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243438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldershot%20F.C. | Aldershot F.C. | Aldershot Football Club was an English Football League club, which was wound up in the High Court in March 1992. They became the first Football League club since Accrington Stanley to resign from the League during the course of a season. The club was nicknamed The Shots for both the last syllable of the town name and the military links to Aldershot. Aldershot were also the first ever winners of a Football League play-off competition, when they beat Wolverhampton Wanderers in the Division Four play-offs in 1987.
History
Non-League years: 1926–1932
The club was founded in 1926 as Aldershot Town FC when Jack White, a sports journalist persuaded council officials that the garrison town needed a professional football club. In 1927 the club joined the Southern League, playing their first game on 27 August 1927 in a 4–0 win over Grays Athletic in front of a 3,500-strong crowd at the Recreation Ground. They finished their first season in seventh place, and in 1932 won the Southern League title, being elected to the Football League in place of Thames who had declined to apply for re-election. The name was changed to Aldershot prior to their inaugural 1932–33 League season.
Early league years: 1932–1958
Aldershot's first Football League season ended with a 17th place in the Third Division South, and a year later they improved slightly to finish 14th. They failed to make much of an impact in the league until they finished 11th in 1935–36, but in 1936–37 they finished bottom of the league and had to apply for re-election in order to avoid slipping back into the Southern League. Good progress over the next two seasons saw them climb to 10th in the league in the 1939 final table. Their 18th-place finish in 1958 meant that they would play in the new Football League Fourth Division in the 1958–59 season, following a restructuring of the Football League which saw an end to the regionalised two sections of the Third Division.
The Fourth Division years: 1958–1973
Aldershot F.C. were among the founder members of the Fourth Division in the 1958–59 season. An FA Cup match against Carlisle United on 28 January 1970 saw Aldershot's record attendance of 19,138.
They finished 22nd in the first season of the Fourth Division and once again had to apply for re-election.
Promotion to the Third Division was finally achieved in 1973, their first promotion in 41 years of league football. They went up in fourth place after finishing ahead of Newport County on goal average.
The Third Division years: 1973–1976
1973–74 brought Aldershot's highest-ever finish as they came eighth in the Third Division. This gave hope that Aldershot could soon be playing Second Division football – this was all the more anticipated as the mid to late 1970s saw several big clubs – including Manchester United, Tottenham Hotpsur, Nottingham Forest, Chelsea and Newcastle United – playing at least one season in the second tier. However, it was not to be, as Aldershot finished 20th in the Third Division in 1975 and only avoided relegation on goal average. They were relegated by a single point the following year.
Back in the Fourth Division: 1976–1985
Two years after relegation, Aldershot almost returned to the Third Division in 1978, but were pipped to promotion by Brentford. More significantly, they were also pipped to promotion by Watford and Swansea City, who were both playing top-division football within the next five years. A similar disappointment followed a year later, as they were pipped to promotion by a single place – this time by a Wimbledon side who were First Division members and FA Cup winners less than a decade later. On the plus side, Aldershot finished above two much more illustrious clubs – Portsmouth and Huddersfield Town – who were both former winners of the league title and FA Cup.
In 1981, Aldershot suffered their third promotion disappointment in four seasons as they finished sixth – once again being beaten to a place in the top four by Wimbledon. In the 1981–82 season, Aldershot struggled badly and finished 16th. It was the first season of the Football League's "3 points for a win" system, and they finished just eight points outside the "re-election zone".
They continued to struggle in the Fourth Division, until the appointment of new manager Len Walker in June 1985. However, 1983–84 had brought a brief respite, as Aldershot finished fifth, before another setback saw them finish 13th.
In 1984–85, Aldershot took a young striker at the time on loan from Millwall – Teddy Sheringham, the future England international player. Millwall manager George Graham had been willing to sell Sheringham to Aldershot on a permanent basis, but they could not raise the £5,000 fee.
The final years: 1985–1992
The arrival of Len Walker as manager in June 1985 sparked a brief revival in Aldershot's fortunes. Although they finished 16th in 1985–86 and re-election was a threat right up to the final few games of the season, they emerged as strong promotion contenders in the 1986–87 season, finishing sixth on 70 points and occupying the final playoff place in the division. It was the first season of the Football League play-offs, which in their first two seasons operated as a promotion/relegation decider between the First/Second, Second/Third and Third/Fourth divisions before a reorganisation saw them operate solely as promotion deciders. In the semi-finals, they condemned Third Division Bolton Wanderers (four times winners of the FA Cup, and First Division members as recently as 1980) to Fourth Division football for the first time in their history. This gave them a place in the final, against another historic side – Wolverhampton Wanderers, three times league champions, four times FA Cup winners, and twice Football League Cup winners, who had only been relegated from the top flight in 1984. Aldershot gave Wolves one of the most humiliating defeats of their history by winning 3–0 on aggregate over two legs.
Aldershot were predicted to go straight back down to the Fourth Division in 1987–88, but managed to avoid automatic relegation by two places and three points, finishing one point and one place ahead of the relegation play-off place.
However, a disastrous season in 1988–89 saw Aldershot go down in bottom place with just eight wins and 37 points all season placing them 17 points adrift of safety.
By this stage, a financial crisis was dawning upon the club as debts were mounting and as the 1989–90 season began, the task at Aldershot was to avoid being relegated or expelled from the Football League, rather than mounting a promotion challenge. Aldershot finished 22nd in the Fourth Division that season, and were in danger of a second successive relegation right up to the end of April.
However, the financial crisis was worsening and it seemed highly doubtful that Aldershot would be able to start the 1990–91 season.
On 31 July 1990, Aldershot were wound up in the High Court as the Official Receiver condemned them as "hopelessly insolvent" with debts of £495,000. However, the winding-up order was lifted on 7 August 1990 when 19-year-old property developer Spencer Trethewy paid £200,000 to save the club and allow them to start the new Fourth Division campaign. It soon emerged that Trethewy did not have the funds to keep the club running, and he was dismissed from the board on 1 November 1990. Trethewy's shady dealings finally caught up with him in 1994 when he was convicted of fraud and received a two-year prison sentence.
Aldershot's problems continued as they finished the 1990–91 season second from bottom in the league. They had taken in three new players near the end of the season in the form of Roger Davis, Dion Smith and Steve Batler. These changes came too late in the season to save the Shots from another low finish. There was no relegation this season due to an expansion in the league's size to 93 clubs from the previous total of 92.
There was a brief respite for the club on 5 January 1991, when it held West Ham United to a surprise goalless draw in the FA Cup third round at Upton Park. The Hammers won the replay 6–1 and went on to reach the semi-finals, also winning promotion to the First Division that season.
Len Walker had stepped up to the role of general manager in March 1991, with Brian Talbot taking over as player-manager.
However, Aldershot's debts were mounting and although they were able to begin the 1991–92 Fourth Division campaign, as the season wore on it looked more and more likely that the club would go under. As well as that, the problems were showing on the field as Aldershot struggled near the foot of the league.
Manager Brian Talbot resigned in November 1991 to be succeeded by Ian McDonald.
On 25 March 1992 Aldershot F.C. finally went out of business and were obliged to resign from the Football League. The final game played was a 2–0 defeat against Cardiff City at Ninian Park on 20 March. The last home game was a 3–0 defeat to Lincoln City, also in the league, on 14 March. Aldershot's final eight competitive games all ended in defeat and they had not won any of their final 16 games; their last competitive win was on 28 December 1991 away to Maidstone United in the Fourth Division. Ironically, Maidstone also went out of business and had to leave the Football League just five months after Aldershot's demise.
Aldershot's league record for the 1991–92 season, which had seen them play 36 games, was expunged.
The new Aldershot club : Since 1992
In response to the bankruptcy a group of supporters set up a new club, Aldershot Town, which started in the Isthmian League Division Three, five levels below the division in which Aldershot F.C. had been playing. Aldershot Town were playing in League Two after being promoted on 15 April 2008, but their run came to an end after relegation to Conference Premier on 27 April 2013.
Records
See also
:Category:Aldershot F.C. players
References
External links
Aldershot F.C. website
Team managers
Association football clubs established in 1926
Association football clubs disestablished in 1992
Defunct football clubs in England
History of Hampshire
Defunct English Football League clubs
Southern Football League clubs
Defunct football clubs in Hampshire
1926 establishments in England
1992 disestablishments in England | [
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243441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior%20and%20superior%20planets | Inferior and superior planets | In the Solar System, a planet is said to be inferior or interior with respect to another planet if its orbit lies inside the other planet's orbit around the Sun. In this situation, the latter planet is said to be superior to the former. In the reference frame of the Earth, in which the terms were originally used, the inferior planets are Mercury and Venus, while the superior planets are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Dwarf planets like Ceres or Pluto and most asteroids are 'superior' in the sense that they almost all orbit outside the orbit of Earth.
History
These terms were originally used in the geocentric cosmology of Claudius Ptolemy to differentiate as inferior those planets (Mercury and Venus) whose epicycle remained co-linear with the Earth and Sun, and as superior those planets (Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) that did not.
In the 16th century, the terms were modified by Copernicus, who rejected Ptolemy's geocentric model, to distinguish a planet's orbit's size in relation to the Earth's.
Planets in each category
When Earth is stated or assumed to be the reference point:
"Inferior planet" refers to Mercury and Venus, which are closer to the Sun than Earth is.
"Superior planet" refers to Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune (the latter two added later), which are farther from the Sun than Earth is.
The terms are sometimes used more generally; for example, Earth is an inferior planet relative to Mars.
Other planetary terms
Interior planet now seems to be the preferred term for astronomers. Inferior/interior and superior are different from the terms inner planet and outer planet, which designate those planets which lie inside the asteroid belt and those that lie outside it, respectively. Inferior planet is also different from minor planet or dwarf planet. Superior planet is also different from gas giant.
References
Planets of the Solar System
Technical factors of astrology | [
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243446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valeria%20gens | Valeria gens | The gens Valeria was a patrician family at ancient Rome, prominent from the very beginning of the Republic to the latest period of the Empire. Publius Valerius Poplicola was one of the consuls in 509 BC, the year that saw the overthrow of the Tarquins, and the members of his family were among the most celebrated statesmen and generals at the beginning of the Republic. Over the next ten centuries, few gentes produced as many distinguished men, and at every period the name of Valerius was constantly to be found in the lists of annual magistrates, and held in the highest honour. Several of the emperors claimed descent from the Valerii, whose name they bore as part of their official nomenclature.
A number of unusual privileges attached to this family, including the right to burial within the city walls, and a special place for its members in the Circus Maximus, where the unique honour of a throne was granted them. The house built by Poplicola at the foot of the Velian Hill was the only one whose doors were permitted to open into the street. The historian Niebuhr conjectured that, during the transition from the monarchy to the Republic, the Valerii were entitled to exercise royal power on behalf of the Titienses, one of the three Romulean tribes that made up the Roman people.
Although one of the most noble and illustrious families of the Roman aristocracy, from the very beginning the Valerii were notable for their advocacy of plebeian causes, and many important laws protecting the rights of the plebeians were sponsored by the Valerii. As with many other ancient patrician houses, the family also acquired plebeian branches, which must have been descended either from freedmen of the Valerii, or from members of the family who, for one reason or another, had gone over to the plebeians.
Origin
According to tradition, the Valerii were of Sabine descent, having come to Rome with Titus Tatius, shortly after the founding of the city. However, their nomen, Valerius, is a patronymic surname derived from the Latin praenomen Volesus or Volusus, which in turn is derived from , to be strong. Volesus, or Volesus Valerius, the eponymous ancestor of the gens, is said to have been a powerful warrior in the retinue of the Sabine king. Several generations later, another Volesus Valerius was the father of Publius, Marcus, and Manius, three brothers from whom the oldest branches of the family claimed descent.
Praenomina
The earliest of the Valerii known to history bore the praenomen Volesus, which continued to enjoy occasional use among the Valerii of the early Republic. However, most stirpes of the Valerii favoured Publius, Marcus, Manius, and Lucius. Several branches of the family also used Gaius, while the Valerii Faltones employed Quintus, and the Valerii Asiatici of imperial times used Decimus. Other names are seldom found among the Valerii, although in one instance Potitus, an ancient surname of the gens, was revived as a praenomen by the Valerii Messallae during the first century. Examples of Aulus, Numerius, Sextus, Tiberius, and Titus are found in inscriptions.
Branches and cognomina
The oldest branches of the Valerii bore the surnames Poplicola, Potitus, and Maximus, with Volusus being used by the first generations of the Potiti and Maximi. Later families bore various cognomina, including Corvus or Corvinus, Falto, Flaccus, Laevinus, Messalla, Tappo, and Triarius. Most other surnames found in Republican times belonged to freedmen or clientes of the Valerii. The surnames Acisculus, Catullus, Flaccus, and Barbatus appear on coins. A few Valerii are known without any cognomina, but they achieved little of significance.
Poplicola, also found as Publicola and Poplicula, belongs to a class of surnames referring to the character of the bearer. Derived from and , the name might best be explained as "one who courts the people." The cognomen first appears in history as the surname given to Publius Valerius, one of the consuls chosen in 509 BC to serve alongside Lucius Junius Brutus. Despite his patrician background, he made a considerable effort to win the support of the plebeians, averting a breach between the two orders at the inception of the Republic. Poplicola seems to have been the original form, while in inscriptions Publicola is more common, and Poplicula is occasionally found. Publicola is found in literary sources from the end of the Republic, including Livy and Cicero.
The Valerii Potiti were descended from Marcus Valerius Volusus, the brother of Poplicola, who fell in battle at Lake Regillus. The surname Potitus seems to be derived from , to place someone under one's power, and might be translated as "leader". This family flourished from the early years of the Republic down to the Samnite Wars, when the cognomen seems to have been replaced by Flaccus, a surname first borne by one of the Potiti, who must have been flabby or had floppy ears. Potitus was later revived as a praenomen by the Valerii Messallae, a practice that was common in aristocratic families toward the end of the Republic. As a distinct family, the Valerii Flacci continued down to the first century AD.
Maximus, the superlative of , "great", was the cognomen of the Valerii descended from the third brother, Manius Valerius Volusus, who first bore the surname. The Valerii Maximi appear in history down to the First Punic War, after which time the surname was replaced by Messalla or Messala, a cognomen derived from the city of Messana in Sicilia. The first to bear this name received it after relieving Messana from a Carthaginian blockade in 264 BC. The Valerii Messallae held numerous consulships and other high offices in the Roman state, remaining prominent well into imperial times. Some of them had additional surnames, including Barbatus, "bearded", as well as Niger and Rufus, originally referring to someone with black or red hair. The names Valerius Maximus and Valerius Messalla occur as late as the third century, but the consular family of that age may have been descended from the Valerii through the female line, and more properly belonged to the Vipstani.
The branch of the Valerii Maximi that gave rise to the Messallae also bore the surname Corvinus, a diminutive of , a raven. The first of this family was Marcus Valerius Corvus, who in his youth earned everlasting renown for his combat against a giant Gaul in 349 BC. Corvus defeated his adversary with the help of a raven that repeatedly flew in the barbarian's face. He held the consulship six times, was dictator twice, and reached the age of one hundred. The two forms of this surname are interchangeable, but the hero is usually referred to as Corvus, while Corvinus generally refers to his descendants.
Another branch of the Valerii Maximi bore the surname Lactucinus, derived from , lettuce, the cognomen of an early member of the family. Such names, referring to objects, were quite common at Rome. The first of this family was a son of the first Valerius Maximus, but the surname was of brief duration; the last mention of the Valerii Lactucinae is early in the fourth century BC.
The cognomen , meaning "left-handed", belonged to a family of the Valerii that was prominent for about a century, beginning with the Pyrrhic War, in 280 BC. This family may have been another offshoot of the Valerii Maximi, as the surname first appears in connection with the trial of Spurius Cassius Vecellinus in 485 BC. They continued long after they had ceased to have any importance in the Roman state, and the family is mentioned as late as the end of the first century AD.
The Valerii Faltones flourished at the end of the third century BC, first appearing at the end of the First Punic War. Their relationship to the other Valerii is not immediately apparent, as none of the older stirpes of the gens used the praenomen Quintus, but they may have been a cadet branch of the Valerii Maximi, whose surname disappears around this time. The surname Falto is another form of , referring to a falcon, and was commonly given to someone with inward-pointing toes, resembling talons.
The plebeian Valerii Triarii belong to the time of Cicero, in the first century BC. None of them rose higher than the rank of praetor, and the family was of brief duration. Their surname, Triarius, seems to allude to their military service; in the Roman army of this period, a was a soldier of the third rank, the heavily armed reserve infantry, often consisting of older, wealthier men, and the last line of defense in battle.
Catullus seems to be another orthography of , a surname of the Lutatia gens, referring to a whelp, cub, or puppy. The Valerii Catulli appear in the first century BC, beginning with the renowned poet, and their surname continued through the first century of the Empire. One of the Catulli bore the additional surname of Messalinus, previously associated with the Valerii Messallae, but it is unclear whether the Catulli were descended from the Messallae, or whether the surname entered the family at a later time. The pairing of Catullus Messalinus was also borne by one of the Valerii Asiatici, but again the nature of the relationship between these families is unknown.
Asiaticus, the surname of the only major family of the Valerian gens to emerge in imperial times, belongs to a class of cognomina typically derived from the locations of military exploits. In this instance the source of the name is not apparent, although it might allude to some connection with the Cornelii Scipiones; Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus was the younger brother of Scipio Africanus, and his surname was passed down in his family for several generations. The Valerii Asiatici were closely connected with the imperial family from the time of Caligula to that of Hadrian, and accounted for several consulships.
Members
Early Valerii
Volesus or Volusus, the eponymous ancestor of the gens, is said to have come to Rome with Titus Tatius during the time of Romulus, the first King of Rome.
Marcus Valerius, One of the fetiales appointed by Tullus Hostilius to sign a treaty with Alba Longa, preceding the duel of the Horatii and Curiatii, in which each side agreed to accept subjugation under the other if their champions were defeated.
Volesus Valerius, a descendant of the first Volesus, was the father of Publius Valerius Poplicola, Marcus Valerius Volusus, and Manius Valerius Volusus Maximus.
Valeria, appointed the first priestess of Fortuna Muliebris in 488 BC.
Valerii Poplicolae
Publius Valerius Vol. f. Poplicola, consul in 509 BC, the first year of the Republic; he triumphed over the forces of the king. Consul again in 508, 507, and 504, when he triumphed over the Sabines.
Marcus Valerius P. f. Vol. n. Poplicola, perished at the Battle of Lake Regillus, after recovering the body of his uncle, Marcus Valerius Volusus. According to Dionysius, his brother Publius was also slain, but this appears to be a mistake, as Publius was consul twice after this, although he did fall in battle during his second consulship.
Publius Valerius P. f. Vol. n. Poplicola, consul in 475 and 460 BC, and interrex in 462; he triumphed over the Veientines and Sabines during his first consulship, but in his second, he was killed in recovering the capitol from Appius Herdonius.
Lucius Valerius P. f. P. n. Poplicola Potitus, opposed the decemvirs, and was elected consul for the year 449 BC. He defeated the Aequi and the Volsci, and when the senate refused him a triumph, the soldiers conferred that honour on him.
Lucius Valerius L. f. (P. n.) Poplicola, the father of Lucius Valerius Poplicola, the consular tribune.
Lucius Valerius L. f. L. n. Poplicola, consular tribune in 394, 389, 387, 383, and 380 BC, possibly the same Lucius Valerius who was to Marcus Furius Camillus in 390 BC, although that was probably his cousin, Lucius Valerius Potitus.
Publius Valerius L. f. L. n. Poplicola, father of the consul of 352 BC.
Marcus Valerius L. f. L. n. Poplicola, served as in 358 BC, under the dictator Gaius Sulpicius Peticus. He was consul in 355, and again 353, serving alongside Peticus on both occasions.
Publius Valerius P. f. L. n. Poplicola, consul in 352 BC; as praetor in 350 he commanded the reserves during the war against the Gauls. He was appointed dictator in 344, in order to hold a religious festival in response to dreadful omens. He is probably the same man who was nominated by the dictator Marcus Papirius Crassus in 332.
Valerii Potiti
Marcus Valerius Vol. f. Volusus, the brother of Poplicola, was one of the Roman commanders against Lars Porsenna in 508 BC. As consul in 505 BC, he and his colleague triumphed over the Sabines. He was one of the ambassadors to the Latin League in 501, and fell at the Battle of Lake Regillus, in 499.
Lucius Valerius M. f. Vol. n. Potitus, one of the quaestors who prosecuted Spurius Cassius Vecellinus in 485 BC. He was consul in 483 and 470 BC, and fought against the Aequi during his second consulship. He was in 464.
Volesus Valerius Potitus, the grandfather of Gaius Valerius Potitus Volusus, consular tribune three times from 415 to 404 BC, according to the Fasti Capitolini. Münzer suggests that his praenomen should be Publius.
Publius Valerius Potitus, the grandfather of Lucius Valerius Potitus, consular tribune five times from 414 to 398 BC, may be the same person as Volesus Valerius Potitus.
Lucius Valerius Vol. f. Potitus, the father of Gaius Valerius Potitus Volusus, and perhaps also of his contemporary, Lucius Valerius Potitus.
Lucius Valerius P. f. Potitus, the father of Lucius Valerius Potitus, twice consul and five times consular tribune, and perhaps also of Gaius Valerius Potitus Volusus.
Gaius Valerius L. f. Vol. n. Potitus Volusus, consular tribune in 415, 407, and 404 BC, and consul in 410. As consul, he opposed the agrarian law of Marcus Maenius, and recovered the Arx Carventana from the Volsci, in consequence of which he was granted an ovation.
Lucius Valerius L. f. P. n. Potitus, consular tribune in 414, 406, 403, 401, and 398 BC, and consul in 393 and 392; triumphed over the Aequi. Interrex for the purpose of holding the comitia in 392, and under the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus in 390, the year in which Rome was taken by the Gauls.
Publius Valerius L. f. L. n. Potitus Poplicola, consular tribune in 386, 384, 380, 377, 370, and 367 BC.
Gaius Valerius (C. f. L. n.) Potitus, consular tribune in 370 BC.
Gaius Valerius L. f. L. n. Potitus Flaccus, consul in 331 BC. He is probably the progenitor of the Valerii Flacci.
Lucius Valerius (L. f. L. n.) Potitus, in 331 BC.
Valerii Maximi
Manius Valerius Vol. f. Volusus Maximus, dictator in 494 BC, he promised to alleviate the conditions of the debtors if the people would serve in the war against the Sabines and the Aequi. After triumphing over the enemy, Valerius was prevented from fulfilling his promise, and resigned the dictatorship, but was honoured by the people.
Marcus Valerius M'. f. Vol. n. Maximus Lactuca, quaestor in 458 BC, prosecuted the accusers of Caeso Quinctius. As consul in 456 BC, he opposed the plan of Lucius Icilius, one of the tribunes of the plebs, to assign the Aventine Hill to the commons.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M'. n. Lactucinus Maximus, consul in 437 BC.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Lactucinus Maximus, consular tribune in 398 and 395 BC.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Maximus Corvus, afterward surnamed Calenus, was consul in BC 348, 346, 343, 335, 300, and 299, dictator in 342 and 301, and interrex in 332 and 320; triumphed over the Volsci in 346, the Samnites in 343, Cales in 335, and the Etruscans in 301. He was elected consul at twenty-three, and lived to the age of one hundred, filling the curule chair twenty-one times.
Marcus Valerius M. f. Maximus, father of the consul of 312 BC.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Maximus, consul in 312 and 289 BC, triumphed over the Samnites. He was censor in 307, and extended or improved the roads through the demesne lands.
Marcus Valerius Maximus Potitus, consul in 286 BC. He was occupied by the agitation attending the Hortensian laws.
Marcus (or Publius?) Valerius Maximus, one of the most important Roman scholars and antiquarians, and compiler of historical anecdotes, flourished during the early part of the first century.
Valerii Laevini
Manius Valerius Laevinus, said to have numbered among a group of former military tribunes who were burned alive near the Circus Maximus in 485 BC, by the tribune of the plebs Publius Mucius Scaevola, allegedly for having conspired with Spurius Cassius Vecellinus.
Publius Valerius Laevinus, consul in 280 BC, during the war with Pyrrhus. Although defeated by Pyrrhus, he escaped with much of his army intact, defended Capua, and successfully harried the Epirote army.
Publius Valerius P. f. Laevinus, father of Marcus Valerius Laevinus, consul in 220 and 210 BC.
Marcus Valerius P. f. P. n. Laevinus, elected consul in 220 BC, but probably resigned together with his colleague due to a fault in the elections. He was praetor peregrinus in 215, and afterward propraetor for several years, and consul for the second time in 210. He led a number of successful campaigns against Hannibal's allies during the Second Punic War, recovering much territory.
Marcus Valerius M. f. P. n. Laevinus, son of Marcus Valerius Laevinus, consul in 220 and 210 BC. Together with his brother, Publius, he staged funeral games to commemorate the death of their father in 200. Might be the same person as Marcus Valerius Laevinus, praetor in 182 BC.
Publius Valerius M. f. P. n. Laevinus, along with his brother Marcus, staged funeral games in 200 BC to commemorate the death of their father, Marcus Valerius Laevinus, consul in 220 and 210 BC.
Marcus Valerius Laevinus, praetor peregrinus in 182 BC.
Gaius Valerius M. f. P. n. Laevinus, half-brother of Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, consul in 189 BC, whom he accompanied to Greece. He was praetor in 179, with Sardinia as his province. Consul in 176 BC, he fought against the Ligures, and received a triumph the following year. He afterward served on ambassadorial missions to Greece and Egypt.
Publius Valerius C. f. M. n. Laevinus, praetor in 177 BC, was assigned a portion of Cisalpine Gaul.
Valerii Flacci
Lucius Valerius Flaccus, under the dictator Marcus Aemilius Papus, BC 321.
Marcus Valerius L. f. Flaccus, father of Lucius Valerius Flaccus, the consul of BC 261.
Lucius Valerius M. f. L. n. Flaccus, consul in 261 BC, during the First Punic War. He fought against the Carthaginians in Sicily, but made little progress.
Publius Valerius L. f. M. n. Flaccus, consul in 227 BC. During his year of office, the number of praetors was increased from two to four. In 219, he was one of the ambassadors sent to the Carthaginians to threaten war in response to the attack on Saguntum. He held several important commands during the early years of the Second Punic War.
Lucius Valerius P. f. L. n. Flaccus, as a military tribune in 212 BC, led a daring attack on the camp of the Carthaginian general Hanno near Beneventum. He was consul in 195, and won important victories over the Gauls in that and the following year. In 184 he became , and served as censor with Cato the Elder.
Gaius Valerius P. f. L. n. Flaccus, a young man of poor character, was named Flamen Dialis by the Pontifex Maximus in BC 209, and to general astonishment proved himself worthy of the responsibility. He was curule aedile in 199, but as Flamen Dialis he could not take the oath of office. His brother, Lucius, took the oath for him. He was praetor in 183, and in that capacity, introduced a Gallic embassy to the Senate.
Lucius Valerius L. f. P. n. Flaccus, consul in 152 BC, died during his year of office.
Lucius Valerius L. f. L. n. Flaccus, Flamen Martialis, and consul in 131 BC. His colleague, Publius Licinius Crassus, was also Pontifex Maximus, and forbade Flaccus from taking the conduct of the war against Aristonicus, imposing a fine for Flaccus' attempted desertion of his religious office. Although compelled to remain at Rome, the fine was remitted by public vote.
Lucius Valerius L. f. L. n. Flaccus, consul in 100 BC, with Gaius Marius, acted to quell the unrest caused by Saturninus and Glaucia. He was censor in 97, and by 86; in 82 he proposed the appointing Sulla dictator, and in turn was nominated , holding the post until Sulla's resignation in 79. He was Flamen Martialis before 69.
Gaius Valerius C. f. L. n. Flaccus, consul in 93 BC, and afterwards proconsul of Hispania Citerior, where he put down a revolt by the Celtiberi. Later he held a command in Gallia Narbonensis, probably also as proconsul, and celebrated a triumph for his victories in 81.
Lucius Valerius C. f. L. n. Flaccus, as curule aedile in 99 BC, was accused by Decianus, one of the tribunes of the plebs. In 86, he was appointed consul in the place of Gaius Marius, who died shortly after entering his seventh consulship. Sent against Mithridates in the east, Flaccus was betrayed and murdered by Gaius Flavius Fimbria.
Lucius Valerius L. f. L. n. Flaccus, praetor in 63 BC, he assisted his colleague, Gaius Pomptinus, in arresting the envoys of the Allobroges. He then served as propraetor in Asia, and was accused of extortion in 59. Despite his probable guilt, he was successfully defended by Cicero in his oration, Pro Flacco.
Gaius Valerius L. f. Flaccus, a friend of Appius Claudius Pulcher. Cicero met him in Cilicia in BC 51.
Lucius Valerius L. f. L. n. Flaccus, son of the praetor defended by Cicero, was brought before the court as an appeal to the judges' pity. During the Civil War, he fought on the side of Pompeius, and was killed at Dyrrachium in 48 BC.
Lucius Valerius (L. f. L. n.) Flaccus, Flamen Martialis in the time of Cicero, whose brother, Quintus, heard him give an account of a marvelous occurrence. Joseph Hilarius Eckhel believed that he was the same Flaccus whom Cicero defended, which seems likely, as he would have inherited the priesthood from his father, the consul of 100 BC.
Publius (Valerius) Flaccus, successfully accused Marcus Papirius Carbo of extortion while as governor of Sicily.
Gaius Valerius Flaccus, a Latin poet, active during the latter half of the first century AD. He was a friend of Martial. His only surviving work is his Argonautica, an unfinished poem about the voyage of the Argonauts in eight books.
Lucius Valerius Flaccus, consul in AD 128, serving from the Kalends of July to the Kalends of September.
Valerii Messallae
Manius Valerius M. f. M. n. Corvinus Messalla, consul in 263 BC, the second year of the First Punic War. Campaigning in Sicily, he and his colleague, Manius Otacilius Crassus, concluded a treaty with Hiero. He was granted a triumph, and earned the cognomen Messalla by relieving Messana from naval blockade. He was censor in 252.
Marcus Valerius M'. f. M. n. Maximus Messala, consul in 226 BC, organized the allies in preparation for an anticipated invasion of Italy by the Gauls.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M'. Messalla, prefect of the fleet in Sicily in 210 BC, the ninth year of the Second Punic War, carried out a successful raid on the countryside around Utica. He was nominated dictator, but his appointment was annulled. Messalla was praetor in 194, and consul in 188 BC.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Messalla, consul in 161 BC, the year in which the senate prohibited the residence of Greek rhetoricians at Rome. Although previously degraded by the censors, Messalla himself held the censorship in 154.
Manius Valerius M. f. M. n. Messalla, the great-grandfather of Marcus Valerius Messalla Niger, consul in 61 BC.
Marcus Valerius M'. f. M. n. Messalla, grandfather of Marcus Valerius Messalla Niger. Either he or his brother, Manius, was a legate of the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus in 90 BC, toward the beginning of the Social War.
Manius Valerius M' f. M. n. Messalla, uncle of Marcus Valerius Messalla Niger, and father-in-law of Sulla.
Marcus Valerius M'. f. M'. n. Messalla, father of Marcus Valerius Messalla Niger.
Valeria M'. f. M. n., the fifth and last wife of Sulla, and mother of his daughter Cornelia Postuma.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M'. n. Messalla Niger, consul in 61 BC, was one of the prosecutors of Publius Clodius Pulcher. He was censor in 55. Cicero describes Valerius as a capable orator. He married Hortensia, sister of the orator Quintus Hortensius.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Messalla Rufus, consul in 53 BC. He was supported by Cicero, and opposed by Pompeius and the supporters of Publius Clodius Pulcher. In 47, he served under Caesar during the Civil War.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Messalla Corvinus, a partisan of Gaius Cassius Longinus, he was proscribed by the triumvirs, but accepted terms from Marcus Antonius after the death of Brutus and Cassius. He later went over to Octavian, and was appointed consul in place of Antonius in 31 BC. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Actium, and triumphed over the Aquitani in 27.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Messalla, consul in 32 BC.
Potitus Valerius M. f. Messalla, consul from the Kalends of October in 29 BC. He was subsequently proconsul of Asia, and later governor of Syria.
Marcus Valerius Messalla M. f. M. n. Barbatus, surnamed Appianus, consul in BC 12, died during his year of office. He was probably the grandfather of the empress Messalina.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Messallinus, consul in 3 BC.
Lucius Valerius Potiti f. M. n. Messalla Volesus, consul in AD 5. Subsequently, while proconsul of Asia, he behaved with extreme cruelty, for which he was condemned by the emperor and the Senate.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Messalla Barbatus, consul in AD 20, had proposed that the oath of loyalty given by the senate to the emperor be repeated annually. He was the first husband of Domitia Lepida.
Valeria M. f. M. n. Messalina, third wife of the emperor Claudius. She was infamous for her intrigues, which brought about the downfall of many members of the imperial aristocracy. At last the emperor was persuaded that her open betrayal of his trust foreboded a plot against him, and she was put to death.
Marcus Valerius M. f. M. n. Messalla Corvinus, consul in AD 58. Although a great-grandson of Corvinus, the consul of 31 BC, his family fortune had since been lost, and so he was granted an allowance from the treasury.
Lucius Valerius (L. f.) Messalla Thrasea Priscus, a man of great wisdom, was consul in AD 196, and slain by Caracalla in 212. Perhaps the progenitor of the third century consular family of the Valerii, he may in fact have been a son of Lucius Vipstanus Poplicola Messalla, who discarded his original nomen in order to emphasize his descent from the Valerii through a female line.
Lucius Valerius (L. f. L. n.) Messalla, possibly surnamed Apollinaris, consul in AD 214, and perhaps proconsul of Africa about 236 to 238.
Lucius Valerius (L. f. L. n.) Maximus Acilius Priscillianus, consul in AD 233, and afterward curator of the banks of the Tiber. He was involved in the senatorial revolt against the emperor Maximinus Thrax in 238. About 255 he was praefectus urbi, and in 256 he was consul for the second time.
Lucius Valerius L. f. (L. n.) Poplicola Balbinus Maximus, consul in AD 253. He held a number of minor offices, but does not seem to have governed a province.
(Lucius Valerius L. f. L. n.) Messalla, consul in AD 280.
Valerius Maximus Basilius, of Rome from AD 319 to 323.
Valerius Maximus, consul in AD 327 and praetorian prefect under the emperor Constantine.
Valerii Faltones
Publius Valerius, grandfather of Quintus and Publius Valerius Falto, the consuls of 239 and 238 BC.
Quintus Valerius P. f. (Falto), father of the consuls Quintus and Publius Valerius Falto.
Quintus Valerius Q. f. P. n. Falto, consul in 239 BC; as the first praetor peregrinus in 242, commanded the Roman fleet at the Battle of the Aegates, and triumphed over the Carthaginians.
Publius Valerius Q. f. P. n. Falto, consul in 238 BC, he suffered a defeat at the hands of the Boii and Ligures, but counterattacked and routed them. He was refused a triumph in consequence of his earlier defeat, and because his counterattack before reinforcements could arrive was considered rash.
Marcus Valerius Falto, one of the senatorial envoys sent to Attalus I of Pergamon in 205 BC. As curule aedile in 203, he and his colleague secured a large supply of Spanish grain, which they were able to sell to the poor for one sestertius per bushel. He was praetor in 201, with Bruttium as his province.
Valerii Tappones
Lucius Valerius Tappo, tribune of the plebs in 195 BC, opposed the repeal of the Lex Oppia with Cato the Censor. He was praetor in 192, he obtained Sicily as his province. In 190 he was one of the triumvirs for settling new colonists at Placentia and Cremona.
Gaius Valerius Tappo, tribune of the plebs in 188 BC, proposed that the franchise be extended to the Formiani, Fundani, and Arpinates.
Valerii Triarii
Lucius Valerius Triarius, perhaps the same person as Gaius Valerius Triarius, the legate of Lucullus.
Gaius Valerius Triarius, praetor circa 78 BC, and propraetor in Sardinia in 77, subsequently served as a legate under Lucullus in the war against Mithridates. In 68 and 67, he put Mithridates on the defensive, but overextended himself, and was attacked at a disadvantage. His forces were utterly defeated with great loss of life, and Triarius was only saved by the arrival of Lucullus.
Publius Valerius C. f. Triarius, in 54 BC accused Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, first of repetundae (extortion) and then of ambitus (bribery). Cicero defended Scaurus on both occasions.
Gaius Valerius (C. f.) Triarius, a friend of Cicero, and a supporter of Pompeius during the Civil War. At the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Pompeius, acting on Triarius' advice, ordered his troops to stand fast against Caesar's charge. Triarius apparently died during the war, leaving Cicero as the guardian of his children.
Valeria (C. f.) Paula, sister of Cicero's friend Gaius Valerius Triarius, was divorced in 50 BC, and subsequently married Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus.
Valerii Catulli
Gaius Valerius Catullus, the poet, flourished during the middle of the first century BC.
Lucius Valerius Catullus, a in the time of Augustus.
Lucius Valerius L. f. Catullus, was adopted by Sextus Tedius, becoming Sextus Tedius Valerius Catullus. He was consul in AD 31, serving from the seventh day before the Ides of May to the Kalends of July.
Lucius Valerius Catullus Messalinus, consul in AD 73, together with the future emperor Domitian. He was governor of Crete and Cyrenaica, but recalled due to his mistreatment of the Libyan Jews. He was a notorious delator during the reign of Domitian, and consul from the kalends of March to the kalends of May in 85.
Valerii Asiatici
Decimus Valerius Asiaticus, consul in AD 35, serving from the kalends of July. Suspected of Caligula's murder, he avoided the retribution of the praetorian guard by boldly proclaiming that he wished he had slain the emperor. He was consul in 46, serving until the kalends of March. The following year he fell victim to the intrigues of the empress Messalina.
Decimus Valerius D. f. Asiaticus, governor of Gallia Belgica during the reign of Nero. He married a daughter of Vitellius, and was designated consul for AD 70 under Vespasian, but died before taking office.
Marcus Lollius Paullinus Decimus Valerius D. f. D. n. Asiaticus Saturninus, grandson of the emperor Vitellius, was consul in AD 94, serving from the kalends of May to the kalends of August. He was proconsul of Asia from 108 to 109, and from 124 to 134, holding the consulship for a second time in AD 125.
Decimus Valerius M. f. D. n. Taurus Catullus Messallinus Asiaticus, was a member of the Arval Brethren.
Quintus Valerius Asiaticus, mentioned in a libationary inscription from Liguria.
Others
Valerius of Ostia, an architect, who designed the covered theatre built for the games of Libo (probably the Lucius Scribonius Libo who, while curule aedile in 193 BC, celebrated the Megalesia).
Marcus Valerius M. f. Artema, an architect, mentioned in an extant inscription.
Decimus Valerius L. f., a , or maker of bronze vases, from Tusculum.
Valerius Aedituus, a Roman poet, who probably lived about 100 BC. Two epigrams quoted in the Noctes Atticae of Aulus Gellius are attributed to him.
Gaius Valerius Caburnus, a Gaul who was granted Roman citizenship by Gaius Valerius Flaccus, the consul of 93 BC. He was the father of Gaius Valerius Procillus.
Quintus Valerius Soranus, an orator, scholar, and poet, much admired by Cicero; he had been tribune of the plebs, but the year is uncertain. He was put to death in 82 BC, ostensibly for revealing the sacred name of Rome, but more probably because he was proscribed by Sulla as a partisan of Marius.
Valerius Nepos, one of Milo's accusers.
Valerius Antias, the annalist, lived during the first century BC.
Publius Valerius Cato, a scholar and poet who lived during the first century BC.
Quintus Valerius Orca, praetor in 57 BC, and subsequently proconsul of Africa. He served under Caesar during the Civil War.
Lucius Valerius Praeconinus, a legate under Caesar's command, who was defeated and slain by the Aquitani in 57 BC.
Gaius Valerius C. f. Procillus, a Gallic chief who became one of the friends and allies of Caesar during his conquest of Gaul. He served as Caesar's interpreter and emissary, and was rescued by Caesar after being captured by Ariovistus, to whom he had been dispatched as an ambassador.
Valerius Valentinus, accused Gaius Cosconius, probably of extortion in his province. Cosconius was apparently guilty, but his acquittal was secured when a bawdy poem by Valentinus was read in court.
Lucius Valerius Acisculus, triumvir monetalis in 45 BC.
Valerius Ligur, praetorian prefect in the time of Augustus.
Valerius Largus, earned the ire of Augustus by accusing Gaius Cornelius Gallus.
Valerius Gratus, as procurator of Judaea from AD 15 to 27, fought to deliver the country from robbers, assisted the proconsul Quinctilius Varus in putting down a revolt, and appointed several successive high priests, of whom the last was Caiaphas. He was followed by Pontius Pilate.
Valerius Naso, a former praetor, who was appointed to oversee the construction of a temple in honour of Tiberius at Smyrna in AD 26.
Valerius Capito, had been banished by Agrippina the Younger, but after her death, Nero recalled him.
Valerius Ponticus, banished in AD 61.
Valerius Fabianus, a man of senatorial rank, was degraded in AD 62 by the , after forging a will purportedly belonging to a wealthy relative, Domitius Balbus, in order to claim the latter's fortune.
Marcus Valerius Probus, a grammarian who flourished from the time of Nero to the end of the first century. He was quite learned, but published little of importance, and seldom took pupils.
Valerius Marinus, announced as consul designate by Galba in AD 69, he never took office, as Vitellius succeeded to the empire first.
Marcus Valerius Paulinus, a friend and early ally of Vespasian, who had been appointed procurator of Gallia Narbonensis in AD 69. He served in the Jewish War, and is said to have been consul in AD 101, early in the reign of Trajan.
Gaius Calpetanus Rantius Quirinalis Valerius Festus, a partisan of Vespasian, whom he secretly served as legate in Africa. After Vespasian's accession, Festus was named consul in AD 71, serving from the kalends of May to the kalends of July.
Valerius Theon, a sophist, and the author of a commentary on Andocides. Some scholars suppose him to be the same person as the sophist Aelius Theon.
Publius Valerius Patruinus, consul from the Kalends of July to the Kalends of September in AD 82.
Publius Valerius Marinus, consul from the Kalends of May to the Kalends of September in AD 91.
Quintus Valerius Vegetus, consul from the Kalends of September to the end of the year in AD 91.
Valerius Licinianus, an advocate, and former praetor, who was accused of having committed incest with Cornelia, chief of the Vestal Virgins. He confessed in hopes of being spared by Domitian, who banished him. Under Nerva he was permitted to live in Sicily, where he taught rhetoric.
Quintus Fabius Barbarus Valerius Magnus Julianus, consul from the Kalends of July to the Kalends of September in AD 99.
Valeria of Milan, a first- or second-century Christian martyr.
Marcus Valerius Martialis, otherwise known as "Martial", a poet who flourished under the reigns of Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan, and was famous for his epigrams.
Gaius Valerius Anemestione C. Ius, an , or metalworker, so described in a Cordovan inscription.
Gaius Valerius Paullinus, consul suffectus in AD 107, serving from the Kalends of September to the end of the year.
Lucius Mummius Niger Quintus Valerius Vegetus, consul suffectus in AD 112, serving from the Kalends of April to the Kalends of July.
Gaius Valerius Severus, governor of Achaea from AD 117 to 118, then of Lycia and Pamphylia until 122. In 124, he was consul suffectus from the Kalends of September to the end of the year.
[...]catus Publius Valerius Priscus, consul circa AD 120 or 121.
Lucius Valerius Propinquus Pomponius Granius Grattius (Cerealis?) Geminius Restitutus, consul in AD 126, from the Kalends of March to the Kalends of July. He was governor of Germania Inferior in the early 130s, and of Asia from 140 to 141.
Valerius Pollio, a philosopher from Alexandria, who lived in the time of Hadrian. He was the father of Valerius Pollio Diodorus.
Valerius Pollio Diodorus, the son of Valerius Pollio, was a philosopher who lived in the age of Hadrian.
Valerius Urbicus, consul in an uncertain year before AD 138.
Marcus Valerius Junianus, consul in AD 143.
Gaius Valerius L. f. Florinus, the brother of Proculus, was a military tribune in the Legio VII Claudia, according to a second-century inscription from Praeneste.
Lucius Valerius L. f. Proculus, the brother of Florinus, was praefectus annonae from AD 142 to 144, and prefect of Egypt from 144 to 147.
Sextus Quinctilius Valerius Maximus, consul in AD 151.
Marcus Valerius Homullus, consul in AD 152, was a friend of Antoninus Pius, and humorously admonished the emperor on various occasions.
Marcus Valerius Etruscus, legate of the third legion, was probably consul from the Kalends of July to the Kalends of September in AD 154.
Marcus Valerius Bradua, the father of Marcus Valerius Bradua Mauricus, the consul of AD 191.
Marcus Asinius Rufinus Valerius Verus Sabinianus, consul in an uncertain year between AD 183 and 185.
Marcus Valerius Maximianus, consul in AD 185.
Valerius Senecio, consul in AD 186.
Marcus Valerius M. f. Bradua Mauricus, consul in AD 191.
Gaius Valerius Pudens, consul in AD 193 or 194. He had been governor of Pannonia Inferior, and was governor of Britain in the early third century. He was proconsul of Africa circa 211.
Valerius Bassianus, put to death by Commodus.
Ofilius Valerius Macedo, consul in an uncertain year, before AD 198.
Valerius Catulinus, appointed by Didius Julianus to succeed Septimius Severus as governor of Illyricum, when Severus refused to acknowledge his title. However, Catulinus was slain by Severus' forces.
Marcus Valerius Senecio, consul in an uncertain year, between AD 211 and 217.
Publius Valerius Eutychianus Comazon, an actor and dancer who became a friend and confidant of Elagabalus after having taken part in the conspiracy against Macrinus. He was appointed praetorian prefect, then consul in AD 220, and served three times as , twice under Elagabalus, and again under Alexander Severus.
Quintus (or Claudius?) Valerius Rufrius Justus, consul suffectus in an uncertain year, between AD 220 and 230.
Valerius Marcellinus, a historian, and biographer of the emperors, cited by Julius Capitolinus.
Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius, a scholar of the late third and early fourth century, who translated the life of Alexander the Great, of the Pseudo-Callisthenes, into Latin.
Valerius of Saragossa, Bishop of Caesaraugusta in Hispania Tarraconensis from AD 290 to 315.
Valerius Proculus, consul in AD 325.
Aurelius Valerius Tullianus Symmachus, consul in AD 330.
Lucius Aradius Valerius Proculus, also known as Populonius, consul in AD 340, and from 337 to 338, and from 351 to 352.
Valerius of Trèves, a fourth-century bishop of Augusta Treverorum.
Lucius Valerius Septimius Bassus, under Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I.
Valerius II, Bishop of Zaragoza, circa AD 380.
Valerius Adelphius Bassus, of Venetia and Histria under Valentinian II, Theodosius I and Arcadius, and perhaps the son of Lucius Valerius Septimius Bassus.
Flavius Valerius, consul in AD 432.
Valerius Faltonius Adelphius, consul in AD 451, perhaps the son of Valerius Adelphius Bassus.
Flavius Valerius, consul in AD 521.
Imperial Valerii
Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, emperor from AD 284 to 305.
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus 'Herculius', emperor from AD 286 to 305, 306 to 308, and 310.
Galerius Valerius Maximianus, better known as Galerius, emperor from AD 305 to 311.
Galeria Valeria, the daughter of Diocletian, and second wife of Galerius.
Galerius Valerius Maximinus Daza, emperor from AD 305 to 313.
Flavius Valerius Constantius Chlorus, emperor from AD 305 to 306.
Flavius Valerius Severus, emperor from AD 306 to 307.
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius, emperor from AD 306 to 312.
Valeria Maximilla, the daughter of Galerius and wife of Maxentius.
Flavius Valerius Constantinus, better known as Constantine the Great, emperor from AD 306 to 337.
Valerius Licinianus Licinius, emperor from AD 308 to 324.
Valerius Romulus, the son of Maxentius and Valeria Maximilla, consul in AD 308 and 309.
Julius Valerius Majorianus, emperor from AD 457 to 461.
Footnotes
See also
List of Roman gentes
References
Bibliography
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Paulus Orosius, Historiarum Adversum Paganos (History Against the Pagans).
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243447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit%20%28astronomy%29 | Transit (astronomy) | In astronomy, a transit (or astronomical transit) is a phenomenon when a celestial body passes directly between a larger body and the observer. As viewed from a particular vantage point, the transiting body appears to move across the face of the larger body, covering a small portion of it.
The word "transit" refers to cases where the nearer object appears smaller than the more distant object. Cases where the nearer object appears larger and completely hides the more distant object are known as occultations.
However, the probability of seeing a transiting planet is low because it is dependent on the alignment of the three objects in a nearly perfectly straight line. Many parameters of a planet and its parent star can be determined based on the transit.
In the Solar System
One example of a transit involves the motion of a planet between a terrestrial observer and the Sun. This can happen only with inferior planets, namely Mercury and Venus (see transit of Mercury and transit of Venus). However, because a transit is dependent on the point of observation, the Earth itself transits the Sun if observed from Mars. In the solar transit by the Moon captured during calibration of the STEREO B spacecraft's ultraviolet imaging, the Moon appears much smaller than it does when seen from Earth, because the spacecraft–Moon separation was several times greater than the Earth–Moon distance.
The term can also be used to describe the motion of a satellite across its parent planet, for instance one of the Galilean satellites (Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto) across Jupiter, as seen from Earth.
Although rare, cases where four bodies are lined up do happen. One of these events occurred on 27 June 1586, when Mercury transited the Sun as seen from Venus at the same time as a transit of Mercury from Saturn and a transit of Venus from Saturn.
Notable observations
No missions were planned to coincide with the transit of Earth visible from Mars on 11 May 1984 and the Viking missions had been terminated a year previously. Consequently, the next opportunity to observe such an alignment will be in 2084.
On 21 December 2012, the Cassini–Huygens probe, in orbit around Saturn, observed the planet Venus transiting the Sun.
On 3 June 2014, the Mars rover Curiosity observed the planet Mercury transiting the Sun, marking the first time a planetary transit has been observed from a celestial body besides Earth.
Mutual planetary transits
In rare cases, one planet can pass in front of another. If the nearer planet appears smaller than the more distant one, the event is called a mutual planetary transit.
Outside the Solar System
Exoplanet Detection
The transit method can be used to discover exoplanets. As a planet eclipses/transits its host star it will block a portion of the light from the star. If the planet transits in-between the star and the observer the change in light can be measured to construct a light curve. Light curves are measured with a charge-coupled device. The light curve of a star can disclose several physical characteristics of the planet and star, such as density. Multiple transit events must be measured to determine the characteristics which tend to occur at regular intervals. Multiple planets orbiting the same host star can cause transit-timing variations (TTV). TTV is caused by the gravitational forces of all orbiting bodies acting upon each other. The probability of seeing a transit from Earth is low, however. The probability is given by the following equation.
where Rstar and Rplanet are the radius of the star and planet, respectively, and a is the semi-major axis. Because of the low probability of a transit in any specific system, large selections of the sky must be regularly observed in order to see a transit. Hot Jupiters are more likely to be seen because of their larger radius and short semi-major axis. In order to find Earth-sized planets, red dwarf stars are observed because of their small radius. Even though transiting has a low probability it has proven itself to be a good technique for discovering exoplanets.
In recent years, the discovery of extrasolar planets has prompted interest in the possibility of detecting their transits across their own stellar primaries. HD 209458b was the first such transiting planet to be detected.
The transit of celestial objects is one of the few key phenomena used today for the study of exoplanetary systems. Today, transit photometry is the leading form of exoplanet discovery. As an exoplanet moves in front of its host star there is a dimming in the luminosity of the host star that can be measured. Larger planets make the dip in luminosity more noticeable and easier to detect. Followup observations using other methods are often carried out to ensure it is a planet.
There are currently (December 2018) 2345 planets confirmed with Kepler light curves for stellar host.
Contacts
During a transit there are four "contacts", when the circumference of the small circle (small body disk) touches the circumference of the large circle (large body disk) at a single point. Historically, measuring the precise time of each point of contact was one of the most accurate ways to determine the positions of astronomical bodies. The contacts happen in the following order:
First contact: the smaller body is entirely outside the larger body, moving inward ("exterior ingress")
Second contact: the smaller body is entirely inside the larger body, moving further inward ("interior ingress")
Third contact: the smaller body is entirely inside the larger body, moving outward ("interior egress")
Fourth contact: the smaller body is entirely outside the larger body, moving outward ("exterior egress")
A fifth named point is that of greatest transit, when the apparent centers of the two bodies are nearest to each other, halfway through the transit.
Missions
Since transit photometry allows for scanning large celestial areas with a simple procedure, it has been the most popular and successful form of finding exoplanets in the past decade and includes many projects, some of which have already been retired, others in use today, and some in progress of being planned and created. The most successful projects include HATNet, KELT, Kepler, and WASP, and some new and developmental stage missions such as TESS, HATPI, and others which can be found among the List of Exoplanet Search Projects.
HATNet
HATNet Project is a set of northern telescopes in Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory, Arizona and Mauna Kea Observatories, HI, and southern telescopes around the globe, in Africa, Australia, and South America, under the HATSouth branch of the project. These are small aperture telescopes, just like KELT, and look at a wide field which allows them to scan a large area of the sky for possible transiting planets. In addition, their multitude and spread around the world allows for 24/7 observation of the sky so that more short-period transits can be caught.
A third sub-project, HATPI, is currently under construction and will survey most of the night sky seen from its location in Chile.
KELT
KELT is a terrestrial telescope mission designed to search for transiting systems of planets of magnitude 8<M<10. It began operation in October 2004 in Winer Observatory and has a southern companion telescope added in 2009. KELT North observes "26-degree wide strip of sky that is overhead from North America during the year", while KELT South observes single target areas of the size 26 by 26 degrees. Both telescopes can detect and identify transit events as small as a 1% flux dip, which allows for detection of planetary systems similar to those in our planetary system.
Kepler / K2
The Kepler satellite served the Kepler mission between 7 March 2009 and 11 May 2013, where it observed one part of the sky in search of transiting planets within a 115 square degrees of the sky around the Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco constellations. After that, the satellite continued operating until 15 November 2018, this time changing its field along the ecliptic to a new area roughly every 75 days due to reaction wheel failure.
TESS
TESS was launched on 18 April 2018, and is planned to survey most of the sky by observing it strips defined along the right ascension lines for 27 days each. Each area surveyed is 27 by 90 degrees. Because of the positioning of sections, the area near TESS's rotational axis will be surveyed for up to 1 year, allowing for the identification of planetary systems with longer orbital periods.
See also
Eclipse
Kepler Mission
Occultation
Syzygy (astronomy)
Conjunction (astronomy)
Opposition (planets)
Transit of asteroids
Transit of Deimos from Mars
Transit of Phobos from Mars
Transit of Vulcan
References
External links
Chasing Venus, Observing the Transits of Venus Smithsonian Institution Libraries
Jean Meeus: Transits. Richmond, Virginia: Willmann-Bell, Inc., 1989,
Jean Meeus: Astronomical Tables of the Sun, Moon and Planets. Richmond, Virginia: Willmann-Bell, Inc., 1995,
Karl Ramsayer: Geodätische Astronomie, Vol.2a of Handbuch der Vermessungskunde, 900 p., J.B.Metzler, Stuttgart 1969.
Astrometry
Astronomical events
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243449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniborg | Uraniborg | Uraniborg (, ) was a Danish astronomical observatory and alchemy laboratory established and operated by Tycho Brahe. It was built on Hven, an island in the Øresund between Zealand and Scania, Sweden, which was part of Denmark at the time. It was expanded with the underground facility Stjerneborg, () on an adjacent site.
Brahe also innovated and invented many precision instruments which he used to carry out his studies in the observatory. Research was done in the fields of astronomy, alchemy, and meteorology by Tycho and his assistants.
Brahe abandoned Uraniborg and Stjerneborg in 1597 after he fell out of favor with the Danish king; he left the country, and the institution was destroyed in 1601 after his death. Hven was later lost to Sweden, and the Rundetårn (Round Tower) in Copenhagen was inaugurated in 1642 as a replacement for Uraniborg's astronomical functions. Restoration of Uraniborg's grounds began in 1985.
History
The building was dedicated to Urania, the Muse of Astronomy, and it was named Uraniborg, "The Castle of Urania". It was the first custom-built observatory in modern Europe, though not the last to be built without a telescope as its primary instrument. The cornerstone was laid on August 8, 1576.
The sandstone and limestone-framed brick building was constructed from the year 1576 to 1580. Built in the Flemish Renaissance style, the erection of the site was overseen by Danish architect Hans van Emden and sculptor Johan Gregor van der Schardt. The main building of Uraniborg was square, about 15 meters on a side, and built mostly of red brick. Two semi-circular towers, one each on the north and south sides of the main building, gave the building a somewhat rectangular footprint overall. The plan and façade of the building, and also the plan of the surrounding gardens, are designed on grids, with proportions that Tycho carefully specified. These proportions may have been intended to make Uraniborg function as an astrological talisman, benefiting the health of its occupants by increasing the influences of the sun and Jupiter. The main floor consisted of four rooms, one of which was occupied by Brahe and his family, the other three for visiting astronomers. The northern tower housed the kitchens, and the southern a library. In this library and within Brahe's personal study is etched the motto "Non haberi sed esse," which translates from Latin to "What one is, is more important than what one is perceived to be." It serves as a warning to discern perception from reality in pursuit of knowledge. The second floor was divided into three rooms, two of equal size and one larger. The larger room was reserved for visiting royalty; James VI of Scotland (later James I of England) visited on March 20, 1590. On this level the towers housed the primary astronomical instruments, accessed from outside the building or from doors on this floor. Balconies, supported on wooden posts, housed additional instruments slightly further from the building, giving them a wider angle of view. On the third floor was a loft, subdivided into eight smaller rooms for students. Only the roofs of the towers reached this level, although a single additional tower extended above the loft in the middle of the building, similar to a widow's walk, accessed via a spiral staircase from the 3rd floor. Uraniborg also featured a large basement; it housed an alchemical laboratory at one end, and storage for food, salt and fuel at the other. Additionally, Uraniborg also contained a small prison room in order to deal with disorderly tenants or guests.
The observatory had a large mural quadrant affixed to a north–south wall, used to measure the altitude of stars as they passed the meridian. This, along with many other instruments of the observatory, was depicted and described in detail in Brahe's 1598 book Astronomiae instauratae mechanica.
A large wall, 75 meters on a side and 5.5 meters high, was planned to surround Uraniborg, but was never built; instead, a high earth mound was constructed. That mound has lasted until modern times, being the only remnant of the observatory still in place. Uraniborg was located in the very middle, with an extensive parterre garden between the mound walls and the building. In addition to being decorative, the gardens also supplied herbs for Brahe's medicinal chemistry experiments. The gardens are currently being re-created, using seeds found on-site or identified in Brahe's writings. At the gatehouses, Tycho incorporated his printing workshop and the island's prison.
Extending beyond the walls, Uraniborg's surrounding infrastructure included a system of aquaculture ponds, whose overflow powered a paper mill. In 1590 James VI of Scotland gave gold coins to builders and workmen at the paper and corn mills.
Uraniborg's construction was a unique phenomenon because it occurred at an interesting point in history. It not only was one of the last observatories built before the development of the telescope, but it was one of the first observatories to be completely funded by a government entity for the purpose of research. Uraniborg was an extremely expensive project and it is estimated that it cost about 1% of the entire state budget during construction.
Upon losing financial support from Frederick II's successor, Christian IV of Denmark, Brahe abandoned Hven in 1597. The new king was not a fan of Brahe and due to loss of popularity and funding at court, both astrological sites were destroyed shortly after Brahe's death. Stjerneborg was the subject of archaeological excavations during the 1950s, resulting in the restoration of the observatory. Stjerneborg now houses a multimedia show.
Research
Uraniborg was a place for the study of astronomy, meteorology, astrology, and alchemy. Over the life span of Uraniborg it had upwards of thirty different assistants for Tycho Brahe, and visits from many other researchers and royalty; Martin Zeiler, Nicolaus Reimers, Erik Lange, and David Wunderer being some of the noted visitors. At its best, Brahe's data was accurate up to a minute of arc, an improvement of ten times compared to what was previously available.
While tracking the comet of 1577, Brahe saw inaccuracies with the location of stars in both Ptolemy's and Copernicus's systems. From then Brahe sought after a better celestial map. Using both mathematics and observation from Uraniborg, Tycho Brahe released his first model of the celestial night in 1588, the Tychonic system. Brahe's system had Earth stationary in the center, the Moon and Sun revolving around it, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn revolving around the sun, and the outer most circle where the stars rotate around. Paul Wittich visited Uraniborg for several months in 1580 and aided Brahe in the construction of the Tychonic system. Brahe had also researched meteorology for the King of Denmark, Frederick II, although Brahe did not put his name on the publications.
During the period in which Uraniborg was actively used, astronomy and astrology were thought to be linked to the other scientific fields, and as such the observatory was used to discover more than the astral bodies. Brahe's driving force for research at Uraniborg was the desire to make astrology an empirical science and rid it of "mistakes and superstition." Brahe and his many assistants began charting the positions of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies over time with unprecedented accuracy in this pursuit. While Brahe openly shared his findings in the field of astronomy and meteorology, he did not openly share his work in alchemy. Brahe's under ground laboratory was designed to allow sunlight in throughout the day and had furnaces arranged so he could do his research even in the coldest months. Though he did not publicly publish his findings, he did give them as gifts to other people of power. For example, Brahe allowed Arnold Floris van Langren and Willem Jansz Blaeu, who were prominent Dutch globe makers of the time, access to his and his many assistants' work. Brahe's larger collection of his and his assistants' work in celestial cartography (a printed version of their star catalogue) was not published for public viewing until the year 1627 by his former assistant and fellow astronomer Johannes Kepler. On his deathbed in 1601, Brahe urged Kepler to publish his proprietary Rudolphine Tables on Mars using his own cosmic system as the basis of explanation. Though Kepler did publish the tables as indicated by Brahe, he did so in an effort to endorse the Copernican model of the cosmos that placed the Sun as the center of the universe, in place of the Earth. Additionally, Kepler established the notion of elliptical orbits to replace the antiquated convention of perfectly circular orbits, an artifact of the Aristotelian cosmic system, in his publication.
Jean Picard, known for measuring lines of longitude, revisited the ruins of Uraniborg in 1671. He recorded the longitude and latitude of Uraniborg so astronomers could compare their research to Tycho's. Picard also went back to Uraniborg to study atmospheric refraction, which is the bending of light due to the atmosphere.
Shortly after construction it became clear that the tower-mounted instruments were too easily moved by wind, and Brahe set about constructing a more suitable observation site. The result was Stjerneborg ("castle of the stars"), a smaller site built entirely at ground level and dedicated purely to observations (there was no "house"). The basic layout was similar to Uraniborg, with a wall of similar shape surrounding the site, although the enclosed area was much smaller. The instruments were all placed underground, covered by opening shutters or a rotating dome in buildings built over the instrument pits. The research done at Stjerneborg paralleled the work done at Uraniborg but their notes were kept separate so that the research gathered at the observatories could be used to ensure that all of the data was accurate. Work had been started to connect Stjerneburg to the Tycho's chemistry laboratory under Uraniborg but the tunnel was never completed.
Instruments
The observatory was not just the home of scientists, but it also supported the artisans who constructed the tools that the scientists needed. Tycho Brahe was an innovative astronomer of his time. Within the Uraniborg observatory, he utilized innovative observing methods and built new instruments to improve the accuracy of his readings. Brahe's goal to gather accurate data on the cosmos influenced the creation of a wide range of contraptions to prove his theories on the celestial positions and a geo-heliocentric (Tychonic) model of the solar system, a theory that the earth is the center of the sun and moon while the sun is also the center of the other planets.
He upsized his instruments; one of the surviving instruments being the Brass Azimuthal Quadrant created in 1576. Instead of using wood like with previous models, he built the new one out of metal and masonry to enhance its stability and therefore improve the accuracy of his measurements. The azimuthal quadrant was meant to observe the Great Comet of 1577 with an accuracy of 48.8 seconds of an arc. He also used highly refined lenses and optical equipment in conjunction with other instruments, such as sextants and armillary spheres. To increase the accuracy of his readings further, he utilized the equatorial coordinate system instead of the zodiacal coordinate system with his specially designed instruments.
In 1580, Brahe created the Great Globe, a hollow, wooden sphere layered with brass plates to document the stars and planets he observed. By the year 1595, over 1,000 stars had been etched onto the globe; 777 of these were placed over the majority of Brahe's time at Uraniborg, and the last 223 just before he left. He and his assistants also tracked the movements of the planets over two decades. Brahe then created the Triangular Sextant in 1582. This device was around 3.2 meters in diameter and was fixed in one place instead of being mobile like the smaller versions. Three years later Brahe created a larger instrument called the Great Equatorial Armillary which allowed him to gauge planetary and stellar positions. This device was able to compensate for atmospheric refraction and it remained consistent with its measurements over time. This device was used extensively by Brahe in 1587 in order to further his work on the determination of Martian parallax, which he had previously and unsuccessfully attempted to calculate in 1582, 1583, and 1585 due to the unavailability of the proper technology. Though scientists have determined in retrospect that Brahe could not have come to a meaningful conclusion due to errors in commonly used refraction tables of the era, the measurements taken by the Great Equatorial Armillary in conjunction with his other instruments led to unprecedented accuracy in his results and calculations.
Additionally, the structure itself and installation of the instruments was innovative for its time and was pivotal in the accuracy of the instruments. For instance, the upgraded mural quadrant, made from metal and stone, was fixed in place as a wall. This allowed for further accuracy in the measurements recorded by Brahe. The other smaller instruments that were more sensitive to interference from the weather repositioning were also fixed in place; they were installed in recesses in the ground to provide greater protection from the wind while still having the ability to measure stellar features. The observatory was also designed so that any exposed instruments on the upper levels of the towers were well protected from exposure.
Restoration
In the 1950s, an excavation effort revealed portions of the original Uraniborg structure and the structure of the underground laboratory space Stjerneborg, which was intended to shield Brahe's instruments from meteorological interference. Shortly after rediscovery, the external walls of the original palace were reconstructed. A proposal was done in order to start the reconstruction of the original Uraniborg site during the 1980s. Restoration of the surrounding gardens began in 1985 with the goal of replanting of 16th century garden. Archaeological studies of the plant material were done by the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and the Landskrona Department of Culture in order to determine the plant type and location. Later in the year of 1992, a reconstruction plan for around one-quarter on the ramparts was created. This reconstruction plan included details on the ongoing work that also included the planted hypothesis on the structures, the plant material, and acquisitions and forms during the 1580s and 1590s. The new site now includes a restored quarter of Brahe's original garden with plants and herbs laid out in beds that are also boxed in with a wooden fence. A fruit orchard was also placed within the center of the pavilion. The refurbished structure of Uraniborg and Stjerneborg have been incorporated into the Tycho Brahe Museum. The grounds include stops at the ruined paper mill and the replica lake that once powered the palace laboratory during the time of Tycho Brahe. It is accessible from both Sweden and Denmark by boat.
See also
List of astronomical observatories
Sophia Brahe
References
External links
Astronomiae instauratae mechanica at the Royal Library, describing Brahe's instruments, with English translation
Landskrona stad's Tycho Brahe Museum Museum
Buildings and structures completed in 1580
Scania
Tycho Brahe
Astronomical observatories in Denmark
Architecture of Denmark
1580s establishments in Denmark
Demolished buildings and structures in Denmark
Buildings and structures demolished in the 17th century | [
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243451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.%20F.%20Strawson | P. F. Strawson | Sir Peter Frederick Strawson (; 23 November 1919 – 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher. He was the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at the University of Oxford (Magdalen College) from 1968 to 1987. Before that, he was appointed as a college lecturer at University College, Oxford, in 1947, and became a tutorial fellow the following year, until 1968. On his retirement in 1987, he returned to the college and continued working there until shortly before his death. His portrait was painted by the artists Muli Tang and Daphne Todd.
Early years
Strawson was born in Ealing, west London, and brought up in Finchley, north London, by his parents, both of whom were teachers. He was educated at Christ's College, Finchley, followed by St John's College, Oxford, where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics.
Philosophical work
Strawson first became well known with his article "On Referring" (1950), a criticism of Bertrand Russell's theory of descriptions (see also Definite descriptions) that Russell explained in the famous "On Denoting" article (1905).
In philosophical methodology, there are (at least) two important and interrelated features of Strawson's work that are worthy of note. The first is the project of a 'descriptive' metaphysics, and the second is his notion of a shared conceptual scheme, composed of concepts operated in everyday life. In his book Individuals (1959), Strawson attempts to give a description of various concepts that form an interconnected web, representing (part of) our common, shared, human conceptual scheme. In particular, he examines our conceptions of basic particulars, and how they are variously brought under general spatio-temporal concepts. What makes this a metaphysical project is that it exhibits, in fine detail, the structural features of our thought about the world, and thus precisely delimits how we, humans, think about reality.
Strawson was made a Fellow of the British Academy in 1960 and Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1969 to 1970. He was knighted, in 1977, for services to philosophy.
Personal life
After serving as a captain in the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers during World War II, Strawson married Ann Martin in 1945. They had four children, including the philosopher Galen Strawson. P.F. Strawson lived in Oxford all his adult life and died in hospital on 13 February 2006 after a short illness. He was elder brother to Major General John Strawson.
The obituary in The Guardian noted that "Oxford was the world capital of philosophy between 1950 and 1970, and American academics flocked there, rather than the traffic going the other way. That golden age had no greater philosopher than Sir Peter Strawson."
In its obituary, The Times of London described him as a "philosopher of matchless range who made incisive, influential contributions to problems of language and metaphysics." The author went on to say:
Partial bibliography
Books
Introduction to Logical Theory. London: Methuen, 1952.
Japanese translation by S. Tsunetoshi, et al. (Kyoto: Houritsu Bunkasya, 1994)
Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics. London: Methuen, 1959.
German translation by F. Scholz (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1972)
French translation by A. Shalom and P. Drong (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1973)
Italian translation by E. Bencivenga (Milan: Feltrinelli, 1978)
Japanese translation by H. Nakamura (Tokyo: Misuzu Shobo, 1978)
Polish translation by B. Chwedenczuk (Warsaw: Wydawniczy Pax, 1980)
Spanish translation by A. Suarez and L. Villanueva (Madrid: Taurus, 1989)
Brazilian Portuguese translation by P. J. Smith (São Paulo: Editora Unesp, 2019)
The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. London: Methuen, 1966.
Spanish translation by C. Luis Andre (Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1975)
German translation by E. Lange (Hain, 1981)
Italian translation by M. Palumbo (Roma-Bari: Laterza, 1985)
Japanese translation by T. Kumagai, et al. (Tokyo: Keiso Shobo, 1987)
Logico-Linguistic Papers. London: Methuen, 1971
Freedom and Resentment and other Essays. London: Methuen, 1974
Subject and Predicate in Logic and Grammar. London: Methuen, 1974
Skepticism and Naturalism: Some Varieties. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.
Analysis and Metaphysics: An Introduction to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Estonian translation by T. Hallap (Tartu: University of Tartu Press, 2016)
Entity and Identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Philosophical Writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Articles
"Necessary Propositions and Entailment Statements" (Mind, 1948)
"Truth" (Analysis, 1949)
"Ethical Intuitionism" (Philosophy, 1949)
"Truth" (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society suppl. vol. xxiv, 1950)
"On Referring" (Mind, 1950)
"Particular and General" (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 1953
"Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations (Mind, vol. 63, 1954)
"A Logician's Landscape" (Philosophy, Vol. 30, 1955)
"Construction and Analysis" in A.J. Ayer et al., The Revolution in Philosophy. London: Macmillan, 1956
"Singular Terms, Ontology and Identity" (Mind, Vol. 65, 1956)
"In Defence of a Dogma" with H. P. Grice (Philosophical Review, 1956)
"Logical Subjects and Physical Objects" (Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 1957)
"Propositions, Concepts and Logical Truths" (Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 7, 1957)
"Proper Names" (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supp. Vol. 31, 1957)
"On Justifying Induction" (Philosophical Studies, 1958)
"The Post-Linguistic Thaw" (Times Literary Supplement, 1960)
"Freedom and Resentment" (Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol. 48, 1960)
"Singular Terms and Predication" (Journal of Philosophy, 1961)
"Perception and Identification" (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supp. Vol. 35, 1961)
"Carnap's Views on Constructed Systems v. Natural Languages in Analytical Philosophy" in The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, ed. P.A. Schlipp (La Salle Ill.: Open Court, 1963)
" A Problem about Truth: A reply to Mr. Warnock" in Truth, ed. G. Pitcher, Englewood Cliffs (N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1964)
"Truth: A Reconsideration of Austin's Views" (Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 15, 1965)
"Self, Mind and Body" (Common Factor, Vol. 4, 1966)
"Is Existence Never A Predicate" (Critica, Vol. 1, 1967)
"Bennett on Kant's Analytic" (Philosophical Review, Vol. 77, 1968)
"Meaning and Truth" (Proceedings of the British Academy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969)
"Imagination and Perception" in Experience and Theory, ed. L. Foster and J.W. Swanson (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1970)
"Categories" in Ryle: A Collection of Critical essays, ed. O.P. Wood and G. Pitcher, (New York: Doubleday, 1970)
"The Asymmetry of Subjects and Predicates" in Language, Belief and Metaphysics, ed. H.E. Kiefer and M.K. Munitz (New York: State of University of New York Press, 1970)
"Self-Reference, Contradiction and Content-Parasitic Predicates" (Indian review of Philosophy, 1972)
"Different Conceptions of Analytical Philosophy" (Tijdschrift voor Filosofie, 1973)
"Austin and 'Locutionary Meaning'" in Essays on J.L. Austin, ed. I Berlin (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973)
"On Understanding the Structure of One's Language" in Freedom and Resentment and Other Essays
"Positions for Quantifiers" in semantics and Philosophy, ed. M.K. Munitz and P.K. Unger (New York: New York University Press, 1974)
"Does Knowledge Have Foundations?" (Conocimiento y Creencia, 1974)
"Semantics, Logic and Ontology" (Neue Häfte für Philosophie, 1975)
"Knowledge and Truth" (Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1976)
"Entity and Identity" in Contemporary British Philosophy Fourth Series, ed. H.D. Lewis (London: Allen and Unwin, 1976)
"Scruton and Wright on Anti-Realism" (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Vol. 77, 1976)
"May Bes and Might Have Beens" in Meaning and Use, ed. A. Margalit (London: Reidel, 1979)
"Perception and its Objects" in Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A.J. Ayer, ed. G.F. Macdonald (London: Macmillan, 1979)
"Universals" (Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 1979)
"Belief, Reference and Quantification" (Monist, 1980)
"P.F. Strawson Replies" in Philosophical Subjects Presented to P.F. Strawson, ed. Zak Van Straaten (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980)
"Comments and Reples" (Philosophia, Vol. 10, 1981)
"Logical Form and Logical Constants" in Logical Form, Predication and Ontology, ed. P.K. Sen (India: Macmillan, 1982)
"Liberty and Necessity" in Spinoza, His Thought & Work, ed. Nathan Rotenstreich and Norma Schneider (Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1983)
"Causation and Explanation" in Essays on Davidson, ed. Bruce Vermazen and J. Hintikka (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985)
"Direct Singular Reference: Intended Reference and Actual Reference" in Wo steht die Analytische Philosophie Heute?, 1986
"Reference and its Roots" in The Philosophy of W.V. Quine. ed L.E. Hahn and P.A. Schlipp (La Salle Ill.: Open Court, 1986)
"Kant's Paralogisms: Self Consciousness and the 'Outside Observer'" in Theorie der Subjektivität, ed. K. Cramer, F. Fulda, R.-P. Hortsmann, U. Poshast (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1987)
"Concepts and Properties, or Predication and Copulation" (Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 37, 1987)
"Kant's New Foundations of Metaphysics" in Metaphysik nach Kant, ed. Dieter Henrich and R.-P. Horstmann (Stuttgart: Klett Cotta, 1988)
"Ma Philosophie: son développement, son thème central et sa nature générale" (Revue de thėologie et de philosophie, Vol. 120, 1988)
"Sensibility, Understanding and the Doctrine of Synthesis: Comments on D. Henrich and P. Guyer" in Kant's Transcendental Deductions, ed. E. Forster (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989)
"Two Conceptions of Philosophy" in Perspectives on Quine, ed. Robert Barrett and Roger Gibson (Oxford: Blackwell: 1990)
"The Incoherence of Empiricism" (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supp. Vol. 66, 1992)
"Comments on Some Aspects of Peter Unger's Identity, Consciousness and Value (Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 42, 1992)
"Echoes of Kant" (Times Literary Supplement, 1992, "The State of Philosophy")
"Replies" in Ensayos sobre Strawson, ed. Carlos E. Carosi (Montevideo: Universidad de la Republica, 1992)
"Knowing From Words" in Knowing From Words, ed. B. K. Matilal and A. Chakrabati (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992)
"My Philosophy" and "Replies" to critics in The Philosophy of P.F. Strawson, ed. P.K. Sen and R.K. Verma (New Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 1994)
"Individuals" in Philosophical Problems Today, Vol. 1, ed. G. Floistad (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994)
"The Problem of Realism and the A Priori" in Kant and Contemporary Epistemology, ed. Paolo Parrini (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994)
"Introduction", "Kant on Substance" and "Meaning and Context" in Entity and Identity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997)
Notes
References
Philosophical Subjects: Essays Presented to P. F. Strawson, ed. Zak Van Straaten (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980)
Leibniz and Strawson: A New Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics, Clifford Brown (Munich: Philosophia Verlag, 1990)
Ensayos sobre Strawson, ed. Carlos E. Carosi (Montevideo: Universidad de la Republica, 1992)
The Philosophy of P. F. Strawson, ed. Pranab Kumar Sen and Roop Rekha Verma (Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 1995)
The Philosophy of P. F. Strawson, Lewis E. Hahn, ed. (Open Court, 1998)
Theories of Truth, Richard Kirkham (MIT Press, 1992). (Chapter 10 contains a detailed discussion of Strawson's performative theory of truth.)
Strawson & Kant: The Bounds of Sense. GELAIN, Itamar Luís & CONTE, Jaimir (Org.) Pelotas: NEPFIL (On-line), 2016.
Ensaios sobre a filosofia de Strawson. CONTE, Jaimir & GELAIN, Itamar Luís (Org.). Florianópolis: Editora UFSC, 2015.
Strawson and Kant, ed. Hans-Johann Glock (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)
Sir Peter Strawson (1919–2006), Univ Newsletter, Issue 23, page 4, Hilary 2006.
Peter Strawson, Clifford Brown (Acumen Publishing, 2006)
Free Will and Reactive Attitudes: Perspectives on P. F. Strawson's 'Freedom and Resentment'. edited by Micheal McKenna and Paul Russell, (2016)
External links
Obituary – The Guardian
Sir Peter Strawson - obituary for The Independent by Alan Ryan
Peter Frederick Strawson (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Snapshot: P. F. Strawson 2019 essay by Anil Gomes for The Philosophers' Magazine
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243454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hug | Hug | A hug is a form of endearment, universal in most human communities, in which two or more people put their arms around the neck, back, or waist of one another and hold each other closely. If more than two people are involved, it may be referred to as a group hug.
Etymology
The origins of the word are unknown, but two theories exist. The first is that the verb "hug" (first used in the 1560s) could be related to the Old Norse word hugga, which meant to comfort. The second theory is that the word is related to the German word hegen, which means to foster or cherish, and originally meant to enclose with a hedge.
Characteristics
A hug, sometimes in association with a kiss, is a form of nonverbal communication. Depending on culture, context and relationship, a hug can indicate familiarity, love, affection, friendship, brotherhood, flirting or sympathy. A hug can indicate support, comfort, and consolation, particularly where words are insufficient. A hug usually demonstrates affection and emotional warmth, sometimes arising from joy or happiness when reunited with someone or seeing someone absent after a long time. A non-reciprocal hug may demonstrate a relational problem. A hug can range from a brief one-second squeeze, with the arms not fully around the friend, to an extended holding. The length of a hug in any situation is socially and culturally determined. In the case of lovers, and occasionally others, the hips may also be pressed together. The emotionality of the hug furthermore influences the direction of the hug. In deeply emotional contexts, hugs tend to be more left-sided compared to hugs in neutral situations such as greetings. While the overall direction of hugs corresponds with physical motor phenotypes such as handedness, the emotional state induces an overall shift to the left attributed to right-hemispheric emotional processing.
Cultural aspects
While less common, hugging may be undertaken as part of a ritual or social act in certain social groups. It is a custom in some cultures such as France, Spain and Latin America for male friends to hug (as well as slap each other on the back) in a joyous greeting. A similar hug, usually accompanied by a kiss on the cheek, is also becoming a custom among Western women at meeting or parting. In Portugal and Brazil, it is common, mostly among males, to finish letters and emails with Um abraço or Abraço ("a hug", or "hug") followed by the sender's signature. Similar formulas may be used in oral communication. In the Roman Catholic rite of the Holy Mass, a hug may be substituted for a kiss or handshake during the kiss of peace ritual.
In May 2009, The New York Times reported that "the hug has become the favorite social greeting when teenagers meet or part these days" in the United States. A number of schools in the United States have issued bans on hugs, which in some cases have resulted in student-led protests against these bans.
A Canadian journalistic investigation in 2015 noted the popularity of the hug in bromance among young francophone adults in Quebec.
Unlike some other types of physical contact, a hug can be practiced publicly and privately without stigma in many countries, religions and cultures, within families, and also across most age and gender lines, but is generally an indication that people are familiar with each other. Moving from a handshake (or touch-free) relationship to a hug relationship is a sign of a closer friendship.
An unexpected hug can be regarded as an invasion of a person's personal space, but if it is reciprocated it is an indication that it is welcome. Some Western culture commentators advise avoiding hugs at work to prevent uncomfortable moments, especially with people who dislike hugging. Also, a person, especially a child, may caress and hug a doll or stuffed animal. Young children also hug their parents when they feel threatened by an unfamiliar person, although this may be regarded as clinging onto rather than hugging because it demonstrates a need for protection rather than affection.
Some cultures do not use hugging as a sign of affection or love, such as the Himba in Namibia. During the Islamic fasting month of Ramadan, it is halal (permissible) for someone to hug one's significant other during daylight hours if one has self-control. However, if accompanied by libidinous urges, it is haram (sinful). Hugging between the opposite gender outside the same family is usually avoided in most Islamic communities.
In August 2017, in the south Indian state of Kerala, a sixteen-year-old boy was expelled from school for hugging a girl after she won a prize at an arts competition. When the Kerala State Commission for Protection of Child Rights ordered the school to re-enroll the boy, it was challenged in the High Court. The Court nullified the commission's order and upheld the school principal's order to expel the student, saying "The school principal is the institution’s guardian, vested with powers to take action necessary to maintain discipline and morality in the school. The child rights commission cannot interfere there."
Health benefits
Hugging has been proven to have health benefits. One study has even shown that hugs increase levels of oxytocin and reduce blood pressure.
Based on significant research indicating that a 20-second-or-longer hug releases oxytocin. Leo Buscaglia encourages people to hug for 21 days consecutively and to have each day a hug that lasts for a minimum of 21 seconds. He recommends "getting lost in the hug," encouraging people to slow down and "use the power of the hug to be fully present in the moment".
Group hug
A group hug has been found to be a useful tool in group therapy to cement a sense of cohesion among the participants after a session, although it may cause discomfort for group members who shy away from physical contact.
