve suggests that starting from zero, an increase in tax rates will increase the government's tax revenue; after a certain point, however, continuing to increase tax rates will cause a decrease in tax revenue. This decrease in tax revenue can be explained by decreased incentives for work, production, etc. Laffer's postulate was that the tax rate that maximizes revenue was at a much lower level than previously believed: so low that current tax rates were above the level where revenue is maximized. While many economists believe that government spending to stimulate demand for products should be the solution for a poorly performing economy, Laffer argues that heavy taxes and regulation impede production, and therefore, government revenue.
Numerous leading economists have rejected the view that a tax rate cut of current federal U.S. income taxes can lead to increased tax revenue. When asked in a 2012 University of Chicago business school survey whether a "cut in federal income tax rates in the US right now would raise taxable income enough so that the annual total tax revenue would be higher within five years than without the tax cut", none of the economists surveyed agreed and 71% disagreed. According to Greg Mankiw, most economists have been very skeptical of Laffer's contention that decreases in tax rates could increase tax revenue, at least in the United States. In his textbook, Mankiw states, "there was little evidence for Laffer's view that U.S. tax rates had in fact reached such extreme levels." Under the direction of conservative economist Douglas Holtz-Eakin, the Congressional Budget Office conducted a 2005 study on the fiscal effects of a 10% cut in federal income tax rates, finding that it resulted in a significant net revenue loss. Economist John Quiggin distinguishes between the Laffer curve and Laffer's analysis of tax rates, writing that the Laffer curve was "correct but unoriginal" and that Laffer's analysis that the United States was on the wrong side of the Laffer curve "was original but incorrect."
Laffer was an economic adviser to Kansas Governor Sam Brownback, who in 2012 zeroed out state tax liability for approximately 330,000 of the top wage earners in the state, called the Kansas experiment, contending it would be a "shot of adrenaline into the heart of the Kansas economy." Laffer was paid $75,000 to advise in the creation of Brownback's tax cut plan, and gave Brownback his full endorsement, stating that what Brownback was doing was "truly revolutionary" and would bring "enormous prosperity" to Kansas. The state, which had previously had a budget surplus, experienced a budget deficit of about $200 million in 2012. Drastic cuts to state funding for education and infrastructure were implemented to close budget deficits and the Kansas economy underperformed relative to neighboring states. Brownback's tax overhaul was described in a June 2017 article in The Atlantic as the United States' "most aggressive experiment in conservative economic policy". The drastic tax cuts had "threatened the viability of schools and infrastructure" in Kansas. A supermajority of lawmakers in the Kansas legislature, both Democrats and Republicans, repealed the tax cut in June 2017, overriding Brownback's veto.
Awards and recognition
Awards that Laffer has received for his economic work:
2 Graham and Dodd Awards from the Financial Analyst Federation for outstanding feature articles published in the Financial Analysts Journal
The Distinguished Service Award by the National Association of Investment Clubs
The Daniel Webster Award for public speaking by the International Platform Association
Distinguished University Professor of Economics from Mercer University in 2008
His book The End of Prosperity: How Higher Taxes Will Doom the Economy-If We Let it Happen was nominated for the F.A. Hayek Book Award in 2009
The Hayek Lifetime Achievement Award in 2016
In December 2017, Laffer became the first recipient of the American Legislative Exchange Council's Laffer Award for Economic Excellence
Laffer was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Donald Trump on June 19, 2019.
Laffer has been widely acknowledged for his economic influence, including:
Listed in "A Gallery of the Greatest People Who Influenced Our Daily Business," in The Wall Street Journal on June 23, 1989
Included in "A Dozen Who Shaped the '80s," in the Los Angeles Times on January 1, 1990
His creation of the Laffer Curve was deemed a "memorable event" in financial history by the Institutional Investor in its July 1992 Silver Anniversary issue, "The Heroes, Villains, Triumphs, Failures, and Other Memorable Events."
Noted in Time magazine's March 29, 1999 cover story, "A Century of Science" for "his supply-side economic theories, which hold that reducing federal taxes spurs economic growth and, eventually, increases federal revenues"
Bloomberg Businessweek selected the Laffer Curve as one of the "85 Most Disruptive Ideas In Our History" for its 85th anniversary issue in 2014. Bloomberg produced a video with Laffer, Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld about the Laffer Curve and the "dinner napkin that changed the economy"
Publications
The following is a partial list of publications written primarily by Laffer, with co-authors indicated, in order by date:
“International Short-Term Capital Movements: Comments,” The American Economic Review 57 (3), pp. 548–565 (1967)
“The Economics of Cycles and Growth,” written by Stanley Bober, reviewed by Arthur Laffer, The American Economic Review 58 (4), pp. 1006–1007 (1968)
"The U.S. Balance of Payments – A Financial Center View," Law and Contemporary Problems 34 (1), pp. 33–46 (1969).
"Vertical Integration by Corporations, 1929–1965," Review of Economics and Statistics 51 (1), pp. 91–93 (1969).
"Trade Credit and the Money Market," J. Political Economy 78 (2), 239–267 (1970).
"Information and Capital Markets", (with Eugene Fama). J. Business 44 (3), pp. 289–298 (1971).
"A Formal Model of the Economy," (with R. David Ranson). J. Business 44 (3), pp. 247–270 (1971).
"The Number of Firms and Competition", (with Eugene F. Fama). American Economic Review 62 (4), pp. 670–674 (1972).
"Monetary Policy and the Balance of Payments," J. Money, Credit, and Banking Part I 4 (1), 13–22 (1972).
"Some Evidence on the Formation, Efficiency and Accuracy of Anticipations of Nominal Yields," (with Richard Zecher). J. Monetary Economics 1 (3), pp. 327–342 (1975).
The Phenomenon of Worldwide Inflation, co-edited with David Meiselman, American Enterprise Institute, Washington, D.C., 1975.
The Economics of the Tax Revolt: A Reader, co-authored with Jan P. Seymour, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., San Diego, 1976.
De Fiscus Onder Het Mes, Uitgeverij Acropolis, Brussel/Amstelveen, 1981.
L’Ellipse ou la Loi des Rendements Fiscaux Decroissants, Institutum Europaeum, Brussels, 1981
Future American Energy Policy, co-authored with Meredith S. Crist, Lexington Books, Lexington, Massachusetts, 1982.
"Reinstatement of the Dollar: The Blueprint," Economic Notes 0 (2), pp. 158–176 (1982).
Victor A. Canto, Douglas H. Joines, and Arthur B. Laffer, Foundations of Supply-Side Economics – Theory and Evidence (New York: Academic Press, 1982).
"A High Road for the American Automobile Industry," World Economy 8 (3), pp. 267–286 (1985).
"The Ellipse: An Explication of the Laffer Curve in a Two-Factor Model," The Financial Analyst's Guide to Fiscal Policy, pp. 1–35 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
"Heightened foreign competition only route for American prosperity," The Journal Record (June 9, 1987).
"America in the World Economy: A Strategy for the 1990s: Commentary," America's Global Interests: A New Agenda, pp. 122–125 (London: Norton, 1989).
Monetary Policy, Taxation, and International Investment Strategy, co-edited with Victor A. Canto, Quorum Books, Connecticut. 1990.
"Either California's Housing Prices Are Going to Fall or California's in for One Helluva Rise in Personal Income," (with Christopher S. Hammond). Investment Strategy and State and Local Economic Policy, pp. 49–64 (London: Quorum Books, 1992).
Investment Strategy and State and Local Economic Policy, co-authored with Victor A. Canto and Robert I. Webb, Quorum Books, Connecticut. 1992.
"Trading Policy Outlook," Industrial Policy and International Trade, pp. 175–186, Volume 62 in Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis (London: JAI Press, 1992).
"The Reagan-Clinton Presidency," International Economy 12 (2), 22–24 (1998).
"Bullish on Japan," (with Thomas J. Martin). American Spectator pp. 28–30 (June 1, 2001).
"The Laffer Curve: Past, Present, and Future," Heritage Foundation Backgrounder #1765 (June 1, 2004).
Rich States, Poor States: ALEC-Laffer State Economic Competitiveness Index, co-authored with Stephen Moore and Jonathan Williams, American Legislative Exchange Council, 1st Edition 2008, 2nd Edition 2009, 3rd Edition 2010, 4th Edition 2011, 5th Edition 2012, 6th Edition 2013, 7th Edition 2014, 8th Edition 2015, 9th Edition 2016, 10th Edition 2017.
"The Prognosis for National Health Insurance: A Colorado Perspective, Independence Institute (August 2009)
The Private Equity Edge: How Private Equity Players and the World’s Top Companies Build Value and Wealth, co-authored with William J. Hass and Shepherd G. Pryor IV, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2009.
Return to Prosperity: How America Can Regain its Economic Superpower Status, co-authored with Stephen Moore, Threshold Editions, New York, 2010.
Eureka!: How to Fix California, with Wayne Winegarden, Ph.D. Pacific Research Institute, San Francisco, 2012
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of States, co-authored with Stephen Moore, Rex A. Sinquefield, and Travis Brown, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2014.
The Pillars of Reaganomics: A Generation of Wisdom from Arthur Laffer and the Supply-Side Revolutionaries, edited by Brian Domitrovic, The Laffer Center at the Pacific Research Institute, San Francisco, 2014.
Handbook of Tobacco Taxation, The Laffer Center at the Pacific Research Institute, San Francisco, 2014.
Wealth of States: More Ways to Enhance Freedom, Opportunity and Growth, co-authored with Stephen Moore, Rex A. Sinquefield, and Travis Brown, 2017.
Trumponomics: Inside the America First Plan to Revive Our Economy. (with Stephen Moore). All Points Books, October 2018,
Laffer has written two children's books with Michelle A. Balconi: "Let’s Chat About Economics" (2014) and "Let’s Chat About Democracy" (2017).
References
External links
Jude Wanniski, "Sketching the Laffer Curve," The Yorktown Patriot (June 14, 2005)
1940 births
Economists from Ohio
Living people
People from Youngstown, Ohio
Stanford University alumni
Supply-side economists
University of Southern California faculty
Yale University alumni
California Republicans
Economists from California
21st-century American economists
Hawken School alumni
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients | [
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244073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPK%20%28band%29 | SPK (band) | SPK were an Australian industrial music and noise music group formed in 1978. They were fronted by mainstay member, Graeme Revell on keyboards and percussion. In 1980 the group travelled to the United Kingdom where they issued their debut album, Information Overload Unit. In 1983 Sinan Leong joined on lead vocals. The group disbanded in 1988. Two years later Revell and Leong relocated to the United States, where Revell works as a Hollywood film score composer. According to Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane, SPK were "at the forefront of the local post-punk, electronic/experimental movement of the late 1970s ... [their] music progressed from discordant, industrial-strength metal noise to sophisticated and restrained dance-rock with strange attributes".
History
SPK was formed in 1978 in Sydney when New Zealand-born Graeme Revell (a.k.a. "EMS AKS", "Operator", "Oblivion") met Neil Hill (a.k.a. "Ne/H/il"). Revell was working as a nurse on a psychiatric ward at Callan Park Hospital where Hill was also working. Hill and Revell shared a house and an interest in the manifesto of the German radical Marxist group known as the Sozialistisches Patientenkollektiv (SPK). The duo were influenced by Kraftwerk, Can, Neu!, Faust, and John Cage – they started playing their own variety of industrial music as SPK. According to rock music historian Ian McFarlane the acronym SPK is variously given as "SoliPsiK, SepPuKu, Surgical Penis Klinik, System Planning Korporation and Sozialistisches Patienten Kollektiv". The band recruited two teenagers, Danny Rumour (later of The Cruel Sea) on lead guitar and David Virgin on bass guitar (both ex-Ugly Mirrors, and went on to form Sekret Sekret), on early recordings by SPK in 1979. In that year they independently released three 7" pressings: SoliPsiK as a three-track extended play in April, "Factory" as a single in August and "Mekano" in November.
Dominik Guerin (a.k.a. "Tone Generator") joined on synthesisers in 1980, and later concentrated on the band's visual content. In May they issued an EP, Meat Processing Section, as Surgical Penis Klinik. Without Hill, SPK relocated to London where Guerin and Revell recorded their debut album, Information Overload Unit, in a Vauxhall squat with the help of Revell's brother Ashley Revell (a.k.a. "Mr.Clean") and Mike Wilkins (guitar, bass guitar, backing vocals). The album deals with psychotic states and mental retardation. The original 1981 release on Side Effects has a black cover with a small picture of head being operated on, the 1985 version on Normal is blue and pictures a man in a wheelchair and the 1992 CD reissue has System Planning Korporation with the initials SPK highlighted in red. McFarlane suggested "the album's harsh, thumping sound appealed to fans of Throbbing Gristle and early Cabaret Voltaire". In June 1980 they issued the single, "Slogun", with lyrics inspired by the Marxist manifesto: "Kill, Kill, Kill for inner peace / Bomb, Bomb, Bomb for mental health / Therapy through violence!" Other musicians working with SPK included James Pinker (drums, percussion) and Karel van Bergan (violin, vocals), who toured with them to the United States. In July 1981 in Australia, the M Squared label released another single, "See Saw". The cover depicts SoliPsiK with members given as Kitka (a.k.a. Kit Katalog), Sushi (a.k.a. Margaret Hill), Charlyiev (a.k.a. Paul Charlier) and Skorne (Neil Hill). Both tracks are co-written by Charlier and Hill.
In 1982 SPK's Guerin and Revell were joined by Brian Williams (a.k.a. Lustmord), John Murphy of Forresta di Ferro (a.k.a. "Kraang") and Derek Thompson (who later had a brief stint in The Cure and went on to record as Hoodlum Priest). SPK's second album, Leichenschrei (English: The Scream of the Corpse) (1982), shows Sozialistisches Patienten Kollektiv (English: Socialist Patients' Collective). After its recording they were joined by Sinan Leong on vocals, who had initially auditioned for a planned SPK side-project, Dance Macabre. Leong and Revell later married. In 1983 Thompson left SPK because Revell "wanted to make a very commercial sounding album which I did not". McFarlane found that "SPK had softened the approach somewhat with discernible synth melodies and dance beats coming to the fore amongst the noise". In August 1983, the group issued a compilation album, Auto Da Fé, showing SepPuKu written with SPK in red capital letters. It included three studio tracks recorded in 1981. Bush suggested the album was the "beginning of a more organized approach for SPK material, Auto Da-Fé presents an intriguing industrial-disco fusion, reminiscent of prime contemporary material by Cabaret Voltaire and DAF ... Although fans probably thought of [it] as an unconscionable crossover attempt, it's still quite experimental in retrospect". The three-track EP, Dekompositiones (also by SepPuKu) followed soon after. Its tracks were added to a later version of Auto Da Fé.
In early February 1984, just before his 28th birthday, Neil Hill committed suicide. Two days later his wife Margaret Hill (née Nikitenko) died as a result of complications from anorexia. In March SPK issued another single, "Metal Dance", which was co-written by Revell, Leong and Thompson. SPK returned to Australia for a tour and recorded their third album, Machine Age Voodoo, in Sydney which was issued in 1984 on WEA Records. For the album, SPK's Revell and Leong were joined by Jeff Bartolomei on keyboards, Mary Bradfield-Taylor on vocals, Graham Jesse on saxophone, James Kelly on guitar, Sam McNally on keyboards and Phil Scorgie on bass guitar. McFarlane saw the album as "mixed mainstream disco-pop and sweet vocals with electronic experimentation (sort of like Blondie meets Kraftwerk)". While Bush felt it was "another leap towards dance-rock and away from the group's industrial past". The album spawned a single, "Junk Funk" in 1985.
Leong and Revell returned to Australia and added Karina Hayes as vocalist. They issued Zamia Lehmanni: Songs of Byzantine Flowers in 1986 which provided a single, "In Flagrante Delicto". It was followed by Digitalis Ambigua: Gold & Poison in 1987. Allmusic's Sean Carruthers observed that Revell "was in a period of transition... [s]omewhere between the industrial noise of the early years and his later soundtrack work". In 1988, the band issued a live album, Oceania... In Performance 1987 but disbanded during the year. In 1989, Revell moved into work on scores and soundtracks. SPK's track "In Flagrante Delicto" was used by Revell for his work on the soundtrack for the 1989 film, Dead Calm. By 1991 Leong and Revell had moved to Los Angeles.
McFarlane regarded SPK to be "at the forefront of the local post-punk, electronic/experimental movement of the late 1970s ... [their] music progressed from discordant, industrial-strength metal noise to sophisticated and restrained dance-rock with strange attributes".
Initialism
The meaning of SPK is deliberately unclear; and some of the album covers suggest several different variations. The most well known is Sozialistisches Patienten Kollektiv, but there are also others, such as Surgical Penis Klinik, Suave Poronga Kinoto, System Planning Korporation, SepPuKu, Selective Pornography Kontrol, Special Programming Korps, Sushi Patata Kalabacita and SoliPsiK
Works
The most notable recordings of SPK are early: Information Overload Unit, Leichenschrei and Auto-da-fé. SPK's music is best described as disturbing and psychologically disorienting, in line with their nihilistic, subversive philosophy. Live performances included video backing (some of which was issued in two Twin Vison videos, Despair and Two Autopsy Films), transgressive performances with animal carcasses and other attempts to make the audience uncomfortable. The group issued manifestos, such as DoKuments 1 and 2, "The Post-Industrial Strategy", which appeared in RE/Search's Industrial Culture Handbook. There is a clear dichotomy between early industrial SPK (1978–83) and the more commercial music later favoured by Revell. Later releases, such as Machine Age Voodoo (1984), were more synthpop-oriented than industrial. Still later, the group moved into electronic orchestral work, with the release of Zamia Lehmanni: Songs of Byzantine Flowers (1986).
Discography
Albums
Information Overload Unit - LP/CD - 1981
Leichenschrei - LP/CD - 1982 (#14 UK Indie)
Machine Age Voodoo - LP - 1984
Zamia Lehmanni: Songs of Byzantine Flowers - LP/CD - 1986
Digitalis Ambigua: Gold & Poison - LP/CD - 1987
Oceania Live - LP/CD - 1988
Compilations
Auto-Da-Fé - LP/CD - 1983 (#11 UK Indie)
Box - CD - 1992
Singles, EPs, cassettes
"No More/Kontakt/Germanik" - Single - 1979
"Factory"/"Retard"/"Slogun" - Single - 1979
"Mekano/Kontakt/Slogun" - Single - 1979
"Meat Processing Section" EP (Slogun/Mekano) - Single – 1980 (#42 UK Indie)
"See Saw/Chambermusik" (as SoliPsiK) - Single - 1981
"At the Crypt" - Cassette - Sterile Records - 1981
"Last Attempt at Paradise" - Cassette - 1982
"Dekompositiones" - 12"EP - 1983
"From Science to Ritual" - Cassette - 1983
"Metal Dance" - Single - 1983 (#91 UK) (#5 UK Indie)
"Junk Funk" - Single - 1984 (#94 UK)
"Flesh & Steel" – Single - 1985
"In Flagrante Delicto" - Single – 1986
"Off the Deep End" - Single - 1987
"Breathless" - Single - 1987
Videos and films
"Despair" - SPK Video by Twin Vision - 1982
"Two Autopsy Films" - SPK Video by Twin Vision - 1983
"Despair" - Digitally extracted DVD by Twin Vision - 2007
References
External links
Australian electronic musicians
Australian industrial music groups
Dark ambient music groups
Musical groups established in 1978
Musical groups disestablished in 1988
Fresh Sounds Records artists
Mute Records artists
Nettwerk Records artists
Industrial Records artists | [
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244074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment%20of%20silence | Moment of silence | A moment of silence (also referred to as a minute's silence or a one-minute silence) is a period of silent contemplation, prayer, reflection, or meditation. Similar to flying a flag at half-mast, a moment of silence is often a gesture of respect, particularly in mourning for those who have died recently, or as part of a tragic historical event, such as Remembrance Day.
A minute, or 60 seconds, is a common length of time for the memorialization, though organizers may choose other periods of time, normally connected in some way with the event being commemorated (there might be a minute given for every death commemorated, for example). During a moment of silence, its participants may typically bow their heads, remove their hats, and refrain from speaking, or moving, for the duration of it.
Origins
The first recorded instance of an official moment of silence dedicated to a dead person took place in Portugal on February 13, 1912. The Portuguese Senate dedicated 10 minutes of silence to José Maria da Silva Paranhos Júnior, baron of Rio Branco, Brazil, and Minister of the Exterior of the Brazilian government, who'd died three days earlier on February 10. This moment of silence was registered in the Senate's records of that day.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Debates Parlamentares - Diário 039, p. 2 (1912-02-13)|url = http://debates.parlamento.pt/catalogo/r1/cs/01/01/02/039/1912-02-13/2|website = debates.parlamento.pt|access-date = 2016-01-01 |quote=O Sr. Presidente: Tenho de cumprir o doloroso dever de comunicar ao Senado o falecimento, no Rio de Janeiro, do Barão do Rio Branco, que ilustrou grandemente o seu nome, tanto pela maneira como dirigiu os negócios diplomáticos do Brasil como pela erudição manifestada nas suas obras, e que muito honrou a sua origem lusitana. (Apoiados gerais). Além disso devemos lembrar-nos de que o Barão do Rio Branco era Ministro do Govêrno que primeiro reconheceu a República Portuguesa. (Apoiados gerais). Por consideração, pois, para com todos êstes aspectos daquele vulto notável, proponho que a sessão seja interrompida durante 10 minutos, conservando-se os Srs. Senadores sentados nos seus lugares e silenciosos durante êsse espaço de tempo.' (Apoiados gerais). Às 14 horas e 45 minutos foi, portanto, suspensa a sessão, reabrindo-se às 14 e 55 minutos. The President: I must fulfill the painful duty of communicating to the Senate the death in Rio de Janeiro of the baron of Rio Branco, who made his name illustrious with the manner in which he conducted the diplomatic business of Brazil as well as with the erudition manifested in his work, and who honored his Portuguese origins with grandeur. Furthermore, we must remember that the baron of Rio Branco was a Minister of the government that first recognized the Portuguese Republic. Thus, in consideration of all these aspects related to this notable figure, I propose that the session be interrupted for 10 minutes, with the Senators remaining on their seats in silence for that period of time. At 14 hours and 45 minutes the session was therefore suspended, reopening at 14 hours and 55 minutes.}}</ref> In the same year, large parts of the United States kept a ceremonial silence to honour the dead of the Maine and the Titanic.
Examples
Many people in the Commonwealth of Nations observe the two-minute silence at 11:00am on November 11 each year (Armistice Day) to remember sacrifices of members of the armed forces and of civilians in times of war. In addition, a two minutes of silence is also observed in the United Kingdom on the second Sunday of November which is more recently known as Remembrance Sunday and is televised with a close up image of the Big Ben clock chiming 11 and the buglers sounding the Last Post at 11:02am.
In Australia and New Zealand, the ceremony was quickly adopted for commemorations held at dawn on ANZAC Day, 25 April. This moment of silence is held to remember the service men and women who lost their lives in WWI and subsequent conflicts.
In Israel, moments of silence are held in memory of the victims of the Holocaust on Yom HaShoah and in memory of fallen soldiers and of terrorist victims on the day before Israel's independence day.
In Japan, a minute of silence is observed (and televised nationally) at ceremonies every August in both Hiroshima and Nagasaki cities at the same time as the atomic bombings.
Moments of silence are often observed prior to other events including gatherings such as sports matches, with reasons for silences ranging from national and international tragedies or to the death of individuals connected to a group.
Silent prayer
Quakers have practiced silent worship for more than 300 years, believing that all people have the light of God within and that no priestly intercession is needed for the divine to speak. Silent worship in Quaker meetings is seldom entirely silent, and individuals speak as they are moved to by the spirit.
The larger society perhaps adopted the practice of silent prayer in public gatherings because silence contains no statements or assumptions concerning beliefs. Since it requires no understanding of language to interpret, it is more easily accepted and used than a spoken prayer or observance when persons of different religious and cultural backgrounds participate together. Today, the moment of silence is used to avoid offending people with religious pontification and to empower individuals to interpret the moment as they wish.
In the US colonial period, Pennsylvania Quakers did not worship together with non-Quakers, except those who might become converts. They were separatists and did not pray in ecumenical gatherings or in service to institutions.
In recent times the co-opting of Quaker-style silence for non-sectarian and non-controversial public observances has led to its almost universal use in the English-speaking world as well as in other plural societies. This is also the case within many secular institutions where diverse groups are expected to participate but not necessarily share beliefs - such as in government, schools, commercial companies and the military.
The use of a moment of silence to memorialize fallen soldiers or to allow private reflection in public schools, for example, was not introduced by Quakers themselves.
In US schools
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1962 that official organization, sponsorship, or endorsement of school prayer in public schools is forbidden by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Teachers and school officials may not lead classes in prayer, but prayer is permitted at voluntary religious clubs, and students are not prohibited from praying themselves. Other rulings have forbidden public, organized prayer at school assemblies, sporting events, and similar school-sponsored activities.
Public moments of silence in the United States both arise from and contribute to this debate over prayer and the separation of church and state. A moment of silence lacks any specific religious formulation, and therefore it has been presented as a way of creating reflection and respect without endorsing any particular religion.
President Ronald Reagan was a supporter of a moment of silence in American schools. In 1981 Reagan formally proposed a constitutional amendment permitting organized prayer in public schools. In his 1984 state of the union address, Reagan asked Congress, who begin their day with an invocation: "If you can begin your day with a member of the clergy standing right here leading you in prayer, then why can't freedom to acknowledge God be enjoyed again by children in every schoolroom across this land?" Colin Powell, a longtime advocate, has recommended a simple moment of silence at the start of each school day. Further, he states that students could use this interval to pray, meditate, contemplate or study.
However, critics often view the moment of silence as publicly endorsing prayer "in disguise". This issue has been especially raised by atheist groups and advocates, who argue that no non-religious purpose is served by designating an official moment of silence. Moments of silence point to the tension in the U.S. Constitution and society between accommodation and endorsement. Accommodation of religion is to ensure an environment where a person or student can practice their religion. A question with "moments of silence" laws is whether accommodation was already achieved by the fact that a student can pray or meditate on his/her own without an official moment of silence. Barry Lynn of Americans United for Separation of Church and State said, on a "moment of silence" case, "Students were already allowed to pray, meditate, or reflect under the statute before it was amended. The addition of the word 'pray' where it wasn't needed clearly shows that legislators intended to promote religion, and that's not their job." Courts have stated on these moments of silence cases that a secular purpose is necessary and according to Wallace v. Jaffree, a "statute must be invalidated if it is entirely motivated by a purpose to advance religion."
Although since 1976 the state Virginia law permitted school districts to implement 60 seconds of silence at the start of each school day, in 1985, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an Alabama "moment of silence or voluntary prayer" law was unconstitutional, in the case Wallace v. Jaffree''. In April 2000, a new law came into being; requiring all Virginian public school students to observe a moment of silence. Also, in 2005, a law was passed in Indiana requiring all public schools to give students a chance to say the pledge of allegiance and observe a moment of silence every day. In October 2007, Illinois enacted legislation to require public schools to provide students with a moment of silence at the start of the school day, a statute that is currently being challenged in Illinois state courts. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia also require such moments of quiet in the classroom. In more than 20 other states, teachers are allowed to decide whether they want such a classroom time-out.
In October 2000, the U.S. District Judge Claude M. Hilton ruled that the "moment of silence" law was constitutional. Judge Hilton stated, "The court finds that the Commonwealth's daily observance of one minute of silence act is constitutional. The act was enacted for a secular purpose, does not advance or inhibit religion, nor is there excessive entanglement with religion... Students may think as they wish – and this thinking can be purely religious in nature or purely secular in nature. All that is required is that they sit silently." His ruling was upheld in the 4th circuit. Others argued that the law was not enacted for a secular purpose, pointing to statements made by supporters of the legislation. State Senator Charles R. Hawkins (R-Pennsylvania) stated the moment of silence is "a very small measure to address a very large problem." He also said, "Prayer is not a bad word in my vocabulary." Kent Willis, Executive Director of the ACLU of Virginia, stated lawmakers are "at the very least placing Virginia law right on the line of separation of church and state or they are crossing it . . . the state is playing with fire here."
The American Civil Liberties Union was opposed to a proposed constitutional amendment by Newt Gingrich in the early 1990s which would have set aside a voluntary moment of prayer during the school day, which was later independently described by President Bill Clinton as a "moment of silence".
See also
Remembrance Day
Separation of church and state in the United States
Silent Minute
Two-minute silence
Vow of silence
References
External links
Nothing Really Matters, an article about the moment of silence by a Chabad rabbi
Moment of Silence lawsuit in Texas
Silence
Prayer
Meetings
Death customs
Acknowledgements of death
Website encourages schools in a Moment of Silence
Momentofsilence.info
MOS rebranded as a drug prevention tool
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] |
244077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Roman%20nomina | List of Roman nomina | This is a list of Roman nomina. Each nomen is for a gens, originally a single family, but later more of a political grouping.
A
B
Babrius
Baebius
Balventius
Bantius
Barbatius
Barrius
Bavius
Bellicius
Bellienus
Bellius
Betilienus
Betitius
Betucius
Betuus
Blandius
Blossius
Boionius
Bruttius
Bucculeius
Burbuleius
Burrienus
C
D
Decentius
Decidius
Decimius
Decitius
Decius
Dellius
Desticius — at least two governors known from inscriptions
Dexsius — L. Dexsius Longinus mentioned in an inscription of 119 AD
Didius
Digitius
Dillius
Domitius
Dubius
Duccius — inscriptions, notably on a tombstone of Lucius Duccius Rufinus at York
Duilius
Durmius
Duronius
E
Eggius
Egilius
Egnatius
Egnatuleius
Egrilius
Elvius
Ennius
Epidius
Eppius
Equitius
Erucius
Expentanius
F
G
Gabinius
Galerius
Gallius
Gargonius
Gavius
Geganius
Gellius
Geminius
Genucius
Gessius
Glicius
Granius
Gratidius
Gratius
H
Haterius
Heius
Helvidius
Helvius
Herennius
Herennuleius
Herminius
Hirrius
Hirtius
Hirtuleius
Horatius
Hordeonius
Hortensius
Hosidius
Hostilius
Hostius
I–J
Iccius
Icilius
Insteius
Jallius
Julius
Junius
Juventius
L
M
N
Naevius
Nasennius
Nasidienus
Nasidius
Nautius
Neratius
Nerfinius
Nerius
Nigidius
Ninnius
Nipius
Nonius
Norbanus
Novellius
Novius
Numerius
Numicius
Numisius
Numitorius
Nummius
Numonius
Nymphidius
O
P
Q-R
Quartinius
Quartius
Quinctilius
Quinctius
Quirinius
Rabirius
Rabonius
Rabuleius
Racilius
Raecius
Ragonius
Rammius
Ranius
Rasinius
Reginius
Remmius
Rennius
Resius
Romanius
Romilius or Romulius
Romogillius
Roscius
Rubellius
Rubrenus
Rubrius
Rufinius
Rufius
Rufrius
Rullius
Rupilius
Rusonius
Rusticelius
Rustius
Rutilius
S
T
Tadius
Tanicius — inscriptions, including a prefect Lucius Tanicius Verus at Cadder in Britain
Tanusius
Tapsenna
Tarpeius
Tarquinius
Tarquitius
Terrasidius
Terentilius
Terentius
Tertinius — inscriptions, Tertinius Severus of Legio VIII Augusta
Tettidius — inscriptions
Tettiedius
Tettienus — inscriptions, suffect consul Galeo Tettienus Petronianus in 76
Tettius
Thorius
Tigellius
Tineius
Titanius
Titinius
Titius
Titurius
Tonantius
Trebatius
Trebellius
Trebius
Treblanus
Trebonius
Tremellius — quaestor Lucius Tremellius 143 BC, praetor Gaius Tremellius Scrofa 52 BC
Tuccius
Tullius
Turallasius
Turius
Turpilius
Turullius
U-V
See also
List of Roman gentes
Roman naming conventions
Praenomen
List of Roman cognomina
Roman victory title
List of Imperial Roman victory titles
Roman tribe
Roman Republic
Roman Empire
References
Names nomina | [
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244078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global%20financial%20system | Global financial system | The global financial system is the worldwide framework of legal agreements, institutions, and both formal and informal economic actors that together facilitate international flows of financial capital for purposes of investment and trade financing. Since emerging in the late 19th century during the first modern wave of economic globalization, its evolution is marked by the establishment of central banks, multilateral treaties, and intergovernmental organizations aimed at improving the transparency, regulation, and effectiveness of international markets. In the late 1800s, world migration and communication technology facilitated unprecedented growth in international trade and investment. At the onset of World War I, trade contracted as foreign exchange markets became paralyzed by money market illiquidity. Countries sought to defend against external shocks with protectionist policies and trade virtually halted by 1933, worsening the effects of the global Great Depression until a series of reciprocal trade agreements slowly reduced tariffs worldwide. Efforts to revamp the international monetary system after World War II improved exchange rate stability, fostering record growth in global finance.
A series of currency devaluations and oil crises in the 1970s led most countries to float their currencies. The world economy became increasingly financially integrated in the 1980s and 1990s due to capital account liberalization and financial deregulation. A series of financial crises in Europe, Asia, and Latin America followed with contagious effects due to greater exposure to volatile capital flows. The global financial crisis, which originated in the United States in 2007, quickly propagated among other nations and is recognized as the catalyst for the worldwide Great Recession. A market adjustment to Greece's noncompliance with its monetary union in 2009 ignited a sovereign debt crisis among European nations known as the Eurozone crisis. The history of international finance shows a U-shaped pattern in international capital flows: high prior to 1914 after 1989, but lower in between. The volatility of capital flows has been greater since the 1970s than in previous periods.
A country's decision to operate an open economy and globalize its financial capital carries monetary implications captured by the balance of payments. It also renders exposure to risks in international finance, such as political deterioration, regulatory changes, foreign exchange controls, and legal uncertainties for property rights and investments. Both individuals and groups may participate in the global financial system. Consumers and international businesses undertake consumption, production, and investment. Governments and intergovernmental bodies act as purveyors of international trade, economic development, and crisis management. Regulatory bodies establish financial regulations and legal procedures, while independent bodies facilitate industry supervision. Research institutes and other associations analyze data, publish reports and policy briefs, and host public discourse on global financial affairs.
While the global financial system is edging toward greater stability, governments must deal with differing regional or national needs. Some nations are trying to systematically discontinue unconventional monetary policies installed to cultivate recovery, while others are expanding their scope and scale. Emerging market policymakers face a challenge of precision as they must carefully institute sustainable macroeconomic policies during extraordinary market sensitivity without provoking investors to retreat their capital to stronger markets. Nations' inability to align interests and achieve international consensus on matters such as banking regulation has perpetuated the risk of future global financial catastrophes. Thereby, necessitating initiative like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 aimed at improving regulation and monitoring of global financial systems.
History of international financial architecture
Emergence of financial globalization: 1870–1914
The world experienced substantial changes in the late 19th century which created an environment favorable to an increase in and development of international financial centers. Principal among such changes were unprecedented growth in capital flows and the resulting rapid financial center integration, as well as faster communication. Before 1870, London and Paris existed as the world's only prominent financial centers. Soon after, Berlin and New York grew to become major centres providing financial services for their national economies. An array of smaller international financial centers became important as they found market niches, such as Amsterdam, Brussels, Zurich, and Geneva. London remained the leading international financial center in the four decades leading up to World War I.
The first modern wave of economic globalization began during the period of 1870–1914, marked by transportation expansion, record levels of migration, enhanced communications, trade expansion, and growth in capital transfers. During the mid-nineteenth century, the passport system in Europe dissolved as rail transport expanded rapidly. Most countries issuing passports did not require their carry, thus people could travel freely without them. The standardization of international passports would not arise until 1980 under the guidance of the United Nations' International Civil Aviation Organization. From 1870 to 1915, 36 million Europeans migrated away from Europe. Approximately 25 million (or 70%) of these travelers migrated to the United States, while most of the rest reached Canada, Australia and Brazil. Europe itself experienced an influx of foreigners from 1860 to 1910, growing from 0.7% of the population to 1.8%. While the absence of meaningful passport requirements allowed for free travel, migration on such an enormous scale would have been prohibitively difficult if not for technological advances in transportation, particularly the expansion of railway travel and the dominance of steam-powered boats over traditional sailing ships. World railway mileage grew from 205,000 kilometers in 1870 to 925,000 kilometers in 1906, while steamboat cargo tonnage surpassed that of sailboats in the 1890s. Advancements such as the telephone and wireless telegraphy (the precursor to radio) revolutionized telecommunication by providing instantaneous communication. In 1866, the first transatlantic cable was laid beneath the ocean to connect London and New York, while Europe and Asia became connected through new landlines.
Economic globalization grew under free trade, starting in 1860 when the United Kingdom entered into a free trade agreement with France known as the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty. However, the golden age of this wave of globalization endured a return to protectionism between 1880 and 1914. In 1879, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced protective tariffs on agricultural and manufacturing goods, making Germany the first nation to institute new protective trade policies. In 1892, France introduced the Méline tariff, greatly raising customs duties on both agricultural and manufacturing goods. The United States maintained strong protectionism during most of the nineteenth century, imposing customs duties between 40 and 50% on imported goods. Despite these measures, international trade continued to grow without slowing. Paradoxically, foreign trade grew at a much faster rate during the protectionist phase of the first wave of globalization than during the free trade phase sparked by the United Kingdom.
Unprecedented growth in foreign investment from the 1880s to the 1900s served as the core driver of financial globalization. The worldwide total of capital invested abroad amounted to US$44 billion in 1913 ($1.02 trillion in 2012 dollars), with the greatest share of foreign assets held by the United Kingdom (42%), France (20%), Germany (13%), and the United States (8%). The Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland together held foreign investments on par with Germany at around 12%.
Panic of 1907
In October 1907, the United States experienced a bank run on the Knickerbocker Trust Company, forcing the trust to close on October 23, 1907, provoking further reactions. The panic was alleviated when U.S. Secretary of the Treasury George B. Cortelyou and John Pierpont "J.P." Morgan deposited $25 million and $35 million, respectively, into the reserve banks of New York City, enabling withdrawals to be fully covered. The bank run in New York led to a money market crunch which occurred simultaneously as demands for credit heightened from cereal and grain exporters. Since these demands could only be serviced through the purchase of substantial quantities of gold in London, the international markets became exposed to the crisis. The Bank of England had to sustain an artificially high discount lending rate until 1908. To service the flow of gold to the United States, the Bank of England organized a pool from among twenty-four nations, for which the Banque de France temporarily lent £3 million (GBP, 305.6 million in 2012 GBP) in gold.
Birth of the U.S. Federal Reserve System: 1913
The United States Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act in 1913, giving rise to the Federal Reserve System. Its inception drew influence from the Panic of 1907, underpinning legislators' hesitance in trusting individual investors, such as John Pierpont Morgan, to serve again as a lender of last resort. The system's design also considered the findings of the Pujo Committee's investigation of the possibility of a money trust in which Wall Street's concentration of influence over national financial matters was questioned and in which investment bankers were suspected of unusually deep involvement in the directorates of manufacturing corporations. Although the committee's findings were inconclusive, the very possibility was enough to motivate support for the long-resisted notion of establishing a central bank. The Federal Reserve's overarching aim was to become the sole lender of last resort and to resolve the inelasticity of the United States' money supply during significant shifts in money demand. In addition to addressing the underlying issues that precipitated the international ramifications of the 1907 money market crunch, New York's banks were liberated from the need to maintain their own reserves and began undertaking greater risks. New access to rediscount facilities enabled them to launch foreign branches, bolstering New York's rivalry with London's competitive discount market.
Interwar period: 1915–1944
Economists have referred to the onset of World War I as the end of an age of innocence for foreign exchange markets, as it was the first geopolitical conflict to have a destabilizing and paralyzing impact. The United Kingdom declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914 following Germany's invasion of France and Belgium. In the weeks prior, the foreign exchange market in London was the first to exhibit distress. European tensions and increasing political uncertainty motivated investors to chase liquidity, prompting commercial banks to borrow heavily from London's discount market. As the money market tightened, discount lenders began rediscounting their reserves at the Bank of England rather than discounting new pounds sterling. The Bank of England was forced to raise discount rates daily for three days from 3% on July 30 to 10% by August 1. As foreign investors resorted to buying pounds for remittance to London just to pay off their newly maturing securities, the sudden demand for pounds led the pound to appreciate beyond its gold value against most major currencies, yet sharply depreciate against the French franc after French banks began liquidating their London accounts. Remittance to London became increasingly difficult and culminated in a record exchange rate of US$6.50/GBP. Emergency measures were introduced in the form of moratoria and extended bank holidays, but to no effect as financial contracts became informally unable to be negotiated and export embargoes thwarted gold shipments. A week later, the Bank of England began to address the deadlock in the foreign exchange markets by establishing a new channel for transatlantic payments whereby participants could make remittance payments to the U.K. by depositing gold designated for a Bank of England account with Canada's Minister of Finance, and in exchange receive pounds sterling at an exchange rate of $4.90. Approximately US$104 million in remittances flowed through this channel in the next two months. However, pound sterling liquidity ultimately did not improve due to inadequate relief for merchant banks receiving sterling bills. As the pound sterling was the world's reserve currency and leading vehicle currency, market illiquidity and merchant banks' hesitance to accept sterling bills left currency markets paralyzed.
The U.K. government attempted several measures to revive the London foreign exchange market, the most notable of which were implemented on September 5 to extend the previous moratorium through October and allow the Bank of England to temporarily loan funds to be paid back upon the end of the war in an effort to settle outstanding or unpaid acceptances for currency transactions. By mid-October, the London market began functioning properly as a result of the September measures. The war continued to present unfavorable circumstances for the foreign exchange market, such as the London Stock Exchange's prolonged closure, the redirection of economic resources to support a transition from producing exports to producing military armaments, and myriad disruptions of freight and mail. The pound sterling enjoyed general stability throughout World War I, in large part due to various steps taken by the U.K. government to influence the pound's value in ways that yet provided individuals with the freedom to continue trading currencies. Such measures included open market interventions on foreign exchange, borrowing in foreign currencies rather than in pounds sterling to finance war activities, outbound capital controls, and limited import restrictions.
In 1930, the Allied powers established the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). The principal purposes of the BIS were to manage the scheduled payment of Germany's reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, and to function as a bank for central banks around the world. Nations may hold a portion of their reserves as deposits with the institution. It also serves as a forum for central bank cooperation and research on international monetary and financial matters. The BIS also operates as a general trustee and facilitator of financial settlements between nations.
Smoot–Hawley tariff of 1930
U.S. President Herbert Hoover signed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into law on June 17, 1930. The tariff's aim was to protect agriculture in the United States, but congressional representatives ultimately raised tariffs on a host of manufactured goods resulting in average duties as high as 53% on over a thousand various goods. Twenty-five trading partners responded in kind by introducing new tariffs on a wide range of U.S. goods. Hoover was pressured and compelled to adhere to the Republican Party's 1928 platform, which sought protective tariffs to alleviate market pressures on the nation's struggling agribusinesses and reduce the domestic unemployment rate. The culmination of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression heightened fears, further pressuring Hoover to act on protective policies against the advice of Henry Ford and over 1,000 economists who protested by calling for a veto of the act. Exports from the United States plummeted 60% from 1930 to 1933. Worldwide international trade virtually ground to a halt. The international ramifications of the Smoot-Hawley tariff, comprising protectionist and discriminatory trade policies and bouts of economic nationalism, are credited by economists with prolongment and worldwide propagation of the Great Depression.
Formal abandonment of the Gold Standard
The classical gold standard was established in 1821 by the United Kingdom as the Bank of England enabled redemption of its banknotes for gold bullion. France, Germany, the United States, Russia, and Japan each embraced the standard one by one from 1878 to 1897, marking its international acceptance. The first departure from the standard occurred in August 1914 when these nations erected trade embargoes on gold exports and suspended redemption of gold for banknotes. Following the end of World War I on November 11, 1918, Austria, Hungary, Germany, Russia, and Poland began experiencing hyperinflation. Having informally departed from the standard, most currencies were freed from exchange rate fixing and allowed to float. Most countries throughout this period sought to gain national advantages and bolster exports by depreciating their currency values to predatory levels. A number of countries, including the United States, made unenthusiastic and uncoordinated attempts to restore the former gold standard. The early years of the Great Depression brought about bank runs in the United States, Austria, and Germany, which placed pressures on gold reserves in the United Kingdom to such a degree that the gold standard became unsustainable. Germany became the first nation to formally abandon the post-World War I gold standard when the Dresdner Bank implemented foreign exchange controls and announced bankruptcy on July 15, 1931. In September 1931, the United Kingdom allowed the pound sterling to float freely. By the end of 1931, a host of countries including Austria, Canada, Japan, and Sweden abandoned gold. Following widespread bank failures and a hemorrhaging of gold reserves, the United States broke free of the gold standard in April 1933. France would not follow suit until 1936 as investors fled from the franc due to political concerns over Prime Minister Léon Blum's government.
Trade liberalization in the United States
The disastrous effects of the Smoot–Hawley tariff proved difficult for Herbert Hoover's 1932 re-election campaign. Franklin D. Roosevelt became the 32nd U.S. president and the Democratic Party worked to reverse trade protectionism in favor of trade liberalization. As an alternative to cutting tariffs across all imports, Democrats advocated for trade reciprocity. The U.S. Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934, aimed at restoring global trade and reducing unemployment. The legislation expressly authorized President Roosevelt to negotiate bilateral trade agreements and reduce tariffs considerably. If a country agreed to cut tariffs on certain commodities, the U.S. would institute corresponding cuts to promote trade between the two nations. Between 1934 and 1947, the U.S. negotiated 29 such agreements and the average tariff rate decreased by approximately one third during this same period. The legislation contained an important most-favored-nation clause, through which tariffs were equalized to all countries, such that trade agreements would not result in preferential or discriminatory tariff rates with certain countries on any particular import, due to the difficulties and inefficiencies associated with differential tariff rates. The clause effectively generalized tariff reductions from bilateral trade agreements, ultimately reducing worldwide tariff rates.
Rise of the Bretton Woods financial order: 1945
As the inception of the United Nations as an intergovernmental entity slowly began formalizing in 1944, delegates from 44 of its early member states met at a hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, now commonly referred to as the Bretton Woods conference. Delegates remained cognizant of the effects of the Great Depression, struggles to sustain the international gold standard during the 1930s, and related market instabilities. Whereas previous discourse on the international monetary system focused on fixed versus floating exchange rates, Bretton Woods delegates favored pegged exchange rates for their flexibility. Under this system, nations would peg their exchange rates to the U.S. dollar, which would be convertible to gold at US$35 per ounce. This arrangement is commonly referred to as the Bretton Woods system. Rather than maintaining fixed rates, nations would peg their currencies to the U.S. dollar and allow their exchange rates to fluctuate within a 1% band of the agreed-upon parity. To meet this requirement, central banks would intervene via sales or purchases of their currencies against the dollar.
Members could adjust their pegs in response to long-run fundamental disequillibria in the balance of payments, but were responsible for correcting imbalances via fiscal and monetary policy tools before resorting to repegging strategies. The adjustable pegging enabled greater exchange rate stability for commercial and financial transactions which fostered unprecedented growth in international trade and foreign investment. This feature grew from delegates' experiences in the 1930s when excessively volatile exchange rates and the reactive protectionist exchange controls that followed proved destructive to trade and prolonged the deflationary effects of the Great Depression. Capital mobility faced de facto limits under the system as governments instituted restrictions on capital flows and aligned their monetary policy to support their pegs.
An important component of the Bretton Woods agreements was the creation of two new international financial institutions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). Collectively referred to as the Bretton Woods institutions, they became operational in 1947 and 1946 respectively. The IMF was established to support the monetary system by facilitating cooperation on international monetary issues, providing advisory and technical assistance to members, and offering emergency lending to nations experiencing repeated difficulties restoring the balance of payments equilibrium. Members would contribute funds to a pool according to their share of gross world product, from which emergency loans could be issued.
Member states were authorized and encouraged to employ capital controls as necessary to manage payments imbalances and meet pegging targets, but prohibited from relying on IMF financing to cover particularly short-term capital hemorrhages. While the IMF was instituted to guide members and provide a short-term financing window for recurrent balance of payments deficits, the IBRD was established to serve as a type of financial intermediary for channeling global capital toward long-term investment opportunities and postwar reconstruction projects. The creation of these organizations was a crucial milestone in the evolution of the international financial architecture, and some economists consider it the most significant achievement of multilateral cooperation following World War II. Since the establishment of the International Development Association (IDA) in 1960, the IBRD and IDA are together known as the World Bank. While the IBRD lends to middle-income developing countries, the IDA extends the Bank's lending program by offering concessional loans and grants to the world's poorest nations.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: 1947
In 1947, 23 countries concluded the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) at a UN conference in Geneva. Delegates intended the agreement to suffice while member states would negotiate creation of a UN body to be known as the International Trade Organization (ITO). As the ITO never became ratified, GATT became the de facto framework for later multilateral trade negotiations. Members emphasized trade reprocity as an approach to lowering barriers in pursuit of mutual gains. The agreement's structure enabled its signatories to codify and enforce regulations for trading of goods and services. GATT was centered on two precepts: trade relations needed to be equitable and nondiscriminatory, and subsidizing non-agricultural exports needed to be prohibited. As such, the agreement's most favored nation clause prohibited members from offering preferential tariff rates to any nation that it would not otherwise offer to fellow GATT members. In the event of any discovery of non-agricultural subsidies, members were authorized to offset such policies by enacting countervailing tariffs. The agreement provided governments with a transparent structure for managing trade relations and avoiding protectionist pressures. However, GATT's principles did not extend to financial activity, consistent with the era's rigid discouragement of capital movements. The agreement's initial round achieved only limited success in reducing tariffs. While the U.S. reduced its tariffs by one third, other signatories offered much smaller trade concessions.