Cuddling
Cuddling is a related form of physical intimacy in which two people hold one another with each other's arms wrapped around the other's body for an extended period of time. Cuddling can be with family members, friends or lovers. Similar to hugging, cuddling is a more affectionate and intimate embrace, normally done for a longer period of time (usually lasting from a few minutes to several hours). In contrast to hugging, which can often be a nonverbal greeting or parting tradition, cuddling is usually shared between two people who are lying down together or sitting somewhere in an intimate manner. Like hugging, cuddling makes the body release oxytocin, which has a variety of effects. In some cities around the United States, cuddling has evolved into a social activity, where individuals gather for the purpose of cuddling. One such organization is Hugz & Cuddlez, a non-profit community active in the Pacific NorthWest.
See also
Free Hugs Campaign
Haptic communication
Hug machine
Pound hug
Side hug
Hershey's Hugs
Cuddle party
Bear hug
National Hugging Day
References
External links
Intimate relationships | [
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243455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20of%20Ten%20%28economics%29 | Group of Ten (economics) | The Group of Ten (G-10 or G10) refers to the group of countries that agreed to participate in the General Arrangements to Borrow (GAB), an agreement to provide the International Monetary Fund (IMF) with additional funds to increase its lending ability.
History
The GAB was established in 1962, when the governments of eight International Monetary Fund (IMF) members—Belgium, Canada, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and the central banks of two others, Germany and Sweden, agreed to make resources available to the IMF with an additional $6 billion of their resources. The additional money was intended to allow the IMF to have increased lending resources.
In 1964, the funds were used by the IMF to rescue the pound sterling. The G-10 grew in 1964 by the association of the eleventh member, Switzerland, then not a member of the IMF, but the name of the group remained the same.
Activities
The GAB enables the IMF to borrow specified amounts of currencies from these eleven industrial countries (or their central banks), under certain circumstances. Specifically, a proposal for calls under the GAB may only be made when a proposal for the establishment of an activation period under the New Arrangements to Borrow (NAB) is not accepted by NAB participants, who number 38 countries, amongst which are the BRICS nations and Middle Eastern powers.
The potential amount of credit available to the IMF under the GAB totals SDR 17bn (about $26bn), with an additional SDR 1.5bn available under an associated arrangement with Saudi Arabia. The GAB was established in 1962 and expanded in 1983 to SDR 17bn, from about SDR 6bn. It has been activated ten times, the last time in 1998. The GAB and the associated credit arrangement with Saudi Arabia have been renewed, without modifications, for a period of five years from December 26, 2013.
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) hosts a publications e-library page for the G-10.
Observers
The following international organizations are official observers of the activities of the G10: the BIS, European Commission, International Monetary Fund, and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Luxembourg is an associate member.
See also
EU three
Big Four (Western Europe)
Group of Six (G6)
Group of Seven (G7)
Group of Twelve (G12)
G10 currencies
References
External links
IMF – A Guide To Committees, Groups, and Clubs
International development
International finance institutions
Economic country classifications
Intergovernmental organizations
20th-century diplomatic conferences
21st-century diplomatic conferences
Organizations established in 1962 | [
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243456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G10 | G10 | G10, G.X or G-10 or Group of Ten may refer to:
Canon PowerShot G10
G10 (agricultural), ten countries which are "vulnerable" to imports due to ongoing reform in the agricultural sector
G10 (engine), Suzuki
G10 (material), a type of lightweight insulating material commonly used in knife handles
G10 currencies, the 10 most heavily traded currencies in the world
G-10 Law, the German privacy law Gesetz zur Beschränkung des Brief-, Post- und Fernmeldegeheimnisses
G10 Suifenhe–Manzhouli Expressway, China
Group of Ten (economics), a group originally of ten, now eleven, industrial nations
Solidaires Unitaires Démocratiques, a group of 10 different French trade unions
A Samsung Sens laptop computer model | [
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243458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toijala | Toijala | Toijala is a former town and municipality of Finland, located some south of Tampere. On 1 January 2007, it was consolidated with Viiala to form the town of Akaa.
Toijala is known as an important railway crossroads. The Helsinki–Tampere and Turku–Tampere tracks meet at Toijala railway station.
Toijala is located in the province of Western Finland and is part of the Pirkanmaa region. The municipality had a population of 8,305 (end of April 2004) and covered an area of of which is water. The population density () was . The municipality was unilingually Finnish.
Until 2015, Toijala hosted a Nokia office which since 1997 collaborated with Päivölän Kansanopisto by having some of its students work as paid interns for 12 hours/week.
On 4 April 2014, ten residents of Toijala became multi-millionaires when they won the record Eurojackpot of €57 million.
Notable people
Jarkko Ahola, musician (b. 1977)
Harri Holkeri, 36th Prime Minister of Finland (1937–2011)
Sasu Hovi, ice hockey player (b. 1982)
Aki Kaurismäki, screenwriter and film director (b. 1957)
Mika Kaurismäki, film director (b. 1955)
Eveliina Similä, Olympic ice hockey player (b. 1978)
Aki Sirkesalo, singer (1962–2004)
Arvo Ylppö, pediatrician, professor, and archiater; credited as the father of Finland's public child welfare clinic system (1887–1992)
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Toijala is twinned with:
Nanchang, China (1997)
Hallsberg, Sweden (1946)
See also
Kylmäkoski
References
External links
Town of Akaa – Official website
Populated places disestablished in 2007
Former municipalities of Finland
Akaa | [
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243459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Abercorn | Duke of Abercorn | The title Duke of Abercorn () is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1868 and bestowed upon James Hamilton, 2nd Marquess of Abercorn. Although the Dukedom is in the Peerage of Ireland, it refers to Abercorn, West Lothian, and the Duke also bears four titles in Peerage of Scotland and two in the Peerage of Great Britain, and is one of only three peers who have titles in those three peerages. The Duke of Abercorn also claims the French title of Duke of Châtellerault, created in 1548.
History
In acknowledgement of his loyalty, James VI of Scotland (James I of England), conferred on the Hon. Claud Hamilton, third son of James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, the title Lord Paisley. His son James Hamilton was created Lord Abercorn on 5 April 1603, then on 10 July 1606 he was made Earl of Abercorn and Lord of Paisley, Hamilton, Mountcastell and Kilpatrick.
His successor, the 2nd Earl of Abercorn, was additionally created Lord Hamilton, Baron of Strabane, in the Peerage of Ireland, on 8 May 1617. He resigned this dignity to his younger brother in 1633; the brother's heirs inherited the Earldom and other titles in 1680, in the person of Claud Hamilton, 4th Earl of Abercorn. He was attainted in Ireland in 1691, and the Barony of Strabane forfeited, but his brother Charles Hamilton, 5th Earl of Abercorn, obtained a reversal of the attainder and recovered in 1692.
The 6th earl was at his accession an Irish baronet, "of Dunalong in the County of Tyrone, and of Nenagh in the County of Tipperary" (1660). He was additionally created Baron Mountcastle and Viscount Strabane, in the Peerage of Ireland, on 2 September 1701. The 7th earl became the first of the Earls of Abercorn to be invested a Privy Counsellor, having been appointed to both the English and Irish Privy Councils. The 8th earl was created Viscount Hamilton, of Hamilton, in the Peerage of Great Britain on 24 August 1786. He was succeeded by his nephew, who was created Marquess of Abercorn in the Peerage of Great Britain on 15 October 1790, after having sat in the House of Commons as MP for East Looe and for St Germans. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1805.
The 2nd Marquess, who had been given the Garter in 1844, served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1866 to 1868 (and again from 1874 to 1876); and on 10 August 1868, during his first term, he was created Marquess of Hamilton, of Strabane, and Duke of Abercorn (in the Peerage of Ireland). His successor, the 2nd Duke, continued the family tradition by being awarded the Garter in 1892; the 3rd Duke served as MP for Londonderry and as Governor of Northern Ireland, along with being created a Knight of St Patrick and given the Garter. Currently, the holder of the Dukedom is James Hamilton, 5th Duke of Abercorn, also a Knight of the Garter.
Of the subsidiary titles above, Marquess of Hamilton is the courtesy title of the heir apparent, and Viscount Strabane that of his heir-apparent.
The Dukes of Abercorn also claim the French title of Duc de Châtellerault, as heirs-male of the 2nd Earl of Arran, who was granted the title in 1548 by Henry II of France. Additionally, since the death of William Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Hamilton, in 1651, the Earls, Marquesses, and Dukes of Abercorn have been the rightful claimants to the peerage dignities of Earl of Arran (of the 1503 creation) and Lord Hamilton (of the 1445 creation), both in the Peerage of Scotland, as the most senior heirs-male of James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault, and this title is reflected in their coat of arms, with an inescutcheon of three fleur-de-lys and a French ducal crown.
Diana, Princess of Wales was a great-granddaughter of the 3rd Duke of Abercorn.
The family seat is Baronscourt (usually known locally as Baronscourt Castle), a neo-Classical country house on the Barons Court Estate near Newtownstewart, Omagh, a village near Strabane, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. The traditional burial place of the Dukes of Abercorn and their families is the cemetery at Baronscourt Parish Church.
List of titleholders
Lords Paisley (1587)
Claud Hamilton, 1st Lord Paisley (1543–1621) was a Scottish politician
The 1st Earl of Abercorn was the 1st Lord's eldest son. He predeceased his father
James Hamilton, 2nd Lord Paisley was already 2nd Earl of Abercorn
Earls of Abercorn (1606)
Other titles: Lord Abercorn, in the county of Linlithgow (Sc 1603) and Lord Paisley, Hamilton, Mountcashell and Kirkpatrick (Sc 1606)
James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Abercorn (1575–1618) had been created Lord Abercorn in 1603
Other titles (2nd Earl onwards): Lord Paisley, in the county of Renfrew (Sc 1587)
Other titles (2nd Earl): Baron Hamilton of Strabane, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1617, res. 1633)
James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Abercorn ( – c. 1670), eldest son of the 1st Earl, succeeded his grandfather as 2nd Lord Paisley in 1621
James Hamilton, Lord Paisley (c. 1633 – c. 1670), eldest son of the 2nd Earl, died without male issue
George Hamilton, 3rd Earl of Abercorn (c. 1636–c. 1680), third and youngest son of the 2nd Earl, died unmarried
Other titles (4th Earl): Baron Hamilton of Strabane, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1617, suc. 1668, att. 1691)
Claud Hamilton, 4th Earl of Abercorn (c. 1659–c. 1691), already 5th Lord Hamilton, was descended from the 3rd son of the 1st Earl. He died unmarried
Other titles (5th Earl onwards): Baron Hamilton of Strabane, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1617, rest. 1692)
Charles Hamilton, 5th Earl of Abercorn (died 1701), younger brother of the 4th Earl, died without issue
James Hamilton, 6th Earl of Abercorn (c. 1661–1734), eldest son of Col James, himself eldest son of Sir George, himself fourth and youngest son of the 1st Earl
Other titles (7th Earl onwards): Viscount Strabane and Baron Mountcastle, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1701)
James Hamilton, 7th Earl of Abercorn (1685–1744), eldest son of the 6th Earl
Other tiles (8th Earl onwards): Viscount Hamilton (GB 1786)
James Hamilton, 8th Earl of Abercorn (1712–1789), eldest son of the 7th Earl, died unmarried
John Hamilton, 9th Earl of Abercorn (1756–1818) was created Marquess of Abercorn in 1790
Marquesses of Abercorn (1790)
Other titles: Earl of Abercorn (Sc 1606), Viscount Strabane (Ir 1701), Viscount Hamilton (GB 1786), Lord Paisley, in the county of Renfrew (Sc 1587), Lord Abercorn, in the county of Linlithgow (Sc 1603), Lord Paisley, Hamilton, Mountcashell and Kirkpatrick (Sc 1606), Lord Hamilton of Strabane, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1617) and Baron Mountcastle, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1701)
John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn (1756–1818), only son of Capt John, himself second son of the 7th Earl
James Hamilton, Viscount Hamilton (1786–1814), elder son of the 1st Marquess, predeceased his father
James Hamilton, 2nd Marquess of Abercorn (1811–1885) was created Duke of Abercorn in 1868
Dukes of Abercorn (1868)
Other titles: Marquess of Abercorn (GB 1790), Marquess of Hamilton, of Strabane in the county of Tyrone (1868), Earl of Abercorn (Sc 1606), Viscount Strabane (Ir 1701), Viscount Hamilton (GB 1786), Lord Paisley, in the county of Renfrew (Sc 1587), Lord Abercorn, in the county of Linlithgow (Sc 1603), Lord Paisley, Hamilton, Mountcashell and Kirkpatrick (Sc 1606), Lord Hamilton of Strabane, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1617) and Baron Mountcastle, in the county of Tyrone (Ir 1701)
James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (1811–1885), elder son of Lord Hamilton
James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (1838–1913), eldest son of the 1st Duke
James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (1869–1953), eldest son of the 2nd Duke. His daughter Cynthia Spencer, Countess Spencer was grandmother of Diana, Princess of Wales.
James Edward Hamilton, 4th Duke of Abercorn (1904–1979), elder son of the 3rd Duke.
James Hamilton, 5th Duke of Abercorn (born 1934), elder son of the 4th Duke
Line of succession
James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Abercorn (1904–1979)
James Hamilton, 5th Duke of Abercorn (b. 1934)
(1) James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton (b. 1969)
(2) James Hamilton, Viscount Strabane (b. 2005)
(3) Lord Claud Hamilton (b. 2007)
(4) Lord Nicholas Hamilton (b. 1979)
(5) Lord Claud Hamilton (b. 1939)
(6) Alexander Hamilton (b. 1987)
Family tree
See also
Duchess of Abercorn (disambiguation)
Duke of Hamilton
Earl of Arran (Scotland)
Hamilton baronets
Proby baronets of Elton Hall
Clan Douglas
References
External links
Baronscourt House official website
Dukedoms in the Peerage of Ireland
Noble titles created in 1868
County Tyrone
1868 establishments in Ireland
Lists of dukes in Ireland
British landowners | [
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243461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh%20tit | Marsh tit | The marsh tit (Poecile palustris) is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae and genus Poecile, closely related to the willow, Père David's and Songar tits. It is a small bird, around long and weighing , with a black crown and nape, pale cheeks, brown back and greyish-brown wings and tail. Between 8 and 11 subspecies are recognised. Its close resemblance to the willow tit can cause identification problems, especially in the United Kingdom where the local subspecies of the two are very similar: they were not recognised as separate species until 1897.
Globally, the marsh tit is classified as Least Concern, although there is evidence of a decline in numbers (in the UK, numbers have dropped by more than 50% since the 1970s, for example). It can be found throughout temperate Europe and northern Asia and, despite its name, it occurs in a range of habitats including dry woodland. The marsh tit is omnivorous; its food includes caterpillars, spiders and seeds. It nests in tree holes, choosing existing hollows to enlarge, rather than excavating its own. A clutch of 5–9 eggs is laid.
Taxonomy and systematics
The marsh tit was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Parus palustris. It is now placed in the genus Poecile that was erected by the German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup in 1829. The genus name, Poecile, is the Ancient Greek name for a now unidentifiable small bird, and is perhaps derived from poikolos, meaning "spotted"; the specific palustris is Latin for "marshy".
An analysis of mitochrondrial DNA sequences has shown that the marsh tit belongs to a group of Eurasian 'typical chickadees' that includes the willow tit, Père David's tit, the black-bibbed tit, and the Songar tit.
Ten subspecies are recognised:
P. p. dresseri (Stejneger, 1886) – central and southern England, Wales] and west France. Still present in the far south-east of Scotland but in small numbers. Slightly smaller than palustris and more brown or olive-coloured on upperparts and dirtier below. Pale brown tertial fringes can sometimes cause confusion with willow tit
P. p. palustris (Linnaeus, 1758) – north and central Europe, from south Scandinavia south to north Iberia, east to central Poland, west Balkans and Greece
P. p. italicus (Tschusi & Hellmayr, 1900) – French Alps, Italy and Sicily. As dresseri, but more rufous on upperparts and paler on underparts In Sicily, it was described the subspecies siculus (De Burg, 1925) considered synonymic with italicus by Vaurie (1959), and subsequently forgotten by most authors. However, in a typical cline pale-dark/north-south all over Europe, and along the Italian peninsula too, where darkest birds are in the Alpine area and palest (as pale as nominate subsp.) in Calabria, the Sicilian very isolated and relict population is composed by the smallest and darkest birds in Europe, therefore rather out of the clinal gradient/intergrade populations. It should deserve better and in depth study before being in synonymized (Priolo, 1969; Corso, 2005; A.Corso, pers. obs.)
P. p. stagnatilis (Brehm, CL, 1855) – east Europe east to south Urals and northwest Turkey
P. p. kabardensis (Buturlin, 1929) – Caucasus and northeast Turkey
P. p. brevirostris Taczanowski, 1872 – south central & southeast Siberia, north Mongolia, northeast China and North Korea
P. p. ernsti (Yamashina, 1933) – Sakhalin Island
P. p. hensoni (Stejneger, 1892) – south Kuril Islands and Hokkaido, Japan
P. p. jeholicus (Kleinschmidt, O & Weigold, 1922) – northeast China and North Korea
P. p. hellmayri Bianchi, 1903 – east China and South Korea
Description
The nominate race has a black cap and nape with a blue sheen visible at close quarters. The black 'bib' below the bill is rather small; the cheeks are white, turning dusky brown on the ear coverts. The upperparts, tail and wings are greyish-brown, with slightly paler fringes to the tertials. The underparts are off-white with a buff or brown tinge strongest on the flanks and undertail coverts. The bill is black and the legs dark grey. Juveniles are very similar to adults, but with a duller black cap and bib, more greyish upperparts and paler underparts; they moult into adult plumage by September.
The marsh tit weighs , has a length of (from bill to tail) and a wingspan of . The wing length ranges from . The oldest recorded marsh tit in Europe reached the age of 11 years, 11 months.
Like other tits it has a large range of call notes; most typical is the explosive "pitchou" note, given when agitated, often leading into "pitchou-bee-bee-bee", which can sound like willow tit when not heard clearly. Unlike many other tits, however, the marsh tit has a well-defined song and a wide song repertoire. Individual birds can have more than five songs, which they use interchangeably. Some of the more common songs include a typical tit-like, ringing, "schip-schip-schip-schip-ship", a more liquid "tu-tu-tu-tu-tu" and sometimes a sweet "tyeu-tyeu-tyeu-tyeu-tyeu". The old Staffordshire name for the species, 'Saw Whetter', refers to the bird's scolding call.
Marsh and willow tits are difficult to distinguish on appearance alone; the races occurring in the UK (P. p. dresseri and P. m. kleinschmidti respectively) are especially hard to separate. When caught for ringing, the pale 'cutting edge' of the marsh tit's bill is a reliable criterion; otherwise, the best way to tell apart the two species is by voice. Plumage characteristics include the lack of a pale wing panel (formed by pale edges to the secondary feathers in the willow tit), the marsh tit's glossier black cap and smaller black 'bib', although none of these is 'completely reliable'; for example, juvenile marsh tits can show a pale wing panel. The marsh tit has a noticeably smaller and shorter head than the willow tit and overall the markings are crisp and neat, with the head in proportion to the rest of the bird (willow tit gives the impression of being 'bull-necked').
A measure of the difficulty in identification is given by the fact that, in the UK, the willow tit was not identified as distinct from marsh tit until 1897. Two German ornithologists, Ernst Hartert and Otto Kleinschmidt, were studying marsh tit skins at the British Museum and found two wrongly-labelled willow tits amongst them (two willow tit specimens were then collected at Coalfall Wood in Finchley, north London, and that species was added to the British list in 1900).
Distribution and habitat
The marsh tit has a worldwide Extent of Occurrence of around 10 million square kilometres. The global population includes between 6.1 million and 12 million birds in Europe alone. The species is classified as Least Concern, though there is some evidence of a decline in numbers. For example, between the 1970s and 2007, marsh tit numbers declined in the United Kingdom by more than 50% and consequently it is on the Red List of species compiled by the UK's Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Research suggests that the cause may be low survival rates from year to year, though the nest failure rate has fallen during the decline. Other studies have shown that reduced diversity of woodland structure and plant species, partly because of the impact of deer browsing, is the cause of the bird's decline.
Data from 157 woodlands covered by the RSPB/BTO Repeat Woodland Bird Survey showed that the abundance of marsh tits in 2003–2004 corresponded with the vegetation present 2–4 metres above the ground, the shrub layer. Data from the 1980s did not show the same results, but marsh tit numbers had increased by 2003–2004 in woods with the most shrub cover. The study concluded that damage to the shrub layer, caused by overgrazing by deer, for example, may make woodland less suitable for marsh tits.
It is a widespread and common resident breeder throughout temperate Europe and northern Asia. It occurs from northern Spain north to south-eastern Scotland and east to western Russia, with a broad gap in western Asia and present again in eastern Asia from the Altai Mountains east to northern Japan and northern and western China.
This species is sedentary, making short post-breeding movements in most of its range, but in northern Europe some move southward in winter. However, marsh tits seem not to perform the occasional irruptions that other members of the tit family do. Most marsh tits stay in their breeding territories year-round; presumably this is related to their food-storing strategy. Analysis of UK ringing data showed that of 108 recoveries (when a ringed bird is found dead or caught by another ringer), 85% were less than 5 km from where the bird was originally caught, and only 1% further than 20 km. Young birds join mixed roaming flocks; adults also join the flocks when they pass through, but do not stray from their territory.
Marsh tits breed mostly in lowland areas, but can reach altitudes of up to 1,300 m. They prefer large areas of moist, broadleaved woodland, often oak or beech, though they can occupy wet alder woodland, riverside trees, parks and gardens or orchards. A study at Monks Wood, Cambridgeshire, England, found that marsh tits required mature trees with a shrub layer below the canopy, but that they avoided parts of the wood with many young trees. Another study in the United Kingdom found that during winter and while foraging, marsh tits spent more time than blue tits in the wood's understorey, and more time lower in the woodland canopy and understorey. Trees and shrubs in 10 breeding territories were also compared. The trees varied significantly between territories, but the shrub characteristics did not, suggesting that the shrubs were more important to the birds. In Wytham Woods, Oxfordshire, marsh tits were "largely absent" from parts of the wood with a dense canopy but poor shrub cover.
Behaviour and ecology
In mixed winter tit flocks, seldom more than one or two marsh tits are present, and parties of this species alone are infrequent. Its performances in the bushes and branches are just as neat and agile as those of other tits; it often hangs upside down by one leg.
Breeding
Marsh tits are monogamous and often pair for life; one pair stayed together for six years. In Europe, hybridisation with the willow tit has been recorded twice.
The nest site is in a hole, usually in a tree but sometimes in a wall or in the ground. Nestboxes may be used. Old willow tit holes may be used and enlarged further. Marsh tits do not usually excavate their own nest holes, though they may enlarge the hollow, carrying the chips to a distance before dropping them. The hole may be within a centimetres or two of the ground or high as . Inside the hole, a nest of moss is made and lined with hair and sometimes a few feathers; of moss is used in damp holes, but much less in dry ones.
Between five and nine white and red-speckled eggs are laid late in April or in May, measuring and weighing each, of which 6% is shell. The eggs are incubated by the female for 14–16 days; incubation begins before the clutch is complete, meaning that the chicks hatch over a period of around two days. She sits closely and gives a typical tit "hissing display" if disturbed. The male helps to feed and care for the young and brings nearly all the food for the first four days after hatching. The altricial, downy chicks fledge after 18–21 days. The fledglings are fed by their parents for a week and become independent after a further 1–7 days. The family stays together for between 11 and 15 days after the first flights of the juveniles. Second broods have been recorded, though they are extremely rare in Britain; most are replacement clutches.
A study of marsh tits in Białowieża Forest, Poland, looked at which factors affected birds' choice to re-occupy a nest hole used the previous year. It found that 35.5% of available holes were used again the following year, and that holes where a brood had failed were less likely to be re-used. A study in Bourton Woods, Gloucestershire, England, found that nestboxes were used by marsh tits in successive years in only 20% of cases.
Food and feeding
Mostly spiders and insects are eaten in spring and summer, but seeds – including those of the thistle – nuts and berries are taken in autumn and winter. Beechmast is the preferred food when it can be found. Marsh tits often take seeds and fruit from the plant before taking them to eat elsewhere.
Marsh tits collect and store large numbers of seeds. For a study in Norway, birds were watched for two hours 15 minutes. They ate 43 and cached 83 seeds per hour. In Sweden, storing food is most frequent between September and late February, with the peak in this behaviour occurring from September to October. Hiding places for the seeds include on and in the ground, in leaf litter, in tree stumps, and under moss and lichen in trees. The hidden seeds are prone to being stolen, by other marsh tits or other species, so birds often fly from one site to another before deciding on a hiding place. They tend to retrieve the oldest items first, and memorise their location rather than searching randomly or checking systematically. The marsh tit's hippocampus is 31% bigger than that of the great tit, despite the great tit's larger overall size and larger forebrain; the relative volume of this part of the brain is greater in birds that cache food.
References
External links
Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the marsh tit
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of East Asia
Birds of Mongolia
Poecile
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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243467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beardmore%20Glacier | Beardmore Glacier | The Beardmore Glacier in Antarctica is one of the largest valley glaciers in the world, being long and having a width of . It descends about from the Antarctic Plateau to the Ross Ice Shelf and is bordered by the Commonwealth Range of the Queen Maud Mountains on the eastern side and the Queen Alexandra Range of the Central Transantarctic Mountains on the western.
The glacier is one of the main passages through the Transantarctic Mountains to the great polar plateau beyond, and was one of the early routes to the South Pole despite its steep upward incline.
The glacier was discovered and climbed by Ernest Shackleton during his Nimrod Expedition of 1908. Although Shackleton turned back at latitude 88° 23' S, just from the South Pole, he established the first proven route towards the pole and, in doing so, became the first person to set foot upon the polar plateau. In 1911–1912, Captain Scott and his Terra Nova Expedition team reached the South Pole by similarly climbing the Beardmore. However, they reached the pole a month after Roald Amundsen and his team, who had chosen a route up the previously unknown Axel Heiberg Glacier. It was on the way back to the Nova expedition's base camp after they left the South Pole that Edgar Evans, one of the members of Scott's chosen team to go to on the final trek to the South Pole, died around the foot of Beardmore Glacier on February 17, 1912.
Beardmore Glacier was named by Shackleton after Sir William Beardmore, a Scottish industrialist and expedition sponsor born in 1856.
In 2016 the first beetle fossils, in the form of wing-cases (elytra) of Ball's Antarctic tundra beetle, 14 to 20 million years old, were found on the glacier.
See also
List of glaciers in the Antarctic
Glaciology
References
Glaciers of Shackleton Coast
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243468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dreaming%20%28song%29 | The Dreaming (song) | "The Dreaming" is the title song from Kate Bush's fourth studio album The Dreaming and was released a single on 26 July 1982. Bush had not released a single since "Sat in Your Lap" thirteen months earlier. "The Dreaming" made it to No. 48 on the UK Singles Chart.
The song is about the destruction of Aboriginal Australians' traditional lands by white Australians in their quest for weapons-grade uranium. Musical guest Rolf Harris plays the didgeridoo on the recording, and bird impersonator Percy Edwards provided sheep noises. The title is based on The Dreaming, a concept in Aboriginal mythology.
The original title for the track was "The Abo Song", which unwittingly made use of a racial slur; promotional 7-inch copies were circulated before being recalled. A 12-inch version of the single was also mooted but ultimately rejected by EMI for "not being commercially viable".
An alternative version of "The Dreaming", entitled "Dreamtime", was used as the UK single B-side. It is usually referred to as an instrumental version of "The Dreaming". This is not strictly true, in that while the track omits all the sung lead vocal lyrics, it still retains most of the backing vocals, such as the stretched dreamtime harmonies heard during the chorus. It is also of note that "Dreamtime" contains both an extended intro and outro. It starts with approximately 4 bars of double-tracked didgeridoo drone before the original arrangement comes in and finishes with approximately 30 seconds of the same following a breakdown of the original arrangement. At the very end, Harris can be heard saying "...and stuff like that".
The cover art is by Del Palmer, Bush's partner at the time and sometime bass player. It features a depiction of the Wandjina, a sky spirit in Western Australian traditions. Wandjinas brought the law, culture and language.
Personnel
Kate Bush – lead and backing vocals; piano; Fairlight CMI
Paddy Bush – bullroarer; backing vocals
Rolf Harris – didgeridoo
Stuart Elliott – drums
Percy Edwards – animal sounds
Gosfield Goers – crowd noises
Charts
See also
Songline
References
Kate Bush songs
1982 singles
Songs written by Kate Bush
1981 songs
EMI Records singles | [
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243469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20of%20Twelve | Group of Twelve | The Group of Twelve or G12 is a group of industrially advanced countries whose central banks co-operate to regulate international finance.
Note that the G-12 consists of thirteen countries. It encompasses the initial ten members of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which formed the original G10, adding Australia and Spain. In 1984, when Switzerland joined the G10 and G12, the names of the groups were not changed.
See also
EU three
Big Four (Western Europe)
Group of Six (G6)
Group of Seven (G7)
Group of Ten (G10)
G10 currencies
Special drawing rights
References
International Monetary Fund
International development
International finance institutions
Intergovernmental organizations
International economic organizations
Economic country classifications
20th-century diplomatic conferences
21st-century diplomatic conferences
Organizations established in 1962 | [
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243470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal%20tit | Coal tit | The coal tit or cole tit, (Periparus ater), is a small passerine bird in the tit family, Paridae. It is a widespread and common resident breeder in forests throughout the temperate to subtropical Palearctic, including North Africa. The black-crested tit is now usually included in this species.
Taxonomy and systematics
This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Linnaeus' primary reference was his earlier Fauna Svecica, whose cumbersome pre-binomial name Parus capite nigro: vertice albo, dorso cinereo, pectore albo ("black-headed tit with white nape, ash-grey back, white breast") became the much simpler yet no less unequivocal Parus ater. This name – meaning "dusky-black tit" – was simply adopted from older ornithological textbooks, ultimately going back to Conrad Gessner's 1555 Historia animalium. He gave no type locality except "Europe", but his original description refers to the population inhabiting Sweden (which is consequently included in the nominate subspecies today). The current genus name, is Ancient Greek peri plus the pre-existing genus Parus. The specific ater is Latin for "dull black".
Gessner also notes that the coal tit was known as Kohlmeiß in German – the literal equivalent of its English name, though in its modern orthography Kohlmeise it refers to the great tit (Parus major). That bird was in Gessner's day usually called Spiegelmeiß ("multicoloured tit"), Brandtmeiß ("burnt tit") or grosse Meiß ("great tit") in German. Kölmeyß was attested for P. major by William Turner, but Turner does not list P. ater at all, while Gessner notes that his hunters always used Kohlmeiß for the present species. However, this has since changed, and the modern German name of P. ater is Tannenmeise ("fir tit"), after a typical habitat. This name is attested (as Tannen-Maise) by Johann Leonhard Frisch in the early 18th century already, who furthermore records that P. ater was also called Kleine Kohl-Maise ("small coal tit") whereas Kohl-Maise referred unequivocally to P. major. Frisch collected his data in the Berlin region, where the German dialect was quite different from that spoken by Gessner's Alemannic sources 200 years earlier, and heavily influenced by Middle Low German – the language of the northern German sources of Turner. Regarding that, Tanne is derived from the Old Saxon danna, and thus had spread through the German dialect continuum from north to south.
In addition, the same data suggest that this species is paraphyletic in regard to the closely related and parapatric spot-winged tit (P. melanolophus) from South Asia, which looks like a slightly crested, darker version of P. ater. Consequently, the spot-winged tit might have to be included in P. ater, or some coal tits could be considered a distinct species. As occasional hybridization has been recorded between the two, mtDNA alone (which is inherited only from the mother) is insufficient to determine whether hybrid gene flow or another trivial cause (such as incomplete lineage sorting) obfuscates the actual relationships, or whether taxonomic rearrangement is indeed required. With the range of these titmice encircling the Himalayas, without further study it cannot even be excluded that they constitute a ring species – with gene flow occurring in Nepal but not in Afghanistan – as has been shown for other passerines in the same region.
Subspecies
A number of coal tit subspecies are distinguished. The differences in colouration are quite pronounced in some of them, while their differences in size are more subtle. Coal tits from Asia follow Bergmann's rule, being larger in colder regions; those from further west, however, do not, as the birds from the uplands around the Mediterranean are larger than those from northern Europe. Across its range, tail length in relation to body length increases along a cline running from southwest to northeast.
The British race P. a. britannicus has an olive hue to its brownish-grey back plumage, distinguishing it from the continental European nominate subspecies P. a. ater and P. a. abietum in which the back is bluish grey without a hint of green or brown. The Irish race P. a. hibernicus is distinguished from britannicus by the pale sulphur-yellow cheeks, breast and belly. It also has a paler rump (due to light fringes of the uppertail coverts) and a larger bill than its relatives from Britain and the Continent.
The North African race P. a. ledouci has yellow underparts and cheeks, and the Cypriot P. a. cypriotes has a buff tinge to its upper parts, and deep buff underparts. Asian subspecies are generally rather dusky brownish except for the black-and-white head; they include among others P. a. michalowskii of the Caucasus, P. a. phaeonotus of Iran, or the Himalayan coal tit P. a. aemodius of southwestern China.
Description
The coal tit is 10–11.5 cm in length, and has a distinctive large white nape spot on its black head. The head, throat and neck of the adult are glossy blue-black, setting off the off-white sides of the face (tinged grey to yellow depending on subspecies) and the brilliant white nape; the white tips of the wing coverts appear as two wingbars. The underparts are whitish shading through buff to rufous on the flanks. The bill is black, the legs lead-coloured, and irides dark brown.
The young birds are duller than the adults, lacking gloss on the black head, and with the white of nape and cheeks tinged with yellow.
While searching for food, coal tit flocks keep contact with incessant short dee or see-see calls. The species' song – if "song" it can be called – is a strident if-he, if-he, if-he, heard most frequently from January to June, but also in autumn. The song resembles that of the great tit, but much faster and higher in pitch. One variant of this song ends with a sharp ichi. North African birds also have a call similar to that of the European crested tit (Lophophanes cristatus) which is not found in Africa.
Behaviour and ecology
It is typically a bird of temperate humid conifer forest, but apart from that shows little habitat specificity. In Bhutan for example coal tits are fairly common residents above the subtropical zone, at about 3,000–3,800 m ASL, and are found in forests dominated by Bhutan fir (Abies densa) as well as in those characterized by Himalayan hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) and rhododendrons.
The coal tit is an all-year resident throughout almost all range, making only local movements in response to particularly severe weather; only the Siberian birds have a more regular migration. Very rarely, vagrants may cross longer distances; for example the nominate subspecies of continental Europe was recorded in Ireland once in 1960 and once before that, but apparently not since then.
Coal tits will form small flocks in winter with other tits. This species resembles other tits in acrobatic skill and restless activity, though it more frequently pitches on a trunk, and in little hops resembles a treecreeper (Certhia). Its food is similar to that of the others; it is keen on beechmast, picks out the seeds from fir (Abies) and larch (Larix) cones, and joins Carduelis redpolls and siskins in alders (Alnus) and birches (Betula). It will also visit gardens to feed on a variety of foods put out, particularly sunflower seeds.
Coal tits in the laboratory prefer to forage at a variable feeding site when they are in a negative energy budget. They increase evening body mass in response to tawny owl calls.
After dawn the coal tits increases body mass as soon as possible if food is obtained at a low rate, increasing body mass exponentially until an inflection point when the increase of body mass is slower. The inflection point of the body mass trajectory is 16.7% delayed compared to a high food availability. Subordinate coal tits are excluded from feeding sites by dominants more often in the early morning than in the rest of the day, and they showed more variability in daily mass gain and body mass at dawn than dominant coal tits. In winter, the red blood cells of coal tits has been shown to contain more mitochondria, which consume oxygen and produce heat.
Being common and widespread, the coal tit is not considered a threatened species by the IUCN.
The coal tit has the dubious distinction of having the largest number of bird fleas (Ceratophyllus gallinae) reported from a single nest, 5,754 fleas.
Breeding
A favourite nesting site is a hole in a rotting tree-stump, often low down, and the nest is deep within the hole; holes in the ground, burrows of mice or rabbits, chinks between the stones in walls, old nests of Pica magpies or other large birds, and squirrel dreys are also occupied. The materials, moss, hair and grass, are closely felted together, and rabbit fur or feathers added for lining. Seven to eleven red-spotted white eggs are laid, usually in May; this species breeds usually once per year.
See also
Common treecreeper and Hodgson's treecreeper
Greenish warbler
Footnotes
References
Bangs, Outram (1932): Birds of western China obtained by the Kelley-Roosevelts expedition. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Zool. Ser. 18 (11): 343–379. Fulltext at the Internet Archive
BirdsIreland.com (BI) [2009]: Irish subspecies – Coal Tit. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
Frisch, Johann Leonhard (1720): Der II.ten Hauptart I.te Abtheilung von den Maisen – I.te Platte ["First division of the second primary species, the titmice – Plate 1"]. In: Vorstellung der Vögel in Teutschland, und beyläuffig auch einiger fremden, mit ihren natürlichen Farben, etc. (vol. 2): plate 13 [German with Latin and French captions]. F.H.Frisch, Berlin ("Berolinum"). Digitized version
Gessner, Conrad (1555): Historiae animalium (vol. 3) [Latin book]. Christoph Froschauer, Zürich ("Tigurium"). Digitized version
Gill, Frank B.; Slikas, Beth & Sheldon, Frederick H. (2005): Phylogeny of titmice (Paridae): II. Species relationships based on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene. Auk 122: 121–143. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0121:POTPIS]2.0.CO;2 HTML abstract
Inskipp, Carol; Inskipp, Tim & Sherub (2000): The ornithological importance of Thrumshingla National Park, Bhutan. Forktail 14: 147–162. PDF fulltext
Linnaeus, Carl (1746): 241. Parus capite nigro: vertice albo, dorso cinereo, pectore albo. In: Fauna Svecica Sistens Animalia Sveciæ Regni, etc. (1st ed.): 89 [Latin book]. Conrad & Georg Jacob Wishoff, Leiden ("Lugdunum Batavorum"). Digitized version
Linnaeus, Carl (1758): 100.5. Parus ater. In: Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (10th ed., vol. 1): 190 [Latin book]. Lars Salvius, Stockholm ("Holmius"). Digitized version
Snow, D.W. (1954): Trends in geographical variation in Palearctic members of the genus Parus. Evolution 8 (1): 19–28. First page image
Turner, William (1544a): De paris ["Of the titmice"]. In: Avium praecipuarum, quarum apud Plinium et Aristotelem mentio est, brevis et succincta historia, etc.: 94–95 [Latin book]. Johann Gymnich, Cologne ("Colonia"). Digitized version
Turner, William (1544b): [List of German bird names]. In: van Langerack, Gijsbert: Dialogus de avibus, et earum nominibus Graecis, Latinis, et Germanicis, etc.: 95–97 [Latin book]. Johann Gymnich, Cologne ("Colonia"). Digitized version
External links
BBC Radio: Coal tit song. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
RSPB: Coal tit. Includes song and video. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 2.8 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of coal tit (Parus ater)
Avibase. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
Articles containing video clips
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
tit, coal
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243471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrod | Nimrod | Nimrod (; ; ; ) is a biblical figure mentioned in the Book of Genesis and Books of Chronicles. The son of Cush and therefore a great-grandson of Noah, Nimrod was described as a king in the land of Shinar (Mesopotamia). The Bible states that he was "a mighty hunter before the Lord [and] ... began to be mighty in the earth". Later extra-biblical traditions identified Nimrod as the ruler who commissioned the construction of the Tower of Babel, which led to his reputation as a king who was rebellious against God.
Nimrod has not been attested in any historic, non-biblical registers, records or king lists, including those of Mesopotamia itself. Historians have failed to match Nimrod with any historically attested figure.
Several ruins of the Middle East have been named after him.
Biblical account
The first biblical mention of Nimrod is in the Table of Nations. He is described as the son of Cush, grandson of Ham, and great-grandson of Noah; and as "a mighty one in the earth" and "a mighty hunter before the Lord". This is repeated in the First Book of Chronicles 1:10, and the "Land of Nimrod" used as a synonym for Assyria or Mesopotamia, is mentioned in the Book of Micah 5:6:
Genesis says that the "beginning of his kingdom" (reshit mamlakhto) were the towns of "Babel, Erech, Akkad and Calneh in the land of Shinar" (Mesopotamia) (Gen 10:10)—understood variously to imply that he either founded these cities, ruled over them, or both. Owing to an ambiguity in the original Hebrew text, it is unclear whether it is he or Ashur who additionally built Nineveh, Resen, Rehoboth-Ir and Calah (both interpretations are reflected in various English versions). Sir Walter Raleigh devoted several pages in his History of the World (1614) to reciting past scholarship regarding the question of whether it had been Nimrod or Ashur who built the cities in Assyria.
Traditions and legends
In Hebrew and Christian tradition, Nimrod is considered the leader of those who built the Tower of Babel in the land of Shinar, although the Bible never actually states this. Nimrod's kingdom included the cities of Babel, Erech, Akkad, and perhaps Calneh, in Shinar (Gen 10:10). Flavius Josephus believed that it was likely under his direction that the building of Babel and its tower began; in addition to Josephus, this is also the view found in the Talmud (Chullin 89a, Pesahim 94b, Erubin 53a, Avodah Zarah 53b), and later midrash such as Genesis Rabba. Several of these early Judaic sources also assert that the king Amraphel, who wars with Abraham later in Genesis, is none other than Nimrod himself.
Josephus wrote:
Since Akkad was destroyed and lost with the destruction of its Empire in the period 2200–2154 BCE (long chronology), the stories mentioning Nimrod seem to recall the late Early Bronze Age. The association with Erech (Babylonian Uruk), a city that lost its prime importance around 2,000 BCE as a result of struggles between Isin, Larsa and Elam, also attests the early provenance of the stories of Nimrod. According to some modern-day theorists, their placement in the Bible suggests a Babylonian origin—possibly inserted during the Babylonian captivity.
Judaic interpreters as early as Philo and Yochanan ben Zakai (1st century AD) interpreted "a mighty hunter before the Lord" (Heb.: גבר ציד לפני יהוה, ḡibbōr-ṣayiḏ lip̄nê Yahweh, lit. "in the face of Yahweh") as signifying "in opposition to the Lord"; a similar interpretation is found in Pseudo-Philo, as well as later in Symmachus. Some rabbinic commentators have also connected the name Nimrod with a Hebrew word meaning 'rebel'. In Pseudo-Philo (dated c. AD 70), Nimrod is made leader of the Hamites, while Joktan as leader of the Semites, and Fenech as leader of the Japhethites, are also associated with the building of the Tower. Versions of this story are again picked up in later works such as Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius (7th century AD).
The Book of Jubilees mentions the name of "Nebrod" (the Greek form of Nimrod) only as being the father of Azurad, the wife of Eber and mother of Peleg (8:7). This account would thus make Nimrod an ancestor of Abraham, and hence of all Hebrews.
The Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b) attributes Titus's death to an insect that flew into his nose and picked at his brain for seven years in a repetition of another legend referring to the biblical King Nimrod.
An early Arabic work known as Kitab al-Magall or the Book of Rolls (part of Clementine literature) states that Nimrod built the towns of Hadāniūn, Ellasar, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Rūhīn, Atrapatene, Telalān, and others, that he began his reign as king over earth when Reu was 163, and that he reigned for 69 years, building Nisibis, Raha (Edessa) and Harran when Peleg was 50. It further adds that Nimrod "saw in the sky a piece of black cloth and a crown". He called upon Sasan the weaver and commanded him to make him a crown like it, which he set jewels on and wore. He was allegedly the first king to wear a crown. "For this reason people who knew nothing about it, said that a crown came down to him from heaven." Later, the book describes how Nimrod established fire worship and idolatry, then received instruction in divination for three years from Bouniter, the fourth son of Noah.
In the Recognitions (R 4.29), one version of the Clementines, Nimrod is equated with the legendary Assyrian king Ninus, who first appears in the Greek historian Ctesias as the founder of Nineveh. However, in another version, the Homilies (H 9:4–6), Nimrod is made to be the same as Zoroaster.
The Syriac Cave of Treasures (c. 350) contains an account of Nimrod very similar to that in the Kitab al-Magall, except that Nisibis, Edessa and Harran are said to be built by Nimrod when Reu was 50, and that he began his reign as the first king when Reu was 130. In this version, the weaver is called Sisan, and the fourth son of Noah is called Yonton.
Jerome, writing c. 390, explains in Hebrew Questions on Genesis that after Nimrod reigned in Babel, "he also reigned in Arach [Erech], that is, in Edissa; and in Achad [Accad], which is now called Nisibis; and in Chalanne [Calneh], which was later called Seleucia after King Seleucus when its name had been changed, and which is now in actual fact called Ctesiphon." However, this traditional identification of the cities built by Nimrod in Genesis is no longer accepted by modern scholars, who consider them to be located in Sumer, not Syria.
The Ge'ez Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan (c. 5th century) also contains a version similar to that in the Cave of Treasures, but the crown maker is called Santal, and the name of Noah's fourth son who instructs Nimrod is Barvin.
However, Ephrem the Syrian (306–373) relates a contradictory view, that Nimrod was righteous and opposed the builders of the Tower. Similarly, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (date uncertain) mentions a Jewish tradition that Nimrod left Shinar in southern Mesopotamia and fled to Assyria in northern Mesopotamia, because he refused to take part in building the Tower—for which God rewarded him with the four cities in Assyria, to substitute for the ones in Babel.
Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer (c. 833) relates the Jewish traditions that Nimrod inherited the garments of Adam and Eve from his father Cush, and that these made him invincible. Nimrod's party then defeated the Japhethites to assume universal rulership. Later, Esau (grandson of Abraham), ambushed, beheaded, and robbed Nimrod. These stories later reappear in other sources including the 16th century Sefer haYashar, which adds that Nimrod had a son named Mardon who was even more wicked.
In the History of the Prophets and Kings by the 9th century Muslim historian al-Tabari, Nimrod has the tower built in Babil, Allah destroys it, and the language of mankind, formerly Syriac, is then confused into 72 languages. Another Muslim historian of the 13th century, Abu al-Fida, relates the same story, adding that the patriarch Eber (an ancestor of Abraham) was allowed to keep the original tongue, Hebrew in this case, because he would not partake in the building. The 10th-century Muslim historian Masudi recounts a legend making the Nimrod who built the tower to be the son of Mash, the son of Aram, son of Shem, adding that he reigned 500 years over the Nabateans. Later, Masudi lists Nimrod as the first king of Babylon, and states that he dug great canals and reigned 60 years. Still elsewhere, he mentions another king Nimrod, son of Canaan, as the one who introduced astrology and attempted to kill Abraham.
In Armenian legend, the ancestor of the Armenian people, Hayk, defeated Nimrod (sometimes equated with Bel) in a battle near Lake Van.
In the Hungarian legend of the Enchanted Stag (more commonly known as the White Stag [Fehér Szarvas] or Silver Stag), King Nimród (Ménrót), often described as "Nimród the Giant" or "the giant Nimród", descendant of Noah, is the first person referred to as forefather of the Hungarians. He, along with his entire nation, is also the giant responsible for the building of the Tower of Babel—construction of which was supposedly started by him 201 years after the biblical event of the Great Flood. After the catastrophic failure (through God's will) of that most ambitious endeavour and in the midst of the confusion of tongues, Nimród the giant moved to the land of Evilát, where his wife, Enéh gave birth to twin brothers Hunor and Magyar (aka Magor). Father and sons were, all three of them, prodigious hunters, but Nimród especially is the archetypal, consummate, legendary hunter and archer. Hungarian legends held that twin sons of King Nimród, Hunor and Magor were the ancestors of the Huns and the Magyars (Hungarians) respectively, siring their children through the two daughters of King Dul of the Alans, whom they kidnapped after losing track of the silver stag whilst hunting. Both the Huns' and Magyars' historically attested skill with the recurve bow and arrow are attributed to Nimród. (Simon Kézai, personal "court priest" of King Ladislaus the Cuman, in his Gesta Hungarorum, 1282–1285. This tradition can also be found in over twenty other medieval Hungarian chronicles, as well as a German one, according to Dr Antal Endrey in an article published in 1979). The 16th-century Hungarian prelate Nicolaus Olahus claimed that Attila took for himself the title of Descendant of the Great Nimrod.
The demon Nyyrikki, figuring in the Finnish Kalevala as a helper of Lemminkäinen, is associated with Nimrod by some researchers and linguists.
The Nimrod Fortress (Qal'at Namrud in Arabic) on the Golan Heights - actually built during the Crusades by Al-Aziz Uthman, the younger son of Saladin - was anachronistically attributed to Nimrod by later inhabitants of the area.
There is a very brief mention of Nimrod in the Book of Mormon: "(and the name of the valley was Nimrod, being called after the mighty hunter)".
Nimrod vs. Abraham
In Jewish and Islamic traditions, a confrontation between Nimrod and Abraham is said to have taken place. Some stories bring them both together in a cataclysmic collision, seen as a symbol of the confrontation between Good and Evil, or as a symbol of monotheism against polytheism. Some Jewish traditions say only that the two men met and had a discussion.According to K. van der Toorn and P. W. van der Horst, this tradition is first attested in the writings of Pseudo-Philo. The story is also found in the Talmud, and in rabbinical writings in the Middle Ages.
In some versions, such as Flavius Josephus, Nimrod is a man who sets his will against that of God. In others, he proclaims himself a god and is worshipped as such by his subjects, sometimes with his consort Semiramis worshipped as a goddess at his side.
A portent in the stars tells Nimrod and his astrologers of the impending birth of Abraham, who would put an end to idolatry. Nimrod therefore orders the killing of all newborn babies. However, Abraham's mother escapes into the fields and gives birth secretly. At a young age, Abraham recognizes God and starts worshipping him. He confronts Nimrod and tells him face-to-face to cease his idolatry, whereupon Nimrod orders him burned at the stake. In some versions, Nimrod has his subjects gather wood for four whole years, so as to burn Abraham in the biggest bonfire the world had ever seen. Yet when the fire is lit, Abraham walks out unscathed.
In some versions, Nimrod then challenges Abraham to battle. When Nimrod appears at the head of enormous armies, Abraham produces an army of gnats which destroys Nimrod's army. Some accounts have a gnat or mosquito enter Nimrod's brain and drive him out of his mind (a divine retribution which Jewish tradition also assigned to the Roman Emperor Titus, destroyer of the Temple in Jerusalem).
In some versions, Nimrod repents and accepts God, offering numerous sacrifices that God rejects (as with Cain). Other versions have Nimrod give to Abraham, as a conciliatory gift, the giant slave Eliezer, whom some accounts describe as Nimrod's own son (the Bible also mentions Eliezer as Abraham's majordomo, though not making any connection between him and Nimrod).
Still other versions have Nimrod persisting in his rebellion against God, or resuming it. Indeed, Abraham's crucial act of leaving Mesopotamia and settling in Canaan is sometimes interpreted as an escape from Nimrod's revenge. Accounts considered canonical place the building of the Tower many generations before Abraham's birth (as in the Bible, also Jubilees); however in others, it is a later rebellion after Nimrod failed in his confrontation with Abraham. In still other versions, Nimrod does not give up after the Tower fails, but goes on to try storming Heaven in person, in a chariot driven by birds.
The story attributes to Abraham elements from the story of Moses' birth (the cruel king killing innocent babies, with the midwives ordered to kill them) and from the careers of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego who emerged unscathed from the fire. Nimrod is thus given attributes of two archetypal cruel and persecuting kings – Nebuchadnezzar and Pharaoh. Some Jewish traditions also identified him with Cyrus, whose birth according to Herodotus was accompanied by portents, which made his grandfather try to kill him.
A confrontation is also found in the Quran, between a king, not mentioned by name, and Ibrahim (Arabic for "Abraham"). Some Muslim commentators assign Nimrod as the king. In the quranic narrative Ibrahim has a discussion with the king, the former argues that Allah (God) is the one who gives life and causes death, whereas the unnamed king replies that he gives life and causes death. Ibrahim refutes him by stating that Allah brings the Sun up from the East, and so he asks the king to bring it from the West. The king is then perplexed and angered. The commentaries on this Surah offer a wide variety of embellishments of this narrative, one of which by Ibn Kathir, a 14th-century scholar, adding that Nimrod showed his rule over life and death by killing a prisoner and freeing another.
Whether or not conceived as having ultimately repented, Nimrod remained in Jewish and Islamic tradition an emblematic evil person, an archetype of an idolater and a tyrannical king. In rabbinical writings up to the present, he is almost invariably referred to as "Nimrod the Evil" ().
Nimrod is mentioned by name in several places in the Baháʼí scriptures, including the Kitáb-i-Íqán, the primary theological work of the Baháʼí Faith. There it is said that Nimrod "dreamed a dream" which his soothsayers interpreted as signifying the birth of a new star in heaven. A herald is then said to have appeared in the land announcing "the coming of Abraham". Nimrod is also mentioned in one of the earliest writings of the Báb (the herald of the Baháʼí Faith). Citing examples of God's power, he asks: "Has He not, in past days, caused Abraham, in spite of His seeming helplessness, to triumph over the forces of Nimrod?"
The story of Abraham's confrontation with Nimrod did not remain within the confines of learned writings and religious treatises, but also conspicuously influenced popular culture. A notable example is "Quando el Rey Nimrod" ("When King Nimrod"), one of the most well-known folksongs in Ladino (the Judeo-Spanish language), apparently written during the reign of King Alfonso X of Castile. Beginning with the words: "When King Nimrod went out to the fields/ Looked at the heavens and at the stars/He saw a holy light in the Jewish quarter/A sign that Abraham, our father, was about to be born", the song gives a poetic account of the persecutions perpetrated by the cruel Nimrod and the miraculous birth and deeds of the savior Abraham.
Islamic narrative
The Quran states, "Have you not considered him who had an argument with Abraham about his Lord, because God had given him the kingdom (i.e. he was prideful)?" Abraham says, "My Lord is He Who gives life and causes death." The king answers, "I give life and cause death". At this point some commentaries add new narratives like Nimrod bringing forth two men, who were sentenced to death previously. He orders the execution of one while freeing the other one. Then Abraham says, "Indeed, God brings up the sun from the east, so bring it up from the west." This causes the king to exile him, and he leaves for the Levant.
Although Nimrod's name is not specifically stated in the Quran, Islamic scholars hold that the "king" mentioned was him. Two other sections of the Quran narrate Abraham's dialogues with Nimrod and his people, specifically around the verses of Sura al-Anbiya 21:68 and Sura al-Ankabut 29:34, where Abraham was thrown in the fire but emerged unharmed through Allah's mercy. Other traditional stories also exist around Nimrod, which have resulted in him being referenced as a tyrant in Muslim cultures.
According to Mujahid ibn Jabr, "Four people gained control over the Earth, east and west, two believers and two disbelievers. The two believers were Solomon (Sulayman in Islamic texts) and Dhul Qarnayn, and the two disbelievers were Nebuchadnezzar and Nimrod. No one but they gained power over it."
Midrash Rabba version
The following version of the confrontation between Abraham and Nimrod appears in the Midrash Rabba, a major compilation of Jewish Scriptural exegesis. The part in which this appears, the Genesis Rabbah (Chapter 38, 13), is considered to date from the sixth century.
Historical interpretations
Historians, Orientalists, Assyriologists and mythographers have long tried to find links between the Nimrod of biblical texts and real historically attested figures in Mesopotamia. No king named Nimrod or with a similar name appears anywhere on any pre-biblical, extra-biblical or historic Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian or Babylonian king list, nor does the name Nimrod appear in any other writings from Mesopotamia itself in any context whatsoever.
Since the city of Akkad was destroyed and lost with the destruction of its Empire in the period 2200–2154 BC (long chronology), the much later biblical stories mentioning Nimrod seem to recall the late Early Bronze Age. The association with Erech (Sumero-Akkadian Uruk), a city that lost its prime importance around 2000 BC as a result of struggles between Isin, Ur, Larsa and Elam, also attests the early provenance of the stories of Nimrod. Several Mesopotamian ruins were given Nimrod's name by 8th-century AD Muslim Arabs, including the ruins of the Assyrian city of Kalhu (the biblical Calah), which was in reality built by Shalmaneser I (1274–1244 BC)
A number of attempts to connect him with historical figures have been made without any success.
The Christian Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea as early as the early 4th century, noting that the Babylonian historian Berossus in the 3rd century BC had stated that the first king after the flood was Euechoios of Chaldea (in reality Chaldea was a small state historically not founded until the 9th century BC), identified him with Nimrod. George Syncellus (c. 800) also had access to Berossus, and he too identified the also historically unattested Euechoios with the biblical Nimrod.
More recently, Sumerologists have suggested additionally connecting both this Euechoios, and the king of Babylon and grandfather of Gilgamos who appears in the oldest copies of Aelian (c. 200 AD) as Euechoros, with the name of the founder of Uruk known from cuneiform sources as Enmerkar.
In 1920, J. D. Prince also suggested a possible link between the Lord (Ni) of Marad and Nimrod. He mentioned how Dr. Kraeling was now inclined to connect Nimrod historically with Lugal-Banda, a mythological Sumerian king mentioned in Poebel, Historical Texts, 1914, whose seat was at the city Marad.
According to Ronald Hendel the name Nimrod is probably a much later polemical distortion of the Semitic Assyrian god Ninurta, a prominent god in Mesopotamian religion who had cult centers in a number of Assyrian cities such as Kalhu, and also in Babylon, and was a patron god of a number of Assyrian kings. Nimrod's imperial ventures described in Genesis may be based on the conquests of the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I.
Julian Jaynes also indicates Tukulti-Ninurta I (a powerful king of the Middle Assyrian Empire) as the inspiration for Nimrod.
Alexander Hislop, in his tract The Two Babylons (1853), identified Nimrod with Ninus (also unattested anywhere in Mesopotamian king lists), who according to Greek mythology was a Mesopotamian king and husband of Queen Semiramis, with a whole host of deities throughout the Mediterranean world, and with the Persian Zoroaster. The identification with Ninus follows that of the Clementine Recognitions; the one with Zoroaster, that of the Clementine Homilies, both works part of Clementine literature. Hislop attributed to Semiramis and Nimrod the invention of polytheism and, with it, goddess worship, and that their incestuous male offering was Tammuz. He also claimed that the Catholic Church was a millennia-old secret conspiracy, founded by Semiramis and Nimrod to propagate the pagan religion of ancient Babylon. Grabbe and others have rejected the book's arguments as based on a flawed understanding of the texts, but variations of them are accepted among some groups of evangelical Protestants.
There was a historical Assyrian queen Shammuramat in the 9th century BC, in reality the wife of Shamshi-Adad V, whom Assyriologists have identified with Semiramis, while others make her a later namesake of a much earlier (again, historically unattested) Semiramis.
In David Rohl's theory, Enmerkar, the Sumerian founder of Uruk, was the original inspiration for Nimrod, because the story of Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta bears a few similarities to the legend of Nimrod and the Tower of Babel, and because the -KAR in Enmerkar means "hunter". Additionally, Enmerkar is said to have had ziggurats built in both Uruk and Eridu, which Rohl postulates was the site of the original Babel.
Others have attempted to conflate Nimrod with Amraphel, a supposed king in Mesopotamia, but yet again, one who is himself historically unattested.
George Rawlinson believed Nimrod was Belus, based on the fact Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions bear the names Bel-. The word Nibru in the East Semitic Akkadian language of Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia comes from a root meaning to 'pursue' or to make 'one flee', and as Rawlinson pointed out not only does this closely resemble Nimrod's name but it also perfectly fits the description of Nimrod in Genesis 10:9 as a great hunter. The Belus-Nimrod equation or link is also found in many old works such as Moses of Chorene and the Book of the Bee. Nibru, in the Sumerian language, was the original name of the city of Nippur.
Joseph Poplicha wrote in 1929 about the identification of Nimrod in the first dynasty or Uruk.
More recently, Yigal Levin (2002) suggests that the fictional Nimrod was a recollection of Sargon of Akkad and also of his grandson Naram-Sin, with the name "Nimrod" derived from the latter. He argues that:
In popular culture
Literature
In the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri (written 1308–1321), Nimrod is portrayed as a giant (which was common in the Medieval period). With the giants Ephialtes, Antaeus, Briareus, Tityos, and Typhon, he stands in chains on the outer edge of Hell's Circle of Treachery. His only line is "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi", words whose unintelligibility emphasizes his guilt for the confusion of languages after the tower of Babel.
In The End of Satan by Victor Hugo (written 1854–1855), Nemrod is the sword symbol of war, attempting to reach the skies after having destroyed the earth. This unfinished text tries to compare biblical text and historical events, making out of the taking of the Bastille a nearly religious theme.
In the Kate Daniels series by Ilona Andrews (written 2007–present), the protagonist, Kate Daniels, is the last daughter of an immortal who was originally known as Nimrod, builder of towers.
In the Monster Hunter International series by Larry Correia, it is revealed in Monster Hunter Siege (written 2017) that Nimrod had been the last human champion to defeat Asog.
In the film The Bible: In the Beginning... (1966), Nimrod is portrayed by actor Stephen Boyd.
Comics
In Marvel's X-Men comics, Nimrod is the name of an artificial intelligence created by humanity to hunt and exterminate mutants.
Video games
In the game Shadow of the Colossus, the powerful being moving the plot forward is called Dormin. It is speculated that its name is intentionally spelled backwards. The entity's being trapped in several false idols is potentially a reference to the legend of Nimrod being dismembered and scattered across the farthest reaches of the globe.
In the game Agony, Nimrod is the playable character, trapped in hell and trying to escape.
Music
In Edward Elgar's Enigma Variations, the ninth movement is nicknamed "Nimrod" as a reference both to the biblical hunter figure, as well as to Elgar's friend August Jaeger, whose last name translates to "hunter" from the original German.
The American band Pixies have a song "Nimrod's Son" on their 1987 mini-LP, Come On Pilgrim.
In 1997, the American band Green Day released an album with the name Nimrod.
The Saudi Arabian black metal band Al-Namrood is named after Nimrod.
Idiom
In modern North American English, the term is often used sarcastically to mean a dimwitted or a stupid person, a usage first recorded in 1932 and popularized by the Looney Tunes cartoon characters Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck, who both sarcastically refer to the hunter Elmer Fudd as "nimrod", as an ironic connection between "mighty hunter" and "poor little Nimrod", i.e. Fudd.
The nickname 'Nimrod' was used mockingly in 1914 by Robert Tressell in 'The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists'. The sarcastic moniker was used towards the foreman (named Hunter), of a gang of workmen; a play on his surname and as an ironic reference to his so-called religious beliefs and sense of self-importance.
See also
was named after Nimrod, later shortened to Nim
Hawker Siddeley Nimrod
References
Citations
Sources
External links
"Nimrod" entry in the Jewish Encyclopedia
Against World Powers: A Study of the Judeo-Christian Struggle in History and Prophecy—Modern Christian writings which follow David Rohl's view on the legends of Nimrod. Another page from this site summarizes Rohl's theory of Nimrod and Enmerkar
Book of Genesis people
Books of Chronicles people
Ham (son of Noah)
Hunters
Islam and Judaism
Islamic mythology
Jewish mythology
Noach (parashah)
Torah monarchs
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243478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20Ice%20Shelf | Ross Ice Shelf | The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica ( an area of roughly and about across: about the size of France). It is several hundred metres thick. The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than long, and between high above the water surface. Ninety percent of the floating ice, however, is below the water surface.
Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand. It floats in, and covers, a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the east of the Ross Sea.
The ice shelf is named after Sir James Clark Ross, who discovered it on 28 January 1841. It was originally called "The Barrier", with various adjectives including "Great Ice Barrier", as it prevented sailing further south. Ross mapped the ice front eastward to 160° W. In 1947, the U.S. Board on Geographic Names applied the name "Ross Shelf Ice" to this feature and published it in the original U.S. Antarctic Gazetteer. In January 1953, the name was changed to "Ross Ice Shelf"; that name was published in 1956.
Exploration
On 5 January 1841, the British Admiralty's Ross expedition in the Erebus and the Terror, three-masted ships with specially strengthened wooden hulls, was going through the pack ice of the Pacific near Antarctica in an attempt to determine the position of the South Magnetic Pole. Four days later, they found their way into open water and were hoping that they would have a clear passage to their destination. But on 11 January, the men were faced with an enormous mass of ice.
Sir James Clark Ross, the expedition's commander, remarked: "Well, there's no more chance of sailing through that than through the cliffs of Dover". Ross, who in 1831 had located the North Magnetic Pole, spent the next two years vainly searching for a sea passage to the South Pole; later, his name was given to the ice shelf and the sea surrounding it. Two volcanoes in the region were named by Ross for his vessels.
For later Antarctic explorers seeking to reach the South Pole, the Ross Ice Shelf became a starting area. In a first exploration of the area by the Discovery Expedition in 1901–1904, Robert Falcon Scott made a significant study of the shelf and its surroundings from his expedition's base on Ross Island. By measurement of calved ice bergs and their buoyancy, he estimated the ice sheet to be on average 274 meters thick; the undisturbed morphology of the ice sheet and its inverted temperature profile led him to conclude it was floating on water; and measurements in 1902–1903 showed it had advanced 555 meters northwards in 13.5 months. The findings were presented at a lecture entitled "Universitas Antarctica!" given 7 June 1911 and were published in the account of Scott's second expedition (the Terra Nova Expedition of 1910–1913).
Ernest Shackleton's southern party (Shackleton, Adams, Marshal, Wild) of the 1908 Nimrod expedition were the first humans to cross the Ice Shelf during its failed attempt to reach the South Pole. Both Roald Amundsen and Scott crossed the shelf to reach the Pole in 1911. Amundsen wrote: "Along its outer edge the Barrier shows an even, flat surface; but here, inside the bay, the conditions were entirely different. Even from the deck of the Fram we were able to observe great disturbances of the surface in every direction; huge ridges with hollows between them extended on all sides. The greatest elevation lay to the south in the form of a lofty, arched ridge, which we took to be about high on the horizon. But it might be assumed that this ridge continued to rise beyond the range of vision".
The next day, the party made its first steps on the Barrier. "After half an hour’s march we were already at the first important point—the connection between the sea-ice and the Barrier. This connection had always haunted our brains. What would it be like? A high, perpendicular face of ice, up which we should have to haul our things laboriously with the help of tackles? Or a great and dangerous fissure, which we should not be able to cross without going a long way round? We naturally expected something of the sort. This mighty and terrible monster would, of course, offer resistance in some form or other," he wrote.
"The mystic Barrier! All accounts without exception, from the days of Ross to the present time, had spoken of this remarkable natural formation with apprehensive awe. It was as though one could always read between the lines the same sentence: 'Hush, be quiet! the mystic Barrier!'
"One, two, three, and a little jump, and the Barrier was surmounted!"
Composition and movement
Ice shelves are thick plates of ice, formed continuously by glaciers, that float atop an ocean. The shelves acts as "brakes" for the glaciers. These shelves serve another important purpose—"they moderate the amount of melting that occurs on the glaciers' surfaces. Once their ice shelves are removed, the glaciers increase in speed due to meltwater percolation and/or a reduction of braking forces, and they may begin to dump more ice into the ocean than they gather as snow in their catchments. Glacier ice speed increases are already observed in Peninsula areas where ice shelves disintegrated in prior years."
The Ross Ice Shelf is one of many such shelves. It reaches into Antarctica from the north, and covers an area of about , nearly the size of France. The ice mass is about wide and long. In some places, namely its southern areas, the ice shelf can be almost 750 m (2,450 ft) thick. The Ross Ice Shelf pushes out into the sea at between a day. Other glaciers gradually add bulk to it. At the same time, the freezing of seawater below the ice mass increases the thickness of the ice from . Sometimes, fissures and cracks may cause part of the shelf to break off; the largest known is about , that is, slightly larger than Belgium. Iceberg B-15, the world's largest recorded iceberg, was calved from the Ross Ice Shelf during March 2000.
Scientists have long been intrigued by the shelf and its composition. Many scientific teams researching the Antarctic have made camps on or adjacent to the Ross Ice Shelf. This includes McMurdo Station. One major effort was a series of studies conducted in 1957 and 1958, which were continued during the 1960–61 season. The efforts involved an international team of scientists. Some parties explored the glaciers and others the valleys on the ice shelf.
From 1967 to 1972 the Scott Polar Research Institute reported extensive observations using radio echo sounding. The technique allowed measurements to be taken from the air; allowing a criss cross track of 35,000 km to be covered; compared with a 3,000 km track from previous seismic sounding on the ground. More detailed surveys were executed between 1973 and 1978.
A significant scientific endeavor called the Ross Ice Shelf Project was launched with a plan of drilling into the shelf to sample the biomass in the area and make other determinations about the shelf and its relationship to the sea floor. This is believed to be the first oceanographic ice shelf borehole. The project included surface glaciological observations as well as drilling, and the glaciological portion started during the planning phase of the drilling. The drilling portion of the project was to have begun during 1974, but the actual drilling was delayed until 1976. Finally, in 1977, the scientists were able to drill successfully through the ice, making a hole that could be sampled every few days for three weeks. The team was able to map the sea floor, study the tides, and assess the fish and various other forms of life in the waters. The team also examined the oceanographic and geological conditions as well as the temperature of the ice. They estimated that the base of the shelf was −2.16° Celsius (27.3 °F). They also made other calculations about the fluctuations of the temperatures.
The results of these various projects were published in a series of reports in the 2 February 1979 issue of Science.
During the 1980s, a network of weather stations was installed to record temperatures on the shelf and throughout the more remote parts of the continent.
University of Colorado's National Snow and Ice Data Center has been studying ice shelves and, in 2002, announced that, based on several breakups of ice shelves, including Larsen B, has begun to reassess their stability. Their scientists stated that the temperature of the warmest portion of the shelf is "only a few degrees too cool in summer presently to undergo the same kind of retreat process. The Ross Ice Shelf is the main outlet for several major glaciers draining the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which contains the equivalent of 5 m of sea level rise in its above-sea-level ice." The report added that observations of "iceberg calving" on the Ross Ice Shelf are, in their opinion, unrelated to its stability.
Scientific exploration continues to uncover interesting information and the analyses have resulted in some interesting theories being posited and publicized. One such opinion, given in 2006 based on a geological survey, suggested that the ice shelf had collapsed previously, perhaps suddenly, which could well happen again.
A science team from New Zealand installed a camp in the centre of the shelf in late 2017. The expedition was led by glaciologist Christina Hulbe and brought together oceanographers, glaciologists, biologists and sedimentologists to examine the ice, ocean and sediment in the central shelf region. One of the key findings was that the ice in the region was re-freezing. This re-freezing and growth of an ice shelf is not uncommon but the Ross Ice Shelf situation appeared to be very variable as there was no evidence of long-term freezing. A recent study attribute this variability in-part to tidal mixing.
A second New Zealand expedition in 2019 traveled to the grounding line region of the Kamb Ice Stream. The hot water drill borehole at this site penetrated through over 500 m of snow and ice to an ocean cavity only 30 m deep at this location. As well as sampling the ocean and sediment, it was the first deployment beneath the Ross Ice Shelf of the Remotely operated underwater vehicle Icefin developed at Georgia Tech, a vehicle designed around parameters suitable for exploration of the liquid cavities of places like Europa. The same New Zealand team returned to another site along the Kamb coast in December 2021, this time drilling through an under-ice river that proved to be essentially oceanic. The team were able to melt through the ice to discover the 250 m deep river had formed a relatively narrow channel beneath the ice. They also recorded evidence of the tsunami generated by the 2022 Hunga Tonga eruption and tsunami .
See also
Cape Huinga
Eady Ice Piedmont
Howard-Williams Point
Iceberg B-17B
List of Antarctic ice shelves
Nimrod Expedition
Retreat of glaciers since 1850
Ross Embayment
Ross Gyre
Steershead Crevasses
West Antarctic Rift System
References
External links
Polar Discovery: Ross Sea Penguins and Lava Flows
Some pictures of the Ross
Massive ice shelf 'may collapse without warning'
Photograph of Ross Ice Shelf edge
Ice shelves of Antarctica
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243480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity%20derivative | Equity derivative | In finance, an equity derivative is a class of derivatives whose value is at least partly derived from one or more underlying equity securities. Options and futures are by far the most common equity derivatives, however there are many other types of equity derivatives that are actively traded.
Equity options
Equity options are the most common type of equity derivative. They provide the right, but not the obligation, to buy (call) or sell (put) a quantity of stock (1 contract = 100 shares of stock), at a set price (strike price), within a certain period of time (prior to the expiration date).
Warrants
In finance, a warrant is a security that entitles the holder to buy stock of the company that issued it at a specified price, which is much lower than the stock price at time of issue. Warrants are frequently attached to bonds or preferred stock as a sweetener, allowing the issuer to pay lower interest rates or dividends. They can be used to enhance the yield of the bond, and make them more attractive to potential buyers.
Convertible bonds
Convertible bonds are bonds that can be converted into shares of stock in the issuing company, usually at some pre-announced ratio. It is a hybrid security with debt- and equity-like features. It can be used by investors to obtain the upside of equity-like returns while protecting the downside with regular bond-like coupons.
Equity futures, options and swaps
Investors can gain exposure to the equity markets using futures, options and swaps. These can be done on single stocks, a customized basket of stocks or on an index of stocks. These equity derivatives derive their value from the price of the underlying stock or stocks.
Stock market index futures
Stock markets index futures are futures contracts used to replicate the performance of an underlying stock market index. They can be used for hedging against an existing equity position, or speculating on future movements of the index. Indices for futures include well-established indices such as S&P 500, FTSE 100, DAX, CAC 40 and other G12 country indices. Indices for OTC products are broadly similar, but offer more flexibility.
Equity basket derivatives
Equity basket derivatives are futures, options or swaps where the underlying is a non-index basket of shares. They have similar characteristics to equity index derivatives, but are always traded OTC (over the counter, i.e. between established institutional investors), as the basket definition is not standardized in the way that an equity index is.
These are used normally for correlation trading.
Single-stock futures
Single-stock futures are exchange-traded futures contracts based on an individual underlying security rather than a stock index. Their performance is similar to that of the underlying equity itself, although as futures contracts they are usually traded with greater leverage. Another difference is that holders of long positions in single stock futures typically do not receive dividends and holders of short positions do not pay dividends. Single-stock futures may be cash-settled or physically settled by the transfer of the underlying stocks at expiration, although in the United States only physical settlement is used to avoid speculation in the market.
Equity index swaps
An equity index swap is an agreement between two parties to swap two sets of cash flows on predetermined dates for an agreed number of years. The cash flows will be an equity index value swapped, for instance, with. Swaps can be considered a relatively straightforward way of gaining exposure to a required asset class. They can also be relatively cost efficient.
Equity swap
An equity swap is an exchange of future cash flows between two parties that allows each party to diversify its income for a specified period of time while still holding its original assets. The two sets of nominally equal cash flows are exchanged as per the terms of the swap, which may involve an equity-based cash flow (such as from a stock asset) that is traded for a fixed-income cash flow (such as a benchmark rate), but this is not necessarily the case. Besides diversification and tax benefits, equity swaps also allow large institutions to hedge specific assets or positions in their portfolios.
Exchange-traded derivatives
Other examples of equity derivative securities include exchange-traded funds and Intellidexes.
References
Derivatives (finance)
Options (finance) | [
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243487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss%20Civilian%20Service | Swiss Civilian Service | The Swiss Civilian Service is a Swiss institution, created in 1996 as an civilian substitute service to military service. It was introduced as part of the so-called Vision 95 (Armeeleitbild 95) reform package. Anyone who is unable to do compulsory military service for reasons of conscience can submit an application to perform civilian service instead. Formerly, the applicant was then forced to attend a hearing where they had to explain their reasons for refusal. Now, they must take part in a one-day introductory session to civilian service within three months of submitting their application.
If one is unfit to serve in the military because of physical or psychological impairments, he is also deemed unfit for civilian service, even if the impairments do not render the individual unable to fulfill a specific task related to the civilian service. This is true, for example, for a disabled person in a wheelchair who is perfectly able to work in the administration of a nursing home. Unless they have very severe handicaps such as mental illness, men are excused or declared unfit to serve in the military are forced to pay a substitute fee of about 3 percent of their yearly income until the age of 37, when military servicemen are normally released from further service. Women are also allowed to serve in the civilian service or in the armed forces except in combat missions. Women serve voluntarily.
In 2005, the Swiss Federal Assembly began to discuss if the "state of conscience hearings" should be abolished and if the willingness to serve a longer time (see below) should be the only criterion, citing the large administrative costs for judging the cases of just a few thousand applicants per year. The high rate of young people opting to serve in the alternative service has also created organizational problems. On the other hand, the civilian service option under the Vision 95 reform package has increased the rate of approval of the public, particularly the young segment of the population, for the existence of the Swiss armed forces.
Civilian service
Once part of the civilian service program, one has to work 50 percent longer than the total normal cumulative military service period. Full cumulative military service for normal soldiers is currently 245 days, while full civilian service is 365 days. Many nonprofit organizations are licensed to employ civilian service workers. Unlike the former Civilian Service in Germany, where the servants did their work mainly in hospitals and healthcare sites, Swiss ones can apply for work in a broad variety of opportunities: health care, welfare, environmental protection, agriculture (small or alpine farms), research projects, and development assistance abroad.
Civilian servicemen must have the appropriate skills for each type of assignment – for example, because there are very few job vacancies in development aid.
A big difference between civilian and military service is that civilian service participants can greatly profit from his substitute service – in terms of work experience – to achieve a better position after the service, although it is formally not allowed to do civilian service with, for example, the goal of passing an exam in mind. So, during civilian service in a research institute, one must not write personal academic papers to be submitted at a later time.
There are still issues with how to handle Swiss living abroad who have already passed recruitment and are already members of the Swiss militia army. In this case, they are not exempt from military service or civilian service, and every step of the application process requires their presence in Switzerland.
See also
Pacifism
Civilian service
Zivildienst
References
External links
Vollzugsstelle für den Zivildienst ZIVI, official Swiss government website
Beratungsstelle für Zivildienst und Militärverweigerung, association offering assistance for those seeking to enter the Swiss Civilian Service or bypass conscription
Gemeinschaft Schweizer Zivildienstleistender, association for promotion of Swiss Civilian Service
Civil Service
Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports
Civil Service
Conscientious objection | [
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243495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti%20Bust | Nefertiti Bust | The Nefertiti Bust is a painted stucco-coated limestone bust of Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten. The work is believed to have been crafted in by Thutmose because it was found in his workshop in Amarna, Egypt. It is one of the most-copied works of ancient Egypt. Nefertiti has become one of the most famous women of the ancient world and an icon of feminine beauty.
A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt discovered the bust in 1912 in Thutmose's workshop. It has been kept at various locations in Germany since its discovery, including the cellar of a bank, a salt-mine in Merkers-Kieselbach, the Dahlem museum, the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg and the Altes Museum. It is currently on display at the Neues Museum in Berlin, where it was originally displayed before World War II.
The Nefertiti bust has become a cultural symbol of Berlin as well as ancient Egypt. It has also been the subject of an intense argument between Egypt and Germany over Egyptian demands for its repatriation, which began in 1924, once the bust was first displayed to the public. Egyptian inspectors said their predecessors were misled about the actual bust before they let it out of the country, and the Berlin museum refers to an official protocol, signed by the German excavator and the Egyptian Antiquities Service of the time, about "a painted plaster bust of a princess".
History
Background
Nefertiti (meaning "the beautiful one has come forth") was the 14th-century BCE Great Royal Wife (chief consort) of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Akhenaten initiated a new monotheistic form of worship called Atenism dedicated to the Sun disc Aten. Little is known about Nefertiti. Theories suggest she could have been an Egyptian royal by birth, a foreign princess or the daughter of a high government official named Ay, who became pharaoh after Tutankhamun. She may have been the co-regent of Egypt with Akhenaten, who ruled from 1352 BCE to 1336 BCE. Nefertiti bore six daughters to Akhenaten, one of whom, Ankhesenpaaten (renamed Ankhesenamun after the suppression of the Aten cult), married Tutankhamun, Nefertiti's stepson. While it was once thought that Nefertiti disappeared in the twelfth year of Akhenaten's reign because of her death or because she took a new name, she was still alive in the sixteenth year of her husband's reign according to a limestone quarry inscription found at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis "on the eastern side of the Nile, about ten kilometres north of Amarna." Nefertiti may have become a pharaoh in her own right for a short time after her husband's death.
The bust of Nefertiti is believed to have been crafted about 1345 BCE by the sculptor Thutmose. The bust does not have any inscriptions, but can be certainly identified as Nefertiti by the characteristic crown, which she wears in other surviving (and clearly labelled) depictions, for example the "house altar".
Discovery
The bust was found on 6 December 1912 at Amarna by the German Oriental Company (Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft – DOG), led by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt. It was found in what had been the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose, along with other unfinished busts of Nefertiti. Borchardt's diary provides the main written account of the find; he remarks, "Suddenly we had in our hands the most alive Egyptian artwork. You cannot describe it with words. You must see it."
A 1924 document found in the archives of the German Oriental Company recalls a 20 January 1913 meeting between Borchardt and a senior Egyptian official to discuss the division of the archeological finds of 1912 between Germany and Egypt. According to the secretary of the German Oriental Company (who was the author of the document and who was present at the meeting), Borchardt "wanted to save the bust for us". Borchardt is suspected of having concealed the bust's real value, although he denied doing so.
While Philipp Vandenberg describes the coup as "adventurous and beyond comparison", Time magazine lists it among the "Top 10 Plundered Artifacts". Borchardt showed the Egyptian official a photograph of the bust "that didn't show Nefertiti in her best light". The bust was wrapped up in a box when Egypt's chief antiques inspector, Gustave Lefebvre, came for inspection. The document reveals that Borchardt claimed the bust was made of gypsum to mislead Lefebvre. The German Oriental Company blames the negligence of Lefebvre and points out that the bust was at the top of the exchange list and says the deal was done fairly.
Description and examinations
The bust is tall and weighs about . It is made of a limestone core covered with painted stucco layers. The face is completely symmetrical and almost intact, but the left eye lacks the inlay present in the right. The pupil of the right eye is of inserted quartz with black paint and is fixed with beeswax. The background of the eye-socket is unadorned limestone. Nefertiti wears her characteristic blue crown known as the "Nefertiti cap crown" with a golden diadem band looped around like horizontal ribbons and joining at the back, and an Uraeus (cobra), which is now broken, over her brow. She also wears a broad collar with a floral pattern. The ears have suffered some damage. Gardner's Art Through the Ages suggests that "With this elegant bust, Thutmose may have been alluding to a heavy flower on its slender sleek stalk by exaggerating the weight of the crowned head and the length of the almost serpentine neck."
According to David Silverman, the bust reflects the classical Egyptian art style, deviating from the "eccentricities" of the Amarna art style, which was developed in Akhenaten's reign. The exact function of the bust is unknown, though it is theorized that the bust may be a sculptor's modello to be used as a basis for other official portraits, kept in the artist's workshop.
Colours
Borchardt commissioned a chemical analysis of the coloured pigments of the head. The result of the examination was published in the book Portrait of Queen Nofretete in 1923:
Blue: powdered frit, coloured with copper oxide
Skin colour (light red): fine powdered lime spar colored with red chalk (iron oxide)
Yellow: orpiment (arsenic sulfide)
Green: powdered frit, coloured with copper and iron oxide
Black: coal with wax as a binding medium
White: chalk
Missing left eye
When the bust was first discovered, no quartz to represent the iris of the left eyeball was present as in the other eye, and none was found despite an intensive search and a then significant reward of £1000 being put up for information regarding its whereabouts. Borchardt assumed that the quartz iris had fallen out when Thutmose's workshop fell into ruin. The missing eye led to speculation that Nefertiti may have suffered from an ophthalmic infection and lost her left eye, though the presence of an iris in other statues of her contradicted this possibility.