Resurgence of financial globalization
Flexible exchange rate regimes: 1973–present
Although the exchange rate stability sustained by the Bretton Woods system facilitated expanding international trade, this early success masked its underlying design flaw, wherein there existed no mechanism for increasing the supply of international reserves to support continued growth in trade. The system began experiencing insurmountable market pressures and deteriorating cohesion among its key participants in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Central banks needed more U.S. dollars to hold as reserves, but were unable to expand their money supplies if doing so meant exceeding their dollar reserves and threatening their exchange rate pegs. To accommodate these needs, the Bretton Woods system depended on the United States to run dollar deficits. As a consequence, the dollar's value began exceeding its gold backing. During the early 1960s, investors could sell gold for a greater dollar exchange rate in London than in the United States, signaling to market participants that the dollar was overvalued. Belgian-American economist Robert Triffin defined this problem now known as the Triffin dilemma, in which a country's national economic interests conflict with its international objectives as the custodian of the world's reserve currency.
France voiced concerns over the artificially low price of gold in 1968 and called for returns to the former gold standard. Meanwhile, excess dollars flowed into international markets as the United States expanded its money supply to accommodate the costs of its military campaign in the Vietnam War. Its gold reserves were assaulted by speculative investors following its first current account deficit since the 19th century. In August 1971, President Richard Nixon suspended the exchange of U.S. dollars for gold as part of the Nixon Shock. The closure of the gold window effectively shifted the adjustment burdens of a devalued dollar to other nations. Speculative traders chased other currencies and began selling dollars in anticipation of these currencies being revalued against the dollar. These influxes of capital presented difficulties to foreign central banks, which then faced choosing among inflationary money supplies, largely ineffective capital controls, or floating exchange rates. Following these woes surrounding the U.S. dollar, the dollar price of gold was raised to US$38 per ounce and the Bretton Woods system was modified to allow fluctuations within an augmented band of 2.25% as part of the Smithsonian Agreement signed by the G-10 members in December 1971. The agreement delayed the system's demise for a further two years. The system's erosion was expedited not only by the dollar devaluations that occurred, but also by the oil crises of the 1970s which emphasized the importance of international financial markets in petrodollar recycling and balance of payments financing. Once the world's reserve currency began to float, other nations began adopting floating exchange rate regimes.
Post-Bretton Woods financial order: 1976
As part of the first amendment to its articles of agreement in 1969, the IMF developed a new reserve instrument called special drawing rights (SDRs), which could be held by central banks and exchanged among themselves and the Fund as an alternative to gold. SDRs entered service in 1970 originally as units of a market basket of sixteen major vehicle currencies of countries whose share of total world exports exceeded 1%. The basket's composition changed over time and presently consists of the U.S. dollar, euro, Japanese yen, Chinese yuan, and British pound. Beyond holding them as reserves, nations can denominate transactions among themselves and the Fund in SDRs, although the instrument is not a vehicle for trade. In international transactions, the currency basket's portfolio characteristic affords greater stability against the uncertainties inherent with free floating exchange rates. Special drawing rights were originally equivalent to a specified amount of gold, but were not directly redeemable for gold and instead served as a surrogate in obtaining other currencies that could be exchanged for gold. The Fund initially issued 9.5 billion XDR from 1970 to 1972.
IMF members signed the Jamaica Agreement in January 1976, which ratified the end of the Bretton Woods system and reoriented the Fund's role in supporting the international monetary system. The agreement officially embraced the flexible exchange rate regimes that emerged after the failure of the Smithsonian Agreement measures. In tandem with floating exchange rates, the agreement endorsed central bank interventions aimed at clearing excessive volatility. The agreement retroactively formalized the abandonment of gold as a reserve instrument and the Fund subsequently demonetized its gold reserves, returning gold to members or selling it to provide poorer nations with relief funding. Developing countries and countries not endowed with oil export resources enjoyed greater access to IMF lending programs as a result. The Fund continued assisting nations experiencing balance of payments deficits and currency crises, but began imposing conditionality on its funding that required countries to adopt policies aimed at reducing deficits through spending cuts and tax increases, reducing protective trade barriers, and contractionary monetary policy.
The second amendment to the articles of agreement was signed in 1978. It legally formalized the free-floating acceptance and gold demonetization achieved by the Jamaica Agreement, and required members to support stable exchange rates through macroeconomic policy. The post-Bretton Woods system was decentralized in that member states retained autonomy in selecting an exchange rate regime. The amendment also expanded the institution's capacity for oversight and charged members with supporting monetary sustainability by cooperating with the Fund on regime implementation. This role is called IMF surveillance and is recognized as a pivotal point in the evolution of the Fund's mandate, which was extended beyond balance of payments issues to broader concern with internal and external stresses on countries' overall economic policies.
Under the dominance of flexible exchange rate regimes, the foreign exchange markets became significantly more volatile. In 1980, newly elected U.S. President Ronald Reagan's administration brought about increasing balance of payments deficits and budget deficits. To finance these deficits, the United States offered artificially high real interest rates to attract large inflows of foreign capital. As foreign investors' demand for U.S. dollars grew, the dollar's value appreciated substantially until reaching its peak in February 1985. The U.S. trade deficit grew to $160 billion in 1985 ($341 billion in 2012 dollars) as a result of the dollar's strong appreciation. The G5 met in September 1985 at the Plaza Hotel in New York City and agreed that the dollar should depreciate against the major currencies to resolve the United States' trade deficit and pledged to support this goal with concerted foreign exchange market interventions, in what became known as the Plaza Accord. The U.S. dollar continued to depreciate, but industrialized nations became increasingly concerned that it would decline too heavily and that exchange rate volatility would increase. To address these concerns, the G7 (now G8) held a summit in Paris in 1987, where they agreed to pursue improved exchange rate stability and better coordinate their macroeconomic policies, in what became known as the Louvre Accord. This accord became the provenance of the managed float regime by which central banks jointly intervene to resolve under- and overvaluations in the foreign exchange market to stabilize otherwise freely floating currencies. Exchange rates stabilized following the embrace of managed floating during the 1990s, with a strong U.S. economic performance from 1997 to 2000 during the Dot-com bubble. After the 2000 stock market correction of the Dot-com bubble the country's trade deficit grew, the September 11 attacks increased political uncertainties, and the dollar began to depreciate in 2001.
European Monetary System: 1979
Following the Smithsonian Agreement, member states of the European Economic Community adopted a narrower currency band of 1.125% for exchange rates among their own currencies, creating a smaller scale fixed exchange rate system known as the snake in the tunnel. The snake proved unsustainable as it did not compel EEC countries to coordinate macroeconomic policies. In 1979, the European Monetary System (EMS) phased out the currency snake. The EMS featured two key components: the European Currency Unit (ECU), an artificial weighted average market basket of European Union members' currencies, and the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), a procedure for managing exchange rate fluctuations in keeping with a calculated parity grid of currencies' par values.
The parity grid was derived from parities each participating country established for its currency with all other currencies in the system, denominated in terms of ECUs. The weights within the ECU changed in response to variances in the values of each currency in its basket. Under the ERM, if an exchange rate reached its upper or lower limit (within a 2.25% band), both nations in that currency pair were obligated to intervene collectively in the foreign exchange market and buy or sell the under- or overvalued currency as necessary to return the exchange rate to its par value according to the parity matrix. The requirement of cooperative market intervention marked a key difference from the Bretton Woods system. Similarly to Bretton Woods however, EMS members could impose capital controls and other monetary policy shifts on countries responsible for exchange rates approaching their bounds, as identified by a divergence indicator which measured deviations from the ECU's value. The central exchange rates of the parity grid could be adjusted in exceptional circumstances, and were modified every eight months on average during the systems' initial four years of operation. During its twenty-year lifespan, these central rates were adjusted over 50 times.
Birth of the World Trade Organization: 1994
The Uruguay Round of GATT multilateral trade negotiations took place from 1986 to 1994, with 123 nations becoming party to agreements achieved throughout the negotiations. Among the achievements were trade liberalization in agricultural goods and textiles, the General Agreement on Trade in Services, and agreements on intellectual property rights issues. The key manifestation of this round was the Marrakech Agreement signed in April 1994, which established the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO is a chartered multilateral trade organization, charged with continuing the GATT mandate to promote trade, govern trade relations, and prevent damaging trade practices or policies. It became operational in January 1995. Compared with its GATT secretariat predecessor, the WTO features an improved mechanism for settling trade disputes since the organization is membership-based and not dependent on consensus as in traditional trade negotiations. This function was designed to address prior weaknesses, whereby parties in dispute would invoke delays, obstruct negotiations, or fall back on weak enforcement. In 1997, WTO members reached an agreement which committed to softer restrictions on commercial financial services, including banking services, securities trading, and insurance services. These commitments entered into force in March 1999, consisting of 70 governments accounting for approximately 95% of worldwide financial services.
Financial integration and systemic crises: 1980–present
Financial integration among industrialized nations grew substantially during the 1980s and 1990s, as did liberalization of their capital accounts. Integration among financial markets and banks rendered benefits such as greater productivity and the broad sharing of risk in the macroeconomy. The resulting interdependence also carried a substantive cost in terms of shared vulnerabilities and increased exposure to systemic risks. Accompanying financial integration in recent decades was a succession of deregulation, in which countries increasingly abandoned regulations over the behavior of financial intermediaries and simplified requirements of disclosure to the public and to regulatory authorities. As economies became more open, nations became increasingly exposed to external shocks. Economists have argued greater worldwide financial integration has resulted in more volatile capital flows, thereby increasing the potential for financial market turbulence. Given greater integration among nations, a systemic crisis in one can easily infect others.
The 1980s and 1990s saw a wave of currency crises and sovereign defaults, including the 1987 Black Monday stock market crashes, 1992 European Monetary System crisis, 1994 Mexican peso crisis, 1997 Asian currency crisis, 1998 Russian financial crisis, and the 1998–2002 Argentine peso crisis. These crises differed in terms of their breadth, causes, and aggravations, among which were capital flights brought about by speculative attacks on fixed exchange rate currencies perceived to be mispriced given a nation's fiscal policy, self-fulfilling speculative attacks by investors expecting other investors to follow suit given doubts about a nation's currency peg, lack of access to developed and functioning domestic capital markets in emerging market countries, and current account reversals during conditions of limited capital mobility and dysfunctional banking systems.
Following research of systemic crises that plagued developing countries throughout the 1990s, economists have reached a consensus that liberalization of capital flows carries important prerequisites if these countries are to observe the benefits offered by financial globalization. Such conditions include stable macroeconomic policies, healthy fiscal policy, robust bank regulations, and strong legal protection of property rights. Economists largely favor adherence to an organized sequence of encouraging foreign direct investment, liberalizing domestic equity capital, and embracing capital outflows and short-term capital mobility only once the country has achieved functioning domestic capital markets and established a sound regulatory framework. An emerging market economy must develop a credible currency in the eyes of both domestic and international investors to realize benefits of globalization such as greater liquidity, greater savings at higher interest rates, and accelerated economic growth. If a country embraces unrestrained access to foreign capital markets without maintaining a credible currency, it becomes vulnerable to speculative capital flights and sudden stops, which carry serious economic and social costs.
Countries sought to improve the sustainability and transparency of the global financial system in response to crises in the 1980s and 1990s. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision was formed in 1974 by the G-10 members' central bank governors to facilitate cooperation on the supervision and regulation of banking practices. It is headquartered at the Bank for International Settlements in Basel, Switzerland. The committee has held several rounds of deliberation known collectively as the Basel Accords. The first of these accords, known as Basel I, took place in 1988 and emphasized credit risk and the assessment of different asset classes. Basel I was motivated by concerns over whether large multinational banks were appropriately regulated, stemming from observations during the 1980s Latin American debt crisis. Following Basel I, the committee published recommendations on new capital requirements for banks, which the G-10 nations implemented four years later. In 1999, the G-10 established the Financial Stability Forum (reconstituted by the G-20 in 2009 as the Financial Stability Board) to facilitate cooperation among regulatory agencies and promote stability in the global financial system. The Forum was charged with developing and codifying twelve international standards and implementation thereof.
The Basel II accord was set in 2004 and again emphasized capital requirements as a safeguard against systemic risk as well as the need for global consistency in banking regulations so as not to competitively disadvantage banks operating internationally. It was motivated by what were seen as inadequacies of the first accord such as insufficient public disclosure of banks' risk profiles and oversight by regulatory bodies. Members were slow to implement it, with major efforts by the European Union and United States taking place as late as 2007 and 2008. In 2010, the Basel Committee revised the capital requirements in a set of enhancements to Basel II known as Basel III, which centered on a leverage ratio requirement aimed at restricting excessive leveraging by banks. In addition to strengthening the ratio, Basel III modified the formulas used to weight risk and compute the capital thresholds necessary to mitigate the risks of bank holdings, concluding the capital threshold should be set at 7% of the value of a bank's risk-weighted assets.
Birth of the European Economic and Monetary Union 1992
In February 1992, European Union countries signed the Maastricht Treaty which outlined a three-stage plan to accelerate progress toward an Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The first stage centered on liberalizing capital mobility and aligning macroeconomic policies between countries. The second stage established the European Monetary Institute which was ultimately dissolved in tandem with the establishment in 1998 of the European Central Bank (ECB) and European System of Central Banks. Key to the Maastricht Treaty was the outlining of convergence criteria that EU members would need to satisfy before being permitted to proceed. The third and final stage introduced a common currency for circulation known as the Euro, adopted by eleven of then-fifteen members of the European Union in January 1999. In doing so, they disaggregated their sovereignty in matters of monetary policy. These countries continued to circulate their national legal tenders, exchangeable for euros at fixed rates, until 2002 when the ECB began issuing official Euro coins and notes. , the EMU comprises 17 nations which have issued the Euro, and 11 non-Euro states.
Global financial crisis
Following the market turbulence of the 1990s financial crises and September 11 attacks on the U.S. in 2001, financial integration intensified among developed nations and emerging markets, with substantial growth in capital flows among banks and in the trading of financial derivatives and structured finance products. Worldwide international capital flows grew from $3 trillion to $11 trillion U.S. dollars from 2002 to 2007, primarily in the form of short-term money market instruments. The United States experienced growth in the size and complexity of firms engaged in a broad range of financial services across borders in the wake of the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 which repealed the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933, ending limitations on commercial banks' investment banking activity. Industrialized nations began relying more on foreign capital to finance domestic investment opportunities, resulting in unprecedented capital flows to advanced economies from developing countries, as reflected by global imbalances which grew to 6% of gross world product in 2007 from 3% in 2001.
The global financial crisis precipitated in 2007 and 2008 shared some of the key features exhibited by the wave of international financial crises in the 1990s, including accelerated capital influxes, weak regulatory frameworks, relaxed monetary policies, herd behavior during investment bubbles, collapsing asset prices, and massive deleveraging. The systemic problems originated in the United States and other advanced nations. Similarly to the 1997 Asian crisis, the global crisis entailed broad lending by banks undertaking unproductive real estate investments as well as poor standards of corporate governance within financial intermediaries. Particularly in the United States, the crisis was characterized by growing securitization of non-performing assets, large fiscal deficits, and excessive financing in the housing sector. While the real estate bubble in the U.S. triggered the financial crisis, the bubble was financed by foreign capital flowing from many countries. As its contagious effects began infecting other nations, the crisis became a precursor for the global economic downturn now referred to as the Great Recession. In the wake of the crisis, total volume of world trade in goods and services fell 10% from 2008 to 2009 and did not recover until 2011, with an increased concentration in emerging market countries. The global financial crisis demonstrated the negative effects of worldwide financial integration, sparking discourse on how and whether some countries should decouple themselves from the system altogether.
Eurozone crisis
In 2009, a newly elected government in Greece revealed the falsification of its national budget data, and that its fiscal deficit for the year was 12.7% of GDP as opposed to the 3.7% espoused by the previous administration. This news alerted markets to the fact that Greece's deficit exceeded the eurozone's maximum of 3% outlined in the Economic and Monetary Union's Stability and Growth Pact. Investors concerned about a possible sovereign default rapidly sold Greek bonds. Given Greece's prior decision to embrace the euro as its currency, it no longer held monetary policy autonomy and could not intervene to depreciate a national currency to absorb the shock and boost competitiveness, as was the traditional solution to sudden capital flight. The crisis proved contagious when it spread to Portugal, Italy, and Spain (together with Greece these are collectively referred to as the PIGS). Ratings agencies downgraded these countries' debt instruments in 2010 which further increased the costliness of refinancing or repaying their national debts. The crisis continued to spread and soon grew into a European sovereign debt crisis which threatened economic recovery in the wake of the Great Recession. In tandem with the IMF, the European Union members assembled a €750 billion bailout for Greece and other afflicted nations. Additionally, the ECB pledged to purchase bonds from troubled eurozone nations in an effort to mitigate the risk of a banking system panic. The crisis is recognized by economists as highlighting the depth of financial integration in Europe, contrasted with the lack of fiscal integration and political unification necessary to prevent or decisively respond to crises. During the initial waves of the crisis, the public speculated that the turmoil could result in a disintegration of the eurozone and an abandonment of the euro. German Federal Minister of Finance Wolfgang Schäuble called for the expulsion of offending countries from the eurozone. Now commonly referred to as the Eurozone crisis, it has been ongoing since 2009 and most recently began encompassing the 2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis.
Implications of globalized capital
Balance of payments
The balance of payments accounts summarize payments made to or received from foreign countries. Receipts are considered credit transactions while payments are considered debit transactions. The balance of payments is a function of three components: transactions involving export or import of goods and services form the current account, transactions involving purchase or sale of financial assets form the financial account, and transactions involving unconventional transfers of wealth form the capital account. The current account summarizes three variables: the trade balance, net factor income from abroad, and net unilateral transfers. The financial account summarizes the value of exports versus imports of assets, and the capital account summarizes the value of asset transfers received net of transfers given. The capital account also includes the official reserve account, which summarizes central banks' purchases and sales of domestic currency, foreign exchange, gold, and SDRs for purposes of maintaining or utilizing bank reserves.
Because the balance of payments sums to zero, a current account surplus indicates a deficit in the asset accounts and vice versa. A current account surplus or deficit indicates the extent to which a country is relying on foreign capital to finance its consumption and investments, and whether it is living beyond its means. For example, assuming a capital account balance of zero (thus no asset transfers available for financing), a current account deficit of £1 billion implies a financial account surplus (or net asset exports) of £1 billion. A net exporter of financial assets is known as a borrower, exchanging future payments for current consumption. Further, a net export of financial assets indicates growth in a country's debt. From this perspective, the balance of payments links a nation's income to its spending by indicating the degree to which current account imbalances are financed with domestic or foreign financial capital, which illuminates how a nation's wealth is shaped over time. A healthy balance of payments position is important for economic growth. If countries experiencing a growth in demand have trouble sustaining a healthy balance of payments, demand can slow, leading to: unused or excess supply, discouraged foreign investment, and less attractive exports which can further reinforce a negative cycle that intensifies payments imbalances.
A country's external wealth is measured by the value of its foreign assets net of its foreign liabilities. A current account surplus (and corresponding financial account deficit) indicates an increase in external wealth while a deficit indicates a decrease. Aside from current account indications of whether a country is a net buyer or net seller of assets, shifts in a nation's external wealth are influenced by capital gains and capital losses on foreign investments. Having positive external wealth means a country is a net lender (or creditor) in the world economy, while negative external wealth indicates a net borrower (or debtor).
Unique financial risks
Nations and international businesses face an array of financial risks unique to foreign investment activity. Political risk is the potential for losses from a foreign country's political instability or otherwise unfavorable developments, which manifests in different forms. Transfer risk emphasizes uncertainties surrounding a country's capital controls and balance of payments. Operational risk characterizes concerns over a country's regulatory policies and their impact on normal business operations. Control risk is born from uncertainties surrounding property and decision rights in the local operation of foreign direct investments. Credit risk implies lenders may face an absent or unfavorable regulatory framework that affords little or no legal protection of foreign investments. For example, foreign governments may commit to a sovereign default or otherwise repudiate their debt obligations to international investors without any legal consequence or recourse. Governments may decide to expropriate or nationalize foreign-held assets or enact contrived policy changes following an investor's decision to acquire assets in the host country. Country risk encompasses both political risk and credit risk, and represents the potential for unanticipated developments in a host country to threaten its capacity for debt repayment and repatriation of gains from interest and dividends.
Participants
Economic actors
Each of the core economic functions, consumption, production, and investment, have become highly globalized in recent decades. While consumers increasingly import foreign goods or purchase domestic goods produced with foreign inputs, businesses continue to expand production internationally to meet an increasingly globalized consumption in the world economy. International financial integration among nations has afforded investors the opportunity to diversify their asset portfolios by investing abroad. Consumers, multinational corporations, individual and institutional investors, and financial intermediaries (such as banks) are the key economic actors within the global financial system. Central banks (such as the European Central Bank or the U.S. Federal Reserve System) undertake open market operations in their efforts to realize monetary policy goals. International financial institutions such as the Bretton Woods institutions, multilateral development banks and other development finance institutions provide emergency financing to countries in crisis, provide risk mitigation tools to prospective foreign investors, and assemble capital for development finance and poverty reduction initiatives. Trade organizations such as the World Trade Organization, Institute of International Finance, and the World Federation of Exchanges attempt to ease trade, facilitate trade disputes and address economic affairs, promote standards, and sponsor research and statistics publications.
Regulatory bodies
Explicit goals of financial regulation include countries' pursuits of financial stability and the safeguarding of unsophisticated market players from fraudulent activity, while implicit goals include offering viable and competitive financial environments to world investors. A single nation with functioning governance, financial regulations, deposit insurance, emergency financing through discount windows, standard accounting practices, and established legal and disclosure procedures, can itself develop and grow a healthy domestic financial system. In a global context however, no central political authority exists which can extend these arrangements globally. Rather, governments have cooperated to establish a host of institutions and practices that have evolved over time and are referred to collectively as the international financial architecture. Within this architecture, regulatory authorities such as national governments and intergovernmental organizations have the capacity to influence international financial markets. National governments may employ their finance ministries, treasuries, and regulatory agencies to impose tariffs and foreign capital controls or may use their central banks to execute a desired intervention in the open markets.
Some degree of self-regulation occurs whereby banks and other financial institutions attempt to operate within guidelines set and published by multilateral organizations such as the International Monetary Fund or the Bank for International Settlements (particularly the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision and the Committee on the Global Financial System). Further examples of international regulatory bodies are: the Financial Stability Board (FSB) established to coordinate information and activities among developed countries; the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) which coordinates the regulation of financial securities; the International Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS) which promotes consistent insurance industry supervision; the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering which facilitates collaboration in battling money laundering and terrorism financing; and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) which publishes accounting and auditing standards. Public and private arrangements exist to assist and guide countries struggling with sovereign debt payments, such as the Paris Club and London Club. National securities commissions and independent financial regulators maintain oversight of their industries' foreign exchange market activities. Two examples of supranational financial regulators in Europe are the European Banking Authority (EBA) which identifies systemic risks and institutional weaknesses and may overrule national regulators, and the European Shadow Financial Regulatory Committee (ESFRC) which reviews financial regulatory issues and publishes policy recommendations.
Research organizations and other fora
Research and academic institutions, professional associations, and think-tanks aim to observe, model, understand, and publish recommendations to improve the transparency and effectiveness of the global financial system. For example, the independent non-partisan World Economic Forum facilitates the Global Agenda Council on the Global Financial System and Global Agenda Council on the International Monetary System, which report on systemic risks and assemble policy recommendations. The Global Financial Markets Association facilitates discussion of global financial issues among members of various professional associations around the world. The Group of Thirty (G30) formed in 1978 as a private, international group of consultants, researchers, and representatives committed to advancing understanding of international economics and global finance.
Future of the global financial system
The IMF has reported that the global financial system is on a path to improved financial stability, but faces a host of transitional challenges borne out by regional vulnerabilities and policy regimes. One challenge is managing the United States' disengagement from its accommodative monetary policy. Doing so in an elegant, orderly manner could be difficult as markets adjust to reflect investors' expectations of a new monetary regime with higher interest rates. Interest rates could rise too sharply if exacerbated by a structural decline in market liquidity from higher interest rates and greater volatility, or by structural deleveraging in short-term securities and in the shadow banking system (particularly the mortgage market and real estate investment trusts). Other central banks are contemplating ways to exit unconventional monetary policies employed in recent years. Some nations however, such as Japan, are attempting stimulus programs at larger scales to combat deflationary pressures. The Eurozone's nations implemented myriad national reforms aimed at strengthening the monetary union and alleviating stress on banks and governments. Yet some European nations such as Portugal, Italy, and Spain continue to struggle with heavily leveraged corporate sectors and fragmented financial markets in which investors face pricing inefficiency and difficulty identifying quality assets. Banks operating in such environments may need stronger provisions in place to withstand corresponding market adjustments and absorb potential losses. Emerging market economies face challenges to greater stability as bond markets indicate heightened sensitivity to monetary easing from external investors flooding into domestic markets, rendering exposure to potential capital flights brought on by heavy corporate leveraging in expansionary credit environments. Policymakers in these economies are tasked with transitioning to more sustainable and balanced financial sectors while still fostering market growth so as not to provoke investor withdrawal.
The global financial crisis and Great Recession prompted renewed discourse on the architecture of the global financial system. These events called to attention financial integration, inadequacies of global governance, and the emergent systemic risks of financial globalization. Since the establishment in 1945 of a formal international monetary system with the IMF empowered as its guardian, the world has undergone extensive changes politically and economically. This has fundamentally altered the paradigm in which international financial institutions operate, increasing the complexities of the IMF and World Bank's mandates. The lack of adherence to a formal monetary system has created a void of global constraints on national macroeconomic policies and a deficit of rule-based governance of financial activities. French economist and Executive Director of the World Economic Forum's Reinventing Bretton Woods Committee, Marc Uzan, has pointed out that some radical proposals such as a "global central bank or a world financial authority" have been deemed impractical, leading to further consideration of medium-term efforts to improve transparency and disclosure, strengthen emerging market financial climates, bolster prudential regulatory environments in advanced nations, and better moderate capital account liberalization and exchange rate regime selection in emerging markets. He has also drawn attention to calls for increased participation from the private sector in the management of financial crises and the augmenting of multilateral institutions' resources.
The Council on Foreign Relations' assessment of global finance notes that excessive institutions with overlapping directives and limited scopes of authority, coupled with difficulty aligning national interests with international reforms, are the two key weaknesses inhibiting global financial reform. Nations do not presently enjoy a comprehensive structure for macroeconomic policy coordination, and global savings imbalances have abounded before and after the global financial crisis to the extent that the United States' status as the steward of the world's reserve currency was called into question. Post-crisis efforts to pursue macroeconomic policies aimed at stabilizing foreign exchange markets have yet to be institutionalized. The lack of international consensus on how best to monitor and govern banking and investment activity threatens the world's ability to prevent future global financial crises. The slow and often delayed implementation of banking regulations that meet Basel III criteria means most of the standards will not take effect until 2019, rendering continued exposure of global finance to unregulated systemic risks. Despite Basel III and other efforts by the G20 to bolster the Financial Stability Board's capacity to facilitate cooperation and stabilizing regulatory changes, regulation exists predominantly at the national and regional levels.
Reform efforts
Former World Bank Chief Economist and former Chairman of the U.S. Council of Economic Advisers Joseph E. Stiglitz referred in the late 1990s to a growing consensus that something is wrong with a system having the capacity to impose high costs on a great number of people who are hardly even participants in international financial markets, neither speculating on international investments nor borrowing in foreign currencies. He argued that foreign crises have strong worldwide repercussions due in part to the phenomenon of moral hazard, particularly when many multinational firms deliberately invest in highly risky government bonds in anticipation of a national or international bailout. Although crises can be overcome by emergency financing, employing bailouts places a heavy burden on taxpayers living in the afflicted countries, and the high costs damage standards of living. Stiglitz has advocated finding means of stabilizing short-term international capital flows without adversely affecting long-term foreign direct investment which usually carries new knowledge spillover and technological advancements into economies.
American economist and former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Paul Volcker has argued that the lack of global consensus on key issues threatens efforts to reform the global financial system. He has argued that quite possibly the most important issue is a unified approach to addressing failures of systemically important financial institutions, noting public taxpayers and government officials have grown disillusioned with deploying tax revenues to bail out creditors for the sake of stopping contagion and mitigating economic disaster. Volcker has expressed an array of potential coordinated measures: increased policy surveillance by the IMF and commitment from nations to adopt agreed-upon best practices, mandatory consultation from multilateral bodies leading to more direct policy recommendations, stricter controls on national qualification for emergency financing facilities (such as those offered by the IMF or by central banks), and improved incentive structures with financial penalties.
Governor of the Bank of England and former Governor of the Bank of Canada Mark Carney has described two approaches to global financial reform: shielding financial institutions from cyclic economic effects by strengthening banks individually, and defending economic cycles from banks by improving systemic resiliency. Strengthening financial institutions necessitates stronger capital requirements and liquidity provisions, as well as better measurement and management of risks. The G-20 agreed to new standards presented by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision at its 2009 summit in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The standards included leverage ratio targets to supplement other capital adequacy requirements established by Basel II. Improving the resiliency of the global financial system requires protections that enable the system to withstand singular institutional and market failures. Carney has argued that policymakers have converged on the view that institutions must bear the burden of financial losses during future financial crises, and such occurrences should be well-defined and pre-planned. He suggested other national regulators follow Canada in establishing staged intervention procedures and require banks to commit to what he termed "living wills" which would detail plans for an orderly institutional failure.
At its 2010 summit in Seoul, South Korea, the G-20 collectively endorsed a new collection of capital adequacy and liquidity standards for banks recommended by Basel III. Andreas Dombret of the Executive Board of Deutsche Bundesbank has noted a difficulty in identifying institutions that constitute systemic importance via their size, complexity, and degree of interconnectivity within the global financial system, and that efforts should be made to identify a group of 25 to 30 indisputable globally systemic institutions. He has suggested they be held to standards higher than those mandated by Basel III, and that despite the inevitability of institutional failures, such failures should not drag with them the financial systems in which they participate. Dombret has advocated for regulatory reform that extends beyond banking regulations and has argued in favor of greater transparency through increased public disclosure and increased regulation of the shadow banking system.
President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Vice Chairman of the Federal Open Market Committee William C. Dudley has argued that a global financial system regulated on a largely national basis is untenable for supporting a world economy with global financial firms. In 2011, he advocated five pathways to improving the safety and security of the global financial system: a special capital requirement for financial institutions deemed systemically important; a level playing field which discourages exploitation of disparate regulatory environments and beggar thy neighbour policies that serve "national constituencies at the expense of global financial stability"; superior cooperation among regional and national regulatory regimes with broader protocols for sharing information such as records for the trade of over-the-counter financial derivatives; improved delineation of "the responsibilities of the home versus the host country" when banks encounter trouble; and well-defined procedures for managing emergency liquidity solutions across borders including which parties are responsible for the risk, terms, and funding of such measures.
See also
List of finance topics
References
Further reading
International finance
International trade | [
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244079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Peet | Bill Peet | William Bartlett Peet (né Peed; January 29, 1915 – May 11, 2002) was an American children's book illustrator and a story writer and animator for Walt Disney Animation Studios.
Peet joined Disney in 1937 and worked first on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) near the end of its production. Progressively, his involvement in the Disney studio's animated feature films and shorts increased, and he remained there until early in the development of The Jungle Book (1967). A row with Walt Disney over the direction of the project led to a permanent personal break.
Peet's subsequent career was as a writer and illustrator of numerous children's books, including Capyboppy (1966), The Wump World (1970), The Whingdingdilly (1970), The Ant and the Elephant (1972), and Cyrus the Unsinkable Serpent (1975).
Early life
Bill Peet was born in Grandview, Indiana, on January 29, 1915. He developed a love of drawing at an early age and filled tablets with sketches.
According to his autobiography, Peet's happiest childhood times were the years following World War I - years during which his father abandoned the family. During that period Peet lived with his mother and brothers on the outskirts of Indianapolis, in a household run by his maternal grandmother.
Animals were always a love of Peet's. He and his friends traipsed through the woods looking for frogs, tadpoles, and minnows. Most of his adventures as a boy to catch animals were in the hope that he could capture them and sketch them. These years laid the groundwork for two primary themes repeated in his books: unkindness in the animal kingdom and the grim costs of human progress. "It has always been difficult for me to accept nature's cruel ways of keeping a balance among the animals - all the savagery and suffering," he wrote about the frogs and snakes he chased in his local creek. "Yet nature's merciless ways were never more cruel than the slow, silent death caused by the poisonous waste spilling from pipes down into the creek... where dead fish floated belly up and a nauseating stench filled the air."
Often, instead of doing lessons, Peet drew in the margins of his textbooks, which were very popular for their added illustrations when he sold them back.
The young Peet also snuck into greeting parties at the train station, just for the chance to see the train's mechanical workings close-up. As a teen, he tried to sketch the circus big top, but he was always in the way of the set-up crew. He memorized the scene and later reconstructed it from memory.
After ten years of absence, Peet's father returned to the household and, according to Peet, brought with him conflict and strife - demanding that Peet's mother provide money to underwrite a string of failed ventures as a traveling salesman. This chapter culminated in the death of Peet's grandmother, which Peet implied was in part caused by the stress and misery his father caused. The home where the family lived was sold, and Peet's blissful young years ended.
It was about this time Peet entered into Arsenal Technical High School. At first, he had little interest in pursuing a career as an artist. However, after failing all his classes but physical education, he followed the advice of a friend and took some art classes. Peet did extremely well and experimented with a broad range of media. He eventually received a scholarship to the John Herron Art Institute in Indianapolis, which he attended for three years. In the first class, Bill found himself very interested in a girl who sat in the front row. That girl, Margaret Brunst, became his wife in 1937.
Peet took quite a few painting classes that first year, and he admitted his paintings were always somewhat macabre. "I seemed to be attracted to the gloomy side of things, or the sordid," he wrote. "No vases of flowers or water lilies for me." His favorite subjects were grizzled old men, “perfected with age, like a gnarled oak tree.” Another favorite subject was the circus—but always the assembly of the tent cities, never the show itself.
Disney
Following college, Peet sent off some of his cartoon action sketches after hearing that the Disney Studio was hiring artists for their animated films. He was subsequently asked to come to try-outs. He trekked across the country to Los Angeles and participated in a one-month audition process; only three of fifteen survived the tryouts, and they were rewarded with work as "in-betweeners" (making up the frames between the key drawings) on the Donald Duck shorts. He found the work somewhat tedious. It was at this time Disney was working on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which Hollywood skeptics predicted would be a failure. After Snow White had become a triumphant success, Peet sent character sketches for Pinocchio to Disney's production team. Before the verdict on his designs had come back, Peet felt like he'd had enough, and he went screaming out of the studio, “No more ducks!” Fortuitously, he came back the next day to pick up his jacket and found an envelope, informing him he had been promoted to the story department, where he went on to contribute to films including Fantasia, The Three Caballeros, Cinderella, Peter Pan, Alice in Wonderland, Sleeping Beauty, Song of the South, and The Jungle Book.
Peet then officially began working as a sketch artist, putting the words of a story man into pictures on the film. Peet's first encounter with Walt Disney directly was at this time, when Disney reviewed the storyboards Peet had put together. Even though both his boards were eventually cut from the film, Peet continued to work on Pinocchio for another year and a half. After that period, Peet worked on Fantasia and Dumbo. When World War II broke out, Disney halted normal production and contributed to the war effort making propaganda films. Peet helped here as well but received his big break after the war was over. His work was so impressive to Walt that he made him a fully fledged story man who also handled the sketching end of character design. He was also the sole developer of the animated features One Hundred and One Dalmatians and The Sword in the Stone, the only artist to have created all of the storyboards for a Disney animated movie.
Peet started to paint again at this time, but soon found he had lost touch with the brush. Fine art had changed dramatically during the years Peet had been at Disney; abstractionism was in vogue and Peet's realistic paintings were out of date. He attempted editorial cartoons but failed there as well. Peet decided to continue working at Disney, where he developed a few short cartoons and worked on the feature films of the period. At this point, he was working very closely with Walt Disney; Peet respected Disney's creative genius but found him to be a sometimes difficult man. A large part of his autobiography is dedicated to his dealings with Disney over the years. Peet described the Disney studio as a "brutal" place, rife with rivalries and jealousy. After successes developing short stories for the company, Peet had his first book published, Hubert’s Hair-Raising Adventure.
Although Walt Disney himself was not doing any animation by this time, he was in charge of the major decisions on the artistic side. He reviewed all the work and gave it the final go-ahead. As they were both strong-willed and passionately creative men, Peet and Disney quarreled frequently about parts in the films such as the dancing/romance scene in Sleeping Beauty. Peet quit working with Disney and left the company on January 29, 1964, which was his 49th birthday, following an especially heated argument with Walt on The Jungle Book.
Children's books
While he was still working at Disney, Peet turned his attention to writing and illustrating children's books. Peet developed many of his ideas from bedtime stories he had told his children and he wrote and illustrated several books while still at Disney. After leaving the studio in 1964, Peet turned his full attention into writing children's books. Much of the success Peet's stories have enjoyed is due to the memorable themes they contain: trying when there's not much obvious hope, not allowing taunting of others to prevent individual success, finding compromise in solutions and others. Unlike most other children's authors, Peet did not dumb down the vocabulary of his stories but included enough context to make the meaning of difficult words obvious. All of his books published by Houghton Mifflin Company remain actively in print.
Death and legacy
Peet died on May 11, 2002, at the age of 87. His interment was at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills).
In 2015, Walt Disney Animation Studios produced a cartoon short for the 101 Dalmatians Diamond Edition Blu-ray release entitled The Further Adventures of Thunderbolt as a bonus feature, based on Peet's early drafts of the "Thunderbolt the Wonder Dog" sequence which follows the events after Thunderbolt and Dirty Dawson start fighting in the river.
Justin Marks, who wrote the screenplay for Disney's 2016 live-action Jungle Book film directed by Jon Favreau, had commented that he plans to incorporate elements from Peet's rejected screenplay of the original animated classic into the former film's upcoming sequel:
Filmography
Pinocchio (1940) (story adaptation) (uncredited)
Fantasia (1940) (story development) (The Pastoral Symphony segment)
Dumbo (1941) (story development)
How to Play Football (1944) (story) (uncredited)
The Three Caballeros (1944) (story) (as Bill Peed)
Tiger Trouble (1945) (story) (as Bill Peed)
African Diary (1945) (story) (as Bill Peed)
Californy'er Bust (1945) (story) (as Bill Peed)
A Knight for a Day (1946) (story) (as Bill Peed)
Song of the South (1946) (cartoon story, animation planner) (as William Peed)
So Dear to My Heart (1948) (cartoon story treatment) (as William Peed)
Cinderella (1950) (story) (as William Peed)
Wonder Dog (1950) (story) (as Bill Peed)
Alice in Wonderland (1951) (story)
Lambert the Sheepish Lion (1952) (story)
Susie the Little Blue Coupe (1952) (original story, story adaptation)
The Little House (1952) (story adaptation)
Peter Pan (1953) (story)
Ben and Me (1953) (story)
The Wonderful World of Disney (1954–1970, fourteen episodes) (writer, story, cartoon story treatment)
The Truth About Mother Goose (1957) (story, lyricist)
Sleeping Beauty (1959) (additional story)
Goliath II (1960) (story)
One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961) (story, character stylist)
The Sword in the Stone (1963) (story, character design)
The Jungle Book (1967) (early story treatment) (uncredited)
Bibliography
A Caldecott Honor Book and ALA Honor Book.
Fiction
Hubert's Hair-Raising Adventure (1959)
Goliath II (1959)
Huge Harold (1961)
Smokey (1962)
The Pinkish, Purplish, Bluish Egg (1963)
Ella (1964)
Randy's Dandy Lions (1964)
Chester the Worldly Pig (1965)
Kermit the Hermit (1965)
Capyboppy (1966)
Farewell to Shady Glade (1966)
Jennifer and Josephine (1967)
Buford the Little Bighorn (1967)
Fly Homer Fly (1969)
The Wump World (1970)
The Whingdingdilly (1970)
How Droofus the Dragon Lost His Head (1971)
The Caboose Who Got Loose (1971)
The Ant and the Elephant (1972)
Countdown to Christmas (1972)
The Spooky Tail of Prewitt Peacock (1973)
Merle the High Flying Squirrel (1974)
Cyrus the Unsinkable Sea Serpent (1975)
The Gnats of Knotty Pine (1975)
Big Bad Bruce (1977)
Eli (1978)
Cowardly Clyde (1979)
Encore for Eleanor (1981)
The Luckiest One of All (1982)
No Such Things (1983)
Pamela Camel (1984)
The Kweeks of Kookatumdee (1985)
Zella, Zack, and Zodiac (1986)
Jethro and Joel Were a Troll (1987)
Cock-a-Doodle Dudley (1990)
References
External links
Bill Peet Website
1915 births
2002 deaths
People from Spencer County, Indiana
Animators from Indiana
American children's writers
American children's book illustrators
American storyboard artists
Animation screenwriters
Artists from Indiana
Herron School of Art and Design alumni
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
American male screenwriters
20th-century American writers
Writers from Indiana
Writers who illustrated their own writing
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters | [
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244081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praenomen | Praenomen | The praenomen (; plural: praenomina) was a personal name chosen by the parents of a Roman child. It was first bestowed on the dies lustricus (day of lustration), the eighth day after the birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the birth of a boy. The praenomen would then be formally conferred a second time when girls married, or when boys assumed the toga virilis upon reaching manhood. Although it was the oldest of the tria nomina commonly used in Roman naming conventions, by the late republic, most praenomina were so common that most people were called by their praenomina only by family or close friends. For this reason, although they continued to be used, praenomina gradually disappeared from public records during imperial times. Although both men and women received praenomina, women's praenomina were frequently ignored, and they were gradually abandoned by many Roman families, though they continued to be used in some families and in the countryside.
Background
The tria nomina, consisting of praenomen, nomen and cognomen, which are today regarded as a distinguishing feature of Roman culture, first developed and spread throughout Italy in pre-Roman times. Most of the people of Italy spoke languages belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family; the three major groups within the Italian Peninsula were the Latino-Faliscan languages, including the tribes of the Latini, or Latins, who formed the core of the early Roman populace, and their neighbors, the Falisci and Hernici; the Oscan languages, including the Sabines, who also contributed to early Roman culture, as well as the Samnites, and many other peoples of central and southern Italy; and the Umbrian languages, spoken by the Umbri of the Central Apennines, the rustic Picentes of the Adriatic coast, and the Volsci.
In addition to the Italic peoples was the Etruscan civilization, whose language was unrelated to Indo-European, but who exerted a strong cultural influence throughout much of Italy, including early Rome.
The Italic nomenclature system cannot clearly be attributed to any one of these cultures, but seems to have developed simultaneously amongst each of them, perhaps due to constant contact between them. It first appears in urban centers and thence gradually spread to the countryside. In the earliest period, each person was known by a single name, or nomen. These nomina were monothematic; that is, they expressed a single concept or idea. As populations grew, many individuals might be known by the same name. Unlike the other cultures of Europe, which dealt with this problem by adopting dithematic names (names expressing two ideas), the peoples of Italy developed the first true surnames, or cognomina.
At first these were generally personal names, and might refer to any number of things, including a person's occupation, town of origin, the name of his or her father, or some physical feature or characteristic. But gradually an increasing number of them became hereditary, until they could be used to distinguish whole families from one generation to another. As this happened, the word nomen came to be applied to these surnames, and the original personal name came to be called the praenomen, or "forename", as it was usually recited first. Cognomen came to refer to any other personal or hereditary surnames coming after the family name, and used to distinguish individuals or branches of large families from one another.
As the tria nomina developed throughout Italy, the importance of the praenomen in everyday life declined considerably, together with the number of praenomina in common use. By the 1st century CE they were occasionally omitted from public records, and by the middle of the 4th century CE they were seldom recorded. As the Roman Empire expanded, much of the populace came from cultures with different naming conventions, and the formal structure of the tria nomina became neglected. Various names that were originally nomina or cognomina came to be treated as praenomina, and some individuals used several of them at once. However, some vestiges of the original system survived, and many of the original praenomina have continued into modern times.
Most common praenomina were regularly abbreviated in writing (in speech the full name would always be used). Although some names could be abbreviated multiple ways, the following tables include only the most usual abbreviation, if any, for each name. These abbreviations continue to be used by classical scholars.
Latin praenomina
Each of the Italic peoples had its own distinctive group of praenomina. A few names were shared between cultures, and the Etruscans in particular borrowed many praenomina from Latin and Oscan. It is disputed whether some of the praenomina used by the Romans themselves were of distinctly Etruscan or Oscan origin. However, these names were in general use at Rome and other Latin towns, and were used by families that were certainly of Latin origin. Thus, irrespective of their actual etymology, these names may be regarded as Latin.
Masculine names
In the early centuries of the Roman Republic, about three dozen praenomina seem to have been in general use at Rome, of which about half were common. This number gradually dwindled to about eighteen praenomina by the 1st century BCE, of which perhaps a dozen were common.
Agrippa (Agr.)
Appius (Ap.)
Aulus (A.)
Caeso (K.)
Decimus (D.)
Faustus (F.)
Gaius (C.)
Gnaeus (Cn.)
Hostus
Lucius (L.)
Mamercus (Mam.)
Manius (ꟿ. or M'.)
Marcus (M.)
Mettius
Nonus
Numerius (N.)
Octavius (Oct.)
Opiter (Opet.)
Paullus
Postumus (Post.)
Proculus (Pro.)
Publius (P.)
Quintus (Q.)
Septimus
Sertor (Sert.)
Servius (Ser.)
Sextus (Sex.)
Spurius (S.)
Statius (St.)
Tiberius (Ti.)
Titus (T.)
Tullus
Vibius (V.)
Volesus (Vol.)
Vopiscus (Vop.)
Notes:
Caeso is frequently (especially in older records) spelled Kaeso. The abbreviation K. was retained to distinguish the name from Gaius, abbreviated "C."
Gaius and Gnaeus are abbreviated with C. and Cn., respectively, because the practice of abbreviating them was already established at the time the letter G, a modified C, was introduced to the Latin alphabet. Although the archaic spellings Caius and Cnaeus also appear in later records, Gaius and Gnaeus represent the actual pronunciation of these names.
Manius was originally abbreviated with an archaic five-stroke M (ꟿ), borrowed from the Etruscan alphabet (from which the Latin alphabet was derived) but not otherwise used in Latin. The apostrophe is used as a substitute for this letter.
Octavius (with an i) seems to be the only form of this name found as a praenomen, although the form Octavus would be consistent with the adjective from which the name is derived.
Volero, a praenomen used by the Publilii, is believed to be a variant of Volesus.
Some of the praenomina in this list are known from only a few examples. However, the overall sample from which they have been taken represents only a small fraction of the entire Roman populace. The Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft mentions about ten thousand individuals whose praenomina are known from surviving works of history, literature, and various inscriptions. These individuals are spread over a period of over twelve centuries, with the smallest sample coming from the early Republic, when the greatest variety of praenomina was in use. During that same period, the sample consists almost entirely of Roman men belonging to the leading patrician families.
Many of the names which were uncommon amongst the patricians appear to have been more widespread amongst the plebeians, and the appearance of rare names in Latin inscriptions outside of Rome suggests that many names which were uncommon at Rome were much more common in other parts of Latium.
Feminine names
In the earliest period, both men and women used praenomina. However, with the adoption of hereditary surnames, the praenomen lost much of its original importance. The number of praenomina in general use declined steadily throughout Roman history, and as most families used the same praenomina from one generation to the next, the praenomen became less useful for distinguishing between individuals. Women's praenomina gradually fell into disuse, and by the first century the majority of Roman women either did not have or did not use praenomina. A similar process occurred throughout Italy, except amongst the Etruscans, for whom feminine praenomina were the rule.
The abandonment of women's praenomina over time was more the result of practical usage than a deliberate process. Because Latin names had both masculine and feminine forms, the nomen itself was sufficient to distinguish a Roman woman from her father and brothers. Roman women did not change their names when they married, so a Roman wife usually did not share her nomen with any other members of her family. Diminutives, nicknames, and personal cognomina could be used to differentiate between sisters. When there were two sisters, they were frequently referred to as Major and Minor, with these terms appearing after the nomen or cognomen; if there were more than two, the eldest might be called Maxima, and the younger sisters assigned numerical cognomina.
Many of the cognomina used by women originated as praenomina, and for much of Roman history there seems to have been a fashion for "inverting" women's praenomina and cognomina; names that were traditionally regarded as praenomina were often placed after a woman's nomen or cognomen, as if a surname, even though they were used as praenomina. The reverse was also common, especially in imperial times; a personal cognomen would be placed before a woman's nomen, in the place of a praenomen. In both cases, the name was functionally a praenomen, irrespective of its position in the name. For this reason, it is often impossible to distinguish between women's praenomina and personal cognomina.
In imperial times, Roman women were more likely to have praenomina if they had several older sisters. A daughter who had been called simply by her nomen for several years was less likely to receive a praenomen than her younger sisters, and because it was usually easy to distinguish between two daughters without using praenomina, the need for traditional personal names did not become acute until there were at least three sisters in a family. Tertia and Quarta were common praenomina, while Secunda was less common, and Prima rarer still. Maxima, Maio, and Mino were also used as praenomina, although it may be debated whether they represent true personal names. Paulla was probably given to younger daughters, and was one of the most common praenomina.