Dietrich Wildung proposed that the bust in Berlin was a model for official portraits and was used by the master sculptor for teaching his pupils how to carve the internal structure of the eye, and thus the left iris was not added. Gardner's Art Through the Ages and Silverman present a similar view that the bust was deliberately kept unfinished. Zahi Hawass, former Egyptian Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, suggested that Thutmose created the left eye, but that it was later destroyed.
CT scans
The bust was first CT scanned in 1992, with the scan producing cross sections of the bust every . In 2006, Dietrich Wildung, director of Berlin's Egyptian Museum, while trying a different lighting at the Altes Museum, where the bust was then displayed, observed wrinkles on Nefertiti's neck and bags under her eyes, suggesting the sculptor had tried to depict signs of aging. A CT scan confirmed Wildung's findings; Thutmose had added gypsum under the cheeks and eyes in an attempt to perfect his sculpture.
The CT scan in 2006, led by Alexander Huppertz, director of the Imaging Science Institute in Berlin, revealed a wrinkled face of Nefertiti carved in the inner core of the bust. The results were published in the April 2009's Radiology. The scan revealed that Thutmose placed layers of varying thickness on top of the limestone core. The inner face has creases around her mouth and cheeks and a swelling on the nose. The creases and the bump on the nose are leveled by the outermost stucco layer. According to Huppertz, this may reflect "aesthetic ideals of the era". The 2006 scan provided greater detail than the 1992 one, revealing subtle details just under the stucco.
Later history
The bust has become "one of the most admired, and most copied, images from ancient Egypt", and the star exhibit used to market Berlin's museums. It is seen as an "icon of international beauty." "Showing a woman with a long neck, elegantly arched brows, high cheekbones, a slender nose and an enigmatic smile played about red lips, the bust has established Nefertiti as one of the most beautiful faces of antiquity." It is described as the most famous bust of ancient art, comparable only to the mask of Tutankhamun.
Nefertiti has become an icon of Berlin's culture. Some 500,000 visitors see her every year. The bust is described as "the best-known work of art from ancient Egypt, arguably from all antiquity". Her face is on postcards of Berlin and 1989 German postage stamps.
Locations in Germany
The bust has been in Germany since 1913, when it was shipped to Berlin and presented to James Simon, a wholesale merchant and the sponsor of the Amarna excavation. It was displayed at Simon's residence until 1913, when Simon lent the bust and other artifacts from the Amarna dig to the Berlin Museum. Although the rest of the Amarna collection was displayed in 1913–14, the bust was kept secret at Borchardt's request. In 1918, the museum discussed the public display of the bust, but again kept it secret at the request of Borchardt. It was permanently donated to the museum in 1920. In 1923, the bust was revealed to the public in Borchardt's writings; in 1924, it was displayed to the public as part of the Egyptian Museum of Berlin. The bust created a sensation, swiftly becoming a world-renowned icon of feminine beauty and one of the most universally recognised artifacts to survive from Ancient Egypt. The bust was displayed in Berlin's Neues Museum on Museum Island until the museum was closed in 1939; with the onset of World War II, Berlin museums were emptied and artifacts moved to secure shelters for safekeeping. Initially stored in the cellar of the Prussian Governmental Bank, the bust was moved in the autumn of 1941 to the tower of a flak bunker in Berlin. The Neues Museum suffered bombings in 1943 by the Royal Air Force. On 6 March 1945, the bust was moved to a German salt mine at Merkers-Kieselbach in Thuringia.
In March 1945, the bust was found by the American Army and given over to its Monuments, Fine Arts and Archives branch. It was moved to the Reichsbank in Frankfurt and shipped in August to the U.S. Central Collecting Point in Wiesbaden, where it was put on public display beginning in 1946. It remained on display at the Museum Wiesbaden for ten years before being transferred in 1956 to West Berlin, where it was exhibited at the Dahlem Museum. As early as 1946, East Germany (German Democratic Republic) pressed for the return of the bust to Museum Island in East Berlin, where it had been displayed before the war. In 1967, the bust was moved to the Egyptian Museum in the Charlottenburg borough of Berlin and remained there until 2005, when it was moved to the Altes Museum. The bust returned to the Neues Museum as its centerpiece when the museum reopened in October 2009.
Controversies
Requests for repatriation to Egypt
Since the official unveiling of the bust in Berlin in 1924, Egyptian authorities have demanded its return to Egypt. In 1925, Egypt threatened to ban German excavations in Egypt unless the bust was returned. In 1929, Egypt offered to exchange other artifacts for the bust, but Germany declined.
Although Germany had previously strongly opposed repatriation, in 1933 Hermann Göring considered returning the bust to King Farouk Fouad of Egypt as a political gesture. Hitler opposed the idea and told the Egyptian government that he would build a new Egyptian museum for Nefertiti. "In the middle, this wonder, Nefertiti, will be enthroned," Hitler said. "I will never relinquish the head of the Queen." While the bust was under American control, Egypt requested the United States to hand it over; the US refused and advised Egypt to take up the matter with the new German authorities. In the 1950s, Egypt again tried to initiate negotiations, but there was no response from Germany. In 1989, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak viewed the bust and announced that Nefertiti was "the best ambassador for Egypt" in Berlin.
Egyptian archaeologist, Egyptologist, and former Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, Zahi Hawass believed that the bust belongs to Egypt and that it was taken out of Egypt illegally and should therefore be returned. He maintained the stance that Egyptian authorities were misled over the acquisition of the bust in 1913 and demanded that Germany prove that it was exported legally. According to Kurt G. Siehr, another argument in support of repatriation is that "Archeological finds have their 'home' in the country of origin and should be preserved in that country." The repatriation issue sprang up again in 2003 over the Body of Nefertiti sculpture. In 2005, Hawass requested that UNESCO intervene to return the bust.
In 2007, Hawass threatened to ban exhibitions of Egyptian artifacts in Germany, if the bust was not lent to Egypt, but to no avail. He also requested a worldwide boycott of loans to German museums to initiate what he called a "scientific war". Hawass wanted Germany to lend the bust to Egypt in 2012 for the opening of the new Grand Egyptian Museum near the Great Pyramids of Giza. Simultaneously, a campaign called "Nefertiti Travels" was launched by cultural association CulturCooperation, based in Hamburg, Germany. They distributed postcards depicting the bust with the words "Return to Sender" and wrote an open letter to German Culture Minister Bernd Neumann supporting the view that Egypt should be given the bust on loan. In 2009, when the bust was moved back to the Neues Museum, the appropriateness of Berlin as its location was questioned.
Several German art experts have attempted to refute all the claims made by Hawass, pointing to the 1924 document discussing the pact between Borchardt and Egyptian authorities. German authorities have also argued the bust is too fragile to transport and that legal arguments for repatriation were insubstantial. According to The Times, Germany may be concerned that lending the bust to Egypt would mean its permanent departure from Germany.
In December 2009, Friederike Seyfried, director of Berlin's Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection, presented to the Egyptians documents held by the museum regarding the discovery of the bust, which include a protocol signed by the German excavator and the Egyptian Antiquities Service. In the documents, the bust was listed as a painted plaster bust of a princess, but in his diary, Borchardt clearly referred to it as the head of Nefertiti. "This proves that Borchardt wrote this description so that his country can get the statue," Hawass said. "These materials confirm Egypt's contention that (he) did act unethically with intent to deceive." However, Hawass said Egypt didn't consider the bust to be a looted antiquity. "I really want it back," he said. His statement also said that the authority to approve the return of the bust to Egypt lies with the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation and the German culture minister.
Allegations over authenticity
The French language book Le Buste de Nefertiti – une Imposture de l'Egyptologie? (The Bust of Nefertiti – a Fraud in Egyptology?) by Swiss art historian Henri Stierlin and the book Missing Link in Archaeology by Berlin author and historian Erdogan Ercivan both claimed that the bust was a modern fake. Stierlin claims that Borchardt may have created the bust to test ancient pigments and that when the bust was admired by Prince Johann Georg of Saxony, Borchardt pretended it was genuine to avoid offending the prince. Stierlin argues that the missing left eye of the bust would have been a sign of disrespect in ancient Egypt, that no scientific records of the bust appear until 11 years after its supposed discovery and, while the paint pigments are ancient, the inner limestone core has never been dated. Ercivan suggests Borchardt's wife was the model for the bust and both authors argue that it was not revealed to the public until 1924 because it was a fake. Another theory suggested that the existing bust was crafted in the 1930s on Hitler's orders and that the original was lost in World War II.
Dietrich Wildung dismissed the claims as a publicity stunt since radiological tests, detailed computer tomography and material analysis have proved its authenticity. The pigments used on the bust have been matched to those used by ancient Egyptian artisans. The 2006 CT scan that discovered the "hidden face" of Nefertiti proved, according to Science News, that the bust was genuine.
Egyptian authorities also dismissed Stierlin's theory. Hawass said, "Stierlin is not a historian. He is delirious." Although Stierlin had argued "Egyptians cut shoulders horizontally" and Nefertiti had vertical shoulders, Hawass said that the new style seen in the bust is part of the changes introduced by Akhenaten, the husband of Nefertiti. Hawass also claimed that Thutmose had created the eye, but it was later destroyed.
Body of Nefertiti
In 2003, the Egyptian Museum in Berlin allowed the Hungarian artist duo Little Warsaw, András Gálik and Bálint Havas, to place the bust atop a nearly nude female bronze for a video installation to be shown at the Venice Biennale modern art festival. The artists said the project, called Body of Nefertiti, was an attempt to pay homage to the bust. According to Wildung, it showed "the continued relevance of the ancient world to today's art." Egyptian cultural officials proclaimed it to be a disgrace to "one of the great symbols of their country's history" and banned Wildung and his wife from further exploration in Egypt. The Egyptian Minister for Culture, Farouk Hosny, declared that Nefertiti was "not in safe hands" and although Egypt had not renewed their claims for restitution "due to the good relations with Germany," this "recent behaviour" was unacceptable.
3D scan of the Bust
In 2016 a freedom of information request was made to the Egyptian Museum for access to a full colour scan of the bust that had been made by the museum 10 years prior. The museum declined the request citing impact on gift shop revenue. Eventually the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation which oversees the museum released the file, which is now available (not directly from the museum), however controversially attached a copyright to the work, which is in the public domain.
Cultural significance
In 1930, the German press described the bust as their new monarch, personifying it as a queen. As the "'most precious ... stone in the setting of the diadem' from the art treasures of 'Prussia Germany'", Nefertiti would re-establish the imperial German national identity after 1918. Hitler described the bust as "a unique masterpiece, an ornament, a true treasure", and pledged to build a museum to house it. By the 1970s, the bust had become an issue of national identity to both German states, East Germany and West Germany, created after World War II. In 1999, the bust appeared on an election poster for the green political party Bündnis 90/Die Grünen as a promise for a cosmopolitan and multi-cultural environment with the slogan "Strong Women for Berlin!" According to Claudia Breger, another reason that the bust became associated with German national identity was its place as a rival to Tutankhamun, found by the British who then ruled Egypt.
The bust became an influence on popular culture, with Jack Pierce's make-up work on Elsa Lanchester's hairstyle in the film Bride of Frankenstein being inspired by it.
References
Notes
Books
External links
Neues Museum Berlin
3D scan of the bust by TrigonArt
14th-century BC works
1912 archaeological discoveries
1912 in science
Archaeological artifacts
Archaeological controversies
Busts in Germany
Cultural depictions of Nefertiti
Sculptures of the Berlin State Museums
Sculptures of ancient Egypt
Sculptures of women in Germany
Egyptological objects of the Berlin State Museums
Limestone sculptures
Stucco sculptures | [
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243497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Tano%20languages | Central Tano languages | The Central Tano or Akan languages are languages of the Niger-Congo family (or perhaps the theorised Kwa languages) spoken in Ghana and Ivory Coast by the Akan people.
Akan (Primarily in Ghana)
Bia (Primarily in Ivory Coast and Western Ghana)
North Bia
Anyin
Baoulé
Chakosi (Anufo)
Sefwi (Sehwi)
South Bia
Nzema
Ahanta
Jwira-Pepesa
All have written forms in the Latin script.
References
Potou–Tano languages | [
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243500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevilla%20FC | Sevilla FC | Sevilla Fútbol Club (), is a Spanish professional football club based in Seville, the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. It plays in Spanish football's top flight, La Liga. Sevilla at the European level, have won the UEFA Europa League six times, the most of any club. It is Spain's oldest sporting club solely devoted to football. The club was formed on 25 January 1890, with the Scottish born Edward Farquharson Johnston as their first president. On 14 October 1905, the club's articles of association were registered in the Civil Government of Seville under the presidency of the Jerez-born José Luis Gallegos Arnosa.
Sevilla FC is also the most successful club in Andalusia, winning eighteen Andalusian Cups, a national league title in 1945–46, five Copa del Rey (1935, 1939, 1948, 2007 and 2010), one Spanish Super Cup (2007), a record six UEFA Cups/UEFA Europa Leagues (2006, 2007, 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2020) and the 2006 UEFA Super Cup. They were also designated by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics as the World's best club in 2006 and 2007, thus being the first club to achieve this distinction in two consecutive years.
Its youth team Sevilla Atlético, founded in 1958, currently play in Primera División RFEF. The club was formerly affiliated to a side in Puerto Rico of the same name and their reserve team, but they dissolved. Other clubs related to Sevilla FC include their women's team and the now defunct Superleague Formula team and futsal sections. The rowing team that defends its crest in the yearly Sevilla-Betis regatta is not a section of the club but a call-up of registered-as-supporters professional rowers from the various rowing clubs of Seville.
The club's home ground is the 43,883-seat Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium. It is located in the neighborhood of Nervión, Seville, and owes its name to Ramón Sánchez Pizjuan, who was Sevilla's president for 17 years.
History
Foundation to Civil War
The practice of football was introduced in Seville at the end of the 19th century by the large British expatriate population in the city, composed by owners or managers of manufacturing companies based in the capital of Andalusia. Sevilla Fútbol Club was founded on 25 January 1890 as Sevilla Foot-ball Club (in English).
Sevilla FC was duly formed on 25 January 1890 while a group of young British, mainly Scots, along with other young men of Spanish origin, celebrated Burns Night in Seville. The club's founding document, published on the ''Dundee Couriers edition of 17 March 1890 describes in full detail the formation of the club and how those young founding members decided first to play under Association Rules, secondly to bear the word "football" within its name and thirdly, to elect their "office-bearers". The following paragraph is an extract of that article:
The club's first president was the Scot Mr. Edward Farquharson Johnston (Elgin, 14 October 1854), who was the British vice-consul in Seville and co-proprietor of the firm MacAndrews & Co., ship-owners with commercial lines between Spain and the UK, one of them being the transport of Seville oranges. Hugh Maccoll, another Scottish young man (Glasgow, 9 June 1861), a marine engineer who at that time had moved to Seville to work as the technical manager of Portilla White foundry, was their first captain. One of Maccoll's partners in the Portilla White foundry in Seville, Isaias White junior, was the club's first secretary. He was the son of an English entrepreneur who founded the aforesaid company, one of the major foundries in Spain at the end of the 19th century.
In order to celebrate the foundation of the club, Isaias White sent a letter to Huelva Recreation Club, to invite them to play a football match in Seville. That letter was published by the Spanish newspaper La Provincia. The Huelva club accepted the invitation and the match took place on 8 March 1890, being thus the first official match ever played in Spain. Sevilla FC won that historical match 2–0, with the first goal in an official match in Spanish football history scored by the Seville team player Ritson. Isaias lived at Calle Bailen 41 in Seville (the house still exists but has since been renumbered) making this the first home of Sevilla FC.
In 1907, Sevilla Balompíe was founded, followed by Betis Football Club in 1909, Recreativo de Sevilla and Español de Sevilla. More clubs were formed as the years passed and more competitive matches were organized between the teams, although Sevilla FC, the oldest club of the city, imposed its supremacy over the other clubs in this early period. In 1912, the first Copa de Sevilla was played and won by Sevilla FC. From 1915 to 1940, the Copa Andalucia was organized by the "Federación Sur" (Andalusian FA) and these championships included Sevilla FC, Real Betis Balompié, Recreativo de Huelva, Español de Cádiz and the sporadic participation of other clubs such as Nacional de Sevilla and Córdoba. The domination of Sevilla was so evident that of the 21 Championships of Andalusia played, 18 were won by Sevilla FC, with the three remaining being won by Español de de Cádiz, Recreativo de Huelva and Real Betis Balompié, respectively.
In 1917, Sevilla FC participated in the "Copa de España" for the first time and became the first Andalusian team to reach the final round of the competition. In 1928, when the "Campeonato Nacional de Liga" (National League Championships) was organized, Sevilla FC was not part of the First Division due to their defeat to Racing de Santander in an elimination game that was set-up to decide which of the two teams would compete in the newly formed league.
At the end of the 1933–34 season, Sevilla FC was promoted to the First Division of the "Campeonato Nacional de Liga." In 1935, they were proclaimed "Campeón de Copa" (Cup Champions) for the first time by defeating Sabadell, repeated in 1939 against Racing de Ferrol and again in 1948 against Celta de Vigo. The club participated in two other finals, but conceded defeat to Athletic Bilbao in 1955 and to Real Madrid in 1962. Sevilla FC remained in the First Division from the 1933–34 season until 1968, when they were relegated to the Second Division, a tier from which they have never further been relegated from.
The 1945–46 season was one of high importance in the history of Sevilla, as it marked the first, and to date only, time in which Sevilla FC were League champions. On four other occasions, the club was proclaimed "subcampeón de Liga" (League Runner-up: 1939–40, 1942–43, 1950–51 and 1956–57).
Including this 2021/22 season, Sevilla has participated 78 times in the First Division and 13 in the Second Division, never dropping below the Second Division. Sevilla has also participated in four European tournaments, the "Copa de Europa" (European League Winners Cup) (1957–58); Recopa (Winners Cup) (1962–63) and UEFA Cup on nine occasions (1966–67, 1970–71, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1990–91, 1995–96, 2004–05, 2005–06 and 2006–07). Sevilla also participated in the UEFA Champions League in 2007–08.
There are more than 400 individuals who currently play for the Sevilla FC organization, which includes two semi-professional teams (in Second Division A – second national category) and 12 youth teams.
Sevilla has always counted on having international players within its ranks to aid in the pursuit of trophies. The first of these players were Spencer and Herminio in the 1920s. Juan Arza, an international player from the 1940s, was proclaimed top scorer of the Spanish League in the 1954–55 season, with 29 goals. About 30 Sevilla players have been chosen to play for the Spain national football team over the years.
Foreign players have always played an integral part in the success of Sevilla FC with Diego Maradona representing the most well known among them during his spell with the club during the 1992–93 season. During the same season, Sevilla FC was managed by Carlos Salvador Bilardo, a world champion manager.
Historically, Sevilla FC has fielded teams in a variety of other sports including: basketball, rugby, rowing, athletics, and weightlifting or petanca. Presently, Sevilla FC counts twenty-five professional teams on its ledgers (one of these being in the second national category) and a women's football team in the Honor Division.
Sevilla FC's stadium, the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, was inaugurated in 1958 and is one of the largest stadiums in Spain, and has the honor of hosting a World Cup semi-final match in 1982. After its final completion, the stadium had a maximum capacity of 75,000 spectators, but since its latest remodelling, the stadium has been converted to an all-seat with a covering added to the main seating area, reducing the capacity to its current count of 45,000 spectators.
First successes
Sevilla had their first spell of national success in the decade following the end of the Civil War, winning the 1945–46 La Liga title and two Copa del Rey titles. In the first season of this (1939–40), Sevilla won the cup on 25 June, beating Racing de Ferrol 6–2 in Barcelona. That same season, the side lost the Liga title on the last day to Atlético Madrid after drawing 3–3 against Hércules. The Sevilla forward line was known as los stukas after the German bomber aircraft, and scored 216 goals over four seasons. It comprised López, Torrontegui, Campanal, Raimundo, Berrocal and Pepillo.
In 1941, President Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán left the club to manage the Spanish Football Federation. After his departure, Antonio Sánchez Ramos occupied temporarily occupied the position until the permanent appointment of Jerónimo Domínguez y Pérez de Vargas, Marquess of Contadero, who was president of the club for six years until the return of Sánchez Pizjuán. Sevilla was runner-up to Athletic Bilbao in the 1942–43 season and came third a season later. Sevilla won its only Liga title in 1945–46, edging FC Barcelona by one point. Two years later, Sevilla won the 1948 Copa del Rey after beating Celta de Vigo 4–1 in Madrid on 4 July.
The most significant signing of those years was the Spanish international striker Juan Arza. There was also the debut of the Campanal's nephew, defender Campanal II, with his uncle as a trainer. During the 1950–51 season, with Campanal acting as the coach, the team finished runner-up in La Liga, two points behind Atlético Madrid. Before the 1953–54 season, Argentinean coach Helenio Herrera was hired. During his time in charge, the club came fifth in the 1953–54 season, fourth in both 1954–55 and 1955–56 and second to Real Madrid in 1956–57. In 1954, the club put the construction of the new stadium out to tender because Nervión Stadium was becoming too small for the club's fanbase. In the 1954–55 season, Arza won the Pichichi Trophy as La Liga's top scorer, with 28 goals, and the team was runner-up in the Copa del Rey. In 1955, for the club's 50th anniversary, a triangular tournament was organized against the French club Stade de Reims and the Swedish club IFK Norrköping; Sevilla won.
On 28 October 1956, President Sánchez Pizjuán suddenly died. As an appreciation to the deceased leader under whose chairmanship Sevilla had won three Copas del Rey, the fans decided that the club's planned new stadium was to be named in his honour. In the 1956–57 season, the team were Liga runners-up behind Real Madrid, ensuring qualification for the first time to the European Cup. Herrera left the club at the end of the season. The club needed a victory on the final day of the next season to avoid relegation but reached the quarterfinals of the European Cup before being knocked out by holders and eventual champions Real Madrid.
After the death of the President, Ramón de Carranza assumed the position for four years. It is said that he spoke these words at Sánchez Pizjuán's tomb:
"Dear Ramón, now your friends, among who I am honored to be one, is going to give you Christian burial, and on the following day, giving your body to the ground, we will start working and your dream that the Sevilla FC has a grand stadium will become a reality. Ramón, go in peace to heaven because your wishes will be fulfilled."
Being true to his words, Carranza made obligation bonds amounting to 50 million pesetas, and a month-and-a-half after Sánchez Pizjuán's death, the first stone in the stadium's construction was placed. The architect was Manuel Muñoz Monasterio, co-designer of the recently built Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, the home of Real Madrid. The Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium was ultimately opened on 7 September 1958 as Sevilla played an inaugural friendly against fellow Andalusian club Real Jaén. The stadium's first official match was on the opening day of the 1958–59 season, where Sevilla beat cross-city Real Betis 4–2.
Crisis and stability
In the 1970s, Sevilla was forced into selling its top players in order to pay off debts incurred from the construction of its new stadium; Manuel Ruiz Sosa transferred to Atlético Madrid, Gallego to Barcelona and Juan Batista Agüero to Real Madrid. Moreover, part of the adjacent land to the stadium was also sold to a bank. In the 1967–68 season, Sevilla returned to the Second Division for the first time in 31 years but was promoted back after one season. The next season, Austrian coach Max Merkel, nicknamed "Mr. Whip" for his usage of severe and harsh discipline techniques and training, was hired. That season, the club finished third in the league. However, the club was relegated again at the end of the 1972–73 season. In 1973, Sevilla signed their first-ever black player, Gambian winger Biri Biri, from the Danish club Boldklubben 1901. He remained at the club until 1978 and became a cult figure, with an ultra group named after him surviving to this day. In the 1974–75 season, with the Argentine Roque Olsen in charge, the club returned to the First Division. In the late 1970s, Sevilla signed Argentinians such as Héctor Scotta and Daniel Bertoni.
On 16 May 1976, Sevilla played its 1,000th game in La Liga.
Directed first by Miguel Muñoz and later by Manolo Cardo, the team participated in two consecutive seasons of the UEFA Cup from 1981 to 1983. The 75th anniversary of the club was celebrated with a variety of social events and a match against the Brazilian side Santos. In 1982, the World Cup was held in Spain and Sevilla's Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán was the venue for the semi-final match between West Germany and France. In 1984, Eugenio Montes Cabeza finished his 11-year presidency and was replaced by the cattle businessman Gabriel Rojas, who as the vice-president had made several advancements to the club's stadium. In the 1985–86 season, Manolo Cardo left his management position after five years in charge, while Francisco played in the 1986 FIFA World Cup for Spain. Vicente Cantatore led the club to UEFA Cup qualification at the end of the 1989–90 season, with Austrian forward Toni Polster scoring a club-record 33 Liga goals. In the 1992–93 season, after several months of negotiations, world-renowned Argentine Diego Maradona signed from Napoli for a fee of $7.5 million. His time at the club, however, was unsuccessful, and he was released in large part due to his periodic injuries and clashes with coach Bilardo. In the following seasons, Luis Aragonés became manager and finished the 1994–95 season with qualification to next season's UEFA Cup.
At the end of the 1994–95 season, despite the pleas of the club's directors, Sevilla, along with Celta de Vigo, were one of two clubs relegated from the top flight on reasons of administration, provoking action from fans. The action resulted in both Sevilla and Celta being reinstated to La Liga.
These events led to an institutional instability, with the season seeing four presidents and three managers take charge. Sevilla was relegated at the end of the 1996–97 season but returned in 1999. At the beginning of the 21st century, the presidency of the club was assumed by the popular Roberto Alés. The situation of the club was very delicate at the time; the team had dropped back to the Second Division in 2000 and the squad was weakened by player retirements and the sales of key players. The club opted for a relatively unknown trainer, Joaquín Caparrós, who helped the team win the Second Division with three matches to spare in just his first season at the helm.
Successes in the 21st century
In May 2002, Roberto Alés resigned as president, and the Sevillian lawyer José María del Nido assumed the presidency. One of his first decisions was to confirm Caparrós as a coach and Monchi as sporting director.
On 6 October 2002, before a Seville derby against Betis at the Sánchez Pizjuán, four Sevilla fans, including a minor, assaulted a security guard. The attack was punished by Sevilla being forced to play their next four home matches behind closed doors, the longest term ever given to a La Liga side. The club finished sixth in the 2003–04 La Liga, giving the club qualification for the 2004–05 UEFA Cup and marking a return to continental competition for the first time since the 1995–96 season. In the 2004–05 league season, Sevilla finished sixth and qualified for the following season's UEFA Cup, entering the competition in the third qualifying round. This set up Sevilla's first-ever European triumph in the 2006 UEFA Cup Final at the Philips Stadion in Eindhoven on 10 May 2006. The club defeated English club Middlesbrough 4–0 under new manager Juande Ramos, with the scoring opened by Brazilian striker Luís Fabiano. In the second-half, Italian substitute Enzo Maresca scored twice to be named Man of the Match, and Malian striker Frédéric Kanouté finished the scoring, to give the club its first major title in 58 years on the season of its centenary, which was celebrated in October 2005.
Sevilla opened their 2006–07 season by winning the 2006 UEFA Super Cup on 25 August 2006 with a 3–0 victory over Champions League winners and compatriots Barcelona at the Stade Louis II in Monaco. The goals were scored by Renato, Kanouté and a late penalty by Maresca. The season ended with a second consecutive UEFA Cup win, this time against fellow Spanish club Espanyol at Hampden Park, Glasgow. The match went to penalties after finishing 2–2 after extra-time, with Sevilla goalkeeper Andrés Palop saving three of Espanyol's penalties. On 12 November 2006, Sevilla played its 2,000th game in La Liga. Sevilla defeated Getafe in the 2007 Copa del Rey Final, with Kanouté scoring the only goal in the game's 11th minute. In addition, Sevilla finished third in that season's La Liga to qualify for the 2007–08 Champions League, returning to the competition for the first time in 50 years. As a result of these successes, Sevilla was voted as the IFFHS Team of the Year for the second consecutive season, becoming the first club to achieve this.
Sevilla won the 2007 Supercopa de España against La Liga champions Real Madrid. The season started to derail, however, after defender Antonio Puerta suffered a heart attack in the first game of the season and died three days later on 28 August. Three days after his death, Sevilla then lost 3–1 to Milan in the 2007 UEFA Super Cup in Monaco. Juande Ramos, the individual largely responsible for Sevilla's recent successes, resigned as manager on 27 October to take the post with Tottenham Hotspur; he was replaced by Sevilla Atlético manager Manolo Jiménez. In spite of the personnel issues, Sevilla nonetheless advanced in first place in its Champions League group ahead of Arsenal before later being eliminated in the round of 16 via penalties to Fenerbahçe of Turkey.
In the summer of 2008, before Jiménez's debut season as first-team manager, Dani Alves and Seydou Keita were both sold to Barcelona, while Christian Poulsen left for Juventus. Sevilla finished third in La Liga with a club record-equalling 21 victories and a club record number of away victories.
The 2009–10 season saw a third-consecutive qualification to the Champions League. On 19 May 2010, Sevilla defeated Atlético Madrid 2–0 in the 2010 Copa del Rey Final at Camp Nou, with goals from Diego Capel and Jesús Navas. Before the 2010–11 season started, Sevilla lost to Barcelona 5–3 on aggregate in the Supercopa and were eliminated in the Champions League playoffs by Portuguese club Braga.
Unai Emery era
On 14 January of the following year, after a 0–2 away loss to Valencia that left the Andalusians in 12th place, Jiménez was relieved of his duties, and was replaced by Spanish manager Unai Emery. The club went through an organizational financial crisis and was forced to sell team stars Álvaro Negredo and Jesús Navas, transactions that gave the club a combined €40 million; the duo was replaced by a contingent of younger players including strikers Carlos Bacca and Kevin Gameiro. On 14 May 2014, Sevilla defeated Benfica on penalties in the 2014 UEFA Europa League Final to claim their third triumph in the competition. After this season key midfielder Ivan Rakitić was sold to Barcelona for around €16 million (the deal was closed on 16 June 2014). In summer 2015 top scorer Carlos Bacca, who had only joined two years previous, moved to Milan for €30 million. Despite these exits, the club acquired players Grzegorz Krychowiak and Éver Banega to reinforce the squad.
On 27 May 2015, Sevilla repeated as Europa League champions after defeating Ukrainian club Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk 3–2 in the 2015 Final. The goals for Sevilla were scored by Grzegorz Krychowiak and a brace from Carlos Bacca. By defeating Dnipro, they became the only club to have won the Europa League four times.
The club returned to the Europa League final for a third consecutive time, facing Liverpool in the 2016 Final. After being down 1–0 at half-time, Sevilla bounced back in the second half to eventually win 1–3, with one goal scored from Kevin Gameiro and two from club captain Coke. With its third consecutive Europa League title, Sevilla improved its record of most Europa League titles won, having lifted the trophy five times in the span of ten years.
Post-Emery era
Despite Sevilla's continued success in the Europa League, the 2015–16 season proved to be another finish outside the top four, the side finishing in seventh. In response, Castro decided to engineer a resurrection of the club. Jorge Sampaoli was hired as manager – replacing Paris Saint-Germain-bound Unai Emery – and the club began to invest heavily that summer. Additions to the side included goalkeeper Salvatore Sirigu on loan, playmaker Ganso, forwards Luciano Vietto and Wissam Ben Yedder, attacker Franco Vázquez, wide midfielders Hiroshi Kiyotake and Pablo Sarabia, as well as former Arsenal and Manchester City player Samir Nasri on loan. In December of the 2017–18 La Liga, Vincenzo Montella was named as the third manager since Emery's departure in 2016 replacing Eduardo Berizzo. In the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League season, Sevilla progressed into the knockout stages of the competition, and defeated Manchester United in the Round of 16, reaching the quarter-finals of the competition for the first time in 60 years, though they ultimately lost to Bayern Munich 2–1 on aggregate in the quarter-finals.
On 4 June 2019, Sevilla announced the signing of Julen Lopetegui as manager for the next three seasons. On 16 August 2020, Sevilla won 2–1 over Manchester United in the semi-finals of the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League, en route to lifting the trophy for a record sixth time, beating Inter Milan 3–2 in the final. Sevilla are currently the most successful club in the UEFA Europa League competition, having won the competition six times, more than any other team.
Board and finances
Presidency
Sevilla is governed by a presidential management system, but with a board of directors that discusses and approves those important decisions that must be carried out. The president is supported by a general director and a sports director.
Throughout its history, Sevilla has had 28 presidents, the first being Edward Farquharson Johnston, a Scotsman. Those who have occupied the presidency for the longest periods have been Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, Eugenio Montes Cabezas, José María del Nido Benavente, Luis Cuervas Vilches and José Castro Carmona.
In 1992, Sevilla FC became a Sporting Limited Association, following the entry into force of the law that regulated this kind of sporting companies, and therefore the system of election of the president was amended from being elected by the members to be elected by the shareholders of the club.
Ownership
Sevillistas de Nervion S.A. (Jose Maria del Nido, Roberto Alés, José Castro, José Martín Baena, Francisco Guijarro, and José Gómez Miñán)
Rafael Carrión Moreno
777 Partners
Accionistas Unidos (Supporters' Trust / Minor shareholders)
Symbols
Anthems
Sevilla has two official anthems:
Official Anthem of Sevilla FC: This anthem dates back to the year 1983. The lyrics were written by Ángel Luis Osquiguilea de Roncales and the music was composed by Manuel Osquiguilea de Roncales.
Centennial Anthem of Sevilla FC: Composed in 2005 by singer Javier Labandón 'El Arrebato' to commemorate the centenary of the registration of the club's articles of association, it became Spain's number one single and the best-selling anthem of a football club in the entire history of Spanish football, reaching the 2nd position of the best-selling albums in 2006. On 9 October 2006, in the Estadio Ramón Sánchez-Pizjuán, 'El Arrebato' was awarded the golden record his anthem.
Crest
From its foundation, the team used a double-circled crest. On the exterior circle, the name of the club and the date of its foundation were written, while in the interior circle on a white background the letters "SFC" were interlaced as they are on the current crest. This first crest was designed by Juan Lafita, who was a close associate of the club and was the son of the Sevillian painter José Lafita y Blanco.
The second crest was designed in 1922 by Pablo Rodríguez Blanco, a draftsman of the Water Company. He divided the shield in three parts and together they formed the silhouette of a heart. The three figures that appear are the Christian saints portrayed on the coat of arms of the city—Isidore of Seville, Ferdinand III of Castile and Leander of Seville. On the right side appear the initials "SFC," which were on the official shield from 1905 to 1922. Where the three parts meet, a football of the era appears. Regarding the red and white stripes, there are various theories, but it seems that the most coherent is that from the first time, the club wished that the official kit would be red and white. Another version indicates that the lower part is inspired on the flag which King Ferdinand III of Castile carried in the reconquest of Seville in 1248.
Flag
The definition of Sevilla's flag is in the articles of association of 1982, which is a modification of the old ones which were formed and deposited in the Record of Associations and Sports Federations of the Higher Council of Sports. Its title 1, article 6 states that this is a distinctive emblem of the club:
The flag, which will be rectangular, divided by a diagonal line that goes from the lower left angle to the upper right angle, which divides it into two triangles, the superior is white and the inferior red.
Kit
Sevilla wore shirts with a sponsor logo for the first time in the 1986–87 season, to promote the Seville Expo '92. Previously, before the 1980–81 season, the club signed its first kit-manufacturer deal with the German firm Adidas. Since 2018 the kit is manufactured by Nike.
Media
Sevilla have several media outlets. Its radio station, SFC Radio, launched in September 2004, broadcasts all day on FM and online, while its television channel SFC TV aired for the first time in the 2005–06 season with a UEFA Cup match against Zenit Saint Petersburg. Since 8 June 2009, the television coverage has been shown on the club website. Sevilla issue a physical and digital newspaper the day after every match and on the same day as an important one, as well as a magazine before home games. The official magazine of the club is released every two months, the first issue being free and issued at a friendly against the Brazil national team to mark the club's centennial in September 2005.
Players
Current squad
Reserve squad
Out on loan
Current technical staff
Former coaches
see also
Facilities
Stadium
In their first fifty years Sevilla played their home matches in various locations around Seville: la Trinidad Field, the Mercantile Field, 'La Victoria' Stadium and the Estadio de Nervión.
The Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium was first planned in 1937 when the land was bought near to the then-home of Sevilla, in Nervión, and construction began in 1954. A contest was held for its design, won by the architect Manuel Muñoz Monasterio, who had also designed the home of Real Madrid, the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium.
The construction of the stadium was completed in the summer of 1958 and was inaugurated on 7 September of the same year with a friendly match against Real Jaén. The east and west grandstands to the stadium were finished in 1974 under the presidency of Eugenio Montes Cabezas and increased the stadium's capacity to 70,000. The visor, the mosaic on the main façade (by Santiago del Campo) and the new lighting were added for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, in which it held a group game between the Soviet Union and Brazil, as well as a semi-final between France and West Germany. The 1986 European Cup Final was held in the stadium, and won by Steaua București against Barcelona. In addition, the capacity of the stadium was reduced to approximately 60,000. The last modification was made during the mid-1990s, when according to FIFA rules, all standing areas were redeveloped into seating, reducing the capacity to the present 42,714.
The Spain national team have played 26 matches in the stadium since 1961, unbeaten with 21 wins and 5 draws. To mark the club's centenary in 2005, an allegorical mosaic designed by Ben Yessef was built above the southern gate, depicting the history of the city of Seville. Above it, the club's badge floated in the wind. The stadium currently houses the headquarters of the club's media, as well as an official store, club museum and trophy cabinet.
Training facilities
The sporting facilities known as La Ciudad Deportiva (The Sporting City) are used by the first team for training and by the reserve teams and women for matches. These facilities were inaugurated in 1974 and are located on the outskirts of the city on the road to Utrera. It has four natural grass pitches and three artificial pitches, as well as an artificial pitch for the Antonio Puerta Football School, changing rooms, gymnasium, press room, cafeteria, medical center and a recovering room.
League record
Season to season 78 seasons in La Liga13 seasons in Segunda División
Since the club was first promoted to La Liga in the 1934–35 season, Sevilla has played all but seven seasons in the first division. Sevilla won La Liga in the 1945–46 season, and finished as runners-up four times (1939–40, 1942–43, 1950–51 and 1956–57). While the club has only suffered four short-lived descents to the Segunda División, it won the second division title in 1968–69 and 2000–01.
European competition record
1 Group stage. Highest-ranked eliminated team in case of qualification, lowest-ranked qualified team in case of elimination.
UEFA club coefficient ranking
Honours
Throughout its history, Sevilla has won trophies at the regional, national and European level – including a record six UEFA Cups/UEFA Europa Leagues — and is the most successful club in Andalusia. In 2010 Sevilla was given permanent possession of the Copa del Rey after their victory in the competition to celebrate Spain winning the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
National tournaments
La Liga Winners (1): 1945–46
Runners-up (4): 1939–40, 1942–43, 1950–51, 1956–57
Segunda División Winners (4): 1929, 1933–34, 1968–69, 2000–01
Copa del Rey Winners (5): 1935, 1939, 1947–48, 2006–07, 2009–10
Runners-up (4): 1955, 1961–62, 2015–16, 2017–18
Supercopa de España:
Winners (1): 2007
Runners-up (3): 2010, 2016, 2018
European tournaments
UEFA Europa League Winners (6) – record: 2005–06, 2006–07, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2019–20
UEFA Super Cup Winners (1): 2006
Runners-up (5): 2007, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2020
Regional tournaments
Copa Andalucía Winners (18): 1916–17, 1918–19, 1919–20, 1920–21, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1923–24, 1924–25, 1925–26, 1926–27, 1928–29, 1929–30, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1932–33, 1935–36, 1938–39, 1939–40
Friendly tournaments
Antonio Puerta Trophy Winners (6): 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2017, 2019
Ramón de Carranza Trophy Winners (6): 1955, 1956, 1957, 2004, 2008, 2009
Costa del Sol Trophy Winners (2): 1964, 2004
Achille & Cesare Bortolotti Trophy Winners (1): 2010
Ciudad de la Línea Trophy Winners (3): 2001, 2002, 2003
Teresa Herrera Trophy Winners (4): 1946, 1954, 1960, 2011
Colombino Trophy Winners (4): 1975, 1985, 1996, 2005
Winners (3): 1967, 1991, 1997
City of Seville Trophy Winners (7): 1972, 1973, 1976, 1978, 1982, 1984, 1994
Russian Railways Cup Winners (1): 2008
Trofeo de la Sal Winners (1): 2010
Antonio Camacho Memorial Winners (1): 2012
Costa Brava Trophy Winners (1): 2012
Supercopa Euroamericana Winners (1): 2016
Other awards, records, and recognitions
Medal of Andalusia (2005), issued by the Junta de Andalucía.
Best team of the world in 2006 and 2007 according to the International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS).
Best team as voted by the Federation of Sports Journalists of Andalucía (2006).
Prize for the best team of 2006 according to the Spanish Sports Press Association.
In January 2007, Sevilla were awarded with the 15th Communication Award granted by the Seville Press Association.
Royal Order of Sports Merit, granted by the Superior Council of Sports.
Gold medal of the Royal Chamber of Commerce for economic-administrative management.
The only team to win the UEFA Europa League three times in a row: 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
Gallery
Individual trophies
Pichichi Trophy (1):
Juan Arza (1955)
Zarra Trophy (2):
Álvaro Negredo (2011), (2013)
Team records
As of 2020–21 season.
General information
Most goals scored in a league match
Most goals conceded in a league match
Statistics in UEFA competitions
The debut of Sevilla in European competitions took place in the 1957–58 season as a participant in that season's European Cup. Despite finishing runner-up in the league to Real Madrid, Sevilla represented Spain in the competition as Real had already qualified by winning the European Cup the season before.
Accurate as of 9 March 2021Pld = Matches played; W = Won; D = Drawn; L = Lost; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; GD = Goal difference
Player records Top scorers in the history of the clubTop scorers in the history of the club up to December 2021Most official appearances up to December 2021
Affiliated teams
Sevilla's B team, Sevilla Atlético, was founded in 1958 and currently plays in Segunda, the second tier of Spanish football. Graduates from it to Sevilla's first team include Sergio Ramos and Jesús Navas, members of the Spain squad which won the 2010 World Cup and UEFA Euro 2012. Sevilla FC C, founded in 2003, compete in the fourth tier of Spanish football, the Tercera División, having risen with four consecutive promotions from provincial and regional leagues.
Sevilla's women's team play in the top-flight of Spanish women's football, the Super Liga, and currently play their home games at the club's training ground, Ciudad Deportiva José Ramón Cisneros Palacios. Sevilla acquired the women's club from CD Hispalis in 2004, and the club had its greatest success in the 2005–06 season, when it came runner-up in the Super Liga and the national cup.
Since its foundation for the 2007–08 season, the Spanish indoor football league has included a Sevilla veterans' team. Sevilla FC Puerto Rico, of Juncos, is a Puerto Rican football club of the Puerto Rico Soccer League. The side affiliated to Sevilla in 2008, and share a similar badge and kit. Since 2008, Sevilla has been one of two Spanish clubs (the other being Atlético Madrid, to compete in Superleague Formula, in which cars endorsed by professional football clubs compete in races across the world.
The Sevilla-Betis regatta is an annual rowing competition in Seville's Guadalquivir river, held since 1960. Different categories of boats represent Sevilla and its cross-city rival Real Betis. Sevilla have won on 30 of the 47 regattas.
Seville has strategic partnership with Indian 3rd Division Club FC Bengaluru United
Support
Fans
In 2007, Sevilla was the eighth-most supported club in Spain with 2.3% of the nation's football fans (compared to 32.8% for the most popular, Real Madrid). Their city rivals Real Betis possess 3.3% of the nation's support.
Since Sevilla became Sporting Limited Association, the concept of membership disappeared. Only the shareholders can take part in the decisions of the club according to the percentage of the capital they hold. The minority shareholders of the club are organised in a federation that represents them in the General Meeting of Shareholders that the club celebrates every year.
People who are traditionally referred to as members are currently fans who purchase a yearly season ticket which allows them to attend all home matches that season. Sometimes these members enjoy some specific advantages over the rest of the fans.
Fan clubs
Sevilla's fan clubs are mainly concentrated in the city of Seville, its province and the rest of Andalusia. The presence of fan clubs in other autonomous communities is greater in Catalonia and Extremadura. Most of them are integrated into the "San Fernando Fan Clubs Federation" (Federación de Peñas Sevillistas "San Fernando"), which, according to its statutes, is totally independent from the directive board of the club, having its own board and not being intervened.
Ultras
The Biris Norte is an organized group of ultra supporters located in the North grandstand of the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán. The group's name comes from the Gambian player Alhaji Momodo Njie, nicknamed Biri Biri, who became very popular amongst the Sevilla fans in the 1970s. The "Biris Norte" was created in the 1974–75 and is one of the oldest groups of Ultra fans in Spain.
Rivalries
Sevilla compete in the Seville derby against their cross-city rivals Real Betis. The two played each other for the first time on 8 October 1915 in a match which was won 4–3 by Sevilla. The game is considered one of the most important derbies in Spanish football. Sevilla also has a significant rivalry with Atlético Madrid and Valencia CF.
References
External links
Sevilla FC at La Liga
Sevilla FC at UEFA
Ramon Sanchez-Pizjuan Stadium Guide
La Liga clubs
Football clubs in Andalusia
Copa del Rey winners
Association football clubs established in 1905
1905 establishments in Spain
UEFA Europa League winning clubs
UEFA Super Cup winning clubs
Segunda División clubs | [
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243513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alprazolam | Alprazolam | Alprazolam, sold under the brand name Xanax, among others, is a fast-acting tranquilizer of medium duration in the triazolobenzodiazepine (TBZD) class, which are benzodiazepines (BZDs) fused with a triazole ring. It is most commonly used in short-term management of anxiety disorders, specifically panic disorder or generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Other uses include the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea, together with other treatments. GAD improvement occurs generally within a week. Alprazolam is generally taken by mouth.
Common side effects include sleepiness, depression, headaches, feeling tired, dry mouth, and memory problems. Some of the sedation and tiredness may improve within a few days. Due to concerns about misuse, some do not recommend alprazolam as an initial treatment for panic disorder. Withdrawal or rebound symptoms may occur if use is suddenly decreased; gradually decreasing the dose over weeks or months may be required. Other rare risks include suicide and a twofold increased risk of all-cause mortality. Alprazolam, like other benzodiazepines, acts through the GABAA receptor.
Alprazolam was patented in 1971 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1981. Alprazolam is a Schedule IV controlled substance and is a common drug of abuse. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 41st-most-commonly-prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 17million prescriptions.
Medical uses
Alprazolam is mostly used in short-term management of anxiety disorders, panic disorders, and nausea due to chemotherapy. Alprazolam may also be indicated for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, as well as for the treatment of anxiety conditions with comorbid depression. The FDA label advises that the physician should periodically reassess the usefulness of the drug.
Panic disorder
Alprazolam is effective in the relief of moderate to severe anxiety and panic attacks. However, it is not a first-line treatment since the development of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Alprazolam is no longer recommended in Australia for the treatment of panic disorder because of concerns regarding tolerance, dependence, and abuse. Most evidence shows that the benefits of alprazolam in treating panic disorder last only four to ten weeks. However, people with panic disorder have been treated on an open basis for up to eight months without apparent loss of benefit.
In the United States, alprazolam is FDA-approved for the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. Alprazolam is recommended by the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) for treatment-resistant cases of panic disorder where there is no history of tolerance or dependence.
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety associated with depression is responsive to alprazolam. Clinical studies have shown that the effectiveness is limited to 4 months for anxiety disorders. However, the research into antidepressant properties of alprazolam is poor and has only assessed its short-term effects against depression. In one study, some long term, high-dosage users of alprazolam developed reversible depression. In the US, alprazolam is FDA-approved for the management of anxiety disorders (a condition corresponding most closely to the APA Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM-IV-TR diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder) or the short-term relief of symptoms of anxiety. In the UK, alprazolam is recommended for the short-term treatment (2–4 weeks) of severe acute anxiety.
Nausea due to chemotherapy
Alprazolam may be used in combination with other medications for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.
Contraindications
Benzodiazepines require special precaution if used in children and in alcohol- or drug-dependent individuals. Particular care should be taken in pregnant or elderly people, people with substance use disorder history (particularly alcohol dependence), and people with comorbid psychiatric disorders. The use of alprazolam should be avoided or carefully monitored by medical professionals in individuals with: myasthenia gravis, acute narrow-angle glaucoma, severe liver deficiencies (e.g., cirrhosis), severe sleep apnea, pre-existing respiratory depression, marked neuromuscular respiratory, acute pulmonary insufficiency, chronic psychosis, hypersensitivity or allergy to alprazolam or other benzodiazepines, and borderline personality disorder (where it may induce suicidality and dyscontrol).
Like all central nervous system depressants, alprazolam in larger-than-normal doses can cause significant deterioration in alertness and increase drowsiness, especially in those unaccustomed to the drug's effects.
Elderly individuals should be cautious in the use of alprazolam due to the possibility of increased susceptibility to side-effects, especially loss of coordination and drowsiness.
Side effects
Sedative drugs, including alprazolam, have been associated with an increased risk of death.
Possible side effects include:
Anterograde amnesia and concentration problems
Ataxia, slurred speech
Disinhibition
Drowsiness, dizziness, lightheadedness, fatigue, unsteadiness, and impaired coordination, vertigo
Dry mouth (infrequent)
Hallucinations (rare)
Jaundice (very rare)
Seizures (less common)
Skin rash, respiratory depression, constipation
Suicidal ideation or suicide
Urinary retention (infrequent)
Muscle weakness
In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.
Paradoxical reactions
Although unusual, the following paradoxical reactions have been shown to occur:
Aggression
Mania, agitation, hyperactivity, and restlessness
Rage, hostility
Twitches and tremor
Food and drug interactions
Alprazolam is primarily metabolized via CYP3A4. Combining CYP3A4 inhibitors such as cimetidine, erythromycin, norfluoxetine, fluvoxamine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, nefazodone, propoxyphene, and ritonavir delay the hepatic clearance of alprazolam, which may result in its accumulation and increased severity of its side effects.
Imipramine and desipramine have been reported to increase an average of 31% and 20% respectively by the concomitant administration of alprazolam tablets. Combined oral contraceptive pills reduce the clearance of alprazolam, which may lead to increased plasma levels of alprazolam and accumulation.
Alcohol is one of the most common interactions; alcohol and alprazolam taken in combination have a synergistic effect on one another, which can cause severe sedation, behavioral changes, and intoxication. The more alcohol and alprazolam taken, the worse the interaction. Combination of alprazolam with the herb kava can result in the development of a semi-comatose state. Plants in the genus Hypericum (including St. John's wort) conversely can lower the plasma levels of alprazolam and reduce its therapeutic effect.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
Benzodiazepines cross the placenta, enter the fetus, and are also excreted in breast milk. Chronic administration of diazepam, another benzodiazepine, to nursing mothers has been reported to cause their infants to become lethargic and to lose weight.
The use of alprazolam during pregnancy is associated with congenital abnormalities, and use in the last trimester may cause fetal drug dependence and withdrawal symptoms in the post-natal period as well as neonatal flaccidity and respiratory problems. However, in long-term users of benzodiazepines, abrupt discontinuation due to concerns of teratogenesis has a high risk of causing extreme withdrawal symptoms and a severe rebound effect of the underlying mental health disorder. Spontaneous abortions may also result from abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic medications, including benzodiazepines.
Overdose
The maximum recommended daily dose is 10 milligrams per day.
Overdoses of alprazolam can be mild to severe depending on the quantity ingested and if other drugs are taken in combination.
Alprazolam overdoses cause excess central nervous system (CNS) depression and may include one or more of the following symptoms:
Coma and death if alprazolam is combined with other substances.
Fainting
Hypotension (low blood pressure)
Hypoventilation (shallow breathing)
Impaired motor functions
Dizziness
Impaired balance
Impaired or absent reflexes
Muscle weakness
Orthostatic hypotension (fainting while standing up too quickly)
Somnolence (drowsiness)
Dependence and withdrawal
The potential for misuse among those taking it for medical reasons is controversial, with some expert reviews stating that the risk is low and similar to that of other benzodiazepine drugs. Others state that there is a substantial risk of misuse and dependence in both patients and non-medical users and that the short half-life and rapid onset of action may increase the risk of misuse. Compared to the large number of prescriptions, relatively few individuals increase their dose on their own initiative or engage in drug-seeking behavior.
Alprazolam, like other benzodiazepines, binds to specific sites on the GABAA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) receptor. When bound to these sites, which are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors, it modulates the effect of GABAA receptors and, thus, of GABAergic neurons. Long-term use causes adaptive changes in the benzodiazepine receptors, making them less sensitive to stimulation and thus making the drugs less potent.
Withdrawal and rebound symptoms commonly occur and necessitate a gradual reduction in dosage to minimize withdrawal effects when discontinuing.
Not all withdrawal effects are evidence of true dependence or withdrawal. Recurrence of symptoms such as anxiety may simply indicate that the drug was having its expected anti-anxiety effect and that, in the absence of the drug, the symptom has returned to pretreatment levels. If the symptoms are more severe or frequent, the person may be experiencing a rebound effect due to the removal of the drug. Either of these can occur without the person actually being drug dependent.
Alprazolam and other benzodiazepines may also cause the development of physical dependence, tolerance, and benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms during rapid dose reduction or cessation of therapy after long-term treatment. There is a higher chance of withdrawal reactions if the drug is administered in a higher dosage than recommended, or if a person stops taking the medication altogether without slowly allowing the body to adjust to a lower-dosage regimen.
In 1992, Romach and colleagues reported that dose escalation is not a characteristic of long-term alprazolam users and that the majority of long-term alprazolam users change their initial pattern of regular use to one of symptom control only when required.
Some common symptoms of alprazolam discontinuation include malaise, weakness, insomnia, tachycardia, lightheadedness, and dizziness.
Those taking more than 4 mg per day have an increased potential for dependence. This medication may cause withdrawal symptoms upon abrupt withdrawal or rapid tapering, which in some cases have been known to cause seizures, as well as marked delirium similar to that produced by the anticholinergic tropane alkaloids of Datura (scopolamine and atropine). The discontinuation of this medication may also cause a reaction called rebound anxiety.
In a 1983 study, only 5% of patients who had abruptly stopped taking long-acting benzodiazepines after less than 8 months demonstrated withdrawal symptoms, but 43% of those who had been taking them for more than 8 months did. With alprazolam – a short-acting benzodiazepine – taken for 8 weeks, 65% of patients experienced significant rebound anxiety. To some degree, these older benzodiazepines are self-tapering.
The benzodiazepines diazepam and oxazepam have been found to produce fewer withdrawal reactions than alprazolam, temazepam, or lorazepam. Factors that determine the risk of psychological dependence or physical dependence and the severity of the benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms during dose reduction of alprazolam include: dosage used, length of use, frequency of dosing, personality characteristics of the individual, previous use of cross-dependent/cross-tolerant drugs (alcohol or other sedative-hypnotic drugs), current use of cross-dependent/-tolerant drugs, use of other short-acting, high-potency benzodiazepines, and method of discontinuation.
Pharmacology
Alprazolam is a positive allosteric modulator of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptor. When it binds to the receptor, effects of GABA are enhanced leading to inhibition of neurons in the brain. This results in effects including reduced anxiety, muscle relaxant, antidepressant and anticonvulsant activity. The activity of alprazolam in the central nervous system is dose dependent.
Mechanism of action
Alprazolam is classed as a high-potency triazolobenzodiazepine: a benzodiazepine with a triazole ring attached to its structure. As a benzodiazepine, alprazolam produces a variety of therapeutic and adverse effects by binding to the GABAA benzodiazepine receptor site and modulating its function; GABA receptors are the most prolific inhibitory receptor within the brain. The GABA chemical and receptor system mediates inhibitory or calming effects of alprazolam on the nervous system. Binding of alprazolam to the GABAA receptor, a chloride ion channel, enhances the effects of GABA, a neurotransmitter. When GABA binds the GABAA receptor the channel opens and chloride enters the cell which makes it more resistant to depolarisation. Therefore, alprazolam has a depressant effect on synaptic transmission to reduce anxiety.
The GABAA receptor is made up of 5 subunits out of a possible 19, and GABAA receptors made up of different combinations of subunits have different properties, different locations within the brain, and, importantly, different activities with regard to benzodiazepines. Alprazolam and other triazolobenzodiazepines such as triazolam that have a triazole ring fused to their diazepine ring appear to have antidepressant properties. This is perhaps due to the similarities shared with tricyclic antidepressants, as they have two benzene rings fused to a diazepine ring. Alprazolam causes a marked suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The therapeutic properties of alprazolam are similar to other benzodiazepines and include anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant, hypnotic and amnesic; however, it is used mainly as an anxiolytic.
Giving alprazolam, as compared to lorazepam, has been demonstrated to elicit a statistically significant increase in extracellular dopamine D1 and D2 concentrations in the striatum.
Pharmacokinetics
Alprazolam is taken orally, and is absorbed well – 80% of alprazolam binds to proteins in the serum (the majority binding to albumin). The concentration of alprazolam peaks after one to two hours.
Alprazolam is metabolized in the liver, mostly by the enzyme cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4). Two major metabolites are produced: 4-hydroxyalprazolam and α-hydroxyalprazolam, as well as an inactive benzophenone. The low concentrations and low potencies of 4-hydroxyalprazolam and α-hydroxyalprazolam indicate that they have little to no contribution to the effects of alprazolam.
The metabolites, as well as some unmetabolized alprazolam, are filtered out by the kidneys and are excreted in the urine.
Chemistry
Physical properties
Alprazolam is a triazole and benzodiazepine derivative substituted with a phenyl group at position 6, with a chlorine atom at position 8 and with a methyl group at position 1. It is an analogue of triazolam, the difference between them being the absence of a chlorine atom in the ortho position of the phenyl ring. It is slightly soluble in chloroform, soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in acetone and insoluble in water. It has a melting point of .
Synthesis
For the synthesis of alprazolam the same method can be used as for triazolam, excepting that it starts from 2-amino-5-chlorobenzophenone. However, an alternative easier synthesis starting with 2,6-dichloro-4-phenylquinoline has been suggested, in which it reacts with hydrazine giving 6-chloro-2-hydrazino-4-phenylquinoline. Boiling the mixture with triethyl orthoacetate results in cyclization with the formation of the triazole ring. The product undergoes oxidative degradation in the presence of periodate and ruthenium dioxide in acetone solution, giving 2-[4-(3'-methyl-1,2,4-triazolo)]-5-chlorobenzophenone. Oxy-methylation with formaldehyde results in a product that is treated with phosphorus tribromide, when 2-[4-(3'-methyl-5'-bromomethyl-1,2,4-triazolo)]-5-chlorobenzophenone is obtained. By substituting the bromine atom with an amino group conferred by ammonia, it forms alprazolam triazolobenzophenone, following which an intermolecular heterocyclization takes place to obtain alprazolam.
Detection
Quantification of alprazolam in blood and plasma samples may be necessary to confirm a diagnosis of intoxication in hospitalized patients, or to provide evidence in the case of crimes e.g., impaired driving arrest, or to assist in a thorough forensic investigation, e.g., in a medicolegal death investigation. Blood or plasma alprazolam concentrations are usually in a range of 10–100 μg/L in persons receiving the drug therapeutically, 100–300 μg/L in those arrested for impaired driving, and 300–2000 μg/L in victims of acute overdosage. Most of the commercial immunoassays used for the benzodiazepine class of drugs cross-react with alprazolam, but confirmation and quantitative determination are usually done by chromatographic techniques.
Forms of alprazolam
Alprazolam regular release and orally disintegrating tablets are available as 0.25 mg, 0.5 mg, 1 mg, and 2 mg tablets, while extended release tablets are available as 0.5 mg, 1 mg, 2 mg, and 3 mg. Liquid alprazolam is available in a 1 mg/mL oral concentrate. Inactive ingredients in alprazolam tablets and solutions include microcrystalline cellulose, corn starch, docusate sodium, povidone, sodium starch glycollate, lactose monohydrate, magnesium stearate, colloidal silicon dioxide, and sodium benzoate. In addition, the 0.25 mg tablet contains D&C Yellow No. 10 and the 0.5 mg tablet contains FD&C Yellow No. 6 and D&C Yellow No. 10.
Society and culture
Patent
Alprazolam is covered under , which was filed on 29 October 1969, granted on 19 October 1976, and expired in September 1993.
Recreational use
There is a risk of misuse and dependence in both patients and non-medical users of alprazolam; alprazolam's high affinity binding, high potency, and rapid onset increase its abuse potential. The physical dependence and withdrawal syndrome of alprazolam also add to its addictive nature. In the small subgroup of individuals who escalate their doses there is usually a history of alcohol or other substance use disorders. Despite this, most prescribed alprazolam users do not use their medication recreationally, and the long-term use of benzodiazepines does not generally correlate with the need for dose escalation. However, based on US findings from the Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS), an annual compilation of patient characteristics in substance abuse treatment facilities in the United States, admissions due to "primary tranquilizer" (including, but not limited to, benzodiazepine-type) drug use increased 79% from 1992 to 2002, suggesting that misuse of benzodiazepines may be on the rise. In 2011, The New York Times reported, "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention last year reported an 89 percent increase in emergency room visits nationwide related to nonmedical benzodiazepine use between 2004 and 2008."
Alprazolam is one of the most commonly prescribed and misused benzodiazepines in the United States. A large-scale nationwide U.S. government study conducted by SAMHSA found that, in the U.S., benzodiazepines are recreationally the most frequently used pharmaceuticals due to their widespread availability, accounting for 35% of all drug-related visits to hospital emergency and urgent care facilities. Men and women are equally likely to use benzodiazepines recreationally. The report found that alprazolam is the most common benzodiazepine for recreational use, followed by clonazepam, lorazepam, and diazepam. The number of emergency department visits due to benzodiazepines increased by 36% between 2004 and 2006.
Those at a particularly high risk for misuse and dependence are people with a history of alcoholism or drug abuse and/or dependence and people with borderline personality disorder.
Alprazolam, along with other benzodiazepines, is often used with other recreational drugs. These uses include aids to relieve the panic or distress of dysphoric ("bad trip") reactions to psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, and the drug-induced agitation and insomnia in the "comedown" stages of stimulant use, such as amphetamine, cocaine, and MDMA allowing sleep. Alprazolam may also be used with other depressant drugs, such as ethanol, heroin, and other opioids, in an attempt to enhance their psychological effects. Alprazolam may be used in conjunction with cannabis, with users citing a synergistic effect achieved after consuming the combination.
The poly-drug use of powerful depressant drugs poses the highest level of health concerns due to a significant increase in the likelihood of experiencing an overdose, which may cause fatal respiratory depression.
A 1990 study found that diazepam has a higher misuse potential relative to many other benzodiazepines and that some data suggest that alprazolam and lorazepam resemble diazepam in this respect.
Anecdotally, injection of alprazolam has been reported, causing dangerous damage to blood vessels, closure of blood vessels (embolization) and decay of muscle tissue (rhabdomyolysis). Alprazolam is not very soluble in water—when crushed in water it does not fully dissolve (40 µg/ml of H2O at pH 7). There have also been anecdotal reports of alprazolam being snorted. Due to the low weight of a dose, alprazolam, in one case, was distributed on blotter paper in a manner similar to LSD.
Popular culture
Slang terms for alprazolam vary from place to place. Some of the more common terms are modified versions of the trade name "Xanax", such as Xannies (or Xanies) and the phonetic equivalent of Zannies; references to their drug classes, such as benzos or downers; or remark upon their shape or color (most commonly a straight, perforated tablet or an oval-shaped pill): bars, ladders, Xanbars, Xans, Z-bars, handle bars, beans, footballs, planks, poles, sticks, blues, or blue footballs.
Availability
Alprazolam is available in English-speaking countries under the following brand names:
Alprax, Alprocontin, Alzam, Alzolam, Anzilum, Apo-Alpraz, Helex, Kalma, Mylan-Alprazolam, Niravam, Novo-Alprazol, Nu-Alpraz, Pacyl, Restyl, Tranax, Trika, Xycalm, Xanax, Xanor, Zolam, Zopax.
In December 2013, in anticipation of the rescheduling of alprazolam to Schedule 8 in Australia, Pfizer Australia announced they would be discontinuing the Xanax brand in Australia as it was no longer commercially viable.
Legal status
Alprazolam has varied legal status depending on jurisdiction:
In the United States, alprazolam is a prescription drug and is assigned to Schedule IV of the Controlled Substances Act by the Drug Enforcement Administration.
Under the UK drug misuse classification system, benzodiazepines are Class C drugs (Schedule 4). In the UK, alprazolam is not available on the NHS and can only be obtained on a private prescription.
In Ireland, alprazolam is a Schedule 4 medicine.
In Sweden, alprazolam is a prescription drug in List IV (Schedule 4) under the Narcotics Drugs Act (1968).
In the Netherlands, alprazolam is a List 2 substance of the Opium Law and is available for prescription.
In Germany, alprazolam can be prescribed normally in doses up to 1 mg. Higher doses are scheduled as Anlage III drugs and require a special prescription form.
In Australia, alprazolam was originally a Schedule 4 (Prescription Only) medication; however, as of February 2014, it has become a Schedule 8 medication, subjecting it to more rigorous prescribing requirements.
In the Philippines, alprazolam is legally classified as a "dangerous drug" under the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, along with other schedule drugs listed in the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The importation of dangerous drugs including alprazolam, requires authorization from the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency.
Internationally, alprazolam is included under the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances as Schedule IV.
References
External links
Anxiolytics
Chloroarenes
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Pfizer brands
Triazolobenzodiazepines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | [
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243515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community-supported%20agriculture | Community-supported agriculture | Community-supported agriculture (CSA model) or cropsharing is a system that connects the producer and consumers within the food system more closely by allowing the consumer to subscribe to the harvest of a certain farm or group of farms. It is an alternative socioeconomic model of agriculture and food distribution that allows the producer and consumer to share the risks of farming. The model is a subcategory of civic agriculture that has an overarching goal of strengthening a sense of community through local markets.
In return for subscribing to a harvest, subscribers receive either a weekly or bi-weekly box of produce or other farm goods. This includes in-season fruits and vegetables and can expand to dried goods, eggs, milk, meat, etc. Typically, farmers try to cultivate a relationship with subscribers by sending weekly letters of what is happening on the farm, inviting them for harvest, or holding an open-farm event. Some CSAs provide for contributions of labor in lieu of a portion of subscription costs.
The term CSA is mostly used in the United States and Canada, but a variety of similar production and economic sub-systems are in use worldwide, in Austria and Germany as Solidarische Landwirtschaft ("Soliadrity farming") and in the UK mainly in the vegetable box scheme
History
The term "community-supported agriculture" was coined in the northeastern United States in the 1980s, influenced by European biodynamic agriculture ideas formulated by Rudolf Steiner. Two European farmers, Jan Vander Tuin from Switzerland and Trauger Groh from Germany, brought European biodynamic farming ideas to the United States in the mid-1980s. Vander Tuin had co-founded a community-supported agricultural project named Topinambur located near Zurich, Switzerland. Coinage of the term "community-supported agriculture" stems from Vander Tuin. This influence led to the separate and simultaneous creation of two CSAs in 1986. The CSA Garden at Great Barrington was created in Massachusetts by Jan Vander Tuin, Susan Witt, and Robyn Van En. The Temple-Wilton Community Farm was created in New Hampshire by Anthony Graham, Trauger Groh, and Lincoln Geiger.
The CSA Garden at Great Barrington remained together until 1990 when many members left to form the Mahaiwe Harvest CSA. One of the original founders, Robyn Van En, became incredibly influential in the CSA movement in America and founded CSA North America in 1992. The Temple-Wilton Community Garden was more successful and still operates as a CSA today. It became an important member of the Wilton community and it receives funding from state, federal, and local sources.
A parallel model called Teikei existed in Japan as early as the mid 1960s. Similarly, Dr. Booker T. Whatley, a professor of agriculture in Alabama, advocated for Clientele Membership Clubs as early as the 1960s.
Since the 1980s, community supported farms have been organized throughout North America — mainly in New England, the Northwest, the Pacific coast, the Upper-Midwest and Canada. North America now has at least 13,000 CSA farms of which 12,549 are in the US according to the United States Department of Agriculture in 2007. The rise of CSAs seems to be correlated with the increase in awareness of the environmental movement in the United States. CSAs have even become popular in urban environments such as the New York City Coalition Against Hunger's CSA program that helps serve under-served communities. One of the largest subscription CSAs was Capay Inc. in Capay Valley, California which in 2010 delivered boxes to 13,000 customers a week as well as selling at 15 farmers markets, operating a retail store, and delivering special orders to restaurants.
Urgenci, based in France, helps network together consumers and producers across Europe, the Mediterranean, and West Africa.
CSA was introduced to China following a series of food safety scandals in the late 2000s. It was estimated that there were more than 500 CSA farms in China by 2017. They have been a critical force in the development of the organic and ecological farming in China. Chinese CSA farmers, researchers and civil society organizations gather annually at the national CSA symposium held since 2009.
Much of the growth in women labour participation in agriculture is outside the "male dominated field of conventional agriculture". In community supported agriculture women represent 40 percent of farm operators.
International
Even if the systems of community-supported agriculture varier in different countries, there are number of umbrella-organizations connecting the farms. In the United States the governmental program SARE offered grants for research and education projects that advance sustainable agricultural practices like CSA.
In Germany and Austria the CSA groups founded the Bundesnetzwerk Solidarische Landwirtschaft (Federal Network of CSA-farms) in 2011.
Socio-economic model
CSAs create direct connections between producers and consumers through alternative markets and the members and farmers share the risk of farming. The goals of the first CSA model in the US were to have the producer and consumer to come into the market as equals and make an exchange with fair prices and fair wages.
The consumer pays for things such as transparency, environmental stewardship, producer relationships, etc. The farmers engaged in CSAs do so to fulfill goals other than income and are not compensated fairly in these exchanges. This kind of market holds ‘economic rents’ where the consumer surplus comes from the consumers’ willingness to pay for something further than the product as well as for the products inputs themselves. Although these markets still exist within a larger capitalist economy, they are able to exist because of the ‘economic rents’ that are collected.
CSA system
CSAs generally focus on the production of high quality foods for a local community, often using organic or biodynamic farming methods, and a shared risk membership–marketing structure. This kind of farming operates with a much greater degree of involvement of consumers and other stakeholders than usual — resulting in a stronger consumer-producer relationship. The core design includes developing a cohesive consumer group that is willing to fund a whole season's budget in order to get quality foods. The system has many variations on how the farm budget is supported by the consumers and how the producers then deliver the foods. CSA theory purports that the more a farm embraces whole-farm, whole-budget support, the more it can focus on quality and reduce the risk of food waste.
Structure
Community-supported agriculture farms in the United States today share three common characteristics: an emphasis on community and/or local produce, share or subscriptions sold prior to season, and weekly deliveries to members/subscribers. Though CSA operation varies from farm to farm and has evolved over time, these three characteristics have remained constant. The functioning of a CSA also relies on four practical arrangements: for farmers to know the needs of a community, for consumers to have the opportunity to express to farmers what their needs and financial limitations are, for commitments between farmers and consumers to be consciously established, and for farmers needs to be recognized.
From this base, four main types of CSAs have been developed:
Farmer managed: A farmer sets up and maintains a CSA, recruits subscribers, and controls management of the CSA.
Shareholder/subscriber: Local residents set up a CSA and hire a farmer to grow crops, and shareholders/subscribers control most management.
Farmer cooperative: Multiple farmers develop a CSA program.
Farmer-shareholder cooperative: Farmers and local residents set up and cooperatively manage a CSA.
In most original CSAs, a core group of members existed. This core group of members helped to make decisions about and run the CSA including marketing, distribution, administrative, and community organization functions. CSAs with a core group of members are most profitable and successful. However, in 1999, 72 percent of CSAs did not have a core group of members. CSAs with a core group of members operate more successfully as a farmer-shareholder cooperative and CSAs without a group of core members rely much more on subscriptions and run most prominently as shareholder/subscriber CSAs.
Ideology
Community-supported agriculture in America was influenced by the ideas of Rudolf Steiner, an Austrian philosopher. He developed the concepts of anthroposophy and biodynamic agriculture. The Temple-Wilton Community Farm used his ideas to develop three main goals of CSAs:
New forms of property ownership: the idea that land should be held in common by a community through a legal trust, which leases the land to farmers
New forms of cooperation: the idea that a network of human relationships should replace the traditional system of employers and employees
New forms of economy: that the economy should not be based on increasing profit, but should be based on the actual needs of the people and land involved in an enterprise
As CSAs have increased in both number and size since they were first developed, they have also changed ideologically. While original CSAs and some more current CSAs are still philosophically oriented, most CSAs today are commercially oriented and community-supported agriculture is predominantly seen as a beneficial marketing strategy. This has led to three ideologically based types of CSAs. The first type is instrumental, the CSA is considered a market in the traditional sense, instead of an alternative form of economy and relationship. The second type is functional; there is a relationship of solidarity between the farmer and the subscribers, but this extends mostly to social functions, not managerial or administrative functions. This is the most common type of CSA. The final type is collaborative; this is the closest to the original aims of CSAs where the relationship between the farmer and the subscribers is seen as a partnership.
Distribution and marketing methods
Shares of a CSA originally and predominantly consist of produce. In more recent years, shares have diversified and include non-produce products including eggs, meat, flowers, honey, dairy and soaps. Share prices vary from CSA to CSA. Shares are sold as full shares, which feed 2 to 5 people, and half shares, which feed 1 to 3 people. Prices range from $200 to $500 per season. Full shares are sold at a median of $400 and half shares are sold at a median of $250. Share prices are mostly determined by overhead costs of production, but are also determined by share prices of other CSAs, variable costs of production, market forces, and income level of the community. Many CSAs have payment plans and low-income options.
Shares are distributed in several different ways. Shares are most often distributed weekly. Most CSAs allow share pick up at the farm. Shares are also distributed through regional dropoff, direct home or office dropoff, farmers' markets, and community center/church dropoff. For example, the new "Farmie Markets" of upstate New York take orders online and have a number of farmers who send that week's orders to a central point in a limited region, for distribution by the organizers.
CSAs market their farms and shares in different ways. CSAs employ different channels of marketing to diversify their sales efforts and increase subscriptions. CSAs use local farmers' markets, restaurants, on-farm retail, wholesale to natural food stores, and wholesale to local groceries in addition to their CSAs to market shares. One problem that CSAs encounter is over-production, so CSAs often sell their produce and products in ways other than shares. Often, CSA farms also sell their products at local farmers' markets. Excess products are sometimes given to food banks.
Challenges for farmers
Many CSA farmers can capitalize on a closer relationship between customers and their food, since some customers will pay more (an economic rent if this puts the price above the cost of production) if they know where it is coming from, who is involved, and have special access to it. However, some farmers participating in community-supported agriculture do not experience the economic benefits that they are perceived to obtain by participating in an alternative community-based arrangement. Galt's 2013 study of CSA farmers found that many farmers charged lower fees and prices for their goods than would provide them with financial security. This study suggested that farmers may charge less than they need to earn fair wages due to undervaluing their expenses and to offset the high costs of CSA products and make it more affordable for customers; see moral economy.
See also
Agrarian socialism
Agroecology
Artisanal food
Civic agriculture
Common land
Communalism
Community land trust
Community supported fishery
Community wealth building
Development-supported agriculture
Farmers' market
Local food
Moral economy
Sustainable agriculture
Slow food
Vegetable box scheme
Worker cooperative
WWOOF
References
Further reading
Bryant, Greg. (1992). "Community Supported Agriculture," RAIN magazine 14(2), Winter/Spring.
Cone, C. A., & Myhre, A. (2000). Community-Supported Agriculture: A Sustainable Alternative to Industrial Agriculture? Human Organization 59(2), 187-197.
DeMuth, Suzanne. (1993). "Community Supported Agriculture (CSA): An Annotated Bibliography and Resource Guide", September.
Egan, Timothy. (2003). "Amid Dying Towns of Rural Plains, One Makes a Stand," New York Times, December 1.
En, Robyn Van. (1995). "Eating for Your Community: A Report from the Founder of Community Supported Agriculture," Context, Fall, p, 29.
Greenwood, Deborah, and Robin Leichenko. (2012). "Community-Supported Agriculture." In Danto, William, ed., Food and Famine in the 21st Century, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 86-94.
Groh, Trauger, and Steven McFadden. (1990). Farms of Tomorrow: Community Supported Farms - Farm Supported Communities. Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association
Groh, Trauger, and Steven McFadden. (1998). Farms of Tomorrow Revisited: Community Supported Farms - Farm Supported Communities. Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association.
What is a CSA, HarvestHand (2014). "Community Shared Agriculture," HarvestHand- What is a CSA.
knowwhereyourfoodcomesfrom http://knowwhereyourfoodcomesfrom.com/community-supported-agriculture-csa-farms/northeast-region/west-virginia/
Kumar, S., Duell, J., Soergell, A., & Ali, R. (2011). Towards direct marketing of produce by farmers in India: Lessons from the United States of America. Journal of International Development, 23(4), 539-547. doi:10.1002/jid.1600
Lawson, Jered. (1993). "Cabbages and Compassion", RAIN magazine 14(3), Spring.
McFadden, Steven. (2011). The Call of the Land: An Agrarian Primer for the 21st Century, 2nd ed. NorLights Press.
McFadden, Steven (2015). "Awakening Community Intelligence: CSA Farms as Community Cornerstones" (Soul*Sparks Books).
Organic Gardening. (1984). "Produce by Subscription," April.
Organic Gardening. (1986). "From Farms to Families," July.
Speth, James Gustav. (2008). The bridge at the edge of the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Time. (2003). “Fresh Off the Farm, A new breed of planters and eaters are joining forces to nurture the local-foods movement,”, November. 3.
VanderTuin, Jan. (1992). "Zürich Supported Agriculture", RAIN magazine 14(2), Winter/Spring.
Member Assembler (2015). "CSA Models - The Comprehensive guide to CSA Distribution Models and Fundamental Questions to ask when developing a CSA model".
External links
Find a local CSA (localharvest.org)
Urban agriculture
Agriculture in the United States
Agroecology
Agricultural economics
Agricultural labor
Rural community development
Community development
Community organizations
Organic farming
Agricultural cooperatives
Consumers' cooperatives
Sustainable food system
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243519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwa%20languages | Kwa languages | The Kwa languages, often specified as New Kwa, are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of Ivory Coast, across southern Ghana, and in central Togo. The name was introduced 1895 by Gottlob Krause and derives from the word for 'people' (Kwa) in many of these languages, as illustrated by Akan names.
Languages
See the box at right for a current classification.
The various clusters of languages included in Kwa are at best distantly related, and it has not been demonstrated that they are closer to each other than to neighboring Niger–Congo languages.
Stewart distinguished the following major branches, which historical-comparative analysis supports as valid groups:
Potou–Tano (including Akan)
Ga–Dangme
Na-Togo
[formerly] Gbe (inclusion doubtful, as they show more features of Kwa the closer one moves to Akan)
The Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast are not particularly close to any of these, nor to each other, so they are left ungrouped:
Avikam–Alladian
Attié
Abé
Adjukru
Abidji
[dubious] Ega
An Esuma language, extinct ca. 1800, remains unclassified.
Since Stewart, Ega has been tentatively removed, the Gbe languages reassigned to Volta–Niger, and Apro added. Some of the Na-Togo and Ka-Togo languages have been placed into separate branches of Kwa. See the infobox at right for the resulting branches.
Ethnologue divides the Kwa languages into two broad geographical groupings: Nyo and Left bank, but this is not a genealogical classification. The Nyo group collapses Stewart's Potou–Tano and Ga–Dangme branches and also includes the ungrouped languages of southern Ivory Coast, while the Ka/Na-Togo and Gbe languages are called Left bank because they are spoken to the east of the Volta River.
History of the proposal
The word 'Kwa' was introduced by Gottlob Krause in 1885 for the Akan (or perhaps Tano), Gã, and Gbe languages, which have kwa or kua as their word for 'human being'. Since then the proposal has been dramatically expanded, only to revert to something approaching its initial conception.
In 1952 Westermann and Bryan expanded Kwa to the various Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast and to what are now called the Volta–Niger languages of southern Nigeria. Greenberg (1963) added the Kru languages of Liberia, the Ghana–Togo Mountain languages which Westermann and Bryan had specifically excluded, and Ijaw of the Niger delta; West Kwa included the languages from Liberia to Dahomey (Republic of Benin), and East Kwa the languages of Nigeria. Bennett & Sterk (1977) proposed that the Yoruboid and Igboid languages belonged in Benue–Congo rather than in Kwa. Stewart (1989) removed Kru, Ijaw, and Volta–Niger (East Kwa), but kept the Ghana–Togo Mountain and Lagoon languages, as well as adding a few obscure, newly described languages. Stewart's classification is the basis of more recent conceptions. To disambiguate this from Greenberg's influential classification, the reduced family is sometimes called "New Kwa".
Comparative vocabulary
Sample basic vocabulary of Kwa and related languages from Dumestre (1971) and other sources:
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
See also
Proto-Potou-Akanic reconstructions (Wiktionary)
Gbe languages
Kru languages
Gur languages
References
Footnotes
Notations
Bennett, Patrick R. & Sterk, Jan P. (1977) 'South Central Niger–Congo: A reclassification'. Studies in African Linguistics, 8, 241–273.
Hintze, Ursula (1959) Bibliographie der Kwa-Sprachen und der Sprachen der Togo-Restvölker (mit 11 zweifarbigen Sprachenkarten). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
Stewart, John M. (1989) 'Kwa'. In: Bendor-Samuel & Hartell (eds.) The Niger–Congo languages. Lanham, MD: The University Press of America.
Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (1952) Languages of West Africa (Handbook of African Languages Part II). London/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press.
Williamson, Kay & Blench, Roger (2000) 'Niger–Congo', in Heine, Bernd and Nurse, Derek (eds) African Languages - An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, pp. 11–42.
External links
Journal of West African Languages: Kwa languages
Volta–Congo languages | [
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243529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talent | Talent | Talent has two principal meanings:
Talent (measurement), an ancient unit of mass and value
Talent (skill), a group of aptitudes useful for some activities; talents may refer to aptitudes themselves or to possessors of those talents
Talent may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Literature
Talent (play), a 1978 play by Victoria Wood
Talent, the first novel in The Talent Series by Zoey Dean
Television
Got Talent, a series of television shows, in several national versions
Young Talent Time (1971-1989; 2012), an Australian television variety program on Network Ten
Other arts, entertainment, and media
Talent (artwork), a seminal work of art by David Robbins, 1986
Talent (comics), a comic book series written by Christopher Golden and Tom Sngoski and drawn by Paul Azaceta, 2006
Billy Talent, a Canadian rock group from Toronto, who formed in 1993
Talents universe, a setting in Anne McCaffrey's science fiction, where Talents are members of the fictional psionic professions
"Hidden Talent", an episode of Kim Possible's second season
Other uses
Attic talent, also known as the Athenian talent or Greek talent, an ancient unit of mass or value equal to this amount of pure silver
Talent (horse), a racehorse
Bombardier Talent, a type of multiple unit passenger train manufactured by Bombardier
Talent, Oregon, a city in Jackson County, Oregon, United States
Jim Talent (born 1956), American politician, former Senator from Missouri
Human capital, as in talent management
People who work in entertainment or broadcasting, as in talent agent
See also | [
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243536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Louisiana | Music of Louisiana | The music of Louisiana can be divided into three general regions: rural south Louisiana, home to Creole Zydeco and Old French (now known as cajun music), New Orleans, and north Louisiana. The region in and around Greater New Orleans has a unique musical heritage tied to Dixieland jazz, blues, and Afro-Caribbean rhythms. The music of the northern portion of the state starting at Baton Rouge and reaching Shreveport has similarities to that of the rest of the US South.
Southern region
The music of rural south Louisiana features significant input from non-Creoles, most notably African Americans who are critical to the cultural/musical identity. Four main musical genres are indigenous to this area — Creole music (i.e. zydeco), swamp pop, and swamp blues. These historically-rooted genres, with unique rhythms and personalities, have been transformed with modern sounds and instruments. The southwestern and south central Louisiana areas herald many artists and songs that have become international hits, won Grammy awards, and become highly sought after by collectors.
In southwestern Louisiana in the 1800s, the fiddle was the most popular Cajun instrument and the music still carried clear influences from the Poitou region of France and the Scottish/Canadian influences of their earlier homeland. In the late 19th century German immigrants spreading outward from central and eastern Texas and New Orleans soon brought the accordion as well. Creoles at the time sang a rhythmic type of song called juré. When accordion, fiddle and the triangle iron were added later, the music evolved into French music or form la la, a central component of Creole music. La la was primarily rural, played at house dances also known as la las, and found in towns in the prairie regions like Mamou, Eunice and Opelousas.
In 1901 (see 1901 in music), oil was discovered at Jennings and immigration boomed. Many of the newcomers were white businessmen from outside of Louisiana who attempted to force the Creoles and Cajuns to adopt the dominant American cultural forms, even outlawing the use of the French language in 1916. Despite the law, many Creoles and Cajuns still spoke French at home, and musical performances were in French.
Creole music
The term "Creole music" is used to describe both the early folk or roots music traditions of French and Metis rural Creoles of South Louisiana and the later more contemporary genre called Zydeco. It was often simply called French music or La La. It was sung in French patois by Creoles. This early American roots music evolved in the 1930s into a richer sound accompanied by more instruments. Creole pioneer Amede Ardoin is said to be the first Creole to record this indigenous music. He has also been credited for greatly influencing the foundation of Cajun music. Melodies from pioneers like Ardoin provided a basis for works by composers Louis Moreau Gottschalk and Moses Hogan and others. Creole music traditions in the US have been known to change and evolve as quickly as they were being replicated by white artists, the music of the Creoles also evolved into a more contemporary amplified sound that was later called zydeco, which is the indigenous music of the Creoles or "Creole music". Zydeco comes from French les haricots, meaning snap or green beans as in les haricots (ne) sont pas salés (the beans are not seasoned (with salt pork) because times are hard right now). Zydeco fused the traditional Creole roots music sung in French with contemporary sounds making it relevant, dynamic and constantly attracting a new generation of listeners within the Creole community as well as outside the community. This fusion was birthed in the Creole lala, jazz and blues halls (joints) of Frenchtown, Houston, Texas which were frequented by Creole immigrants from West Louisiana and East Texas.
Cajun music
Cajun music is rooted in the music of the preexisting Creoles and the French-speaking Catholics of eastern Canada and became transformed into a unique sound of the Cajun culture. In earlier years of the late 18th century the fiddle was the predominant instrument and the music tended to sound more like early country music. Cajun music is typically a waltz or two step. Unlike the folk music of Quebec, it is not associated with the Celtic tradition. Famous Cajun musicians were Lawrence Walker, Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys, Aldus Roger, Marc Savoy, Wilson Savoy, Dewey Segura, Wayne Toups.
Zydeco
Early in the 1950s, zydeco evolved from the music of the Creoles in southwest and south central Louisiana. At an earlier period, Creole and Cajun music were more similar, but after World War II, this regional French music evolved into a distinct expression of the Creoles, Louisianians whose shared languages and culture transcend race. Along with the accordion, the second main instrument in a zydeco group is a corrugated metal washboard, called a Zydeco Rubboard or frottoir. They made the music contemporary by adding electrical instruments (guitar and bass), keyboards, drumkit and even sometimes horns. The Creole Zydeco music of Grammy-winning artists Queen Ida Guillory, Clifton Chenier, Rockin' Sidney Simien, Buckwheat Zydeco and Terrance Simien remain some of the most internationally recognized zydeco music. John Delafose, Andrus Espree (aka Beau Jocque), Boozoo Chavis, Rosie Ledet, Chubby Carrier, Canray Fontenot, Amédé Ardoin, Rockin' Dopsie, Geno Delafose, Nathan Williams, Keith Frank, Chris Ardoin, Nathan Williams Jr., J Paul Jr., Cedric Watson and Jeffery Broussard are also other well known zydeco musicians.
Swing Out
Swing out can be classified as a cross between the music genres of southwest Louisiana including Zydeco and Southern Soul. It is especially popular in the Acadiana region, being that so many artists originate and perform in this part of the state. Its popularity has caused an expansion of the music throughout the southern portion of the United States. Swing out music is usually produced and doesn't involve the use of live instruments unlike zydeco. Notable artists include Tucka James, Roi "Chip" Anthony, "Lysa" Harrington, and AudiYo.
Swamp blues
Swamp blues developed around Baton Rouge in the 1950s and reached a peak of popularity in the 1960s. It generally has a slow tempo and incorporates influences from other genres of music, particularly the regional styles of zydeco and Cajun music. Its most successful proponents included Slim Harpo and Lightnin' Slim, who enjoyed a number of rhythm and blues and national hits and whose work was frequently covered by bands of the British Invasion.
Swamp pop
Swamp pop came about in the mid-1950s. With the Cajun dance and musical conventions in mind, nationally popular African American music genres such as rock, pop, country, and R&B songs were re-recorded, sometimes in French. Swamp pop is more of a combination of many influences, and the bridge between zydeco, New Orleans second line, and rock and roll. The song structure is pure rock and roll, the rhythms are distinctly New Orleans based, the chord changes, vocals and inflections are R&B influenced, and the lyrics are sometimes French.
Clarence "Frogman" Henry's "(I Don't Know Why) But I Do" and "On Bended Knee" (both Bobby Charles compositions). Phil Phillips' gained big hit "Sea of Love". Swamp pop also left its imprint on the related but distinct genre known as "swamp blues", including Slim Harpo's classic "Rainin' in My Heart". Swamp blues/Swamp pop/Swamp R&B type songs such as the Cookie and the Cupcakes hit "Mathilda", Johnnie Allan's "Mathilda" and Dale & Grace "I'm Leaving up to You".
The Rolling Stones' covered Barbara Lynn's "You'll Lose a Good Thing" and "Oh Baby (We Got A Good Thing Goin')".
North Louisiana music
The region's location, bordered by Texas on the west and the Mississippi Delta on the east has not led to the development of "locally stylized" music. Traditional and modern country music has been dominant, creating its own country stars, like Tim McGraw, Jimmie Davis, Tony Joe White, and Andy Griggs from Northeast Louisiana, and Trace Adkins, Kix Brooks, and Hank Williams Jr. from Northwest Louisiana.
However, North Louisiana's lasting contribution to the world of popular music was the radio program The Louisiana Hayride, which started broadcasting in 1948 on KWKH in Shreveport. Hank Williams, George Jones, Johnny Cash, Elvis Presley and nearly every other country legend, or future country legend alive during the 1950s stepped on stage at the Shreveport Municipal Auditorium. They performed, many for the first time on radio, on a signal that covered much of the southeastern US. The original production of the show ended in 1960, but re-runs and the occasional special broadcast continued for a few years. The Louisiana Hayride was regarded as a stepping stone to The Grand Ole Opry, the legendary radio show from WSM in Nashville, Tennessee.
Northern Louisiana in the 1950s had a country rock scene, many of whose artists (the Lonesome Drifter) were recorded by local Ram Records. Later, Shreveport produced The Residents, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, and Sunday Mass Murder.
Shreveport native Danny Johnson a veteran of the industry gracing the stages and recordings of Rod Stewart, Rick Derringer, Alice Cooper, and Alcatrazz. (Eddie Van Halens) Private Life, Danny Johnson and the Bandits, and Axis. He has been the guitar slinger for the last 16 years for Steppenwolf.
Jeff Mangum, founder of Neutral Milk Hotel and The Elephant 6 Recording Company was born in Ruston, Louisiana.
New Orleans music
In the 19th century, there was already a mixture of French, Spanish, African and Afro-Caribbean music. The city had a great love for Opera; many operatic works had their first performances in the New World in New Orleans.
Early African, Caribbean and Creole music
Unlike in the Protestant colonies of what would become the USA, African slaves and their descendants were not prohibited from performing their traditional music in New Orleans and the surrounding areas. The African slaves, many from the Caribbean islands, were allowed to gather on Sundays, their day off, on a plaza known as Congo Square. Permitted as early as 1817, dancing in New Orleans had been restricted to the square, which was a hotbed of musical fusion, as African styles from across America and the Caribbean met and danced in large groups, often in circle dances. The Congo Square gatherings became well known, and many whites came to watch and listen. Nevertheless, by 1830, opposition from whites in New Orleans and an influx of blacks elsewhere in the U.S. caused the decline of Congo Square's prominence. The tradition of mass dances in Congo Square continued sporadically, though it came to have more in common with minstrelsy than with authentic African traditions.
Caribbean dances known to have been imported to Louisiana include the calenda, Congo, counjai, and bamboula.
Louis Gottschalk was an early 19th-century White Creole pianist and composer from New Orleans, the first American musician/composer to become famous in Europe. A number of his works incorporate rhythms and music he heard performed by African slaves.
In addition to the slave population, antebellum New Orleans also had a large population of free people of color, mostly Creoles of mixed African and European heritage who worked as tradesmen. The more prosperous Creoles sent their children to be educated in France. They had their own dance bands, an opera company, and a symphony orchestra. The community produced such composers as Edmund Dede and Basil Bares. After the American Civil War many Creole musicians became music teachers, teaching the use of European instruments to the newly freed slaves and their descendants.
Jazz
Probably the single most famous style of music to originate in the city was New Orleans jazz, also known as Dixieland. It came into being around 1900. Many with memories of the time say that the most important figure in the formation of the music was Papa Jack Laine who enlisted hundreds of musicians from all of the city's diverse ethnic groups and social status. Most of these musicians became instrumental in forming jazz music including Buddy Bolden, Bunk Johnson and the members of Original Dixieland Jazz Band. One of early rural blues, ragtime, and marching band music were combined with collective improvisation to create this new style of music. At first, the music was known by various names such as "hot music", "hot ragtime" and "ratty music"; the term "jazz" (early on often spelled "jass") did not become common until the 1910s. The early style was exemplified by the bands of such musicians as Freddie Keppard, Jelly Roll Morton, "King" Joe Oliver, Kid Ory. The next generation took the young art form into more daring and sophisticated directions, with such creative musical virtuosos as Louis Armstrong, Sidney Bechet, and Red Allen.
New Orleans was a regional Tin Pan Alley music composing and publishing center through the 1920s, and was also an important center of ragtime. Louis Prima demonstrated the versatility of the New Orleans tradition, taking a style rooted in traditional New Orleans jazz into swinging hot music popular into the rock and roll era. He is buried in New Orleans. Contemporary jazz has had a following in New Orleans with musicians such as Alvin Batiste and Ellis Marsalis. Some younger jazz virtuosos such as Wynton Marsalis and Nicholas Payton experiment with the avant garde while refusing to disregard the traditions of early jazz.
Continuing development of the traditional New Orleans jazz style, Tom McDermott, Evan Christopher, New Orleans Nightcrawlers.
Harry Connick Jr. was raised in New Orleans and attended Loyola University New Orleans.
New Orleans blues
The blues that developed in the 1940s and 1950s in and around the city of New Orleans was strongly influenced by jazz and incorporated Caribbean influences, it is dominated by piano and saxophone but has also produced major guitar bluesmen. Major figures in the genre include Professor Longhair and Guitar Slim, who both produced major regional, R&B and national hits. Louisiana blues created a specialized form of blues music sometimes using zydeco instrumentation and slow, tense rhythms that is closely related to New Orleans blues and swamp blues from Baton Rouge.
R&B/gospel
Alan Toussaint composed or produced many songs, including "Mother-in-Law", "I Like It Like That", "Fortune Teller", "Ride Your Pony", "Get Out of My Life, Woman", "Working in the Coal Mine", "Everything I Do Gonna Be Funky", "Freedom For the Stallion", "Yes We Can Can", and "Southern Nights". He was a producer for hundreds of recordings, for example "Right Place, Wrong Time", by his longtime friend Dr. John ("Mac" Rebennack), and "Lady Marmalade" by Labelle. The Meters, Lee Dorsey, Ernie K-Doe gained hit songs. New band Galactic released jazz funk album.
The city also has a rich tradition of gospel music and spirituals; Mahalia Jackson was the most famous of New Orleans' gospel singers. She is buried in Metairie.
The Dixie Cups had a #1 Hot 100 hit with "Chapel of Love" in 1964. They also recorded the song "Iko Iko" about Mardi Gras. In the 1950s, New Orleans again influenced the national music scene as a center in the development of rhythm and blues. Important artists included Fats Domino (d. 2017), Snooks Eaglin, Dave Bartholomew, Professor Longhair, and Huey "Piano" Smith.
Malcolm John "Mac" Rebennack, Jr. (born November 21, 1940), better known by the stage name Dr. John a New Orleans-born singer/songwriter, pianist and guitarist whose music combined blues, boogie woogie and rock and roll. Dr. John cited Professor Longhair as one of his musical influences and has recorded a number of his compositions, most notably "Tipitina".
1980s new style of "street beat" brass bands combining the jazz brass band tradition with funk and hip hop was spearheaded by the Dirty Dozen Brass Band, then the Rebirth Brass Band.
Country music
Sammy Kershaw, Eddy Raven, Jo-el Sonnier, and the band River Road are all Acadiana natives who went on to score national fame and sell millions of records via the major labels in Nashville.
Rock/pop
Significant New Orleans rock band, and alternative bands include Zebra, The Radiators, Better Than Ezra (singer Kevin Griffin graduated from Louisiana State University in 1990), 12 Stones, and Cowboy Mouth. Popular alternative rock bands include Mutemath and Meriwether.
Louisiana is known as the most important place for the development of a style of heavy metal: sludge metal. Two of its founding acts, Eyehategod and Crowbar, are from New Orleans, where the genre's most important scene can be found. Other notable sludge metal bands such as Acid Bath, Down, Soilent Green and Choke are based in Louisiana. Blackened death metal band Goatwhore are from New Orleans.
Britney Spears (from Kentwood) has had four #1 hits on the Billboard Hot 100, including the dance-pop song "...Baby One More Time" from 1999. Lil Wayne has two #1 hits on the Hot 100, including "Lollipop" from 2008. The rapper Juvenile had a #1 hit on the Hot 100 with "Slow Motion" ft. Soulja Slim, from 2004 and a #1 album on the Billboard 200 with Reality Check in 2006. Tim McGraw has had 25 songs that have reached #1 on the Hot Country Songs chart, including "Live Like You Were Dying" from 2004. R&B singer Frank Ocean had a #1 album on the Billboard 200 with Blonde in 2016. YoungBoy Never Broke Again from Baton Rouge had a #1 album in 2019.
Hip-hop
Beginning in the mid-1990s, New Orleans became a hub of Southern hip hop. First with Master P and his No Limit clique based out of the 3rd Ward, then later came the Cash Money clique who popularized a unique semi-melodic Louisianan style of rapping to the hip hop mainstream. Lil Wayne became one of the most prominent New Orleans rappers. The city has also been a center of Southern hip hop, and the birthplace of mainstream Bounce music which originated in Baton Rouge.
Recordings
Small, local record labels proliferated from Houston, Texas to New Orleans, specializing in recording and distributing local acts. Labels such as Jin, Swallow, Maison de Soul, and Bayou continue to record and distribute Creole music, and other south Louisiana music. Many of the original versions of classic songs are still being made and distributed.
One of the most successful label owners was Floyd Soileau. Soileau started as a local DJ in Ville Platte, Louisiana in the mid-1950s, and soon decided he would rather help make music than play it. He started most of the labels listed in the previous paragraph. He and his record shop are important pieces of Louisiana's music history.
See also
Louisiana Music Hall of Fame in Baton Rouge
List of songs about New Orleans
Indigenous music of North America
List of people related to Cajun music
References
Bibliography
Russell, Tony (1997). The Blues - From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray. Dubai: Carlton Books Limited. p. 157. .
Blush, Steven (2001). American Hardcore: A Tribal History. Los Angeles, CA: Feral House. .
External links
Satchmo.com
ImLAonline.org
Gumbo Radio, "Louisiana's music and then some"
OffBeat magazine of "Louisiana music and culture"
Louisiana
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243539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophageal%20cancer | Esophageal cancer | Esophageal cancer is cancer arising from the esophagus—the food pipe that runs between the throat and the stomach. Symptoms often include difficulty in swallowing and weight loss. Other symptoms may include pain when swallowing, a hoarse voice, enlarged lymph nodes ("glands") around the collarbone, a dry cough, and possibly coughing up or vomiting blood.
The two main sub-types of the disease are esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma (often abbreviated to ESCC), which is more common in the developing world, and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), which is more common in the developed world. A number of less common types also occur. Squamous-cell carcinoma arises from the epithelial cells that line the esophagus. Adenocarcinoma arises from glandular cells present in the lower third of the esophagus, often where they have already transformed to intestinal cell type (a condition known as Barrett's esophagus). Causes of the squamous-cell type include tobacco, alcohol, very hot drinks, poor diet, and chewing betel nut. The most common causes of the adenocarcinoma type are smoking tobacco, obesity, and acid reflux.
The disease is diagnosed by biopsy done by an endoscope (a fiberoptic camera). Prevention includes stopping smoking and eating a healthy diet. Treatment is based on the cancer's stage and location, together with the person's general condition and individual preferences. Small localized squamous-cell cancers may be treated with surgery alone with the hope of a cure. In most other cases, chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy is used along with surgery. Larger tumors may have their growth slowed with chemotherapy and radiation therapy. In the presence of extensive disease or if the affected person is not fit enough to undergo surgery, palliative care is often recommended.
As of 2018, esophageal cancer was the eighth-most common cancer globally with 572,000 new cases during the year. It caused about 509,000 deaths that year, up from 345,000 in 1990. Rates vary widely among countries, with about half of all cases occurring in China. It is around three times more common in men than in women. Outcomes are related to the extent of the disease and other medical conditions, but generally tend to be fairly poor, as diagnosis is often late. Five-year survival rates are around 13% to 18%.
Signs and symptoms
Prominent symptoms usually do not appear until the cancer has infiltrated over 60% of the circumference of the esophageal tube, by which time the tumor is already in an advanced stage. Onset of symptoms is usually caused by narrowing of the tube due to the physical presence of the tumor.
The first and the most common symptom is usually difficulty in swallowing, which is often experienced first with solid foods and later with softer foods and liquids. Pain when swallowing is less usual at first. Weight loss is often an initial sign in cases of squamous-cell carcinoma, though not usually in cases of adenocarcinoma. Eventual weight loss due to reduced appetite and undernutrition is common. Pain behind the breastbone or in the region around the stomach often feels like heartburn. The pain can frequently be severe, worsening when food of any sort is swallowed. Another sign may be an unusually husky, raspy, or hoarse-sounding cough, a result of the tumor affecting the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
The presence of the tumor may disrupt the normal contractions of the esophagus when swallowing. This can lead to nausea and vomiting, regurgitation of food and coughing. There is also an increased risk of aspiration pneumonia due to food entering the airways through the abnormal connections (fistulas) that may develop between the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe). Early signs of this serious complication may be coughing on drinking or eating. The tumor surface may be fragile and bleed, causing vomiting of blood. Compression of local structures occurs in advanced disease, leading to such problems as upper airway obstruction and superior vena cava syndrome. Hypercalcemia (excess calcium in the blood) may occur.
If the cancer has spread elsewhere, symptoms related to metastatic disease may appear. Common sites of spread include nearby lymph nodes, the liver, lungs and bone. Liver metastasis can cause jaundice and abdominal swelling (ascites). Lung metastasis can cause, among other symptoms, impaired breathing due to excess fluid around the lungs (pleural effusion), and dyspnea (the feelings often associated with impaired breathing).
Causes
The two main types (i.e. squamous-cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma) have distinct sets of risk factors. Squamous-cell carcinoma is linked to lifestyle factors such as smoking and alcohol. Adenocarcinoma has been linked to effects of long-term acid reflux. Tobacco is a risk factor for both types. Both types are more common in people over 60 years of age.
Squamous-cell carcinoma
The two major risk factors for esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma are tobacco (smoking or chewing) and alcohol. The combination of tobacco and alcohol has a strong synergistic effect. Some data suggest that about half of all cases are due to tobacco and about one-third to alcohol, while over three-quarters of the cases in men are due to the combination of smoking and heavy drinking. Risks associated with alcohol appear to be linked to its aldehyde metabolite and to mutations in certain related enzymes. Such metabolic variants are relatively common in Asia.
Other relevant risk factors include regular consumption of very hot drinks (over 65 °C or 149 °F) and ingestion of caustic substances. High levels of dietary exposure to nitrosamines (chemical compounds found both in tobacco smoke and certain foodstuffs) also appear to be a relevant risk factor. Unfavorable dietary patterns seem to involve exposure to nitrosamines through processed and barbecued meats, pickled vegetables, etc., and a low intake of fresh foods. Other associated factors include nutritional deficiencies, low socioeconomic status, and poor oral hygiene. Chewing betel nut (areca) is an important risk factor in Asia.
Physical trauma may increase the risk. This may include the drinking of very hot drinks.
Adenocarcinoma
Male predominance is particularly strong in this type of esophageal cancer, which occurs about 7 to 10 times more frequently in men. This imbalance may be related to the characteristics and interactions of other known risk factors, including acid reflux and obesity.
The long-term erosive effects of acid reflux (an extremely common condition, also known as gastroesophageal reflux disease or GERD) have been strongly linked to this type of cancer. Longstanding GERD can induce a change of cell type in the lower portion of the esophagus in response to erosion of its squamous lining. This phenomenon, known as Barrett's esophagus, seems to appear about 20 years later in women than in men, possibly due to hormonal factors. At a mechanistic level, in the esophagus there is a small HOXA13 expressing compartment that is more resistant to bile and acids as the normal squamous epithelium and that is prone to both intestinal differentiation as well as oncogenic transformation. Following GERD this HOXA13-expressing compartment outcompetes the normal squamous compartment, leading to the intestinal aspect of the esophagus and increased propensity to the development of esophageal cancer. Having symptomatic GERD or bile reflux makes Barrett's esophagus more likely, which in turn raises the risk of further changes that can ultimately lead to adenocarcinoma. The risk of developing adenocarcinoma in the presence of Barrett's esophagus is unclear, and may in the past have been overestimated.
Being obese or overweight both appear to be associated with increased risk. The association with obesity seems to be the strongest of any type of obesity-related cancer, though the reasons for this remain unclear. Abdominal obesity seems to be of particular relevance, given the closeness of its association with this type of cancer, as well as with both GERD and Barrett's esophagus. This type of obesity is characteristic of men. Physiologically, it stimulates GERD and also has other chronic inflammatory effects.
Helicobacter pylori infection (a common occurrence thought to have affected over half of the world's population) is not a risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma and actually appears to be protective. Despite being a cause of GERD and a risk factor for gastric cancer, the infection seems to be associated with a reduced risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma of as much as 50%. The biological explanation for a protective effect is somewhat unclear. One explanation is that some strains of H. pylori reduce stomach acid, thereby reducing damage by GERD. Decreasing rates of H. pylori infection in Western populations over recent decades, which have been linked to less overcrowding in households, could be a factor in the concurrent increase in esophageal adenocarcinoma.
Female hormones may also have a protective effect, as EAC is not only much less common in women but develops later in life, by an average of 20 years. Although studies of many reproductive factors have not produced a clear picture, risk seems to decline for the mother in line with prolonged periods of breastfeeding.
Tobacco smoking increases risk, but the effect in esophageal adenocarcinoma is slight compared to that in squamous cell carcinoma, and alcohol has not been demonstrated to be a cause.
Related conditions
Head and neck cancer is associated with second primary tumors in the region, including esophageal squamous-cell carcinomas, due to field cancerization (i.e. a regional reaction to long-term carcinogenic exposure).
History of radiation therapy for other conditions in the chest is a risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma.
Corrosive injury to the esophagus by accidentally or intentionally swallowing caustic substances is a risk factor for squamous cell carcinoma.
Tylosis with esophageal cancer is a rare familial disease with autosomal dominant inheritance that has been linked to a mutation in the RHBDF2 gene, present on chromosome 17: it involves thickening of the skin of the palms and soles and a high lifetime risk of squamous cell carcinoma.
Achalasia (i.e. lack of the involuntary reflex in the esophagus after swallowing) appears to be a risk factor for both main types of esophageal cancer, at least in men, due to stagnation of trapped food and drink.
Plummer–Vinson syndrome (a rare disease that involves esophageal webs) is also a risk factor.
There is some evidence suggesting a possible causal association between human papillomavirus (HPV) and esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma. The relationship is unclear. Possible relevance of HPV could be greater in places that have a particularly high incidence of this form of the disease, as in some Asian countries, including China.
There is an association between celiac disease and esophageal cancer. People with untreated celiac disease have a higher risk, but this risk decreases with time after diagnosis, probably due to the adoption of a gluten-free diet, which seems to have a protective role against development of malignancy in people with celiac disease. However, the delay in diagnosis and initiation of a gluten-free diet seems to increase the risk of malignancy. Moreover, in some cases the detection of celiac disease is due to the development of cancer, whose early symptoms are similar to some that may appear in celiac disease.
Diagnosis
Clinical evaluation
Although an occlusive tumor may be suspected on a barium swallow or barium meal, the diagnosis is best made with an examination using an endoscope. This involves the passing of a flexible tube with a light and camera down the esophagus and examining the wall, and is called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy. Biopsies taken of suspicious lesions are then examined histologically for signs of malignancy.
Additional testing is needed to assess how much the cancer has spread (see , below). Computed tomography (CT) of the chest, abdomen and pelvis can evaluate whether the cancer has spread to adjacent tissues or distant organs (especially liver and lymph nodes). The sensitivity of a CT scan is limited by its ability to detect masses (e.g. enlarged lymph nodes or involved organs) generally larger than 1 cm. Positron emission tomography is also used to estimate the extent of the disease and is regarded as more precise than CT alone. PET/MR as a novel modality has shown promising results in preoperative staging with fair feasibility and good correlation in comparison to PET/CT. It can enhance tissue differentiation with lowering the radiation dose to the patient. Esophageal endoscopic ultrasound can provide staging information regarding the level of tumor invasion, and possible spread to regional lymph nodes.
The location of the tumor is generally measured by the distance from the teeth. The esophagus (25 cm or 10 in long) is commonly divided into three parts for purposes of determining the location. Adenocarcinomas tend to occur nearer the stomach and squamous cell carcinomas nearer the throat, but either may arise anywhere in the esophagus.
Types
Esophageal cancers are typically carcinomas that arise from the epithelium, or surface lining, of the esophagus. Most esophageal cancers fall into one of two classes: esophageal squamous-cell carcinomas (ESCC), which are similar to head and neck cancer in their appearance and association with tobacco and alcohol consumption—and esophageal adenocarcinomas (EAC), which are often associated with a history of GERD and Barrett's esophagus. A rule of thumb is that a cancer in the upper two-thirds is likely to be ESCC and one in the lower one-third EAC.
Rare histologic types of esophageal cancer include different variants of squamous-cell carcinoma, and non-epithelial tumors, such as leiomyosarcoma, malignant melanoma, rhabdomyosarcoma and lymphoma, among others.
Staging
Staging is based on the TNM staging system, which classifies the amount of tumor invasion (T), involvement of lymph nodes (N), and distant metastasis (M). The currently preferred classification is the 2010 AJCC staging system for cancer of the esophagus and the esophagogastric junction. To help guide clinical decision making, this system also incorporates information on cell type (ESCC, EAC, etc.), grade (degree of differentiation – an indication of the biological aggressiveness of the cancer cells), and tumor location (upper, middle, lower, or junctional).
Prevention
Prevention includes stopping smoking or chewing tobacco. Overcoming addiction to areca chewing in Asia is another promising strategy for the prevention of esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma. The risk can also be reduced by maintaining a normal body weight.
According to the National Cancer Institute, "diets high in cruciferous (cabbage, broccoli/broccolini, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts) and green and yellow vegetables and fruits are associated with a decreased risk of esophageal cancer." Dietary fiber is thought to be protective, especially against esophageal adenocarcinoma. There is no evidence that vitamin supplements change the risk.
Screening
People with Barrett's esophagus (a change in the cells lining the lower esophagus) are at much higher risk, and may receive regular endoscopic screening for the early signs of cancer. Because the benefit of screening for adenocarcinoma in people without symptoms is unclear, it is not recommended in the United States. Some areas of the world with high rates of squamous-carcinoma have screening programs.
Management
Treatment is best managed by a multidisciplinary team covering the various specialties involved. Adequate nutrition must be assured, and appropriate dental care is essential. Factors that influence treatment decisions include the stage and cellular type of cancer (EAC, ESCC, and other types), along with the person's general condition and any other diseases that are present.
In general, treatment with a curative intention is restricted to localized disease, without distant metastasis: in such cases a combined approach that includes surgery may be considered. Disease that is widespread, metastatic or recurrent is managed palliatively: in this case, chemotherapy may be used to lengthen survival, while treatments such as radiotherapy or stenting may be used to relieve symptoms and make it easier to swallow.
Surgery
If the cancer has been diagnosed while still in an early stage, surgical treatment with a curative intention may be possible. Some small tumors that only involve the mucosa or lining of the esophagus may be removed by endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR). Otherwise, curative surgery of early-stage lesions may entail removal of all or part of the esophagus (esophagectomy), although this is a difficult operation with a relatively high risk of mortality or post-operative difficulties. The benefits of surgery are less clear in early-stage ESCC than EAC. There are a number of surgical options, and the best choices for particular situations remain the subject of research and discussion. As well as characteristics and location of the tumor, other factors include the patient's condition, and the type of operation the surgical team is most experienced with.
The likely quality of life after treatment is a relevant factor when considering surgery. Surgical outcomes are likely better in large centers where the procedures are frequently performed. If the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, esophagectomy is nowadays not normally performed.
Esophagectomy is the removal of a segment of the esophagus; as this shortens the length of the remaining esophagus, some other segment of the digestive tract is pulled up through the chest cavity and interposed. This is usually the stomach or part of the large intestine (colon) or jejunum. Reconnection of the stomach to a shortened esophagus is called an esophagogastric anastomosis.
Esophagectomy can be performed using several methods. The choice of the surgical approach depends on the characteristics and location of the tumor, and the preference of the surgeon. Clear evidence from clinical trials for which approaches give the best outcomes in different circumstances is lacking. A first decision, regarding the point of entry, is between a transhiatial and a transthoracic procedure. The more recent transhiatial approach avoids the need to open the chest; instead the surgeon enters the body through an incision in the lower abdomen and another in the neck. The lower part of the esophagus is freed from the surrounding tissues and cut away as necessary. The stomach is then pushed through the esophageal hiatus (the hole where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm) and is joined to the remaining upper part of the esophagus at the neck.
The traditional transthoracic approach enters the body through the chest, and has a number of variations. The thoracoabdominal approach opens the abdominal and thoracic cavities together, the two-stage Ivor Lewis (also called Lewis–Tanner) approach involves an initial laparotomy and construction of a gastric tube, followed by a right thoracotomy to excise the tumor and create an esophagogastric anastomosis. The three-stage McKeown approach adds a third incision in the neck to complete the cervical anastomosis. Recent approaches by some surgeons use what is called extended esophagectomy, where more surrounding tissue, including lymph nodes, is removed en bloc.
If the person cannot swallow at all, an esophageal stent may be inserted to keep the esophagus open; stents may also assist in occluding fistulas. A nasogastric tube may be necessary to continue feeding while treatment for the tumor is given, and some patients require a gastrostomy (feeding hole in the skin that gives direct access to the stomach). The latter two are especially important if the patient tends to aspirate food or saliva into the airways, predisposing for aspiration pneumonia.
Chemotherapy and radiotherapy
Chemotherapy depends on the tumor type, but tends to be cisplatin-based (or carboplatin or oxaliplatin) every three weeks with fluorouracil (5-FU) either continuously or every three weeks. In more recent studies, addition of epirubicin was better than other comparable regimens in advanced nonresectable cancer. Chemotherapy may be given after surgery (adjuvant, i.e. to reduce risk of recurrence), before surgery (neoadjuvant) or if surgery is not possible; in this case, cisplatin and 5-FU are used. Ongoing trials compare various combinations of chemotherapy; the phase II/III REAL-2 trial – for example – compares four regimens containing epirubicin and either cisplatin or oxaliplatin, and either continuously infused fluorouracil or capecitabine.
Radiotherapy is given before, during, or after chemotherapy or surgery, and sometimes on its own to control symptoms. In patients with localised disease but contraindications to surgery, "radical radiotherapy" may be used with curative intent.
Other approaches
Forms of endoscopic therapy have been used for stage 0 and I disease: endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and mucosal ablation using radiofrequency ablation, photodynamic therapy, Nd-YAG laser, or argon plasma coagulation.
Laser therapy is the use of high-intensity light to destroy tumor cells while affecting only the treated area. This is typically done if the cancer cannot be removed by surgery. The relief of a blockage can help with pain and difficulty swallowing. Photodynamic therapy, a type of laser therapy, involves the use of drugs that are absorbed by cancer cells; when exposed to a special light, the drugs become active and destroy the cancer cells.
Follow-up
Patients are followed closely after a treatment regimen has been completed. Frequently, other treatments are used to improve symptoms and maximize nutrition.
Prognosis
In general, the prognosis of esophageal cancer is quite poor, because most patients present with advanced disease. By the time the first symptoms (such as difficulty swallowing) appear, the disease has already progressed. The overall five-year survival rate (5YSR) in the United States is around 15%, with most people dying within the first year of diagnosis. The latest survival data for England and Wales (patients diagnosed during 2007) show that only one in ten people survives esophageal cancer for at least ten years.
Individualized prognosis depends largely on stage. Those with cancer restricted entirely to the esophageal mucosa have about an 80% 5YSR, but submucosal involvement brings this down to less than 50%. Extension into the muscularis propria (muscle layer of the esophagus) suggests a 20% 5YSR, and extension to the structures adjacent to the esophagus predict a 7% 5YSR. Patients with distant metastases (who are not candidates for curative surgery) have a less than 3% 5YSR.
Epidemiology
Esophageal cancer is the eighth most frequently diagnosed cancer worldwide, and because of its poor prognosis it is the sixth most common cause of cancer-related death. It caused about 400,000 deaths in 2012, accounting for about 5% of all cancer deaths (about 456,000 new cases were diagnosed, representing about 3% of all cancers).
ESCC (esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma) comprises 60–70% of all cases of esophageal cancer worldwide, while EAC (esophageal adenocarcinoma) accounts for a further 20–30% (melanomas, leiomyosarcomas, carcinoids and lymphomas are less common types). The incidence of the two main types of esophageal cancer varies greatly between different geographical areas. In general, ESCC is more common in the developing world, and EAC is more common in the developed world.
The worldwide incidence rate of ESCC in 2012 was 5.2 new cases per 100,000 person-years, with a male predominance (7.7 per 100,000 in men vs. 2.8 in women). It was the common type in 90% of the countries studied. ESCC is particularly frequent in the so-called "Asian esophageal cancer belt", an area that passes through northern China, southern Russia, north-eastern Iran, northern Afghanistan and eastern Turkey. In 2012, about 80% of ESCC cases worldwide occurred in central and south-eastern Asia, and over half (53%) of all cases were in China. The countries with the highest estimated national incidence rates were (in Asia) Mongolia and Turkmenistan and (in Africa) Malawi, Kenya and Uganda. The problem of esophageal cancer has long been recognized in the eastern and southern parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, where ESCC appears to predominate.
In Western countries, EAC has become the dominant form of the disease, following an increase in incidence over recent decades (in contrast to the incidence of ESCC, which has remained largely stable). In 2012, the global incidence rate for EAC was 0.7 per 100,000 with a strong male predominance (1.1 per 100,000 in men vs. 0.3 in women). Areas with particularly high incidence rates include northern and western Europe, North America and Oceania. The countries with highest recorded rates were the UK, Netherlands, Ireland, Iceland and New Zealand.
United States
In the United States, esophageal cancer is the seventh-leading cause of cancer death among males (making up 4% of the total). The National Cancer Institute estimated there were about 18,000 new cases and more than 15,000 deaths from esophageal cancer in 2013 (the American Cancer Society estimated that during 2014, about 18,170 new esophageal cancer cases would be diagnosed, resulting in 15,450 deaths).
The squamous-cell carcinoma type is more common among African American males with a history of heavy smoking or alcohol use. Until the 1970s, squamous-cell carcinoma accounted for the vast majority of esophageal cancers in the United States. In recent decades, incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus (which is associated with Barrett's esophagus) steadily rose in the United States to the point that it has now surpassed squamous-cell carcinoma. In contrast to squamous-cell carcinoma, esophageal adenocarcinoma is more common in Caucasian men (over the age of 60) than it is in African Americans. Multiple reports indicate esophageal adenocarcinoma incidence has increased during the past 20 years, especially in non-Hispanic white men. Esophageal adenocarcinoma age-adjusted incidence increased in New Mexico from 1973 to 2002. This increase was found in non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics and became predominant in non-Hispanic whites. Esophageal cancer incidence and mortality rates for African Americans continue to be higher than the rate for Causasians. However, incidence and mortality of esophageal cancer has significantly decreased among African Americans since the early 1980s, whereas with Caucasians it has continued to increase. Between 1975 and 2004, incidence of the adenocarcinoma type increased among white American males by over 460% and among white American females by 335%.
United Kingdom
The incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma has risen considerably in the UK in recent decades. Overall, esophageal cancer is the thirteenth most common cancer in the UK (around 8,300 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011), and it is the sixth most common cause of cancer death (around 7,700 people died in 2012).
Society and culture
Notable cases
Humphrey Bogart, actor, died of esophageal cancer in 1957, aged 57.
Christopher Hitchens, author and journalist, died of esophageal cancer in 2011, aged 62.
Morrissey in October 2015 stated he has the disease and describes his experience when he first heard he had it.
Mako Iwamatsu, voice actor for Avatar: The Last Airbender as General Iroh and Samurai Jack as Aku, died of esophageal cancer in 2006, aged 72.
Robert Kardashian, attorney and businessman, died of esophageal cancer in 2003, aged 59.
Research directions
The risk of esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma may be reduced in people using aspirin or related NSAIDs, but in the absence of randomized controlled trials the current evidence is inconclusive.
See also
Esophagogastric junctional adenocarcinoma
References
External links
NCI esophageal cancer
Cancer.Net: Esophageal Cancer
Esophageal Cancer From Cancer Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Oesophageal Cancer at Cancer Research UK
National Comprehensive Cancer Network
Gastrointestinal cancer
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243541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20%22-gate%22%20scandals%20and%20controversies | List of "-gate" scandals and controversies | This is a list of scandals or controversies whose names include a "-gate" suffix, by analogy with the Watergate scandal, as well as other incidents to which the suffix has (often facetiously) been applied. This list also includes controversies that are widely referred to with a "-gate" suffix, but may be referred to by another more common name (such as the New Orleans Saints bounty scandal, known as "Bountygate"). Use of the "-gate" suffix has spread beyond American English to many other countries and languages.
Etymology, usage, and history of -gate
The suffix -gate derives from the Watergate scandal of the United States in the early 1970s, which resulted in the resignation of U.S. President Richard Nixon. The scandal was named after the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C.; the complex itself was named after the "Water Gate" area where symphony orchestra concerts were staged on the Potomac River between 1935 and 1965.
The suffix has become productive as a libfix and is used to embellish a noun or name to suggest the existence of a far-reaching scandal, particularly in politics and government. As a CBC News column noted in 2001, the term may "suggest unethical behaviour and a cover-up".
Such usages have been criticized by commentators as clichéd and misleading; James Stanyer comments that "revelations are given the 'gate' suffix to add a thin veil of credibility, following 'Watergate', but most bear no resemblance to the painstaking investigation of that particular piece of presidential corruption". Stanyer links the widespread use of -gate to what the sociologist John Thompson calls "scandal syndrome":
The adoption of -gate to suggest the existence of a scandal was promoted by William Safire, the conservative New York Times columnist and former Nixon administration speechwriter. As early as September 1974 he wrote of "Vietgate", a proposed pardon of the Watergate criminals and Vietnam War draft dodgers. Subsequently, he coined numerous -gate terms, including Billygate, Briefingate, Contragate, Deavergate, Debategate, Doublebillingsgate (of which he later said "My best [-gate coinage] was the encapsulation of a minor ... scandal as doublebillingsgate"), Frankiegate, Franklingate, Genschergate, Housegate, Iraqgate, Koreagate, Lancegate, Maggiegate, Nannygate, Raidergate, Scalpgate, Travelgate, Troopergate and Whitewatergate. The New York magazine suggested that his aim in doing so was "rehabilitating Nixon by relentlessly tarring his successors with the same rhetorical brush – diminished guilt by association". Safire himself later said to author Eric Alterman that he "may have been seeking to minimize the relative importance of the crimes committed by his former boss with this silliness".
The usage has spread into languages other than English; examples of -gate being used to refer to local political scandals have been reported from Argentina, Germany, South Korea, Hungary, Greece and the former Yugoslavia. The term is also used in Mandarin Chinese with the suffix -mén ().
The use of a suffix in this way is not new. -mandering has long been used as a suffix by a politician's name in analogy with gerrymandering ("Henry-mandering" was used in 1852). In recent years, the -gate suffix as a catch-all signifier for scandal has seen some competition from as in "Ballghazi" instead of "Deflategate", or "Bridgeghazi" instead of "Bridgegate". The use of -ghazi is a play on the investigation into the 2012 Benghazi attack, which despite numerous official investigations into the possibility of government cover-ups, has resulted in no criminal charges or major repercussions for the individuals supposedly involved. -ghazi may be seen as carrying an ironic or self-effacing connotation in its usage, implying that the event described has the appearance and media coverage of a scandal, but does not actually amount to much in a grander sense.
Some commentators have characterized this use of the -gate suffix as a snowclone. But Geoffrey Pullum, the coiner of the term snowclone, considers that it is only a "lexical word-formation analog".
Similar phenomena
Like the -gate suffix, the Italian suffix emerged in Italian media from investigations in the 1990s that uncovered a system known as . The term derives from , which means 'kickback' (e.g., bribery given for public works contracts), and , meaning 'city'. Examples of snowclone-like use of include (a financial scandal) and (a 2006 Italian football scandal).
Scandals
These scandals have been given the "-gate" suffix.
Arts and entertainment
Journalism and academics
Politics
Sports
Technology
Other
Conspiracy theories
These conspiracy theories have been mockingly given the "-gate" suffix.
In popular culture
These fictional scandals have been given the "-gate" suffix by the creators of the artistic work.
Film and television
References
External links
Campbell, Alex. Turning a scandal into a '-gate' BBC News, May 11, 2013.
gate
Snowclones
Politics-related lists
Political terminology of the United States
Gate
fr:Gate#En suffixe | [
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243545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Woodward | Bob Woodward | Robert Upshur Woodward (born March 26, 1943) is an American investigative journalist. He started working for The Washington Post as a reporter in 1971 and currently holds the title of associate editor.
While a young reporter for The Washington Post in 1972, Woodward teamed up with Carl Bernstein; the two did much of the original news reporting on the Watergate scandal. These scandals led to numerous government investigations and the eventual resignation of President Richard Nixon. The work of Woodward and Bernstein was called "maybe the single greatest reporting effort of all time" by longtime journalism figure Gene Roberts.
Woodward continued to work for The Washington Post after his reporting on Watergate. He has written 21 books on American politics and current affairs, 13 of which have topped best-seller lists.
Early life, education and naval service
Woodward was born in Geneva, Illinois, the son of Jane (née Upshur) and Alfred E. Woodward, a lawyer who later became chief judge of the 18th Judicial Circuit Court. He was raised in nearby Wheaton, Illinois, and educated at Wheaton Community High School (WCHS), a public high school in the same town. His parents divorced when he was twelve, and he and his brother and sister were raised by their father, who subsequently remarried. Following graduation from WCHS in 1961, Woodward enrolled in Yale College with a Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) scholarship and studied history and English literature. While at Yale, Woodward joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity and was a member of the secret society Book and Snake. He received his B.A. degree in 1965.
After Yale, Woodward began a five-year tour of duty in the United States Navy. During his service in the Navy, Woodward served aboard the USS Wright, and was one of two officers assigned to move or handle nuclear launch codes the Wright carried in its capacity as a National Emergency Command Post Afloat (NECPA). At one time, he was close to Admiral Robert O. Welander, being communications officer on the USS Fox under Welander's command.
Career
After being discharged as a lieutenant in August 1970, Woodward was admitted to Harvard Law School but elected to not attend. Instead, he applied for a job as a reporter for The Washington Post while taking graduate courses in Shakespeare and international relations at George Washington University. Harry M. Rosenfeld, the Posts metropolitan editor, gave him a two-week trial but did not hire him because of his lack of journalistic experience. After a year at the Montgomery Sentinel, a weekly newspaper in the Washington, D.C., suburbs, Woodward was hired as a Post reporter in 1971.
Watergate
Woodward and Carl Bernstein were both assigned to report on the June 17, 1972, burglary of the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in a Washington, D.C., office building called Watergate. Their work, under editor Ben Bradlee, became known for being the first to report on a number of political "dirty tricks" used by the Nixon re-election committee during his campaign for re-election. Their book about the scandal, All the President's Men, became a No. 1 bestseller and was later turned into a movie. The 1976 film, starring Robert Redford as Woodward and Dustin Hoffman as Bernstein, transformed the reporters into celebrities and inspired a wave of interest in investigative journalism.
The book and movie also led to the enduring mystery of the identity of Woodward's secret Watergate informant known as Deep Throat, a reference to the title of a popular pornographic movie at the time. Woodward said he would protect Deep Throat's identity until the man died or allowed his name to be revealed. For more than 30 years, only Woodward, Bernstein, and a handful of others knew the informant's identity until it was claimed by his family to Vanity Fair magazine to be former Federal Bureau of Investigation Associate Director W. Mark Felt in May 2005. Woodward immediately confirmed the veracity of this claim and subsequently published a book, titled The Secret Man, that detailed his relationship with Felt.
Woodward and Bernstein followed up All the President’s Men with a second book on Watergate, entitled The Final Days (Simon and Schuster 1976), covering in extensive depth the period from November 1973 until President Nixon resigned in August 1974.
The Woodward and Bernstein Watergate Papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin.
"Jimmy's World" scandal
In September 1980, a Sunday feature story appeared on the front page of the Post titled "Jimmy's World" in which reporter Janet Cooke wrote a profile of the life of an eight-year-old heroin addict. Although some within the Post doubted the story's veracity, it was defended by the paper's editors including Woodward, who was assistant managing editor. It was Woodward who submitted the story for Pulitzer Prize consideration, and Cooke was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Writing on April 13, 1981. The story was then found to be a complete fabrication, and the Pulitzer was returned. In retrospect, Woodward made the following statement:
1996 campaign finance controversy
China's alleged role in the 1996 United States campaign finance controversy first gained public attention when Woodward and Brian Duffy published a story stating that a United States Department of Justice investigation into the fund-raising activities had uncovered evidence that Chinese agents sought to direct contributions from foreign sources to the Democratic National Committee (DNC) before the 1996 presidential campaign. The journalists wrote that intelligence information had shown the Chinese embassy in Washington, D.C. was used for coordinating contributions to the DNC.
George W. Bush administration
Woodward spent more time than any other journalist with former President George W. Bush, interviewing him six times for close to 11 hours total. Woodward's four books, Bush at War (2002), Plan of Attack (2004), State of Denial (2006), and The War Within: A Secret White House History (2006–2008) (2008) are detailed accounts of the Bush presidency, including the response to the September 11 attacks and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
In a series of articles published in January 2002, he and Dan Balz described the events at Camp David in the aftermath of September 11 and discussed the Worldwide Attack Matrix.
Woodward believed the Bush administration's claims of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction prior to the war. During an appearance on Larry King Live, he was asked by a telephone caller, "Suppose we go to war and go into Iraq and there are no weapons of mass destruction", Woodward responded "I think the chance of that happening is about zero. There's just too much there." Woodward later admitted his error saying, "I think I dropped the ball here. I should have pushed much, much harder on the skepticism about the reality of WMD; in other words, [I should have] said, 'Hey, look, the evidence is not as strong as they were claiming.'"
In 2008, as a part of the Talks at Google series, Woodward, who was interviewed by Google CEO Eric Schmidt, said that he had a fourth book in his Bush at War series in the making. He then added jokingly that his wife had told him that she would kill him if he decides to write a fifth in the series.
Involvement in the Plame scandal
On November 14, 2005, Woodward gave a two-hour deposition to Special Counsel Patrick Fitzgerald. He testified that a senior administration official told him in June 2003 that Iraq war critic Joe Wilson's wife (later identified as Valerie Plame), worked for the CIA as a WMD analyst, not as an undercover operative. Woodward appears to have been the first reporter to learn about her employment (albeit not her name) from a government source. The deposition was reported in The Washington Post on November 16, 2005, and was the first time Woodward revealed publicly that he had any special knowledge about the case. Woodward testified the information was given to him in a "casual" and "offhand" manner, and said that he does not believe it was part of any coordinated effort to "out" Plame as a CIA employee. Later, Woodward's source identified himself. It was Richard Armitage, Colin Powell's deputy and an internal critic of the Iraq War and the White House inner circle.
Woodward said the revelation came at the end of a long, confidential background interview for his 2004 book Plan of Attack. He did not reveal the official's disclosure at the time because it did not strike him as important. Later, he kept it to himself because it came as part of a confidential conversation with a source.
In his deposition, Woodward also said that he had conversations with Scooter Libby after the June 2003 conversation with his confidential administration source, and testified that it is possible that he might have asked Libby further questions about Joe Wilson's wife before her employment at the CIA and her identity were publicly known.
Woodward apologized to Leonard Downie Jr., editor of The Washington Post, for not informing him earlier of the June 2003 conversation. Downie accepted the apology and said even had the paper known it would not have changed its reporting.
New York University professor Jay Rosen severely criticized Woodward for allegedly being co-opted by the Bush White House and also for not telling the truth about his role in the Plame affair, writing: "Not only is Woodward not in the hunt, but he is slowly turning into the hunted. Part of what remains to be uncovered is how Woodward was played by the Bush team, and what they thought they were doing by leaking to him, as well as what he did with the dubious information he got."
Other professional activities
Although Woodward is no longer employed by the Post, Woodward has continued to write books and report stories for The Washington Post, and has the title of associate editor at the paper, which was described by Post media columnist Margaret Sullivan as honorific with no regular responsibilities. He focuses on the presidency, intelligence, and Washington institutions such as the U.S. Supreme Court, The Pentagon, and the Federal Reserve. He also wrote the book Wired, about the Hollywood drug culture and the death of comic John Belushi.
In 2018, Woodward announced participation in an online class on investigative journalism.
Sequester dispute with Obama administration
On February 22, 2013, shortly before the United States federal budget sequester took effect, The Washington Post published a column by Woodward in which he criticized the Obama administration for their statements in 2012 and 2013 that the sequester had been proposed by Republicans in Congress; Woodward said his research showed that the sequester proposal had originated with the White House. Press Secretary Jay Carney confirmed, "The sequester was something that was discussed, and as has been reported, it was an idea that the White House put forward."
On February 27, Woodward told Politico that before the column was published, Woodward had called a senior White House official, later identified by reporters as economic adviser Gene Sperling, to discuss the piece, and that the official had "yelled at [Woodward] for about a half-hour" before sending him a page-long email that included the sentence, "I think you will regret staking out that claim." In Politico'''s reporting, Woodward's focus on that line was described as "making clear he saw [that sentence] as a veiled threat", although Woodward did not use the word "threat" or "threatened". Several other sources also indicated that Woodward had expressed the line as an intended threat.
The next day, Politico published the complete email exchange between Woodward and Sperling. Sperling's statements leading up to the "regret" line read: "But I do truly believe you should rethink your comment about saying that Potus asking for revenues is moving the goal post. I know you may not believe this, but as a friend, I think you will regret staking out that claim." The White House subsequently released a statement that "of course no threat was intended...The note suggested that Mr. Woodward would regret the observation he made regarding the sequester because that observation was inaccurate, nothing more." Upon release of the emails, several conservative commentators indicated they no longer agreed with characterizing the "regret" statement as a threat.
In a February 28 Fox News Channel interview, Woodward said he had never used the word "threat" but said Sperling's conduct was "not the way to operate in a White House". He also said: "I've been flooded with emails from people in the press saying this is exactly the way the White House works, they are trying to control and they don't want to be challenged or crossed". National Journal editor Ron Fournier, conservative Washington Post columnist Jennifer Rubin, and Fox News contributor and former Clinton adviser Lanny Davis expressed support for Woodward; Fournier and Davis described similar experiences with Obama administration officials.
Career recognition and awards
Although not a recipient in his own right, Woodward made contributions to two Pulitzer Prizes won by The Washington Post. First, he and Bernstein were the lead reporters on Watergate and the Post won the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service in 1973. He was also the main reporter for the Posts coverage of the September 11 attacks in 2001. The Post won the 2002 Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting for 10 of its stories on the subject.
Woodward himself has been a recipient of nearly every major American journalism award, including the Heywood Broun award (1972), Worth Bingham Prize for Investigative Reporting (1972 and 1986), Sigma Delta Chi Award (1973), George Polk Award (1972), William Allen White Medal (2000), and the Gerald R. Ford Prize for Reporting on the Presidency (2002). In 2012, Colby College presented Woodward with the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award for courageous journalism as well as an honorary doctorate.
Woodward has authored or co-authored 20 nonfiction books in the past 35 years. All 18 have been national bestsellers and 12 of them have been No. 1 national nonfiction bestsellers—more No. 1 national nonfiction bestsellers than any contemporary author.
In his 1995 memoir, A Good Life, former Post Executive Editor Ben Bradlee singled out Woodward in the foreword. "It would be hard to overestimate the contributions to my newspaper and to my time as editor of that extraordinary reporter, Bob Woodward—surely the best of his generation at investigative reporting, the best I've ever seen.... And Woodward has maintained the same position on top of journalism's ladder ever since Watergate." In 1995, Woodward also received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
David Gergen, who had worked in the White House during the Richard Nixon and three subsequent administrations, said in his 2000 memoir, Eyewitness to Power, of Woodward's reporting, "I don't accept everything he writes as gospel—he can get details wrong—but generally, his accounts in both his books and in the Post are remarkably reliable and demand serious attention. I am convinced he writes only what he believes to be true or has been reliably told to be true. And he is certainly a force for keeping the government honest."
In 2001, Woodward won the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.
Fred Barnes of the Weekly Standard called Woodward "the best pure reporter of his generation, perhaps ever." In 2003, Al Hunt of The Wall Street Journal called Woodward "the most celebrated journalist of our age." In 2004, Bob Schieffer of CBS News said, "Woodward has established himself as the best reporter of our time. He may be the best reporter of all time."
In 2014, Robert Gates former director of the CIA and Secretary of Defense, said that he wished he'd recruited Woodward into the CIA, saying, "He has an extraordinary ability to get otherwise responsible adults to spill [their] guts to him...his ability to get people to talk about stuff they shouldn't be talking about is just extraordinary and may be unique."
Criticism
Style
Woodward often uses unnamed sources in his reporting for the Post and in his books. Using extensive interviews with firsthand witnesses, documents, meeting notes, diaries, calendars, and other documentation, Woodward attempts to construct a seamless narrative of events, most often told through the eyes of the key participants.
Nicholas von Hoffman has made the criticism that "arrestingly irrelevant detail is [often] used", while Michael Massing believes Woodward's books are "filled with long, at times tedious passages with no evident direction."
Joan Didion published a comprehensive criticism of Woodward in a lengthy September 1996 essay in The New York Review of Books. Though "Woodward is a widely trusted reporter, even an American icon", she says that he assembles reams of often irrelevant detail, fails to draw conclusions, and make judgments. "Measurable cerebral activity is virtually absent" from his books after Watergate from 1979 to 1996, she said. She said the books are notable for "a scrupulous passivity, an agreement to cover the story not as it is occurring but as it is presented, which is to say as it is manufactured." She ridicules "fairness" as "a familiar newsroom piety, the excuse in practice for a good deal of autopilot reporting and lazy thinking." All this focus on what people said and thought—their "decent intentions"—circumscribes "possible discussion or speculation", resulting in what she called "political pornography".
The Posts Richard Harwood defended Woodward in a September 6, 1996, column, arguing that Woodward's method is that of a reporter—"talking to people you write about, checking and cross-checking their versions of contemporary history," and collecting documentary evidence in notes, letters, and records."
Content
Woodward has been accused of exaggeration and fabrication regarding "Deep Throat", his Watergate informant. After W. Mark Felt was announced as the true identity behind Deep Throat in 2005, John Dean and Ed Gray, in separate publications, used Woodward's book All The President's Men and his published notes on his meetings with Deep Throat to argue that Deep Throat could not have been only Mark Felt. They argued that Deep Throat was a fictional composite made up of several Woodward sources, only one of whom was Felt. Gray, in his book In Nixon's Web, even went so far as to publish an e-mail and telephone exchange he had with Donald Santarelli, a Washington lawyer who was a Justice Department official during Watergate, in which Santarelli confirmed to Gray that he was the source behind statements Woodward recorded in notes he has attributed to Deep Throat. However, Stephen Mielke, an archivist at the University of Texas who oversees the Woodward-Bernstein papers, said it is likely the page was misfiled under Felt because no source was identified. The original page of notes is in the Mark Felt file but "the carbon is located with the handwritten and typed notes attributed to Santarelli." Ed Gray said that Santarelli confirmed to him that he was the source behind the statements in the notes.
J. Bradford DeLong has noted considerable inconsistencies between the accounts of the making of Clinton economic policy described in Woodward's book Maestro and his book The Agenda.
Some of Woodward's critics accuse him of abandoning critical inquiry to maintain his access to high-profile political actors. Anthony Lewis called the style "a trade in which the great grant access in return for glory." Christopher Hitchens accused Woodward of acting as "stenographer to the rich and powerful."
Writer Tanner Colby, who co-wrote a biography of John Belushi with the late actor's widow Judy, wrote in Slate that, while Woodward's frequently criticized 1984 book Wired: The Short Life and Fast Times of John Belushi is largely accurate in its description of events, Woodward either gets the context wrong or does not find any context at all. For example, Belushi's grandmother's funeral, which led him to make a serious effort to sober up, gets merely a paragraph in Woodward's retelling, while a 24-hour drug binge in Los Angeles goes on for eight pages simply because the limo driver was willing to talk to Woodward. "It's like someone wrote a biography of Michael Jordan in which all the stats and scores are correct, but you come away with the impression that Michael Jordan wasn't very good at playing basketball," he concluded. Because it was unique among Woodward's books in that it made no use of confidential or anonymous sources, Colby was able to interview many of the same sources that Woodward had used, making comparisons of their recollection of events to Woodward's accounting of them relatively easy.
Woodward believed the Bush administration's claims of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction before the war, and the publication of the book At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA by former Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet led Woodward to write an account of the extent of his pre-war conversations with Tenet in an article in The New Yorker in which he also chastised New York Times op-ed columnist Maureen Dowd for being critical of him.
Woodward was also accused of fabricating a deathbed interview with CIA Director William Casey, as described in Veil, where Casey supposedly admitted to his knowledge of the Iran-Contra affair. Casey's widow and several individuals from the agency stated that Casey was incapable of speaking at the time of the alleged interview. However, Robert M. Gates, Casey's deputy at the time, in his book From the Shadows, recounts speaking with Casey during this exact period. Gates directly quotes Casey saying 22 words, even more than the 19 words Woodward said Casey used with him. The CIA's internal report found that Casey "had forty-three meetings or phone calls with Woodward, including a number of meetings at Casey's home with no one else present" during the period Woodward was researching his book. Gates was also quoted saying, "When I saw him in the hospital, his speech was even more slurred than usual, but if you knew him well, you could make out a few words, enough to get sense of what he was saying." Following Casey's death, President Ronald Reagan wrote: "[Woodward]'s a liar and he lied about what Casey is supposed to have thought of me."
Commentator David Frum has said that Washington officials can learn something about the way Washington works from Woodward's books: "From his books, you can draw a composite profile of the powerful Washington player. That person is highly circumspect, highly risk averse, eschews new ideas, flatters his colleagues to their face (while trashing them to Woodward behind their backs), and is always careful to avoid career-threatening confrontation. We all admire heroes, but Woodward's books teach us that those who rise to leadership are precisely those who take care to abjure heroism for themselves."
Despite these criticisms and challenges, Woodward has been praised as an authoritative and balanced journalist. The New York Times Book Review said in 2004 that "No reporter has more talent for getting Washington's inside story and telling it cogently."
Lecture circuit
As of 2008, Woodward was giving speeches on the "lecture circuit" to industry lobbying groups, such as the American Bankruptcy Institute, the National Association of Chain Drug Stores, and the Mortgage Bankers Association. Woodward was commanding speaking fees "rang[ing] from $15,000 to $60,000" and donating them to his personal foundation, the Woodward Walsh Foundation, which donated to charities including Sidwell Friends School. Washington Post policy prohibits "speaking engagements without permission from department heads" but Woodward insisted that the policy is "fuzzy and ambiguous".
Woodward also lectures at colleges and universities. He gave the 2001 Robert C. Vance Distinguished Lecture at Central Connecticut State University, and has spoken at the University of Arkansas, University of Alabama, Eastern Connecticut State University, West Texas A&M University, and Oklahoma City Community College. Following the publication in 2018 of Fear: Trump in the White House, he spoke to an overflow crowd of students, faculty, and guests at Virginia Commonwealth University. His May 4, 2019 speech at Kent State University contained the startling revelation of previously unreleased audiotape on which then-president Richard Nixon can be heard lauding the 1970 shooting of four students for its effect on those who disagreed with him.
Personal life
Woodward has been married three times. His first marriage (1966–1969) was to his high school sweetheart Kathleen Middlekauff, now an English professor. His second marriage (1974–1979) was to Frances Kuper. In 1989, he married for a third time to Elsa Walsh (b. August 25, 1957), a writer for The New Yorker and the author of Divided Lives: The Public and Private Struggles of Three American Women.
His oldest daughter, Tali, is also a journalist. She directed a graduate program in journalism at Columbia University for six years before becoming an editor for The Trace.
In popular culture
Woodward was portrayed by Robert Redford in All the President's Men (1976), J. T. Walsh in Wired (1989), Will Ferrell in Dick (1999), Julian Morris in Mark Felt: The Man Who Brought Down the White House (2017), and Spencer Garrett in The Front Runner (2018).
Bibliography
Woodward has co-authored or authored thirteen No. 1 national bestselling non-fiction books.All the President's Men (1974) about the Watergate scandal; , 25th Anniversary issue in (1999) ; written with Carl BernsteinThe Final Days (1976) about Nixon's resignation ; written with Carl BernsteinThe Brethren (1979) about the Supreme Court in the Warren E. Burger years; ; written with Scott ArmstrongWired (1984) on the death of John Belushi and the Hollywood drug culture Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA (1987) about the CIA's "secret wars" during the tenure of William J. Casey The Commanders (1991) on The Pentagon, the first Bush administration and the Gulf War The Agenda (1994) about Bill Clinton's first term The Choice (1996) about Bill Clinton's re-election bid Shadow (1999) on the legacy of Watergate and the scandals that faced later Presidential administrations Maestro (2000) about Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan Bush at War (2002) about the path to war with Afghanistan following September 11 Plan of Attack (2004) about how and why President George W. Bush decided to go to war with Iraq The Secret Man: The Story of Watergate's Deep Throat (2005) about Mark Felt's disclosure, after more than 30 years, that he was Deep Throat. The book was written before Felt admitted his title, as he was sickly and Woodward expected that some way or another, it would come out. .State of Denial: Bush at War, Part III (2006) about the Bush administration and the War in Iraq The War Within: A Secret White House History (2006–2008) (2008) Obama's Wars (2010) about the Obama administration's handling of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan The Price of Politics (2012) about President Obama and congressional Republican and Democratic leaders' attempt to restore the American economy and improve the federal government's fiscal condition over 3.5 years. .The Last of the President's Men (2015) about Alexander Butterfield, the Nixon aide who disclosed the secret White House taping system that changed history and led to Nixon's resignation. .Fear: Trump in the White House (2018), .Rage (September 15, 2020), Peril (September 2021), co-authored with journalist Robert Costa
Television
Woodward co-wrote the 1986 NBC made-for-TV film Under Siege about a series of terrorist attacks in the United States. The film's other co-writers include Christian Williams, Richard Harwood, and Alfred Sole.
Woodward again collaborated with Williams when they were story writers for the 1989 TNT TV miniseries adaptation of The Nightmare Years about American journalist William L. Shirer stationed in pre-World War II Nazi Germany. The miniseries' screenplay was written by Ian Curteis.
References
External links
Official personal website
Bob Woodward at The Washington Post''
Bob Woodward Biography and Interview with American Academy of Achievement
1943 births
Living people
20th-century American journalists
20th-century American writers
21st-century American journalists
21st-century American writers
American investigative journalists
American male journalists
American newspaper reporters and correspondents
American political writers
Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients
Journalists from Washington, D.C.
People from Geneva, Illinois
People from Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)
People of the Office of Naval Intelligence
The Washington Post people
Watergate scandal investigators
Writers from Chicago
Writers from Wheaton, Illinois
Yale College alumni | [
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243546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope%20John%20IV | Pope John IV | Pope John IV (; died 12 October 642) was the bishop of Rome from 24 December 640 to his death. His election followed a four-month vacancy. He wrote to the clergy of Ireland and Scotland to tell them of the mistakes they were making with regard to the time of keeping Easter and condemned Monothelism as heresy.
According to sacred tradition, he created the Catholic Church in Croatia with Abbot Martin.
Rise
Pope John was a native of Iadera, Dalmatia. He was the son of the scholasticus (advocate) Venantius. At the time of his election he was archdeacon of the Roman Church, an important role in governing the see. John was considered "a very cultured man". As John's consecration on 24 December 640 followed very soon after his election, it is supposed that the elections were being confirmed by the exarch of Ravenna rather than directly by the emperor in Constantinople.
Papacy
While still only pope-elect, John, with the other bishops of the Catholic Church, wrote to the clergy of Ireland and Scotland to tell them of the mistakes they were making with regard to the time of keeping Easter, and exhort them to be on their guard against the Pelagian heresy. About the same time, he condemned Monothelism as heresy. Emperor Heraclius immediately disowned the Monothelite document known as the "Ecthesis". To Heraclius' son, Constantine III, John addressed his apology for Pope Honorius I, in which he deprecated the attempt to connect the name of Honorius with Monothelism. Honorius, he declared, in speaking of one will in Jesus, only meant to assert that there were not two contrary wills in Him.
Troubles in his native land caused by invasions of Slavs directed John's attention there. To alleviate the distress of the inhabitants, John sent the abbot Martin into Dalmatia and Istria with large sums of money for the redemption of captives. As the ruined churches could not be rebuilt, the relics of some of the more important Dalmatian saints were brought to Rome. John then erected an oratory in their honour. It was adorned by the pope with mosaics depicting John himself holding in his hands a model of his oratory. John endeavoured thereby to convert the Slavs in Dalmatia and Istria to Christianity. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus claimed that Duke Porga of Croatia, who had been invited into Dalmatia by Heraclius, sent to Emperor Heraclius for Christian teachers. It is supposed that the emperor to whom this message was sent was Emperor Heraclius himself, and that he sent it to Pope John IV.
John was buried in the Basilica of St. Peter.
Notes
References
Sereno Detoni, Giovanni IV. Papa dalmata, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2006
Luciano Rota, I Papi Caio e Giovanni IV, in Istria e Dalmazia. Uomini e tempi, II, Dalmazia, Udine, Del Bianco 1992
John IV in Encyclopædia Britannica
The Popes and the Church of Rome in Late Antiquity John Moorhead - Taylor and Francis - 2014
Attribution:
External links
Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
642 deaths
7th-century archbishops
Popes of the Byzantine Papacy
People from Dalmatia
Burials at St. Peter's Basilica
Popes
Year of birth unknown
Illyrian people
7th-century popes | [
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243548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20Anthem%20of%20Turkmenistan | State Anthem of Turkmenistan | The "State Anthem of Turkmenistan", also known as the "National Anthem of Independent Neutral Turkmenistan" (), was adopted as the national anthem of Turkmenistan in 1996, then again with modified lyrics in 2008. The music was composed by Turkmenistani composer Veli Mukhatov, who also composed the music of the Turkmen SSR's regional anthem.
The lyrics were originally written by the first president of Turkmenistan, Saparmurat Niyazov (also known as Turkmenbashi), who died on 21 December 2006. Less than two years after his death, the reference to Turkmenbashi in the chorus was replaced with "the people", among other minor changes to the lyrics, and the chorus was removed from the start of the piece. The text of the anthem is given here in its present form, followed by the original text from the Niyazov period. The national anthem is played at the start of radio and television broadcasts at 6:55 a.m. local time and played again when radio and television stations sign off.
History
Until 1996, Turkmenistan, which received independence a few years earlier, used the Turkmen SSR anthem without words as the state anthem. The new anthem was adopted on 27 September 1996 by the People's Council of Turkmenistan in Bayramali. The anthem, known by the first sentence of the chorus "The great creation of Turkmenbashi", in reference to the first leader Saparmurat Niyazov, was used from 1997 to 2008, when it was given minor changes when the current leader Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow orders to do so following Niyazov's death in that year.
Lyrics
Current lyrics
Lyrics from 1996 to 2008
Notes
References
External links
Turkmenistan: Garaşsyz, Bitarap Türkmenistanyň Döwlet Gimni - Audio of the national anthem of Turkmenistan, with information and lyrics
Instrumental version of "Independent, Neutral, Turkmenistan State Anthem" in RealAudio
Ruhnama - Songs and Video Clips - This website dedicated to the Ruhnama features a page with a vocal version of the National Anthem, as well as other songs and video clips.
Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan music
National symbols of Turkmenistan
National anthem compositions in F major | [
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243549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xoloitzcuintle | Xoloitzcuintle | The Xoloitzcuintle (or Xoloitzquintle, Xoloitzcuintli, or Xolo) is one of several breeds of hairless dog. It is found in Estándar (Standard), Intermedio (intermediate), and Miniatura (miniature) sizes. The Xolo also comes in a coated variety, totally covered in fur. Coated and hairless can be born in the same litter as a result of the same combination of genes. The hairless variant is known as the Perro pelón mexicano or Mexican hairless dog. It is characterized by its duality, wrinkles, and dental abnormalities, along with a primitive temper. In Nahuatl, from which its name originates, it is xōlōitzcuintli (singular) and xōlōitzcuintin (plural). The name comes from the god Xolotl that according to ancient narratives is its creator and itzcuīntli , meaning 'dog' in Nahuatl language.
History
Ceramic sculptures of a hairless breed of dog have been found in burial sites in ancient West Mexico. In ancient times, Xolos were often sacrificed and then buried with their owners to act as guides to the soul on its journey to the underworld. They have been found in burial sites of both the Maya and the Toltec.
Sixteenth-century Spanish accounts tell of large numbers of dogs being served at banquets. Aztec merchant feasts could have 80–100 turkeys and 20–40 dogs served as food. When these two meats were served in the same dish, the dog meat was at the bottom of the dish, either because it was held in higher regard or because it was increasingly considered a step above cannibalism.
The Aztecs consumed few domesticated animals, with over 90% of the bones found at archeological sites being deer.
Lineage
A 1999 genetic study using mitochondrial DNA found that the DNA sequences of the Xoloitzcuintle were identical to those of dogs from the Old World. In 2018, an analysis of DNA from the entire genome indicated that domesticated dogs entered North America from Siberia for 4,500 years and were isolated for the next 9,000 years. After contact with Europeans, these lineages were replaced by Eurasian dogs. The pre-contact dogs exhibited a unique genetic signature that is now almost gone. In 2020, the sequencing of ancient dog genomes indicates that in two Mexican breeds the Chihuahua retains 4% and the Xoloitzcuintli 3% pre-colonial ancestry.
Their phenotype is a consequence of canine ectodermal dysplasia caused by a mutation on the Foxl3 autosomal gene.
Registry
Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI)
The breed did not receive any official notice in its homeland until the 1950s. The FCI, founded in 1940, was not prepared to declare the Xolo an official purebred at that time. According to breed historian Norman Pelham Wright, author of The Enigma of the Xoloitzcuintli, Xolos began to turn up at Mexican dog shows in the late 1940s. Although they were recognized as indigenous specimens of a native breed, interest in them was minimal at that time, because information was scarce and no standard existed by which to judge them. Within a decade, the FCI realized that the breed would become extinct if drastic action were not taken to save it. This led to the widely publicized Xolo Expedition of 1954. With the official sanction of the FCI, Wright and a team of Mexican and British dog authorities set off to discover if any purebred Xolos still existed in remote areas of Mexico. Eventually 10 structurally strong Xolos were found and these dogs formed the foundation of Mexico's program to revive the breed. A committee headed by Wright authored the first official standard for the breed; on May 1, 1956, the Xolo was finally recognized in its native land and, as Mexico is a member of the FCI, worldwide.
American Kennel Club (AKC)
Xolos were among the first breeds recorded by the American Kennel Club (AKC). A Mexican dog named 'Mee Too' made breed history as the first AKC-registered Xolo in 1887. 'Chinito Junior', bred and owned by Valetska Radtke of New York City, became the breed's only AKC champion to date. He earned his title on October 19, 1940.
In 1959, the Xolo was dropped from the AKC stud book due to the breed's scarcity and perceived extinction. The Xoloitzcuintli Club of America (XCA), the official parent club for the breed, was founded on October 26, 1986, to regain AKC recognition for the breed. On May 13, 2008, AKC voted to readmit the breed to its Miscellaneous Class starting January 1, 2009. The founding members voted unanimously to recognize all three sizes (toy, miniature and standard) and both varieties (hairless and coated) at their initial meeting. Since then, the XCA has compiled a stud book modeled on requirements for eventual AKC acceptance, held an annual independent specialty show, published a quarterly newsletter, The Xolo News, and maintained an active national rescue network, National Xolo Rescue (known before 2009 as The Xolo Rescue League). Since January 1, 2007, FSS registered Xolos have been eligible to compete in AKC performance events. The breed was moved into the AKC Studbook in December 2010 and has been eligible to be shown in the AKC Non-Sporting group since January 1, 2011.
Characteristics
Appearance
The breed ranges in size from about 10 to 55 lb (5 to 23 kg). The height is 9 to 26 inches (23–67 cm). Similar in appearance to a Pharaoh Hound, with a sleek body, almond-shaped eyes, large bat-like ears, and a long neck, the Xolo is notable for its dominant trait of hairlessness. The dominant hairless trait originated in this breed as a spontaneous mutation thousands of years ago. The recessive expression of the trait will produce a coated variety, which is genetically inseparable from the hairless, as the homozygous appearance of the hairless mutation is fatal to the unborn pup. Most litters contain both hairless and coated puppies. The coated variety, covered with a short, flat dense coat represents the original form of the dog, prior to the occurrence of the spontaneous hairless mutation. The hairless variety is completely hairless on the body, with many dogs exhibiting a few short hairs on the top of the head, the toes, and the tip of the tail. Most hairless dogs are black or bluish-gray in color.
The allele responsible for the Xolo's hairlessness also affects the dog's dentition: Hairless Xolos typically have an incomplete set of teeth while the dogs of the coated variety have complete dentition.
The Xolo is moderate in all aspects of its appearance, conveying an impression of strength, agility, and elegance. Xolo body proportions are rectangular, slightly longer in total body length than the height measured at the highest point of the withers (top of the shoulders). The breed occurs naturally in two varieties, hairless and coated. Hairless Xolos are the dominant expression of the heterozygous Hh hairless trait. Coated Xolos (hh) are the recessive expression, and breeding hairless to coated or hairless to hairless may produce pups of either or both varieties. Breeding coated to coated will only produce coated pups because they are recessive to the hairless trait and do not carry the dominant H gene.
Both varieties occur in all hair or skin colors, and the skin is often marked, splashed, or spotted. The most common colors are various shades termed black, grey, bronze, yellowish-blonde, blue and red. The breed occurs in a range of sizes, which breeders have standardized into three designations: Standard, Miniature and Toy.
Temperament
The Xoloitzcuintle's 'primitive' temperament (very high intelligence, sensitivity, high energy, inquisitiveness, strong hunting, and social instincts) is apparent because the breed's temperament was not modified overall by selective breeding in their native history in Mexico. This has also ensured a sturdy physical nature and vigorous health generally innate in both coated and hairless Xolos. Adult Xolos are frequently noted for their calm demeanor, although puppies can be extremely energetic, noisy, and very oral until they reach maturity (after 2 years old) and do not bark much, after which they tend to settle down and become more calm. Inadequately supervised or exercised Xolos can become escape artists, climbing and jumping fences to chase. Many individuals of this breed can possess guard dog ability and will not back down from a fight. At the same time, adult dogs, when they are raised properly, can become steady, well-behaved, and affectionate companions.
Though physically grown at 1 year, many dog breeds including Xolos, are not 'emotionally mature' until around 2 years. Like active breeds such as terriers, Xolos need calm, consistent and loving obedience training and regular socialization during their growing years. Well-raised Xolos bond strongly with their owners, becoming highly devoted to their families while frequently choosing one specific family member as favorite.
Anyone considering acquiring a Xolo should expect to spend time educating themselves in positive reinforcement dog training techniques and, ideally, should have prior experience with active and intelligent dog breeds. A spacious, well-fenced, and safe physical environment is desirable for this breed. Daily walks are ideal for exercising most Toy-sized Xolos; however, more stimulating physical and mental exercise is advised for larger and more active individuals. Behavior problems in Xolos are typically a result of a dog receiving inadequate or inconsistent supervision, as well as inadequate exercise and mental stimulation. The Xoloitzcuintle is a social dog that should not, in most cases, be an "only dog". It does not do well when kept as an outside-only dog. This is a breed that is at its best when it is made part of the family, receiving regular interaction and socialization with its humans (and other dogs, whether present in the home or as regular playmates).
Health
The Xolo has been developed by natural selection for thousands of years, and is therefore generally not prone to health and structure problems as other dog breeds more modified by human selection efforts. Xolos came from tropical climates and are not suited for outdoor life in colder temperate and northern climates; they should be considered an indoor dog breed. They need bathing, light grooming and skin care as with other dogs of similar physical type, or acne can result. Most skin problems arise from poor breeding, neglect, or over-bathing and over-lotioning, stripping natural protections and clogging pores.
In contemporary culture
Xoloitzcuintles have been receiving more recognition in recent years, this can be seen in increased representation in popular culture and in the popularity of the dog as a pet. Museo El Carmen in Mexico City exhibited a show titled Xolos, compañeros de viaje (Xolos, travel companions) in 2019–20 of more than 100 artifacts – ceramics, remains, and artworks – overviewing the importance of the Xoloitcuintle in Mexican heritage. A Xolo named Dante stars in the US blockbuster CGI animation 2017 Disney/Pixar film Coco. On August 12, 2016, the Mayor of Mexico City Miguel Ángel Mancera designated the Xoloitzcuintle a "cultural heritage and symbol" of Mexico City. The Dolores Olmedo Museum keeps a pack of Xolos on their grounds.
The Xoloitzcuintle is the symbol and mascot of Club Tijuana, the Xoloitzcuintles de Caliente, a professional soccer club founded in 2007. Xolos are depicted in some of Mexican artist Frida Kahlo's paintings, one of which is commemorated on the 2007 500-peso note, featuring Kahlo's painting titled Love's Embrace of the Universe, Earth, (Mexico), I, Diego, and Mr. Xólotl (1949) on the reverse of the note. Diego Rivera's large murals, The History of Mexico, in the Palacio Nacional in Mexico City feature numerous Xolos.
See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
Hairless dog
Peruvian Hairless Dog
References
Further reading
The Xolo Handbook. Xoloitzcuintli Club of America, 1999.
External links
The Xoloitzcuintli Club of America (XCA), AKC Xolo parent club.
"New AKC Recognized Breed: The Xolo", Cesar's Way, July 2011
American Kennel Club (AKC) Xoloitzcuintli information page
URCANIS breedingclub of Sweden
FCI breeds
Hairless dogs
Dog breeds originating in Mexico
Companion dogs
Dog meat | [
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243550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope%20John%20V | Pope John V | Pope John V (; died 2 August 686) was the Bishop of Rome from 23 July 685 to his death. He was the first pope of the Byzantine Papacy consecrated without prior imperial consent, and the first in a line of ten consecutive popes of Eastern origin. His papacy was marked by reconciliation between the city of Rome and the Empire.
Early life
John was born in Antioch. and was of Syrian origin, he was named papal legate to the Third Council of Constantinople in 680.
Papacy
John V was the first pope of the Byzantine Papacy consecrated without the direct imperial approval. Emperor Constantine IV had done away with the requirement during the pontificate of Benedict II, John V's predecessor, providing that "the one elected to the Apostolic See may be ordained pontiff from that moment and without delay". In a return to the "ancient practice", John V was elected in July 685 "by the general population" of Rome. Constantine IV doubtlessly trusted that the population and clergy of Rome had been sufficiently Easternized, and indeed the next ten pontiffs were of Eastern descent.
John V's papacy saw a continuation of improving relations with Byzantium. The Emperor greatly reduced taxes on the papal patrimonies of Sicily and Calabria and abolished other taxes, such as a surtax on grain that had been paid only with difficulty in recent years. A letter from Justinian II assured John V that a "synod of high-ranking civil and ecclesiastical officials", including the apocrisiarius and the Byzantine military, had read and thereafter sealed the text of the Third Council of Constantinople, to prevent any alteration to its canons. The letter was addressed to "John pope of the city of Rome", written while the Emperor believed the pope to still be alive, but received by Pope Conon.
Like his immediate predecessors, John V was unusually generous towards the diaconies of Rome, distributing 1,900 solidi to "all the clergy, the monastic diaconies, and the mansionarii" for the poor.
Death
After a pontificate of little more than a year, John V died in his bed in August 686, giving rise to a "heated debate over his successor". The clergy favored an archpriest named Peter, while the army supported another priest, Theodore. The faction of the clergy gathered outside the Constantinian basilica and the faction of the military met in the Church of St. Stephen. Shuttle diplomacy proved futile and eventually the clergy elected Conon, a Greco-Sicilian.
John V was buried among the papal tombs in Old St. Peter's Basilica. His inscription praised him for combating Monothelitism at the Third Council of Constantinople "with the titles of the faith, keeping such vigilance, you united the minds so that the inimical wolf mixing in might not seize the sheep, or the more powerful crush those below". John V's tomb was destroyed during the Arab raid against Rome in 846.
Notes
References
Ekonomou, Andrew J. 2007. Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern influences on Rome and the papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.D. 590–752. Lexington Books.
686 deaths
Popes
Asian popes
Syrian popes
Popes of the Byzantine Papacy
7th-century archbishops
635 births
7th-century popes
7th-century Semitic people | [
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243551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rilke%20%28disambiguation%29 | Rilke (disambiguation) | The name Rilke is often associated with Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926), Bohemian-Austrian poet (Duino Elegies, Sonnets to Orpheus).