Most other women's praenomina were simply the feminine forms of familiar masculine praenomina. Examples are known of all common praenomina, as well as a number of less-common ones. Only in the case of praenomina which had irregular masculine forms is there some uncertainty; but these probably became feminine by taking diminutive forms. Caesula or Caesilla appears to have been the feminine form of Caeso, and the personal cognomen Agrippina probably represents the feminine form of Agrippa. Two notable exceptions to the usual formation are Marcia and Titia, both of which regularly formed as "i-stem" nouns, instead of the expected Marca and Tita (although those forms are also found).
Feminine praenomina were usually abbreviated in the same manner as their masculine counterparts, but were often written in full. One notable exception occurs in the filiations of liberti, where the abbreviation "C." for Gaia was frequently reversed to indicate the freedman of a woman. Here the name "Gaia" seems to have been used generically to represent any woman, although in some instances an inverted "M." for Marcia seems to have been used as well.
The following list includes feminine praenomina which are known or reasonably certain from extant sources and inscriptions, and which were clearly used as praenomina, rather than nicknames or inverted cognomina. Several variations are known for some praenomina, of which only the most regular are given in this table. The abbreviations are usually the same as for the corresponding masculine praenomina; where variation exists, only the most common abbreviation has been provided. A few of these names were normally written in full, or have not been found with regular abbreviations.
Appia (Ap.)
Aula (A.)
Caesula
Decima (D.)
Fausta (F.)
Gaia (C.)
Gnaea (Cn.)
Hosta (H.)
Lucia (L.)
Maio (Mai.)
Mamerca (Mam.)
Mania (M'.)
Marcia (M.)
Maxima
Mettia
Mino (Min.)
Nona
Numeria (N.)
Octavia (Oct.)
Paulla
Postuma (Post.)
Prima
Procula (Pro.)
Publia (P.)
Quarta
Quinta (Q.)
Secunda (Seq.)
Septima
Servia (Ser.)
Sexta (Sex.)
Spuria (Sp.)
Statia (St.)
Tertia
Titia (T.)
Tiberia (Ti.)
Tulla
Vibia (V.)
Volusa (Vol.)
Vopisca (Vop.)
Notes:
Maio and Mino are the forms usually found as praenomina, although Major and Minor are also found. As cognomina, Major and Minor seem to have been preferred.
Secunda was usually abbreviated Seq., although Sec. is also common. In archaic Latin, C was used primarily before E and I, while Q appeared before O and U, and K before A. In a few instances the name is written Sequnda.
The meaning of praenomina
Philologists have debated the origin and meaning of these names since classical antiquity. However, many of the meanings popularly assigned to various praenomina appear to have been no more than "folk etymology". The names derived from numbers are the most certain. The masculine names Quintus, Sextus, Septimus, Octavius and Decimus, and the feminine names Prima, Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta, Sexta, Septima, Octavia, Nona and Decima are all based on ordinal numbers. There may also have been a praenomen Nonus, as there was a gens with the apparently patronymic name of Nonius, although no examples of its use as a praenomen have survived.
It is generally held that these names originally referred to the order of a child's birth, although some scholars believe that they might also have referred to the month of the Roman calendar in which a child was born. Like the masculine praenomina, the months of the old Roman Calendar had names based on the numbers five through ten: Quintilis (July), Sextilis (August), September, October, November, and December. However, this hypothesis does not account for the feminine praenomina Prima, Secunda, Tertia, and Quarta, nor does it explain why Septimus, Octavius, and perhaps Nonus were rarely used.
Several other praenomina were believed to refer to the circumstances of a child's birth; for instance, Agrippa was said to refer to a child who was born feet-first; Caeso to a child born by the operation known today as a Caesarean section; Lucius to one born at dawn; Manius to one born in the morning; Numerius to one born easily; Opiter to one whose father had died, leaving his grandfather as head of the family; Postumus to a last-born child (whether or not the father was dead); Proculus to one whose father was far away; Vopiscus to the survivor of twins, the other of whom was born dead. Most of these are not based on credible etymology, although the meanings assigned to Lucius, Manius, and Postumus are probably reasonable.
Amongst other credible meanings assigned to praenomina, Faustus certainly means "fortunate" in Latin; Gaius is thought to derive from the same root as gaudere, "to rejoice"; Gnaeus refers to a birthmark; Marcus and Mamercus refer to the gods Mars and Mamers (perhaps an Oscan manifestation of Mars); Paullus means "small"; Servius appears to be derived from the same root as servare, to save or "to keep safe"; Volusus (also found as Volesus and Volero) seems to come from valere, "to be strong".
One popular etymology that is certainly not correct belongs to Spurius, a praenomen that was amongst the most common, and favored by many leading patrician and plebeian families during the early Republic. It was later said that it was a contraction of the phrase, sine pater filius, "son without a father", and thus used for children born out of wedlock. This belief may have led to the gradual disappearance of the name during the 1st century AD.
Appius is sometimes said to be of Oscan origin, since it is known chiefly from the descendants of Appius Claudius, a Sabine from the town of Cures, who came to Rome in the early years of the Republic, and was admitted to the Patriciate. His original name was said to be Attius Clausus, which he then Romanized. However, the praenomen Appius is known from other Latin sources, and may simply represent the Latin name closest in sound to Attius.
Aulus, Publius, Spurius, and Tiberius are sometimes attributed to Etruscan, in which language they are all common, although these names were also typical of praenomina used in families of indisputably Latin origin, such as the Postumii or the Cornelii. In this instance, it cannot be determined with any certainty whether these were Latin names which were borrowed by the Etruscans, or vice versa. The best case may be for Tiberius being an Etruscan name, since that praenomen was always connected with the sacred river on the boundary of Etruria and Latium, and the Etruscan name for the Tiber was Thebris. However, it still may be that the Romans knew the river by this name when the praenomen came into existence.
Historical trends
Many families, particularly amongst the great patrician houses, limited themselves to a small number of praenomina, probably as a means of distinguishing themselves from one another and from the plebeians, who used a wider variety of names. For example, the Cornelii used Aulus, Gnaeus, Lucius, Marcus, Publius, Servius, and Tiberius; the Julii limited themselves to Lucius, Gaius, Sextus, and Vopiscus; the Claudii were fond of Appius, Gaius, and Publius; the Postumii favored Aulus, Gaius, Lucius, Publius, and Spurius; and so on. The most prominent plebeian families also tended to limit the names of which they made regular use, although amongst both social classes, there must have been exceptions whenever a family had a large number of sons.
Many families avoided certain names, although the reasons varied. According to legend, the Junii avoided the names Titus and Tiberius because they were the names of two sons of Lucius Junius Brutus, the founder of the Republic, who were executed on the grounds that they had plotted to restore the king to power. Another legend relates that after Marcus Manlius Capitolinus was condemned for treason, the Roman Senate decreed that no member of gens Manlia should bear the praenomen Marcus, a tradition that seems to have been followed until the 1st century A.D. However, normally such matters were left to the discretion of the family. In most instances, the reason why certain praenomina were preferred and others avoided probably arose from the desire to pass on family names.
Several names were used by only a few patrician families, although they were more widespread amongst the plebeians. For example: Appius was used only by the Claudii, Caeso by the Fabii and the Quinctii, Agrippa by the Furii and the Menenii, Numerius by the Fabii, Mamercus by the Aemilii and the Pinarii, Vopiscus only by the Julii, and Decimus was not used by any patrician family (unless the Junii were, as is sometimes believed, originally patrician), although it was widely used amongst the plebeians.
Throughout Roman history, the most common praenomen was Lucius, followed by Gaius, with Marcus in third place. During the most conservative periods, these three names could account for as much as fifty percent of the adult male population. At some distance were Publius and Quintus, only about half as common as Lucius, distantly followed by Titus. Aulus, Gnaeus, Spurius, Sextus, and Servius were less common, followed by Manius, Tiberius, Caeso, Numerius, and Decimus, which were decidedly uncommon (at least amongst the patricians) during the Republic.
Throughout Republican times, the number of praenomina in general use declined, but older names were occasionally revived by noble families, and occasionally anomalous names such as Ancus, Iulus, or Kanus were given. Some of these may have been ancient praenomina that had already passed out of common use by the early Republic. As they vanished from use as personal names, many older praenomina, such as Agrippa, Faustus, Mamercus, Paullus, Postumus, Proculus, and Vopiscus were revived as cognomina. Other examples of names that may once have been praenomina include Fusus, an early cognomen of gens Furia, and Cossus, a cognomen of gens Cornelia.
By the 1st century B.C., the praenomina remaining in general use at Rome were: Appius, Aulus, Caeso, Decimus, Gaius, Gnaeus, Lucius, Mamercus, Manius, Marcus, Numerius, Publius, Quintus, Servius, Sextus, Spurius, Titus, and Tiberius. However, older names continued to be revived from time to time, especially in noble families, and they probably continued to be used outside Rome. By the 2nd century A.D., several of these names had also passed out of general use at Rome, leaving Aulus, Decimus, Gaius, Gnaeus, Lucius, Manius, Marcus, Numerius, Publius, Quintus, Sextus, Titus, and Tiberius.
Under the empire, confusion seems to have developed as to precisely what constituted a praenomen and how it should be used. A number of emperors considered Imperator as a praenomen, and thus part of their names. As a larger percentage of the Roman populace came from backgrounds that had never used traditional Roman names, the praenomen was frequently omitted, or at least ignored. In its place, an increasing number of magistrates and officials placed common nomina, frequently with praenomen-like abbreviations. The most common of these were Flavius (Fl.), Claudius (Cl.), Julius, Junius, Valerius (Val.), and Aurelius. These names appear almost arbitrarily, much like praenomina, and probably were intended to imply nobility, although ultimately they became so common as to lose any real significance.
Oscan and Umbrian praenomina
Many Oscan praenomina appear throughout Roman history, as the Romans encountered both friendly and hostile tribes, and slowly absorbed the peoples of Italy into their sphere of influence. Umbrian praenomina are less well-known, but appear to have been similar to those of the Oscans. Although it is widely believed that the Latin praenomen Mamercus was of Oscan origin, since Mamers was a Sabine form of Mars, it is not clear to what extent the two cultures (which sprang from the same origin) borrowed praenomina from one another, and to what extent they shared names based on roots common to each language.
It is impossible to provide a complete list of Oscan praenomina, but these names are clearly identifiable in extant histories and inscriptions. Abbreviations do exist for some of them, but they were less regular, and less regularly employed, than the Latin abbreviations.
Ancus
Attius
Decius
Herius
Marius
Mettius
Minatus
Minius
Nerius
Novius
Numa
Numerius
Ovius
Paccius
Pompo
Salvius
Seppius
Statius
Taurus
Trebius
Vibius
Vettius
Notes:
The -ius ending found in Latin sources is frequently found as -is or -iis in Oscan inscriptions.
Ancus is known from only two sources: Ancus Marcius, the fourth King of Rome, who was of Sabine ancestry, and Ancus Publicius, an early member of a plebeian gens.
Attius may be the Oscan equivalent of the Latin praenomen Appius, since the Sabine Attius Clausus took the name Appius Claudius upon settling at Rome; however, it could also simply have been the closest praenomen in sound.
Decius, Pompo (and variations thereof), and Seppius are the Oscan equivalents of the Latin praenomina Decimus, Quintus, and Septimus. A 'P' in Oscan frequently corresponded to a 'Q' in Latin.
Nerius, or Nero, a praenomen common to Oscan and Umbrian, was said to mean fortis ac strenuus, that is, "strong" or "vigorous".
Etruscan praenomina
The Etruscan language was unrelated to the other languages spoken in Italy, and accordingly it contains many names which have no equivalents in the Latin or Oscan languages. The Etruscan civilization, the most advanced of its time in that region, was a strong influence on the other peoples of Italy. The Etruscan alphabet (itself based on an early version of the Western or "Red" Greek alphabet) was the source for later Italian alphabets, including the modern Latin alphabet.
However, the cultural interchange was not all one-way. With respect to personal names, the Etruscans borrowed a large number of praenomina from Latin and Oscan, adding them to their own unique names. The Etruscan language is still imperfectly known, and the number of inscriptions are limited, so this list of Etruscan praenomina encompasses what has been discovered to this point. Included are names that are certainly praenomina, no matter their linguistic origin. Names that might be nomina or cognomina have not been included.
Masculine names
Arruns (Ar.)
Aule (A.)
Cae (C.)
Caeles
Cneve (Cn.)
Karcuna
Lar
Larce
Laris (Lr.)
Larth (La., Lth.)
Lucie (L.)
Mamarce (Mam.)
Marce (M.)
Metie
Pavle
Puplie (P.)
Sethre (Se.)
Spurie (S.)
Thefarie
Tite (T.)
Uchtave
Vel (Vl.)
Velthur (Vth.)
Vipie (V.)
Notes:
The Romans rendered Lar, Larce, Laris, and Larth all as Lars.
Aule, Cae, Cneve, Lucie, Mamarce, Marce, Metie, Pavle, Puplie, Spurie, Tite, Thefarie, Uchtave, and Vipie may be recognized as the Latin praenomina Aulus, Gaius, Gnaeus, Lucius, Mamercus, Marcus, Mettius, Paullus, Publius, Spurius, Titus, Tiberius, Octavius, and Vibius. There is no agreement on whether any of these were borrowed from Etruscan, or whether all were originally Latin.
The Etruscans used a number of diminutives for both masculine and feminine names, including the masculine names Arnza (from Arruns), Venel, and Venox (from Vel).
Feminine names
Fasti (F.)
Hasti (H.)
Larthi
Lethi
Ramtha (R.)
Ravnthu
Tanaquil (Thx.)
Thana (Th.)
Titia (T.)
Vela
Notes:
Fasti may be borrowed from the Latin praenomen Fausta. Hasti may be a variant of the same name.
An example of a diminutive of a feminine praenomen is Ravntzu (from Ranvthu).
See also
List of Roman praenomina
Agnomen
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
References
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244086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldershot%20Town%20F.C. | Aldershot Town F.C. | Aldershot Town Football Club is a professional association football club based in Aldershot, Hampshire, England. The team competes in the National League, the fifth tier of the English football league system. The club was founded in the spring of 1992 after the closure of debt-ridden Fourth Division club Aldershot. Aldershot Town play at the Recreation Ground, which had also been the home ground of the previous club.
Initially placed in the Isthmian League Third Division, Aldershot Town won the league in their debut 1992–93 season and won promotion out of the Second Division the following season. They won the First Division title in 1997–98 and the Premier Division in 2002–03 to gain a place in the Conference. They spent five seasons in the Conference, losing twice in the play-offs, before winning promotion into the Football League as Conference National and Conference League Cup champions under Gary Waddock's stewardship in 2007–08. They spent five seasons in League Two, reaching the play-offs in 2010, though were relegated back into non-league football and entered administration in May 2013. They reached the National League play-offs in 2017 and 2018.
History
Formation and the Isthmian years
In March 1992, the town of Aldershot was without a football club after Aldershot F.C. became the first Football League team to fold during the football season since Accrington Stanley in 1962. Aldershot Town was born later the same year, and began life competing in the Isthmian League Division Three. Despite Aldershot Town playing five divisions lower than the Football League, the attendance for their first competitive fixture was higher than the old team's last home tie. Ten successive victories were recorded under the guidance of former player Steve Wignall and Aldershot won the championship by an 18-point margin.
A further promotion and an FA Vase quarter-final placing was achieved in the 1993–94 season. When Steve Wignall departed to take charge of Colchester United midway through the 1994–95 season, former Nottingham Forest winger Steve Wigley took over. The club finished the 1994–95 season with a run of six successive victories, but missed out on promotion by goal difference. After narrowly missing out during the next two seasons Wigley left in July 1997 to become Youth Development Officer at Nottingham Forest. He was replaced by George Borg. Attendances continued to rise during this period and the final fixture of the 1997–98 Isthmian League First Division championship-winning season, at home to Berkhamsted Town, attracted 4,289 people to the Recreation Ground – a league record. The success under Borg continued with an Isthmian League Cup, two Hampshire Senior Cups and a runners-up spot in the Isthmian League Premier Division.
The club's reserves were reinstated in 2000–01 and entered the Suburban League. The FA Cup in 2000–01 saw Aldershot take on league opposition at The Recreation Ground for the first time since reforming, when Brighton & Hove Albion visited for a 1st Round tie in November and a record attendance of 7,500 saw the league team win. In the following season's FA Cup the Shots held Bristol Rovers to a home draw in the First Round, but again missed out on the Second Round after losing the replay in Bristol.
George Borg resigned as manager in November 2001 after pressure from supporters and was replaced by Terry Brown. He won his first game in charge beating Newport IOW 1–0 in the Hampshire Senior Cup Semi-final Second Leg, taking The Shots on to win the final against Havant & Waterlooville. In Brown's first full season in charge he overhauled the squad, and by mid-November the Shots were top of the table, a position they did not relinquish for the remainder of the season, winning promotion to the Football Conference. The club also retained the Hampshire Senior Cup with a 2–1 win over Bashley.
Conference years
A crowd of 3,680 saw Aldershot's first game in the Conference, a 2–1 win over Accrington Stanley. The club went on to stay in the play-off positions in the league table for all but 3 days of the season. The Shots equalled their best ever run in the FA Cup, reaching the 2nd Round and losing 1–0 to Colchester United at Layer Road. The club reached their first FA Trophy semi-final, losing to eventual winners Hednesford Town and the average attendance for league matches at The Rec ended on a record high of 3,303.
A 1–1 draw against Tamworth on the last day of the season carried the Shots into the play-offs for a place in the Football League. Over two legs the Shots held their own against favourites Hereford United, drawing 1–1 at The Rec and 0–0 at Edgar Street. Extra time finished without any further score and the tie was concluded on penalties with the Shots winning 4–2. The 2004 Conference play-off Final against Shrewsbury Town finished 1–1 after extra time. Shrewsbury returned to the league with a 3–0 win in the penalty shoot-out.
In May 2004 the club officers made the decision to convert Aldershot Town to full-time professional status from the following July. In 2004–05 the Shots once again equalled their best ever run in the FA Cup as they reached the 2nd Round proper, where they lost 5–1 to Hartlepool United. After a slow start in the league, Aldershot improved their form and reached the play-offs after beating Scarborough in the last game of the season. The Shots won the first leg against Carlisle United 1–0 at home, but lost the away leg 2–1, giving a 2–2 aggregate score. Extra time could not separate the sides and the tie went to penalties, with Carlisle winning the shootout.
The next two seasons were less successful for the Shots. 2005–06 saw Aldershot's team suffer numerous injuries, and they struggled to 13th in the table. The team made it to the 2nd round of the FA Cup, losing 1–0 at home to Scunthorpe United. The next season was equally disappointing, with the side never really getting close enough to the aim of finishing in the playoff positions. The club eventually made it to 9th in the reformed 24 club Conference Premier, finishing 13 points off the playoffs. Terry Brown resigned, citing the poor health of his wife as the primary reason, although his position may have been untenable with regards to the season's performance. Martin Kuhl took over as caretaker manager. They made it to the Third round of the FA Cup for the first time, losing 4–2 at Bloomfield Road to Blackpool
Promotion to the Football League
In May 2007 Gary Waddock was appointed the new manager, with Martin Kuhl reverting to his coaching position. The Shots started the season strongly, losing few games before the turn of the year. Jonny Dixon was sold to Brighton and Hove Albion in the January Transfer window for a then club record of £56,000. The Shots finished top of the Conference Premier with a record 101 points, and were promoted to the Football League, for the first time since the club was reformed ending the season on an 18-match undefeated run.
The Shots also made it to the Conference League Cup Final after a 4–3 penalty shoot out victory over near neighbours Woking in the semi-final. The final, played at the Recreation Ground on 3 April, was against Rushden & Diamonds. With the scores 1–1 at full-time, then 3–3 after extra time, Aldershot won 4–3 on penalties.
Football League
Sixteen years after the demise of Aldershot F.C., the town of Aldershot had a Football League team again. The club retained many of the 2007–08 promotion winning team, and added several signings, both permanent and on loan. Gary Waddock and Martin Kuhl also committed their futures to the club by signing new three-year contracts. Joel Grant was sold to Crewe Alexandra for £130,000, a club record. On the opening day of the 2008–09 season, Aldershot Town won their first league game on their return to the Football League at Accrington Stanley 1–0. This was followed four days later by the club's first ever Football League Cup game, against Coventry City at the Ricoh Arena, which the Shots lost 3–1. The Shots finished fifteenth in League Two in their first season in the Football League.
Two months into the 2009–10 season, manager Gary Waddock and assistant Martin Kuhl accepted offers to join Wycombe Wanderers. Jason Dodd was appointed as Caretaker Manager, assisted by Paul Williams before Kevin Dillon, the former first-team coach of Reading, was appointed as Waddock's permanent successor in November 2009. Two days later Dillon appointed Gary Owers as his assistant manager. Under the new management team Aldershot finished the season in sixth place, qualifying them for the play-offs, where they lost 3–0 on aggregate to Rotherham United.
In January 2011 Kevin Dillon and assistant Gary Owers had left the club by mutual agreement, with the club lying 20th in League Two, after winning just 6 out of 22 league games. Dillon was replaced by Newport County manager Dean Holdsworth. Holdsworth succeeded in removing the threat of relegation, eventually guiding the club to 14th position in a run which included only 4 defeats in the second half of the season.
Aldershot finished 11th in the 2011–12. A good run in the League Cup saw Aldershot take on Manchester United at home, which ended in a 3–0 victory for the Red Devils. Holdsworth was sacked by Aldershot on 20 February 2013 with the team in 20th place in League Two.
Administration and return to Conference
In the summer 2012, a major shareholder suffered a major stroke, debilitating him and creating a financial insecurity that would prove dangerous come the following year. In May 2013, Aldershot Town announced that they were in financial difficulties, with players' wages going unpaid. The Chief Executive, Andrew Mills, announced his resignation saying that there was no evidence that the major shareholder Kris Machala had the ability to fund the club. Director Tony Knights admitted that the club has been "haemorrhaging money". On 2 May 2013, just five days after their relegation from the Football League, Aldershot Town officially entered administration. The club fell with debts of over £1 million.
On 1 August 2013, Aldershot Town confirmed the takeover of the club by a consortium led by former chairman Shahid Azeem. In conjunction, the club announced the agreement of a lucrative deal with Chelsea to host a significant number of matches played by the Chelsea Academy and Reserves over the next two years.
Aldershot were relegated from the National League in 2019 after finishing 21st. However, they were reprieved from relegation after Gateshead were administratively relegated.
The 2019–20 National League was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic with the Shots finishing in 18th place based on points per game. Aldershot Town finished 15th in the 2020–21 season finishing with 52 points.
Stadium
Aldershot Town play their home games at The Recreation Ground, which has a capacity of 7,100. The stadium was previously the home of Aldershot F.C. The stadium's current sponsor is EBB Paper, therefore the ground is advertly known as The EBB Stadium at The Recreation Ground, however is affectionately known as 'The Rec'.
In March 2018, Aldershot Town presented proposals for the redevelopment of the EBB Stadium to Rushmoor Borough Council which would see the potential development of a new stadium, containing both seating and standing areas, that will give the club a 'long-term home from which to build our ambitions on the pitch'.
Players
Current squad
Out on loan
Notable players
For all Aldershot Town F.C. players with a Wikipedia article see :Category:Aldershot Town F.C. players.
Players of the season
Managers
(c) = Caretaker managers
Updated 20 September 2021
Honours
League
Conference Premier (5th tier)
Champions: 2007–08
Play-off runners-up: 2003–04
Isthmian League Premier Division:
Winners: 2002–03
Isthmian League Division One:
Winners: 1997–98
Isthmian League Division Three:
Winners: 1992–93
Cups
Conference League Cup:
Winners: 2007–08
Hampshire Senior Cup:
Winners (5): 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2006–07
Records
Appearances and goals
Jason Chewins holds the record for the most number of appearances for the club, playing 489 times between August 1994 and May 2004. This led to the left-back being the first and, to date, only player to receive a testimonial match, which was played against Portsmouth in July 2004.
Before Chewins, the record was held by Mark Butler, who joined the club at its inception in 1992. Butler played 303 times between August 1992 and May 1998, also holding the all-time goal scoring record by netting 155 times, a record he still currently holds. Former goalkeeper Nikki Bull made his 300th appearance for the Shots in November 2008 and eventually made 313 appearances before moving to Brentford in July 2009. Five others have played more than 200 times for the club, including Stuart Udal, whose brother Shaun was an England international cricketer. Winger Jimmy Sugrue has also reached the landmark. More recently, three members of the 2007–08 title winning squad, namely Anthony Charles, Anthony Straker and Danny Hylton reached the landmark.