Other uses of the name Rilke may also refer to:
9833 Rilke (1982 DW3), a main-belt asteroid discovered in 1982 by R. Ziener, named after Rainer Maria Rilke
Emil Rilke (born 1983), Czech footballer
Rilke trail, a hiking trail in Duino-Aurisina, Gulf of Trieste, Italy, named for Rainer Maria Rilke | [
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243553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20McKean | Dave McKean | David McKean (born 29 December 1963) is an English illustrator, photographer, comic book artist, graphic designer, filmmaker and musician. His work incorporates drawing, painting, photography, collage, found objects, digital art and sculpture. McKean's projects include illustrating books by amongst others Neil Gaiman, Grant Morrison, Heston Blumenthal, Ray Bradbury and Stephen King, and directing three feature films.
Career
Comics
After a trip to New York City in 1986 during which he first showed his work to editors at Marvel Comics, DC Comics, and Continuity Comics, McKean met writer Neil Gaiman, and the pair collaborated on a short graphic novel of disturbing childhood memories, Violent Cases, published in 1987. This was followed in 1988 by a Black Orchid miniseries and Hellblazer covers for DC Comics.
In 1989, he illustrated the Batman graphic novel, Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, with writer Grant Morrison. Comics historian Les Daniels observed that "Arkham Asylum was an unprecedented success, selling 182,166 copies in hardcover and another 85,047 in paperback...McKean produced 120 pages of paintings for Arkham Asylum, offering powerful visual reinterpretations of the classic characters." From 1989–1997 McKean produced the covers for Gaiman's celebrated series The Sandman, all its collected editions, and many of its spin-offs. In 1998, the cover images from The Sandman were released as one compiled volume titled Dustcovers: The Collected Sandman Covers. Further collaborations with Gaiman produced the graphic novels Signal to Noise in 1992 previously serialised in The Face magazine, about a dying filmmaker and his hypothetical last film; and The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Mr. Punch, which explored similar themes as Violent Cases through the imagery of the Punch and Judy show. In 1995 McKean wrote and illustrated a book for The Rolling Stones called Voodoo Lounge to tie-in with the release of their album of the same name.
Between 1990 and 1996, McKean wrote and drew the ten issues of Cages, an ambitious graphic novel about artists and creativity, illustrated in a stripped-down pen-and-ink style influenced by Alberto Breccia, José Antonio Muñoz and Lorenzo Mattotti. Cages was published as single volume by Kitchen Sink Press in 1998, and in a new edition by NBM Publishing in 2002. In 2010, Cages was released by Dark Horse Comics in paperback. An anniversary edition was released in 2016 by the same publisher, featuring a new introduction by Terry Gilliam.
McKean's collections of short comics Pictures That Tick, and Pictures That Tick 2: Exhibition were published by Dark Horse Comics in 2009 and 2015. Pictures That Tick won the Victoria and Albert Museum Illustrated Book of the Year award.
McKean created a wordless erotic graphic novel called Celluloid for Delcourt, which was published in the United States by Fantagraphics Books.
Black Dog: The Dreams of Paul Nash, which was a commission by the 14-18 Now Foundation, The Imperial War Museum and The Lakes International Comic art Festival, was released as an artist's edition in June 2016, and was published in October 2016 by Dark Horse Comics as an oversized hardback and regular paperback. The project was also a live performance featuring cellist/singer Matthew Sharp and violinist Clare Haythornthwaite, and was performed in Amiens, Kendal, London, Rye and Ashford.
Illustration
McKean designed the posters for the Raindance Film Festival for five consecutive years between 1996–2000. In 1997 he wrote, directed and edited a ninety-second trailer for the festival. In 2005, McKean designed the poster for the 32nd Telluride Film Festival. In 2006, he designed projections, sets and directed film clips for the Broadway musical Lestat, adapted from Anne Rice's novels, with music and lyrics by Elton John and Bernie Taupin.
McKean has created a few books documenting his travels using only illustrations. Examples include Postcards from Vienna, Postcards from Barcelona, Postcards from Paris (2008), Postcards from Brussels (2009), Postcards from Perugia (2011), Postcards from Bilbao (2012). He created another book of 200 pages called Squink (éditions BdArtist(e)) that gathered a number of drawings in 15 chapters.
C.D. and book covers
McKean created C.D. covers for many artists, amongst others for Counting Crows, Alice Cooper, Altan, Tori Amos, Download, Frontline Assembly, Paradise Lost, Dream Theater, Skinny Puppy, Toad the Wet Sprocket and Steve Walsh.
Bill Bruford's Earthworks commissioned McKean artworks for six of their albums from 1994 to 2004, as well as additional images for the 2019 Complete box set.
He has also made book covers for Jonathan Carroll, Iain Sinclair and Alan Moore.
Books of photography
He has published four books of photography:
A Small Book of Black and White Lies (1995)
Option: Click (1998)
The Particle Tarot: The Major Arcana
The Particle Tarot: The Minor Arcana
Work with John Cale
McKean designed and illustrated John Cale's autobiography What's Welsh for Zen, a further biography called Sedition and Alchemy, a box set of C.D.s called Circus Live, and used John's Welsh-by-way-of-New York voice as the narrator for his short film Neon.
Children's picture books
McKean has collaborated with Neil Gaiman on four children's picture books, The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish (1998), The Wolves in the Walls (2003), Crazy Hair (2009), and Mirrormask (2005), and illustrated Gaiman's children's novels Coraline (2002) and The Graveyard Book (2008), as well as S. F. Said's Varjak Paw (2003), Outlaw Varjak Paw (2006) and Phoenix (2013). The Wolves in the Walls: a Musical Pandemonium premiered as a play in Glasgow in 2006 with Improbable and the National Theatre of Scotland. The National Theatre of Scotland adapted The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish into a promenade performance for young people in 2013. He illustrated David Almond's The Savage published in April 2008, Slog's Dad published in September 2010, and Mouse Bird Snake Wolf (2013). In 2011, McKean collaborated with Richard Dawkins on The Magic of Reality, an introduction to critical thinking and science for children. McKean also illustrated Ray Bradbury's The Homecoming (2006).
The Fat Duck Cookbook
In 2008, McKean collaborated with Heston Blumenthal on The Fat Duck Cookbook, an autobiography, compilation of key recipes and insight into Blumenthal's scientific method. The book was nominated in the James Beard Foundation Awards for Cooking from a Professional Point of View and won the Photography/Illustration award. In 2014, McKean collaborated again with Blumenthal and writer Pascal Clariss on Historical Heston, a collection of historically inspired recipes. The book won two James Beard Foundation Awards. McKean is the Director of Story at The Fat Duck, and helped to relaunch the restaurant after its refurbishment in 2015. He has created package designs, maps, menu designs and murals for The Fat Duck, as well as Dinner by Heston Blumenthal in London and Melbourne.
Stamps
McKean created six images for the Royal Mail's Mythical Creatures collection, which featured depictions of mythical creatures found in British folklore, including dragons, unicorns, giants, pixies, mermaids, and fairies. The collection was released in the UK on 16 June 2009. The Presentation Pack contains short descriptions of each subject by author Neil Gaiman.
Films
MirrorMask, McKean's first feature film as director, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2005. The screenplay was written by Neil Gaiman, from a story by Gaiman and McKean. A children's fantasy which combines live action and digital animation, MirrorMask was produced by Jim Henson Studios and stars a British cast Stephanie Leonidas, Jason Barry, Rob Brydon, and Gina McKee. Before MirrorMask, McKean directed a number of television intros and music videos as well as several short films, such as The Week Before (1998) and N[eon] (2002), which are included in the compilation DVD of McKean's work Keanoshow from Allen Spiegel Fine Arts. McKean has directed The Gospel of Us, a film of the National Theatre Wales's Passion play in Port Talbot which stars Michael Sheen. The feature film Luna, written and directed by McKean and starring Stephanie Leonidas, Ben Daniels, Dervla Kirwan and Michael Maloney, debuted at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2014.
McKean was a concept artist on the TV mini-series Neverwhere (1996), which was created and co-written by Neil Gaiman, and the feature films Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004) and Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005).
Theatre and live performance
McKean wrote and performed a song cycle called Nine Lives at the Sydney Opera House as part of the Graphic Festival. This was also performed at the British Library and at LICAF.
McKean wrote the text for Wildworks' Wolf's Child site-specific theatre work as part of the Norwich Theatre Festival in 2015.
An Ape's Progress was a commission by the Manchester Literature/Jazz Festivals in 2015, and was created by poet Matthew Sweeney, composer/saxophone player Iain Ballamy, cellist Matthew Sharp, singer Emilia Martensson, accordionist Stian Carstensen, and pianist Kit Downes, with McKean providing film projections and keyboards. A book of the work accompanied the show.
Black Dog: The Dreams of Paul Nash is a multi-media, music, song and performance work commissioned by 14-18 Now Foundation and LICAF. McKean performs as narrator and pianist, Matthew Sharp as performer, singer and cellist, and Clare Haythornthwaite as violinist/performer. It premiered in Amiens, and has been performed in Kendal. In 2016 it was performed in Rye, Ashford and at Tate Modern.
Music and Jazz label
Mckean has produced album artwork for many bands, such as: Paradise Lost, Machine Head, Fear Factory, Counting Crows, Dream Theater, Michael Nyman, and countless more. He has a longstanding relationship with industrial band Front Line Assembly, creating many illustrations for dozens of their albums from 1994 to 2021. McKean also founded the record label Feral Records with saxophonist Iain Ballamy.
Awards
McKean has won numerous awards and accolades. Over the years, he has been nominated five times for a World Fantasy Award in the category of "Artist", and he won the award in 1991. His graphic novel Cages won the Alph-Art, Pantera, and Harvey Awards for best Graphic Novel. He has been nominated six times and won three Spectrum Awards in the categories of "Advertising", "Book", and "Comic". His collection of short comics, Pictures That Tick won the V&A Museum Illustrated Book Awards Overall First Prize. In 2004, McKean won a BSFA Award in "Short Fiction" with Neil Gaiman for their work, The Wolves in the Walls. His film MirrorMask was nominated for the William Shatner Golden Groundhog Award for Best Underground Movie, the other nominated films were Green Street Hooligans, Nine Lives, Up for Grabs and Opie Gets Laid. Luna won Best British Feature at the Raindance Festival Awards, and also the Raindance Award at the Möet British Independent Film Awards. In 2017 McKean was the inaugural recipient of the "Sergio Aragones International Award for Excellence in Comic Art", given as part of The Lakes International Comic Art Festival.
References
External links
Official site for children's books with Neil Gaiman (UK publisher) and (US publisher)
Dave McKean at Mike's Amazing World of Comics
Dave McKean at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators
Black Dog: the Dreams of Paul Nash
1963 births
20th-century English artists
21st-century English artists
Album-cover and concert-poster artists
DC Comics people
English comics artists
English comics writers
English film directors
English graphic designers
English illustrators
English people of Scottish descent
Photographers from Berkshire
Living people
People from Maidenhead
World Fantasy Award-winning artists
Writers who illustrated their own writing | [
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243561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EcoSCOPE | EcoSCOPE | The ecoSCOPE is an optical sensor system, deployed from a small remotely operated vehicle (ROV) or fibre optic cable, to investigate behavior and microdistribution of small organisms in the ocean.
Deployment
Although an ROV may be very small and quiet, it is impossible to approach feeding herring closer than 40 cm. The ecoSCOPE allows observation of feeding herring from a distance of only 4 cm. From 40 cm, the herrings' prey (copepods) in front of the herring are invisible due to the deflection of light by phytoplankton and microparticles in highly productive waters where herring live. With the ecoSCOPE, the predators are illuminated by natural light, the prey by a light sheet, projected via a second endoscope from strobed LEDs (2 ms, 100% relative intensity at 700 nm, 53% at 690 nm, 22% at 680 nm, 4% at 660 nm, 0% at 642 nm).
By imitating the long, thin snout of the garfish protruding into the security sphere of the alert herrings, an endoscope with a tip diameter of 11 mm is used. The endoscope is camouflaged to reduce the brightness-contrast against the background: the top is black and the sides are silvery. Additionally, the front of the ROV is covered by a mirror, reflecting a light gradient resembling the natural scene and making the instrument body virtually invisible to the animals. A second sensor images other copepods, phytoplankton and particles at very high magnification. Another advantage of these small "optical probes" is the minimal disruption of the current-field in the measuring volume, allowing for less disturbed surveys of microturbulence and shear.
Another video can be seen in the article for Atlantic herring.
An ecoSCOPE was also deployed to measure the dynamics of particles in a polluted estuary: see image on Particle (ecology), another as an underwater environmental monitoring system, utilizing the orientation capacity of juvenile glasseel.
Specifications
The ecoSCOPE is a product of the new initiative of "Ocean Online Biosensors": a synthesis of IT-sensoric and the sensing capability of ocean organisms.
Depicted in the image on the right is the central unit. On all four corners are small entrances, through which water from different sources enters (in this case, rivers and creeks in New Jersey). It flows through a small labyrinth and mixes in the central chamber. It exits through a small tube in the middle. The glasseels migrate through this small tube heading into the current. In the middle is the entrance for the eels. They test the different water qualities and migrate toward the corner, where they exit.
It is the opinion of many scientists that eels have developed the finest nose on the planet. They can sense concentrations of one part in 19 trillion. This is the same concentration as one glass of alcohol in the waters of all America's Great Lakes. For the eels the sensory impressions are probably as diverse as the colors visible for us.
The system is submerged, and a digital camera observes the exits. The dynIMAGE software monitors the frequency of decisions per exit. Many thousand of glasseels pass through the system on a single day. The three exits in the left lower corner carry water from polluted sources (one is a drinking water reservoir).
EcoSCOPE systems have already been tracking water pollution and its effect on fish and plankton behavior in Europe and the United States). For the future it is anticipated to deploy ecoSCOPEs continuously online, within the project LEO Projekt off New York City, visible for the public. Tests have also been performed with different qualities of drinking water and with solutions of runoff juice from different samples of fish.
See also
American eel
Eel life history
References
Cury PM (2004) "Tuning the ecoscope for the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries : Perspectives on eco-system-based approaches to the management of marine resources" Marine ecology, 274: 272-275.
Julien B, Philippe C, Pascal C and Pierre C (2008) "Safeguarding, Integrating and Disseminating Knowledge on Exploited Marine Ecosystems: The Ecoscope" International Marine Data and Information Systems, IMDIS - 2008.
Kils, U (1992) "The ecoSCOPE and dynIMAGE: Microscale Tools for in situ Studies of Predator Prey Interaction", Archiv für Hydrobiologie, Beihefte 36: 83-96.
Kils, U (1994) The 3-D ecoSCOPE: A tool for investigating microdynamics and microdistributions" In: M DeLuca (ed) Diving for Science...1994 Proceedings of the 14th Annual Scientific Diving Symposium, American Academy of Underwater Sciences. New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Ulanowicz RE (1993) "Inventing the ecoscope", In V. Christensen and D. Pauly (eds) Trophic models of aquatic ecosystems, ICLARM Conf. Proc. 26: ix-x.
External links
The Ecoscope Project
Visit of President of Germany to Kiel laboratory, the first propototype of the EcoSCOPE is visible in the picture, hanging from the roof.
Optical devices
Marine biology
Fisheries science | [
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243563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20Goof | Max Goof | Maximilian "Max" Goof is an animated character who is the son of the Disney character Goofy. He first appeared in the 1951 short "Fathers Are People" as Goofy Jr., and later appeared in the 1992 television series Goof Troop as Max Goof, a preteen. He then later appeared as a teenager in the spin-off film A Goofy Movie (1995), its direct-to-video sequel An Extremely Goofy Movie (2000), and in the 2001 TV series House of Mouse as a parking valet. He appeared as a child in the direct-to-video film Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999) and as a young adult in its sequel Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004).
Max has also appeared as a playable character in video games such as Goof Troop (1993) for the Super NES, Disney Golf (2002) for the PlayStation 2, and Disney's Extremely Goofy Skateboarding (2001) for PC CD.
Origins
The first appearance of Goofy's son was in the 1951 theatrical short Fathers Are People. He is referred to as Goofy Junior or simply Junior. He later appeared in a few other shorts such as Father's Lion (1952), Father's Day Off (in which Goofy refers to his son as "George" at one point), Father's Weekend (1953), and Aquamania (1961). In these earlier films, Goofy was also portrayed with a wife, though nameless and with her face always hidden from view. When Goof Troop was created, Goofy Junior evolved into Max, and Goofy's wife was no longer on the scene. Disney Guest Services FAQ later stated there is no definitive answer regarding details of his mother, as one has not been revealed "on the screen".
Overview
Max is one of the few Disney characters, aside from his best friend PJ and Huey, Dewey, and Louie, child or otherwise, who has actually aged in subsequent appearances. He is depicted as an 11½-year-old in Goof Troop, then a teenager in high school in A Goofy Movie, and then in An Extremely Goofy Movie he is a high school graduate starting college. In House of Mouse, he is still a teenager but one who is old enough to be employed as a parking valet. In Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas, he is a child who looks and sounds younger than he does in Goof Troop. In Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas, he is a young adult who is returning home for the holidays.
Max, much to his own dismay, takes after his father at times, whether it be mannerisms (including Goofy's trademark laugh) or occasionally being clumsy (although that is a trait he does not display obviously in An Extremely Goofy Movie during the College X-Games competition). He feels that he is much cooler than Goofy however, and is not as earnest and humble as his old man, as he can be somewhat of a show-off at times when he excels at anything. While Goofy is still clumsy, he works hard to be a good father towards Max, at one time reprimanding him to take personal responsibility by telling him about his (Max's) great-uncle, Eliot Goof, an FBI agent with a never-give-up attitude (and a parody of Eliot Ness). In the Goof Troop show, there are times he would get suckered in by Pete and his get-rich-quick schemes, only to come around towards the end. It seems, personality wise, that PJ is more like Goofy at times, while Max seems more like Pete. Despite everything, Max loves his father, even if he does wish that Goofy would be a little more normal.
In the Goof Troop television series, Max is voiced by Dana Hill, while Shaun Fleming voices the younger Max in Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas. Jason Marsden voices an older Max in all other appearances starting with A Goofy Movie. The Goof Troop series shows some of his relatives – an older cousin named Debbie was featured in the episode "Leader of the Pack". In the Halloween episode "Hallow-Weenies" his father's "great-great-granddaddy" was Gooferamus T. Goofy, while a "Gooferamus G. Goof" is instead referred in "Calling All Goofs" as Max's "great-great-great-grandpappy"; at a family reunion in "Calling All Goofs" his relatives are Goofy's Aunt Goophelia, Pattonleather Goof (Goofy's great-uncle and a parody of General George S. Patton), Wernher von Goof (Goofy's scientist cousin and a parody of Wernher von Braun), and M. Angelo Goof (Goofy's artist uncle and a parody of Michelangelo). In "the Old Country" his father's "great-grand uncle" was the late mad scientist Dr. Frankengoof. Other relatives include Sir Goofy of Knock-Knees A.K.A. "Goofin' Hood" (Max's great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-granddad, and a parody of Robin Hood), Sherlock Goof (Max's great-great-great uncle and a parody of Sherlock Holmes), Mopalong Goofy (Max's great-great-great-grandpa and a parody of Hopalong Cassidy), and Caveman Goof (Max's and Goofy's prehistoric ancestor) In one episode of Goof Troop, Goofy says that Max was scared of the witch in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs when he was younger.
Over the course of his life, Max's has been romantically involved with at least two young ladies. In A Goofy Movie, Max tries to impress a popular girl at his school named Roxanne, and ends up with her by the film's end, but by the second movie, Max is apparently single again as he flirts with a number of other girls at the college. However, in an episode of House of Mouse, he and Roxanne are a couple once more, on a date at the titular House of Mouse. Later, in Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas, Max is seen with yet another a girl named Mona, whom he brings home for Christmas to meet his father and attempts to impress her while trying not to be embarrassed by his father's goofiness. Both Roxanne and Mona are voiced by Kellie Martin, except in the House of Mouse episode in which Roxanne is instead voiced by Grey DeLisle.
Max has a love for skateboarding, as shown in the Goof Troop episodes "Leader of the Pack" and "Meanwhile, Back at the Ramp" and the films A Goofy Movie and An Extremely Goofy Movie.
Appearances
Goof Troop
In the series Goof Troop, Max is the son of Goofy Goof and Mrs. Goof, who was born in Spoonerville, Spoonville County, Ohio, in 1981, whereby in 1992 he is 11 years old. He is active, nice, observant, friendly, and best friends with P.J., Pete's son. He and P.J. are in the same grade at their junior high school. He loves his father, and is close to him, but wishes he would be a bit more normal. He wears purple baggy jeans, white gloves, yellow and green sneakers, and a redshirt.
A Goofy Movie
A Goofy Movie in 1995 features Max as a 14-year-old high school student, finishing the school year before going on summer vacation. In this movie, Max has grown to find his father's goofy antics embarrassing, and is likewise viewed by his peers as a geek and a goof himself; a view he seeks to change at the school assembly when he dresses up like the musician rock star Powerline and interrupts the principal's speech to dance and perform to Powerline's hit song "Stand Out" before the entire student body. Additionally, Max seeks to gain the attention of his crush, a popular girl named Roxanne, whom Max is convinced only ever looks right through him and believes the laugh he inherited from his father ("ah-hyuck") is to her disliking. Though Max ends up in detention for hijacking the assembly, he succeeds in not only impressing the other students but also winning the affections of Roxanne, who shyly yet delightedly agrees to go with him to a party that is to be held the next Saturday.
However, the principal informs Max's father, Goofy, about Max's bad behavior. Fearful that his son is becoming a delinquent, Goofy decides to take Max on a cross-country fishing trip for some 'father-son bonding', much to Max's chagrin. Before Goofy and Max hit the road, Max pays a quick visit to Roxanne's house to explain to her why he can no longer go with her to the party but ends up lying to her that it is because he is instead going to see Powerline live in concert in Los Angeles and that he and his father will join Powerline on stage for the last song since, as Max claims, Goofy and Powerline are an old acquaintance. The guilt from this lie eats at Max throughout the film, while Goofy tries to bond with his son in ways that end up pushing Max away even further. When Goofy appoints Max the official navigator of their road trip, things go much more smoothly for the two as Max gets to pick all the stops along the way.
But, unbeknownst to Goofy, Max had secretly changed the driving route on the map to lead them to Los Angeles, and when Goofy finds out, he and Max come to a head as the two finally let out all their held-back emotions at each other before they finally reach an understanding in which Max confesses to his dad how he has felt about Roxanne and the lie he told her before while Goofy explains that he just wants to be a part of Max's life and that even though he's all grown up, he is still Goofy's son. By this point, Max and Goofy admit that they are stuck together and would not want to be with anyone else in this situation. The two actually make it to the Powerline concert, even appearing (accidentally) onstage. By the end of the film, when the two arrive back home, Max reveals to Roxanne that he lied, admitting that he just wanted her to like him. Roxanne in turn confesses that she already did like Max, revealing that the goofy laugh Max had been so embarrassed by was the very thing that led to her liking him. After Goofy's car suddenly explodes due to the damage after it had fallen down the waterfall, he is sent crashing through the roof of Roxanne's porch, at which point Max introduces Roxanne to his dad.
An Extremely Goofy Movie
In the direct-to-video sequel to A Goofy Movie, An Extremely Goofy Movie in 2000, Max is a 19-year-old high school graduate and leaves for college with his best friends P.J. and Bobby Zimuruski. He hopes to start a new life for himself and partake in the College X-Games competition and eventually graduate at 23, in 2004. Upon his arrival to the campus, he and his friends are met by the five-time X-Games champions, the Gamma Mu Mu fraternity. However, because the Gammas invited only Max and not P.J. and Bobby to join them, Max makes a bet against the Gammas' leader, Bradley Uppercrust III, to see who will be towel boy to the other should either win the X-Games.
Meanwhile, Goofy gets fired from his job (for an accident caused by his empty nest syndrome) and must go back to college to get a degree, as it is the only way for him to get a new job. He attends the same college as his son, much to Max's dismay as he had hoped to finally get away from his father's overbearing doting. Eventually, Max manages to distract his father by introducing him to Ms. Sylvia Marpole, the college's librarian, who takes a romantic interest in Goofy and vice versa while Max sneaks off to practice his skateboarding. When Goofy gets a date with Sylvia, he rushes off to tell Max only to interfere with Max's practice, resulting in the onlooking Bradley to misinterpret Goofy's clumsy antics on Max's skateboard for skill and offers Goofy membership to the Gammas. Max encourages his father to join, viewing it as another distraction to keep Goofy further away from his X-Games practices.
When Goofy inadvertently beats Max at the qualifying rounds for the College X-Games (thanks in part to some sneaky cheating by Bradley), Max ends up blowing up at his father, revealing his desires to get away from his father and estranges him completely by telling him to "leave him alone and get his own life", sending Goofy into depression. When Goofy later overhears the Gammas' plan to cheat in the games, Goofy tries to warn his son, who does not believe him, as he still wants him out of his life. But once it becomes clear to Max (during the X-Games' final round) that the Gammas really have been cheating all along, Max realizes that Goofy was telling the truth and, feeling remorseful for disowning him and not listening to his warnings, manages to ask his dad to fill in for the incapacitated P.J., which Goofy happily accepts. During the final stretch of the triathlon, Bradley activates a rocket hidden in Max's skateboard, causing an explosion that ends up trapping fellow Gamma member Tank underneath some fallen fiery debris. Max forgoes heading straight to the finish line to first rescue Tank (with help from Goofy) and ultimately manages to just barely beat Bradley to the finish line. In the end, Goofy graduates a year later in 2001, where Max is now 20, and both father and son make amends at Goofy's graduation and Max gives his father the X-Games championship trophy as an apology gift for his unkind and selfish disownment while Goofy finally sees that Max no longer needs a guardian as the two-part ways following their now-restored relationship, with Goofy (now cured of his empty nest syndrome) heading to another date with Sylvia, and finally leaving Max to at last live his own life at college.
Disney's House of Mouse
In the House of Mouse TV series, Max is still a teenager (although considerably older than in A Goofy Movie) and works as the parking valet for the club, and appears to be most level-headed and calm of all the club's employees. However, this may be because his duties are not nearly as important as some of the others, and his inclusions are just to help out the rest of the cast. Yet, in episodes that revolve around him or Goofy, his insecurities and personal flaws are much more noticeable and intentional.
In the episode "Max's Embarrassing Date", Max is off work and on a date with Roxanne at the House of Mouse. While all the main Disney cast (Mickey, Minnie, Donald and Daisy) attempted to keep Goofy away from the two so as to not embarrass Max in front of Roxanne, they ended up embarrassing him themselves until Goofy finally cuts in to give Max and Roxanne some privacy for the night. Max makes a cameo appearance in Mickey's House of Villains when the villains are entering the House of Mouse.
Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas and Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas
In the direct-to-video traditionally animated film Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas, in the segment "A Very Goofy Christmas", Max goes bicycling into the mall with his father, Goofy, to catch up to the mail truck in order to mail his letter to Santa. However, when their neighbor Pete tells Max that there is no such thing as Santa, Goofy goes out of his way to try to prove to Max that Santa does exist. However, after staying up all night with no luck, Goofy is filled with disappointment, leaving it to Max to cheer his father. In the end, Santa finally arrives to the joyful awe and wonderment of Goofy and Max. In this film, Max is a little boy, placing "A Very Goofy Christmas" chronologically before all other titles Max appears in.
The direct-to-video computer animated film Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (a sequel to Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas) is currently Max's latest appearance in any Disney media produced. In the segment titled "Christmas Maximus", Max has grown up into a young adult. He brings his lady friend Mona (whom Max hopes to make his girlfriend) home for Christmas to meet his father. Goofy picks them up at the train station and brings them back to the house, where Goofy shows Mona Max's baby pictures and unwittingly embarrasses Max with all his fatherly love. In the end, as Mona finds Goofy's quirks to be endearing, Max decides to forget his embarrassment and join in the fun.
Max later appears (in a non-speaking role) with his father and the other characters in the last segment of the film, "Mickey's Dog-Gone Christmas", in which they drive around the city in a snowplow to look for Pluto, who had previously run away after his having angering Mickey. After Pluto returns, everyone (Max included) pulls up to Mickey's house in the snowplow, exits the snowplow, and goes inside the house to celebrate Christmas. Max and everyone applaud Mickey and Pluto topping the Christmas tree with the star decoration, and then they all join in singing a short medley of "We Wish You a Merry Christmas" and "Deck the Halls" to close out the special.
During the end credits sequence, a pop-up book version of Max and Mona are seen sliding close to each other (presumably to share a kiss) before a pop-up version of Goofy covers them both from view with a picture frame containing credits specific to the "Christmas Maximus" segment. Later, the closing image of Goofy and Max holding a Christmas caroling book together from the end of "Mickey's Dog-Gone Christmas" is shown again towards the end of the credits, as the last time Max was seen in Disney animation for the next sixteen years.
DuckTales
In the 2017 DuckTales series, Goofy refers to "Maxie" by name in the episode "Quack Pack!", when the former shows pictures of him and Max in his wallet, with one showing Max and P.J. and another with Max and Roxanne.
Disney Parks
At the Walt Disney World Resort, Max is a meetable character, and is featured during the "Move It! Shake It! Mousekedance It!" parade. He and Goofy were also part of the "Mickeys Magical TV World" show in the Magic Kingdom.
At Tokyo Disneyland, Max occasionally appears with Goofy on floats in seasonal parades. He can also be found sometimes as a meetable character at the front of the park.
Voice actors
Bobby Driscoll voiced Goofy Junior from 1951 to 1952.
In 1992, when Goof Troop was created, Goofy Junior evolved to Max Goof as a preteen. Max was voiced by Dana Hill; Hill would continued to voice Max for commercials, Disney projects, promos, Disney parks and other miscellaneous material with the exception of A Goofy Movie until her death in 1996.
In 1995, Max Goof became a teenager in A Goofy Movie where he is voiced by Jason Marsden, which became his first animated film that he worked on at the age of 20; Marsden continued to voice Max in An Extremely Goofy Movie, House of Mouse, Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas and other Disney projects.
References
External links
Max Goof on IMDb
Disney core universe characters
Television characters introduced in 1992
Anthropomorphic dogs
Fictional skateboarders
Male characters in animation
Child characters in television
Goof Troop
Teenage characters in television | [
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] |
243574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th-century%20National%20League%20teams | 19th-century National League teams | The following is a list of United States Major League Baseball teams that played in the National League during the 19th century. None of these teams, other than Athletic and Mutual, had actual names during this period; sportswriters however often applied creative monickers which are still, mistakenly, used today as "team names" following a convention established in 1951.
Surviving teams
Major league
Boston: "Red Stockings, "Red Caps," "Beaneaters" 1876–1900 – now Atlanta Braves
Brooklyn: "Grays," "Bridegrooms," "Grooms," "Superbas," "Robins," "Trolley Dodgers" 1890–1900 – transferred from the American Association; now Los Angeles Dodgers
Chicago "White Stockings": 1876–1900 – now known as the Cubs
Cincinnati: "Red Stockings" or "Reds" 1890–1900 – transferred from the American Association
New York: occasionally "Gothams," more often "Giants" 1883–1900 – later the New York Giants and now San Francisco Giants
Philadelphia 1883–1900 – very occasionally tagged "Quakers" 1883–1890, most often "Philadelphias" in the style of the day, shortened to "Phillies."
Pittsburgh: 1887–1900 founded as Allegheny (a Pittsburgh suburb) and referred to in typical manner as "Alleghenys" 1883-1890, dubbed "Pirates" from 1891 – transferred from the American Association
St. Louis "Brown Stockings or "Browns," later "Red Stockings" or "Reds" 1892–1900 – transferred from the American Association; now known as the Cardinals.
Minor league
Buffalo Bisons 1879–1885 – moved to the minors in 1886 and played in Buffalo until 1970 before several moves. Suspended operations in 1973. A current minor league team bearing the "Buffalo Bisons" name, dating to 1979, claims this team as part of their official history.
Defunct teams
Cincinnati Red Stockings 1876–1879
Cleveland Blues 1879–1884
Cincinnati Stars 1880
Cleveland Spiders 1889–1899 – transferred from the American Association; the 1899 Cleveland Spiders hold the record for the worst winning percentage in the history of Major League Baseball
Detroit Wolverines 1881–1888
Hartford Dark Blues 1876–1877 – transferred from National Association; based in Brooklyn in 1877
Indianapolis Blues 1878
St. Louis Maroons/Black Diamonds/Indianapolis Hoosiers 1885–1889 – transferred from the Union Association in 1885; moved to Indianapolis where often called Hoosiers in 1887
Kansas City Cowboys 1886
Louisville Grays 1876–1877
Louisville Colonels 1892–1899 – transferred from the American Association
Milwaukee Grays (or Cream Citys) 1878
Mutual of New York 1876 – transferred from National Association
Athletic of Philadelphia 1876 – transferred from National Association
Providence Grays 1878–1885
St. Louis Brown Stockings 1876–1877 – transferred from National Association
Syracuse Stars 1879
Troy Trojans 1879–1882
Washington Nationals 1886–1889
Washington Senators (1891–99)
Worcester Ruby Legs 1880–1882
Timeline
Franchises by Year
1876
Boston
Chicago
Cincinnati
Hartford
Louisville
Mutual
Athletic
St. Louis
Between 1876 and 1877 seasons
Drop: Mutual and Athletic
1877
Boston
Chicago
Cincinnati
Hartford (played most games in Brooklyn)
Louisville
St. Louis
Between 1877 and 1878 seasons
Drop: Hartford, Louisville and St. Louis
Add: Indianapolis, Milwaukee and Providence
1878
Boston
Chicago
Cincinnati
Indianapolis
Milwaukee
Providence
Between 1878 and 1879 seasons
Drop: Indianapolis and Milwaukee
Add: Buffalo, Cleveland, Syracuse and Troy
1879
Boston
Chicago
Cincinnati
Providence
Buffalo
Cleveland
Syracuse
Troy
Between 1879 and 1880 seasons
Drop: Syracuse
Add: Worcester
1880
Boston
Chicago
Cincinnati
Providence
Buffalo
Cleveland
Troy
Worcester
Between 1880 and 1881 seasons
Drop: Cincinnati
Add: Detroit
1881
Boston
Chicago
Providence
Buffalo
Cleveland
Troy
Worcester
Detroit
Between 1881 and 1882 seasons
Drop:none
Add: none
1882
Boston
Chicago
Providence
Buffalo
Cleveland
Troy
Worcester
Detroit
Between 1882 and 1883 seasons
Drop: Troy and Worcester
Add: New York and Philadelphia
1883
Boston
Chicago
Providence
Buffalo
Cleveland
Detroit
New York
Philadelphia
Between 1883 and 1884 seasons
Drop: none
Add: none
1884
Boston
Chicago
Providence
Buffalo
Cleveland
Detroit
New York
Philadelphia
Between 1884 and 1885 seasons
Drop: Cleveland
Add: St. Louis from the Union Association
1885
Boston
Chicago
Providence
Buffalo
Detroit
New York
Philadelphia
St. Louis
Between 1885 and 1886 seasons
Drop: Buffalo and Providence
Add: Kansas City and Washington
1886
Boston
Chicago
Detroit
New York
Philadelphia
St. Louis
Kansas City
Washington
Between 1886 and 1887 seasons
Drop: Kansas City
Add: Pittsburgh (from the American Association)
Move: St. Louis to Indianapolis
1887
Boston
Chicago
Detroit
New York
Philadelphia
Washington
Indianapolis
Pittsburgh
Between 1887 and 1888 seasons
Drop: none
Add: none
1888
Boston
Chicago
Detroit
New York
Philadelphia
Washington
Indianapolis
Pittsburgh
Between 1888 and 1889 seasons
Drop: Detroit
Add: Cleveland from the American Association
1889
Boston
Chicago
New York
Philadelphia
Washington
Indianapolis
Pittsburgh
Cleveland
Between 1889 and 1890 seasons
Drop: Indianapolis and Washington
Add: Brooklyn and Cincinnati (both from the American Association)
1890
Boston
Chicago
New York
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Cleveland
Brooklyn
Cincinnati
Between 1890 and 1891 seasons
Drop: none
Add: none
1891
Boston
Chicago
New York
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Cleveland
Brooklyn
Cincinnati
Between 1891 and 1892 seasons
Drop: none
Add: Baltimore, Louisville, St. Louis and Washington (all from the American Association)
1892–1899
Boston
Chicago
New York
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Cleveland
Brooklyn
Cincinnati
Baltimore
Louisville
St. Louis
Washington
This lineup of teams remained the same from 1892 to the end of the 1899 season. After the 1899 season Baltimore, Cleveland, Louisville and Washington were dropped from the National League.
1900
Boston
Chicago
New York
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Brooklyn
Cincinnati
St. Louis
This lineup remained the same until Boston relocated to Milwaukee in 1953.
See also
List of National League pennant winners
History of baseball team nicknames
References
Articles which contain graphical timelines | [
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] |
243576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%20%28disambiguation%29 | Miller (disambiguation) | A miller is a person who owns or operates a mill which turns grain into flour.
Miller, Miller's, Millers, or variation, may also refer to:
Milling machine, for which "miller" is an outdated synonym
People
Miller (surname)
List of people with surname Miller
Justice Miller (disambiguation)
Places
United States
Inhabited places
Miller, California, a former settlement
Miller, Indiana
Miller, Iowa
Miller, Kansas
Miller, Kentucky (disambiguation)
Millers, Maryland
Miller, Michigan
Miller, Missouri
Miller, Nebraska
Miller's, Nevada, a ghost town
Millers, New York
Miller, Ohio
Miller, Oklahoma
Miller, South Dakota
Miller Beach, a neighborhood of Gary, Indiana
Miller County (disambiguation), in various states
Miller Township (disambiguation)
Rivers
Millers River (Connecticut River), Massachusetts
Millers River (Middlesex), Massachusetts
Millers River (Rhode Island)
Miller River, Washington
Other places
Miller (crater), a crater on the Moon
Miller, New South Wales, Australia
Miller, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Miller Field (disambiguation)
Miller Park (disambiguation)
Characters
Adam Miller, on the Australian soap opera Neighbours
Barney Miller, a character on the 1975 television show Barney Miller
C. Miller, player character in Call of Duty: World at War
Chris and Nifty Miller, a character in the 1986 American fantasy drama film The Barker
Chuck, David, Judy, and Ronald Miller, characters in the American teen romantic comedy 1987 movie Can't Buy Me Love
Daisy Miller, a character in the novella Daisy Miller by Henry James
Kazuhira Miller, character in Metal Gear series
Lauren Miller, a character played by Courteney Cox in the American sitcom television series Family Ties
Leslie Miller, a character in the 1999 American black comedy mockumentary movie Drop Dead Gorgeous
Liza Miller, a character in the American television series, Younger
Luisa Miller, a character in the opera Luisa Miller by Giuseppe Verdi
Marvin Miller, a 2 year old ginger in Marvin (comics)
Master Miller, a games series character; see list of recurring Metal Gear characters
Mrs. Miller, a character in the 1994 American comedy film Robot in the Family
Nick Miller, a character in American television series, New Girl
Phil Miller, a character in the Fox television series The Last Man on Earth, played by Will Forte
Robyn Miller, a character in "The Miller's Tale" from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer
Miller family from the British television show EastEnders:
Miller, A security guard in the 2001 game Half-life: Blue Shift
Aleesha Miller
Darren Miller
Dawn Miller
Demi Miller
Keith Miller (EastEnders)
Mickey Miller
Rosie Miller
Windy Miller, a character from the British children's television show Camberwick Green
Biology
Miller (moth) (Acronicta leporina), a species of moth
Miller, other moths of the genus Agrotis
The miller, a common name for the fungus Clitopilus prunulus
Entertainment
Barney Miller (1975–1982), a U.S. police sitcom that originally aired on ABC
The Millers (2013–2015), a U.S. television show
The miller who was a wizard, a cheat and a matchmaker (also called The Miller), a Russian ballad opera by Mikhail Sokolovsky
We're the Millers, a 2013 American comedy film
Companies
Harry Miller (auto racing)
Miller (automobile), a former U.S. car maker
Miller Brewing Company, a U.S. beer company
Miller Camera Support Equipment, an Australian tripods and fluid heads manufacturer
Miller Electric, a company that makes arc welding and cutting equipment
Miller's (publisher), a U.K. publishing company established by William Miller
Miller's of Tennessee, a defunct U.S. chain of department stores
RW Miller, a defunct Australian coal, hotel and shipping company
Law
United States v. Miller, a 1939 case involving the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution
Miller v. California, a 1973 case involving the First Amendment to the United States Constitution that resulted in the Miller test of obscenity
Miller v. Alabama, a 2012 case holding unconstitutional mandatory sentences of life without parole for juveniles
R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, a 2016 case about the right of the UK Government to withdraw from the European Union
Miller v. Bonta, a 2021 case in California involving the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution
Sports
Alexander City Millers, a minor league baseball team
Holyoke Millers, a minor league baseball team
Mayodan Millers, a minor league baseball team
Minneapolis Millers, a minor league baseball team
Minneapolis Millers (AHA), a minor league ice hockey team
Minneapolis Millers (IHL), a minor league ice hockey team
Steinbach Millers, an amateur league ice hockey team
Other uses
Miller (typeface), a typeface designed by Matthew Carter in 1997
See also
Fort Miller, California
Millar, a surname
Mill (disambiguation) | [
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243577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaw | Jaw | The jaw is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth, typically used for grasping and manipulating food. The term jaws is also broadly applied to the whole of the structures constituting the vault of the mouth and serving to open and close it and is part of the body plan of humans and most animals.
Arthropods
In arthropods, the jaws are chitinous and oppose laterally, and may consist of mandibles or chelicerae. These jaws are often composed of numerous mouthparts. Their function is fundamentally for food acquisition, conveyance to the mouth, and/or initial processing (mastication or chewing). Many mouthparts and associate structures (such as pedipalps) are modified legs.
Vertebrates
In most vertebrates, the jaws are bony or cartilaginous and oppose vertically, comprising an upper jaw and a lower jaw. The vertebrate jaw is derived from the most anterior two pharyngeal arches supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous teeth.
Fish
The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the Silurian period and appeared in the Placoderm fish which further diversified in the Devonian. The two most anterior pharyngeal arches are thought to have become the jaw itself and the hyoid arch, respectively. The hyoid system suspends the jaw from the braincase of the skull, permitting great mobility of the jaws. While there is no fossil evidence directly to support this theory, it makes sense in light of the numbers of pharyngeal arches that are visible in extant jawed vertebrates (the Gnathostomes), which have seven arches, and primitive jawless vertebrates (the Agnatha), which have nine.
The original selective advantage offered by the jaw may not be related to feeding, but rather to increased respiration efficiency. The jaws were used in the buccal pump (observable in modern fish and amphibians) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians. Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.
Amphibians, reptiles, and birds
The jaw in tetrapods is substantially simplified compared to fish. Most of the upper jaw bones (premaxilla, maxilla, jugal, quadratojugal, and quadrate) have been fused to the braincase, while the lower jaw bones (dentary, splenial, angular, surangular, and articular) have been fused together into a unit called the mandible. The jaw articulates via a hinge joint between the quadrate and articular. The jaws of tetrapods exhibit varying degrees of mobility between jaw bones. Some species have jaw bones completely fused, while others may have joints allowing for mobility of the dentary, quadrate, or maxilla. The snake skull shows the greatest degree of cranial kinesis, which allows the snake to swallow large prey items.
Mammals
In mammals the jaws are made up of the mandible (lower jaw) and the maxilla (upper jaw). In the ape there is a reinforcement to the lower jaw bone called the simian shelf. In the evolution of the mammalian jaw, two of the bones of the jaw structure (the articular bone of the lower jaw, and quadrate) were reduced in size and incorporated into the ear, while many others have been fused together. As a result, mammals show little or no cranial kinesis, and the mandible is attached to the temporal bone by the temporomandibular joints. Temporomandibular joint dysfunction is a common disorder of these joints, characterized by pain, clicking and limitation of mandibular movement. Especially in the therian mammal, the premaxilla that constituted the anterior tip of the upper jaw in reptiles has reduced in size; and most of the mesenchyme at the ancestral upper jaw tip has become a protruded mammalian nose.
Sea urchins
Sea urchins possess unique jaws which display five-part symmetry, termed the Aristotle's lantern. Each unit of the jaw holds a single, perpetually growing tooth composed of crystalline calcium carbonate.
See also
Muscles of mastication
Otofacial syndrome
Predentary
Prognathism
Rostral bone
References
External links
Human head and neck
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243578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic%20rescue%20tool | Hydraulic rescue tool | Hydraulic rescue tools are used by emergency rescue personnel to assist in the extrication of victims involved in vehicle accidents, as well as other rescues in small spaces. These tools include cutters, spreaders, and rams. Such devices were first used in 1963 as a tool to free race car drivers from their vehicles after crashes.
History
The Hurst Rescue Tool was invented by George Hurst, circa 1961, after he viewed a stock car race accident in which it took workers over an hour to remove an injured driver from his car. Previously rescuers often used circular saws for vehicle extrication, but these suffered from several drawbacks. Saws can create sparks, which could start a fire, create loud sounds, stress the victim(s), and often cut slowly. Alternatively, rescuers could try to pry open the vehicle doors with a crowbar or Halligan bar, but this could compromise the stability of the vehicle, or injure the victims further.
In comparison, hydraulic spreader-cutters are quieter, faster, stronger, and more versatile: they can cut, open, and even lift a vehicle. Hurst Performance began to export parts to a European company, Zumro ResQtec, to avoid import duty. Zumro ResQtec was interested in developing these tools for use in auto racing, with ResQtec targeting the European market and Hurst targeting the American market. The hydraulic spreader was originally developed in 1972 by Tim Smith and Mike Brick, who later developed a cutter and a hydraulic ram. When an occupant is trapped the tool is used to pry or cut the car to remove the occupant. It takes about two minutes to take the roof off a car. Mike Brick coined the phrase "Jaws of Life" after he observed people saying that their new device "snatched people from the jaws of death", then used as a registered brand name for Hurst products. The name "jaws of life" is, however, used colloquially to describe other hydraulic rescue tools.
Brick later developed a single rescue tool that combines the functions (push, pull, cut and spread) of previous rescue tools, and patented it; the design is currently implemented as the Phoenix Rescue tool.
Tool types
Cutters
The cutter is a pair of hydraulically powered shears that is designed to cut through metal. It is often called the jaws of life, owing to the shape and configuration of its blades. Sometimes specified as to their capacity to cut a solid circular steel bar, these are most commonly used to cut through a vehicle's structure in an extraction operation. Cutter blades are replaceable, and blade development progresses as vehicle technology progresses in order to be able to cope with the new car protection technology.
Spreader
A spreader is a hydraulic tool that is designed with two arms that come together in a narrow tip, and that uses hydraulic pressure to separate or spread the arms. The tip of the tool can be inserted into a narrow gap between two vehicle panels (such as between two doors, or between a door and a fender)—when the tool is operated. Spreaders may also be used to "pop" vehicle doors from their hinges.
Combination spreader
While a cutter or spreader tool is designed for a particular application, a combination tool, or combi-tool as popularly referred to by the fire department, is also available, which combines the cutting and spreading functions of separate tools into a single tool. In operation, the tips of the spreader-cutter's blades are wedged into a seam or gap—for example, around a vehicle door—and the device engaged. The hydraulic pump, attached to the tool or as a separate unit, powers a piston that pushes the blades apart with great force and spreads the seam. Once the seam has been spread, the now-open blades can be repositioned around the metal. The device is engaged in reverse and the blades close, cutting through metal. Repeating this process allows a rescuer to quickly open a gap wide enough to pull free a trapped victim. The blades can spread or cut with a force of several tons or kilo-newtons with the tips of the blades spreading up to a meter.
This operation can also be performed by dedicated spreading and cutting tools, which are designed especially for their own operations and may be required for some rescues. Spreader-cutters sometimes have lower capabilities when compared to the dedicated tool (e.g. a smaller spreading range) but may be useful where space is at a premium on fire and rescue vehicles, or when the budget does not allow for a separate cutter and spreader tool.
Many manufacturers utilize the body of their dedicated cutting tool for the combination tool. Specially engineered combination blades that are designed to spread and cut are used on the cutter body. If the end user decides later to add a separate cutter and spreader, the blades of the combination tool can be changed to make it a cutter only.
Extension rams
Rams are used far less than spreader-cutters in auto rescues; nonetheless, they serve an important purpose. There are many types and sizes, including single-piston, dual-piston and telescopic rams. Sizes commonly vary from 50.80 cm (20") to 178 cm (70") (extended). Rams use more hydraulic fluid during operation than spreader-cutters, so it is essential that the pump being used has enough capacity to allow the ram to reach full extension.
Power
The tools operate on the basis of the hydraulic fluid pressure of up to , which must be provided from a power source. At present, there are three different means of generating pressure. The most commonly used source is a separate power unit, small petrol (gasoline) engine connected to a hydraulic pump. The hydraulic fluid is pressurised in the pump and conveyed in a hose under pressure to the tool.
Alternative power sources are a small electrical pump in the tool powered by a heavy-duty rechargeable battery, and a hand- or foot-operated pump also connected to the tool directly. These are useful for lighter-duty use and do not require the storage space taken up by the separate power unit and associated lengths of hose.
Some manufacturers have begun offering all-electric products driving rotation motors or a screw piston. These are still relatively new on the market and thus may still be somewhat immature but potentially offer many benefits over hydraulic such as but not limited to lower cost of ownership, quicker, more direct and responsive operation, decreased weight and improved portability and handling, and greater reliability.
See also
Bolt cutter
Holmatro
Pneumatic lifting bag
References
External links
Bonsor, Kevin (August 24, 2001). "How the Jaws of Life Work". HowStuffWorks
Hydraulic tools
Rescue equipment
Automotive safety
1963 introductions
Traffic collisions | [
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243579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Woodville%2C%201st%20Earl%20Rivers | Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers | Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers (1405 – 12 August 1469), also Wydeville, was the father of Elizabeth Woodville and father-in-law of Edward IV.
Early life
Born at Maidstone in Kent, Richard Woodville was the son of Richard Wydeville (Woodville), chamberlain to the Duke of Bedford, and Joan Bittlesgate (or Bedlisgate), the daughter of Thomas Bittlesgate of Knightstone in the parish of Ottery St Mary in Devon. He was also grandson of John Wydeville who was Sheriff of Northamptonshire (in 1380, 1385, 1390).
Marriage and courtly career
Woodville followed his father into service with the Duke of Bedford. In 1433 the Duke had married the 17-year-old Jacquetta of Luxembourg; she was the Duke's second wife and he was significantly older and in ill health. When the Duke died in 1435, Jacquetta was left a childless and wealthy widow. She was required to seek permission from King Henry VI before she could remarry, but in March 1437 it was revealed that she had secretly married Richard Woodville who was far below her in rank and not considered a suitable husband for the lady still honoured as the king's aunt. The couple were fined £1000, but this was remitted in October of the same year.
Despite this inauspicious start, the married couple soon prospered, thanks mainly to Jacquetta's continuing prominence within the royal family. She retained her rank and dower as Duchess of Bedford, which initially provided an income of between £7000 and £8000 per year, though over the years this diminished as a result of territorial losses in France and collapsing royal finances in England. Richard Woodville was honoured with military ranks, in which he proved himself a capable soldier.
Further honours for both came when Henry VI married Margaret of Anjou, whose uncle was Jacquetta's brother-in-law (Jacquetta's sister Isabelle married Margaret of Anjou's paternal uncle Charles du Maine). The Woodvilles were among those chosen to escort the bride to England, and the family benefited further through this double connection to the royal family. Sir Richard was raised to the rank of Baron Rivers in 1448. Their children therefore would grow up enjoying considerable privilege and material comfort.
Military career
Woodville was a captain in 1429, served in France in 1433 and was a knight of the regent Duke of Bedford in 1435. He was at Gerberoy in 1435 and served under William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, in 1435–36. He then fought under Somerset and Shrewsbury in 1439 and the Duke of York in 1441–42, when he was made captain of Alençon and knight banneret.
Woodville was created Baron Rivers by Henry VI on 9 May 1448. Two years later, as Sir Richard, he was invested as a Knight of the Garter in 1450. He was appointed seneschal of Gascony in 1450 (but failed to reach it before its fall) then lieutenant of Calais in 1454–55. He was appointed Warden of the Cinque Ports in 1459 to defend Kent against invasion by the Yorkist earls in (but was captured at Sandwich).
In the Wars of the Roses, he was initially a Lancastrian, but he became a Yorkist when he thought that the Lancastrian cause was lost. He reconciled himself to the victorious Edward IV, his future son-in-law. On 1 May 1464, Edward married Rivers' daughter Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey of Groby. Richard was created Earl Rivers in 1466, appointed Lord Treasurer in March 1466 and Constable of England on 24 August 1467.
Later career
The power of this new family was very distasteful to the old baronial party, and especially so to the Earl of Warwick. Rivers was regarded as a social upstart, and in an ironical episode, his future son-in-law in 1460, while accepting his submission, had rebuked him for daring, given his lowly birth, to fight against the House of York. The Privy Council, in its horrified response to the King's marriage, said bluntly that Richard Woodville's low social standing in itself meant that the King must surely know "that Elizabeth was not the wife for him". Early in 1468, the Rivers estates were plundered by Warwick's partisans, and the open war of the following year was aimed at destroying the Woodvilles. After the Yorkist defeat at the Battle of Edgecote on 26 July 1469, Rivers and his second son John were taken prisoners at Chepstow. Following a hasty show trial, they were beheaded at Kenilworth on 12 August 1469.
Richard Woodville's eldest son Anthony succeeded him in the earldom.
Lord Rivers had a large family. His third son, Lionel (d. 1484) became the Bishop of Salisbury. All his daughters made great marriages: Catherine Woodville, his eighth daughter, was the wife of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham.
"Woodville" is the modern spelling of the name: in their own time "Wydeville", "Wydville" and other variants were used.
Issue
Richard and Jacquetta had 14 children:
Elizabeth Woodville (c. 1437 – 1492), married first Sir John Grey of Groby, and second Edward IV of England.
Lewis Woodville (c. 1438–1450), died in childhood.
Anne Woodville (1439–1489), married first William Bourchier, Viscount Bourchier, and second George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent.
Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers (1442–1483), married Elizabeth Scales, 8th Baroness Scales.
Mary Woodville (1443–1481), married William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke.
Jacquetta Woodville (1444–1509), married John le Strange, 8th Baron Strange of Knockin.
John Woodville (1445–1469), married Catherine Neville, Dowager Duchess of Norfolk.
Lionel Woodville (1447–1484), Bishop of Salisbury.
Martha Woodville (d. c. 1500), married Sir John Bromley of Baddington.
Eleanor Woodville (1452–1512), married Sir Anthony Grey, son of Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent.
Richard Woodville, 3rd Earl Rivers (1453–1491).
Margaret Woodville (1454–1490), married Thomas FitzAlan, 17th Earl of Arundel.
Edward Woodville, Lord Scales (d. 1488), soldier and courtier.
Catherine Woodville (c. 1458 – 1497), married first Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, second Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, she married third Sir Richard Wingfield.
Robert Glover, Somerset Herald, noted another 'Richard' who would seem to have been born before Richard the 3rd Earl. A 'Richard Woodville, esquire for the body' was present at the christening of Prince Arthur (son of Elizabeth and Henry VII) on 24 September 1486 in Winchester Cathedral; Arthur's grandmother, Elizabeth Woodville, served as his Godmother, and her younger brother Edward was also present at the ceremony.
The Visitation of Buckinghamshire of 1566 mentions the marriage of William Dormer of Wycombe (only later of Ascott House) to "Agnes, da. of Sir Richard Woodvyle, Erle Ryvers" but does not say whether the father was the first or the third earl, who the mother was or whether Agnes was legitimate. Considering though that she is thought to be born about 1458 the more likely candidate is the senior Richard Woodville.
In fiction
Woodville is a primary character in Philippa Gregory's 2011 novel about Jacquetta of Luxembourg, The Lady of the Rivers. In The White Queen television series, he is portrayed by Robert Pugh.
Notes
References
|-
People of the Wars of the Roses
Knights of the Garter
Lord High Treasurers of England
Woodville family
Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports
Earls Rivers
1405 births
1469 deaths
People executed under the Yorkists
Executed people from Kent
People executed under the Plantagenets by decapitation
People from Maidstone
Knights banneret of England | [
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243586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20reference%20alphabet | African reference alphabet | An African reference alphabet was first proposed in 1978 by a UNESCO-organized conference held in Niamey, Niger, and the proposed alphabet was revised in 1982. The conference recommended the use of single letters for a sound (that is, a phoneme) instead of using two or three-letter combinations, or letters with diacritical marks.
The African Reference Alphabet is clearly related to the Africa Alphabet and reflected practice based on the latter (including use of IPA characters). The Niamey conference also built on work of a previous UNESCO-organized meeting on harmonization of transcriptions of African languages, that was held in Bamako, Mali, in 1966.
1978 version
Separate versions of the conference's report were produced in English and French. Different images of the alphabet were used in the two versions, and there are a number of differences between the two.
The English version proposed an alphabet of 57 letters, given in both upper and lower-case forms. Eight of these are formed from common Latin letters with the addition of an underline mark (_). Some of the glyphs (two uppercase forms and , one lowercase form ) cannot be accurately represented in Unicode (as of version 13, March 2020).
This version also listed eight accents (acute accent (´), grave accent (`), circumflex (ˆ), caron (ˇ), macron (¯), tilde (˜), trema (¨), and a superscript dot (˙) and nine punctuation marks (? ! ( ) « » , ; .).
In the French version, the letters were hand-printed in lower case only. Only 56 of the letters in the English version were listed – omitting the hooktop-z – and two further apostrophe-like letters (ʾ and ʿ) were included for [ʔ and ʕ]. Also, five of the letters were written with a subscript dot instead of an underscore as in the English version (ḍ ḥ ṣ ṭ and ẓ). (These represent Arabic-style emphatic consonants while the remaining underlined letters (c̱, q̱ and x̱) represent clicks.) Accents and punctuation do not appear. The French and English sets are otherwise identical.
Notes:
Ɑ/ɑ is "Latin alpha" () not "Latin script a" (). In Unicode, Latin alpha and are not considered as separate characters.
The upper case I, the counterpart of the lower case i, does not have crossbars () while the upper case counterpart of the lower case ɪ has them ().
The letter “Z with tophook” () is not included in Unicode.
c̱, q̱, x̱ represent click consonants (ǀ, ǃ, ǁ respectively), but the line under is optional, and usually not used.
c, j represent either palatal stops or postalveolar affricates. ɖ, ʈ are the retroflex stops, as in the IPA.
ƒ, ʋ represent bilabial fricatives.
Although digraphs using h are normally used to represent aspirated consonants, in languages in which those are absent, the digraphs can be used instead of ʒ, ʃ, θ, ɣ...
Digraphs with m or n are used for prenasalized consonants, with w and y for labialized and palatalized consonants; kp and gb are used for labial-velar stops; hl and dl are used for lateral fricatives.
ɓ, ɗ are used for implosives, and ƭ, ƙ for either ejectives or voiceless implosives. ƴ is used for [ʔʲ].
Nasalization is either written with a nasal consonant following the vowel, or with a tilde. Tone is indicated using the acute accent, grave accent, caron, macron, and circumflex. Diaeresis is used for centralized vowels, and vowel length is indicated by doubling the vowel.
Segmentation should be done according to each language's own phonology and morphology.
1982 version
The 1982 revision of the alphabet was made by Michael Mann and David Dalby, who had attended the Niamey conference. It has 60 letters; some are quite different from the 1978 version. Another key feature of this alphabet is that it included only lower-case letters, making it unicase.
A typewriter keyboard was proposed as well: for the additional characters, the uppercase letters had to be given up. It was probably for this reason that the keyboard did not get used.
The 32nd letter “” is called linearized tilde. This character is not included in Unicode (as of version 14, September 2021), but can be represented by ɴ (U+0274 ).
See also
Africa Alphabet
Dinka alphabet
ISO 6438
Pan-Nigerian alphabet
Standard Alphabet by Lepsius
References
Further reading
Mann, Michael, and David Dalby. 1987. A thesaurus of African languages: A classified and annotated inventory of the spoken languages of Africa with an appendix on their written representation. London: Hans Zell Publishers.
External links
African Languages: Proceedings of the meeting of experts on the transcription and harmonization of African languages, Niamey (Niger), 17–21 July 1978, Paris: UNESCO, 1981
http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=IntlNiameyKybd
http://www.bisharat.net/Documents/Niamey78annex.htm
Latin alphabets
Writing systems of Africa
Latin-script letters
Writing systems introduced in 1978
Phonetic alphabets | [
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243592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh%20II%20family | Macintosh II family | The Macintosh II is a family of personal computers that was designed, manufactured and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from 1987 to 1993. The Macintosh II was the initial model, representing the high-end of the Macintosh line for the time. Over the course of the next six years, seven more models were produced, culminating with the short-lived Macintosh IIvi and Macintosh IIvx models. Apple retired the Macintosh II name when it moved to Motorola 68040 processors; the Centris and Quadra names were used instead.
Features
Unlike prior Macintosh models, which are "all-in-one" designs, the Macintosh II models are "modular" systems which do not include built-in monitors and are expandable. Beginning with the Macintosh II and culminating in the Macintosh IIfx, the Macintosh II family was Apple's high-end line from 1987 until the introduction of the Motorola 68040-based Macintosh Quadra computers in 1991.
Expansion was provided by way of NuBus, which become the standard expansion bus for the entire Macintosh line for almost a decade. The Macintosh II was the first to officially support color displays, and the first (apart from the Macintosh XL) to support a screen resolution larger than 512x384.
The Macintosh II is also the first to use a Motorola 68000 series processor other than the Motorola 68000. Except for the original Macintosh II which launched the line with a Motorola 68020 clocked at 16 MHz, they exclusively used the Motorola 68030 microprocessor, even after the Motorola 68040 was introduced. Apple would eventually adopt the '040 with the introduction of the Quadra 700 and 900, positioning these models as high-end workstation-class machines for graphics and scientific computing, while positioning the Macintosh II family as a mainstream desktop computer.
Legacy
During the Macintosh II series' lifespan, they rose to become among the most powerful personal computers available. While the Macintosh II series itself was replaced by the Macintosh Centris and Quadra, the Macintosh LC and Performa families continued to use the II's 68030 technology long after the 68040 was introduced and the PowerBook continued to use the '030 into the Power Macintosh era.
Models
Macintosh II series memory map
See also
List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type
List of Macintosh models by case type
References
Mac II Series Index, Low End Mac | [
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243594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist%20Party%20of%20America | Socialist Party of America | The Socialist Party of America (SPA) was a socialist political party in the United States formed in 1901 by a merger between the three-year-old Social Democratic Party of America and disaffected elements of the Socialist Labor Party of America which had split from the main organization in 1899.
In the first decades of the 20th century, it drew significant support from many different groups, including trade unionists, progressive social reformers, populist farmers and immigrants. However, it refused to form coalitions with other parties, or even to allow its members to vote for other parties. Eugene V. Debs twice won over 900,000 votes in presidential elections (1912 and 1920) while the party also elected two Representatives (Victor L. Berger and Meyer London), dozens of state legislators, more than a hundred mayors, and countless lesser officials. The party's staunch opposition to American involvement in World War I, although welcomed by many, also led to prominent defections, official repression, and vigilante persecution. The organization was further shattered by a factional war over how to respond to the October Revolution in the Russian Republic in 1917 and the establishment of the Communist International in 1919—many members left the party in favor of the Communist Party USA.
After endorsing Robert M. La Follette's presidential campaign in 1924, the party returned to independent action at the presidential level. It had modest growth in the early 1930s behind presidential candidate Norman Thomas. The party's appeal was weakened by the popularity of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, the organization and flexibility of the Communist Party under Earl Browder and the resurgent labor movement's desire to support sympathetic Democratic Party politicians. A divisive and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to broaden the party by admitting followers of Leon Trotsky and Jay Lovestone caused the traditional Old Guard to leave and form the Social Democratic Federation. While the party was always strongly anti-fascist as well as anti-Stalinist, its opposition to American entry in World War II cost it both internal and external support.
The party stopped running presidential candidates after 1956, when its nominee Darlington Hoopes won fewer than 6,000 votes. In the party's last decades, its members, many of them prominent in the labor, peace, civil rights, and civil liberties movements, fundamentally disagreed about the socialist movement's relationship to the labor movement and the Democratic Party and about how best to advance democracy abroad. In 1970–1973, these strategic differences had become so acute that the Socialist Party of America changed its name to Social Democrats, USA. Leaders of two of its caucuses formed separate socialist organizations, namely the Socialist Party USA and the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee, the latter of which became a precursor to the Democratic Socialists of America.
History
Early history
From 1901 to the onset of World War I, the Socialist Party had numerous elected officials throughout the United States. There were two Socialist members of Congress, Meyer London of New York City and Victor Berger of Milwaukee (a part of the sewer socialism movement, a major front in socialism, Milwaukee being the first and the only major city to elect a socialist mayor, which it did four times between 1910 and 1956); over 70 mayors; and many state legislators and city councilors. The party was able to successfully run candidates in smaller municipalities as well as big cities, winning the mayoralty of Butte, Montana with Lewis Duncan and that of Schenectady, New York with George R. Lunn. Its voting strength was greatest among recent Jewish, Finnish and German immigrants, coal miners and former populist farmers in the Midwest. According to Jimmy Weinstein, its electoral base was strongest to the west of the Mississippi River, "in the states where mining, lumbering, and tenant farming prevailed". It was also able to attract support from railroad workers. Its vote shares were highest in the states of Oklahoma, Nevada, Montana, Washington, California, Idaho, Florida, Arizona and Wisconsin, and it also attracted support in Texas, Arkansas and Kansas. From 1900 (before its formal union) to 1912, it ran Eugene V. Debs for President at each election. The best showing ever for a socialist ticket was in 1912, when Debs gained 901,551 total votes, or 6% of the popular vote. In 1920, Debs ran again, this time while imprisoned for opposing World War I and received 913,693 votes, 3.4% of the total.
Early political perspectives ranged from radical socialism to social democracy, with New York party leader Morris Hillquit and Congressman Berger on the more social democratic or right-wing of the party and radical socialists and syndicalists, including members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and the party's frequent candidate, Eugene V. Debs, on the left-wing of the party. There were also agrarian utopian-leaning radicals, such as Julius Wayland of Kansas, who edited the party's leading national newspaper, Appeal to Reason, along with trade unionists; Jewish, Finnish and German immigrants; and intellectuals such as Walter Lippmann and the Black activist/intellectual Hubert Harrison. The party outsourced its newspapers and publications so that it would not have an internal editorial board that was a power in its own right. The result was that a handful of outside publishers dominated the published messages the party distributed and agitated for a much more radical anti-capitalistic revolutionary message the party itself tolerated. The Appeal to Reason newspaper thus became part of its radical left-wing as did the Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company of Chicago, which produced over half of the pamphlets and books that were sold at party meetings.
Approaches to agriculture and farmers' interests were subject to significant debate in the party. Whilst members in most parts of the country advocated collective farming, the Texas and Oklahoma state parties supported populist policies based on small-scale farm ownership, which was considered economically backward by socialists elsewhere. The populist position was backed by Algie Martin Simons, who argued that small farmers were not being eradicated under capitalist pressure as many socialists believed, but that they were "a permanent factor in the agricultural life in America" and that socialist and labor movements needed to attract their support to advance working class interests. After disappointing performances in the 1908 elections when it ran on an under-developed agrarian platform based on land collectivization, in 1912 the party congress adopted a program of reforms including state-backed agricultural cooperatives, socialization of transport, storage and processing facilities, progressive land taxes, and government-supported land leases for small farmers.
Positions in the party on racial segregation varied and were the subject of heated debate from its foundation to the 1919 split. At its founding convention, a resolution was presented in favor of "equal rights for all human beings without distinction of color, race or sex", specifically highlighting African Americans as particularly oppressed and exploited and calling for them to be organized by the socialist and labor movements. This was opposed by a number of white delegates, who argued that specific appeals to black workers were unnecessary. Whilst two of the black delegates present agreed with this position, the third, William Costley, held that blacks were in "a distinct and peculiar position in contradiction to other laboring elements in the United States". Costley introduced his own resolution, which also condemned the campaign of "lynching, burning and disenfranchisement" which black Americans suffered. Costley's resolution was passed, albeit with the language on "lynching, burning, and disenfranchisement" removed.
Whilst the passage of the resolution enshrined a commitment to opposing racism, sections of the party continued to argue against this. For example, Victor Berger drew on scientific racism to claim that blacks and mulattoes "constitute[d] a lower race". They were opposed by others who defended the spirit of the resolution, most notably Debs. This spread of opinion was reflected in the drawing up of constitutions by state parties in the South. The Socialist Party of Louisiana initially adopted a "negro clause" which opposed disenfranchisement of blacks, but it supported segregation. The clause was supported by some Southern socialists whilst being opposed by others, although this was not because of its accommodation of racism as such, but because it officially enshrined this accommodation. The party's National Committee persuaded the Louisiana party to withdraw the clause. However, when the state party subsequently established segregated branches, this was not opposed by the wider party. Segregated locals could also be found in state parties in Texas and elsewhere. When Texas socialists established a Land Renters' Union in 1911, they initially banned black tenants from joining, before later setting up segregated locals for black and brown farmers.
The party's membership rose by over 50,000 from 1901 to 1910. The party had 4,320 members in 1901, 20,763 members in 1904, 41,751 in 1908, and 58,011 in 1910.
Elsewhere, the 1912 platform of the Tennessee party stated that white supremacist ideology was a tool of the capitalist class to divide and rule the working class, while the Virginia party passed a resolution three years earlier to focus more attention on encouraging solidarity between black and white workers and to invite non-white workers to join the party. Most notable was the Socialist Party of Oklahoma, which led opposition to the state's 1910 ballot initiative on a grandfather clause to prevent blacks from voting. Prominent party member Oscar Ameringer wrote the ballot argument against it, and the party launched an unsuccessful lawsuit to prevent the question from going to the ballot. Party propaganda argued that if working-class solidarity did not extend across racial lines, then blacks would be exploited as strikebreakers and as an instrument of repression by the ruling class. The state party's 1912 platform stated that "safety and advancement of the working class depends upon its solidarity and class consciousness. Those who would engender or foster race hatred or animosity between the white and black sections of the working class are the enemies of both." This stance earned the party support from key black leaders in the state. In the Southwest, black recruitment into the party was aided by the work of the non-racial United Mine Workers. Notable figures associated with the party who sought to organize white, black and indigenous workers across color lines through their party or labor movement work included Covington Hall, Ameringer and Otto Branstetter.
More widely, anti-racist socialists were spurred to action by the Springfield race riot of 1908. Socialist writer William English Walling's reporting on the riot inspired another socialist, Mary White Ovington, among others, to work with prominent black leaders such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, and Mary Church Terrell to establish the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Walling and Ovington both argued inside the party that it had not done enough to oppose racism and they were joined by other left-wing intellectuals who published articles in the party press about the importance of anti-racism to the socialist cause, including Hubert Harrison and I. M. Rubinow.
The party had a tense and complicated relationship with the American Federation of Labor (AFL). AFL leadership, headed by Samuel Gompers, was strongly opposed to the Socialist Party, but many rank and file unionists in the early party of the 20th century saw the Socialists as reliable political allies. Many moderate Socialists, such as Victor Berger and International Typographical Union President Max S. Hayes, urged close cooperation with the AFL and its member unions. Others in the Socialist Party dismissed the AFL and its craft unions as antiquated and irrelevant, instead favoring the much more radical IWW and the "syndicalist" path to socialism.
In 1911, IWW leader Bill Haywood was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party, on which AFL partisan Morris Hillquit also served. The syndicalist and the electoral socialist squared off in a lively public debate in New York City's Cooper Union on January 11, 1912, with Haywood declaring that Hillquit and the Socialists ought to try "a little sabotage in the right place at the proper time" and attacked Hillquit for having abandoned the class struggle by helping the New York garment workers negotiate an industrial agreement with their employers. Hillquit replied that he had no new message other than to reiterate a belief in a two-sided workers movement, with separate and equal political and trade union arms. "A mere change of structural forms would not revolutionize the American labor movement as claimed by our extreme industrialists,, he declared.
The issue of "syndicalism vs. socialism" was bitterly fought over the next two years, consummated by Haywood's recall from the Socialist Party's National Executive Committee (NEC) and the departure of a broad section of the left-wing from the organization. The memory of this split made the intra-party battles of 1919–1921 all the more bitter.
The party's opposition to World War I caused a sharp decline in membership. It suffered from the Postmaster General's decision to refuse to allow the delivery of party newspapers and periodicals via the US mail, severely disrupting the party's activity, particularly in rural areas. Radicals moved further left into the IWW or to the Communist Party USA. Members who supported the war effort quit, ranging from the rank and file to prominent intellectuals such as Walter Lippmann, John Spargo, James Graham Phelps Stokes and William English Walling. Some briefly formed the National Party in an unrealized hope of merging with the remnants of Theodore Roosevelt's Progressive Party and the Prohibition Party. Official membership fell from 83,284 in 1916 to 74,519 in 1918. By 1918, the Socialist Party had won 1,200 political offices, including electing US Representative, 32 state representatives and 79 mayors. It gained new votes in ethnic strongholds such as Milwaukee and New York from conservative German Americans who also opposed the war.
From 1912 to 1938, the party ran more candidates for seats in the United States House of Representatives than any other minor party with its height being 358 candidates in the 1912 elections. Sixteen Socialist candidates in the 1912 House of Representatives elections received over twenty percent of the popular vote and five of those received over thirty percent.
In June 1918, the Socialist Party's long-time leader Eugene V. Debs made an anti-draft speech, calling for draft resistance. Urging young men to ignore the draft law was a crime under the Sedition Act of 1918 and Debs was convicted and sentenced to serve ten years in prison. He and two dozen others had their sentences commuted by President Warren G. Harding at Christmas time 1921.
Victor Berger in Milwaukee
According to historian Sally Miller, Victor Berger:
built the most successful socialist machine ever to dominate an American city....[He] concentrated on national politics...to become one of the most powerful voices in the reformist wing of the national Socialist party. His commitment to democratic values and the non-violent socialization of the American system led the party away from revolutionary Marxist dogma. He shaped the party into force which, while struggling against its own left wing, symbolize participation in the political order to attain social reforms.... In the party schism of 1919, Berger opposed allegiance to the emergent Soviet system. His shrunken party echoed his preference for peaceful, democratic, and gradual transformation to socialism.
Split of the Left Wing Section
In January 1919, Vladimir Lenin invited the IWW and the radical wing of the Socialist Party to join in the founding of the Communist Third International, the Comintern. The Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party emerged as an organized faction early that same year, building its organization around a lengthy Left Wing Manifesto authored by Louis C. Fraina. This effort to organize in order to "win the Socialist Party for the Left Wing" met with staunch resistance from the "Regulars" who controlled a big majority of the seats of the Socialist Party's governing NEC. When it seemed certain that the 1919 party elections for a new NEC had been dominated by the Left Wing, the sitting NEC, citing voting irregularities, refused to tally the votes, declared the entire election invalid and in May 1919 suspended the party's Russian, Latvian, Ukrainian, Polish, South Slavic and Hungarian language federations, in addition to the entire state organization of Michigan. In future weeks, the state organizations of Massachusetts and Ohio would similarly be disfranchised and "reorganized" by the NEC while in New York and Pennsylvania the "Regular" State Executive Committees undertook reorganization of Left Wing branches and locals on a case-by-case basis.
In June 1919, the Left Wing Section held a conference in New York City to discuss their organizational plans. The group found themselves deeply divided, with one section, led by NEC members Alfred Wagenknecht and L. E. Katterfeld and including famed radical journalist John Reed favoring a continued effort to gain control of the SPA at its forthcoming Emergency National Convention in Chicago, to be held at the end of August, while another section, headed by the Russian Socialist Federation of Alexander Stoklitsky and Nicholas Hourwich and the Socialist Party of Michigan seeking to wash their hands of the Socialist Party and immediately move to the establishment of a new Communist Party of America. Eventually, this latter Federation-dominated group was joined by important Left Wingers C. E. Ruthenberg and Louis Fraina, a depletion of Left Wing forces which made the result of the 1919 Socialist Convention a foregone conclusion.
Regardless, the plans of Wagenknecht and Reed to fight it out at the 1919 Emergency National Convention continued apace. With the most radical state organizations effectively purged by the Regulars (Massachusetts, Minnesota) or unable to participate (Ohio, Michigan) and the Left Wing language federations suspended, a big majority of the hastily elected delegates to the gathering were controlled by the Executive Secretary Adolph Germer and the Regulars. A group of Left Wingers without delegate credentials, including Reed and his sidekick Benjamin Gitlow, made an effort to occupy chairs on the convention floor before the gathering was called into order. The incumbents were unable to block the Left Wingers at the door, but soon called the already present police to their aid and the officers of the law obligingly expelled the boisterous radicals from the hall. With the Credentials Committee firmly in the hands of the Regulars from the outset, the outcome of the gathering was no longer in doubt and most of the remaining Left Wing delegates departed, to meet with other co-thinkers downstairs in a previously reserved room in a parallel convention. It was this gathering which established itself as the Communist Labor Party on August 31, 1919.
Meanwhile, elsewhere in Chicago the Federations and Michiganders and their supporters established the Communist Party of America at a convention gaveled to order on September 1, 1919. Unity between these two communist organizations was a lengthy and complicated process, formally taking place at a secret convention held at the Overlook Mountain House hotel near Woodstock, New York in May 1921 with the establishment of a new unified Communist Party of America. A Left Wing loyal to the Communist International remained in the Socialist Party through 1921, continuing the fight to bring the Socialist Party into the ranks of the Comintern. This group, which opposed the underground secret organizations which the Communist Parties had become, included noted party journalist J. Louis Engdahl and William Kruse, head of the party's youth affiliate, the Young People's Socialist League, as well as a significant segment of the Socialist Party's Chicago organization. These left-wing dissidents continued to make themselves heard until their departure from the party after the convention of 1921.
Expulsion of Socialists from the New York Assembly
On January 7, 1920, less than a week after the Palmer Raids had swept and stunned the country, the New York Assembly was called to order. The majority Republicans easily elected their candidate for the Speaker, Thaddeus C. Sweet and after opening day formalities the body took a brief recess. Back in session, Sweet declared: "The Chair directs the Sergeant-at-Arms to present before the bar of the House Samuel A. DeWitt, Samuel Orr, Louis Waldman, Charles Solomon, and August Claessens", the Assembly's five Socialist members.
Sweet attacked the five, declaring they had been "elected on a platform that is absolutely inimical to the best interests of the state of New York and the United States". The Socialist Party, Sweet said, was "not truly a political party", but was rather "a membership organization admitting within its ranks aliens, enemy aliens, and minors". The party had denounced America's participation in the European war and had lent aid and comfort to Ludwig Martens, the "self-styled Soviet Ambassador and alien, who entered this country as a German in 1916". It had supported the revolutionaries in Germany, Austria and Hungary, Sweet continued; and consorted with international Socialist parties close to the Communist International. Sweet concluded:
It is every citizen's right to his day in court. If this house should adopt a resolution declaring your seat herein vacant, pending a hearing before a tribunal of this house, you will be given an opportunity to appear before such tribunal to prove your right to a seat in this legislative body, and upon the result of such hearing and the findings of the Assembly tribunal, your right to participate in the actions of this body will be determined.
The Assembly suspended the quintet by a vote of 140 to 6, with one Democrat supporting the Socialists. Civil libertarians and concerned citizens raised their voices to aid the suspended Socialists and protest percolated throughout the press. The principal argument was that majority parties expelling elected members of minority parties from their councils set a dangerous precedent in a democracy. The battle culminated in a highly publicized trial in the Assembly, which dominated the body's activity from its opening on January 20, 1920, until its conclusion on March 11. Socialist Party leader and former 1917 New York City mayoral candidate Morris Hillquit served as chief counsel for the suspended Socialists, aided by party founder and future Socialist vice presidential candidate, Seymour Stedman.
At the trial, Hillquit charged that Speaker Sweet had made a "specific, concrete, definite, affirmative declaration of guilt" of the five Assemblymen before they were ever charged with any offense. It was the chief accuser, Speaker Sweet, who also appointed the members of the Judiciary Committee to which the matter was referred. "Thus the accuser selects his own judges", Hillquit declared. Hillquit sought to remove for reasons of bias any members of the Judiciary Committee who had taken part in the activities of the Lusk Committee, the New York State Senate's anti-radicalism committee. Hillquit particularly challenged the presence of Assemblyman Louis A. Cuvillier, who had stated on the floor of the house the previous night words to the effect that "if the five accused Assemblymen are found guilty, they ought not to be expelled, but taken out and shot". The Assembly voted overwhelmingly for expulsion on April 1, 1920.
A special election was held September 16, 1920, to fill the five seats vacated by the Assembly, with each of the five expelled Socialists running for re-election against a "fusion" candidate representing the combined Republican and Democratic parties. All five Socialists were returned to office.
Three of the five, Waldman, Claessens and Solomon, were again denied their seats after a contentious debate by votes of 90 to 45 on September 21, 1920. Orr and DeWitt, deemed less culpable than their peers by the earlier findings of the Judiciary Committee, were seated by votes of 87 to 48. In solidarity with their ousted colleagues, the pair refused to take their seats.
After the five seats were again vacated, Morris Hillquit expressed his disappointment at the "unconstitutional action" of the Assembly. However, Hillquit continued that "it will draw the issues clearer between the united Republican and Democratic parties representing arbitrary lawlessness, and the Socialist Party, which stood and stands for democratic and representative government".
The legislature attempted to prevent the election and seating of Socialists in the future by passing laws designed to exclude the Socialist Party from recognition as a political party and to alter the legislature's oath-taking procedures so that elected members could be excluded before being sworn. Governor Al Smith vetoed the legislation.
Quest for a mass Farmer–Labor Party
In the first half of 1919, the Socialist Party had over 100,000 dues paying members and by the second half of 1921 it had been shattered. Fewer than 14,000 members remained in party ranks, with the departure of the large and well-funded Finnish Socialist Federation adding to the malaise. In September 1921, the NEC of the party determined that the time had come to end the party's historic aversion to "fusion" with other political organizations and issue an appeal declaring that the "forces of every progressive, liberal, and radical organization of the workers must be mobilized" to repel conservative assaults and "advance the industrial and political power of the working class".
This desire for common action seems to have been shared by various unions as late in 1921 a call was issued in the name of the country's 16 major railway labor unions seeking a Conference for Progressive Political Action (CPPA). The CPPA was originally intended to be an umbrella organization bringing together various elements of the farmer and labor movement together in a common program. Invitations to the group's founding conference were issued to members of a wide variety of "progressive" organizations of widely varied perspectives. As a result, from its inception the heterogeneous body was unable to agree on even a program or even a declaration of principles, let alone congeal into a new political party.
The Socialist Party was an enthusiastic supporter of the CPPA and the group dominated its thinking from the start of 1922 through the first quarter of 1925. In this period of organizational weakness, the party sought to forge lasting ties with the existing trade union movement leading in short order to a mass labor party in the United States on the British model.
A first National Conference of the CPPA was held in Chicago in February 1922, attended by 124 delegates representing a broad spectrum of labor, farmer and political organizations. The gathering passed an "Address to the American People", stating its criticism of existing conditions and formally proposing an amorphous plan of action validating the status quo ante: the labor unions on the group's right-wing to endorse labor-friendly candidates of the Democratic Party, the Socialists and Farmer-Labor Party adherents on the group's left wing to conduct their own independent campaigns. From the Socialist Party's perspective, perhaps the most important thing the CPPA did at its first National Conference was agree to meet again. The party leadership understood the process of building an independent third party which could count on the allegiance of the country's trade union leadership would be a protracted process and the mere fact of "agreement to disagree", but nevertheless meeting again was regarded as a step forward.