Gary Abbott is, apart from Butler, the only Shots player to have ever scored over 100 goals for the club. Over the course of three seasons, between August 1998 and May 2001, he scored 120 goals.
Most appearances
As of 6 May 2017
Most goals
Up to and including, Hereford United (h), 26 April 2014.
Transfers
Record Purchase
Marvin Morgan from Woking for an undisclosed fee (but a club record) in May 2008. The previous highest fee paid for a player was the £20,000 paid to Woking for Grant Payne in November 1999.
Record Sale
Joel Grant to Crewe Alexandra for £130,000 in June 2008.
Note that Idris Kanu was sold to Peterborough United for an undisclosed but potentially club record fee in August 2017.
Also note that Bernard Mensah was sold to Bristol Rovers for an undisclosed but potentially club record fee in January 2018. This deal was rumoured to be in the range of £100,000 and £150,000.
Best performances
FA Cup
Fourth Round, 2012–13
Football League Cup
Fourth round, 2011–12
Football League Trophy
Second round, 2009–10 & 2010–11
FA Trophy
Semi-finalists, 2003–04 & 2007–08
Conference League Cup
Winners, 2007–08
FA Vase
Quarter-finalists, 1993–94
Isthmian League Cup
Winners, 1998–99
Hampshire Senior Cup
Winners, 1998–99, 1999–00, 2001–02, 2002–03 & 2006–07
Seasons
Statistics for the previous decade. For a full history see; List of Aldershot Town F.C. seasons
Kits
Aldershot Town's home kit is red with blue and white trim. The club have always played in a predominantly red kit with blue features, including stripes and quarters. The club's chosen colours of red and blue reflect the garrison town's association with the British Army.
Kit supplier
Errea were the kit supplier for the 2011–12 season. Adidas has been the kit supplier from the 2013–14 season.
Kit manufacturers and sponsors
Previous kits
Further details and images of previous kits can be found at the Historical Football Kit website.
Rivalries
Aldershot Town's local rivals are Rushmoor neighbours Farnborough and Surrey side Woking. Fixtures against these sides attract larger than average crowds, including 5,961 for a Hampshire Senior Cup Semi Final, a league record 5,518 in an Isthmian League Premier Division match against Farnborough and 6,870 for an FA Cup 1st round match against Woking.
The original Aldershot were rivals with Reading until their demise in 1992 but are still considered the main rival of the club by supporters. The only meeting between the two clubs was in a friendly in 2001.
Other teams which may be considered rivals include Eastleigh and Maidenhead United.
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Football clubs in Hampshire
Association football clubs established in 1992
1992 establishments in England
Isthmian League
National League (English football)
Former English Football League clubs
Football clubs in England
Sport in Aldershot
Phoenix clubs (association football)
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom | [
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244090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo | Hugo | Hugo or HUGO may refer to:
People and fictional characters
Victor Hugo, a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement.
Hugo (name), including lists of people with Hugo as a given name or surname, as well as fictional characters
Places in the United States
Hugo, Alabama, an unincorporated community
Hugo, Colorado, a Statutory Town
Hugo, Minnesota, a town
Hugo, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Hugo, Oklahoma, a city
Hugo, Oregon, an unincorporated area
Hugo, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
HUGO
HUGO (cable system), a submarine telecommunications cable
Human Genome Organisation
The HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) is often (incorrectly) referred to as "HUGO"
HUGO, the Hawaiian Underwater Geological Observatory
Other uses
Hugo (film), a 2011 film directed by Martin Scorsese
Hugo Award, a science fiction and fantasy award named after Hugo Gernsback
Hugo (franchise), a children's media franchise based on a troll
Hugo (game show), a television show that first ran from 1990 to 1995
Hugo (video game), several video games released between 1991 and 2000
Hugo (mascot), the mascot of the Charlotte Hornets team
Hugo (software), a static site generator
2106 Hugo, an asteroid named after French writer Victor Hugo
Hugo's, a grocery chain in the United States
Hurricane Hugo, a hurricane in September 1989
HU-GO, an electric vehicle manufactured in Hacettepe University, Turkey
Hugo (Street Fighter), a character in the Street Fighter III series
Hugo, an NPC character in Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure
Hugo (musician), country musician
Hugo (crater), a crater on the planet Mercury
Hugo (cocktail), aperitif based on prosecco and elderflower syrup
See also
Hugh (disambiguation)
Hughes (disambiguation)
Hugues (disambiguation)
Huw, a given name
Ugo (disambiguation) | [
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244091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowitcher | Dowitcher | The three dowitchers are medium-sized long-billed wading birds in the genus Limnodromus. The genus name is Ancient Greek from (marsh) and (racer). The English name is from Iroquois, recorded in English by the 1830s.
They resemble godwits in body and bill shape, and the reddish underparts in summer, but are much shorter legged, more like snipe to which they are also somewhat more closely related. All three are strongly migratory.
The two North American species are difficult to separate in most plumages, and were considered a single species for many years. The Asian bird is rare and not well known.
The dowitcher species are:
Short-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus griseus
Long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus
Asian dowitcher, Limnodromus semipalmatus
References
External links
Bird genera | [
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244094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parish%20councils%20in%20England | Parish councils in England | Parish councils are civil local authorities found in England which are the lowest tier of local government. They are elected corporate bodies, with variable tax raising powers, and they carry out beneficial public activities in geographical areas known as civil parishes. There are about 9,000 parish and town councils in England, and over 16 million people live in communities served by them. Parish councils may be known by different styles, they may resolve to call themselves a town council, village council, community council, neighbourhood council, or if the parish has city status, it may call itself a city council. However their powers and duties are the same whatever name they carry.
Parish councils receive the majority of their funding by levying a precept upon the council tax paid by the residents of the parish (or parishes) covered by the council. In 2021-22 the amount raised by precept was £616 million. Other funding may be obtained by local fund-raising or grants for specific activities.
They can vary enormously in size, activities and circumstances; representing populations ranging from fewer than 100 (small rural hamlets) to up to 130,000 (Northampton Town Council). Most of them are small: around 80% represent populations of less than 2,500; Parish councils are made up of unpaid councillors who are elected to serve for four years: there are about 70,000 parish councillors country-wide.
Not every civil parish has a parish council: smaller ones, typically those with fewer than 150 electors, often have parish meetings instead, which can fulfil many of the functions of a parish council. Alternatively, parishes with small populations may apply to be grouped together with one or more neighbouring parishes under a common parish council.
Civil parish councils were formed in England under the reforming Local Government Act 1894 to take over local oversight of civic duties in rural towns and villages from the vestry committee. Parish Councils are generically referred to as "Local Councils" to distinguish them from "Principal Councils" (e.g. district councils, county councils, unitary authorities or London borough councils) and most are affiliated via County Associations to the National Association of Local Councils (NALC), which represents their interests at a national level.
Powers and duties
Their activities fall into three main categories: representing the local community, delivering services to meet local needs, and improving quality of life and community well being.
Parish councils have the power to tax their residents to support their operations and to carry out local projects, and this is done through the council tax system. Although there is no limit to the amount that can be raised, the money can only be raised for a limited number of purposes, listed below, as defined in the 1894 Act and subsequent legislation. Compared to higher tiers of English local government, parish councils have very few statutory duties (i.e. things they are required to do by law) but have a much more extensive range of discretionary powers which they may exercise voluntarily. For this reason, there are large variations in the activities of parish councils, depending on their size, resources and abilities. The "General Power of Competence" is a power awarded in 2012 to eligible councils, which further broadens the scope of activities that councils can be involved in.
Duty to provide facilities
Allotments - Duty to consider providing allotment gardens if demand unsatisfied.
Powers to provide facilities
Parish councils may exercise powers to provide, maintain and manage certain facilities. There are large variations in the facilities provided by parish councils, but they can include any of the following:
Buildings for community use, such as village halls, town halls or community centres
Recreational facilities such as parks, playgrounds, playing fields and swimming baths
Cemeteries and crematoria
Litter bins
Public seats
Public toilets
Public clocks
Cycle and motorcycle parking
Maintenance of rights of way
Guardianship of common land (such as village greens)
Maintenance of war memorials
They may also provide the following, subject to the consent of the county council, unitary authority or London borough council of the area in which they lie:
Bus shelters
Lighting of roads and public places
Off-street car parks
Certain traffic signs and other public notices
Provision, maintenance and protection of roadside verges
Establishment or acquisition of markets, and provision of market places and market buildings
Consultative powers
Parish councils have the statutory right to be consulted by the local district, borough, county council or unitary authority on:
All planning applications in their areas
Intention to provide a burial ground in the parish
Proposals to carry out sewerage works
Footpath and bridleway (more generally, 'rights of way') surveys
Intention to make byelaws in relation to hackney carriages, music and dancing, promenades, sea shore and street naming
The appointment of governors of primary schools
Miscellaneous powers
Parish councils may also exercise the following powers:
Sponsoring public events
Support of the arts and provision of entertainment
Encouragement of tourism
Providing grants to local voluntary organisations
Funding crime prevention measures
Providing grants for bus services, and funding community transport schemes
Contribution of money towards traffic calming schemes
Cleaning and drainage of ponds, watercourses and ditches
Power to obtain water from any well, spring or stream
Creation of a neighbourhood plan
Power to acquire or dispose of land
Withholding of consent to stop up unclassified highways and footpaths
Appointing trustees of local charities
Power to make byelaws in regard to pleasure grounds, cycle parks, baths and washhouses, open spaces and burial grounds, and mortuaries and post-mortem rooms.
General power of competence
Under the Localism Act 2011 eligible parish councils can be granted a "general power of competence" (GPC) which allows them within certain limits the freedom to do anything an individual can do provided it is not prohibited by other legislation, as opposed to being limited to the powers explicitly granted to them by law. To be eligible for this a parish council must meet certain conditions, such as at least two-thirds of the councillors being elected as opposed to being co-opted or appointed, and having a clerk with suitable qualifications.
In principle the GPC can allow councils to engage in a range of activities such as setting up a trading company or co-operative to lend or invest money, run a local shop, post office or energy company. Or allow it to contribute towards the provision of a service by another authority.
Meetings
The central function of the Council, the making of local decisions and policy relevant to the public interest of the parish, is performed at the meetings of the Council. A parish council must hold an annual meeting and at least three other meetings in a year; however, monthly meetings are the most common, and some larger councils have fortnightly meetings. An extraordinary meeting may be called at any time by the chairman or members, but due notice must be given.
A parish council consists of the chairman and not fewer than five elected parish councillors, and a quorum of the main council committee is at least one-third of the members, or three members, whichever is the greater. Every meeting is open to the public, who are encouraged to attend, except for those items where the Council formally resolves to exclude the public and press on the grounds that publicity would be prejudicial to the public interest. This would have to be due to the confidential nature of the business. This latter also applies to any subcommittee of the parish council.
A Council can form committees with delegated powers for specific purposes; however these must adhere to the protocols for public attendance, minute-taking and notice of meetings that apply to the main Council. A committee may form sub-committees. A Council can also appoint advisory groups which are exempt from these constraints to give flexibility, but these have no delegated powers and cannot make financial decisions. Such groups may contain members who are not councillors.
Public notice of meetings of the council and its committees must be given at least three clear days before and be displayed in a "noticeable place" in the Parish, giving time, date and venue. A summons to attend the meeting is also issued, specifying the agenda, to every member of the Council. Items not on the agenda cannot be formally debated or resolved. Items brought up by the attendance of the general public or in correspondence can be discussed, but formal resolutions on these must be deferred if they are not covered by the existing agenda to the next meeting so that due notice can be given. It is common practice to have a "public participation" item at the beginning of the agenda so that the public knows the time when this will occur.
The minutes of the meeting are taken by the clerk, and are ratified at the next meeting of the council. They must also be displayed in a noticeable place in the parish, and for many councils, they are now also displayed on the internet.
Procedures for the conduct of meetings are set out in Schedule 12 of the Local Government Act 1972, and where this is not overridden by legislation, by the standing orders of the Council. Most adopt the National Association of Local Councils (NALC) model standing orders.
Councillors are expected to adhere to the "Nolan principles" of conduct in public life
Administration
The administration of the Council is managed by its Clerk, a paid employee appointed by the council, who acts in a combined statutory role of Proper Officer (secretary or chief executive) and Responsible Financial Officer (treasurer). They may be full-time or part-time, depending on the amount of council business, and large parish councils may require more than one official for these tasks, in which case they are a group led by the Clerk.
The Clerk as the Proper Officer "enacts" (cause to happen) the decisions of the Council, and they receive official correspondence and issue correspondence on the instructions of the Council. The clerk also prepares agendas for meetings of the Council and its committees, gives notice of these to the Council members and the public, and records and publishes the minutes of these meetings. The Clerk is the formal point of contact with the public, and a source of information for the public about the Council’s activities.
The necessary financial monitoring and reporting are the clerk’s responsibility, and in this role the clerk is known as the “Responsible Financial Officer” (RFO) of the Council.
The clerk also provides procedural guidance for the Council itself, and ensures that statutory and other provisions governing or affecting the running of the Council are observed. Clerks are encouraged to have a formal qualification, such as the Certificate in Local Council Administration (CiLCA).
A councillor cannot become the paid clerk of their council, due to conflict of interest, but they can be appointed on an unpaid basis; preferably temporarily. A councillor cannot become a paid clerk until 12 months after leaving office.
Elections and membership
The cycle of parish council elections is four years, and councillors are elected by the block vote system, with voters having the same number of votes as seats on the council, in a secret ballot. Those candidates with the highest number of votes sufficient to fill the number of vacant seats are elected. The legislation provides that the number of elected members of a parish council shall not be less than five. Larger parishes may be divided into parish wards, with separate elections for each ward.
The timing of the election cycle is usually linked to that of the election of a district councillor for the ward containing the parish. Where the elections to a district council are delayed or cancelled (e.g due to its abolishment with the formation of a unitary council or a change from elections by thirds to the whole council), the term of a parish council may be extended to match the next elections to the new authority.
A candidate must be at least 18 years old and at least one of the following:
A British citizen, an eligible Commonwealth citizen
Citizen of the Republic of Ireland
Citizen of any member state of the European Union
and candidates must state on their consent for nomination form their qualification for election, which must be at least one of the following:
they are a registered elector of the parish
during the whole of the 12 months before the day of nomination and the day of election they have occupied, either as owner or tenant, any land or other premises in the parish.
their main or only place of work is in the parish during the whole of the 12 months before the day of nomination and the day of election.
they have lived within 4.8 kilometres (3 miles) of the parish boundary for 12 months before the day of nomination and the day of election.
The chairman of the previous council shall remain in office, even if not elected to the newly constituted council, until a new chairman is appointed at the first meeting of the new council.
Uncontested elections
Where there are an equal number or fewer candidates than there are vacancies, all candidates are elected unopposed, and no poll is taken. Where there are fewer candidates than vacant seats, the parish council has the power to coopt any person or persons to fill the vacancies. This power, however, may only be exercised if there is a quorum of councillors present and within 35 days of the election.
If the parish council fails to fill the vacancies within this period, the district council may dissolve it and order fresh elections. If there is not a quorum elected the district council must dissolve it and order fresh elections.
Contested elections
Where there are more candidates than vacancies, a poll must be held. Undivided parishes, or multi-member parish wards, hold elections under the bloc vote system.
Casual vacancies
If a vacancy occurs during the term of a parish council, it may be filled by either election or co-option. Elections only occur if, following the advertisement of the vacancy for 14 days, 10 electors send a written request to the returning officer. If no request is received, the parish council will be required to fill the vacancies by co-option. If vacancy occurs within 6 months of a scheduled election, then a by-election cannot be called, but the council has the power to co-opt. The nomination qualifications required of a candidate for co-option are the same as for those for election.
If the number of vacancies on the parish council is such that there is no longer a quorum, the district council may temporarily appoint persons to bring the council up to strength in the interval prior to an election.
History
Civil parish councils were formed in England under the reforming Local Government Act 1894 to take over local oversight of civic duties in rural towns and villages. The act created two new types of local authority, parish councils and district councils, to rationalise the large number of bodies which existed for a variety of activities such as public health, secular burials, water supply and drainage. It also finally removed secular duties from the local vestry committees and gave them to the new parish councils.
An idea of the scope of this huge re-organisation can be gained from the words of H H Fowler , President of the Local Government Board, who said in the parliamentary debate for the 1894 Act:
The government chose the civil parish as the basic unit of local government in rural areas. Each parish council's area of responsibility was a geographical area known as a civil parish. The civil parishes were also grouped to form rural districts, which became the geographical areas of rural district councils. Civil geographical parishes continued to exist in urban districts, but did not have parish councils.
Whilst the bulk of the rationalised activities went to district councils, parish councils took over a number of lesser powers including all the secular activities of the parish Vestry committee; a system of local government based on ecclesiastical parishes that originated in the feudal system.
Modern development
Two principal Acts of Parliament have increased the general powers of parish councils, and removed onerous constraints.
Local Government Act 1972
The Redcliffe-Maud Report led to the Local Government Act 1972, which dramatically re-organised local government with amalgamation of district councils, large-scale changes to county boundaries and creation of metropolitan areas. However, the parish council was retained as the "grass roots" tier of local democracy for rural areas. In addition, many small towns which had previously formed municipal boroughs or urban districts became "successor parishes" within larger districts. The Act also recognised the role of parish councils in development planning in their parish, and gave them the right to be informed and consulted on applications for such development. However, the original proposal to grant a general power of competence to councils was not carried through, and the doctrine of ultra vires remained. This meant that parish councils could not do anything outside their statutory powers.
Localism Act 2011
It was not until the Localism Act 2011 that parish councils were freed of the constraints of ultra vires which had limited the activities of parish councils to only those things for which they had been given statutory powers. They were given a radical new power: to 'do anything that individuals generally may do' as long as that is not limited by some other Act. This is known as the General Power of Competence (GPC), and is available to "eligible" parish councils. An eligible council is one which has resolved to adopt the GPC, with at least two-thirds of its members being declared elected, rather than co-opted, and the Clerk must hold an appropriate qualification. However the precept may not be raised specifically for activities which rely only on the power of the GPC, and such funding must be obtained from other sources.
The Localism Act also introduced new rights and powers to allow local communities to shape new development by coming together to prepare neighbourhood plans. Neighbourhood planning can be taken forward by two types of body: town and parish councils or 'neighbourhood forums'. Neighbourhood forums are community groups that are designated to take forward neighbourhood planning in areas without parishes. It is the role of the local planning authority to agree who should be the neighbourhood forum for the neighbourhood area.
Neighbourhood forums and parish councils can use new neighbourhood planning powers to establish general planning policies for the development and use of land in a neighbourhood. These are described legally as 'neighbourhood development plans'. In an important change to the planning system, communities can use neighbourhood planning to permit the development they want to see - in full or in outline – without the need for planning applications. These are called 'neighbourhood development orders'.
Alternative styles
In 1974, the local government reforms allowed the creation of successor parish councils, to cover those areas formerly the responsibility of a municipal corporation. Such an area could be declared a "town", and the council would then be known as a "town council". The majority of successor parishes, and a number of other small market towns now have town councils, with the power of parish councils but their chairmen are entitled to style themselves as "town mayor". Similarly, a handful of parishes have been granted city status by letters patent: the council of such a parish is known as "city council" and the chairman is entitled to be known as the "city mayor".
In England, there are currently nine parishes with city status, all places with long-established Anglican cathedrals: Chichester, Durham, Ely, Hereford, Lichfield, Ripon, Salisbury, Truro and Wells.
Following the enactment of the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007, a parish council has been able to alternatively style itself as a "village council", "neighbourhood council" or "community council". A provision of this Act is that is that civil parishes may now be established in the London boroughs.
Creation, alteration and abolition of councils
Since the enactment of the Local Government and Rating Act 1997, district and unitary councils may create a parish council for a new civil parish either through a review or in response to a petition. This has led to the creation of new parish councils at an increased rate, especially in large towns and cities which do not have a history of parish governance.
Since 13 February 2008 the power to create new parishes and parish councils, to alter parish boundaries, to dissolve parish councils and to abolish parishes has been devolved to district, unitary and London Borough councils (collectively known as "principal councils"). This process is known as a "community governance review".
Principal councils have the power to make a community governance review at any time for all or part of their district. It is envisaged that such reviews will occur at intervals of between 10 and 15 years, and will take into account population changes, the need for well-defined boundaries and the wishes of local inhabitants. Reviews may also be triggered by a petition of local government electors for an area. A petition is deemed valid where it is signed by a sufficient proportion of the electorate (ranging from 50% in an area with fewer than 500 electors to 10% in one with more than 2,500). The sufficient proportion of the electorate necessary in areas with more than 2,500 electors was reduced from 10% to 7.5% under an amendment to the Act made in 2015.
At the end of the review process, which must be completed within 12 months, the principal council is empowered to issue a reorganisation order setting out the changes. This order may:
Create a new parish
From all or part of an unparished area
By the division of an existing parish or parishes
By the merger of all or parts of existing parishes
Alter the boundaries of existing parishes
Group or ungroup parishes
Give a name to a new parish
Abolish an existing parish and dissolve its parish council
In order to abolish an existing parish council, the principal council must provide evidence that this in response to "justified, clear and sustained local support" from the area's inhabitants. Where a new parish is formed with 1,000 electors or more, a parish council must be formed. Where there are between 151 and 999 electors the principal council may recommend the establishment of either a parish council or parish meeting. Where there are 150 electors or fewer a parish council may not be formed.
Reviews come into effect on 1 April in the year following the date the reorganisation order is made. Where a new parish council is created, elections to the new body will be held at the time of next council elections. In the intervening period the principal council appoint the parish council from among their own membership.
Notes
References
See also
List of civil parishes in England
Civil parishes in Scotland
Charles Arnold-Baker noted writer on local council law and procedure.
External links
National Association of Local Councils homepage
Create a Council
Parish Council elections - guidance for candidates and agents - The electoral Commission
The Parish Toolkit
Summary of allotment law in England
Local government in England | [
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244096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulpicia%20gens | Sulpicia gens | The gens Sulpicia was one of the most ancient patrician families at ancient Rome, and produced a succession of distinguished men, from the foundation of the Republic to the imperial period. The first member of the gens who obtained the consulship was Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus, in 500 BC, only nine years after the expulsion of the Tarquins, and the last of the name who appears on the consular list was Sextus Sulpicius Tertullus in AD 158. Although originally patrician, the family also possessed plebeian members, some of whom may have been descended from freedmen of the gens.
Praenomina
The Sulpicii made regular use of only four praenomina: Publius, Servius, Quintus, and Gaius. The only other praenomen appearing under the Republic is Marcus, known from the father of Gaius Sulpicius Peticus, five times consul during the fourth century BC. The last of the Sulpicii known to have held the consulship, in the second century AD, was named Sextus, a praenomen otherwise unknown in this gens.
Branches and cognomina
During the Republic, several branches of the Sulpician gens were identified by numerous cognomina, including Camerinus, Cornutus, Galba, Gallus, Longus, Paterculus, Peticus, Praetextatus, Quirinus, Rufus, and Saverrio. In addition to these cognomina, we meet with some other surnames belonging to freedmen and to other persons under the Empire. On coins we find the surnames Galba, Platorinus, Proclus, and Rufus.
Camerinus was the name of an old patrician family of the Sulpicia gens, which probably derived its name from the ancient town of Cameria or Camerium, in Latium. Many of them bore the agnomen Cornutus, from a Latin adjective meaning "horned". The Camerini frequently held the highest offices in the state in the early times of the Republic; but after 345 BC, when Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Rufus was consul, we do not hear of them again for upwards of three hundred years, till Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus obtained the consulship in AD 9. The family was reckoned one of the noblest in Rome in the early times of the Empire.
The Praetextati appear in the second half of the fifth century BC. The family appears to have been a small one, descended from the Camerini. It probably derived its name from one of several related meanings. Praetextus commonly referred to clothing with a decorative border, and especially to the toga praetexta, a toga with a purple border worn by boys and magistrates. Something veiled or concealed could also be described as praetextatus.
The Sulpicii Longi flourished during the fourth century BC, from the time of the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 to the period of the Samnite Wars. The cognomen Longus may have been bestowed upon the ancestor of this family because he was particularly tall.
The surname Rufus, meaning "red", probably referred to the color of the hair of one of the Sulpicii, and may have begun as a cadet branch of the Camerini, as both cognomina were united in the consul of 345 BC. Several Sulpicii bearing this surname appear towards the end of the Republic, but as some appear to have been patricians and others plebeians, they may have constituted two distinct families.
The Sulpicii Galli were a family of the second and third centuries BC. Their cognomen may refer to a cock, or to a Gaul. The greatest of this family, Gaius Sulpicius Gallus, was a successful general and statesman, as well as an orator and scholar much admired by Cicero.
The Sulpicii Galbae first came to prominence during the Second Punic War, and remained distinguished until the first century AD, when Servius Sulpicius Galba claimed the title of Emperor. Suetonius gives four possible explanations of this surname: that the first of the family burnt a town he had besieged, using torches smeared with galbanum, a type of gum; or that, chronically ill, he made regular use of a type of remedy wrapped in wool, known as galbeum; or that galba was a Gallic word for someone very fat; or instead that he resembled a galba, a grub or caterpillar. The surname may also share a common root with the adjective galbinus, a greenish-yellow color.
Members
Sulpicii Camerini
Publius Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus, father of the consul of 500 BC.
Servius Sulpicius P. f. Camerinus Cornutus, consul in 500 BC.
Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus, consul in 490 BC, and one of the ambassadors sent to intercede with Coriolanus.
Servius Sulpicius Ser. f. P. n. Camerinus Cornutus, father of the consul of 461 BC.
Servius Sulpicius Ser. f. Ser. n. Camerinus Cornutus, consul in 461 BC, and one of the Decemvirs of 451. In 446, he commanded the Roman cavalry against the Aequi and Volsci.
Quintus Sulpicius Ser. f. Ser. n. Camerinus Cornutus, consular tribune in 402 and 398 BC.
Servius Sulpicius Q. f. Ser. n. Camerinus, consul suffectus in 393 BC, and consular tribune in 391. He was interrex in 387.
Servius Sulpicius (Camerinus) Rufus, consular tribune in 388, 384, and 383 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius Camerinus, consular tribune in 382, and censor in 380 BC, resigned his office upon the death of his colleague.
Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Rufus, consul 345 BC.
Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus, grandfather of the consul of AD 9.
Quintus Sulpicius Q. f. Camerinus, father of the consul of AD 9.
Quintus Sulpicius Q. f. Q. n. Camerinus, consul in AD 9.
Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus Peticus, consul in AD 46, he was accused of extortion while proconsul of Africa in 59, and shortly afterward put to death by Nero.
Quintus Sulpicius Q. f. Camerinus Pythicus, the son of Peticus, was also put to death under Nero.
Sulpicii Praetextati
Quintus Sulpicius Ser. f. Camerinus Praetextatus, consular tribune in 434 BC.
Servius Sulpicius Praetextatus, consular tribune in 377, 376, 370, and 368 BC, sometimes confused with his kinsman, Servius Sulpicius Rufus.
Sulpicia Praetextata, the wife of Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi, consul in AD 64, is mentioned at the commencement of the reign of Vespasian, AD 70.
Sulpicii Petici
Quintus Sulpicius Peticus, grandfather of the consul of 364 BC.
Marcus Sulpicius Q. f. Peticus, father of the consul of 364 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius M. f. Q. n. Peticus, censor in 366, consul in 364, 361, 355, 353, and 351 BC, and dictator in 358.
Sulpicii Longi
Quintus Sulpicius Longus, consular tribune in 390 BC, negotiated with Brennus, and persuaded him to leave Rome.
Servius Sulpicius Q. f. Longus, father of the consul of 337 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius Ser. f. Q. n. Longus, consul in 337, 323, and 314 BC, and dictator in 312, triumphed over the Samnites.
Sulpicii Saverriones
Publius Sulpicius Saverrio, grandfather of the consul of 304 BC.
Servius Sulpicius P. f. Saverrio, father of the consul of 304 BC.
Publius Sulpicius Ser. f. P. n. Saverrio, consul in 304 and censor in 300 BC, triumphed over the Samnites.
Publius Sulpicius P. f. Ser. n. Saverrio, consul in 279 BC, during the war against Pyrrhus.
Sulpicii Paterculi
Quintus Sulpicius Paterculus, grandfather of the consul of 258 BC.
Quintus Sulpicius Q. f. Paterculus, father of the consul of 258 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius Q. f. Q. n. Paterculus, consul in 258 BC, during the First Punic War, triumphed over the Carthaginians in Sicilia.
Servius Sulpicius Paterculus, the father of Sulpicia, who dedicated the temple of Venus Verticordia.
Sulpicia Ser. f., who married Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, was thought to be the chastest woman in Rome, selected to dedicate the temple of Venus Verticordia in 113 BC.
Sulpicii Galli
Servius Sulpicius Gallus, grandfather of the consul of 243 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius Ser. f. Gallus, father of the consul of 243 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius C. f. Ser. n. Gallus, consul in 243 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius C. f. Gallus, father of the consul of 166 BC.
Gaius Sulpicius C. f. C. n. Gallus, a great scholar; as consul in 166 BC, triumphed over the Ligures.
Quintus Sulpicius C. f. C. n. Gallus, died at an early age, and his death was borne by his father with great fortitude.
Galus Sulpicius, consul suffectus in 4 BC. Believed to be a descendant of the consul of 166 BC.
Galus Sulpicius, son of the above. triumvir monetalis in 5 BC.
Sulpicii Galbae
Publius Sulpicius Galba, grandfather of the consul of 211 BC.
Servius Sulpicius P. f. Galba, father of the consul of 211 BC.
Publius Sulpicius Ser. f. P. n. Galba Maximus, consul in 211 and 200 BC, and dictator in 203.
Servius Sulpicius Galba, curule aedile in 208 BC, and afterwards a pontifex, in the place of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus.
Gaius Sulpicius Galba, elected pontifex in 202 BC, in place of Titus Manlius Torquatus, but he died circa 199.
Servius Sulpicius Galba, as curule aedile in 189 BC, he used the fines collected by his office to dedicate twelve gilt shields in the temple of Hercules. He was praetor urbanus in 187, and an unsuccessful candidate for the consulship in 185.
Gaius Sulpicius Galba, praetor urbanus in 171 BC.
Servius Sulpicius Ser. f. P. n. Galba, tried for his atrocities against the Lusitani in 150 BC, but was acquitted, and served as consul in 144 BC. Cicero describes him as an orator of no mean talent.
Gaius Sulpicius Ser. f. Ser. n. Galba, quaestor in 120 BC, and a pontifex, condemned by the lex Mamilia of 110 BC.
Servius Sulpicius Ser. f. Ser. n. Galba, consul in 108 BC.
Servius Sulpicius Galba, praetor about 91 BC.
Publius Sulpicius Galba, appointed one of the judges in the case of Verres, in 70 BC, afterwards a pontifex and augur. He had been praetor, but the year is uncertain; perhaps 66.<ref>Asconius Pedianis, In Toga Candida, p. 82.</ref>Broughton, vol. II, pp. 134, 137, 152, 206, 255.
Servius Sulpicius (Ser. f.) Ser. n. Galba, praetor urbanus in 54 BC, and a friend of Caesar, but perhaps also one of the conspirators against him.Caesar, De Bello Gallico, iii. 1, 6, viii. 50.Valerius Maximus, vi. 2. § 11.Broughton, vol. II, pp. 191, 222, 355.
Gaius Sulpicius Ser. f. (Ser. n.) Galba, a minor historian, and grandfather of the emperor Galba; he held the praetorship, but the year is uncertain.
Gaius Sulpicius C. f. Ser. n. Galba, father of the emperor Galba, was consul suffectus in 5 BC.Oliver, "C. Sulpicius Galba".
Servius Sulpicius C. f. Ser. n. Galba, younger son of the historian Gaius Sulpicius Galba, and uncle of Servius, the emperor.
Gaius Sulpicius C. f. C. n. Galba, consul in AD 22, brother of the emperor.Tacitus, Annales, vi. 40.
Servius Sulpicius C. f. C. n. Galba, consul in 33, and emperor in AD 69.Cassius Dio, lxiv. 1–6.Plutarch, "The Life of Galba".Eutropius, vii. 10.
Sulpicii Rufi
Publius Sulpicius Rufus, tribune of the plebs in 88 BC, a distinguished orator, and afterwards a partisan of Gaius Marius.Asconius Pedianus, Pro Scauro, p. 20 (ed. Orelli), Rhetorica ad Herennium, ii. 28.Plutarch, "The Life of Sulla", 10.Velleius Paterculus, ii. 18.
Quintus Sulpicius Rufus, father of the jurist.
Servius Sulpicius Q. f. Rufus, consul in 51 BC, an eminent jurist and contemporary of Cicero.Plutarch, "The Life of Cato", 49.
Sulpicia, daughter of the consul of 51 BC. Wife of Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Cruscellio. Her husband was proscribed by the triumvirs in 43 BC. She followed her husband to Sicilia, against the wishes of her mother, Julia.Appian, Bellum Civile, iv. 39.
Publius Sulpicius (P. f.) Rufus, praetor in 48 BC, had been a legate of Caesar in Gaul and during his first campaign in Hispania. He was censor in 42.Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares, xiii. 77.
Servius Sulpicius Ser. f. Q. n. Rufus, a supporter of Caesar, frequently mentioned by Cicero.
Sulpicius Rufus, procurator of the public games, was slain by the emperor Claudius because he was privy to the marriage of Silius and Messalina.
Others
Gaius Sulpicius, praetor in 211 BC, was assigned the province of Sicily.
Sulpicia, the mother-in-law of Spurius Postumius Albinus, consul in 186 BC.
Servius Sulpicius, mentioned by Quintus Horatius Flaccus as an author of love-poems.
Publius Sulpicius (P. f.) Quirinus, censor in 42 BC, and consul suffectus in 36 BC.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 638 ("Publius Sulpicius Quirinus", no. 1).
Publius Sulpicius P. f. P. n. Quirinius, also called Quirinius, consul in 12 BC, and later governor of Syria.Tacitus, Annales, ii. 30, iii. 22, 48.Strabo, xii., p. 569.Luke, ii. 1.
Sulpicius Flavus, a companion of the emperor Claudius, whom he assisted in the composition of his historical works.
Sulpicius Asper, a centurion, and one of the conspirators against Nero, discovered and put to death in AD 66.Cassius Dio, lxii. 24.
Sulpicius Florus, an infantryman granted Roman citizenship under the emperor Galba, who later participated in the emperor's overthrow.
Sulpicius Blitho, a source cited by the biographer Cornelius Nepos.
Sulpicia, a poet who lived during the latter part of the first century. Her love poetry, addressed to her husband, Calenus, were admired by Martial, Ausonius, and Sidonius Apollinaris. A satire upon the edict of Domitian banishing philosophers from Italy, found among the works of Ausonius, is generally attributed to her.Ausonius, Cento Nuptialis.Anthologia Latina, iii. 251 (ed. Burmann), 198 (ed. Meyer).
Sulpicia Lepidina, the wife of Flavius Cerealis, prefect of a cohort at Vindolanda in Britannia, circa AD 103.
Servius Sulpicius Similis, governor of Egypt from AD 107 to 112, and Praetorian Prefect from 112 to 118.
Sulpicius Apollinaris, a grammarian, and a friend and contemporary of Aulus Gellius during the later second century. He was probably the same Sulpicius Apollinaris who was a tutor of Pertinax.Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Pertinax", 1.
Sulpicius of Carthage, the author of two poems in the Latin Anthology, identified by some authorities with Sulpicius Apollinaris.Donatus, Vita Virgilii.
Sextus Sulpicius Tertullus, consul in AD 158.
Sulpicia Memmia, one of the three wives of Alexander Severus. Her father was a man of consular rank; her grandfather's name was Catulus.
Sulpicia Dryantilla, daughter of Sulpicius Pollio and wife of Roman usurper Regalianus during the Crisis of the Third Century. Received the title of Augusta. Possibly killed with her husband in 260.
Sulpicius Lupercus Servastus, a Latin poet, of whom nothing is known except his elegy, De Cupiditate, and a Sapphic ode, De Vetustate.
Sulpicius Severus, an ecclesiastical historian of the late 4th and early 5th centuries.
Christian figures
Sulpicius, a saint from Aquitania who wrote the earliest biography of Saint Martin of Tours.
Sulpitius, the name of several saints.
Footnotes
See also
List of Roman gentes
References
Bibliography
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Henricus Meyerus, Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta ab Appio inde Caeco usque ad Q. Aurelium Symmachum (Fragments of Roman Orators from Appius Claudius Caecus to Quintus Aurelius Symmachus), L. Bourgeois-Mazé, Paris (1837).
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849).
James H. Oliver, "C. Sulpicius Galba, Proconsul of Achaia", in American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 380–388 (September 1942).
T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952).
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Guido Bastianini, "Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p", in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, No. 17, p. 281 (1975).
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Richard J. Evans, "Reviewed Work: The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher'' by J. Jeffrey Tatum", in Mnemosyne, 4th series, vol. 55, No. 6, pp. 764–767 (2002), .
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244097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window%20function | Window function | In signal processing and statistics, a window function (also known as an apodization function or tapering function) is a mathematical function that is zero-valued outside of some chosen interval, normally symmetric around the middle of the interval, usually near a maximum in the middle, and usually tapering away from the middle. Mathematically, when another function or waveform/data-sequence is "multiplied" by a window function, the product is also zero-valued outside the interval: all that is left is the part where they overlap, the "view through the window". Equivalently, and in actual practice, the segment of data within the window is first isolated, and then only that data is multiplied by the window function values. Thus, tapering, not segmentation, is the main purpose of window functions.
The reasons for examining segments of a longer function include detection of transient events and time-averaging of frequency spectra. The duration of the segments is determined in each application by requirements like time and frequency resolution. But that method also changes the frequency content of the signal by an effect called spectral leakage. Window functions allow us to distribute the leakage spectrally in different ways, according to the needs of the particular application. There are many choices detailed in this article, but many of the differences are so subtle as to be insignificant in practice.
In typical applications, the window functions used are non-negative, smooth, "bell-shaped" curves. Rectangle, triangle, and other functions can also be used. A more general definition of window functions does not require them to be identically zero outside an interval, as long as the product of the window multiplied by its argument is square integrable, and, more specifically, that the function goes sufficiently rapidly toward zero.
Applications
Window functions are used in spectral analysis/modification/resynthesis, the design of finite impulse response filters, as well as beamforming and antenna design.
Spectral analysis
The Fourier transform of the function is zero, except at frequency ±ω. However, many other functions and waveforms do not have convenient closed-form transforms. Alternatively, one might be interested in their spectral content only during a certain time period.
In either case, the Fourier transform (or a similar transform) can be applied on one or more finite intervals of the waveform. In general, the transform is applied to the product of the waveform and a window function. Any window (including rectangular) affects the spectral estimate computed by this method.
Choice of window function
Windowing of a simple waveform like causes its Fourier transform to develop non-zero values (commonly called spectral leakage) at frequencies other than ω. The leakage tends to be worst (highest) near ω and least at frequencies farthest from ω.
If the waveform under analysis comprises two sinusoids of different frequencies, leakage can interfere with our ability to distinguish them spectrally. Possible types of interference are often broken down into two opposing classes as follows: If the component frequencies are dissimilar and one component is weaker, then leakage from the stronger component can obscure the weaker one's presence. But if the frequencies are too similar, leakage can render them unresolvable even when the sinusoids are of equal strength. Windows that are effective against the first type of interference, namely where components have dissimilar frequencies and amplitudes, are called high dynamic range. Conversely, windows that can distinguish components with similar frequencies and amplitudes are called high resolution.
The rectangular window is an example of a window that is high resolution but low dynamic range, meaning it is good for distinguishing components of similar amplitude even when the frequencies are also close, but poor at distinguishing components of different amplitude even when the frequencies are far away. High-resolution, low-dynamic-range windows such as the rectangular window also have the property of high sensitivity, which is the ability to reveal relatively weak sinusoids in the presence of additive random noise. That is because the noise produces a stronger response with high-dynamic-range windows than with high-resolution windows.
At the other extreme of the range of window types are windows with high dynamic range but low resolution and sensitivity. High-dynamic-range windows are most often justified in wideband applications, where the spectrum being analyzed is expected to contain many different components of various amplitudes.
In between the extremes are moderate windows, such as Hamming and Hann. They are commonly used in narrowband applications, such as the spectrum of a telephone channel.
In summary, spectral analysis involves a trade-off between resolving comparable strength components with similar frequencies (high resolution / sensitivity) and resolving disparate strength components with dissimilar frequencies (high dynamic range). That trade-off occurs when the window function is chosen.
Discrete-time signals
When the input waveform is time-sampled, instead of continuous, the analysis is usually done by applying a window function and then a discrete Fourier transform (DFT). But the DFT provides only a sparse sampling of the actual discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) spectrum. Figure 2, row 3 shows a DTFT for a rectangularly-windowed sinusoid. The actual frequency of the sinusoid is indicated as "13" on the horizontal axis. Everything else is leakage, exaggerated by the use of a logarithmic presentation. The unit of frequency is "DFT bins"; that is, the integer values on the frequency axis correspond to the frequencies sampled by the DFT. So the figure depicts a case where the actual frequency of the sinusoid coincides with a DFT sample, and the maximum value of the spectrum is accurately measured by that sample. In row 4, it misses the maximum value by ½ bin, and the resultant measurement error is referred to as scalloping loss (inspired by the shape of the peak). For a known frequency, such as a musical note or a sinusoidal test signal, matching the frequency to a DFT bin can be prearranged by choices of a sampling rate and a window length that results in an integer number of cycles within the window.
Noise bandwidth
The concepts of resolution and dynamic range tend to be somewhat subjective, depending on what the user is actually trying to do. But they also tend to be highly correlated with the total leakage, which is quantifiable. It is usually expressed as an equivalent bandwidth, B. It can be thought of as redistributing the DTFT into a rectangular shape with height equal to the spectral maximum and width B. The more the leakage, the greater the bandwidth. It is sometimes called noise equivalent bandwidth or equivalent noise bandwidth, because it is proportional to the average power that will be registered by each DFT bin when the input signal contains a random noise component (or is just random noise). A graph of the power spectrum, averaged over time, typically reveals a flat noise floor, caused by this effect. The height of the noise floor is proportional to B. So two different window functions can produce different noise floors.
Processing gain and losses
In signal processing, operations are chosen to improve some aspect of quality of a signal by exploiting the differences between the signal and the corrupting influences. When the signal is a sinusoid corrupted by additive random noise, spectral analysis distributes the signal and noise components differently, often making it easier to detect the signal's presence or measure certain characteristics, such as amplitude and frequency. Effectively, the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is improved by distributing the noise uniformly, while concentrating most of the sinusoid's energy around one frequency. Processing gain is a term often used to describe an SNR improvement. The processing gain of spectral analysis depends on the window function, both its noise bandwidth (B) and its potential scalloping loss. These effects partially offset, because windows with the least scalloping naturally have the most leakage.
Figure 3 depicts the effects of three different window functions on the same data set, comprising two equal strength sinusoids in additive noise. The frequencies of the sinusoids are chosen such that one encounters no scalloping and the other encounters maximum scalloping. Both sinusoids suffer less SNR loss under the Hann window than under the Blackman–Harris window. In general (as mentioned earlier), this is a deterrent to using high-dynamic-range windows in low-dynamic-range applications.
Symmetry
The formulas provided in this article produce discrete sequences, as if a continuous window function has been "sampled". (See an example at Kaiser window.) Window sequences for spectral analysis are either symmetric or 1-sample short of symmetric (called periodic, DFT-even, or DFT-symmetric). For instance, a true symmetric sequence, with its maximum at a single center-point, is generated by the MATLAB function hann(9,'symmetric'). Deleting the last sample produces a sequence identical to hann(8,'periodic'). Similarly, the sequence hann(8,'symmetric') has two equal center-points.
Some functions have one or two zero-valued end-points, which are unnecessary in most applications. Deleting a zero-valued end-point has no effect on its DTFT (spectral leakage). But the function designed for + 1 or + 2 samples, in anticipation of deleting one or both end points, typically has a slightly narrower main lobe, slightly higher sidelobes, and a slightly smaller noise-bandwidth.
DFT-symmetry
The predecessor of the DFT is the finite Fourier transform, and window functions were "always an odd number of points and exhibit even symmetry about the origin". In that case, the DTFT is entirely real-valued. When the same sequence is shifted into a DFT data window, the DTFT becomes complex-valued except at frequencies spaced at regular intervals of Thus, when sampled by an -length DFT, the samples (called DFT coefficients) are still real-valued. An approximation is to truncate the +1-length sequence (effectively ), and compute an -length DFT. The DTFT (spectral leakage) is slightly affected, but the samples remain real-valued.
The terms DFT-even and periodic refer to the idea that if the truncated sequence were repeated periodically, it would be even-symmetric about and its DTFT would be entirely real-valued. But the actual DTFT is generally complex-valued, except for the DFT coefficients. In subsequent sections, we sample the DTFT much more densely and display only the magnitude component of the complex numbers.
Periodic summation
An exact method to sample the DTFT of an +1-length sequence at intervals of is described at . Essentially, is combined with (by addition), and an -point DFT is done on the truncated sequence. Similarly, spectral analysis would be done by combining the and data samples before applying the truncated symmetric window. That is not a common practice, even though truncated windows are very popular.
Convolution
The appeal of DFT-symmetric windows is explained by the popularity of the Fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm for implementation of the DFT, because truncation of an odd-length sequence results in an even-length sequence. Their real-valued DFT coefficients are also an advantage in certain esoteric applications where windowing is achieved by means of convolution between the DFT coefficients and an unwindowed DFT of the data. In those applications, DFT-symmetric windows (even or odd length) from the Cosine-sum family are preferred, because most of their DFT coefficients are zero-valued, making the convolution very efficient.
Filter design
Windows are sometimes used in the design of digital filters, in particular to convert an "ideal" impulse response of infinite duration, such as a sinc function, to a finite impulse response (FIR) filter design. That is called the window method.
Statistics and curve fitting
Window functions are sometimes used in the field of statistical analysis to restrict the set of data being analyzed to a range near a given point, with a weighting factor that diminishes the effect of points farther away from the portion of the curve being fit. In the field of Bayesian analysis and curve fitting, this is often referred to as the kernel.
Rectangular window applications
Analysis of transients
When analyzing a transient signal in modal analysis, such as an impulse, a shock response, a sine burst, a chirp burst, or noise burst, where the energy vs time distribution is extremely uneven, the rectangular window may be most appropriate. For instance, when most of the energy is located at the beginning of the recording, a non-rectangular window attenuates most of the energy, degrading the signal-to-noise ratio.
Harmonic analysis
One might wish to measure the harmonic content of a musical note from a particular instrument or the harmonic distortion of an amplifier at a given frequency. Referring again to Figure 2, we can observe that there is no leakage at a discrete set of harmonically-related frequencies sampled by the DFT. (The spectral nulls are actually zero-crossings, which cannot be shown on a logarithmic scale such as this.) This property is unique to the rectangular window, and it must be appropriately configured for the signal frequency, as described above.
A list of window functions
Conventions:
is a zero-phase function (symmetrical about ), continuous for where is a positive integer (even or odd).
The sequence is symmetric, of length
is DFT-symmetric, of length
The parameter B displayed on each spectral plot is the function's noise equivalent bandwidth metric, in units of DFT bins.
The sparse sampling of a DTFT (such as the DFTs in Fig 2) only reveals the leakage into the DFT bins from a sinusoid whose frequency is also an integer DFT bin. The unseen sidelobes reveal the leakage to expect from sinusoids at other frequencies. Therefore, when choosing a window function, it is usually important to sample the DTFT more densely (as we do throughout this section) and choose a window that suppresses the sidelobes to an acceptable level.
Rectangular window
The rectangular window (sometimes known as the boxcar or Dirichlet window) is the simplest window, equivalent to replacing all but N values of a data sequence by zeros, making it appear as though the waveform suddenly turns on and off:
Other windows are designed to moderate these sudden changes, which reduces scalloping loss and improves dynamic range, as described above ().
The rectangular window is the 1st order B-spline window as well as the 0th power power-of-sine window.
B-spline windows
B-spline windows can be obtained as k-fold convolutions of the rectangular window. They include the rectangular window itself (k = 1), the (k = 2) and the (k = 4). Alternative definitions sample the appropriate normalized B-spline basis functions instead of convolving discrete-time windows. A kth-order B-spline basis function is a piece-wise polynomial function of degree k−1 that is obtained by k-fold self-convolution of the rectangular function.
Triangular window
Triangular windows are given by:
where L can be N, N + 1,
or N + 2. The first one is also known as Bartlett window or Fejér window. All three definitions converge at large N.
The triangular window is the 2nd order B-spline window. The L = N form can be seen as the convolution of two N/2-width rectangular windows. The Fourier transform of the result is the squared values of the transform of the half-width rectangular window.
Parzen window
Defining , the Parzen window, also known as the de la Vallée Poussin window, is the 4th order B-spline window given by:
Other polynomial windows
Welch window
The Welch window consists of a single parabolic section:
The defining quadratic polynomial reaches a value of zero at the samples just outside the span of the window.
Sine window
The corresponding function is a cosine without the /2 phase offset. So the sine window is sometimes also called cosine window. As it represents half a cycle of a sinusoidal function, it is also known variably as half-sine window or half-cosine window.
The autocorrelation of a sine window produces a function known as the Bohman window.
Power-of-sine/cosine windows
These window functions have the form:
The rectangular window (), the sine window (), and the Hann window () are members of this family.
For even-integer values of , these functions can also be expressed in cosine-sum form:
Cosine-sum windows
This family is also known as generalized cosine windows.