The communist movement also sought to pursue the strategy of bursting from its isolation through the formation of a mass Farmer-Labor Party. Finally emerged from its underground existence in 1922, the Communists' through their "legal political party", the Workers Party of America, decided to send four delegates to the December 1922 gathering of the CPPA. However, the Credentials Committee after protracted debate strongly objected to the participation of Communist representatives in its proceedings and issued a recommendation that the representatives of the Workers Party and its youth organization not be seated. The Socialist Party's delegates were strongly in favor of the exclusion of the Communists and acted accordingly, even though the two organizations shared a vision of a party akin to the British Labour Party in which constituent political groups jointly participated while retaining their independent existence. The fissure between the organizations was thus widened.
As with the first conference, the 2nd Conference of the CPPA split over the all-important issue of an independent political party, with a proposal by five delegates of the Farmer-Labor Party calling for "independent political action by the agricultural and industrial workers through a party of their own" defeated by a vote of 52 to 64. A majority report declaring against an independent political party was instead adopted. This defeat of the bid for an independent political party cost the CPPA one its major component organizations, with the Farmer-Labor Party delegation announcing that their group would no longer affiliate with the CPPA after the close of the convention. Although the Socialists did not realize it at the time, the chances that the organization would ever be transformed into an authentic mass Farmer-Labor party of the British Labour type were greatly lessened with the departure of the FLP.
The Socialists still remained optimistic and the May 1923 National Convention of the Socialist Party voted after lengthy debate to retain its affiliation with the CPPA and to continue its work for an independent political party from within that group. The May 20 vote in favor of maintaining affiliation with the CPPA was 38–12. Failing a mass farmer-labor party from the CPPA, the Socialists sought at least a powerful presidential nominee to run in opposition to the old parties. A 3rd National Conference of the CPPA was held in St. Louis, Missouri on February 11 and 12, 1924, a gathering which punted on the issue of committing itself to the 1924 presidential campaign, deciding instead to "immediately issue a call for a convention of workers, farmers, and progressives for the purpose of taking action on nomination of candidates for the offices of President and Vice President of the United States, and on other questions that may come before the convention".
The decisive moment finally came on July 4, 1924, a date which was not accidentally selected. The 1st National Convention of the CPPA was assembled in Cleveland at the city auditorium, which was packed with close to 600 delegates representing international unions, state federations of labor, branches of cooperative societies, state branches and national officers of the Socialist, Farmer-Labor and Progressive Parties as well as the Committee of 48, state and national affiliates of the Women's Committee on Political Action and sundry individuals. Very few farmers were in attendance.
It was around this time that the Socialists began actively participating in discussions about democratic principles as much as Marxist ones. By 1924, they supported the Progressive Party ticket which pushed for the reform of the Democratic Party. Ten years after this initial occurrence, the American Socialists adopted in 1934 a "clearly undemocratic, quasi-Leninist platform" that lobbied for the removal of the current "bogus democracy of capitalist parliamentarianism". Wanting the government to be replaced by a "genuine worker's democracy", the American Socialist Party stated that "whether or not it is a majority, will not shrink from the responsibility of organizing and maintaining a government under the workers' rule". This was seen as an attempt to propose a political reform which would ultimately result in a better social and economic reform consistent with their beliefs. Regardless, it was Karl Marx who called this entire concept of voting for socialism "democratic nonsense, political windbaggery".
The National Committee had previously requested that Wisconsin Senator Robert M. La Follette make a run for the presidency. The Cleveland Convention was addressed by the Senator's son, Robert M. La Follette Jr., who read a message from his father accepting the call and declaring that the time had come "for a militant political movement independent of the two old party organizations". However, La Follette declined to lead a third party, seeking to protect those progressives elected nominally as Republicans and Democrats. La Follette declared that the primary issue of the 1924 campaign was the breaking of the "combined power of the private monopoly system over the political and economic life of the American people". After the November election a new party might well be established, La Follette stated, that might unite all progressives.
The Socialist Party enthusiastically supported the independent candidacy of La Follette, declining to run their own candidate in November 1924. Although the La Follette candidacy garnered five million votes, it failed to seriously challenge the hegemony of the old parties and was regarded by the unions as a disappointing failure.
Following the election, the governing National Committee of the CPPA met in Washington, D.C. While the body had a mandate from the July convention to issue a call for a convention to organize a new political party, the representatives of the critical railway unions, with the exception of William H. Johnston of the Machinists, were united in opposition to idea. The railroad unions instead proposed a motion not to hold the 1925 organizational convention. This proposal was defeated by a vote of 30 to 13. Following their defeat on this question, the railroaders on National Committee members withdrew from the meeting, announcing that they would await further instructions from their respective organizations with regards to future participation. The loss of the very unions who had brought about the CPPA spelled its demise.
A convention to decide on the formation of a new political party was nonetheless scheduled by the National Committee for February 21, 1925, to be held in Chicago. Labor, the official organ of the railway unions, did nothing to promote this 2nd Convention of the CPPA, stating that since the executives of the various unions had taken no stance on the matter, it would be up to subordinate sections to consider sending delegates themselves.
However, the February 1925 convention found its task was virtually insurmountable as the heterogeneous organization had split over the fundamental question of realignment of the major parties via the primary elections process as opposed to establishment of a new competitive political party. The railway unions, whose efforts who had originally brought the CPPA into existence, were fairly solidly united against the Third Party tactic, instead favoring continuation of the CPPA as a sort of pressure group for progressive change within the structure of the Democratic and Republican parties.
L. E. Sheppard, president of the Order of Railway Conductors of America, presented a resolution calling for a continuation of the CPPA on non-partisan lines as a political pressure group. This proposal was met by an amendment by Morris Hillquit of the Socialist Party, who called the five million votes cast for La Follette an encouraging beginning and urged action for establishment of an American Labor Party on the British model—in which constituent groups retained their organizational autonomy within the larger umbrella organization. A third proposal was made by J.A.H. Hopkins of the Committee of Forty-Eight, which called for establishment of a Progressive Party built around individual enrollments. No vote was ever taken by the convention on any of the three proposals mooted. Instead, after some debate the convention was unanimously adjourned sine die—bringing an abrupt end to the Conference for Progressive Political Action.
Eugene V. Debs addressed a "mass meeting" including delegates of the convention in a keynote address delivered at the Lexington Hotel early in the afternoon of February 21. After the Debs speech, those delegates favoring establishment of a new political party were then reconvened, with the opponents of an independent political party departing. The reconvened Founding Convention found itself split between adherents of a non-class Progressive Party based upon individual memberships as opposed to the Socialists' conception of a class-conscious Labor Party employing "direct affiliation" of "organizations of workers and farmers and of progressive political and educational groups who fully accept its program and principles". Following extensive debate, the Socialist counter-proposal was defeated by a vote of 93 to 64. The trade unions it coveted gone, the farmers non-existent, the Socialist Party exited the convention and abandoned the strategy of establishing a new mass party through the CPPA. A Progressive Party was formed by the remaining liberals and the group survived for a short time in a limited number of states throughout the 1920s.
Left turn and split of the Old Guard
In 1928, the Socialist Party returned as an independent electoral entity under the leadership of Norman Thomas, a radical Protestant minister from New York City. This reentry into the electoral fray behind the dynamic Thomas fueled major growth of the party during the first years of Great Depression, primarily among youth. A skilled orator and advocate of the step by step solution of social problems, Thomas had excellent access to churches, colleges and civic institutions. Thomas also had, as New York social democrat Louis Waldman later noted that "those qualities of mind and character which appealed to the intelligent and educated young people of the country and which drew them into the ranks of the party in unprecedented numbers".
The 1928 convention voted to reduce membership dues to just $1 per year, with only half of that sum going to the use of the National Office, the balance being retained by state and local organizations. This level of funding proved insufficient for anything beyond the bare minimum of operations by the National Office in Chicago—no official party publication was made available to the members of the organization, with several privately held socialist newspapers fulfilling the function as fonts of party information.
The dues rate cut did prove helpful in reducing the party's membership slide. After nearly a decade of steady decline, the Socialist Party again began to grow, advancing from a low of under 8,000 dues payers in 1928 to a membership of almost 17,000 by 1932. However, this growth came at a price as deep factional divisions developed between the youthful newcomers (radicalized and drawn to militant Marxism by the world economic crisis) and the "Old Guard" headed by Morris Hillquit, James Oneal and Waldman.
The generational battle first erupted at the May 1932 Milwaukee Convention. Participant Anna Bercowitz noted four primary factions at this gathering, i.e. an Old Guard defending the current course of the party and the position of National Chairman Morris Hillquit, practical Socialists of the Milwaukee type, the young Marxist Militants and liberal pacifist Thomasites such as Devere Allen who followed the lead of the charismatic Thomas.
The groups which represented the so-called 'New Blood' at the convention, the Militants and the Liberals and which at this convention merged for the sole purpose of deposing the present leadership [of the party] had little in common. Many members of the most aggressive, although numerically weakest of these groups, the Militants, had little in common with the so-called Thomasites.... And as for the so-called Mid-western group, although they cast their vote with the opposition, on fundamentals they too are opposed to much of the liberalizing tendencies manifest in the party in recent years. Yet they voted, contrary to their usual procedure in their respective communities, with the opposition. That trades had been made there can be no doubt, and that some groups had been used as innocent dupes can also hardly be doubted...
Fundamentally there is much more in common between the Militants and the so-called 'Old Guard' than between the Militants and the [religious pacifist] Thomasites and surely than between the frank practical 'mid-western' type of Socialists, yet when it was a question of vote on the Russian resolution, on the TU [Trade Union] resolution and on the question of the National Chairman and the Executive Committee votes were not cast on the basis of principles but apparently on the basis of 'trades'. The real difference between the Militants and the 'Old Guard' seems to be based on lack of sufficient activity and on tempo rather than on principle.
Hillquit was challenged at the 1932 convention by Daniel Hoan of Milwaukee, with the Militants and the Thomas group voting for Hoan with the Midwesterners. Hillquit was reelected National Chairman by a vote of 105–86, representing paid memberships of 7526 to 6984. Six members of the newly elected NEC were adherents of the Hillquit-Old Guard faction. It is clear that to some large extent the controversy between the young newcomers of the Militant faction and that of the so-called Old Guard can be reduced to this struggle for practical control of the party apparatus. Historian Frank Warren notes that "one cannot understand the Old Guard's actions unless one recognizes its intense desire to maintain its place in the party hierarchy; the drives of the young were a threat to the power of the New York Old Guard." He also adds that "clearly one would falsely idealize the Militants if one failed to recognize that their ambitions were not always selfless".
In addition to the raw struggle for control of the party apparatus, there was also a divergence of visions about the role of the Socialist Party in the then-current crisis of capitalism, with mass unemployment at home and the growth of fascism and militarism abroad. The alternative vision of the Militants would be expressed at the subsequent convention of the party held in Detroit in June 1934, at which it was Norman Thomas and his tactical allies of the Militant faction which would emerge triumphant. It was this gathering which adopted a new Declaration of Principles which inflamed the "Old Guard" faction on a number of different levels.
The ideological differences between the radical pacifist Thomas and his allies of the Militant faction on the one hand and the Old Guard faction on the other have been succinctly summarized as follows:
The Old Guard was convinced that the 1934 Declaration of Principles was an open declaration in favor of armed insurrection; Thomas believed it was a necessary statement to indicate that Socialists would not lie down in the face of fascism. The Old Guard believed that the anti-war sections of the Declaration of Principles placed the party under the threat of legal prosecution for advocating unlawful actions to oppose war; again Thomas believed that a strong statement was necessary to put capitalism on warning that if it engaged in imperialist war there would be opposition. The Old Guard believed that a united front with the Communists was immoral and would be disastrous for the Socialists, that even limited united action on specific causes should be banned, and even that exploratory discussions about a united front were going too far. Thomas opposed a united front on a general level, including any joint actions in political contests, but he thought that carefully planned united action on specific cases could, and should, take place. And he believed that it was worth while to conduct exploratory talks, even though he felt they would likely lead to nothing. The Old Guard felt that the Socialists' invitation to unaffiliated radicals and the Party's acceptance of former Communists, Lovestoneites, and Trotskyists was turning the party away from democratic socialism and to Communism. Thomas, though he disagreed with the ideology of these anti-Stalinist Communists, was willing to try to work with a party that included them, if they were willing to accept party discipline and not try to take over the Party. The Old Guard considered the Revolutionary Policy Committee, a far-left group within the Socialist Party, a Communist and anarchist group that had no place in a democratic socialist party. Thomas disagreed with the 'romantic revolutionists' in the Revolutionary Policy Committee (as he disagreed with the 'romantic parliamentarians' of the Old Guard), but still felt it was useful to try to salvage some of the enthusiasm and dedication that went into the Revolutionary Policy Committee by permitting its members to remain in the Party if, again, they followed party policy and party discipline.
In addition to the generational and ideological differences between the young Militant faction and the Old Guard and their divergence over tempo of activity and party personnel was great disagreement about matters of symbolism and style. Many of the young radicals dressed and acted in marked contrast to their staid, buttoned-down elders as New York Old Guard leader Louis Waldman recounted in a 1944 memoir:
Symptoms of a new and dangerous spirit among the Socialist youth began to become manifest on all sides. The youngsters appeared at meetings of the party in blue shirts and red ties. At first this attracted no special attention, for oddity in dress is no novelty among radicals. But gradually their number increased and we now could see that this was a uniform. The Socialist youth of America, like the fascist youth in Europe, had succumbed to the shirt mania.The shirt tendency was followed by the salute mania. In Europe, the Nazi salute was the outstretched arm; here in America the United Front was symbolized by the adoption of the Communist clenched fist salute. This greeting, a raised arm at a slightly different angle from the Nazi or Communist salute, now became routine at all our meetings. [...] Some of the older members of the party were truly horrified at this totalitarian tendency, but others couldn't resist the trend and fell into line. Among these, I painfully record, was Norman Thomas.Along with the blue shirts, the red ties, the clenched fists, the raised arm salute, came the banners, the slogans, the demonstrations; all the trappings that make for totalitarian, unthinking mass fervor. These now became regular features at party gatherings. I can still recall the howl of triumph that rose from these young people at one of our meetings when for the first time Norman Thomas returned the clenched fist salute to them. As I stood at his side, my arms deliberately folded to indicate that I would have no part of this, their cheers for Thomas rose to almost uncontrollable frenzy.
Following its loss on the floor of the Detroit Convention, the Old Guard then took its case to the rank and file of the party, which had been called upon to either approve or defeat the new Declaration of Principles in referendum vote. A Committee for the Preservation of the Socialist Party was established and an agitational pamphlet published. New York State Assemblyman Charles Solomon was the author of the group's first polemical piece urging defeat of the 1934 Declaration of Principles by the membership at referendum, entitled Detroit and the Party. In this pamphlet, Solomon decried the Detroit Declaration of Principles as "reckless", observing pointedly that "furious phrases cannot take the place of organized mass power". Solomon noted that over "the past three or four years" there had arisen "certain definite groups" in the ranks of the Socialist Party. He continued by saying the following:
The Declaration does not stand by itself, in a vacuum, as it were. Important as it is, it does not alone account for the vital struggle that is now being waged in the party. It represents the culminating point of a deep seated antagonism. It is like the straw that breaks or threatens to break the camel's back.
The Declaration of Principles has brought to the surface divergences which are deep, antagonisms which make of our party not a coherent political organization working harmoniously for a common objective but a battle ground of internecine strife.
Solomon charged that the "so-called 'left'" was "making its position clear" with the Declaration of Principles. "There was no mistaking the flag it had unfurled", he declared, "[i]t was the banner of thinly veiled communism". While he declared that "the Declaration of Principles must be decisively rejected in the referendum", he nevertheless strongly hinted that a factional split was in the offing. Merely defeating the proposed Declaration of Principles was "not enough", he concluded that the "Socialist Party must be made safe for Socialism, for social democracy".
American Socialist Quarterly editor Haim Kantorovitch made the case for the Militant faction in a pamphlet urging approval of the Declaration of Principles at referendum:
The declaration of principles does not call for insurrection or violence. It simply states that if capitalism should collapse, the Socialist Party will not shrink from the responsibility of taking power. In case of a collapse of capitalism, if the socialists refuse to take power, the fascists will. To say beforehand that in time of a general collapse of capitalism...the socialists will not dare take power before they have a clear mandate from the majority through a democratic vote, is the same as saying that in case of a general collapse of capitalism the Socialist Party will voluntarily, in the name of democracy, turn over the power to the fascists or other reactionary elements, and continue their democratic propaganda from concentration camps.
The membership of the Socialist Party approved the 1934 Declaration of Principles in its referendum vote, a victory which moved the Old Guard towards the exits—although factional fighting into 1936. The leaders of the Old Guard formed a new rival organization to the Socialist Party, the Social Democratic Federation in 1936 and somewhat reluctantly endorsed Franklin D. Roosevelt for President in the election of that year. They also worked to establish the American Labor Party (ALP), a labor-oriented umbrella organization that included both socialist and non-socialist elements, putting forward both its own candidates as well as endorsing those of the Democratic and Republican parties.
End Poverty in California movement
Upton Sinclair, a prominent novelist, had long been associated with the Socialist Party in California. He was twice its candidate for Congress and its nominee for governor in 1930, but won fewer than 50,000 votes. In 1934, Sinclair ran in the Democratic primary for governor and astonished everyone by a sweeping victory in the primary on his promise of radical socialist economic reforms he dubbed End Poverty in California movement (EPIC). Conservative and Republican elements rallied against Sinclair and managed to defeat him in the general election. The Socialist Party in California and nationwide refused to allow its members to be active in any other party including the Democratic Party and expelled him, along with socialists who supported his California campaign. Sinclair won 879,537 votes, doubling his primary total, but that represented only 38 percent of the record breaking turnout as Republican Frank Merriam won with 49 percent of the vote while Raymond Haight, running under the Progressive Party banner, collected 13 percent. State Socialist Party chair Milen Dempster mounted a feeble effort to hold back the tidal wave of radical enthusiasm for Sinclair, gaining less than 3,000 votes. The expulsions destroyed the Socialist Party in California. More important, Sinclair's campaign encouraged many radicals in other states to turn away from the Socialist Party. Membership, which had climbed back above 19,000 in 1934, would soon decline to less than 6,000 in 1937 and barely 2,000 in 1940.
Demise of the all-inclusive party
Norman Thomas and his radical pacifist co-thinkers and their young Marxist allies of the Militant faction sought to build a mass political movement by transforming the Socialist Party into what they called an "all-inclusive party". Not only would an appeal be made to the radical intellectuals and trade unionists who were the historic core of the organization, but an effort would be made to work closely with the Communist Party in joint actions and to infuse the Socialist Party with the leading personnel of small radical oppositional organizations, including in particular the anti-Stalinist communist groupings headed by Jay Lovestone (the so-called "Lovestoneites") and James P. Cannon (the so-called "Trotskyists"). To be sure, an impressive array of left-wing intellectuals came into the Socialist orbit as a result of this venture, including (from the Lovestoneites) Bertram D. Wolfe, Herbert Zam and Benjamin Gitlow as well as (from the Trotskyists) Max Shachtman, James Burnham, Martin Abern and Hal Draper. A broad array of radicals from other tendencies also contributed to the pages of the party's official theoretical journal, including from the Communist Party orbit Joseph P. Lash of the American Student Union, the radical novelist James T. Farrell, public intellectual Sidney Hook, leading American Marxist of the 1910s Louis B. Boudin and Canadian Trotskyist Maurice Spector, among others.
A very real bid was made to unite the factionalized and marginalized American Left in a common cause—and great hope was held for success in the enterprise. After the rise of the Nazis in Germany and Austria by 1934, no longer did the Communist Party engage in its Third Period epithets against the Socialists as so-called "social fascists". Lillian Symes wrote in the Socialist Party's theoretical magazine in February 1937 of the "incredible change" seen to be taking place in the Communist Party in its seeming abandonment of sectarianism and move towards building a broad "people's front" against fascism. At the same time, other radical organizations sought to alter their tactics so as to rapidly build an aggressive left-wing organization to stand in opposition to nascent fascism. From early 1934, the French Trotskyist organization had entered the French Socialist Party in an effort to build its strength and win support for its ideas. Pressure to follow this policy of the "French Turn" was building among the American Trotskyist group. For a brief historical moment in 1935 and 1936, the vision of the Socialist Party as an "all-inclusive party" which aggregated radical oppositionists and possibly even worked with the Communist Party in common cause seemed achievable.
In January 1936, just as the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party was expelling the Old Guard, a factional battle was being won in the Trotskyist Workers Party of the United States to join the Socialist Party when a national branch referendum voted unanimously for entry. Negotiations commenced between the Workers Party and Socialist leaderships, with the decision ultimately made to allow admissions only on the basis of individual applications for membership rather than en masse admission of the entire group. On June 6, 1936, the Workers Party's weekly newspaper, The New Militant, published its last issue and announced "Workers Party Calls All Revolutionary Workers to Join Socialist Party". Approximately half of the Workers Party heeded the call and entered the Socialist Party.
Although party leader Jim Cannon later hinted that the entry of the Trotskyists into the Socialist Party had been a contrived tactic aimed at stealing "confused young Left Socialists" for his own organization, it seems that at its inception, the entryist tactic was made in good faith. Historian Constance Myers notes that while "initial prognoses for the union of Trotskyists and Socialists were favorable", it was only later when "constant and protracted contact caused differences to surface". The Trotskyists retained a common orientation with the radicalized Socialist Party in their opposition to the European war, their preference for industrial unionism and the Congress of Industrial Organizations over the trade unionism of the American Federation of Labor, a commitment to trade union activism, the defense of the Soviet Union as the first workers' state while at the same time maintaining an antipathy toward the Stalin regime and in their general aims in the 1936 election.
Norman Thomas attracted nearly 188,000 votes in his 1936 Socialist Party run for President, but he performed poorly in historic strongholds of the party. Moreover, the party's membership had begun to decline. The organization was deeply factionalized, with the Militant faction split into right ("Altmanite"), center ("Clarity") and left ("Appeal") factions, in addition to the radical pacifists led by Norman Thomas and the midwestern "constructive" socialists led by Dan Hoan. A special convention was planned for the last week of March 1937 to set the party's future policy, initially intended as an unprecedented "secret" gathering.
Split with the Trotskyists
Prior to the March convention, the Trotskyist Socialist Appeal faction held an organizational gathering of their own, meeting in Chicago, with 93 delegates gathering from February 20–22, 1937. The meeting organized the faction on a permanent basis, electing a National Action Committee of five to "coordinate branch work" and "formulate Appeal policies". Two delegates from the Clarity caucus were in attendance. James Burnham vigorously attacked the Labour and Socialist International, the international organization of left-wing parties to which the Socialist Party belonged and tension rose along these lines among the Trotskyists. United action between the Clarity and Appeal groups was not forthcoming and an emergency meeting of Vincent Dunne and Cannon was held in New York with leaders of the various factions including Thomas, Jack Altman, and Gus Tyler of Clarity. At this meeting Thomas pledged that the upcoming convention would make no effort to terminate the newspapers of the various factions.
No action was taken at the 1937 convention to expel the Trotskyist "Appeal faction", but pressure did continue to build along these lines, fueled by the Communist Party's increasingly hysterical denunciations of Trotsky and his followers as wreckers and agents of international fascism. The convention did pass a ban on future branch resolutions on controversial matters, an effort to rein in the activities of the factions at the local level. It also did ban factional newspapers, a move directly targeting The Socialist Appeal; and formally established The Socialist Call as the party's national organ.
Constance Myers indicates that three factors led to the expulsion of the Trotskyists from the Socialist Party in 1937: the divergence between the official Socialists and the Trotskyist faction on the issues, the determination of Altman's wing of the Militants to oust the Trotskyists and Trotsky's own decision to move towards a break with the party. Recognizing that the Clarity faction had chosen to stand with the Altmanites and the Thomas group, Trotsky recommended that the Appeal group focus on disagreements over Spain to provoke a split. At the same time, Thomas, freshly returned from Spain, had come to the conclusion that the Trotskyists had joined the Socialist Party not to make it stronger, but to capture the organization for their own purposes. On June 24–25, 1937, a meeting of the Appeal faction's National Action Committee voted to ratchet up the rhetoric against American Labor Party and Republican nominee for mayor of New York Fiorello LaGuardia, a favorite son of many in Socialist ranks; and to reestablish their newspaper, The Socialist Appeal. This was met with expulsions from the party beginning August 9 with a rump meeting of the Central Committee of Local New York, which expelled 52 New York Trotskyists by a vote of 48 to 2, with 18 abstentions; and ordering 70 more to be brought up on charges. Wholesale expulsions followed, with a major section of the Young People's Socialist League leaving the party with the Trotskyists.
Secretary of Local New York Jack Altman declared that the Trotskyists "were expelled for attempting to undermine the Socialist Party, for loyalty and allegiance to an opponent organization, the Bureau of the Fourth International, and for refusing to abide by the decisions and discipline of the National convention, the National Executive Committee, and the City Central Committee of the party, and for no other reason". Editor Gus Tyler of The Socialist Call echoed Altman's sentiments, emphasizing that "the Trotskyites have, during the last week, [...] abandoned the usual means of inner party controversy—debate and appeals through party channels—and, like the Old Guard, have carried their argument into the public, into the capitalist press". The issuance of a statement by the Trotskyist faction to The New York Times and the relaunch of their own newspaper, The Socialist Appeal, was seen as particularly galling by The Socialist Calls editor.
Collapse of the united front
Things turned out no better with the official Communist Party, devoted as it was to the Stalin regime in the Soviet Union. The February–March 1937 joint plenum of the Central Committee and Central Control Commission of the All-Union Communist Party in the Moscow, which green-lighted a massive avalanche of secret police terror known to history as the Great Purge, changed everything. Baby steps towards multi-candidate elections and the rule of law in the Soviet Union crumbled instantly as show trials, spy mania, mass arrests and mass executions swept the land. The Trotskyist movement in the Soviet Union was particularly targeted, accused of plotting murder of Soviet officials and conducting sabotage and espionage in preparation for a fascist invasion—seemingly insane charges which were honestly believed by the Soviet elite. Blood flowed like water as alleged Trotskyists and other politically suspect individuals were rounded up, "investigated" and disposed with a pistol shot in the base of the skull or a 10-year sentence in the Gulag. Around the world, the adherents of Stalin and Trotsky raged against one another.
In Spain, the country in which the Lovestoneites invested most of their emotional energy as fervid supporters of the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), 1937 marked a similar bloodbath, with the Communist Party of Spain achieving hegemony among the Republican forces and conducting bloody purges of their own at the behest of the Soviet secret police. Joint action between Communist oppositionists and the unflinching loyalists to Moscow was henceforth an abject impossibility.
In 1937, Norman Thomas willingly acceded to a request from the League for Industrial Democracy (LID) to author a pamphlet on the topic of "Democracy versus Dictatorship". Thomas pulled no punches about his views of the regime in the Soviet Union:
There are still in both the eastern and western hemispheres many examples of rather crude and primitive military dictatorships. [...] The preach a nationalism whose benefits, spiritual or material, to some degree are for all the people. They profess a positive and paternal concern for the masses. If they rule them sternly that is for their own good. [...]
In the USSR the dictatorship has been the dictatorship of the Communist Party, but all of its professions and all of its performance has been in the name of the entire working class, and the Communist Party still gives lip-service to a final withering away of all dictatorship, even the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Thomas further noted the Communist Party monopoly of press, radio, schools, army and government and recalled his own recent visit to Moscow, writing:
The old keenness of political discussion in the party has almost died, at least in so far as policy is concerned. (Criticism of administration is still allowed). A quotation from Stalin is a final answer to all argument. He receives the same sort of exaggerated veneration in public appearances, in the display of his picture, and in written references to him that is accorded to a Mussolini or a Hitler.
Any thought of common-cause with the Communists was now dismissed by Thomas, who indicated that the Communists' fairly recent change of line from fighting the existing trade unions and damning of all political opponents as "social fascists" to attempting to build a "popular front" was merely tactical, related to the perceived needs of Soviet foreign policy in building coalitions with capitalist countries to forestall fascist invasion.
The factional havoc of the move to the "all-inclusive party" paralyzed activity while the Old Guard's new group, the Social Democratic Federation of America, controlled the bulk of the Socialist Party's former property and the allegiance of those best able to fund the organization. The expulsions of the Trotskyists and disintegration of the party's youth section left the organization greatly weakened and gasping for life, its membership level at a new low.
Opposition to the New Deal and discrimination in the armed services
By 1940, only a small committed core remained in the Socialist Party, including a considerable percentage of militant pacifists. The Socialist Party continued to oppose Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal as a capitalist palliative, arguing for fundamental change through socialist ownership. In 1940, Norman Thomas was the only presidential candidate who failed to support rearmament military support of Great Britain and China. The pacifist Thomas also served as an active spokesman for the isolationist America First Committee during 1941.
After the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor in the fall of 1941 and the declaration of war, the United States defense of itself and war against fascism was supported by most of the remaining Militants and all of the Old Guard. However, the Socialist Party adopted a compromise position that did not openly oppose American participation in the war. Its failure to support the war created a rift with many leaders, like the Reuther Brothers of the United Auto Workers. The pacifist wing of the party did not advocate engaging in any systematic antiwar activities such as the general strike endorsed by the 1934 Declaration of Principles.
Socialist A. Philip Randolph emerged as one of the most visible spokesmen for African American civil rights. In 1941, Randolph, Bayard Rustin and A. J. Muste proposed a march on Washington to protest racial discrimination in war industries and to propose the desegregation of the American armed forces (see Jim Crow laws). The march was canceled after President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, or the Fair Employment Act. Roosevelt's order applied to banning discrimination within only the war industries, but not within the armed forces. However, the Fair Employment Act is generally perceived as a success for African American labor rights.
In 1942, an estimated 18,000 blacks gathered at Madison Square Garden to hear Randolph kick off a campaign against discrimination in the military, in war industries, in government agencies and in labor unions. Following the act, during the Philadelphia Transit Strike of 1944 the government backed African American workers' striking to gain positions formerly limited to white employees.
In 1947, Randolph, along with colleague Grant Reynolds, renewed efforts to end discrimination in the armed services, forming the Committee Against Jim Crow in Military Service, later renamed the League for Non-Violent Civil Disobedience. On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman abolished racial segregation in the armed forces through Executive Order 9981. Thomas led his last presidential campaign in 1948, after which he became a critical supporter of the postwar liberal consensus. The party retained some pockets of local success in cities such as Milwaukee, Bridgeport, Connecticut and Reading, Pennsylvania. In New York City, they often ran their own candidates on the Liberal Party line.
Reunification
Reunification with the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) was long a goal of Norman Thomas and his associates remaining in the Socialist Party. As early as 1938, Thomas had acknowledged that a number of issues had been involved in the split which led to the formation of the rival Social Democratic Federation, including "organizational policy, the effort to make the party inclusive of all socialist elements not bound by communist discipline; a feeling of dissatisfaction with social democratic tactics which had failed in Germany" as well as "the socialist estimate of Russia; and the possibility of cooperation with communists on certain specific matters". Still, he held that "those of us who believe that an inclusive socialist party is desirable, and ought to be possible, hope that the growing friendliness of socialist groups will bring about not only joint action but ultimately a satisfactory reunion on the basis of sufficient agreement for harmonious support of a socialist program".
The Socialist Party and the SDF merged to form the Socialist Party-Social Democratic Federation (SP-SDF) in 1957. A small group of holdouts refused to reunify, establishing a new organization called the Democratic Socialist Federation. When the Soviet Union led an invasion of Hungary in 1956, half of the members of Communist Parties around the world quit—in the United States alone half did and many joined the Socialist Party.
Realignment, civil rights movement and the War on Poverty
In 1958, the party admitted to its ranks the members of the recently dissolved Independent Socialist League, which had been led by Max Shachtman. Shachtman had developed a Marxist critique of Soviet Communism as "bureaucratic collectivism", a new form of class society that was more oppressive than any form of capitalism. Shachtman's theory was similar to that of many dissidents and refugees from communism, such as the theory of the "new class" proposed by Yugoslavian dissident Milovan Đilas (Djilas). Shachtman was an extraordinary public speaker and formidable in debate and his intelligent analysis attracted young socialists like Irving Howe and Michael Harrington. Shachtman's denunciations of the Soviet 1956 invasion of Hungary attracted younger activists like Tom Kahn and Rachelle Horowitz.
Shachtman's youthful followers were able to bring new vigor into the party and Shachtman encouraged them to take positions of responsibility and leadership. As a young leader, Harrington sent Kahn and Horowitz to help Bayard Rustin with the civil rights movement. Rustin had helped to spread pacificism and non-violence to leaders of the civil rights movement like Martin Luther King Jr. while Kahn and Horowitz quickly became close assistants of Rustin. The civil rights movement benefited from intelligence and analysis of Shachtman and increasingly of Kahn. Rustin and his young aides, dubbed the Bayard Rustin Marching and Chowder Society by Harrington, organized many protest activities. The young socialists helped Rustin and A. Philip Randolph organize the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.
Harrington soon became the most visible socialist in the United States when his The Other America became a best seller, following a long and laudatory New Yorker review by Dwight Macdonald. Harrington and other socialists were called to Washington, D.C. to assist the Kennedy administration and then the Johnson administration's War on Poverty and Great Society.
The young socialists' role in the civil rights movement made the Socialist Party more attractive. Harrington, Kahn and Horowitz were officers and staff-persons of the League for Industrial Democracy (LID), which helped to start the New Left Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). The three LID officers clashed with the less experienced activists of SDS, like Tom Hayden, when the latter's Port Huron Statement criticized socialist and liberal opposition to communism and criticized the labor movement while promoting students as agents of social change. LID and SDS split in 1965, when SDS voted to remove from its constitution the "exclusion clause" that prohibited membership by communists. The SDS exclusion clause had barred "advocates of or apologists for" "totalitarianism". The clause's removal effectively invited "disciplined cadre" to attempt to "take over or paralyze" SDS as had occurred to mass organizations in the thirties.
The experience of the civil rights movement and the coalition of labor unions and other progressive forces suggested that the United States was changing and that a mass movement of the democratic left was possible. In terms of electoral politics, Shachtman, Harrington and Kahn argued that it was a waste of effort to run electoral campaigns as Socialist Party candidates against Democratic Party candidates. They instead advocated a political strategy called "realignment" that prioritized strengthening labor unions and other progressive organizations that were already active in the Democratic Party. Contributing to the day-to-day struggles of the civil rights movement and labor unions had gained socialists credibility and influence and had helped to push politicians in the Democratic Party towards social-democratic positions, on civil rights and the War on Poverty.
From the Socialist Party to Social Democrats, USA
In its 1972 convention, the Socialist Party had two Co-Chairmen, Bayard Rustin and Charles S. Zimmerman of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU); and a First National Vice Chairman, James S. Glaser, who were re-elected by acclamation. In his opening speech to the convention, Co-Chairman Bayard Rustin called for the group to organize against the "reactionary policies of the Nixon Administration" while he also criticized the "irresponsibility and élitism of the 'New Politics' liberals".The party changed its name to Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA) by a vote of 73 to 34. Renaming the party as SDUSA was meant to be "realistic". The New York Times observed that the Socialist Party had last sponsored a candidate for President in 1956, who received only 2,121 votes and which were cast in only six states. Because the party no longer sponsored candidates in presidential elections, the name "Party" had been "misleading" as "Party" had hindered the recruiting of activists who participated in the Democratic Party, according to the majority report. The name "Socialist" was replaced by "Social Democrats" because many Americans associated the word "socialism" with Soviet Communism. The party also wished to distinguish itself from two small Marxist parties, the Socialist Workers Party and the Socialist Labor Party.
The Unity Caucus had a supermajority of votes and its position carried on every issue by a ratio of two to one. The convention elected a national committee of 33 members, with 22 seats for the majority caucus, eight seats for Harrington's "Coalition Caucus", two for the "Debs Caucus" and one for the independent Samuel H. Friedman. Friedman and the minority caucuses had opposed the name change.
The convention voted on and adopted proposals for its program by a two-one vote. On foreign policy, the program called for "firmness toward Communist aggression". However, on the Vietnam War the program opposed "any efforts to bomb Hanoi into submission" and instead it endorsed negotiating a peace agreement, which should protect Communist political cadres in South Vietnam from further military or police reprisals. Harrington's proposal for an immediate withdrawal of American forces was defeated. Harrington complained that after its March 1972 convention the Socialist Party had endorsed George McGovern with a statement loaded with "constructive criticism". Harrington also complained that the party had not mobilized enough support for McGovern. The majority caucus's Arch Puddington replied that the California branch had been especially active in supporting McGovern while the New York branch had instead focused on a congressional race.
Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee and Union for Democratic Socialism
Late in October 1972, before the Socialist Party's December Convention, Harrington resigned as National Co-Chairman of the Socialist Party. Although little remarked upon at the time despite Harrington's status as "possibly the most widely known of the Socialist leaders since the death of Norman Thomas", it soon became clear that this was the precursor of a decisive split in the organization.
Harrington had written extensively about the progressive potential of the so-called "New Politics" in the Democratic Party and had come to advocate unilateral withdrawal from the Vietnam War and to advocate positions regarded by more conservative party members as "avant-garde" on the questions of abortion and gay rights. This put Harrington and his co-thinkers at odds with the party's younger generation of leaders, who espoused a strongly labor-oriented direction for the party and who were broadly supportive of AFL–CIO leader George Meany.
In the early spring of 1973, Harrington resigned his membership in SDUSA. That same year, Harrington and his supporters formed the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC). At its start, DSOC had 840 members, of which 2 percent served on its national board, while approximately 200 had been members of SDUSA or its predecessors whose membership was then 1,800, according to a 1973 profile of Harrington. Its high-profile members included Congressman Ron Dellums and William Winpisinger, President of the International Association of Machinists. In 1982, DSOC established the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA) upon merging with the New American Movement, an organization of democratic socialists mostly from the New Left.
The Union for Democratic Socialism was another organization, which was formed by former members of the Socialist Party. David McReynolds, who had resigned from the Socialist Party between 1970 and 1971, along with many from the Debs Caucus, were the core members. In 1973, the UDS declared itself the Socialist Party USA.
National Conventions
Presidential tickets
Other prominent members
This is a brief representative sample of Socialist Party leaders not listed above as presidential or vice presidential candidates. For a more comprehensive list, see the list of members of the Socialist Party of America.
Victor L. Berger
James P. Cannon *
Eugene V. Debs
Theodore Debs
David Dubinsky
Max Eastman *
Sandra Feldman
Benjamin Gitlow *
Max S. Hayes
Michael Harrington ¤
Bill Haywood
George D. Herron
Morris Hillquit
Daniel Hoan
Sidney Hook
Irving Howe
Tom Kahn
Helen Keller
Penn Kemble
Charles H. Kerr
Harry W. Laidler
Algernon Lee ¤
Jack London
Frederic O. MacCartney
Jasper McLevy ¤
David McReynolds ¤
Kate Richards O'Hare
James Oneal ¤
Mary White Ovington
Jacob Panken
David Petrovsky
A. Philip Randolph
John Reed *
Victor Reuther ¤
Walter Reuther
Charles Edward Russell
Bayard Rustin
Irwin Suall
Max Shachtman
Upton Sinclair
Jessie Wallace Hughan *
John Spargo ¤
J. G. Phelps Stokes
Rose Pastor Stokes *
Frank P. Zeidler ¤
Charles S. Zimmerman
¤ Went on to start or join another socialist or social democratic organization.
* Went on to start or join the Communist Party, Communist Labor Party or Workers Party of America.
Newspapers and magazines
American Appeal (Chicago)
American Socialist (Chicago)
American Socialist Quarterly (New York)
Appeal to Reason (Girard, Kansas)
Chicago Daily Socialist (Chicago)
The Class Struggle (New York)
Cleveland Citizen (Cleveland)
The Comrade (New York)
The Eye Opener (Chicago)
Hammer and Tongs (New York and elsewhere)
International Socialist Review (Chicago)
The Jewish Daily Forward (New York)
Labor Action (San Francisco)
The Liberator (New York)
The Masses (New York)
The Messenger Magazine (New York)
Miami Valley Socialist (Dayton, Ohio)
Milwaukee Leader (Milwaukee)
The National Rip-Saw (St. Louis)
Naujienos (Chicago)
The New Age (Buffalo, New York)
New America (New York)
The New Day (Milwaukee)
The New Leader (New York)
New Times (Minneapolis)
The New Review (New York)
New York Call (New York)
New Yorker Volkszeitung
Ohio Socialist (Cleveland)
Pearson's Magazine (New York)
Proletarec (Chicago)
Rabotnik Polski (Chicago)
Raivaaja (Fitchburg, Massachusetts)
Reading Labor Advocate (Reading, Pennsylvania)
The Social Democrat (Chicago)
The Socialist (Columbus, Ohio)
The Socialist (Seattle, Toledo, Ohio and Caldwell, Indiana)
The Socialist Appeal (Chicago and New York)
The Socialist Call (New York)
Socialist Party Monthly Bulletin (Chicago)
St. Louis Labor
Truth (Duluth, Minnesota)
Työmies (Hancock, Missouri)
Der Wecker (New York)
Wilshire's Magazine (Los Angeles and New York)
The World (Oakland, California)
Official national press
Most of the socialist press was privately owned as the party was concerned that a single official publication might lead to censorship in favor of the editors' views, in much the same way Daniel DeLeon used The People to dominate the Socialist Labor Party. A number of papers carried the party's official notices in its first years, the most important being The Worker (New York), The Appeal to Reason (Girard, Kansas), The Socialist (Seattle and Toledo, Ohio), The Worker's Call (Chicago), St. Louis Labor and The Social Democratic Herald (Milwaukee). The party soon discovered that it needed a more regular means of communication with its members and the 1904 National Convention decided to establish a regular party organ. Over the next seven decades, a series of official publications were issued directly by the SPA, most of which are today available on microfilm in essentially full runs:
Socialist Party Bulletin (monthly in Chicago) — vol. 1, no. 1 (September 1904), vol. 9, no. 6 (March/April 1913).
Socialist Party Weekly Bulletin (Chicago). — 1905? to 1909?. Mimeographed. New York Public Library has partial run on microfilm, August 12, 1905 – September 4, 1909.
The Party Builder (weekly in Chicago) — whole no. 1 (August 28, 1912) – whole no. 88 (July 11, 1914).
The American Socialist (weekly in Chicago). — vol. 1, no. 1 (July 18, 1914), vol. 4, no. 8 (September 8, 1917).
The Eye Opener (weekly in Chicago) — previously existing publication, official from vol. ?, no. ? (August 25, 1917) to vol. ?, no. ? (June 1, 1920).
Socialist Party Bulletin (monthly in Chicago) — vol. 1, no. 1 (February 1917), vol. ?, no. ? (June 1920). It may have suspended publication from July 1917 to May 1919.
The New Day (weekly in Milwaukee) — vol. 1, no. 1 (June 12, 1920), vol. ?, no. ? (July 22, 1922).
Socialist World (monthly in Chicago) — vol. 1, no. 1 (July 15, 1920), vol. 6, no. 8 (October 1925).
American Appeal (weekly in Chicago) — vol. 7, no. 1 (January 1, 1926), vol. 8, no. 48 (November 26, 1927). It was merged into The New Leader.
Labor and Socialist Press News (Chicago) — August 30, 1929 – February 26, 1932. Mimeographed weekly.
Labor and Socialist Press Service (Chicago) — March 4, 1932 – July 17, 1936. Mimeographed weekly.
American Socialist Quarterly (New York) — vol. 1, no. 1 (January 1932), vol. 4, no. 3 (November 1935).
American Socialist Monthly (New York) — vol. 5, no. 1 (March 1936), vol. 6, no. 1 (May 1937).
Socialist Review (irregular in New York) — vol. 6, no. 2 (September 1937), vol. 7, no. 2 (Spring 1940).
Socialist Action (monthly in Chicago) — vol. 1, no. 1 (October 20, 1934), vol. 2, no. 9 (November 1936). Three mimeographed "Socialist Action Pamphlets" also produced, press run of 200.
The Socialist Call (various in New York and Chicago) — vol. 1, no. 1 (March 23, 1935), vol. ?, no. ? (Spring 1962).
Hammer and Tongs (irregular in New York and Milwaukee) — no numbers used, January 1940–November 1972.
Socialist Campaigner (irregular in New York) — vol. 1, no. 1 (early 1940) to vol. 5, no. 3 (December 26, 1944). Mimeographed.
Organizers' Bulletin (irregular in New York) — no. 1 (middle 1940) to no. 3 (September 1940). Mimeographed.
Progress Report (monthly in New York) — unnumbered, June 1950 – September 1951. Mimeographed, sent to branch organizers and functionaries.
News and Views (monthly in New York) — unnumbered, October 1951–December 1953. Mimeographed, sent to branch organizers and functionaries.
Socialist Party Bulletin (monthly in New York) — unnumbered, October 1955?–January 1957. Two page typeset newsletter.
Socialist Bulletin (monthly in New York) — unnumbered, February 1957–April 1958?. Name change due to merger with the Social Democratic Federation.
New America (bimonthly in New York) — vol. 1, no. 1 (October 18, 1960), vol. ?, no. ? (1985). Continued as organ of Social Democrats, USA.
Executive Secretaries
1901–1903: Leon Greenbaum
1903–1905: William Mailly
1905–1911: J. Mahlon Barnes
1911–1913: John M. Work
1913–1916: Walter Lanfersiek
1916–1919: Adolph Germer
1919–1924: Otto Branstetter
1924–1925: Bertha Hale White
1925–1926: George Ross Kirkpatrick
1926–1929: William H. Henry
1929–1936: Clarence Senior
1936–1939: Roy Burt
1939–1942: Travers Clement
1942–1950: Harry Fleischman
1950–1954: Robin Myers
1954–1957: Herman Singer
1957–1962: Irwin Suall
1962-1966: Betty Elkin
1966-1968: George Woywod
1968–1970: Penn Kemble
1970–1972: Joan Suall
Electoral history
Presidential elections
The Socialist party did not win a Presidential election during its tenure from 1904 to 1956, or receive an electoral vote in the Electoral College.
See also
Democratic Socialists of America
Non-English press of the Socialist Party of America
Social Democratic Party of Wisconsin
Socialist Party of Missouri
Socialist Party of New York
Socialist Party of North Dakota
Socialist Party of North Carolina
Socialist Party of Oklahoma
Socialist Party of Oregon
Socialist Party of Washington
Socialist Party USA
WEVD-AM radio
Young Democratic Socialists
Young People's Socialist League (1907)
Footnotes
Bibliography
Books
General histories
Bell, Daniel, Marxian Socialism in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967 (revised version of his chapter in Egbert & Persons, 1952, below)
Buhle, Paul, Marxism in the USA: From 1870 to the Present Day. London: Verso, 1987.
Cannon, James P., The History of American Trotskyism: Report of a Participant. New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1944.
Egbert, Donald Drew and Persons, Stow (editors), Socialism and American Life. In Two Volumes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952.
Esposito, Anthony V., The Ideology of the Socialist Party of America, 1901-1917. New York: Garland Publishing, 1997.
Foner, Philip S., History of the Labor Movement of the United States. In Ten Volumes. New York: International Publishers, 1948–1994.
Harrington, Michael, Socialism. New York: Saturday Review Press, 1970.
Hillquit, Morris, History of Socialism in the United States. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1903; Fifth Revised and Enlarged Edition, 1910, reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 1971.
Johnson, Oakley C., Marxism in United States History Before the Russian Revolution (1876–1917). New York: Humanities Press, 1974.
Kipnis, Ira, The American Socialist Movement, 1897-1912. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. Reprinted by Haymarket Books, Chicago, 2004.
Kraditor, Aileen S., The Radical Persuasion, 1890-1917: Aspects of the Intellectual History and the Historiography of Three American Radical Organizations. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1981.
Laslett John M., and Lipset, Seymour Martin (eds.), Failure of a Dream? Essays in the History of American Socialism. New York: Doubleday, 1974.
Lipset, Seymour Martin and Marks, Gary, It Didn't Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States? New York: Norton, 2000.
Quint, Howard, The Forging of American Socialism: Origins of the Modern Movement. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1953; 2nd edition (with minor revisions) Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964
Ross, Jack, The Socialist Party of America: A Complete History. Lincoln, NE: Potomac Books, 2015.
Shannon, David A., The Socialist Party of America. New York: Macmillan, 1955, reprinted by Quadrangle Books, Chicago, 1967.
Warren, Frank A., An Alternative Vision: The Socialist Party in the 1930s. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1974.
Weinstein, James. The Decline of Socialism in America, 1912-1925. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967, Vintage Books 1969.
Topical, regional and local studies
Beck, Elmer Axel, The Sewer Socialists: A History of the Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1897-1940. In Two Volumes. Fennimore, WI: Westburg Associates, 1982.
Bedford, Henry F., Socialism and the Workers in Massachusetts, 1886-1912, Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 1966.
Bengston, Henry, Memoirs of the Scandinavian-American Labor Movement. [1955] Kermit B. Westerberg, trans. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999.
Bissett, Jim, Agrarian Socialism in America: Marx, Jefferson, and Jesus in the Oklahoma Countryside, 1904-1920. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
Bucki, Cecelia, Bridgeport's Socialist New Deal, 1915-36. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2001.
Buhle, Mari Jo, Women and American Socialism, 1870-1920. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1981.
Buhle, Paul and Georgakas, Dan (eds.), The Immigrant Left in the United States. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996.
Burbank, Garin, When Farmers Voted Red: The Gospel of Socialism in the Oklahoma Countryside, 1910-1924. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976.
Critchlow, Donald T. (ed.), Socialism in the Heartland: The Midwestern Experience, 1900-1925. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986.
Green, James R., Grass-Roots Socialism: Radical Movements in the Southwest, 1895-1943. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1978.
Horn, Max, The Intercollegiate Socialist Society, 1905-1921: Origins of the Modern American Student Movement. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979.
Hummasti, Paul George, Finnish Radicals in Astoria, Oregon, 1904-1940: A Study in Immigrant Socialism. New York: Arno Press, 1979.
Jaffe, Julian F., Crusade Against Radicalism: New York During the Red Scare, 1914-1924. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1972.
Jensen, Joan M., The Price of Vigilance, Chicago: Rand McNally, 1968.
Johnson, Jeffrey A., "They Are All Red Out Here": Socialist Politics in the Pacific Northwest, 1895-1925. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.
Judd, Richard W., Socialist Cities: Municipal Politics and the Grass Roots of American Socialism. Albany, NY: State University Press of New York, 1989.
Kennedy, Kathleen, Disloyal Mothers and Scurrilous Citizens: Women and Subversion During World War I. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999.
Kivisto, Peter, Immigrant Socialists in the United States: The Case of the Finns and the Left. Rutherford, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1984.
Laslett, John, Labor and the Left: A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881-1924. New York: Basic Books, 1980.
Manor, Ehud, Forward: The Jewish Daily Forward (Forverts) Newspaper: Immigrants, Socialism and Jewish Politics in New York, 1890-1917. Eastbourne, England: Sussex Academic Press, 2009.
McCormick, John S. and John R. Sillito, A History of Utah Radicalism: Startling, Socialistic, and Decidedly Revolutionary. Logan: Utah State University Press, 2011.
Miller, Sally M. (ed.), Flawed Liberation: Socialism and Feminism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981.
Nash, Michael, Conflict and Accommodation: Coal Miners, Steel Workers, and Socialism, 1890-1920. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.
Peterson, H.C. and Fite, Gilbert C., Opponents of War, 1917-1918. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957.
Pittenger, Mark, American Socialists and Evolutionary Thought, 1870-1920. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993.
Preston Jr., William, Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.
Ruff, Allen, "We Called Each Other Comrade": Charles H. Kerr & Company, Radical Publishers. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1997.
Sorin, Gerald, The Prophetic Minority: American Jewish Immigrant Radicals, 1880-1920. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985.
Scontras, Charles A., The Socialist Alternative: Utopian Experiments and the Socialist Party of Maine, 1895-1914. Orono, ME: University of Maine, 1985.
Wilkison, Kyle, Yeomen, Sharecroppers and Socialists: Plain Folk Protest in Texas, 1870-1914. Texas A&M University Press, 2008.
Biographies of leading participants
Arranged by alphabetic order of the first subject in the title.
Hyfler, Robert, Prophets of the Left: American Socialist Thought in the Twentieth Century, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984.
Miller, Sally M., Victor Berger and the Promise of Constructive Socialism, 1910-1920, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973.
Brommel, Bernard J., Eugene V. Debs: Spokesman for Labor and Socialism, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Co., 1978.
Coleman, McAlister, Eugene V. Debs: A Man Unafraid, New York: Greenberg Publishers, 1930.
Ginger, Ray, The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene Victor Debs, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1949.
Morgan, H. Wayne, Eugene V. Debs: Socialist for President, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973.
Salvatore, Nick, Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1982.
Buhle, Paul M., A Dreamer's Paradise Lost: Louis C. Fraina/Lewis Corey (1892–1953) and the Decline of Radicalism in the United States, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1995.
Perry, Jeffrey B., Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883-1918, New York: Columbian University Press, 2009.
Pratt, Norma Fain, Morris Hillquit: A Political History of an American Jewish Socialist, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979.
Buckingham, Peter H., Rebel Against Injustice: The Life of Frank P. O'Hare, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996.
Miller, Sally M., From Prairie to Prison: The Life of Social Activist Kate Richards O'Hare, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1993.
Henderson, J. Paul, Darlington Hoopes: The Political Biography of an American Socialist, Glasgow, Scotland: Humming Earth, 2005.
Miraldi, Robert, The Pen is Mightier: The Muckraking Life of Charles Edward Russell, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Kreuter, Kent and Kreuter, Gretchen, An American Dissenter: The Life of Algie Martin Simons, 1870-1950, Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 1969.
Ruotsila, Markku, John Spargo and American Socialism, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Boylan, James, Revolutionary Lives: Anna Strunsky and William English Walling, Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998.
Johnson, Christopher H., Maurice Sugar: Law, Labor, and the Left in Detroit, 1912-1950, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1988.
Johnpoll, Bernard K., Pacifist's Progress: Norman Thomas and the decline of American socialism, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970.
Swanberg W. A., Norman Thomas: The Last Idealist, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976.
Shore, Elliott, Talkin' Socialism: J.A. Wayland and the Role of the Press in American Radicalism, Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1988.
Articles
Creel, Von Russell, "Socialists in the House: The Oklahoma Experience, Part 1", The Chronicles of Oklahoma, Vol. 70, No. 2. (Summer 1992), pp. 144–183.
Johnson, Oakley C., "The Early Socialist Party of Michigan: An Assignment in Autobiography", The Centential Review, Vol. 10, No. 2. (Spring 1966), pp. 147–162.
Jozwiak, Elizabeth, "Bottoms Up: The Socialist Fight for the Workingman's Saloon", Wisconsin Magazine of History, Vol. 90, No. 2. (Winter 2006–2007),. pp. 14–23.
Kiser, G. Gregory, "The Socialist Party in Arkansas, 1900-1912", Arkansas Historical Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2. (Summer 1981), pp. 119–153.
Miller, Sally M., "Socialist Party Decline and World War I: Bibliography and Interpretation", Science and Society, Vol. 34, No. 4. (Winter 1970), pp. 398–411.
Shannon, David A., "The Socialist Party Before the First World War: An Analysis", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 38, No. 2. (September 1951), pp. 279–288. in JSTOR
Strong, Bryan, "Historians and American Socialism, 1900-1920", Science and Society, Vol. 34, No. 4. (Winter 1970), pp. 387–397.
Walker, John T., "Socialism in Dayton, Ohio, 1912 to 1925: Its Membership, Organization, and Demise", Labor History, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Summer 1985), pp. 384–404.
Weinstein, James, "The IWW and American Socialism", Socialist Revolution, Vol. 1, No. 5 (September–October 1970), pp. 3–41.
Primary sources
Claessens, August, Didn't We Have Fun!: Stories Out of a Long, Fruitful and Merry Life, New York: Rand School Press, 1953.
Debs, Eugene V.:
Bruce Rogers (ed.), Debs: His Life, Writings and Speeches, Girard, KS: The Appeal to Reason, 1908.
Walls and Bars, Chicago: Socialist Party, 1927.
Joseph M. Bernstein (ed.), Writings and Speeches of Eugene V. Debs, New York: Hermitage Press, 1948.
J. Robert Constantine (ed.), Letters of Eugene V. Debs in three volumes. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990.
Tim Davenport and David Walters (eds.), The Selected Works of Eugene V. Debs in six volumes. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2019—.
O'Hare, Kate Richards, Kate Richards O'Hare: Selected Writings and Speeches, Philip S. Foner and Sally M. Miller (eds.). Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1982.
Fried, Albert (ed.), Socialism in America, From the Shakers to the Third International: a Documentary History, New York: Doubleday/Anchor Books, 1970
Graham, John (ed.), "Yours for the Revolution": The Appeal to Reason, 1895-1922, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.
Haldeman-Julius, E., My Second 25 Years: Instead of a Footnote, An Autobiography, Girard, KS: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1949.
Harrington, Michael:
Fragments of the Century: a Social Autobiography, New York: Saturday Review Press/E.P. Dutton, 1973.
The Long-Distance Runner: an Autobiography, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1988.
Maurer, James H., It Can Be Done: The Autobiography of James H. Maurer, New York: Rand School Press, 1938.
Hillquit, Morris, Loose Leaves from a Busy Life, New York: Macmillan, 1934.
Johnpoll, Bernard K. and Yerburgh, Mark R., The League for Industrial Democracy: A Documentary History in three volumes, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980.
Karsner, David, Talks with Debs in Terre Haute (and Letters from Lindlahr), New York: New York Call, 1922.
Thomas, Norman, A Socialist's Faith, New York: W.W. Norton, 1951.
Waldman, Louis:
Labor Lawyer, New York: E.P. Dutton, 1944.
The Good Fight: A Quest for Social Progress, Philadelphia: Dorrance and Co., 1975.
External links
Socialist Party Votes, Membership, Newspapers, and Elected Officials by States and Counties. A map of 220 cities and towns that elected socialist candidates as well as 380 party linked newspapers.
Socialist Party Membership by States 1904-1940. A map showing membership numbers by state for most years from 1904 to 1940.
Socialist Party Votes by Counties and States 1904-1940. Maps and charts showing the number and percentage of votes for socialist candidates in counties and states, including presidential, gubernatorial and congressional elections.
Socialist Newspapers 1900-1920. Maps locating 380 newspapers affiliated with the Socialist Party and providing detail about editors, circulation and about the towns and cities where they were published.
Socialist Party Activity by Regions: Northeast, Midwest, West, South. Maps showing votes for socialist candidates, party linked newspapers and membership numbers in each region.
Socialist Party Votes, Membership, Newspapers, and Elected Officials by States and Counties. Interactive maps identifying 353 cities and towns that elected Socialist Party candidates, showing the offices held and identifying important office holders.
The Last Socialist Mayor. Interview with Milwaukee Mayor (1948–1960) Frank Zeidler by Amy Goodman. Democracy Now!. June 21, 2004. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
Socialist Party chronology in Early American Marxism Archive. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
SPA Downloadable Documents 1897-1946. Early American Marxism website. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
Lists of SPA Publications 1904-1934. Early American Marxism website. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
Lists of SPA Officials 1897-1936. Early American Marxism website. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
List of SPA Membership figures 1899-1946. Early American Marxism website. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
Socialist Party Reference Material. Creswell's List. Guide to campaign buttons and iconography of the Socialist Party. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
Political parties established in 1901
Political parties disestablished in 1972
Defunct democratic socialist parties in the United States
Defunct socialist parties in the United States
Defunct social democratic parties in the United States
Socialist parties in the United States
Second International
Democratic socialism in the United States
Members of the Labour and Socialist International
1901 establishments in the United States
Opposition to World War I
Multi-tendency organizations in the United States
1972 disestablishments in the United States
Eugene V. Debs
Political parties in the United States | [
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243597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Ellis | Albert Ellis | Albert Ellis (September 27, 1913 – July 24, 2007) was an American psychologist and psychotherapist who founded Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). He held MA and PhD degrees in clinical psychology from Columbia University, and was certified by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP). He also founded, and was the President of, the New York City-based Albert Ellis Institute. He is generally considered to be one of the originators of the cognitive revolutionary paradigm shift in psychotherapy and an early proponent and developer of cognitive-behavioral therapies.
Based on a 1982 professional survey of US and Canadian psychologists, he was considered the second most influential psychotherapist in history (Carl Rogers ranked first in the survey; Sigmund Freud was ranked third). Psychology Today noted that, "No individual—not even Freud himself—has had a greater impact on modern psychotherapy."
Early life
Ellis was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and raised in The Bronx borough of New York City from a young age. His paternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire, while his maternal grandfather originated from Galicia, Poland in Austria-Hungary. He was the eldest of three children. Ellis' father, Harry, was a broker, often away from home on business trips, who reportedly showed only a modicum of affection to his children. By his teenage years, his parents divorced, and he lived solely with his mother.
In his autobiography, Ellis characterized his mother, Hattie, as a self-absorbed woman with a bipolar disorder. At times, according to Ellis, she was a "bustling chatterbox who never listened." She would expound on her strong opinions on most subjects, but rarely provided a factual basis for these views. Like his father, Ellis' mother was emotionally distant from her children. Ellis recounted that she was often sleeping when he left for school and usually not home when he returned. Instead of reporting feeling bitter, he took on the responsibility of caring for his siblings. He purchased an alarm clock with his own money and woke and dressed his younger brother and sister. When the Great Depression struck, all three children sought work to assist the family. Ellis was sickly as a child and suffered numerous health problems throughout his youth. At the age of five he was hospitalized with a kidney disease. He was also hospitalized with tonsillitis, which led to a severe streptococcal infection requiring emergency surgery. He reported that he had eight hospitalizations between the ages of five and seven, one of which lasted nearly a year. His parents provided little emotional support for him during these years, rarely visiting or consoling him. Ellis stated that he learned to confront his adversities as he had "developed a growing indifference to that dereliction". Illness was to follow Ellis throughout his life; at age 40 he developed diabetes.
Ellis had exaggerated fears of speaking in public and during his adolescence, he was extremely shy around women. At age 19, already showing signs of thinking like a cognitive-behavioral therapist, he forced himself to talk to 100 women in the Bronx Botanical Gardens over a period of a month. Even though he did not get a date, he reported that he desensitized himself to his fear of rejection by women.
Education and early career
Ellis entered the field of clinical psychology after first earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in business from what was then known as the City College of New York Downtown in 1934. He began a brief career in business, followed by one as a writer. These endeavors took place during the Great Depression that began in 1929, and Ellis found that business was poor and had no success in publishing his fiction. Finding that he could write non-fiction well, Ellis researched and wrote on human sexuality. His lay counseling in this subject convinced him to seek a new career in clinical psychology.
In 1942, Ellis began his studies for a PhD in clinical psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University, which trained psychologists mostly in psychoanalysis. He completed his Master of Arts in clinical psychology from Teachers College in June 1943, and started a part-time private practice while still working on his PhD degree—possibly because there was no licensing of psychologists in New York at that time. Ellis began publishing articles even before receiving his PhD; in 1946 he wrote a critique of many widely used pencil-and-paper personality tests. He concluded that only the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory met the standards of a research-based instrument.
In 1947, he was awarded a PhD in Clinical Psychology at Columbia, and at that time Ellis had come to believe that psychoanalysis was the deepest and most effective form of therapy. Like most psychologists of that time, he was interested in the theories of Sigmund Freud. He sought additional training in psychoanalysis and then began to practice classical psychoanalysis. Shortly after receiving his PhD in 1947, Ellis began a Jungian analysis and program of supervision with Richard Hulbeck, a leading analyst at the Karen Horney Institute (whose own analyst had been Hermann Rorschach, the developer of the Rorschach inkblot test). At that time he taught at New York University, Rutgers University, and Pittsburg State University and held a couple of leading staff positions. At this time, Ellis' faith in psychoanalysis was gradually crumbling.
Early theoretical contributions to psychotherapy
The writings of Karen Horney, Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm and Harry Stack Sullivan would be some of the influences in Ellis's thinking and played a role in shaping his psychological models. Ellis credits Alfred Korzybski, his book, Science and Sanity, and general semantics for starting him on the philosophical path for founding rational therapy. In addition, modern and ancient philosophy (particularly stoicism), and his own experiences heavily influenced his new theoretical developments to psychotherapy. Ellis acknowledged that his therapy was "by no means entirely new", as in particular Paul Charles Dubois's "rational persuasion" had prefigured some of its main principles; Ellis stated he had read him some years after inventing his therapy, but had studied Émile Coué since a young age.
From the late 1940s onwards, Ellis worked on rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT), and by January 1953 his break with psychoanalysis was complete, and he began calling himself a rational therapist. Ellis was now advocating a new more active and directive type of psychotherapy. In 1955, he presented rational therapy (RT). In RT, the therapist sought to help the client understand—and act on the understanding—that his personal philosophy contained beliefs that contributed to his own emotional pain. This new approach stressed actively working to change a client's self-defeating beliefs and behaviours by demonstrating their irrationality, self-defeatism and rigidity. Ellis believed that through rational analysis and cognitive reconstruction, people could understand their self-defeatingness in light of their core irrational beliefs and then develop more rational constructs.
In 1954, Ellis began teaching his new techniques to other therapists, and by 1957, he formally set forth the first cognitive behavioral therapy by proposing that therapists help people adjust their thinking and behavior as the treatment for emotional and behavioral problems. Two years later, Ellis published How to Live with a Neurotic, which elaborated on his new method. In 1960, Ellis presented a paper on his new approach at the American Psychological Association (APA) convention in Chicago. There was mild interest, but few recognized that the paradigm set forth would become the zeitgeist within a generation. At that time, the prevailing interest in experimental psychology was behaviorism, while in clinical psychology it was the psychoanalytic schools of notables such as Freud, Jung, Adler, and Perls. Despite the fact that Ellis' approach emphasized cognitive, emotive, and behavioral methods, his strong cognitive emphasis provoked the psychotherapeutic establishment with the possible exception of the followers of Adler. Consequently, he was often received with significant hostility at professional conferences and in print. He regularly held seminars where he would bring a participant up on stage and treat them. His own therapeutical style was famed for often being delivered in a rough, confrontational style; however, it should not be confused with his rational-emotive and cognitive-behavioral therapy school that is practiced by his students and followers in a large variety of therapeutic styles (e.g., often depending on client's personality, client's clinical problem, and evidence-based information regarding the appropriate intervention, but also including therapist's own preference).
Despite the relative slow adoption of his approach in the beginning, Ellis founded his own institute. The Institute for Rational Living was founded as a non-profit organization in 1959. By 1968, it was chartered by the New York State Board of Regents as a training institute and psychological clinic.
Work as sexologist and sex and love researcher
By the 1960s, Ellis had come to be seen as one of the founders of the American sexual revolution. Especially in his earlier career, he was well known for his work as a sexologist and for his liberal humanistic, and in some camps controversial opinions on human sexuality. He also worked with noted zoologist and sex researcher Alfred Kinsey and explored in a number of books and articles the topic of human sexuality and love. Sex and love relations were his professional interests even from the beginning of his career. Norman Haire, in his preface to Ellis' 1952 book Sex Beliefs and Customs, applauded the work of the Society for the Prevention of Venereal Disease while he ridiculed its rival, the National Council for Combating Venereal Disease, who argued that preventive measures such as condoms would encourage vice: Haire called them "the Society for the Prevention of the Prevention of Venereal Disease".
In 1958, Ellis published his classic work Sex Without Guilt which came to be known for its advocacy of a liberal attitude towards sex. He contributed to Paul Krassner's magazine The Realist; among its articles, in 1964 he wrote if this be heresy... Is pornography harmful to children? In 1965, Ellis published a book entitled Homosexuality: Its Causes and Cure, which partly saw homosexuality as a pathology and therefore a condition to be cured. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association reversed its position on homosexuality by declaring that it was not a mental disorder and thus not properly subject to cure, and in 1976, Ellis clarified his earlier views in Sex and the Liberated Man, expounding that some homosexual disturbed behaviors may be subject to treatment but, in most cases, that should not be attempted as homosexuality is not inherently good or evil, except from a religious viewpoint (See "Ellis and religion", below). Near the end of his life, he finally updated and re-wrote Sex Without Guilt in 2001 and released as Sex Without Guilt in the Twenty-First Century. In this book, he expounded and enhanced his humanistic view on sexual ethics and morality and dedicated a chapter on homosexuality to giving homosexuals advice and suggestion on how to more greatly enjoy and enhance their sexual love lives. While preserving some of the ideas about human sexuality from the original, the revision described his later humanistic opinions and ethical ideals as they had evolved in his academic work and practice.
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
Ellis published his first major book on Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) in 1962. REBT is an active-directive, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy, the aim of which is to resolve emotional and behavioral problems and disturbances and to help people to lead happier and more fulfilling lives. REBT is seen as the first form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).
Unconditional self accepting
Ellis advocated the importance of accepting yourself just because you are alive, human and unique - and not giving yourself a global rating, or being influenced by what others think of you.
Integrity assessment studies
In 1979 and during the next two decades Ellis focuses part of his research on behavioral integrity through applied experimental psychology, focusing on reliability, honesty and loyalty as psychosocial behavior. Organizational commitment as a cognitive norm, evaluating concretely through images developed in his Institute.
In his book Personality Theories developed with Mike Abrams and Lidia Dengelegi Abrams establish the opinions of evaluation of integrity understanding the reason of each personality can have a change in their attitude, reliability is the common factor of their samples taken and of the which great advances were obtained to look for a tool to work with the human mind.
Religion
In his original version of his book Sex Without Guilt, Ellis expressed the opinion that religious restrictions on sexual expression are often needless and harmful to emotional health. He also famously debated religious psychologists, including Orval Hobart Mowrer and Allen Bergin, over the proposition that religion often contributed to psychological distress. Because of his forthright espousal of a nontheistic humanism, he was recognized in 1971 as Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association. By 2003, he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto. Ellis most recently described himself as a probabilistic atheist, meaning that while he acknowledged that he could not be completely certain there is no god, he believed the probability a god exists was so small that it was not worth his or anyone else's attention.
While Ellis' personal atheism and humanism remained consistent, his views about the role of religion in mental health changed over time. In early comments delivered at conventions and at his institute in New York City, Ellis overtly and often with characteristically acerbic delivery stated that devout religious beliefs and practices were harmful to mental health. In "The Case Against Religiosity", a 1980 pamphlet published by his New York institute, he offered an idiosyncratic definition of religiosity as any devout, dogmatic and demanding belief. He noted that religious codes and religious individuals often manifest religiosity, but added that devout, demanding religiosity is also obvious among many orthodox psychotherapists and psychoanalysts, devout political believers and aggressive atheists.
Ellis was careful to state that REBT was independent of his atheism, noting that many skilled REBT practitioners are religious, including some who are ordained ministers. In his later days, he significantly toned down his opposition to religion. While Ellis maintained his firm atheistic stance, proposing that thoughtful, probabilistic atheism was likely the most emotionally healthy approach to life, he acknowledged and agreed with survey evidence suggesting that belief in a loving God can also be psychologically healthy. Based on this later approach to religion, he reformulated his professional and personal view in one of his last books The Road to Tolerance, and he also co-authored a book, Counseling and Psychotherapy with Religious Persons: A Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Approach, with two religious psychologists, Stevan Lars Nielsen and W. Brad Johnson, describing principles for integrating religious material and beliefs with REBT during treatment of religious clients.
Political views
Ellis was a lifelong advocate for peace and an opponent of militarism. He also praised libertarian economist Walter Block's book, Defending the Undefendable.
Later life
Professional contributions
While many of his ideas were criticized during the 1950s and '60s by the psychotherapeutic establishment, his reputation grew immensely in the subsequent decades. From the 1960s on, his prominence was steadily growing as the cognitive behavioral therapies (CBT) were gaining further theoretical and scientific ground. From then, CBT gradually became one of the most popular systems of psychotherapy in many countries, mainly due to the large body of rigorously conducted research that underpinned the work of the cognitive therapy school (a key part of the CBT family) founded by Aaron T. Beck. In the late 1960s, his institute launched a professional journal, and in the early 70s established "The Living School" for children between 6 and 13. The school provided a curriculum that incorporated the principles of RE(B)T. Despite its relative short life, interest groups generally expressed satisfaction with its programmer. Many schools of psychological thought became influenced by Albert Ellis, including Rational Behavior Therapy created by a student of his, Maxie Clarence Maultsby Jr. Ellis had such an impact that in a 1982 survey, American and Canadian clinical psychologists and counsellors ranked him ahead of Freud when asked to name the figure who had exerted the average influence on their field. Also in 1982, in an analysis of psychology journals published in the US it was found that Ellis was the most cited author after 1957. In 1985, the APA presented Dr. Ellis with its award for "distinguished professional contributions".
He held many important positions in many professional societies including the Division of Consulting Psychology of the APA, Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, American Association of Marital and Family Therapy, the American Academy of Psychotherapists and the American Association of Sex Educators, Counsellors, and Therapists. In addition Ellis also served as consulting or associate editor of many scientific journals. Many professional societies gave Ellis their highest professional and clinical awards.
In the mid-1990s, he renamed his psychotherapy and behavior change system rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). (It was originally known as rational therapy and then rational-emotive therapy.) This he did to stress the interrelated importance of cognition, emotion and behaviour in his therapeutic approach. In 1994, he also updated and revised his original, 1962 classic book, Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. During the remainder of his life, he continued developing the theory that cognition, emotion and behaviour are intertwined, and that a system for psychotherapy and behaviour change must involve all three.
Public appearance
Ellis's work extended into areas other than psychology, including education, politics, business and philosophy. He eventually became a prominent and confrontational social commenter and public speaker on a wide array of issues. During his career he publicly debated a vast number of people who represented opposing views to his; this included for example debates with psychologist Nathaniel Branden on Objectivism and psychiatrist Thomas Szasz on the topic of mental illness. On numerous occasions he critiqued opposing psychotherapeutic approaches, and questioned some of the doctrines in certain dogmatic religious systems, i.e.:spiritualism and mysticism.
From 1965 until the end of his life he led his famous Friday Night Workshops, in which he conducted therapy sessions with volunteers from the audience. The 1970s found him introducing his popular "rational humorous songs" which combined humorous lyrics with a rational self-help message set to a popular tune. Ellis also held workshops and seminars on mental health and psychotherapy all over the world until his 90s.
Final years
Until he fell ill at the age of 92 in 2006, Ellis typically worked at least 16 hours a day, writing books in longhand on legal tablets, visiting with clients, and teaching. On his 90th birthday in 2003, he received congratulatory messages from well-known public figures such as then-President George W. Bush, New York senators Charles Schumer and Hillary Clinton, former President Bill Clinton, New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, and the Dalai Lama, who sent a silk scarf blessed for the occasion. In 2004, Ellis was taken ill with serious intestinal problems, which led to hospitalization and the removal of his large intestine. He returned to work after a few months of supportive care.
In 2005, he was removed from all professional duties and from the board of his own institute after a dispute over the management policies of the institute. Ellis was reinstated to the board in January 2006 after winning civil proceedings against the board members who removed him. On June 6, 2007, lawyers acting for Albert Ellis filed a suit against the Albert Ellis Institute in New York state court. The suit alleges a breach of a long-term contract with the AEI and sought recovery of the 45 East 65th Street property through the imposition of a constructive trust.
Despite his series of health issues and profound hearing loss, Ellis never stopped working with the assistance of his wife, Australian psychologist Debbie Joffe Ellis. In April 2006, Ellis was hospitalized with pneumonia, and spent more than a year shuttling between hospital and a rehabilitation facility. He eventually returned to his residence on the top floor of the Albert Ellis Institute where he died on July 24, 2007 in his wife's arms. Ellis had authored and co-authored more than 80 books and 1200 articles (including eight hundred scientific papers) during his lifetime. He died aged 93.
During his final years he worked on his only college textbook with longtime collaborator Mike Abrams with whom he co-authored 3 books along with several research articles and chapters, including the textbook Personality Theories: Critical Perspectives. Ellis' penultimate book was an autobiography entitled "All Out!" published by Prometheus Books in June 2010. The book was dedicated to and included contributions by his wife, Dr Debbie Joffe Ellis, to whom he entrusted the legacy of REBT.
In early 2011, the book Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy by Albert and Debbie Joffe Ellis was released by the American Psychological Association. The book explains the essentials of the theory of REBT for students and practitioners of psychology as well as for the general public. In 2019 his wife, Dr Debbie Joffe Ellis, updated the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy book, and the 2nd edition of that book was published. Albert Ellis and Joffe Ellis worked together in every area of his work in their years together; Albert Ellis entrusted her to continue his work and she was "the greatest love of his life".
In eulogy of Albert Ellis, APA past president Frank Farley states:Psychology has had only a handful of legendary figures who not only command attention across much of the discipline but also receive high recognition from the public for their work. Albert Ellis was such a figure, known inside and outside of psychology for his astounding originality, his provocative ideas, and his provocative personality. He bestrode the practice of psychotherapy like a colossus…In the opening ceremony of the 2013 American Psychological Association Convention, Ellis was posthumously awarded the APA Award For Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology. It highlights the profound and historic role played in the life and evolution of the fields of psychology and psychotherapy.
Philosophical works
The Road To Tolerance (Prometheus Books, 2004) explains the philosophies underlying REBT - particularly an attitude of tolerance - and relates it to many religious, philosophical and social movements.
Prevention of unhappiness
"I think I can honestly say that I am one of the relatively few people in the United States, and perhaps in the entire world, who has not had a seriously miserable day since I created REBT in 1955. I find it almost impossible to feel intensely depressed, hostile, or upset for more than literally a few minutes at a time. ... Whereas I was desperately unhappy for a good part of my childhood and teens, this feeling is virtually unknown to me today. Instead, these days I almost automatically go after self-disturbances and quickly eliminate them. Not squelch, suppress, or repress them – I mean really eliminate. ... I derive considerable pleasure, enjoyment, and sometimes sheer bliss out of life. What more can one ask?" Albert Ellis, "The Road To Tolerance." p. 77
"Final wisdom"; 'what works best for you'
In the 'Final wisdom' chapter of his 2001 book, "Feeling better...", Ellis proposed that people try different tools to see what works best for them. "What works best for you may be radically different than what works for other people."
Autobiographical works
Most of the books Ellis wrote after inventing REBT had a strong autobiographical element. He used anecdotes from his personal life to explain how the insights of REBT occurred to him and how they helped him cope with personal problems such as shyness, anger and chronic illness. He also used anecdotes from client sessions to illustrate how his therapy worked. Two of Ellis last books were explicitly autobiographical. Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy: It Works for Me -- It Can Work for You (Prometheus Books, 2004) recounts his early life and crises in an unusually candid way. It illustrates the way he handled his problems, at first through philosophy, and later through the application of his emerging therapeutic skills and insights. All Out!: An Autobiography (Prometheus Books, 2009) —published after his death—is a more traditional narrative of his life and work (though it also meant to be an inspirational story of the use of rational thinking in self-help).
Criticism
In his obituary in the British newspaper The Guardian, it was reported that some members of the psychotherapeutic establishment accused him of misinterpreting Freud and demanded evidence for his claims. It was noted that others, such as Aaron T. Beck, had conducted more rigorous testing than Ellis.
Ellis was often criticised for his language and his aggressive behaviour, such as in his debate with Ayn Rand follower Nathaniel Branden.
Published works
The Folklore of Sex, Oxford, England: Charles Boni, 1951.
The Homosexual in America: A Subjective Approach (introduction). NY: Greenberg, 1951.
Sex Beliefs and Customs, London: Peter Nevill, 1952.
The American Sexual Tragedy. NY: Twayne, 1954.
Sex Life of the American woman and the Kinsey Report. Oxford, England: Greenberg, 1954.
The Psychology of Sex Offenders. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1956.
How To Live with a Neurotic. Oxford, England: Crown Publishers, 1957.
Sex Without Guilt. NY: Hillman, 1958.
The Art and Science of Love. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1960.
A Guide to Successful Marriage, with Robert A. Harper. North Hollywood, CA: Wilshire Book, 1961.
Creative Marriage, with Robert A. Harper. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1961.
A Guide to Rational Living. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1961.
The Encyclopedia of Sexual Behavior, edited with Albert Abarbanel. NY: Hawthorn, 1961.
The American Sexual Tragedy, 2nd Ed. rev. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1962.
Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1962.
Sex and the Single Man. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1963.
If This Be Sexual Heresy. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1963.
The intelligent woman's guide to man-hunting. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1963.
Nymphomania: A Study of the Oversexed Woman, with Edward Sagarin. NY: Gilbert Press, 1964.
Homosexuality: Its causes and Cures. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1965.
The Art of Erotic Seduction, with Roger Conway. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1967.
Is Objectivism a Religion?. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1968.
Murder and Assassination, with John M. Gullo. NY: Lyle Stuart, 1971.
The Civilized Couple's Guide to Extramarital Adventures, Pinnacle Books Inc, 1972.
Executive Leadership: A Rational Approach, 1972. .
Humanistic Psychotherapy, NY McGraw, 1974 Sagarin ed.
A New Guide to Rational Living. Wilshire Book Company, 1975. .
Sex and the Liberated Man, Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart, 1976.
Anger: How to Live With and Without It. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press, 1977. .
Handbook of Rational-Emotive Therapy, with Russell Greiger & contributors. NY: Springer Publishing, 1977.
Overcoming Procrastination: Or How to Think and Act Rationally in Spite of Life's Inevitable Hassles, with William J. Knaus. Institute for Rational Living, 1977. .
How to Live With a Neurotic. Wilshire Book Company, 1979. .
Overcoming Resistance: Rational-Emotive Therapy With Difficult Clients. NY: Springer Publishing, 1985. .
When AA Doesn't Work For You: Rational Steps to Quitting Alcohol, with Emmett Velten. Barricade Books, 1992. .
The Art and Science of Rational Eating, with Mike Abrams and Lidia Abrams. Barricade Books, 1992. .
How to Cope with a Fatal Illness, with Mike Abrams. Barricade Books, 1994. .
Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy, Revised and Updated. Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing Group, 1994. .
How to Keep People from Pushing Your Buttons, with Arthur Lange. Citadel Press, 1995. .
Alcohol: How to Give It Up and Be Glad You Did, with Philip Tate Ph.D. See Sharp Press, 1996. .
Rational Interviews, with Stephen Palmer, Windy Dryden and Robin Yapp, (Eds). London: Centre for Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy, 1995. .
Better, Deeper, and More Enduring Brief Therapy: The Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Approach Brunner/Mazel Publishers, NY 1996. .
Stress Counselling: A Rational Emotive Behaviour Approach, with Jack Gordon, Michael Neenan and Stephen Palmer. London: Cassell, 1997. .
How to Control Your Anger Before It Controls You, with Raymond Chip Tafrate. Citadel Press, 1998. .
Optimal Aging: Get Over Getting Older, with Emmett Velten. Chicago, Open Court Press, 1998. .
How to Stubbornly Refuse to Make Yourself Miserable About Anything: Yes, Anything, Lyle Stuart, 2000, .
Making Intimate Connections: Seven Guidelines for Great Relationships and Better Communication, with Ted Crawford. Impact Publishers, 2000. .
The Secret of Overcoming Verbal Abuse: Getting Off the Emotional Roller Coaster and Regaining Control of Your Life, with Marcia Grad Powers. Wilshire Book Company, 2000. .
Counseling and Psychotherapy With Religious Persons: A Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Approach, Stevan Lars Nielsen, W. Brad Johnson, and Albert Ellis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001. .
Overcoming Destructive Beliefs, Feelings, and Behaviors: New Directions for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. Prometheus Books, 2001. .
Feeling Better, Getting Better, Staying Better: Profound Self-Help Therapy For Your Emotions. Impact Publishers, 2001. .
Case Studies in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy With Children and Adolescents, with Jerry Wilde. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall, 2002. .
Overcoming Resistance: A Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Integrated Approach, 2nd ed. NY: Springer Publishing, 2002. .
Ask Albert Ellis: Straight Answers and Sound Advice from America's Best-Known Psychologist. Impact Publishers, 2003. .
Sex Without Guilt in the 21st Century. Barricade Books, 2003. .
Dating, Mating, and Relating. How to Build a Healthy Relationship, with Robert A. Harper. Citadel Press Books, 2003.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: It Works For Me—It Can Work For You. Prometheus Books, 2004. .
The Road to Tolerance: The Philosophy of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. Prometheus Books, 2004. .
The Myth of Self-Esteem. Prometheus Books, 2005. .
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: A Therapist's Guide (2nd Edition), with Catharine MacLaren. Impact Publishers, 2005. .
How to Make Yourself Happy and Remarkably Less Disturbable. Impact Publishers, 1999. .
Rational Emotive Behavioral Approaches to Childhood Disorders • Theory, Practice and Research 2nd Edition. With Michael E. Bernard (Eds.). Springer SBM, 2006.
Growth Through Reason: Verbatim Cases in Rational-Emotive Therapy Science and Behavior Books. Palo Alto, California. 1971.
All Out!. Prometheus Books, 2009. .
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, American Psychological Association,
How to Master Your Fear of Flying. Institute Rational Emotive Therapy, 1977. .
How to Control your Anxiety before it Controls you. Citadel Press, 2000. .
Are Capitalism, Objectivism, And Libertarianism Religions? Yes!: Greenspan And Ayn Rand Debunked. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2007.
Theories of Personality: Critical Perspectives, with Mike Abrams, PhD, and Lidia Abrams, PhD. New York: Sage Press, 7/2008 (This was his final work, published posthumously).
See also
Alfred Korzybski
Paul Tillich
Bertrand Russell
Karl Popper
George Kelly
Maxie Clarence Maultsby, Jr.
Alfred Adler
Aaron T. Beck
Martin Seligman
Albert Bandura
William Glasser
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Cognitive Therapy
Clinical psychology
Counselling psychology
Mental health
History of psychotherapy
Psychotherapy
Philosophy
Rational Behavior Therapy
References
Further reading
Albert Ellis. Theories of Personality: Critical Perspectives, with Mike Abrams, PhD, and Lidia Abrams, PhD. New York: Sage Press, 2008.
Edrita Fried (© 1951, 1961 by Albert Ellis), On Love and Sexuality, New York: Grove Press.
Emmett Velten. Under the Influence: Reflections of Albert Ellis in the Work of Others. See Sharp Press, 2007
Emmett Velten. Albert Ellis: American Revolutionary. See Sharp Press, 2009
Albert Ellis. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: It Works for Me – It Can Work for You by Albert Ellis. Prometheus Books, 2004
Joseph Yankura and Windy Dryden. Albert Ellis (Key Figures in Counselling and Psychotherapy series). Sage Publications, 1994
External links
Main websites
The Albert Ellis Institute (New York City)
The REBT Network – Albert Ellis and Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Albert-Ellis-Friends.Net: A Rational Oasis
Albert Ellis Biography Site
Albert Ellis Information Site
Association for Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
Wife of Dr Albert Ellis and REBT Teacher, Author, Presenter and Practitioner
REBT Practitioner, Lecturer & Author
Information site on REBT with Dr Ellis' wife: Dr Joffe Ellis
Finding aid to the Albert Ellis Papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library
Articles and features
Psychotherapy.net: An Interview with Albert Ellis
Santa Maria Times: Dr. Albert Ellis and his legacy
Ellis' classic A Guide To Rational Living - a brief introduction
Boston Herald: Shrink was ours for a song – One last refrain for Albert Ellis
Prospect Magazine: Portrait – Albert Ellis
1913 births
2007 deaths
Jewish American atheists
American humanists
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American psychologists
American self-help writers
American sex educators
American sexologists
American skeptics
Baruch College alumni
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Cognitive therapy
Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapists
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
Jewish American writers
Jewish American social scientists
People with type 1 diabetes
Philosophical counselors
Scientists from Pittsburgh
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
20th-century psychologists | [
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243603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCr%20Elise | Für Elise | Bagatelle No. 25 in A minor (WoO59, Bia515) for solo piano, commonly known as Für Elise (, ), is one of Ludwig van Beethoven's most popular compositions. It was not published during his lifetime, only being discovered (by Ludwig Nohl) 40 years after his death, and may be termed either a Bagatelle or an . The identity of "Elise" is unknown; researchers have suggested Therese Malfatti, Elisabeth Röckel, or Elise Barensfeld.
History
The score was not published until 1867, forty years after the composer's death in 1827. The discoverer of the piece, Ludwig Nohl, affirmed that the original autograph manuscript, now lost, had the title: "Für Elise am 27 April [1810] zur Erinnerung von L. v. Bthvn" ("For Elise on April 27 in memory by L. v. Bthvn"). The music was published as part of Nohl's Neue Briefe Beethovens (New letters by Beethoven) on pages 28 to 33, printed in Stuttgart by Johann Friedrich Cotta.
The version of "Für Elise" heard today is an earlier version that was transcribed by Ludwig Nohl. There is a later version, with drastic changes to the accompaniment which was transcribed from a later manuscript by the Beethoven scholar Barry Cooper. The most notable difference is in the first theme, the left-hand arpeggios are delayed by a 16th note. There are a few extra bars in the transitional section into the B section; and finally, the rising A minor arpeggio figure is moved later into the piece. The tempo marking Poco moto is believed to have been on the manuscript that Ludwig Nohl transcribed (now lost). The later version includes the marking Molto grazioso. It is believed that Beethoven intended to add the piece to a cycle of bagatelles.
Whatever the validity of Nohl's edition, an editorial peculiarity contained in it involves the second right-hand note in bar 7, that is, the first note of the three-note upbeat figure that characterizes the main melody. Is it E4 or D4? Nohl's score gives E4 in bar 7, but D4 thereafter in all parallel passages. Many editions change all of the figures to beginning with E4 until the final bars, where D4 is used and resolved by adding a C to the final A octave. A point in favor of the D4 is that the ascending seventh of the motive in this form is repeated in sequence in bars 9 to 11 that begin the second section of the principal theme.
The pianist and musicologist argued in his thesis and his 2010 book Beethoven al piano (new Italian edition: Beethoven al pianoforte, 2014) that Beethoven might not have been the person who gave the piece the form that we know today. Chiantore suggested that the original signed manuscript, upon which Ludwig Nohl claimed to base his transcription, may never have existed. On the other hand, Barry Cooper wrote, in a 1984 essay in The Musical Times, that one of two surviving sketches closely resembles the published version.
Identity of "Elise"
It is not certain who "Elise" was, although a list of possible dedicatees have been suggested by various scholars over the years. Evidence suggests that "Elise" was a close friend of Beethoven and probably an important figure in his life.
Therese Malfatti
Max Unger suggested that Ludwig Nohl may have transcribed the title incorrectly and the original work may have been named "Für Therese", a reference to Therese Malfatti von Rohrenbach zu Dezza (1792–1851). She was a friend and student of Beethoven's to whom he supposedly proposed in 1810, though she turned him down to marry the Austrian nobleman and state official Wilhelm von Droßdik in 1816. Note that the piano sonata no. 24, dedicated to Countess Thérèse von Brunswick, is also referred to sometimes as "für Therese". The Austrian musicologist Michael Lorenz has shown that Rudolf Schachner, who in 1851 inherited Therese von Droßdik's musical scores, was the son of Babette Bredl, born out of wedlock. Babette in 1865 let Nohl copy the autograph in her possession.
Elisabeth Röckel
According to a 2010 study by Klaus Martin Kopitz, there is evidence that the piece was written for the 17-year-old German soprano singer Elisabeth Röckel (1793–1883), the younger sister of Joseph August Röckel, who played Florestan in the 1806 revival of Beethoven's opera Fidelio. "Elise", as she was called by a parish priest (later she called herself "Betty"), had been a friend of Beethoven's since 1808, who, according to Kopitz, perhaps wanted to marry her. But in April 1810 Elisabeth Röckel got an engagement at the theater in Bamberg where she made her stage debut as Donna Anna in Mozart's Don Giovanni and became a friend of the writer E. T. A. Hoffmann. In 1811 Röckel came back to Vienna, in 1813 she married there Beethoven's friend Johann Nepomuk Hummel.
In 2015 Kopitz published further sources about Beethoven's relationship to Röckel and the famous piano piece. It shows that she was also a close friend of Anna Milder-Hauptmann and lived together with her and her brother Joseph August in the Theater an der Wien. In a letter to Röckel, which she wrote in 1830, she called her indeed "Elise".
In 2020 an extended English version of Kopitz's essay was published with some new sources.
Elise Barensfeld
In 2014, the Canadian musicologist Rita Steblin suggested that Elise Barensfeld might be the dedicatee. Born in Regensburg and treated for a while as a child prodigy, she first travelled on concert tours with Beethoven's friend Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, also from Regensburg, and then lived with him for some time in Vienna, where she received singing lessons from Antonio Salieri. Steblin argues that Beethoven dedicated this work to the 13-year-old Elise Barensfeld as a favour to Therese Malfatti who lived opposite Mälzel's and Barensfeld's residence and who might have given her piano lessons. Steblin admits that question marks remain for her hypothesis.
Music
The piece can be heard as a five-part rondo, with the form A-B-A-C-A. It is in A minor and in time. It begins with the refrain A, a flowing melody in binary form marked Poco moto (literally "a little motion," a tempo indication that does not appear elsewhere in Beethoven's works), with an arpeggiated left hand accompaniment. The unaccompanied oscillation between the dominant E and its chromatic lower neighbor D-sharp that begins the melody has become one of the most recognizable openings in classical music, but it also serves as a main topic of musical discussion. The digression at measure 9 glances at the relative major before returning to the original theme and key, preceded by a prolongation of the dominant, E that extends the opening lower-neighbor oscillation. The pitch outline of these bars, E-F-E-D-C-B, i.e. an upper-neighbor ascent to F5 followed by a descending scale, also forms the basis of the two episodes B and C, thus unifying the piece. The B section that begins in bar 23 is in the submediant, F major. Its theme begins by tracing the outline mentioned above in somewhat elaborated fashion and modulates to the dominant, followed by 32nd-note runs repeating a cadential progression in C major in a codetta-like passage. (The chordal three-note upbeats in the left hand have been anticipated by the transition to this episode in bar 22, a clever unifying touch.) This suggests a rather expansive form, but Beethoven suddenly returns to the dominant of A minor in bar 34, once again lingering on the dominant E and its lower neighbor and leading to an exact repeat of the A section. Although another nominal episode follows (C) at bar 59, it does not leave the tonic and is rather coda-like in feel, unfolding over a dramatic, throbbing tonic pedal in the bass and emphatically cadencing in the home key. Once again, there are unifying relationships with previously heard material. The melody retraces the descending outline alluded to earlier, and the cadence in bars 66-67 is an augmented version of the theme's cadence in bars 7–8. After a glance at a Neapolitan harmony (B-flat major) and a cadence at bar 76 that brings the music to a complete halt for the first and only time, an ascending A minor arpeggio and a chromatic descent over two octaves follows, sort of a cadenza in tempo, leading to a final repetition of the A section. The piece concludes without an added postlude.
Kopitz presents the finding by the German organ scholar that the letters that spell Elise can be decoded as the first three notes of the piece. Because an E is called an Es in German and is pronounced as "S", that makes E–(L)–(I)–S–E: E–(L)–(I)–E–E, which by enharmonic equivalents sounds the same as the written notes E–(L)–(I)–D–E.
Incipit:
References
External links
"Für Elise" at the Mutopia Project
1822 revised version
Michael Lorenz: "Maria Eva Hummel. A Postscript", Vienna 2013
Michael Lorenz: "A Letter to the Editor of The Musical Times", Vienna 2014
Piano solos by Ludwig van Beethoven
1810 compositions
Compositions in A minor
Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven published posthumously
Music with dedications | [
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243605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Regan | Donald Regan | Donald Thomas Regan (December 21, 1918 – June 10, 2003) was the 66th United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1981 to 1985 and the White House Chief of Staff from 1985 to 1987 under Ronald Reagan. In the Reagan administration, he advocated "Reaganomics" and tax cuts as a means to create jobs and to stimulate production.
Earlier in his life, he had studied at Harvard University before he served in the United States Marine Corps, achieving the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1946 he started to work for Merrill Lynch. He served as its chairman and CEO from 1971 to 1980.
Early life
Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the son of Kathleen (née Ahearn) and William Francis Regan, he was of Irish Catholic origins. Regan earned his Bachelor of Arts in English from Harvard College in 1940 and attended Harvard Law School before dropping out to join the Marine Corps at the outset of World War II.
He reached the rank of lieutenant colonel while he was serving in the Pacific Theater. He was involved in five major campaigns, including Guadalcanal and Okinawa.
In 1942, Regan married the former Ann George Buchanan (1921–2006) with whom he had four children: Donna Regan Lefeve, Donald T. Regan, Jr., Richard William Regan, and Diane Regan Doniger.
Wall Street
After the war, he joined Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc. in 1946 as an account executive trainee. He worked up through the ranks, eventually taking over as Merrill Lynch's chairman and CEO in 1971, the year the company went public. He held those positions until 1980.
Regan was one of the original directors of the Securities Investor Protection Corporation and was vice chairman of the New York Stock Exchange from 1973 to 1975. He was a major proponent of brokerage firms going public, which he viewed as an important step in the modernization of Wall Street. Under his supervision, Merrill Lynch had its initial public offering on June 23, 1971, becoming only the second Wall Street firm to go public. (Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette was the first.)
During his tenure in these two positions, Regan pushed hard for an end to minimum fixed commissions for brokers, which were fees that brokerage companies had to charge clients for every transaction they made on the clients' behalf. Regan saw them as a cartel-like restriction. His lobbying played a large part of fixed commissions being abolished in 1975.
Reagan administration
President Ronald Reagan selected Donald Regan in 1981 to serve as Treasury Secretary, marking him as a spokesman for his economic policies, dubbed "Reaganomics". He helped engineer changes in the tax code, reduce income tax rates, and decrease taxes for corporations. Regan unexpectedly swapped jobs with then White House Chief of Staff James Baker in 1985. As chief of staff, Regan was closely involved in the day-to-day management of White House policy, which led Howard Baker, Regan's successor as chief of staff, to give a rebuke that Regan was becoming a "prime minister" inside an increasingly-complex Imperial Presidency. During his four years as Secretary of the Treasury, Regan did not have a single one-to-one meeting with the president. Regan was forced to resign for repeatedly disagreeing with the First Lady and for being unable to contain the continuing political damage to President Reagan from the Iran–Contra affair.
Regan's 1988 memoir, For the Record: From Wall Street to Washington, exposes his disagreements with First Lady Nancy Reagan, revealing publicly that she had a personal astrologer who was later revealed to be Joan Quigley with whom she consulted and who helped steer the president's decisions. Regan wrote:
Virtually every major move and decision the Reagans made during my time as White House Chief of Staff was cleared in advance with a woman in San Francisco [Quigley] who drew up horoscopes to make certain that the planets were in a favorable alignment for the enterprise."The President's Astrologers", People (May 23, 1988)
Donald Regan is portrayed by Frank Moore in the 2003 TV movie The Reagans.
Sayings
"And the horse you rode in on" was a favorite saying of Regan. He learned it from a poker buddy in Texas who said "fuck you and the horse you rode in on." Regan adopted the latter part of the phrase. In the portrait of Regan that hangs on the third floor of the treasury, the title of a book in the background reads And the Horse You Rode In On.
"You've got to give loyalty down if you want loyalty up."
"You're gonna have to speed it up", or simply "Speed it up", was a phrase that Regan infamously said to President Reagan during one of his speeches, effectively ordering him to hurry up, as shown in Michael Moore's documentary, Capitalism: A Love Story.
Retirement
Regan retired quietly in Virginia with Ann Regan, his wife of over 60 years. In late life, he spent nearly 10 hours a day in his art studio painting landscapes. He had four children and nine grandchildren.
Death
Regan died of cancer on June 10, 2003, at the age of 84, in a hospital near his home in Williamsburg, Virginia, and was served by Nelsen Funeral Home. His cremated remains were inurned at Arlington National Cemetery.
References
Further reading
Regan, Donald T. For the Record: From Wall Street to Washington (1988)
Johns, Andrew L. ed. A Companion to Ronald Reagan (2015)
Zaleznik, Abraham. "A Disengaged President: Ronald Reagan and His Lieutenants." Hedgehogs and Foxes (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2008) pp. 23–43.
External links
Biography as Secretary of the Treasury
|-
1918 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American memoirists
American chief executives of financial services companies
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
American people of Irish descent
Deaths from cancer in Virginia
Harvard College alumni
Massachusetts Republicans
Politicians from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Politicians from Williamsburg, Virginia
Reagan administration cabinet members
United States Marine Corps officers
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
White House Chiefs of Staff
Harvard Law School alumni
Merrill (company) people | [
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243613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20interface%20controller | Network interface controller | A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter or physical network interface, and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network.
Early network interface controllers were commonly implemented on expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus. The low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard, or is contained into a USB-connected dongle.
Modern network interface controllers offer advanced features such as interrupt and DMA interfaces to the host processors, support for multiple receive and transmit queues, partitioning into multiple logical interfaces, and on-controller network traffic processing such as the TCP offload engine.
Purpose
The network controller implements the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific physical layer and data link layer standard such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. This provides a base for a full network protocol stack, allowing communication among computers on the same local area network (LAN) and large-scale network communications through routable protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP).
The NIC allows computers to communicate over a computer network, either by using cables or wirelessly. The NIC is both a physical layer and data link layer device, as it provides physical access to a networking medium and, for IEEE 802 and similar networks, provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses that are uniquely assigned to network interfaces.
Implementation
Network controllers were originally implemented as expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus. The low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most new computers have a network interface controller built into the motherboard. Newer server motherboards may have multiple network interfaces built-in. The Ethernet capabilities are either integrated into the motherboard chipset or implemented via a low-cost dedicated Ethernet chip. A separate network card is typically no longer required unless additional independent network connections are needed or some non-Ethernet type of network is used. A general trend in computer hardware is towards integrating the various components of systems on a chip, and this is also applied to network interface cards.
An Ethernet network controller typically has an 8P8C socket where the network cable is connected. Older NICs also supplied BNC, or AUI connections. Ethernet network controllers typically support 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, 100 Mbit/s Ethernet, and 1000 Mbit/s Ethernet varieties. Such controllers are designated as 10/100/1000, meaning that they can support data rates of 10, 100 or 1000 Mbit/s. 10 Gigabit Ethernet NICs are also available, and, , are beginning to be available on computer motherboards.
Modular designs like SFP and SFP+ are highly popular, especially for fiber-optic communication. These define a standard receptacle for media-dependent transceivers, so users can easily adapt the network interface to their needs.
LEDs adjacent to or integrated into the network connector inform the user of whether the network is connected, and when data activity occurs.
The NIC may use one or more of the following techniques to indicate the availability of packets to transfer:
Polling is where the CPU examines the status of the peripheral under program control.
Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the CPU that it is ready to transfer data.
NICs may use one or more of the following techniques to transfer packet data:
Programmed input/output, where the CPU moves the data to or from the NIC to memory.
Direct memory access (DMA), where a device other than the CPU assumes control of the system bus to move data to or from the NIC to memory. This removes load from the CPU but requires more logic on the card. In addition, a packet buffer on the NIC may not be required and latency can be reduced.
Performance and advanced functionality
Multiqueue NICs provide multiple transmit and receive queues, allowing packets received by the NIC to be assigned to one of its receive queues. The NIC may distribute incoming traffic between the receive queues using a hash function. Each receive queue is assigned to a separate interrupt; by routing each of those interrupts to different CPUs or CPU cores, processing of the interrupt requests triggered by the network traffic received by a single NIC can be distributed improving performance.
The hardware-based distribution of the interrupts, described above, is referred to as receive-side scaling (RSS). Purely software implementations also exist, such as the receive packet steering (RPS) and receive flow steering (RFS). Further performance improvements can be achieved by routing the interrupt requests to the CPUs or cores executing the applications that are the ultimate destinations for network packets that generated the interrupts. This technique improves Locality of reference and results in higher overall performance, reduced latency and better hardware utilization because of the higher utilization of CPU caches and fewer required context switches. Examples of such implementations are the RFS and Intel Flow Director.
With multi-queue NICs, additional performance improvements can be achieved by distributing outgoing traffic among different transmit queues. By assigning different transmit queues to different CPUs or CPU cores, internal operating system contentions can be avoided. This approach is usually referred to as transmit packet steering (XPS).
Some products feature NIC partitioning (NPAR, also known as port partitioning) that uses SR-IOV virtualization to divide a single 10 Gigabit Ethernet NIC into multiple discrete virtual NICs with dedicated bandwidth, which are presented to the firmware and operating system as separate PCI device functions.
TCP offload engine is a technology used in some NICs to offload processing of the entire TCP/IP stack to the network controller. It is primarily used with high-speed network interfaces, such as Gigabit Ethernet and 10 Gigabit Ethernet, for which the processing overhead of the network stack becomes significant.
Some NICs offer integrated field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) for user-programmable processing of network traffic before it reaches the host computer, allowing for significantly reduced latencies in time-sensitive workloads. Moreover, some NICs offer complete low-latency TCP/IP stacks running on integrated FPGAs in combination with userspace libraries that intercept networking operations usually performed by the operating system kernel; Solarflare's open-source OpenOnload network stack that runs on Linux is an example. This kind of functionality is usually referred to as user-level networking.
See also
Converged network adapter (CNA)
Host adapter
Intel Data Direct I/O (DDIO)
Loopback interface
Network monitoring interface card (NMIC)
Virtual network interface (VIF)
Wireless network interface controller (WNIC)
Notes
References
External links
Multi-queue network interfaces with SMP on Linux
Ethernet
Networking hardware | [
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243619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Archer%20Shee | Martin Archer Shee | Sir Martin Archer Shee (23 December 1769 – 13 August 1850) was an Irish portrait painter and president of the Royal Academy.
Early life
He was born in Dublin, of an old Irish Roman Catholic family, the son of Martin Shee, a merchant, who regarded the profession of a painter as an unsuitable occupation for a descendant of the Shees. His son Martin nevertheless studied art in the Royal Dublin Society and came to London. There, in 1788, he was introduced by Edmund Burke to Joshua Reynolds, on whose advice he studied in the schools of the Royal Academy of Arts.
Career
In 1789 he exhibited his first two pictures, the "Head of an Old Man" and "Portrait of a Gentleman." Over the next ten years he steadily increased in practice. He was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy in 1798, in 1789 he married Mary, eldest daughter of James Power of Youghal, and in 1800 he was elected a Royal Academician. He moved to George Romney's former house at 32 Cavendish Square, and set up as his successor.
Shee continued to paint with great readiness of hand and fertility of invention, although his portraits were eclipsed by more than one of his contemporaries, and especially by Thomas Lawrence. The earlier portraits of the artist are carefully finished, easy in action, with good drawing and excellent discrimination of character. They show an undue tendency to redness in the flesh painting—a defect which is still more apparent in his later works, 'in which the handling is less "square," crisp and forcible. In addition to his portraits he executed various subjects and historical works, such as Lavinia, Belisarius, his diploma picture "Prospero and Miranda", and the "Daughter of Jephthah."
Writing
In 1805 he published a poem consisting of Rhymes on Art, and a second part followed in 1809. Lord Byron spoke well of it in his English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Shee published another small volume of verse in 1814, entitled The Commemoration of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and other Poems, but this was less successful. He also produced a tragedy, Alasco, set in Poland. The play was accepted at Covent Garden, but was refused a licence, on the grounds that it contained treasonable allusions, and Shee angrily resolved to make his appeal to the public. He carried out his threat in 1824, but Alasco was still on the list of unacted dramas in 1911. He also published two novels – Oldcourt (1829, in three volumes) and Cecil Hyde (1834).
On the death of Sir Thomas Lawrence in 1830, Shee was chosen president of the Royal Academy in his stead and shortly afterwards received a knighthood. In 1831 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In an examination before the parliamentary committee of 1836 concerning the functions of the Royal Academy, he ably defended its rights. He continued to paint till 1845, when illness made him retire to Brighton. He was deputised for at the Academy by J. M. W. Turner, who had appointed him a trustee of the projected Turner almshouse.
From 1842–1849, he was the first president of the Birmingham Society of Artists.
Death
Shee died in Brighton in 1850 and was buried in the western extension to St Nicholas' Churchyard in Brighton. His headstone remains, but has been laid flat and moved to the perimeter of the site.
Personal life
Shee had three sons, who became successful barristers, and three daughters. Descendants of one of the sons was George Archer-Shee, whose story inspired The Winslow Boy, a play written by Terence Rattigan and his older half-brother Martin Archer-Shee MP. Shee's descendant Mary Archer-Shee supports the campaign for the fulfilment of Turner's wishes for his bequests.
Written works by Shee (selected)
Elements of art, a poem; in six cantos (1809)
Rhymes on Art; Or, The Remonstrance of a Painter: in Two Parts (1809)
The Commemoration of Reynolds: In Two Parts (1814)
Oldcourt: Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3 (London : H. Colburn, 1829)
Alasco: A Tragedy, in Five Acts (Sherwood, Jones, and co., 1824).
Bibliography
Martin Archer Shee, The Life of Sir Martin Archer Shee, Volume 1, Volume 2 (London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1860).
Notes
References
External links
Sir Martin Archer Shee online (ArtCyclopedia)
Biography of M. A. Shee (Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art)
William Archer Shee, the artist's son (Oil on canvas, Ca. 1820 – Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Portrait by Thomas Bridgford
1769 births
1850 deaths
People from County Dublin
18th-century Irish painters
19th-century Irish painters
Irish male painters
Irish portrait painters
Royal Academicians
Knights Bachelor
Irish emigrants to Great Britain
Irish poets
Irish novelists
Irish dramatists and playwrights
Irish male dramatists and playwrights
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members and Associates of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists
Irish male novelists
Irish male poets | [
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] |
243621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin%20City | Dublin City | Dublin City may refer to:
Dublin, the capital of the Republic of Ireland
Dublin City Council
Dublin City F.C., association football club in Northside, Dublin
Dublin City (Parliament of Ireland constituency), a constituency before 1801
Dublin City (UK Parliament constituency), a constituency between 1801 and 1885
See also
Dublin (disambiguation) | [
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243623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20League | Federal League | The Federal League of Base Ball Clubs, known simply as the Federal League, was an American professional baseball league that played its first season as a minor league in 1913 and operated as a "third major league", in competition with the established National and American Leagues, from 1914 to 1915.
The Federal League came together in early 1913 through the work of John T. Powers, and immediately challenged the operations of organized baseball as a minor league playing outside of the National Agreement. After James A. Gilmore succeeded Powers as league president, the league declared itself to be a major league. Playing in what detractors called the "outlaw" league allowed players to avoid the restrictions of the organized leagues' reserve clause. The competition of another, better paying league caused players' salaries to skyrocket, demonstrating the bargaining potential of free agency for the first time since the war between the AL and NL.
Interference by the National and American Leagues in their operations caused the Federal League to fold after the 1915 season. This resulted in a landmark federal lawsuit, Federal Baseball Club v. National League, in which the U.S. Supreme Court ultimately ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act did not apply to Major League Baseball. The Federal League left its mark on baseball history in the field now known as Wrigley Field, which was originally built for the Chicago Whales Federal League team. The league itself and many sports writers considered it a major league during its existence; organized baseball recognized its major league status in 1968. Not including certain periods of the Negro leagues, it would be the last independent major league outside the established structure of professional baseball to make it to the playing field, and would be the last serious attempt to create a third major league until the abortive Continental League of 1960.
History
In 1912, baseball promoter John T. Powers formed an independent professional league known as the Columbian League. However, the withdrawal of one of the organization's primary investors caused the league to fail before ever playing a game. Undaunted, Powers tried again the following year, creating a new league with teams in Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Indianapolis, St. Louis, and Covington, Kentucky. He named the organization the Federal League, and served as its first president.
Because it did not abide by the National Agreement on player payment in place in organized baseball, the Federal League was called an "outlaw league" by its competitors. The Federal League's outlaw status allowed it to recruit players from established clubs, and it attracted many current and former players from the major as well as minor leagues. In 1913, the Federal League played as an independent six-team minor league. In its first season Powers initially served as president, but he was soon replaced by James A. Gilmore, under whose leadership the league declared itself a major league for the 1914 season. Other financiers of the League included oil baron Harry F. Sinclair, ice magnate Phil Ball, and George S. Ward of the Ward Baking Company.
As a major circuit, the Federal League consisted of eight teams each season. Four of the teams were placed in cities with existing major league baseball teams (Chicago, St. Louis, Pittsburgh and Brooklyn). The other four teams were placed in areas without a current major league club (Baltimore, Buffalo, Indianapolis and Kansas City). In the first year, 1914, some of the teams had official nicknames and some did not, but either way, sportswriters were inclined to invent their own nicknames: "ChiFeds," "BrookFeds," etc. By the second season, most of the teams had "official" nicknames, although many writers still called many of the teams "-Feds."
In order for the Federal League to succeed, it needed Big League players. Walter Johnson signed a three-year contract with the Chicago team, but the Senators' Clark Griffith went personally to Johnson's home in Kansas and made a successful counter-offer. Major League players that jumped to the Federal League included Bill McKechnie, Claude Hendrix, Jack Quinn, Russell Ford, Tom Seaton, Doc Crandall, Al Bridwell, Hy Myers, and Hal Chase. The Federal League also recruited Big League names to manage the new teams. Joe Tinker managed the Chicago team, Mordecai Brown managed the St. Louis team and Bill Bradley managed the Brooklyn team.
In 1914, the Colonial League began to operate as a Class C level league based in Southern New England. In April, Alexander Bannwart drew notice by acquiring Big Jeff Pfeffer to manage the team in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, and by May, it was suspected that Bannwart was working as an agent of the Federal League, which Bannwart denied. Upon these news reports, some of the founding members of the Colonial League resigned, fearing banishment by the National Baseball Commission.
At the April 1915 league meeting, Coppen was re-elected as president and Bannwart was elected secretary. Walter S. Ward, the treasurer of the Brooklyn Tip-Tops of the Federal League and George S. Ward's son, was elected as the league's treasurer. The Colonial League reorganized itself as a farm system for the Federal League and voluntarily withdrew itself from organized baseball.
The Federal League had close pennant races both years. In 1914, Indianapolis beat out Chicago by 1½ games. 1915 witnessed the tightest pennant race in Major League history, as three teams (Chicago, St. Louis and Pittsburgh) fought into the last weekend of the season. On the season's final day, Sunday, October 3, Chicago split a doubleheader with Pittsburgh, winning the darkness-shortened seven-inning nightcap, 3-0; this combined with St. Louis' 6-2 win over Kansas City, knocked Pittsburgh back to third (albeit just a half-game behind), with Chicago and St. Louis in a virtual tie for first. But since the Whales (86-66) played two fewer games than the St. Louis Terriers (87-67), they were awarded the pennant based on their slightly better winning percentage (.566 to .565). Pittsburgh, with one game unplayed, ended up at 86-67 (.562).
During the 1914–15 offseason, Federal League owners brought an antitrust lawsuit against the American and National Leagues. The lawsuit ended up in the court of Federal Judge (and future Commissioner of Baseball) Kenesaw Mountain Landis, who allowed the case to languish while he urged both sides to negotiate. Swift action might have made a difference, but without the lawsuit going forward, the Federals found themselves in deepening financial straits.
After the 1915 season the owners of the American and National Leagues bought out half of the owners (Pittsburgh, Newark, Buffalo, and Brooklyn) of the Federal League teams. Two Federal League owners were allowed to buy struggling franchises in the established leagues: Phil Ball, owner of the St. Louis Terriers, was allowed to buy the St. Louis Browns of the AL, and Charles Weeghman, owner of the Chicago Whales, bought the Chicago Cubs. Both owners merged their teams into the established ones. The Kansas City franchise had been declared bankrupt and taken over by the league office after the close of the regular season, and the Baltimore owners rejected the offer made to them. They had sought to buy and move an existing franchise to their city, but were rebuffed, and sued unsuccessfully.
Legacy
One of baseball's most famous ballparks was originally built for a Federal League team: Wrigley Field, the home of the Chicago Cubs, began its long life as Weeghman Park, the home of the Chicago Whales. Marc Okkonen, in his book on the Federal League, referred to Wrigley as a "silent monument" to the failed Federal League experiment. Otherwise, few visible remnants were left by the short-lived Federal League. The Baltimore entry sold their facility to the Baltimore Orioles of the International League, who renamed it Oriole Park and played there for nearly 30 years before it was destroyed by fire. The Newark ballpark was also used for minor league ball for a short time.
Washington Park III in Brooklyn, completed after the 1915 season was underway, resembled Chicago's Weeghman Park. It was used for various sports until the end of 1917 and then for storage until Brooklyn Edison Electric bought the property in 1925 and shortly thereafter tore it down. One wall still stands.
The other Federal League ballparks were demolished quickly, including the home of the Pittsburgh Rebels, Exposition Park, which had been the home of the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League until they moved into Forbes Field in 1909.
The other "silent monument" to the Federal League is a famous legal decision. In 1922, the Supreme Court ruled in Federal Baseball Club v. National League (brought by the Terrapins, one of the teams which had not been bought out), that Major League Baseball and its constituent leagues were primarily entertainment, not conventional interstate commerce, and thus were exempt from the Sherman Antitrust Act; MLB remains the only North American sports league with such a status, and it has not faced any competitor leagues since unlike the other pro sports leagues because of this exemption. Though significantly weakened in the 1970s, this exemption remains intact years later; however, it has been eroded by subsequent court rulings and legislation regarding issues specific to Major League Baseball.
Of the locations of teams in the Federal League, five currently have major league teams. Those are Baltimore, Chicago, Kansas City, Pittsburgh and St. Louis. Brooklyn has a High-A East team, known as the Brooklyn Cyclones. (The major league Brooklyn Dodgers moved to Los Angeles in 1958, although the New York Mets have been located in the adjacent borough of Queens since 1964.) Buffalo and Indianapolis have Triple-A East teams, the Buffalo Bisons and Indianapolis Indians, respectively. Newark had a team, the Bears, in the independent Can-Am League, which folded after the 2012 season.
There is at least one achievement of note that happened in Federal League play. Eddie Plank, pitching for the St. Louis Terriers, won his milestone 300th game on September 14, 1915, at St. Louis' Handlan's Park, becoming the first 300-game winning left-hander in the history of major league baseball and one of only six as of 2018. However, that milestone was not acknowledged by Major League Baseball until 1968.
The Federal League was the last serious attempt at creating a "third major league" outside the established structure of professional baseball in the U.S. There was one further attempt at creating a third league – the Continental League in 1959 – but its founders had hoped to find their place within the purview of organized baseball. The Continental League disbanded in 1960 without ever playing a game, making the Federal League the last such league to ever take to the field.
The Federal League features prominently in Ring Lardner's sports humor book You Know Me Al (1916), in which the protagonist pitches for the Chicago White Sox and repeatedly threatens to jump to the Federal League whenever he feels underappreciated or underpaid.
Baseball Hall of Famers
Players in the Baseball Hall of Fame who played in the Federal League are listed below. Each of these players was elected via the Veterans Committee. In addition, Cy Young managed the 1913 Cleveland Green Sox.
Teams
Results
Champions
Per final regular season standings, as there was no postseason.
Standings
1913
Source:
1914
1915
See also
Continental League
Players' League
Union Association
Sources
References
Further reading
External links
Federal League Teams
Defunct major baseball leagues in the United States
Sports leagues established in 1913
Sports leagues disestablished in 1915
1913 establishments in the United States
1915 disestablishments in the United States
Defunct minor baseball leagues in the United States | [
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243633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestcon | Midwestcon | Midwestcon is a science fiction convention held annually in the Cincinnati, Ohio area by the Cincinnati Fantasy Group.
Midwestcon is an informal type of convention known as a "relaxacon," which means that it has no programming. Instead it is notable as a means for science fiction fans to get together and talk to each other without the distractions of other conventions.
History
The 1949 Worldcon took place in Cincinnati, and the first Midwestcon followed in 1950, and has been held every year since, making it the second longest-running SF convention to be held in the same city, and the third oldest in the U.S.
Many significant figures in science fiction have attended Midwestcon, including Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke. Wilson Tucker served as the perennial toastmaster for many years. Other notable Midwestcon attendees have included:
Robert Bloch
Jack L. Chalker
Robert Coulson
Harlan Ellison
Phyllis Eisenstein
Lloyd Arthur Eshbach
Philip Jose Farmer
Randall Garrett
Joe Haldeman
David H. Keller
Stephen Leigh
George R.R. Martin
Bea Mahaffey
Julian May
Andrew J. Offutt
Alexei Panshin
Mike Resnick
Frank M. Robinson
Dick Smith
E. E. "Doc" Smith
Ted White
Howard DeVore and Margaret Ford Keifer attended all 56 Midwestcons held from 1950 to 2005.
First Fandom was founded at the 1959 Midwestcon.
External links
Official site
Asimov attending Midwestcon
Arthur C. Clarke attending Midwestcon
References
Science fiction conventions in the United States | [
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243639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kullervo | Kullervo | Kullervo () is an ill-fated character in the Kalevala, the Finnish national epic compiled by Elias Lönnrot.
Growing up in the aftermath of the massacre of his entire tribe, he comes to realise that the same people who had brought him up, the tribe of Untamo, were also the ones who had slain his family. As a child, he is sold into slavery and mocked and tormented further. When he finally runs away from his masters, he discovers surviving members of his family, only to lose them again. He seduces a girl who turns out to be his own sister, having thought his sister dead. When she finds out it was her own brother who seduced her, she commits suicide. Kullervo becomes mad with rage, returns to Untamo and his tribe, destroys them using his magical powers, and commits suicide.
At the end of the poem the old sage Väinämöinen warns all parents against treating their children too harshly.
Story
The story of Kullervo is laid out in runes (chapters) 31 through 36 of the Kalevala.
Rune 31 – Untamo and Kullervo
Untamo is jealous of his brother Kalervo, and the strife between the brothers is fed by numerous petty disputes. Eventually Untamo's resentment turns into open warfare, and he kills all of Kalervo's tribe save for one pregnant girl called Untamala, whom Untamo enslaves as his maid. Shortly afterwards, Untamala gives birth to a baby boy she names Kullervo.
When Kullervo is three months old, he can be heard vowing revenge and destruction upon Untamo's tribe. Untamo attempts to kill Kullervo three times (by drowning, fire, and hanging). Each time, the infant Kullervo is saved by his latent magical powers.
Untamo allows the child to grow up, then tries three times to find employment for him as a servant in his household, but all three attempts fail as Kullervo's wanton and wild nature makes him unfit for any domestic task. In the end, Untamo decides to rid himself of the problem by selling Kullervo to Ilmarinen as a slave.
Rune 32 – Kullervo and the wife of Ilmarinen
The boy is raised in isolation because of his status as a slave, his fierce temper, and because people fear his growing magical skills. The only memento that the boy retains from his previous life in a loving family is an old knife that had been passed along to him as an infant.
Pohjan Neito/Tytär (Maiden/Daughter of the North), wife of Ilmarinen, enjoys tormenting the slave boy, now a youth, and sends Kullervo out to herd her cows with a loaf of bread with stones baked into it. This chapter includes a lengthy magical poem invoking various deities to grant their protection over the herd and to keep the owners prosperous.
Rune 33 – The death of Ilmarinen's wife
Kullervo sits down to eat, but his beloved heirloom knife breaks on one of the stones in the bread. Kullervo is overwhelmed with rage. He drives the cows away to the fields, then summons up bears and wolves from the woods, making them appear like cows instead. He herds these to Ilmarinen's house and tells the wicked mistress of the house to milk them, upon which they turn back into wolves and bears and maul her. As she lies there bleeding, she invokes the high god Ukko to kill Kullervo with a magic arrow, but Kullervo prays for the spell to kill her instead for her wickedness, which it indeed does.
Rune 34 – Kullervo and his parents
Kullervo then flees from slavery and finds that his family is actually still alive except for his sister, who has disappeared and is feared dead.
Rune 35 – Kullervo and his sister
Kullervo's father has no more success than Untamo in finding work suited for his son, and thus sends the young man to collect taxes due to his tribe. On his way back home in his sleigh, Kullervo propositions several girls he sees on the way: all of them reject him. Finally, he meets a beggar-girl who also rejects him at first, struggling and screaming when he pulls her into his sleigh. But he starts talking to her sweetly and shows her all the gold he's collected during his trip, bribing her into sleeping with him. Afterwards, she asks who he is, and as she realises he's her own brother, she commits suicide by throwing herself into the rapidly rushing river nearby. The distraught Kullervo returns to his family and tells his mother what happened.
Rune 36 – The death of Kullervo
Kullervo vows revenge on Untamo. One by one, his family members try to dissuade him from the fruitless path of evil and revenge. His mother asks what will become of her and Kullervo's father in their old age, and what will become of Kullervo's siblings if he's not there to take care of them, but Kullervo only replies that they can all die for all he cares—all he cares about is revenge. As he leaves, he asks if his father, brother and sister will mourn him if he dies, but they say they won't—that they'd rather wait for a better son and brother to be born who is cleverer and more handsome. Finally, Kullervo asks his mother if she'll weep for him, and she replies that she will. Kullervo hardens his heart and refuses to reconsider, and goes to war full of haughty pride, singing and playing his horn.
He becomes so obsessed with his revenge that even as he learns of the deaths of his family members during his journey, he doesn't even stop to honour their deaths, apart from weeping a little for his mother—yet he does not pause in his quest for revenge. He prays to the high god Ukko to get from him a magical broadsword, which he then uses to slay Untamo and his tribe, sparing no one, burning down his entire village.
When he returns home, he finds the dead bodies of his own family littered about the estate. His mother's ghost speaks to him from her grave and advises him to take his dog and go to the wild woods for shelter. He does so, but instead of finding shelter, he only discovers the place by the river where he'd seduced his sister, the earth still mourning out loud of his ruining of her: no plants grow in the spot where he'd slept with her, either.
Kullervo then asks of Ukko's sword if it will have his life. The sword eagerly accepts, noting that as a weapon it doesn't care whose blood it drinks—it's drunk both innocent and guilty blood before. Kullervo commits suicide by throwing himself on his sword. On hearing the news, Väinämöinen comments that children should never be given away or ill-treated in their upbringing, lest like Kullervo they fail to attain understanding and a man's discretion.
Evaluation
Kullervo is fairly ordinary in Finnish mythology, in being a naturally talented magician; however, he is the only irredeemably tragic example. He showed great potential, but being raised badly, he became an ignorant, implacable, immoral and vengeful man.
The death poem of Kullervo in which he, like Macbeth, interrogates his blade, is famous. Unlike the dagger in Macbeth, Kullervo's sword replies, bursting into song: it affirms that if it gladly participated in his other foul deeds, it would gladly drink of his blood also. This interrogation has been duplicated in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Children of Húrin with Túrin Turambar talking to his black sword, Gurthang, before committing suicide. (Túrin also, like Kullervo, unwittingly fell in love with his own sister and was devastated when he learned the truth, his sister also killing herself).
Jääkärimarssi (Jäger March), a well-known Finnish military march, evokes Kullervo's bitterness in the lines me nousemme kostona Kullervon/soma on sodan kohtalot koittaa (We arise like the wrath of Kullervo/so sweet are the fates of war to undergo).
The story of Kullervo is unique among ancient myths in its realistic depiction of the effects of child abuse. The canto 36 ends in Väinämöinen stating that an abused child will never attain the healthy state of mind even as adult, but will grow up as a very disturbed person.
Silloin vanha Väinämöinen,
kunpa kuuli kuolleheksi,
Kullervon kaonneheksi,
sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi:
"Elkötte, etinen kansa,
lasta kaltoin kasvatelko
luona tuhman tuuittajan,
vierahan väsyttelijän!
Lapsi kaltoin kasvattama,
poika tuhmin tuuittama
ei tule älyämähän,
miehen mieltä ottamahan,
vaikka vanhaksi eläisi,
varreltansa vahvistuisi.".
In art
Kullervo is an eponymous 1860 play by Aleksis Kivi. An English translation, by Douglas Robinson, was published in 1993: Aleksis Kivi's Heath Cobblers and Kullervo.
Kullervo is an eponymous 1892 choral symphony in five movements for full orchestra, two vocal soloists, and male choir by Jean Sibelius. It was opus 7 for Sibelius and his first successful work.
Kullervo's Curse (1899) and Kullervo Rides to War (1901) are two paintings by Akseli Gallen-Kallela on the myth.
In the Jäger March (Jääkärin marssi) by Jean Sibelius one of the lines reads: Me nousemme kostona Kullervon, in English: We shall rise as Kullervo's revenge.
Kullervo is the subject of a 1988 opera by Aulis Sallinen.
Kullervo is also the subject of a brief symphonic poem composed in 1913 by Leevi Madetoja.
In 2006, the Finnish metal band Amorphis released the album Eclipse, which tells the story of Kullervo according to a play by Paavo Haavikko. The play has been translated into English by Anselm Hollo.
The Hilliard Ensemble commissioned an English language setting of Kullervo's story, Kullervo's Message, from Veljo Tormis.
Influence on J. R. R. Tolkien
J. R. R. Tolkien wrote an interpretation of the Kullervo cycle in 1914; the piece was finally published in its unfinished form as The Story of Kullervo in Tolkien Studies in 2010, as edited by Verlyn Flieger. It was re-published in book form in 2015 by HarperCollins. It was his first attempt at writing an epic narrative but was never completed. The story acted as a seed for the epic tale of Túrin Turambar which features in The Silmarillion, the "Narn i Chîn Húrin" section of Unfinished Tales and, in a longer form, The Children of Húrin as well as the poem "The Lay of the Children of Húrin".
References
External links
William Forsell Kirby's English translation of the Kalevala (1907).
Tolkien's first fantasy novel
Characters in the Kalevala
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243642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20Community%20Center | Jewish Community Center | A Jewish Community Center or a Jewish Community Centre (JCC) is a general recreational, social, and fraternal organization serving the Jewish community in a number of cities. JCCs promote Jewish culture and heritage through holiday celebrations, Israel-related programming, and other Jewish education. However, they are open to everyone in the community.
The JCC Association is the continental umbrella organization for the Jewish Community Center movement, which includes more than 350 JCCs, YM–YWHAs, and camp sites in the U.S. and Canada, in addition to 180 local JCCs in the former Soviet Union, 70 in Latin America, 50 in Europe, and close to 500 smaller centres in Israel.
History
The Hebrew Young Men's Literary Association was first set up in 1854 in a building at the corner of Fayette and Gay Streets in Baltimore, Maryland to provide support for Jewish immigrants. Dr. Aaron Friedenwald was the group's founder and first president.
The first Young Men's Hebrew Association (YMHA) was founded in New York City on October 10, 1874, with Lewis May as its first president. The first official headquarters were at 112 West 21st Street in Manhattan. Young Women's Hebrew Association (YWHA) was first established as an annex to the YMHA in 1888. YWHA was founded to provide spiritual and material support for the young Jewish women who were moving to cities at the time. YMHA helped young Jewish women find housing and employment. Fannie Liebovitz was one of the founders. The first independent YWHA was established in 1902. The New York YMHA and YWHA now operate together as the 92nd Street Y. (There are two other YM–YWHA organizations in Manhattan, which are not affiliated with the 92nd Street Y. They are the 14th Street Y, and the YM & YWHA of Washington Heights and Inwood. The 14th Street Y, in the Gramercy/East Village neighborhood, is a branch of the Educational Alliance. The Washington Heights organization serves a diverse community uptown.) In 1917, these organizations were combined into a Jewish Welfare Board.
Following a merger of the Young Men's Hebrew Association, Young Women's Hebrew Association, and the Jewish Education Alliance, the organization was renamed Jewish Community Center (JCC) in 1951. Many member organizations adopted the new name, but some other member organizations did not do so, particularly in the New York metropolitan area, such as:
In Manhattan, New York City, New York
Marlene Meyerson JCC Manhattan
YM & YWHA of Washington Heights & Inwood
92nd Street Y, (formally, The Young Men's and Young Women's Hebrew Association, New York, New York)
14th Street Y
In Brooklyn, New York
Boro Park Y in Borough Park, (founded as YMHA)
Jewish Community House, or JCH, in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn
Kings Bay Y in Sheepshead Bay, with branches in northern Brooklyn
Shorefront Y
Riverdale YM-YWHA in the Bronx, New York City, New York
Samuel Field Y and Central Queens Y in Queens, New York (two agencies merging )
In New Jersey
Center for Jewish Life (CJL) in East Brunswick, successor to YM-YWHA of Raritan Valley in Highland Park (closed 2006)
YM-YWHA of Clifton/Passaic (name retained until its closing in 2011)
YM-YWHA of North Jersey in Wayne (name retained until sale to Metro YMCA in 2011)
Jewish Community Alliance of Jacksonville, Florida
An example of the objectives of Jewish Community Centers can be seen within the New Bedford, Massachusetts branch's Constitution. In January 1947, the Jewish Community Center of New Bedford listed the following objectives:
To foster and develop the highest values of Jewish spiritual and cultural life.
To provide social, educational, literary, benevolent, recreational and athletic activities for the benefit of Jewish men, women, and children of New Bedford.
To serve the spiritual, intellectual, social, and physical welfare of its members.
To fulfill the great ideals of American citizenship.
Services
JCC Association offers a wide range of services and resources to help its affiliates to provide educational, cultural, social, Jewish identity-building, and recreational programs for people of all ages and backgrounds. JCC Association supports the largest network of Jewish early childhood centers and Jewish summer camps in North America, and is also a U.S. government accredited agency for serving the religious and social needs of Jewish military personnel through JWB Jewish Chaplains Council.
Some JCCs provide services for people with special needs, such as autism spectrum disorders and learning disabilities. In 2008, The Mandel JCC of Cleveland was awarded $652,500 in grant funding to be used for individuals with disabilities. Cleveland-area children and adults with emotional, physical and developmental disabilities now have many opportunities to get involved in fitness, wellness and recreational activities. Whenever possible, activities are inclusive and children are able to fully participate, usually with the assistance of an aide.
As a rule, today JCCs are open to other ethnic groups as well, with a possible exception of strictly traditional Jewish activities. In fact, many JCCs sponsor local events. There are, however, many other activities that anyone can host at the JCC.
Locations
There are almost two dozen Jewish community centers in the New York metro area, providing a wide range of social, cultural, and educational services, ranging from lectures, concerts, theater performances, and dance recitals to health and fitness classes, job training workshops, and citizenship classes. Although the majority of JCCs are found on the East Coast, with 17 sites in Florida, JCCs operate in many other communities. For example, California has 17 locations—eight in the San Francisco Bay Area and nine scattered through Southern California—and the Chicago metropolitan area has 10. Almost all of the largest metropolitan areas in the U.S. now have at least one JCC, and a handful of smaller communities also have locations. JCCs all over the country sponsor film festivals and book fairs, bringing world-renowned writers and directors to smaller communities.
Their programs and activities vary by location. Particularly noteworthy is the JCC in West Bloomfield, Michigan, which is the largest JCC in North America, and possibly the world. The Holocaust Memorial Center, which attracts many visitors to its programs and exhibits, used to be a part of the JCC of West Bloomfield, but recently opened a building of its own. The West Bloomfield JCC houses two gymnasiums which can be made into three gyms using a movable wall, a workout area, an indoor full size and kiddie pool, an outdoor full size pool, a kosher restaurant, a Michigan Jewish war veterans museum, an in line hockey center, a library, ceramics/art rooms, a large multi-purpose room (Handleman Hall), an art museum, an area dedicated to teaching and learning about tzedakah (charity) called Shalom Street, a performing arts theater in the basement, a preschool, offices for summer camps, the previously mentioned preschool, and other administrative offices and organizations. The top floor is completely dedicated to The Jean and Samuel Frankel Jewish Academy of Metropolitan Detroit, a Jewish High School which opened in 2000. The JCC building is on the Eugene and Marcia Applebaum Jewish Community Campus along with multiple living quarters for the elderly and mentally disabled and an Alzheimer's treatment building.
A significant addition to the family of JCCs in North America is the Marlene Meyerson JCC Manhattan. This eleven story building situated in Manhattan's Upper West Side neighborhood opened its doors in the winter of 2002. The JCC offers a diversity of programs, from parenting to fitness and wellness, and each year the organization produces four week-long film festivals, an all-night Tikkun Leil Shavuot, a New Year's Day fitness fair, and an annual Symposium on Positive Aging. The JCC features multiple centers dedicated to segments of its community, including the Jack and Shirley Silver Center for Special Needs, the Bert and Sandra Wasserman Center for Family Life, the Selma and Lawrence Ruben Center for 20s + 30s, and the new Wechsler Center for Modern Aging, for those aged 60+.
In 2011, the Joan and Alan Bernikow JCC of Staten Island installed solar panels as part of a solar thermal system. The solar panels are expected to reduce 27,500 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions, the equivalent of planting two acres of Douglas fir trees every year. Its two dozen 10-foot solar panels will keep the building's hot water at a constant temperature of 180 degrees. Up next is the installation of a photo voltaic system, which will use solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. This is part of JCC's vision of environmental sustainability, which benefits the community both ethically and economically.
The Robert & Dorothy Ludwig Schenectady JCC became well known for their "million likes" photo that went viral in less than 48 hours. The photo showed three of its camp staff holding a sign that said "Our boss said that if this picture gets 1,000,000 likes that our summer camp can get an outdoor movie screen." In less than a week the picture received over 300,000 likes and it was one of the most successful uses of social media ever by a JCC.
Incidents and security
In recent decades, several incidents that have taken place at JCCs and other Jewish-related locations across the United States and Canada, as well as the September 11 attacks, have prompted JCCs in all areas to increase security at their facilities. Some of these events have included:
The 1994 AMIA bombing in Buenos Aires resulted in 85 deaths and over 300 injured persons.
In 1997, a woman in Toronto was charged with kidnapping and other crimes in the unauthorized removal of her 5-year-old daughter from a JCC childcare center. The woman, a registered nurse who had previously lost custody of her child following a divorce, led police on a high-speed chase and crashed, causing minor injuries to both.
In the Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting on August 10, 1999, a white supremacist opened fire and wounded four children and one adult. All survived, but the shooter was later convicted of homicide in a separate incident.
In the Seattle Jewish Federation shooting on July 29, 2006, one person was killed when a Muslim man named Naveed Afzal Haq opened fire. This shooting was in response to the offender's anger at the United States for the Iraq War and its support for Israel.
In the Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting on April 13, 2014, a white supremacist opened fire in the parking lot of the JCC of Greater Kansas City in Overland Park, Kansas, and at a nearby Jewish retirement home. Three were killed in the incident and two others were shot at but were unharmed.
Starting in 2017, over 100 JCCs received bomb threats, along with other Jewish buildings such as schools. By March, two suspects were arrested: Juan M. Thompson, a former journalist who was attempting to frame his ex-girlfriend for making antisemitic threats; and an unidentified, mentally ill 18-year-old Israeli-American man. who in April 2017 was charged in an Israeli court with several crimes including an attempt to extort a United States senator, "publishing false reports causing public panic, conspiring to commit a crime, hacking computers to commit a crime, and violations of money-laundering laws". The indictment alleged that he threatened "2,000 different institutions around the world, including the Israeli embassy in Washington, the Israeli consulate in Miami, schools, malls, police stations, hospitals and airlines." In the same month he faced a similar indictment in a Florida court which included 28 crimes.
New security measures being implemented include the mandatory display of photo ID (for non-members) upon entry to the building, background checks of prospective employees and members, and police officers or security guards being stationed on premises. Childcare areas now have their access restricted to those who have legitimate reason to enter, and removal of a child, which is tightly monitored, is permitted only by custodial parents and guardians and other authorized adults. In addition, many other new security features now reduce the likelihood of non-members gaining access to member-restricted areas.
Notable members
Tal Brody (born 1943), was drafted #12 in the NBA draft but opted to play for Israel, began playing basketball at the Trenton JCC.
Jake Cohen (born 1990), plays basketball for Maccabi Tel Aviv, played for the Philadelphia JCC team which won a gold medal at the 2007 JCC Maccabi Games. He scored 33 points in the finals.
Ross Friedman (born 1992), Major League Soccer player
Cullen Jones, Olympic gold medalist in swimming, was a childhood member of Metro Express, a swim team at the JCC MetroWest in West Orange, NJ.
Sandy Koufax (born 1935), Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher, played basketball at the Edith and Carl Marks Jewish Community House of Bensonhurst as a teenager.
Ingrid Michaelson (born 1979), indie-pop singer-songwriter. Student of the JCC of Staten Island's Dorothy Delson Kuhn Music Institute.
Bruno Sammartino, former two-time WWF (now WWE) champion. It was at a YMHA in Pittsburgh that he discovered weight lifting.
Daniel Steres (born 1990), professional soccer player with the LA Galaxy, was a three-time JCC Maccabi Championship Team member.
See also
Jewish Center (disambiguation)
References
External links
JCC Association of North America
Jewish-American history
Organizations established in 1854
1854 establishments in Maryland | [
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243644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene%20Ammons | Gene Ammons | Eugene "Jug" Ammons (April 14, 1925 – August 6, 1974), also known as "The Boss", was an American jazz tenor saxophonist. The son of boogie-woogie pianist Albert Ammons, Gene Ammons is remembered for his accessible music, steeped in soul and R&B.
Biography
Born in Chicago, Illinois, Ammons studied music with instructor Walter Dyett at DuSable High School. Ammons began to gain recognition while still at high school when in 1943, at the age of 18, he went on the road with trumpeter King Kolax's band. In 1944, he joined the band of Billy Eckstine (who bestowed on him the nickname "Jug" when straw hats ordered for the band did not fit), playing alongside Charlie Parker and later Dexter Gordon. Performances from this period include "Blowin' the Blues Away," featuring a saxophone duel between Ammons and Gordon. After 1947, when Eckstine became a solo performer, Ammons then led a group, including Miles Davis and Sonny Stitt, that performed at Chicago's Jumptown Club. In 1949, Ammons replaced Stan Getz as a member of Woody Herman's Second Herd, and then in 1950 formed a duet with Sonny Stitt.
The 1950s were a prolific period for Ammons and produced some acclaimed recordings such as The Happy Blues (1956). Musicians who played in his groups, apart from Stitt, included Donald Byrd, Jackie McLean, John Coltrane, Kenny Burrell, Mal Waldron, Art Farmer, and Duke Jordan.
His later career was interrupted by two prison sentences for narcotics possession, the first from 1958 to 1960, the second from 1962 to 1969. He recorded as a leader for Mercury (1947–1949), Aristocrat (1948–1950), Chess (1950–1951), Prestige (1950–1952), Decca (1952), and United (1952–1953). For the rest of his career, he was affiliated with Prestige. After his release from prison in 1969, having served a seven-year sentence at Joliet penitentiary, he signed the largest contract ever offered at that time by Prestige's Bob Weinstock.
Ammons had the first of two records released by Leonard Chess on the newly-formed Chess Records label in 1950, titled "My Foolish Heart" (Chess 1425); Muddy Waters was the second record, "Rolling Stone" (Chess 1426). Both records were released simultaneously.
Ammons died in Chicago in 1974, at the age of 49, from bone cancer. He was buried in Section 33, Lot 693, Grave N3-E 1/2 of Lincoln Cemetery, Blue Island, Illinois.
Playing style
Ammons and Von Freeman were the founders of the Chicago school of tenor saxophone. Ammons's style of playing showed influences from Lester Young as well as Ben Webster. These artists had helped develop the sound of the tenor saxophone to higher levels of expressiveness. Ammons, together with Dexter Gordon and Sonny Stitt, helped integrate their developments with the emerging "vernacular" of the bebop movement, and the chromaticism and rhythmic variety of Charlie Parker is evident in his playing.
While adept at the technical aspects of bebop, in particular its love of harmonic substitutions, Ammons stayed in touch with the commercial blues and R&B of his day. For example, in 1950 the saxophonist's recording of "My Foolish Heart" made Billboard Magazine's black pop charts. The soul jazz movement of the mid-1960s, often using the combination of tenor saxophone and Hammond B3 electric organ, counts him as a founder. With a thicker, warmer tone than Stitt or Gordon, Ammons could at will exploit a vast range of textures on the instrument, vocalizing it in ways that anticipated later artists such as Stanley Turrentine, Houston Person, and even Archie Shepp. Ammons showed little interest, however, in the modal jazz of John Coltrane, Joe Henderson or Wayne Shorter that was emerging at the same time.
Discography
As leader
The Happy Blues – Hi Fidelity Jam Session (Prestige, 1956)
All Star Sessions (Prestige, 1956)
Jammin' with Gene (Prestige, 1956)
Jammin' in Hi Fi with Gene Ammons (Prestige, 1957)
Funky (Prestige, 1957)
Blue Gene (Prestige, 1958)
The Big Sound (Prestige, 1958)
Soulful Saxophone (Chess, 1959)
Boss Tenor (Prestige, 1960)
Groove Blues (Prestige, 1961)
Nice an' Cool (Moodsville, 1961)
Jug (Prestige, 1961)
Up Tight! (Prestige, 1961)
Bad! Bossa Nova (Prestige, 1962)
Twisting the Jug with Joe Newman, Jack McDuff (Prestige, 1962)
Ca' Purange (Prestige, 1962)
Just Jug (Argo, 1962)
Preachin' (Prestige, 1963)
Soul Summit Vol. 2 with Etta Jones, Jack McDuff (Prestige, 1963)
The Soulful Moods of Gene Ammons (Moodsville, 1963)
Velvet Soul (Prestige, 1964)
Late Hour Special (Prestige, 1964)
Angel Eyes (Prestige, 1965)
Boss Soul! (Prestige, 1966)
The Boss Is Back! (Prestige, 1969)
Brother Jug! (Prestige, 1970)
The Chase! with Dexter Gordon (Prestige, 1971)
My Way (Prestige, 1971)
The Black Cat! (Prestige, 1971)
Jug & Dodo with Dodo Marmarosa (Prestige, 1972)
Free Again (Prestige, 1972)
Got My Own (Prestige, 1973)
Chicago Concert with James Moody (Prestige, 1973)
Gene Ammons and Friends at Montreux (Prestige, 1973)
Big Bad Jug (Prestige, 1973)
Brasswind (Prestige, 1974)
Goodbye (Prestige, 1975)
Swinging the Jugg (Roots, 1976)
Gene Ammons in Sweden (ENJA Records, 1981)
Blue Groove (Prestige, 1982)
Night Lights (Prestige, 1985)
With Sonny Stitt
Kaleidoscope (Prestige, 1957)
Boss Tenors in Orbit! (Verve, 1962)
Boss Tenors: Straight Ahead from Chicago August 1961 (Verve, 1962)
Dig Him! (Argo, 1962) reissued in 1968 on Prestige as We'll Be Together Again.
Soul Summit (Prestige, 1962)
You Talk That Talk! (Prestige, 1971)
Together Again for the Last Time (Prestige, 1976)
As sideman
David Axelrod, Heavy Axe (Fantasy, 1974)
Richard B. Boone, I've Got a Right to Sing (Nocturne, 1968)
Miles Davis, Bopping the Blues (Black Lion, 1987)
Billy Eckstine, Maggie: The Savoy Sessions (Savoy, 1947 [1995])
Bennie Green, Soul Stirrin' (Blue Note, 1958)
Bennie Green, The Swingin'est (Vee Jay, 1959)
Richard "Groove" Holmes, Groovin' with Jug (Pacific Jazz, 1961)
Richard "Groove" Holmes, Tell It Like It Is (Pacific Jazz, 1966)
Jack McDuff, Brother Jack Meets the Boss (Prestige, 1962)
Jack McDuff, Rock Candy (Prestige, 1972) compilation
Howard McGhee, House Warmin'! (Argo, 1963) originally issued in 1962 on Winley Records as Nothin' But Soul under Gene Ammons' name.
Charles Mingus, Charles Mingus and Friends in Concert (Columbia, 1973)
Andrew White, Red Top (Andrew's Music, 1977)
References
External links
[ allmusic]
MusicWeb Encyclopaedia of Popular Music
Online 78 RPM Discographical Project - Aristocrat
1925 births
1974 deaths
Bebop saxophonists
Hard bop saxophonists
Soul-jazz saxophonists
American jazz tenor saxophonists
American male saxophonists
African-American woodwind musicians
African-American saxophonists
Chess Records artists
Savoy Records artists
United Records artists
Prestige Records artists
Transatlantic Records artists
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
20th-century American musicians
20th-century saxophonists
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
Deaths from bone cancer
20th-century African-American musicians | [
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243648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic%20Athletic%20Association | Gaelic Athletic Association | The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA; ; CLG) is an Irish international amateur sporting and cultural organisation, focused primarily on promoting indigenous Gaelic games and pastimes, which include the traditional Irish sports of hurling, camogie, Gaelic football, Gaelic handball and rounders. The association also promotes Irish music and dance, as well as the Irish language.
As of 2014, the organisation had over 500,000 members worldwide, and declared total revenues of €65.6 million in 2017. The Games Administration Committee (GAC) of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) governing bodies organise the fixture list of Gaelic games within a GAA county or provincial councils.
Gaelic football and hurling are the most popular activities promoted by the organisation, and the most popular sports in the Republic of Ireland in terms of attendances. Gaelic football is also the second most popular participation sport in Northern Ireland. The women's version of these games, ladies' Gaelic football and camogie, are organised by the independent but closely linked Ladies' Gaelic Football Association and the Camogie Association of Ireland respectively. GAA Handball is the governing body for the sport of handball, while the other Gaelic sport, rounders, is managed by the GAA Rounders National Council ().
Since its foundation in 1884, the association has grown to become a major influence in Irish sporting and cultural life, with considerable reach into communities throughout Ireland and among the Irish diaspora.
Foundation and history
On 1 November 1884, a group of Irishmen gathered in the Hayes' Hotel billiard room to formulate a plan and establish an organisation to foster and preserve Ireland's unique games and athletic pastimes. And so, the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) was founded. The architects and founding members were Michael Cusack of County Clare, Maurice Davin, Joseph K. Bracken, Thomas St George McCarthy, a District Inspector in the Royal Irish Constabulary, P. J. Ryan of Tipperary, John Wyse Power, and John McKay. Maurice Davin was elected president, Cusack, Wyse-Power and McKay were elected Secretaries and it was agreed that Archbishop Croke, Charles Stewart Parnell and Michael Davitt would be asked to become Patrons.
In 1922 it passed over the job of promoting athletics to the National Athletic and Cycling Association.
Competitions
The GAA organises a number of competitions at divisional, county, inter-county, provincial, inter-provincial and national (All-Ireland) levels. A number of competitions follow a progressive format in which, for example, the winners of a club county football competition progress to a competition involving the top clubs from each county in the province, with the champions from each province progressing through a series of national finals.
Cultural activities
The association has had a long history of promoting Irish culture.
Through a division of the association known as Scór (Irish for "score"), the association promotes Irish cultural activities, running competitions in music, singing, dancing and storytelling.
Rule 4 of the GAA's official guide states:
The Association shall actively support the Irish language, traditional Irish dancing, music, song, and other aspects of Irish culture. It shall foster an awareness and love of the national ideals in the people of Ireland, and assist in promoting a community spirit through its clubs.
The group was formally founded in 1969, and is promoted through various Association clubs throughout Ireland (as well as some clubs outside Ireland).
Grounds
The association has many stadiums scattered throughout Ireland and beyond. Every county, and nearly all clubs, have grounds on which to play their home games, with varying capacities and utilities.
The hierarchical structure of the GAA is applied to the use of grounds. Clubs play at their own grounds for the early rounds of the club championship, while the latter rounds from quarter-finals to finals are usually held at a county ground, i.e. the ground where inter-county games take place or where the county board is based.
The provincial championship finals are usually played at the same venue every year. However, there have been exceptions, such as in Ulster, where in 2004 and 2005 the Ulster Football Finals were played in Croke Park, as the anticipated attendance was likely to far exceed the capacity of the traditional venue of St Tiernach's Park, Clones.
Croke Park
Croke Park is the association's flagship venue and is known colloquially as Croker or Headquarters, since the venue doubles as the association's base. With a capacity of 82,300, it ranks among the top five stadiums in Europe by capacity, having undergone extensive renovations for most of the 1990s and early 21st century. Every September, Croke Park hosts the All-Ireland inter-county Hurling and Football Finals as the conclusion to the summer championships. Croke Park holds the All-Ireland club football and hurling finals. Croke Park is named after Archbishop Thomas Croke, who was elected as a patron of the GAA during the formation of the GAA in 1884.
The Croke Park campus is also home to the National Handball Centre, which replaced the old Croke Park Handball Centre built in the 1970s. The centre is due to be the home of GAA Handball and to play host to All-Ireland Gaelic Handball finals.
Other grounds
The next three biggest grounds are all in Munster: Semple Stadium in Thurles, County Tipperary, with a capacity of 53,000, the Gaelic Grounds in Limerick, which holds 50,000, and Páirc Uí Chaoimh, County Cork, which can accommodate 45,000.
Other grounds with capacities above 25,000 include:
Fitzgerald Stadium, in Killarney, a capacity of 43,180
MacHale Park in Castlebar, the largest stadium in Connacht (and in the northern half of the country), a capacity of 42,000
St Tiernach's Park in Clones, County Monaghan, hosts most Ulster finals, a capacity of 36,000
Kingspan Breffni Park, in Cavan Town, County Cavan, which hosted International rules football series games in 2013, a capacity of 32,000
Casement Park, in Belfast, a capacity of 32,600
Nowlan Park, in Kilkenny, a capacity of 27,800
O'Moore Park, in Portlaoise, County Laois, a capacity of 27,000
Healy Park, in Omagh, County Tyrone, a capacity of 26,500
Pearse Stadium in Galway, which has hosted International rules football series games, a capacity of 26,197
Research by former Fermanagh county footballer Niall Cunningham led to the publication in 2016 by his website, gaapitchlocator.net, of a map of 1,748 GAA grounds in Ireland, ranging from 24 grounds in his own county to 171 in Cork.
Nationalism and community relations
Community associations within Northern Ireland
The association has, since its inception, been closely associated with Irish nationalism, and this has continued to the present, particularly in relation to Northern Ireland, where the sports are played predominantly by members of the mainly Catholic nationalist community, and many in the Protestant unionist population consider themselves excluded by a perceived political ethos. According to one sports historian, the GAA "is arguably the most striking example of politics shaping sport in modern history".
A perception within Northern Ireland unionist circles that the GAA is a nationalist organisation is reinforced by the naming of some GAA grounds, clubs, competitions and trophies after prominent nationalists or republicans.
Other critics point to protectionist rules such as Rule 42 which prohibits competing, chiefly British, sports (referred to by some as "garrison games" or foreign sports) from GAA grounds. As a result, the GAA became a target for loyalist paramilitaries during the Troubles when a number of GAA supporters were killed and clubhouses damaged. As the profile of Gaelic football has been raised in Ulster so too has there been an increase in the number of sectarian attacks on Gaelic clubs in Northern Ireland.
Some of the protectionist rules are as follows:
Rule 42 and other sports in GAA grounds
Rule 42 (Rule 5.1 in the 2009 rulebook) prohibits the use of GAA property for games with interests in conflict with the interests of the GAA referred to by some as "garrison games" or foreign sports. Current rules state that GAA property may only be used for the purpose or in connection with the playing of games controlled by the association. Sports not considered 'in conflict' with the GAA have been permitted.
On 16 April 2005 the GAA's congress voted to temporarily relax Rule 42 and allow international soccer and rugby to be played in the stadium while Lansdowne Road Football Ground was closed for redevelopment. The first soccer and rugby union games permitted in Croke Park took place in early 2007, the first such fixture being Ireland's home match in the Six Nations Rugby Union Championship against France.
In addition to the opening of Croke Park to competing sports, local GAA units have sought to rent their facilities out to other sports organisations for financial reasons in violation of Rule 42. The continued existence of Rule 42 has proven to be controversial since the management of Croke Park has been allowed to earn revenue by renting the facility out to competing sports organisations, but local GAA units which own smaller facilities cannot. It is also said that it is questionable as to whether or not such rental deals would be damaging to the GAA's interests.
Defunct rules
The GAA has had some notable rules in the past which have since been abolished. Rule 21, instituted in 1897 when it was suspected that Royal Irish Constabulary spies were trying to infiltrate the organization, prohibited members of the British forces from membership of the GAA. The rule was abolished after an overwhelming majority voted for its removal at a special congress convened in November 2001. Rule 27, sometimes referred to as The Ban, dated from 1901 and banned GAA members from taking part in or watching non Gaelic games. During that time people such as Douglas Hyde, GAA patron and then President of Ireland, was expelled for attending a soccer international. Rule 27 was abolished in 1971.
Cross-community outreach in Northern Ireland
The association points out the role of members of minority religions in the membership throughout its history. For example, the Protestant Jack Boothman was president of the organisation from 1993 to 1997, while Sam Maguire was a Church of Ireland member. Nonetheless, to address concerns of unionists, the association's Ulster Council has embarked on a number of initiatives aimed at making the association and Gaelic games more accessible to northern Protestants. In November 2008, the council launched a Community Development Unit, which is responsible for "Diversity and Community Outreach initiatives". The Cúchulainn Initiative is a cross-community program aimed at establishing teams consisting of Catholic and Protestant schoolchildren with no prior playing experience. Cross-community teams such as the Belfast Cuchulainn under-16 hurling team have been established and gone on to compete at the Continental Youth Championship in the USA. Similar hurling and Gaelic football teams have since emerged in Armagh, Fermanagh, Limavady.
David Hassan, from the University of Ulster, has written about the cross community work of the association and other sporting bodies in Ulster.
The 'Game of three-halves' cross-community coaching initiative was established in predominantly Protestant east Belfast in 2006. Organised through Knock Presbyterian Church, this scheme brings Association coaches to work alongside their soccer and rugby counterparts to involve primary school children at summer coaching camps. The Ulster Council is also establishing cross-community football and hurling teams in schools and is developing links with the Ulster-Scots Agency and the Church of Ireland. The council has also undertaken a series of meetings with political parties and community groups who would have traditionally have had no involvement in the association.
Other community outreach
In January 2011, the then President of Ireland, Mary McAleese, announced the launch of an island-wide project called the "GAA Social Initiative". This aims to address the problem of isolation in rural areas where older people have limited engagement with the community. The initiative was later expanded by teaming up with the Irish Farmers Association to integrate that organisation's volunteers into the initiative.
Participation outside Ireland
Clubs outside Ireland
Members of the Irish diaspora have set-up clubs in a number of regions and countries outside of Ireland, and there are GAA clubs in the United States, Australia, Britain, Canada, China, continental Europe, and elsewhere outside of Ireland.
Internationals
While some units of the association outside Ireland participate in Irish competitions, the association does not hold internationals played according to the rules of either Gaelic football or hurling. Compromise rules have been reached with two "related sports".
Hurlers play an annual fixture against a national shinty team from Scotland.
International Rules Football matches have taken place between an Irish national team drawn from the ranks of Gaelic footballers, against an Australian national team drawn from the Australian Football League. The venue alternates between Ireland and Australia. In December 2006, the International series between Australia and Ireland was called off due to excessive violence in the matches, but resumed in October 2008 when Ireland won a two test series in Australia. The Irish welcomed the All Australian team at the headquarters of the GAA (Croke Park) on 21 November 2015. It was single one-off test match, which led the Irish to reclaim the Cormac McAnallen Cup by a score of 56–52.
Handball
The international dimension of Gaelic handball includes a World Championship tournament, alongside a European Tour and US Semi-Professional Tour. The 4-Wall and 1-Wall codes of the game are played around the world [with slightly different rules depending on which country one is playing in] and the World Handball Championships are organised by the World Handball Council. A European Tour has been set up with players from across Europe participating. 4-Wall Handball is played primarily in Ireland, the US and Canada while the 1-Wall code is played (in addition to the three mentioned) in Belgium, France, Holland, Italy, Spain and the UK.
Winter training ban
To address concerns about player burnout, the association adopted a rule in 2007 that prohibited collective training for inter-county players for a period of two months every winter. This has proven to be controversial in that it is difficult to enforce, and in the drive to stay competitive, managers have found ways to avoid it, such as organising informal 'athletic clubs' and other activities that they can use to work on the physical fitness of players without overtly appearing to be training specifically at Gaelic games.
See also
GAA Confidential
GAA GPA All Stars Awards
Micheál Ó Muircheartaigh
Micheál Ó Hehir
Féile na nGael
Of One Belief
Sport in Ireland
List of All-Ireland Senior Football Championship finals
List of All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship finals
Television
The Sunday Game
Up for the Match
Top 20 GAA Moments
References
External links
GAA official website
GAA TV website
GAA Roll of Honour
1884 establishments in Ireland
Gaelic
Sports organizations established in 1884
Organisations based in Dublin (city)
Irish nationalist organisations
International organisations based in Ireland | [
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243649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiznos | Quiznos | Quiz Holdings, LLC, doing business as Quiznos, is an American franchised fast-food restaurant based in Denver, Colorado, that specializes in offering toasted submarine sandwiches. It was founded in 1981 by Jimmy Lambatos and sold to Rick and Richard Schaden ten years later, before growing to nearly 5,000 restaurants afterwards. , Quiznos was the second-largest submarine sandwich shop chain in North America, behind Subway. A 2016 survey indicated that Quiznos was the ninth-largest submarine sandwich shop chain based on sales. The publications Restaurant Business and Mashed.com reported in mid-2018 that Quiznos had only 400 locations remaining by 2017 after a high of 4,700 locations in 2007 just a decade earlier, while Money reported in May 2018 that Quiznos had 1,500 locations across the U.S.
History
Early history
The first Quiznos restaurant was opened in Denver, Colorado, by founder Jimmy Lambatos. At the time, Lambatos was an experienced chef, having previously worked as an executive chef for the Colorado Mine Co. Steakhouse, and having founded the Italian restaurant Footers in 1978. He founded Quiznos with partner Todd Disner in the spring of 1981. The first location was at the corner of 13th and Grant Streets in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of the city. According to Kevin Jenkins, "It was there that recipes for Quiznos special baguette-style bread, special dressings and unique recipes were created."
According to Patrick Sweeney, "The sandwich shop earned a following for its toasted subs that Lambatos said were inspired by the oven-baked sandwiches he enjoyed while growing up in New York." Lambatos said of his decision to toast the submarine sandwiches at the first Quiznos that, "it's a signature type of thing. Heating anything brings out the flavors in food products." The restaurant menu featured toasted submarine sandwiches, as well as salads, soups, and desserts.
Expansion
After two years, the restaurant started offering franchises to facilitate expansion offering its first franchises in 1983. The franchises were offered under the name Quiznos American, Inc. By 1987, 12 Quiznos restaurant locations were operating in the United States. That year, Rick Schaden, at the age of 23, and his father, aviation attorney Richard Schaden, opened their first Quiznos franchise in a Boulder, Colorado, shopping center. They opened three additional restaurants before purchasing the 18-restaurant chain from the founders in January 1991 and renamed it the Quiznos Franchise Corp. Rick Schaden became the president, and then CEO, of Quiznos after the purchase. Jenkins wrote that Schaden, "began building a professional infrastructure to support franchise owners that included volume purchasing, standardized training, and operations procedures, as well as marketing support." Quiznos was taken public in February 1994, with an initial public offering of one million shares of stock at $5 per share, resulting in a $4.4 million yield. By the end of 1995, Quiznos had 103 different locations.
In 1997, Quiznos became the number-three submarine sandwich franchise in the world, with 278 locations in the U.S. and Puerto Rico. The following year, Quiznos Canada acquired the master franchise rights to Quiznos restaurants in Canada, as well as the master rights in the United Kingdom in 1999. Glenvista Enterprises then acquired the rights for several states in Australia. KMN USA LLC acquired the franchise rights for Japan, opening its first location in early 1999. The company again went private in June 2001. In 2005, the company partnered with Ray Wilson to open a new chain of fitness clubs called 123 Fit. At its peak in 2007, there were more than 5,000 Quiznos franchise locations. In 2014, Quiznos opened locations in Iraq and Pakistan.
International expansion
The first location in Canada (and outside of the United States) opened in Vancouver in 1996.
The first European location opened in 2001 in Peterborough in the United Kingdom.
In 2002, Wendy's acquired the rights to the brand for franchises in Australia, and later, New Zealand, but was unsuccessful in launching the chain in either country. The first location in Mexico opened in Monterrey in 2002.
The first location in India opened in Hyderabad in 2011, followed by the first location in the Philippines opened in 2012.
In 2013, Quiznos opened its first two locations in Russia during the same weekend in St. Petersburg.
Quiznos opened its first Taiwan location in Taipeiand also its first United Arab Emirates location in Abu Dhabi in September 2014. Quiznos exited the Taiwan market in July 2018 based on a post on the Quiznostaiwan Facebook page.
Quiznos also operated restaurants across Ireland, operated by Supermacs. Today, all of these have been replaced by Supersubs and the only remaining Quiznos is located in Dublin city.
Restructuring
Between 2007 and 2009, 1,000 Quiznos stores in the United States closed. After the closure of around 2,000 restaurants during the Great Recession, a majority stake in the company was purchased by Avenue Capital Group of New York in January 2012. According to Ed Sealover, the purchase was done in "a deal that eliminated about one-third of the company's $900 million debt and infused about $150 million cash into the company." Avenue Capital Group brought on turnaround specialist Harsha V. Agadi as Quiznos executive chairman. They also brought on Stuart Mathis as CEO, and the former president of The UPS Store stated that the company would try to counteract shrinking sales by promoting "the quality of its food."
Bankruptcy
On March 14, 2014, Quiznos filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Colorado. Quiznos said it would continue operating while it restructured its debt and made operational improvements. Quiznos emerged from bankruptcy about four months later on June 30, 2014, and reduced its debt by approximately $400 million.
Post-bankruptcy
On December 1, 2015, Quiznos opened a concept restaurant called Quiznos Grill hoping to re-brand its products and increase menu offerings. Initial reviews of this restaurant highlighted the high price (US$20) once items were added to the sandwich (vegetables, cheese, etc.) or meal (chips, drinks, etc.). In late 2016, the Quiznos Grill concept was abandoned and relaunched as Zeps Epiq Sandwiches. Some of the Quiznos Grill sandwiches remained on the menu, while vegetarian choices, salads, all-day breakfasts, and loaded tater tots were added.
On June 11, 2018, Quiznos announced that it was acquired by California-based High Bluff Capital Partners. The chain will maintain its headquarters in Denver.
Locations
In 2010 the chain said it planned to expand to locations in over 40 countries and territories, including Europe, the Middle East, Southeast Asia and Central and South America, by 2012. In July 2013, the company stated it planned to expand into Russia, where it is looking to open about 500 stores. QSR wrote in November 2013 that, "Following its most recent international successes in Mexico, Russia, and the United Arab Emirates, Quiznos will bring toasted sandwiches to Indonesia with the signature of PT Quiznosindo as the brand’s newest franchisor. The group, led by Tan Po Lian, plans to open 100 units in Indonesia over the next 10 years...Expansion into Singapore, South Korea, the Philippines, and Indonesia is part of Quiznos’ continued international development plan to open more than 1,000 international stores in more than 40 countries by 2020."
Bankruptcy and restructuring upset many of these plans. As of 2020, there are fewer than 300 Quiznos restaurants in the United States and around 200 in 30-plus countries.