In most cases, including the examples below, all coefficients ak ≥ 0. These windows have only 2K + 1 non-zero N-point DFT coefficients.
Hann and Hamming windows
The customary cosine-sum windows for case K = 1 have the form:
which is easily (and often) confused with its zero-phase version:
Setting produces a Hann window:
named after Julius von Hann, and sometimes erroneously referred to as Hanning, presumably due to its linguistic and formulaic similarities to the Hamming window. It is also known as raised cosine, because the zero-phase version, is one lobe of an elevated cosine function.
This function is a member of both the cosine-sum and power-of-sine families. Unlike the Hamming window, the end points of the Hann window just touch zero. The resulting side-lobes roll off at about 18 dB per octave.
Setting to approximately 0.54, or more precisely 25/46, produces the Hamming window, proposed by Richard W. Hamming. That choice places a zero-crossing at frequency 5/(N − 1), which cancels the first sidelobe of the Hann window, giving it a height of about one-fifth that of the Hann window.
The Hamming window is often called the Hamming blip when used for pulse shaping.
Approximation of the coefficients to two decimal places substantially lowers the level of sidelobes, to a nearly equiripple condition. In the equiripple sense, the optimal values for the coefficients are a0 = 0.53836 and a1 = 0.46164.
Blackman window
Blackman windows are defined as:
By common convention, the unqualified term Blackman window refers to Blackman's "not very serious proposal" of (a0 = 0.42, a1 = 0.5, a2 = 0.08), which closely approximates the exact Blackman, with a0 = 7938/18608 ≈ 0.42659, a1 = 9240/18608 ≈ 0.49656, and a2 = 1430/18608 ≈ 0.076849. These exact values place zeros at the third and fourth sidelobes, but result in a discontinuity at the edges and a 6 dB/oct fall-off. The truncated coefficients do not null the sidelobes as well, but have an improved 18 dB/oct fall-off.
Nuttall window, continuous first derivative
The continuous form of the Nuttall window, and its first derivative are continuous everywhere, like the Hann function. That is, the function goes to 0 at unlike the Blackman–Nuttall, Blackman–Harris, and Hamming windows. The Blackman window () is also continuous with continuous derivative at the edge, but the "exact Blackman window" is not.
Blackman–Nuttall window
Blackman–Harris window
A generalization of the Hamming family, produced by adding more shifted sinc functions, meant to minimize side-lobe levels
Flat top window
A flat top window is a partially negative-valued window that has minimal scalloping loss in the frequency domain. That property is desirable for the measurement of amplitudes of sinusoidal frequency components. Drawbacks of the broad bandwidth are poor frequency resolution and high .
Flat top windows can be designed using low-pass filter design methods, or they may be of the usual cosine-sum variety:
The Matlab variant has these coefficients:
Other variations are available, such as sidelobes that roll off at the cost of higher values near the main lobe.
Rife–Vincent windows
Rife–Vincent windows are customarily scaled for unity average value, instead of unity peak value. The coefficient values below, applied to , reflect that custom.
Class I, Order 1 (K = 1): Functionally equivalent to the Hann window.
Class I, Order 2 (K = 2):
Class I is defined by minimizing the high-order sidelobe amplitude. Coefficients for orders up to K=4 are tabulated.
Class II minimizes the main-lobe width for a given maximum side-lobe.
Class III is a compromise for which order K = 2 resembles the .
Adjustable windows
Gaussian window
The Fourier transform of a Gaussian is also a Gaussian. Since the support of a Gaussian function extends to infinity, it must either be truncated at the ends of the window, or itself windowed with another zero-ended window.
Since the log of a Gaussian produces a parabola, this can be used for nearly exact quadratic interpolation in frequency estimation.
The standard deviation of the Gaussian function is σ · N/2 sampling periods.
Confined Gaussian window
The confined Gaussian window yields the smallest possible root mean square frequency width for a given temporal width . These windows optimize the RMS time-frequency bandwidth products. They are computed as the minimum eigenvectors of a parameter-dependent matrix. The confined Gaussian window family contains the and the in the limiting cases of large and small , respectively.
Approximate confined Gaussian window
Defining , a confined Gaussian window of temporal width is well approximated by:
where is a Gaussian function:
The standard deviation of the approximate window is asymptotically equal (i.e. large values of ) to for .
Generalized normal window
A more generalized version of the Gaussian window is the generalized normal window. Retaining the notation from the Gaussian window above, we can represent this window as
for any even . At , this is a Gaussian window and as approaches , this approximates to a rectangular window. The Fourier transform of this window does not exist in a closed form for a general . However, it demonstrates the other benefits of being smooth, adjustable bandwidth. Like the , this window naturally offers a "flat top" to control the amplitude attenuation of a time-series (on which we don't have a control with Gaussian window). In essence, it offers a good (controllable) compromise, in terms of spectral leakage, frequency resolution and amplitude attenuation, between the Gaussian window and the rectangular window.
See also for a study on time-frequency representation of this window (or function).
Tukey window
The Tukey window, also known as the cosine-tapered window, can be regarded as a cosine lobe of width (spanning observations) that is convolved with a rectangular window of width .
At it becomes rectangular, and at it becomes a Hann window.
Planck-taper window
The so-called "Planck-taper" window is a bump function that has been widely used in the theory of partitions of unity in manifolds. It is smooth (a function) everywhere, but is exactly zero outside of a compact region, exactly one over an interval within that region, and varies smoothly and monotonically between those limits. Its use as a window function in signal processing was first suggested in the context of gravitational-wave astronomy, inspired by the Planck distribution. It is defined as a piecewise function:
The amount of tapering is controlled by the parameter ε, with smaller values giving sharper transitions.
DPSS or Slepian window
The DPSS (discrete prolate spheroidal sequence) or Slepian window maximizes the energy concentration in the main lobe, and is used in multitaper spectral analysis, which averages out noise in the spectrum and reduces information loss at the edges of the window.
The main lobe ends at a frequency bin given by the parameter α.
The Kaiser windows below are created by a simple approximation to the DPSS windows:
Kaiser window
The Kaiser, or Kaiser–Bessel, window is a simple approximation of the DPSS window using Bessel functions, discovered by James Kaiser.
where is the zero-th order modified Bessel function of the first kind. Variable parameter determines the tradeoff between main lobe width and side lobe levels of the spectral leakage pattern. The main lobe width, in between the nulls, is given by in units of DFT bins, and a typical value of is 3.
Dolph–Chebyshev window
Minimizes the Chebyshev norm of the side-lobes for a given main lobe width.
The zero-phase Dolph–Chebyshev window function is usually defined in terms of its real-valued discrete Fourier transform, :
Tn(x) is the n-th Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind evaluated in x, which can be computed using
and
is the unique positive real solution to , where the parameter α sets the Chebyshev norm of the sidelobes to −20α decibels.
The window function can be calculated from W0(k) by an inverse discrete Fourier transform (DFT):
The lagged version of the window can be obtained by:
which for even values of N must be computed as follows:
which is an inverse DFT of
Variations:
Due to the equiripple condition, the time-domain window has discontinuities at the edges. An approximation that avoids them, by allowing the equiripples to drop off at the edges, is a Taylor window.
An alternative to the inverse DFT definition is also available..
Ultraspherical window
The Ultraspherical window was introduced in 1984 by Roy Streit and has application in antenna array design, non-recursive filter design, and spectrum analysis.
Like other adjustable windows, the Ultraspherical window has parameters that can be used to control its Fourier transform main-lobe width and relative side-lobe amplitude. Uncommon to other windows, it has an additional parameter which can be used to set the rate at which side-lobes decrease (or increase) in amplitude.
The window can be expressed in the time-domain as follows:
where is the Ultraspherical polynomial of degree N, and and control the side-lobe patterns.
Certain specific values of yield other well-known windows: and give the Dolph–Chebyshev and Saramäki windows respectively. See here for illustration of Ultraspherical windows with varied parametrization.
Exponential or Poisson window
The Poisson window, or more generically the exponential window increases exponentially towards the center of the window and decreases exponentially in the second half. Since the exponential function never reaches zero, the values of the window at its limits are non-zero (it can be seen as the multiplication of an exponential function by a rectangular window ). It is defined by
where τ is the time constant of the function. The exponential function decays as e ≃ 2.71828 or approximately 8.69 dB per time constant.
This means that for a targeted decay of D dB over half of the window length, the time constant τ is given by
Hybrid windows
Window functions have also been constructed as multiplicative or additive combinations of other windows.
Bartlett–Hann window
Planck–Bessel window
A multiplied by a Kaiser window which is defined in terms of a modified Bessel function. This hybrid window function was introduced to decrease the peak side-lobe level of the Planck-taper window while still exploiting its good asymptotic decay. It has two tunable parameters, ε from the Planck-taper and α from the Kaiser window, so it can be adjusted to fit the requirements of a given signal.
Hann–Poisson window
A Hann window multiplied by a Poisson window, which has no side-lobes, in the sense that (for ) its Fourier transform drops off forever away from the main lobe. It can thus be used in hill climbing algorithms like Newton's method. The Hann–Poisson window is defined by:
where α is a parameter that controls the slope of the exponential.
Other windows
Generalized adaptive polynomial (GAP) window
The GAP window is a family of adjustable window functions that are based on a symmetrical polynomial expansion of order . It is continuous with continuous derivative everywhere. With the appropriate set of expansion coefficients and expansion order, the GAP window can mimic all the known window functions, reproducing accurately their spectral properties.
where is the standard deviation of the sequence.
Additionally, starting with a set of expansion coefficients that mimics a certain known window function, the GAP window can be optimized by minimization procedures to get a new set of coefficients that improve one or more spectral properties, such as the main lobe width, side lobe attenuation, and side lobe falloff rate. Therefore, a GAP window function can be developed with designed spectral properties depending on the specific application.
Lanczos window
used in Lanczos resampling
for the Lanczos window, is defined as
also known as a sinc window, because: is the main lobe of a normalized sinc function
Comparison of windows
When selecting an appropriate window function for an application, this comparison graph may be useful. The frequency axis has units of FFT "bins" when the window of length N is applied to data and a transform of length N is computed. For instance, the value at frequency ½ "bin" (third tick mark) is the response that would be measured in bins k and k + 1 to a sinusoidal signal at frequency k + ½. It is relative to the maximum possible response, which occurs when the signal frequency is an integer number of bins. The value at frequency ½ is referred to as the maximum scalloping loss of the window, which is one metric used to compare windows. The rectangular window is noticeably worse than the others in terms of that metric.
Other metrics that can be seen are the width of the main lobe and the peak level of the sidelobes, which respectively determine the ability to resolve comparable strength signals and disparate strength signals. The rectangular window (for instance) is the best choice for the former and the worst choice for the latter. What cannot be seen from the graphs is that the rectangular window has the best noise bandwidth, which makes it a good candidate for detecting low-level sinusoids in an otherwise white noise environment. Interpolation techniques, such as zero-padding and frequency-shifting, are available to mitigate its potential scalloping loss.
Overlapping windows
When the length of a data set to be transformed is larger than necessary to provide the desired frequency resolution, a common practice is to subdivide it into smaller sets and window them individually. To mitigate the "loss" at the edges of the window, the individual sets may overlap in time. See Welch method of power spectral analysis and the modified discrete cosine transform.
Two-dimensional windows
Two-dimensional windows are commonly used in image processing to reduce unwanted high-frequencies in the image Fourier transform. They can be constructed from one-dimensional windows in either of two forms. The separable form, is trivial to compute. The radial form, , which involves the radius , is isotropic, independent on the orientation of the coordinate axes. Only the Gaussian function is both separable and isotropic. The separable forms of all other window functions have corners that depend on the choice of the coordinate axes. The isotropy/anisotropy of a two-dimensional window function is shared by its two-dimensional Fourier transform. The difference between the separable and radial forms is akin to the result of diffraction from rectangular vs. circular apertures, which can be visualized in terms of the product of two sinc functions vs. an Airy function, respectively.
See also
Spectral leakage
Multitaper
Apodization
Welch method
Short-time Fourier transform
Window design method
Kolmogorov–Zurbenko filter
Notes
Page citations
References
Further reading
External links
LabView Help, Characteristics of Smoothing Filters, http://zone.ni.com/reference/en-XX/help/371361B-01/lvanlsconcepts/char_smoothing_windows/
Creation and properties of Cosine-sum Window functions, http://electronicsart.weebly.com/fftwindows.html
Online Interactive FFT, Windows, Resolution, and Leakage Simulation | RITEC | Library & Tools
Fourier analysis
Signal estimation
Digital signal processing
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244098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BET | BET | Black Entertainment Television (acronym BET) is an American cable television channel targeting African-American audiences. It is owned by the Paramount Media Networks unit of Paramount Global via BET Networks and has offices in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and was formerly headquartered in Washington, D.C.
As of February 2015, approximately 88,255,000 American households (75.8% of households with television) receive the channel.
History
After stepping down as a lobbyist for the cable industry, Freeport, Illinois native Robert L. Johnson decided to launch his own cable television network. Johnson would soon acquire a loan for $15,000 and a $500,000 investment from media executive John Malone to start the network. The network, which was named Black Entertainment Television (BET), launched on January 25, 1980. Cheryl D. Miller designed the logo that would represent the network, which featured a star to symbolize "Black Star Power".
Initially, broadcasting for two hours a week as a block of programming on the Madison Square Garden Sports Network (which would change their name to USA Network three months after BET launched), the network's lineup composed of music videos and reruns of popular black sitcoms.
It would not be until 1983 that BET became a full-fledged entity, independent of any other channel or programming block, though for years it continued to share channel space with other cable networks on local cable systems due to lack of channel room for their 24-hour schedule until the time of digital cable allowed for larger channel capacity. In some markets, the network would not arrive at all until as late as the early 2010s and ViacomCBS considered it compulsory in retransmission consent negotiations to carry the BET Networks with ViacomCBS networks, due to some providers claiming that there was an overall lack of demand for the channel, or there was a low to non-existent African-American population within their service area.
BET launched a news program, BET News, in 1988, with Ed Gordon as its anchor. Gordon later hosted other programs and specials on BET, such as Black Men Speak Out: The Aftermath, related to the 1992 Los Angeles riots, and a recurring interview show, Conversations with Ed Gordon. In 1996, the talk show BET Tonight started with Tavis Smiley as host; in 2001, Ed Gordon replaced Smiley as host of the program.
In 1991, the network became the first black-controlled television company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Starting the late 1990s, the network expanded with the launch of digital cable networks: what is now the general interest channel BET Her was initially launched as "BET on Jazz" (later known as "BET Jazz", "BET J", and "Centric"), created initially to showcase jazz music-related programming, especially that of African-American jazz musicians; in 1997, it entered into a joint venture with Starz (then-owned by John Malone's Liberty Media) to launch a multiplex service of the premium channel featuring African American-oriented films called "BET Movies: Starz! 3" (later renamed "Black Starz" after BET dropped out of the venture following its purchase by Viacom, then-owner of Starz rival Showtime, and now known as "Starz InBlack"). In 2001, the network lost its status as a black-owned business when it was bought by media conglomerate Viacom for $3 billion. In 2005, Johnson retired from the network, turning over his titles of president and chief executive officer to former BET vice president Debra L. Lee.
In 2002, the network had launched two more music-oriented networks, BET Hip-Hop and BET Gospel. BET also launched a series of original programming by this time, including reality shows Baldwin Hills and Hell Date, competition show Sunday Best, and town hall-style discussion show Hip Hop vs. America. BET's president of entertainment Reginald Hudlin resigned from the network on September 11, 2008. He was then replaced by Stephen Hill, who is also executive vice president of music programming and talent. BET announced in March 2010 that Ed Gordon would return to the network to host "a variety of news programs and specials".
In March 2017, president of programming Stephen Hill and executive vice president of original programming Zola Mashariki both stepped down. Connie Orlando, senior vice president of Specials, Music Programming, and News was named the interim president of programming.
In July 2017, Viacom signed new film and television development deals with Tyler Perry following the expiration of his existing pact with Discovery Inc. in 2019. As part of this deal, Perry would produce The Oval and Sistas for BET and co-own the network's newly launched streaming service, BET+.
Programming
BET's programming began with a wide range of comedy, news and current affairs, public affairs, and music programming, including mainstream rap, hip-hop and R&B music videos (which now air on its branded sister networks) and the network's former flagship program, 106 & Park (which premiered on September 11, 2000, and ended on December 19, 2014). In addition, BET has previously aired same-day or week-delayed late-night runs of syndicated talk shows.
Original programming currently seen on BET include Boomerang, Games People Play and The Oval. Daily programming on the network composes of acquired television series and both theatrically and direct-to-video-released films. The network's morning BET Rejoice block (formerly BET Inspiration until 2017) is dedicated to religious programming and airs in lieu of infomercials in late-night, which the network has not aired since 1997; BET is one of a batch of subscription channels and one of only two Paramount-owned networks to have discontinued airing infomercials (sister network Nickelodeon ran infomercials in some overnight timeslots from 1987 to 1998, with series airing in that daypart since then).
BET also carries and produces several Award telecasts, including the network's own BET Awards, which were established in 2001 to celebrate African-Americans and diverse minorities in music, acting, sports and other parts of entertainment over the past year. Formerly, the BET Honors, which were established in 2008 to honor the lives and achievements of African-American luminaries and are presented during Black History Month each February. The BET Awards is the network's flagship event, with the "BET Experience" festival held in the days leading up to the telecast.
Other services
BET Walk of Fame Awards
The BET Walk of Fame Awards were established in 1995 by BET. In 2004, proceeds were shared between United Negro College Fund (UNCF) and the BET Foundation, which executes the Healthy BET obesity awareness campaign and other pro-social causes like the annual charitable black-tie BET Walk of Fame ceremony.
BET Interactive
In 2006, BET Interactive, LLC became a subsidiary of BET. BET also has a digital group including BET.com, BET on Blast, BET on Demand and BET Mobile.
BET Films
Released films
BET Home Entertainment
BET's programming is distributed on DVD and through video-on-demand services under the name BET Home Entertainment. In 2007, a distribution deal was arranged with Paramount Home Entertainment.
Criticism
A wide range of people have protested elements of BET's programming and actions, including Public Enemy rapper Chuck D, journalist George Curry, writer Keith Boykin, comic book creator Christopher Priest, filmmaker Spike Lee, Syracuse University professor of finance Dr. Boyce Watkins, former NFL player Burgess Owens, and cartoonist Aaron McGruder (who, in addition to numerous critical references throughout his series, The Boondocks, made two particular episodes, "The Hunger Strike" and "The Uncle Ruckus Reality Show", criticizing the channel). As a result, BET heavily censors suggestive content from the videos that it airs, often with entire verses and scenes removed from certain rap videos.
Many scholars within the African-American community maintain that BET perpetuates and justifies racism by affecting the stereotypes held about African-Americans, and also by affecting the psyche of its young viewers through its bombardment of negative images of African-Americans.
Following the death of civil rights leader Coretta Scott King in 2006, BET broadcast its regularly scheduled music video programming, rather than covering King's funeral live, as was done by TV One and Black Family Channel, and by cable news channels such as CNN, Fox News Channel, and MSNBC. The network's website streamed the funeral live, while it periodically broadcast taped, 60-second reports from the funeral by senior news correspondent Andre Showell. Michael Lewellen, BET's senior vice president for corporate communications, defended the decision: "We weighed a number of different options. In the end, we chose to offer a different kind of experience for BET viewers." Lewellen also explained that BET received around "two dozen" phone calls and "a handful" of emails criticizing BET for not showing the King funeral live. On the evening of the funeral, February 7, 2006, BET broadcast the tribute special Coretta Scott King: Married to the Mission, and repeated it the following Sunday, February 12. Showell hosted the program featuring highlights of the funeral, Coretta Scott King: Celebrating Her Spirit, that broadcast that same day. In its 2007 convention, the National Association of Black Journalists gave BET its "Thumbs Down Award" for not broadcasting King's funeral live.
The New York Times reported that the Reverend Delman L. Coates and his organization Enough is Enough led protests every weekend outside the residences of BET executives against what they claim are negative stereotypes of black people perpetuated by BET music videos. Enough is Enough backed an April 2008 report titled The Rap on Rap by the Parents Television Council that criticized BET's rap programming, suggesting that the gratuitous sexual, violent and profane content was targeting children and teens.
In a 2010 interview, BET co-founder Sheila Johnson explained that she herself is "ashamed" of what the network has become. "I don't watch it. I suggest to my kids that they don't watch it," she said. "When we started BET, it was going to be the Ebony magazine on television. We had public affairs programming. We had news... I had a show called Teen Summit, we had a large variety of programming, but the problem is that then the video revolution started up... And then something started happening, and I didn't like it at all. And I remember during those days we would sit up and watch these videos and decide which ones were going on and which ones were not. We got a lot of backlash from recording artists...and we had to start showing them. I didn't like the way women were being portrayed in these videos."
Sister networks & International
Spin-offs
BET has launched several spin-off networks over the years, including BET Her (formerly known as "BET on Jazz", then "BET J" and later "Centric"), BET Jams (formerly known as "MTV Jams"), and BET Soul (formerly known as "VH1 Soul"), alongside SHO×BET, a premium Showtime multiplex network.
In May 2019, a BET-branded channel was launched on Pluto TV, which was owned by ViacomCBS in March 2019. In June 2019, ViacomCBS announced the launch of BET+, a premium streaming service targeting the network's African-American demographic. The service launched in the United States in Fall 2019 with First Wives Club (which was originally planned to launch on Paramount Network before being shifted to BET) announced as one of the service's original series.
BET Gospel
BET Gospel is a television network in the United States that launched on July 1, 2002, and provides gospel and religious programming. The network, a spin-off of BET (Black Entertainment Television), mixes new and classic shows as well as original gospel-oriented programming. BET Gospel previously ran on an automated loop schedule. In 2016, the channel was updated with its programming now composing of recent uplifting music videos, as well as gospel-themed series and specials.
Current programming
Lifted (2016–present) (music videos)
Being (2016–present)
Bobby Jones Gospel (2002–present)
Lift Every Voice (2002–present)
Celebration of Gospel
It's a Mann's World (2016–present)
Let the Church Say Amen (2016–present)
The Sheards (2016–present)
T.D. Jakes Presents: Mind, Body, & Soul (2016–present)
Sunday Best (2016–present)
Former programming
Video Gospel (2002–2016)
The Potters House (2002–2016)
T.D. Jakes
Bernard E. Jordan (2002–2016)
M.B. Jefferson (2002–2016)
Prophet Manasseh Jordan (2002–2016)
BET Hip-Hop
BET Hip-Hop is a music video network owned by BET Networks which is exclusive to digital cable systems. It formerly aired some of BET's original programming such as Rap City, ComicView and the network's video countdown programs. After the 2015 relaunch of the former MTV Jams as BET Jams (which has much wider distribution), the channel's programming was shifted to an automated playlist made up of BET's library of older hip-hop videos. As part of Viacom's 2017 restructuring plan, the network is speculated to slowly wind down operations over time.
BET International
BET UK first transmitted on Videotron (now known as Virgin Media) and several other subscription providers from 1993 until 1996.
In May 2007 by Ofcom, BET International Inc. was given a license to rebroadcast in the United Kingdom. BET International is the first international version of the channel and is available in Europe, Africa and the Middle East through satellite providers. BET launched on February 27, 2008, on Sky channel 191 and began to be carried by Freesat channel 140 on August 8, 2008. BET+1 is also available on Sky channel 198 and Freesat channel 141, and is free-to-air. BET International shows with a mix of content from the main BET channel and locally produced shows. An exclusive, but temporary, HD version of the channel was made to show the 2009 BET Awards on Freesat EPG 142.
BET is additionally an associate member of the Caribbean Cable Cooperative.
BET launched an app called BET Play allowing international access to BET content in over 100 countries in June 2016.
The channel was shut down on April 8, 2021, with its content moved to My5 and Pluto TV.
Canada
BET became available in Canada in October 1997 on most pay television providers. The Canadian feed mirrors the U.S. feed, though certain television programs and films are blacked out. Until 2017, they were replaced with repeats of old music video blocks (namely BET Music, The Pull Up and BET Now). As of May 2018, the feed now airs current music videos and other acquired sitcoms and films in place of blacked-out programs.
France
Introduced on November 17, 2015. BET France launched across a linear television channel alongside non-linear services including Bouygues Telecom, Canalsat, Numericable/SFR, and Free.
See also
Scott Mills
BET Hip Hop Awards
Blackbuster movies
List of programs broadcast by BET
New Urban Entertainment
Rip the Runway
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
"Black Entertainment Television" Interview with Robert Johnson, founder and president of BET, from KUT's In Black America series on the American Archive of Public Broadcasting, April 29, 1986
1980 establishments in Washington, D.C.
African-American television
BET Networks
BET+
2001 mergers and acquisitions
English-language television stations in the United States
Music video networks in the United States
Mass media companies based in Washington, D.C.
Television channels and stations established in 1983
Television networks in the United States
African-American television networks | [
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