Advertising
The company's first major advertising push was a successful advertising campaign during the 2002 Super Bowl. Early TV spots advertised the innovation of toasting sandwiches, as compared to the inventor of pants (humorously contrasted with men wearing bushes). One commercial in 2003 depicted a man (played by Jim Parsons) who had been "raised by wolves" by suckling at a mother wolf's teat. Other promotions include an early 2004 campaign featuring bizarre, rodent-like, singing creatures called Spongmonkeys, edited by Joel Veitch as well as a series of Quiznos commercials in Canada featuring hockey commentator Don Cherry. In 2005, Quiznos launched a campaign featuring Baby Bob.
In June 2006, Quiznos revealed its new slogan: "Eat Up." Ads nationwide feature a Quiznos sub with steam emanating from it with the tagline, "Mmmm... toasty." Actor Michael Clarke Duncan formerly provided the voiceover for all Quiznos commercials. On September 18, 2006, Quiznos launched the most aggressive advertising campaign aimed at Subway. Dubbed the "Prime Rib Cheesesteak Challenge," customers were asked to compare the brand new Prime Rib Cheesesteak against Subway's Cheesesteak sandwich. The claim is that the Prime Rib Cheesesteak has twice the meat of Subway's Cheesesteak. If the customers are not satisfied, then they can fill out a form, mail the form along with their receipt, and they will receive a coupon for a free sandwich. In subsequent advertisements, Quiznos was shown competing with the fictional "Wrong Way" restaurant based on competing restaurants.
The Coca-Cola Company was originally the primary soft drink supplier for the franchise, until 2005. At that time, Coca-Cola signed an exclusive agreement to provide soft drinks to the competing Subway franchise. As a result, Quiznos signed an exclusive deal with PepsiCo (except in Canada and on college campuses that have exclusive deals with Coca-Cola) and Dr Pepper Snapple Group (to serve Dr Pepper). However, in 2019 Quiznos switched back to Coca-Cola products, ending their 14-year relationship with Pepsi.
In 2016, the company launched their mobile based loyalty program. This app was aimed at rewarding Quiznos' most loyal customers and to gather customer feedback to improve product and operations.
Mascots
In 2004, Quiznos started using fuzzy-looking creatures called the Spongmonkeys (which were designed by Joel Veitch) in their advertising commercials. One of them plays a guitar, and the other sings a song called "We Love the Subs", in an apparent and shorter spoof of their original song, "We Like the Moon". Several commercials with the Spongmonkeys were released, including ones about rejoice and coupons. However, after a few months, Quiznos discontinued airing the commercials.
Lawsuits and controversies
Quiznos has been the target of several lawsuits related to its treatment of franchisees, including lawsuits in New Jersey and Wisconsin. It has faced more lawsuits from franchisees than bigger chains, such as McDonald's, Burger King, Wendy's, and even its sandwich competitors Subway and Blimpie, according to an analysis by the legal research firm Thomson West. In February 2007, Quiznos franchisees filed a lawsuit seeking class-action status in Michigan. One lawsuit (filed in New Jersey and seeking class-action status) said that the astounding growth record of Quiznos was merely a mirage. In 2003 and 2004, Quiznos said it sold 234 "trade areas" in the state of New Jersey to franchisees, collecting the $25,000 franchisee fee, but none of these locations ever opened, according to the lawsuit. Three years after handing over her check for the fee, Elisa Whitehall said that she had yet to open a Quiznos in the location she bought and that Quiznos refused to return the fee.
One lawsuit cited a memorandum drafted by a Quiznos lawyer in 2003 that stated, "40 percent of Quiznos units are not breaking even," a fact that prospective franchisees say they were never told. The Small Business Administration said 23.4 percent of Quiznos franchises with SBA loans failed. In contrast, Subway had a 4.8 percent failure rate.
As a single example of an unprofitable franchise, Fredrick N. Westerfield was running three Quiznos in Wisconsin. After spending $14,000 in personal savings to keep the stores running, he realized he had a debt of $750,000. He closed all his stores in 2005. "Customers used to come into the store and say to me, 'You must be rolling in the money,'" recalled Mr. Westerfield. "If they only knew."
In 2002, the Seattle Times reported that the company initially ignored the plight of a Quiznos employee who took over operations of one Quiznos store after the true owner abandoned it. Months later, the store was closed. In June 2004, the Quiznos at Downtown Crossing, Boston, was at the center of a hepatitis scare.
In 2006, Quiznos sent letters to 300 franchises saying mystery shoppers would be coming to test their services. The company sued franchise owners Richard Piotrowski and Ellen Blickman for not putting enough meat in a prime rib sandwich. Piotrowski and Blickman countersued and won the lawsuit in 2009. Judge Morris Hoffman called the meat-weighing exercise and subsequent termination letters a "charade" aimed at bolstering a national ad campaign against rival Subway.
On November 27, 2006, Bhupinder Baber, franchise owner of two Long Beach, California, Quiznos locations, committed suicide after a legal battle with the company. In his suicide note, Baber attributed mistreatment by Quiznos to driving him to suicide. The Toasted Subs Franchisee Association (TSFA), a group of franchisees, posted Baber's suicide note on its website, and intended to raise money for Baber's family. Quiznos attempted to terminate the TSFA's franchises. The TSFA in turn filed an injunction on December 15, 2006, in the District Court of Colorado. A 2014 article in the Long Beach Post suggested that the factors that contributed to Baber's suicide also led to the parent company's bankruptcy in 2014.
As of July 1, 2010, Quiznos was close to reaching a settlement over the multiyear class-action lawsuit that covers nearly 10,000 of its current and former franchisees. The case comprises four separate class-action lawsuits dating back to 2006 which consolidated in 2009 — involved allegations by attorneys for franchisees that Quiznos Franchise Co. LLC and other entities with ownership or control of the Quiznos chain had violated U.S. racketeering and corruption statutes. Also at issue was the chain's supply chain and food costs, marketing and advertising funds, and disputes among franchisees that agreed to, but did not open, locations and whether royalties are owed. Quiznos denied all claims made in the lawsuits and the settlement agreement involves no finding or admission of liability, nonetheless the cost to Quiznos has been estimated from $100 to $200 million while also forcing it to implement a new business plan "which puts more support into its franchisees".
See also
List of submarine sandwich restaurants
References
External links
Companies based in Denver
Restaurants established in 1981
1981 establishments in Colorado
Fast-food chains of the United States
Fast-food chains of Canada
Fast-food chains of the United Kingdom
Fast-food chains of Ireland
Submarine sandwich restaurants
Multinational food companies
Restaurants in Denver
Restaurant chains in the United States
Private equity portfolio companies
Fast-food franchises
1994 initial public offerings
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2014
2018 mergers and acquisitions | [
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243651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20Blakey | Art Blakey | Arthur Blakey (October 11, 1919 – October 16, 1990) was an American jazz drummer and bandleader. He was also known as Abdullah Ibn Buhaina after he converted to Islam for a short time in the late 1940s.
Blakey made a name for himself in the 1940s in the big bands of Fletcher Henderson and Billy Eckstine. He then worked with bebop musicians Thelonious Monk, Charlie Parker, and Dizzy Gillespie. In the mid-1950s, Horace Silver and Blakey formed the Jazz Messengers, a group that the drummer was associated with for the next 35 years. The group was formed as a collective of contemporaries, but over the years the band became known as an incubator for young talent, including Freddie Hubbard, Wayne Shorter, Lee Morgan, Benny Golson, Kenny Dorham, Hank Mobley, Donald Byrd, Jackie McLean, Johnny Griffin, Curtis Fuller, Chuck Mangione, Chick Corea, Keith Jarrett, Cedar Walton, Woody Shaw, Terence Blanchard, and Wynton Marsalis. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Jazz calls the Jazz Messengers "the archetypal hard bop group of the late 50s".
Blakey was inducted into the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame (in 1981), the Grammy Hall of Fame (in 1998 and 2001), and was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005. He was inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1991.
Childhood and early career
Blakey was born on October 11, 1919, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, probably to a single mother who died shortly after his birth; her name is often cited as Marie Roddicker (or Roddericker) although Blakey's own 1937 marriage license shows her maiden name to have been Jackson. His biological father was Bertram Thomas Blakey, originally of Ozark, Alabama, whose family migrated northward to Pittsburgh sometime between 1900 and 1910. Blakey's uncle, Rubi Blakey, was a popular Pittsburgh singer, choral leader, and teacher who attended Fisk University.
Blakey is described as having been "raised with his siblings by a family friend who became a surrogate mother"; he "received some piano lessons at school", and was able to spend some further time teaching himself. According to Leslie Gourse's biography, the surrogate mother figure was Annie Peron. The stories related by family and friends, and by Blakey himself, are contradictory as to how long he spent with the Peron family, but it is clear he spent some time with them growing up.
Equally clouded by contradiction are stories of Blakey's early music career. It is agreed by several sources that by the time he was in seventh grade, Blakey was playing music full-time and had begun to take on adult responsibilities, playing the piano to earn money and learning to be a band leader.
He switched from piano to drums at an uncertain date in the early 1930s. An oft-quoted account of the event states that Blakey was forced at gunpoint to move from piano to drums by a club owner, to allow Erroll Garner to take over on piano. The veracity of this story is called into question in the Gourse biography, as Blakey himself gives other accounts in addition to this one. The style Blakey assumed was "the aggressive swing style of Chick Webb, Sid Catlett and Ray Bauduc".
From 1939 to 1944, Blakey played with fellow Pittsburgh native Mary Lou Williams and toured with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra. While sources differ on the timing, most agree that he traveled to New York with Williams in 1942 before joining Henderson a year later. (Some accounts have him joining Henderson as early as 1939.) While playing in Henderson's band, Blakey was subjected to an unprovoked attack by a white Georgia police officer which necessitated a steel plate being inserted into his head. These injuries caused him to be declared unfit for service in World War II. He led his own band at the Tic Toc Club in Boston for a short time.
From 1944 to 1947, Blakey worked with Billy Eckstine's big band. Through this band, Blakey became associated with the bebop movement, along with his fellow band members Miles Davis, Dexter Gordon, Fats Navarro, Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker and Sarah Vaughan among others.
After the Eckstine band broke up, Blakey states that he traveled to Africa for a time: "In 1947, after the Eckstine band broke up, we—took a trip to Africa. I was supposed to stay there three months and I stayed two years because I wanted to live among the people and find out just how they lived and—about the drums especially." He stated in a 1979 interview, discussing the context of the decision at the time:
Blakey is known to have recorded from 1947 to 1949. He studied and converted to Islam during this period, taking the name Abdullah Ibn Buhaina, although he stopped being a practicing Muslim in the 1950s and continued to perform under the name "Art Blakey" throughout his career.
As the 1950s began, Blakey was backing musicians such as Davis, Parker, Gillespie, Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk; he is often considered to have been Monk's most empathetic drummer, and he played on both Monk's first recording session as a leader (for Blue Note Records in 1947) and his final one (in London in 1971), as well as many in between. Blakey toured with Buddy DeFranco from 1951 to 1953 in a band that also included Kenny Drew.
The Jazz Messengers
On December 17, 1947, Blakey led a group known as "Art Blakey's Messengers" in his first recording session as a leader, for Blue Note Records. The records were released as 78 rpm records at the time, and two of the songs were released on the "New Sounds" 10" LP compilation (BLP 5010). The octet included Kenny Dorham, Sahib Shihab, Musa Kaleem, and Walter Bishop, Jr.
Around the same time (1947 or 1949) he led a big band called Seventeen Messengers. The band proved to be financially unstable and broke up soon after. The use of the Messengers tag finally stuck with the group co-led at first by both Blakey and pianist Horace Silver, though the name was not used on the earliest of their recordings.
The "Jazz Messengers" name was first used for this group on a 1954 recording nominally led by Silver, with Blakey, Mobley, Dorham and Doug Watkins—the same quintet recorded The Jazz Messengers at the Cafe Bohemia the following year, still functioning as a collective. Donald Byrd replaced Dorham, and the group recorded an album called simply The Jazz Messengers for Columbia Records in 1956. Blakey took over the group name when Silver left after the band's first year (taking Mobley and Watkins with him to form a new quintet), and the band name evolved to include Blakey's name, eventually settling upon "Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers". Blakey led the group for the rest of his life.
It was the archetypal hard bop group of the 1950s, playing a driving, aggressive extension of bop with pronounced blues roots. Towards the end of the 1950s, the saxophonists Johnny Griffin and Benny Golson were in turn briefly members of the group. Golson, as musical director, wrote several jazz standards which began as part of the band book, such as "I Remember Clifford", "Along Came Betty", and "Blues March", and were frequently revived by later editions of the group. "Whisper Not" and "Are You Real" were other Golson compositions for Blakey.
From 1959 to 1961, the group featured Wayne Shorter on tenor saxophone, Lee Morgan on trumpet, pianist Bobby Timmons and Jymie Merritt on bass. The group recorded several albums for Blue Note Records including The Big Beat and A Night in Tunisia. From 1961 to 1964, the band was a sextet that added trombonist Curtis Fuller and replaced Morgan, Timmons, and Merritt with Freddie Hubbard, Cedar Walton, and Reggie Workman, respectively. The group evolved into a proving ground for young jazz talent, and recorded albums such as Buhaina's Delight, Caravan, and Free For All. While veterans occasionally reappeared in the group, by and large, each iteration of the Messengers included a lineup of new young players. Having the Messengers on one's resume was a rite of passage in the jazz world, and conveyed immediate bona fides.
Many Messenger alumni went on to become jazz stars in their own right, such as: Lee Morgan, Benny Golson, Wayne Shorter, Freddie Hubbard, Bobby Timmons, Curtis Fuller, Chuck Mangione, Keith Jarrett, Joanne Brackeen, Woody Shaw, Wynton Marsalis, Branford Marsalis, Terence Blanchard, Donald Harrison and Mulgrew Miller. For a complete list of Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers alumni, including some who did not actually record with the band, see The Jazz Messengers.
Later career
Blakey went on to record dozens of albums with a constantly changing group of Jazz Messengers. He had a policy of encouraging young musicians: as he remarked on-mic during the live session which resulted in the A Night at Birdland albums in 1954: "I'm gonna stay with the youngsters. When these get too old I'll get some younger ones. Keeps the mind active." After weathering the fusion era in the 1970s, the popularity of the Jazz Messengers faded away. But Blakey's band continued performing with new jazz men such as Terence Blanchard and Kenny Garrett.
He continued performing and touring with the group through the end of the 1980s. Ralph Peterson, Jr. joined in 1983 as a second drummer due to Blakey's failing health. Ron Wynn notes that Blakey had "played with such force and fury that he eventually lost much of his hearing, and at the end of his life, often played strictly by instinct." He stubbornly refused to wear a hearing aid, arguing that it threw his timing off, so most of the time he played by sensing vibrations. Javon Jackson, who played in Blakey's final lineup, claimed that he exaggerated the extent of his hearing loss. "In my opinion, his deafness was a little exaggerated, and it was exaggerated by him. He didn't hear well out of one ear, but he could hear just fine out the other one. He could hear you just fine when you played something badly and he was quick to say 'Hey, you missed that there.' But anything like 'I don't think I'll be available for the next gig', he'd say 'Huh? I can't hear you.'" Another bandmate, Geoffrey Keezer, claimed that 'He was selectively deaf. He'd go deaf when you asked him about money, but if it was real quiet and you talked to him one-on-one, then he could hear you just fine.'"
Blakey's final performances were in July 1990. He died on October 16 of lung cancer.
Drumming style
Blakey assumed an aggressive swing style of contemporaries Chick Webb, Sid Catlett and Ray Bauduc early in his career, and is known, alongside Kenny Clarke and Max Roach as one of the inventors of the modern bebop style of drumming. Max Roach described him thus: His drumming form made continuing use of the traditional grip, though in later appearances he is also seen using a matched grip. In a 1973 drum battle with Ginger Baker he can be seen repeatedly changing grip during his performance.
As the supporting materials for Ken Burns's series Jazz notes, "Blakey is a major figure in modern jazz and an important stylist in drums. From his earliest recording sessions with Eckstine, and particularly in his historic sessions with Monk in 1947, he exudes power and originality, creating a dark cymbal sound punctuated by frequent loud snare and bass drum accents in triplets or cross-rhythms." This source continues:
Blakey used a variety of drum kits throughout his career including Premier and Sonor. He also used Zildjian cymbals for much of his career, starting out as one of their top endorsers in the 50s and 60s and being one of their first artists to use the initial prototypes of what would become their K line of cymbals. He also endorsed Paiste cymbals for much of the 70s and 80s, being one of the first users of Paiste's 2002 line upon their introduction in the early 70s. He would ultimately revert to Zildjian for the later part of his career largely using their A line, particularly favoring their newer sweet model of cymbals.
Legacy
The legacy of Blakey and his bands is not only the music they produced, but also the opportunities they provided for several generations of jazz musicians.
The Jazz Messengers nurtured and influenced many of the key figures of the hard bop movement of the late 1950s to early 1960s, and of the Neotraditionalist movement of the 1980s and 1990s, both of which had the Jazz Messengers in a stylistically seminal role. In the words of drummer Cindy Blackman shortly after Blakey's death, "When jazz was in danger of dying out [during the 1970s], there was still a scene. Art kept it going." Blakey was inducted into the Jazz Hall of Fame (in 1982), the Grammy Hall of Fame (in 2001), and was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005.
Personal life
In addition to his musical interests, Blakey was described by Jerry "Tiger" Pearson as a storyteller, as having a "big appetite for music [...] women [and] food", and an interest in boxing.
Blakey married four times, and had long-lasting and other relationships throughout his life. He married his first wife, Clarice Stewart, while yet a teen, then Diana Bates (1956), Atsuko Nakamura (1968), and Anne Arnold (1983). He had 10 children from these relationships — daughters Gwendolyn, Evelyn, Jackie, Kadijah, Sakeena and Akira, and sons Art Jr., Takashi, Kenji and Gamal. Sandy Warren, another longtime companion of Blakey, published a book of reminiscences and favorite food recipes from the period of the late 1970s to early 1980s when Blakey lived in Northfield, New Jersey, with Warren and their son, Takashi.
Blakey traveled for a year in West Africa (1948) to explore the culture and religion of Islam he would adopt alongside changing his name; his conversion took place in the late 1940s at a time when other African-Americans were being influenced by the Ahmadi missionary Kahili Ahmed Nasir, according to the Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History, and at one time in that period, Blakey led a turbaned, Qur'an-reading jazz band called the 17 Messengers (perhaps all Muslim, reflecting notions of the Prophet's and music's roles as conduits of the divine message). A friend recollects that when "Art took up the religion [...] he did so on his own terms", saying that "Muslim imams would come over to his place, and they would pray and talk, then a few hours later [we] would go [...] to a restaurant [...and] have a drink and order some ribs", and suggests that reasons for the name change included the pragmatic: that "like many other black jazz musicians who adopted Muslim names", musicians did so to allow themselves to "check into hotels and enter 'white only places' under the assumption they were not African-American".
Drummer Keith Hollis, reflecting on Blakey's early life, states that his fellow drummer "wound up doing drugs to cope"; like many of the era, Blakey and his bands were known for their drug use (namely heroin) while traveling and performing (with varying accounts of Blakey's influence on others in this regard).
Other specific recollections have Blakey forswearing serious drink while playing (after being disciplined by drummer Sid Catlett early in his career for drinking while performing), and suggest that the influence of "clean-living cat" Wynton Marsalis led to a period where he was less affected by drugs during performances. Blakey was a heavy smoker; he appears in a cloud of smoke on the Buhaina's Delight album cover, and in extended footage of a 1973 appearance with Ginger Baker, Blakey begins a long drummers' "duel" with cigarette alight.
Death
Blakey had been living in Manhattan when he died on October 16, 1990, of lung cancer, five days after his 71st birthday, at St. Vincent's Hospital and Medical Center. He was survived by six daughters (Gwendolyn, Evelyn, Jackie, Sakeena, Kadijah and Akira), and three sons (Takashi, Gamal, and Kenji).
At his funeral at the Abyssinian Baptist Church on October 22, 1990, a tribute group assembled of past Jazz Messengers including Brian Lynch, Javon Jackson, Geoffrey Keezer, Wynton Marsalis, Terence Blanchard, Valery Ponomarev, Benny Golson, Donald Harrison, Essiet Okon Essiet, and drummer Kenny Washington performed several of the band's most celebrated tunes, such as Golson's "Along Came Betty", Bobby Timmons' "Moanin'", and Wayne Shorter's "One by One". Jackson, a member of Blakey's last Jazz Messengers group, recalled how his experiences with the drummer changed his life, saying that "He taught me how to be a man. How to stand up and be accounted for". Musicians Jackie McLean, Ray Bryant, Dizzy Gillespie, and Max Roach also paid tribute to Blakey at his funeral.
Awards
Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame Reader's Choice Award (1981)
Jazz Hall of Fame Induction (1982)
Grammy Award Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Group, for the album New York Scene (1984)
Grammy Hall of Fame Induction for the single "Moanin'" (1998)
Grammy Hall of Fame Induction for the album Moanin' (2001)
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (2005; awarded posthumously)
Discography
Blakey's solo or semi-solo albums are denoted in bold.
Album date based on recording year, not release year.
New Sounds (1952)
A Night at Birdland Vol. 1 (1954)
A Night at Birdland Vol. 2 (1954)
A Night at Birdland Vol. 3 (1954)
Blakey (1954)
At the Cafe Bohemia, Vol. 1 (1955)
At the Cafe Bohemia, Vol. 2 (1955)
The Jazz Messengers (1956)
Originally (1956)
Hard Bop (1956)
Ritual (1957)
Drum Suite (1957)
Orgy in Rhythm (1957)
A Midnight Session (1957)
Selections from Lerner and Loewe's... (1957)
Cu-Bop (1957)
With Thelonious Monk (1957)
Hard Drive (1957)
Big Band (1957)
Moanin' (1958)
Drums Around the Corner (1958)
Holiday for Skins (1958)
1958 – Paris Olympia (1958)
Des Femmes Disparaissent (1958)
The St. Germain Club (1958)
At the Jazz Corner of the World (1959)
Les Liaisons Dangereuses (1959)
Africaine (1959)
The Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1959)
Paris Jam Session (1959)
The Big Beat (1960)
A Night in Tunisia (1961)
Art Blakey!!!!! Jazz Messengers!!!!!'' (1961)
References
External links
1919 births
1990 deaths
ABC Records artists
African-American jazz musicians
African-American Muslims
American Muslims
American Ahmadis
American jazz drummers
American jazz bandleaders
Bebop drummers
Bebop ensembles
Blue Note Records artists
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Columbia Records artists
Converts to Islam
Deaths from lung cancer
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Hard bop drummers
Impulse! Records artists
The Jazz Messengers members
Musicians from Pittsburgh
Riverside Records artists
Savoy Records artists
Timeless Records artists
People from Northfield, New Jersey
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania
American male jazz musicians
The Giants of Jazz members
20th-century American male musicians | [
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243654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Douglas | Thomas Douglas | Thomas Douglas may refer to:
Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk (1771–1820), founder of the Red River Colony
Thomas Monteath Douglas (1787–1868), officer of the Bengal Army of the East India Company
Thomas Douglas (American judge) (1790–1855), Florida Supreme Court justice
Tom Douglas (born 1958), American chef, restaurateur and writer
Tommy Douglas (1904–1986), premier of Saskatchewan and leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada
Tommy Douglas (clarinetist) (1911–1965), American jazz clarinetist
Tom Douglas (songwriter), American songwriter
Tom Douglas (footballer) (1910–1943), Scottish footballer
See also
Tommy Douglas Collegiate, a high school in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Thomas Douglas Guest (1781–1845), British painter | [
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243659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaperone%20%28social%29 | Chaperone (social) | A chaperone (also spelled chaperon) in its original social usage was a person who for propriety's sake accompanied an unmarried girl in public; usually she was an older married woman, and most commonly the girl's own mother.
In modern social usage, a chaperon (frequent in British spelling) or chaperone (usual in American spelling) is a responsible adult who accompanies and supervises young people. By extension, the word chaperone is used in clinical contexts.
Origin
The word derives figuratively from the French word chaperon (originally from the Late Latin cappa, meaning "cape"), which referred to a hood that was worn by individuals generally.
A chaperone was part of the costume of the Knights of the Garter when they were in full dress and, probably, since the Knights were court attendants, the word chaperon changed to mean escort. An alternative explanation comes from the sport of falconry, where the word meant the hood placed over the head of a bird of prey to stop its desire to fly.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary the noun (in its figurative sense of escort of females) is attested from 1721, and the verb 'to chaperon' from 1811.
Traditional institution
Although the supervision of vulnerable women in public spaces may be common in many cultures, the specific word chaperon began to be used in the eighteenth century to denote a particular social institution, namely, a woman who would accompany a young unmarried woman in public, and especially where she might be expected to meet a man. In circumstances where, for whatever reason, the mother was unavailable to perform this function, another woman, usually well known to the family, was chosen. A chaperon was usually expected to be a married woman, although a respected, older unmarried or widowed woman (typically someone beyond child-bearing age) was often acceptable.
Chaperones were usually not required in situations where an unmarried woman's father was able to accompany his daughter(s). Chaperones for young men were not commonly employed in Western society until the latter half of the 20th century, although depending on the precise nature of the business he was on, a young male who temporarily left the company of his parents would usually find himself under the supervision of coaches, employers or other such individuals (such personnel were not typically seen to be chaperones in the traditional sense).
Duenna
English-speaking cultures supposed, perhaps correctly, that the institution was particularly strict in southern Europe, especially in Spain, to which they attributed the word duenna, a misspelling of the Spanish word "dueña". By an extended usage the word duenna has come to mean a young woman's female companion from any culture, particularly one who is exceedingly strict. The Oxford English Dictionary instances "There is no duenna so rigidly prudent as ... a superannuated coquette", and even any disapproving person irrespective of gender (where it instances "He drew his lips together in that duenna-like way").
Current usage
Chaperones were expected to exercise stern authority over their charges; this, combined with the fact that young people typically had little or no say in the choice of a chaperone, could lead to resistance and resentment on the part of the young people being supervised. One particular effect of the perceived need for the chaperoning of young women was that the early development of women's sport, already impaired by a reluctance on the part of society to accept the presence of females in organized sports, was further inhibited for several decades due to the extra costs involved in hiring chaperones.
The practice of one-on-one chaperones for social occasions has largely fallen out of use in Western society. Today, the term is most often applied to parents and teachers who supervise groups of young people (often of mixed genders) at school dances, sporting events, field trips and other such events. Often, for short trips where adults are required to perform other functions (such as coaching) these adults will be expected to perform chaperoning duties as well. This practice both saves money and has the potential to foster a better relationship between young people and the adults chaperoning them.
A major drawback of such an arrangement is that the adults involved are often hired for other reasons besides their qualifications to supervise children and adolescents. There is, therefore, the potential that such adults may be presented an opportunity to engage in physical, emotional and/or sexual abuse of their charges. Therefore, in present-day situations where young people plan to be away from their families for an extended period of time, such as modern-day cinema, theatre and television productions where the cast includes children as well as other areas such as high-level sport or modeling, there is often a legal obligation to have a staff role of a chaperone, responsible for their general safety and well-being while away from their parents. Chaperones must be qualified in specialist childcare areas such as pediatric first aid, child protection, and all required reporting and workforce requirements.
In culture
Richard Sheridan's 18 century play The Duenna was used for libretto of two operas: his contemporary Thomas Linley the Younger's work of the same title and in 20 century by Russian composer Sergey Prokofiev in his Betrothal in a Monastery.
The plot of Brandon Thomas's 1892 farce play Charley's Aunt revolves around the need for a chaperone.
E. M. Forster's 1908 novel A Room with a View features a character, Charlotte Bartlett, who functions as a chaperone for her younger cousin Lucy Honeychurch.
The 2006 musical spoof The Drowsy Chaperone centers upon an unnamed, alcoholic chaperone to the bride-to-be, Janet Van de Graaff.
Cosmo Kramer acts as a chaperone for Jerry Seinfeld and Miss Rhode Island in an episode (S6E1) of Seinfeld.
See also
Baedeker, a 19th-century German publisher which pioneered the travel guides
Bodyguard
Chaperone (clinical), a person whose role is to witness and safeguard both a patient and a medical practitioner
Cicisbeo
Reproductive rights
Women and Islam for a discussion of the requirement for an unmarriageable male relative (called a mahram) to accompany women
References
External links
Parenting
Interpersonal relationships | [
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243661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Buckingham | Duke of Buckingham | Duke of Buckingham held with Duke of Chandos, referring to Buckingham, is a title that has been created several times in the peerages of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom. There have also been earls and marquesses of Buckingham.
History
Dukes of Buckingham, first creation (1444)
The first creation of the dukedom was on 14 September 1444, when Humphrey Stafford, was made Duke of Buckingham.
On his father's side, Stafford was descended from Edmund de Stafford, who had been summoned to Parliament as Lord Stafford in 1299. The second Baron had been created Earl of Stafford in 1351. On his mother's side, Stafford was the son of Anne of Gloucester, Countess of Buckingham, daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of Buckingham (later Duke of Gloucester), youngest son of King Edward III of England. Stafford was an important supporter of the House of Lancaster in the Wars of the Roses, and was killed at the Battle of Northampton in July 1460.
The 1st Duke of Buckingham was succeeded by his grandson, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who aided Richard III in his claiming the throne in 1483 (Edward IV of England's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville having been declared null and void and Edward's sons illegitimate by Act of Parliament Titulus Regius), but who then led a revolt against Richard and was executed later that same year. His titles were forfeited along with the dukedom.
His son, Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, was restored to the title upon Henry VII's accession to the throne in 1485, but he was ultimately executed for treason in 1521 due to his opposition to Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Henry VIII's chief advisor. At this time the title became extinct; it was posthumously attainted in 1523.
Dukes of Buckingham, second creation (1623)
The second creation of the dukedom was in 1623 for George Villiers, a favourite of James I of England. He had previously been made Baron Whaddon, of Whaddon in the County of Buckingham, and Viscount Villiers in 1616, then Earl of Buckingham in 1617, then Marquess of Buckingham in 1618 until he was also created Earl of Coventry and Duke of Buckingham in 1623. Buckingham, who continued in office as chief minister into the reign of James's son, Charles I, was responsible for a policy of war against Spain and France. In 1628 he was assassinated by John Felton, a disgruntled army officer who had served under him, as he prepared an expedition to relieve the Huguenots of La Rochelle.
His son, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, was a notable advisor in the reign of Charles II, and along with Lord Ashley made up the Protestant axis of the famous Cabal Ministry. He started the first foxhunt in England, The Bilsdale Hunt in 1668 and later started the Sinnington Hunt in 1680. After digging for a fox above Kirkbymoorside, and being too far from his home in Helmsley, North Yorkshire, he died from a chill in the house of a tenant. With his death in 1687, the title again became extinct.
Several other members of the Villiers family have been elevated to the peerage. Christopher Villiers, 1st Earl of Anglesey, and John Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck, were brothers of the first Duke of Buckingham. Also, Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey, was the great-nephew of the first Duke of Buckingham while Thomas Villiers, 1st Earl of Clarendon, was the second son of the second Earl of Jersey.
Dukes of Buckingham, third creation (1703)
The third creation of the dukedom, as Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, was in 1703 for John Sheffield, 3rd Earl of Mulgrave, 1st Marquess of Normanby, a notable Tory politician of the late Stuart period, who served under Queen Anne as Lord Privy Seal and Lord President of the Council. The dukedom was created in the Peerage of England. The full title was Duke of the County of Buckingham and of Normanby but in practice only Duke of Buckingham and Normanby was used. The duke's family descended from Sir Edmund Sheffield, second cousin of Henry VIII, who in 1547 was raised to the Peerage of England as Baron Sheffield and in 1549 was killed in the streets of Norwich during Kett's Rebellion.
On the death of the 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1735, the titles became extinct. The Sheffield family estates passed to the 2nd Duke's half-brother Charles Herbert Sheffield, the illegitimate son of the 1st Duke by Frances Stewart. He was created a Baronet in 1755 and is the ancestor of the Sheffield Baronets, of Normanby.
Dukes of Buckingham, fourth creation (1822)
The fourth creation of the dukedom, as Duke of Buckingham and Chandos in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, was in 1822 for Richard Temple-Grenville, 2nd Marquess of Buckingham, a landowner and politician.
He was the son of George Nugent Temple Grenville, 3rd Earl Temple, who was the son of Prime Minister George Grenville, and who had been created Marquess of Buckingham in the peerage of Great Britain in 1784. The 1st Marquess of Buckingham had married Lady Mary Nugent, daughter of Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent. Mary was in 1800 created Baroness Nugent in her own right in the Peerage of Ireland, with remainder to her second son George (see the Baron Nugent). In 1788 Lord Buckingham also succeeded his father-in-law as second Earl Nugent according to a special remainder in the letters patent, and at the same time assumed by Royal licence the additional surname of Nugent.
After the 1st Marquess of Buckingham's death in 1813, his titles passed to his son Richard Temple-Grenville, 2nd Marquess of Buckingham. He married Lady Anne Eliza Brydges, the only child of James Brydges, 3rd Duke of Chandos (a title which became extinct on his death in 1789), and assumed by Royal licence the additional surnames of Brydges-Chandos in 1799. In 1822 Lord Buckingham was created Earl Temple of Stowe, in the County of Buckingham, Marquess of Chandos and Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, all in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The earldom was created with remainder, failing male issue of his own, to (1) the heirs male of the body of his deceased great-grandmother Hester Grenville, 1st Countess Temple, and (2) in default thereof to his granddaughter Lady Anne Eliza Mary Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, daughter of his son Richard, who succeeded as second Duke in 1839.
After the 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos' death in 1861, the titles passed to his son, the third Duke. He was also a prominent politician and served as Lord President of the Council and as Secretary of State for the Colonies. In 1868 the Duke established his right to the Scottish lordship of Kinloss before the Committee for Privileges of the House of Lords. On his death in 1889 without male issue, the dukedom and its subsidiary titles (the marquessate of Buckingham, marquessate of Chandos, earldom of Temple and earldom of Nugent) became extinct. The lordship of Kinloss passed to his daughter Mary. The earldom of Temple of Stowe passed to his sister's son William Temple-Gore-Langton because the title had been created with a special remainder to her heirs male. The viscountcy of Cobham, which had also been created with a special remainder, passed to Charles Lyttelton, 5th Baron Lyttelton, a descendant of Hester Grenville, 1st Countess Temple's sister Christian, who had married Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 4th Baronet.
List of title holders
Dukes of Buckingham (1444)
Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham (1402–1460), created Duke of Buckingham in 1444
Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Stafford (1425–1458), eldest son of the 1st Duke, predeceased his father
Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1455–1483), only son of Lord Stafford, was attainted for treason in 1483
Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham (1477–1521), eldest son of the 2nd Duke, was restored to his father's honours in 1485, but then executed for treason in 1521 and posthumously attainted in 1523
Dukes of Buckingham (1623)
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham (1592–1628), created Duke of Buckingham and Earl of Coventry in 1623
George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1628–1687), younger son of the 1st Duke
Dukes of Buckingham and Normanby (1703)
John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby (1648–1721), created Duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1703
John Sheffield, Marquess of Normanby (1710)
Robert Sheffield, Marquess of Normanby (1711–1714)
Edmund Sheffield, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Normanby (1716–1735)
Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos (1822)
Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1776–1839), created Duke of Buckingham and Chandos in 1822
Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1797–1861)
Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1823–1889)
See also
Duchess of Buckingham
Earl of Anglesey (1623 creation)
Viscount Purbeck
Earl of Jersey
Earl of Clarendon (1776 creation)
Extinct dukedoms in the Peerage of England
Buckingham
Forfeited dukedoms in the Peerage of England
Noble titles created in 1444
Noble titles created in 1623 | [
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243664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail%20Baron | Rail Baron | Rail Baron is a railroad board game for 3 to 6 players.
Rail Baron was initially published in the 1970s under the name Boxcars by the original designers R.S. Erickson and T.F. Erickson, Jr. It was soon acquired, renamed and reissued by the Avalon Hill Game Company.
Gameplay
Rail Baron is played on a map of the United States on which the routes of 28 historic railroads, such as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad have been marked. The map is divided into 7 regions, Northeast, Southeast, North Central, South Central, Plains, Northwest and Southwest. Major US cities which are connected by the railroads act as destinations for travel. Dots on the railroad routes represent small towns along the way, and serve as distance markers for player movement.
The goal of each player is to accumulate money by moving his or her train token to map destinations which are generated at random via a lookup table. Large cities like New York City and Chicago are more likely to be generated as destinations than small cities. Travel from one destination to the next is accomplished by rolling dice to determine distance that can be moved. Players then move their train token along map dots toward their destination.
Upon arrival at a destination, the player collects a cash payoff, and may use the money to upgrade his or her train engine to a faster model, or purchase a railroad. Railroad purchases are key to the game because an owner collects substantial fees from other players who ride his or her railroad during their movement. Meanwhile, the owner can ride his or her own railroads at no cost. Thus, an important decision in the game is whether to buy a variety of railroads in order to gain access to all areas of the map for oneself, or to buy railroads in a given area in order to monopolize it and collect the valuable use fees from opponents.
Winning
To win the game a player must accumulate $200,000 and then make a daring run back to their home city (their first city in the game) before any opponent can catch them via what is known as a rover play.
Railroads
The 28 railroads depicted in the game correspond to 28 actual real-life railroads that operated in the early 20th century. The table below lists these 28 railroads, their cost within the Rail Baron game, their real-life years of operation and eventual corporate outcome, and their current status as of 2009.
¹ = As of September, 2009
Variants
Several variants are gaining in popularity. The "Home Swap" lets players switch the home city and first destination before moving for the first time in case their first destination is an easily monopolizable one, or if they want to try to get a better home city. "Free Superchief" lets players upgrade to a SuperChief engine at no cost if they already have an Express engine; this both speeds the game and lessens the dominance of the Pennsylvania RR.
Fans of the game have created dozens of alternate maps for play. There now exist game maps of Europe, New York City, Colorado, and many other locations, as well as fictional regions. There is also a computer version which both speeds play and supports online multiplayer matches.
Reviews
Casus Belli #33 (June 1986)
References
External links
An Illustrated History of Rail Baron at Rail Game Fans
Command line utilities for game play
Avalon Hill games
Board games introduced in 1974
Board games introduced in 1977
Railroad board games | [
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243665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Theory%20of%20Justice | A Theory of Justice | A Theory of Justice is a 1971 work of political philosophy and ethics by the philosopher John Rawls, in which the author attempts to provide a moral theory alternative to utilitarianism and that addresses the problem of distributive justice (the socially just distribution of goods in a society). The theory uses an updated form of Kantian philosophy and a variant form of conventional social contract theory. Rawls's theory of justice is fully a political theory of justice as opposed to other forms of justice discussed in other disciplines and contexts.
The resultant theory was challenged and refined several times in the decades following its original publication in 1971. A significant reappraisal was published in the 1985 essay "Justice as Fairness", and a subsequent book under the same title, within which Rawls further developed his two central principles for his discussion of justice. Together, they dictate that society should be structured so that the greatest possible amount of liberty is given to its members, limited only by the notion that the liberty of any one member shall not infringe upon that of any other member. Secondly, inequalities – either social or economic – are only to be allowed if the worst off will be better off than they might be under an equal distribution. Finally, if there is such a beneficial inequality, this inequality should not make it harder for those without resources to occupy positions of power – for instance, public office.
First published in 1971, A Theory of Justice was revised in 1975, while translated editions were being released in the 1990s it was further revised in 1999. In 2001, Rawls published a follow-up study titled Justice as Fairness: A Restatement. The original edition was reissued in 2004.
Objective
In A Theory of Justice, Rawls argues for a principled reconciliation of liberty and equality that is meant to apply to the basic structure of a well-ordered society. Central to this effort is an account of the circumstances of justice, inspired by David Hume, and a fair choice situation for parties facing such circumstances, similar to some of Immanuel Kant's views. Principles of justice are sought to guide the conduct of the parties. These parties are recognized to face moderate scarcity, and they are neither naturally altruistic nor purely egoistic. They have ends which they seek to advance, but prefer to advance them through cooperation with others on mutually acceptable terms. Rawls offers a model of a fair choice situation (the original position with its veil of ignorance) within which parties would hypothetically choose mutually acceptable principles of justice. Under such constraints, Rawls believes that parties would find his favoured principles of justice to be especially attractive, winning out over varied alternatives, including utilitarian and 'right wing' libertarian accounts.
The "original position"
Rawls belongs to the social contract tradition, although he takes a different view from that of previous thinkers. Specifically, Rawls develops what he claims are principles of justice through the use of an artificial device he calls the Original position; in which, everyone decides principles of justice from behind a veil of ignorance. This "veil" is one that essentially blinds people to all facts about themselves so they cannot tailor principles to their own advantage:
"...no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does anyone know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like. I shall even assume that the parties do not know their conceptions of the good or their special psychological propensities. The principles of justice are chosen behind a veil of ignorance."
According to Rawls, ignorance of these details about oneself will lead to principles that are fair to all. If an individual does not know how he will end up in his own conceived society, he is likely not going to privilege any one class of people, but rather develop a scheme of justice that treats all fairly. In particular, Rawls claims that those in the Original Position would all adopt a maximin strategy which would maximize the prospects of the least well-off.
"They are the principles that rational and free persons concerned to further their own interests would accept in an initial position of equality as defining the fundamentals of the terms of their association."
Rawls bases his Original Position on a "thin theory of the good" which he says "explains the rationality underlying choice of principles in the Original Position". A full theory of the good follows after we derive principles from the original position. Rawls claims that the parties in the original position would adopt two such principles, which would then govern the assignment of rights and duties and regulate the distribution of social and economic advantages across society. The difference principle permits inequalities in the distribution of goods only if those inequalities benefit the worst-off members of society. Rawls believes that this principle would be a rational choice for the representatives in the original position for the following reason: Each member of society has an equal claim on their society's goods. Natural attributes should not affect this claim, so the basic right of any individual, before further considerations are taken into account, must be to an equal share in material wealth. What, then, could justify unequal distribution? Rawls argues that inequality is acceptable only if it is to the advantage of those who are worst-off.
The agreement that stems from the original position is both hypothetical and ahistorical. It is hypothetical in the sense that the principles to be derived are what the parties would, under certain legitimating conditions, agree to, not what they have agreed to. Rawls seeks to use an argument that the principles of justice are what would be agreed upon if people were in the hypothetical situation of the original position and that those principles have moral weight as a result of that. It is ahistorical in the sense that it is not supposed that the agreement has ever been, or indeed could ever have been, derived in the real world outside of carefully limited experimental exercises.
The principles of justice
Rawls modifies and develops the principles of justice throughout his book. In chapter forty-six, Rawls makes his final clarification on the two principles of justice:1. "Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all".
2. "Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
(a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle, and
(b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity."The first principle is often called the greatest equal liberty principle. Part (a) of the second principle is referred to as the difference principle while part (b) is referred to as the equal opportunity principle.
Rawls orders the principles of justice lexically, as follows: 1, 2b, 2a. The greatest equal liberty principle takes priority, followed by the equal opportunity principle and finally the difference principle. The first principle must be satisfied before 2b, and 2b must be satisfied before 2a. As Rawls states: "A principle does not come into play until those previous to it are either fully met or do not apply." Therefore, the equal basic liberties protected in the first principle cannot be traded or sacrificed for greater social advantages (granted by 2(b)) or greater economic advantages (granted by 2a).
The greatest equal liberty principle
"Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all" (1).
The greatest equal liberty principle is mainly concerned with the distribution of rights and liberties. Rawls identifies the following equal basic liberties: "political liberty (the right to vote and hold public office) and freedom of speech and assembly; liberty of conscience and freedom of thought; freedom of the person, which includes freedom from psychological oppression and physical assault and dismemberment (integrity of the person); the right to hold personal property and freedom from arbitrary arrest and seizure as defined by the concept of the rule of law."
It is a matter of some debate whether freedom of contract can be inferred to be included among these basic liberties: "liberties not on the list, for example, the right to own certain kinds of property and freedom of contract as understood by the doctrine of laissez-faire are not basic; and so they are not protected by the priority of the first principle.".
The difference principle
Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society, consistent with the just savings principle (2a).
Rawls' claim in (a) is that departures from equality of a list of what he calls primary goods—"things which a rational man wants whatever else he wants" are justified only to the extent that they improve the lot of those who are worst-off under that distribution in comparison with the previous, equal, distribution. His position is at least in some sense egalitarian, with a provision that inequalities are allowed when they benefit the least advantaged. An important consequence of Rawls' view is that inequalities can actually be just, as long as they are to the benefit of the least well off. His argument for this position rests heavily on the claim that morally arbitrary factors (for example, the family one is born into) shouldn't determine one's life chances or opportunities. Rawls is also oriented to an intuition that a person does not morally deserve their inborn talents; thus that one is not entitled to all the benefits they could possibly receive from them; hence, at least one of the criteria which could provide an alternative to equality in assessing the justice of distributions is eliminated.
Further, the just savings principle requires that some sort of material respect is left for future generations. Although Rawls is ambiguous about what this means, it can generally be understood as "a contribution to those coming later".
The equal opportunity principle
Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity (2b).
The stipulation in 2b is lexically prior to that in 2a. This is because equal opportunity requires not merely that offices and positions are distributed on the basis of merit, but that all have reasonable opportunity to acquire the skills on the basis of which merit is assessed, even if one might not have the necessary material resources - due to a beneficial inequality stemming from the difference principle.
It may be thought that this stipulation, and even the first principle of justice, may require greater equality than the difference principle, because large social and economic inequalities, even when they are to the advantage of the worst-off, will tend to seriously undermine the value of the political liberties and any measures towards fair equality of opportunity.
Influence and reception
In 1972, A Theory of Justice was reviewed in The New York Times Book Review by Marshall Cohen, who described the work as "magisterial," and suggested that Rawls' use of the techniques of analytic philosophy made the book the "most formidable" defense of the social contract tradition to date. He credited Rawls with showing that the widespread claim that "systematic moral and political philosophy are dead" is mistaken, and with providing a "bold and rigorous" account of "the principles to which our public life is committed." Though he suggested that it might take years before a satisfactory appraisal of the work could be made, he noted that Rawls' accomplishments had been compared by scholars to those of John Stuart Mill and Immanuel Kant. However, he criticized Rawls for "looseness in his understanding of some fundamental political concepts."
A Theory of Justice received criticism from several philosophers. Robert Nozick criticized Rawls' account of distributive justice in his defense of libertarianism, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974). Allan Bloom, writing in American Political Science Review in 1975, noted that A Theory of Justice had "attracted more attention in the Anglo-Saxon world than any work of its kind in a generation", attributing its popularity to its being "the most ambitious political project undertaken by a member of the school currently dominant in academic philosophy" and to Rawls' "radical egalitarian interpretation of liberal democracy." Bloom criticized Rawls for failing to account for the existence of natural right in his theory of justice and wrote that Rawls absolutizes social union as the ultimate goal which would conventionalize everything into artifice. Robert Paul Wolff criticized Rawls from a Marxist perspective in Understanding Rawls: A Critique and Reconstruction of A Theory of Justice (1977), arguing Rawls offers an apology for the status quo insofar as he constructs justice from existing practice and forecloses the possibility that there may be problems of injustice embedded in capitalist social relations, private property or the market economy.
Michael Sandel criticized Rawls in Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1982), arguing that Rawls encourages people to think about justice while divorced from the values and aspirations that define who they are as persons and that allow people to determine what justice is. Susan Moller Okin wrote in Justice, Gender, and the Family (1989) that Rawls had provided "the most influential of all twentieth-century theories of justice", but criticized him for failing to account for the injustices and hierarchies embedded in familial relations. Economists Kenneth Arrow and John Harsanyi criticized the assumptions of the original position, and in particular, the use of maximin reasoning, with the implication that Rawls' selection of parameters for the original position was result-oriented, i.e., calculated to derive the two principles that Rawls desired to advance, and/or, as the "contractarian critique" holds, that the persons in the original position articulated by Rawls would not in fact select the principles that A Theory of Justice advocates. In reply Rawls emphasized the role of the original position as a "device of representation" for making sense of the idea of a fair choice situation for free and equal citizens, and that the relatively modest role that maximin plays in his argument: it is "a useful heuristic rule of thumb" given the curious features of choice behind the veil of ignorance.
In his book Black Rights / White Wrongs, philosopher Charles W. Mills critiques the underlying assumptions of Rawls’s work as inherently white, and thus subject to glaring blind spots. Mills sets “the white fantasy world of Rawlsianism” and its “ideal theory” against the actual history of racialized oppression in the modern era, and proposes that non-ideal theory is urgently needed to address racial inequality and possible remediations. “Here is a huge body of work," Mills writes on Rawls's output, "focused on questions of social justice – seemingly the natural place to look for guidance on normative issues related to race – which has nothing to say about racial justice, the distinctive injustice of the modern world.” Mills documents a “pattern of silence” in Rawls’s work, and, through the lens of Radical Black Kantianism, situates that within a broader tradition of white political philosophers either being explicitly racist, or ignoring race in discussions of justice.
The economist Amartya Sen has raised concerns over Rawls' emphasis on primary social goods, arguing in Inequality Reexamined (1992) that we should attend not only to the distribution of primary goods, but also how effectively people are able to use those goods to pursue their ends. Norman Daniels has wondered why health care shouldn't be treated as a primary good, and some of his subsequent work has addressed this question, arguing for a right to health care within a broadly Rawlsian framework. The philosopher G. A. Cohen, in If You're An Egalitarian, How Come You're So Rich? (2000) and Rescuing Justice and Equality (2008), criticizes Rawls' avowal of inequality under the difference principle, his application of the principle only to social institutions, and what he sees as Rawls's obsession with using primary goods as his currency of equality.
Sen critiques and attempts to revitalize A Theory of Justice in The Idea of Justice (2009). He credits Rawls for revitalizing the interest in the ideas of what justice means and the stress put on fairness, objectivity, equality of opportunity, removal of poverty, and freedom. However, Sen, as part of his general critique of the contractarian tradition, states that ideas about a perfectly just world do not help redress actual existing inequality. Sen faults Rawls for an over-emphasis on institutions as guarantors of justice not considering the effects of human behaviour on the institutions' ability to maintain a just society. Sen believes Rawls understates the difficulty in getting everyone in society to adhere to the norms of a just society. He also claims that Rawls' position that there be only one possible outcome of the reflective equilibrium behind the veil of ignorance is misguided. In contrast to Rawls, Sen believes that multiple conflicting, yet just principles may arise and that this undermines the multi-step processes that Rawls laid out as leading to a perfectly just society.
In popular culture
A Theory of Justice inspired a 2013 musical, A Theory of Justice: The Musical!, written and produced by Eylon Aslan-Levy, Ramin Sabi, Tommy Peto, and Toby Huelin.
See also
American philosophy
Ken Binmore
Robert Nozick
Friedrich Hayek
Lottery of birth
Redistribution of wealth
Social liberalism
Social contract theory
References
Further reading
1971 non-fiction books
1975 non-fiction books
1999 non-fiction books
American non-fiction books
Books in political philosophy
English-language books
Ethics books
Belknap Press books
Justice
Political theories
Social agreement
Social theories
Works by John Rawls | [
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243667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20American%20League%20pennant%20winners | List of American League pennant winners | Each Major League Baseball (MLB) season, one American League (AL) team wins the pennant, signifying that they are the league's champion and have the right to play in the World Series against the champion of the National League (NL). The pennant was presented to the team with the best win–loss record each year through the 1968 season, after which the AL Championship Series (ALCS) was introduced to decide the pennant winner. The first modern World Series was played in 1903 and, after a hiatus in 1904, has taken place every season except 1994, when a players' strike forced the cancellation of the postseason. The current AL pennant holders are the Houston Astros who won the pennant on October 22, 2021.
In 1969, the AL split into two divisions, and the teams with the best records in each division played one another in the five-game ALCS to determine the pennant winner, who received (and continues to receive) the William Harridge Trophy. The trophy featured a golden eagle, the league's emblem, sitting atop a silver baseball and clutching the AL banner. Since 2017, the trophy is all silver with a pennant on top. The trophy is named for Will Harridge, who was league president from 1931 to 1958. The format of the ALCS was changed from a best-of-five to a best-of-seven format in the 1985 postseason. In 1995, an additional playoff series was added when MLB restructured into three divisions in each league. , the winners of the Eastern, Central, and Western Divisions, as well as the AL Wild Card winner, play in the AL Division Series, a best-of-five playoff to determine the opponents who will play in the ALCS. AL pennant winners have gone on to win the World Series 66 times, most recently in 2018.
The New York Yankees have won 40 AL pennants, winning their first in 1921 and their most recent in 2009. This total is more than twice that of the next-closest team, the Oakland Athletics, who have won 15. They are followed by the Boston Red Sox and the Detroit Tigers, with 14 and 11 pennants won respectively. The Yankees have the most pennants since the introduction of the ALCS in 1969 with 11, followed by the Athletics, Red Sox, and the Baltimore Orioles with 6, 6, and 5 respectively. The Yankees also hold the record for most wins by a pennant-winning team, with their 1998 team winning 114 out of 162 games, finishing 22 games ahead of the Boston Red Sox. The 1954 Cleveland Indians won the most games of any pennant winner under the pre-1969 system, winning 111 out of their 154 games and finishing eight games ahead of the Yankees. The Milwaukee Brewers won the AL pennant in 1982 but later moved to the NL starting in the 1998 season.
The only current MLB franchise to have never won a league pennant—and therefore, to have never appeared in the World Series—is the Seattle Mariners.
Key
Pre-expansion (1901–1968)
League Championship Series era (1969–present)
Notes
A mid-season labor stoppage split the season into two halves. The winner of the first half played the winner of the second half in each division in the 1981 American League Division Series. The winners played in the 1981 ALCS for the American League pennant.
The leagues were re-aligned in 1994 to three divisions and a wild card was added to the playoffs, but the labor stoppage cancelled the postseason. Wild cards were first used in the 1995 playoffs.
While Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim was the official name of the team, the team was commonly referred to simply as "Los Angeles Angels", which they changed back to in 2016.
Pennants Won by Franchise
Notes
Also known as Baltimore Orioles and New York Highlanders. In addition to their 40 official pennants, the Yankees had the best won-loss record in the American League when the 1994 season was cut short by a labor dispute.
Also known as Kansas City Athletics and Philadelphia Athletics
Also known as Boston Americans
Also known as St. Louis Browns and Milwaukee Brewers. This does not refer to the New York Yankees, who were known as the Baltimore Orioles in 1901 and 1902.
Also known as Washington Senators from 1901 to 1960 as called the Nationals from 1905 to 1955.
Also known as Cleveland Bluebirds (Blues), Cleveland Bronchos, Cleveland Naps, and Cleveland Indians
Also known as Washington Senators from 1961 to 1971
Also known as Houston Colt .45's from 1962 to 1964. This does not include one National League pennant.
Also known as Anaheim Angels, California Angels, and Los Angeles Angels
Also known as Tampa Bay Devil Rays
Also known as Seattle Pilots in 1969. The Brewers were members of the American League through the 1997 season after which they switched to the National League. This table records only the Brewers' American League accomplishments.
See also
National League Championship Series
List of National League pennant winners
List of World Series champions
References
General
Inline citations
External links
Official League Championship Series Overview from Major League Baseball
American
American League | [
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243669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia%20II | Australia II | Australia II (KA 6) is an Australian 12-metre-class America's Cup challenge racing yacht that was launched in 1982 and won the 1983 America's Cup for the Royal Perth Yacht Club. Skippered by John Bertrand, she was the first successful Cup challenger, ending a 132-year tenure (with 26 successful defences) by the New York Yacht Club.
Design
Australia II was designed by Ben Lexcen, built by Steve Ward, owned by Alan Bond and skippered by John Bertrand. Lexcen's Australia II design featured a reduced waterline length and a short chord winged keel which gave the boat a significant advantage in manoeuvrability and heeling moment (lower ballast center of gravity) but it was a significant disadvantage in choppy seas. The boat was also very quick in stays. The winged keel was a major design advance, and its legality was questioned by the New York Yacht Club. During the summer of 1983, as selection trials took place for the Cup defence that autumn, the New York Yacht Club challenged the legality of the keel design. The controversy was decided in Australia IIs favour.
Australia II sported a number of other innovative features that contributed to her success, including radical vertical sail designs, all-kevlar running rigging and a lightweight carbon fibre boom.
Later claims of Dutch design
In 2009, Dutch naval architect Peter van Oossanen claimed that the winged keel was actually designed by him and his group of Dutch designers, and not Ben Lexcen. If true, this would have been reason to disqualify Australia II, since the rules state that the yacht is to be designed by citizens of the nation it represents. The controversy arose due to cup rules allowing designers to use model basins for testing that are not located in the challenging country. Model testing was performed in the Netherlands and Peter van Oossanen and another Dutch engineer, Joop Sloof, performed measurements and analyses related to evaluation of winged keel designs. The suggestion that the vessel was not designed by Australians has been refuted by both John Bertrand and project manager John Longley. Furthermore, it is well established that Lexcen had been experimenting with wing adaptations to the undersurface appendages of boats before, including his 1958 skiffs Taipan and Venom, although in the latter application they were not determined to be effective and not further adopted. In 1983 Lexcen commented on the controversy: "I have in mind to admit it all to the New York Yacht Club that I really owe the secret of the design to a Greek guy who helped me out and was invaluable. He's been dead for 2000 years. Bloody Archimedes..."
Competitions
Louis Vuitton Cup
Australia II dominated the 1983 Louis Vuitton Cup before defeating Azzurra in the semi finals and Victory 83 in the final to win the trophy and earn the right to challenge for the America's Cup.
America's Cup
Australia II, bearing sail number KA6, represented the Royal Perth Yacht Club of Australia in its September 1983 challenge for the America's Cup. The defender, the New York Yacht Club, had held the cup since 1851, dominating challengers and sustaining the longest winning streak in sport.
Australia II, skippered by John Bertrand, faced Dennis Conner sailing the 12-metre Liberty in the ocean off Newport, Rhode Island. Australia II came from behind to prevail 4 races to 3. The victory on 26 September 1983 was a landmark event for the nation of Australia, not to mention the Royal Perth Yacht Club. The achievement was underscored when Australia II was awarded the ABC Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year for 1983.
The crew of Australia II for the America's Cup races was John Bertrand (skipper), Will Baillieu, Colin Beashel, Rob Brown , Peter Costello, Damian Fewster, James Hardy (alternate helm), Ken Judge, Skip Lissiman, John Longley, Scott McAllister, Brian Richardson, Phil Smidmore, Grant Simmer, and Hugh Treharne. Beashel was an Olympic medal winning sailor who competed at six Olympic games. Richardson was a dual-Olympian oarsman who had stroked the Australian men's eight at the Moscow 1980 Olympics.
Popular culture
The Boxing Kangaroo was the official mascot of the Australia II effort.
The win was received with much enthusiasm in Australia, with the Men at Work song "Down Under" becoming the official anthem for the crew.
Retirement
In the mid-1980s, Australia II was sold by Alan Bond to the Australian government. She was lent to the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney for display in 1991. In 2000, Australia II was removed from the National Maritime Museum and transferred to the Western Australian Maritime Museum in Fremantle. For the 150th anniversary celebrations of the America's Cup in 2001, she was removed from the museum and shipped to the Isle of Wight, sailing with the original crew for several days of commemorative regattas. Australia II was returned to the Western Australian Maritime Museum, where she is on permanent display.
In 2017, the Team of Australia II were among the inaugural inductees to the Australian Sailing Hall of Fame.
References
Further reading
Schmitt, Hugh. (1987) Australia II – details on the housing of the yacht The West Australian 28 May 1987, p. 16a-c b
External links
33rd America's Cup: Where are they now: Australia II KA 6
America's Cup challengers
Individual sailing vessels
12-metre class yachts
Sailing in Western Australia
Ships of Australia
Museum ships in Australia
Ships preserved in museums
Tourist attractions in Western Australia
Sailing yachts designed by Ben Lexcen
1980s sailing yachts
Sailing yachts built in Australia
Louis Vuitton Cup yachts
1983 America's Cup
1982 ships | [
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243671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9%20Bazin | André Bazin | André Bazin (; 18 April 1918 – 11 November 1958) was a renowned and influential French film critic and film theorist.
Bazin started to write about film in 1943 and was a co-founder of the renowned film magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 1951, with Jacques Doniol-Valcroze and Joseph-Marie Lo Duca.
He is notable for arguing that realism is the most important function of cinema. His call for objective reality, deep focus, and lack of montage are linked to his belief that the interpretation of a film or scene should be left to the spectator. This placed him in opposition to film theory of the 1920s and 1930s, which emphasized how the cinema could manipulate reality.
Life
Bazin was born in Angers, France in 1918. He met future film and television producer Janine Kirsch while working at Labour and Culture, a militant organization associated with the French Communist party during World War II and eventually they married in 1949 and had a son named Florent. He died in 1958, age 40, of leukemia.
Film criticism
Bazin started to write about film in 1943 and was a co-founder of the renowned film magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 1951, along with Jacques Doniol-Valcroze and Joseph-Marie Lo Duca. Bazin was a major force in post-World War II film studies and criticism. He edited Cahiers until his death, and a four-volume collection of his writings was published posthumously, covering the years 1958 to 1962 and titled Qu'est-ce que le cinéma? (What is cinema?). A selection from this collection was translated into English and published in two volumes in the late 1960s and early 1970s. They became mainstays of film courses in the English-speaking world, but never were updated or revised. In 2009, the Canadian publisher Caboose, taking advantage of more favourable Canadian copyright laws, compiled fresh translations of some of the key essays from the collection in a single-volume edition. With annotations by translator Timothy Barnard, this became the only corrected and annotated edition of these writings in any language. In 2018, this volume was replaced by a more extensive collection of Bazin's texts translated by Barnard, André Bazin: Selected Writings 1943-1958.
The long-held view of Bazin's critical system is that he argued for films that depicted "objective reality" (such as documentaries and films of the Italian neorealism school or as he called it "the Italian school of the Liberation"). He advocated the use of deep focus (Orson Welles, William Wyler), wide shots (Jean Renoir) and the "shot-in-depth", and preferred what he referred to as "true continuity" through mise-en-scène over experiments in editing and visual effects. For example, he extensively analyzes a scene in Wyler's The Best Years of Our Lives (with cinematography by Gregg Toland) to illuminate the function of deep-focus composition:
The concentration on objective reality, deep focus, and lack of montage are linked to Bazin's belief that the interpretation of a film or scene should be left to the spectator. This placed him in opposition to film theory of the 1920s and 1930s, which emphasized how the cinema could manipulate reality.
Bazin, who was influenced by personalism, believed that a film should represent a director's personal vision. This idea had a pivotal importance in the development of the auteur theory, the manifesto for which François Truffaut's article "A Certain Tendency of the French Cinema" was published by his mentor Bazin in Cahiers in 1954. Bazin also championed directors like Howard Hawks, William Wyler and John Ford.
In popular culture
François Truffaut dedicated The 400 Blows to Bazin, who died one day after shooting began on the film.
Richard Linklater's film Waking Life features a discussion between filmmaker Caveh Zahedi and poet David Jewell regarding some of Bazin's film theories. There is an emphasis on Bazin's Christianity and the belief that every shot is a representation of God manifested in creation.
Bibliography
In English
Bazin, André. (2018). André Bazin: Selected Writings 1943-1958 (Timothy Barnard, Trans.) Montreal: caboose,
Bazin, André. (1967–71). What is cinema? Vol. 1 & 2 (Hugh Gray, Trans., Ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Bazin, André. (1973). Jean Renoir (François Truffaut, Ed.; W.W. Halsey II & William H. Simon, Trans.). New York: Simon and Schuster.
Bazin, André. (1978). Orson Welles: a critical view. New York: Harper and Row.
Andrew, Dudley. André Bazin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Bazin, André. (1981). French cinema of the occupation and resistance: The birth of a critical esthetic (François Truffaut, Ed., Stanley Hochman, Trans.). New York: F. Ungar Pub. Co.
Bazin, André. (1982). The cinema of cruelty: From Buñuel to Hitchcock (François Truffaut, Ed.; Sabine d'Estrée, Trans.). New York: Seaver Books.
Bazin, André. (1985). Essays on Chaplin (Jean Bodon, Trans., Ed.). New Haven, Conn.: University of New Haven Press. LCCN 84-52687
Bazin, André. (1996). Bazin at work: Major essays & reviews from the forties and fifties (Bert Cardullo, Ed., Trans.; Alain Piette, Trans.). New York: Routledge. (HB) (PB)
Bazin, André. (Forthcoming). French cinema from the liberation to the New Wave, 1945-1958 (Bert Cardullo, Ed.)
In French
La politique des auteurs, edited by André Bazin. Interviews with Robert Bresson, Jean Renoir, Luis Buñuel, Howard Hawks, Alfred Hitchcock, Fritz Lang, Orson Welles, Michelangelo Antonioni, Carl Theodor Dreyer and Roberto Rossellini
Qu'est-ce que le cinéma? (4 vols.), by André Bazin, originally published 1958–1962 (1958, 1959, 1961, 1962). New edition: Les Éditions du Cerf, 2003.
André Bazin - Écrits complets (2 vol.), éditions Macula, 2018
See also
Invisible auditor
References
Further reading
The André Bazin Special Issue, Film International, No. 30 (November 2007), Jeffrey Crouse, guest editor. Essays include those by Charles Warren ("What is Criticism?"), Richard Armstrong ("The Best Years of Our Lives: Planes of Innocence and Experience"), William Rothman ("Bazin as a Cavellian Realist"), Mats Rohdin ("Cinema as an Art of Potential Metaphors: The Rehabilitation of Metaphor in André Bazin's Realist Film Theory"), Karla Oeler ("André Bazin and the Preservation of Loss"), Tom Paulus ("The View across the Courtyard: Bazin and the Evolution of Depth Style"), and Diane Stevenson ("Godard and Bazin"). Introductory essay, "Because We Need Him Now: Re-enchanting Film Studies Through Bazin," written by Jeffrey Crouse.
External links
André Bazin - Divining the real (page on BFI)
André Bazin: Part 1, Film Style Theory in its Historical Context
André Bazin: Part 2, Style as a Philosophical Idea
Online essays
What Is Cinema Vol. 1 and 2 on Internet Archive
"The Life and Death of Superimposition" (1946)
"Will CinemaScope Save the Film Industry?" (1953)
André Bazin on René Clement and literary adaptation: Two original reviews
1918 births
1958 deaths
Film theorists
French film critics
French Roman Catholics
People from Angers
French male writers
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Cahiers du Cinéma editors | [
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243673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockout | Lockout | Lockout may refer to:
Lockout (industry), a type of work stoppage
Dublin Lockout, a major industrial dispute between approximately 20,000 workers and 300 employers 1913 - 1914
Lockout (sports), lockout in sports leagues
MLB lockout, lockout in MLB
NBA lockout, lockout in NBA
NFL lockout, lockout in NFL
NHL lockout, lockout in NHL
Lockout (film), a 2012 science fiction action film
Lock Out (film), a 1973 Spanish film
Lockout chip, a computer chip in a video game system to prevent use of unauthorized software
Lock-out device, part of a signaling system used on game shows
Regional lockout, a barrier to prevent media use outside of a specific region
Lockout (news filing), a kind of "dateline" appended to a news report
Lockout-tagout, a procedure to prevent unsafe activation of machinery
A period in some hostels during which guests are disallowed from the premises | [
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243674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty%20and%20the%20Beast | Beauty and the Beast | Beauty and the Beast () is a fairy tale written by French novelist Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve and published in 1740 in La Jeune Américaine et les contes marins (The Young American and Marine Tales). Her lengthy version was abridged, rewritten, and published by Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont in 1756 in Magasin des enfants (Children's Collection) to produce the version most commonly retold and later by Andrew Lang in the Blue Fairy Book of his Fairy Book series in 1889. The fairy tale was influenced by Ancient Greek stories such as "Cupid and Psyche" from The Golden Ass, written by Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis in the 2nd century AD, and The Pig King, an Italian fairytale published by Giovanni Francesco Straparola in The Facetious Nights of Straparola around 1550.<ref>Harrison, "Cupid and Psyche", Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome',' p. 339.</ref>
Variants of the tale are known across Europe. In France, for example, Zémire and Azor is an operatic version of the story, written by Marmontel and composed by Grétry in 1771, which had enormous success into the 19th century. Zémire and Azor is based on the second version of the tale. Amour pour amour (Love for love), by Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée, is a 1742 play based on de Villeneuve's version. According to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, the story originated about 4,000 years ago.
Plot
Villenueve's version
A widower merchant lives in a mansion with his six children (three sons and three daughters). All of his daughters are very beautiful, but the youngest child in the merchant's family, Beauty, is the loveliest. She is also kind, well-read, and pure of heart; her elder sisters, though, are cruel, selfish, vain, and spoiled. On a dark and stormy night at sea, the merchant is robbed by pirates who sink most of his merchant fleet and force the entire family to live on the countryside and work for a living. While Beauty makes a firm resolution to adjust to rural life with a cheerful disposition, her sisters do not and mistake her firmness for insensibility, forcing her into doing household work in an effort to make enough money to buy back their former home.
One day, the merchant hears from one of his crew members that one of the trade ships he had sent has arrived back in port, having escaped the destruction of its companions. Before leaving, he asks his children if they wish for him to bring any gifts back for them. The sons ask for weaponry and horses to hunt with, whereas the oldest daughters ask for clothing, jewels, and fine dresses, as they think his wealth has returned. Beauty asks nothing but her father's safety, but when he insists on buying her a present, she is satisfied with the promise of a rose after none had grown last spring. However, to his dismay, the merchant finds that his ship's cargo has been seized to pay his debts, leaving him penniless and unable to buy his children's presents.
On his way back, the merchant is caught in a terrible storm. Seeking shelter, he comes upon a mysterious palace. The merchant sneaks in, seeing that nobody is home, and finds tables laden with food and drinks which seem to have been left for him by the palace's invisible owner. The merchant accepts these gifts and spends the night. The next morning, the merchant sees the palace as his own possession and is about to leave when he sees a rose garden and recalls that Beauty had desired a rose. The merchant quickly plucks the loveliest rose he can find, and is about to pluck more for a bouquet, but is confronted by a hideous "Beast" who warns him that theft of his property (i.e., the rose) is a charge punishable by death until he suggests the merchant brings Beauty to him so he can execute her for organizing this act of theft. At first, the merchant is upset about Beauty being killed by the Beast, but he reluctantly accepts. The Beast sends him on his way atop a magical horse along with wealth, jewels and fine clothes for his sons and daughters, though he stresses that Beauty must never know about his deal.
The merchant, upon arriving home, tries to hide the secret from his children, but Beauty pries it from him on purpose. Reacting swiftly, the brothers suggest they could go to the castle and fight the Beast together while the older sisters place blame on Beauty for dooming the entire family. However, the merchant suggests the family relocates to a safer place so that the Beast won't be able find them. Fortunately, Beauty disobeys her father by sneaking into the castle later that night to face the Beast until she realizes that her suspicion is correct, because the Beast is coming to kill her for organizing the theft of his rose garden. She tries to escape, but when she runs into the Beast (who pleads for her to stop running), she ultimately faints at the sight of him, forcing the Beast to carry her to her room. There, he revives her and reveals that she is now a guest of honor, warning her not to leave his castle for he is watching her. Also, every night during dinner, the Beast tries to ask for Beauty's hand in marriage, but she is too scared to love a monster. Contrast to Beauty's claim of being a prisoner of love, the Beast urges her not to be deceived by appearances, for a prince can only be found within him. However, Beauty does not make the connection between a "prince" and a "beast", so she falsely accuses the Beast of holding the prince captive somewhere in his castle. She searches and discovers many enchanted rooms ranging from libraries to aviaries to enchanted windows allowing her to attend the theater. She also finds live furniture and other live objects which act as servants, but never the prince from her dreams. Eventually, when Beauty enters the Beast's private quarters in the process, she finds out that the Prince and the Beast were the same person. After Beauty and the Beast forgive each other for their misinformation and misdeeds, they eventually become friends, sparking a relationship between them.
For a month, Beauty lives a life of luxury at the Beast's palace with no end to riches or amusements and an endless supply of exquisite finery to wear. Eventually, the Beast's Magic Mirror alerts him that the merchant is suffering from a heart attack due to his family relocating without Beauty. The Beast decides to send Beauty home to heal her father on the condition that she returns in exactly one week. Beauty agrees to this and is presented with an enchanted ring which will take her back to the Beast when the two months are up. The rest of her family is surprised to find her well fed and dressed in finery. Her older sisters become envious when he hears of her life at the castle and how the Beast is kind and gentle. In fact, they recognize the Beast as their family's rival for Beauty's relationship and urges her to stay away from the Beast as they reveal the point where they do all they can to protect her from the world around them, even after their mother died during a pirate raid on their father's merchant fleet earlier. Beauty's father, on the other hand, rumors that, in order to save her family from certain death, she must marry the Beast. However, Beauty is shaken by her family's overprotection, and she reluctantly agrees to stay away from the Beast for good. Thankfully, Beauty is determined to honor the deal she made.
Later that night, Beauty begins hallucinating the Beast lying dead in his quarters and hastens to return; she immediately steals back the ring her sisters snatched from her finger to try and protect her for all they're worth and uses it to return to the Beast. Once she is back in the castle, Beauty's fears are confirmed as she finds out that the Beast was killed on the spot by her older siblings in their final attempt to protect their family. Devastatingly tricked into staying with her family, Beauty bursts into tears, cursing her family for killing her one true friend, and then laments that she should have learned how to love the Beast in the first place, screaming, "My brothers, my sisters—they were all right about you! You ARE a monster—and this was all my fault! Oh, Beast—forgive me! I am awfully, awfully sorry!". Suddenly, when Beauty says the magic words—"I am sorry!"—the Beast is transformed into the same prince from Beauty's dreams. The prince informs her that long ago, a powerful enchantress turned him into a hideous beast for his selfishness after trying to seduce him, and that only by finding true love, despite his ugliness, could the curse be broken. Once the Merchant's family hears the news about the consequence of their action, they ultimately agree to let Beauty marry the prince and live happily ever after with him.
Lang's Version
A variant of Villeneuve's version appears in Andrew Lang's Blue Fairy Book. Most of the story is the same, except at the beginning where the merchant himself is not at sea, but his ships are. His mansion is burned in a fire, along with his belongings, forcing him and his family to move to their country home in the forest. His ships are lost at sea, captured by pirates, etc, except one, which returns later. This version in particular is one of the most commonly told, along with those of Villeneuve and Beaumont.
This version was written between 1889 and 1913, some time after the original version. So, it should be considered as a later version of the story.
Beaumont's version
Beaumont greatly pared down the cast of characters and pruned the tale to an almost archetypal simplicity. The story begins in much the same way as Villeneuve's version, although now the merchant has only six children: three sons and three daughters of which Beauty is one. The circumstances leading to her arrival at the Beast's castle unfold in a similar manner, but on this arrival, Beauty is informed that she is a mistress and he will obey her. Beaumont strips most of the lavish descriptions present in Beauty's exploration of the palace and quickly jumps to her return home. She is given leave to remain there for a week, and when she arrives, her sisters feign fondness to entice her to remain another week in hopes that the Beast will devour her in anger. Again, she returns to him dying and restores his life. The two then marry and live happily ever after.
Variants
The tale is one of the most popular in oral tradition.
Europe
France
Emmanuel Cosquin collected a version with a tragic ending from Lorraine titled The White Wolf (Le Loup blanc), in which the youngest daughter asks her father to bring her a singing rose when he returns. The man cannot find a singing rose for his youngest daughter, and he refuses to return home until he finds one. When he finally finds singing roses, they are in the castle of the titular white wolf, who initially wants to kill him for daring to steal his roses, but, upon hearing about his daughters, changes his mind and agrees to spare him his life under the condition he must give him the first living being that greets him when he returns home. This turns out to be his youngest daughter. In the castle, the girl discovers that the white wolf is enchanted and can turn into a human at night, but she must not tell anyone about it. Unfortunately, the girl is later visited by her two elder sisters who pressure her to tell them what is happening. When she finally does, the castle crumbles and the wolf dies.
Henri Pourrat collected a version from Auvergne in south-central France, titled Belle Rose (sometimes translated in English as Lovely Rose). In this version, the heroine and her sisters are the daughters of a poor peasant and are named after flowers, the protagonist being Rose and her sisters Marguerite (Daisy) and Julianne, respectively. The Beast is described as having a mastiff jaw, lizard legs and a salamander's body. The ending is closer to Villeneuve's and Beaumont's versions with Rose rushing back to the castle and finding the Beast lying dying beside a fountain. When the Beast asks if she knows that he can't live without her, Rose answers yes, and the Beast turns into a human. He explains to Rose that he was a prince cursed for mocking a beggar and could only be disenchanted by a poor but kind-hearted maiden. Unlike in Beaumont's version, it is not mentioned that the protagonist's sisters are punished at the end.
Italy
The tale is popular in the Italian oral tradition. Christian Schneller collected a variant from Trentino titled The Singing, Dancing and Music-making Leaf (German: Vom singenden, tanzenden und musicirenden Blatte; Italian: La foglia, che canta, che balla e che suona) in which the Beast takes the form of a snake. Instead of going to visit her family alone, the heroine can only go to her sister's wedding if she agrees to let the snake go with her. During the wedding, they dance together, and when the girl kicks the snake's tail, he turns into a beautiful youth, who is the son of a count.
Sicilian folklorist Giuseppe Pitrè collected a variant from Palermo titled Rusina 'Mperatrici (The Empress Rosina). Domenico Comparetti included a variant from Montale titled Bellindia, in which Bellindia is the heroine's name, while her two eldest sisters are called Carolina and Assunta. Vittorio Imbriani included a version titled Zelinda and the Monster (Zelinda e il Mostro), in which the heroine, called Zelinda, asks for a rose in January. Instead of going to visit her family, staying longer than she promised, and then returning to the Monster's castle to find him dying on the ground, here the Monster shows Zelinda her father dying on a magic mirror and says the only way she can save him is saying that she loves him. Zelinda does as asked, and the Monster turns into a human, who tells her he is the son of the King of the Oranges. Both Comparetti's and Imbriani's versions were included in Sessanta novelle popolari montalesi by Gherardo Nerucci.
British folklorist Rachel Harriette Busk collected a version from Rome titled The Enchanted Rose-Tree where the heroine does not have any sisters. Antonio De Nino collected a variant from Abruzzo, in eastern Italy, that he also titled Bellindia, in which instead of a rose, the heroine asks for a golden carnation. Instead of a seeing it on a magic mirror, or knowing about it because the Beast tells her, here Bellinda knows what happens in her father's house because in the garden there is a tree called the Tree of Weeping and Laughter, whose leaves turn upwards when there is joy in her family, and they drop when there is sorrow.
Francesco Mango collected a Sardianian version titled The Bear and the Three Sisters (S'urzu i is tres sorris), in which the Beast has the form of a bear.
Italo Calvino included a version on Italian Folktales titled Bellinda and the Monster, inspired mostly from Comparetti's version, but adding some elements from De Nino's, like the Tree of Weeping and Laughter.
Iberian Peninsula
Spain
Manuel Milá y Fontanals collected a version titled The King's Son, Disenchanted (El hijo del rey, desencantado). In this tale, when the father asks his three daughters what they want, the youngest asks for the hand of the king's son, and everybody thinks she is haughty for wanting such a thing. The father orders his servants to kill her, but they spare her and she hides in the woods. There, she meets a wolf that brings her to a castle and takes her in. The girl learns that in order to break his spell, she must kill the wolf and throw his body into the fire after opening it. From the body flies a pigeon, and from the pigeon an egg. When the girl breaks the egg, the king's son comes out. Francisco Maspons y Labrós extended and translated the tale to Catalan, and included it in the second volume of Lo Rondallayre.
Maspons y Labrós collected a variant from Catalonia titled Lo trist. In this version, instead of roses, the youngest daughter asks for a coral necklace. Whenever one of her family members is sick, the heroine is warned by the garden (a spring with muddy waters; a tree with withered leaves). When she visits her family, she is warned that she must return to the castle if she hears a bell ringing. After her third visit to her family, the heroine returns to the garden where she finds her favorite rosebush withered. When she plucks a rose, the beast appears and turns into a beautiful youth.
A version from Extremadura, titled The Bear Prince (El príncipe oso), was collected by Sergio Hernández de Soto and shows a similar introduction as in Beaumont's and Villeneuve's versions: the heroine's father loses his fortune after a shipwreck. When the merchant has the chance to recover his wealth, he asks his daughters what gift they want from his travels. The heroine asks for a lily. When the merchant finds a lily, a bear appears, saying that his youngest daughter must come to the garden because only she can repair the damage the merchant has caused. His youngest daughter seeks the bear and finds him lying on the ground, wounded. The only way to heal him is by restoring the lily the father took, and when the girl restores it, the bear turns into a prince. This tale was translated to English by Elsie Spicer Eells and retitled The Lily and the Bear.
Aurelio Macedonio Espinosa Sr. collected a version from Almenar de Soria titled The Beast of the Rose Bush (La fiera del rosal), in which the heroine is the daughter of a king instead of a merchant.
Aurelio Macedonio Espinosa Jr. published a version from Sepúlveda, Segovia titled The Beast of the Garden (La fiera del jardín). In this version, the heroine has a stepmother and two stepsisters and asks for an unspecified white flower.
Portugal
In a Portuguese version collected by Zófimo Consiglieri Pedroso, the heroine asks for "a slice of roach off a green meadow". The father finally finds a slice of roach off a green meadow in a castle that appears to be uninhabited, but he hears a voice saying he must bring his youngest daughter to the palace. While the heroine is at the palace, the same unseen voice informs her of the goings-on at her father's house using birds as messengers. When the heroine visits her family, the master of the castle sends a horse to let her know it is time to return. The heroine must go after hearing him three times. The third time she goes to visit her family, her father dies. After the funeral, she's tired and oversleeps, missing the horse's neigh repeat three times before it leaves. When she finally returns to the castle, she finds the beast dying. With his last breath, he curses her and her entire family. The heroine dies a few days after, and her sisters spend the rest of their lives in poverty.
Another Portuguese version from Ourilhe, collected by: Francisco Adolfo Coelho and titled A Bella-menina, is closer to Beaumont's tale in its happy ending – the beast is revived and disenchanted.
Belgium and the Netherlands
In a Flemish version from Veurne titled Rose without Thorns (Roosken zonder Doornen), the prince is disenchanted differently than in Beaumont's and Villeneuve's versions. The heroine and the monster attend each of the weddings of the heroine's elder sisters, and to break the spell, the heroine has to give a toast for the beast. In the first wedding, the heroine forgets, but in the second she remembers, and the beast becomes human. In a second Flemish variant collected by Amaat Joos, titled Van het Schoon Kind, the heroine's father is a king instead of a merchant, and when he asks his three daughters what they want him to bring them when he returns from a long journey, the king's youngest daughter asks for a bush of trembling roses while her two eldest sisters asks for robes with golden flowers and a silver skirt. During her stay at the monster's castle the princess has a nightmare where she sees the monster drowning in a pond, and after she wakes up and finds out the monster is not in the corner where he sleeps, she goes to the garden where she finds the monster in the same situation she saw him in her dream. The monster turns into a prince after the princess saves him.
Another Flemish version from Wuustwezel, collected by Victor de Meyere, is closer to Beaumont's plot, the merchant's youngest daughter staying one day more at her family's home and soon returning to the Beast's palace. When she returns, she fears something bad has happened to him. This one is one of the few versions in which the merchant accompanies his daughter back to the Beast's castle.
More similar Beaumont's plot is a Dutch version from Driebergen titled Rozina. In this version, it is Rozina's vow to marry the Beast that eventually breaks the spell.Meder, Theo The Flying Dutchman and Other Folktales from the Netherlands Westport and London: Libraries Unlimited. 2008. pp. 29-37.
Germany and Central Europe
The Brothers Grimm originally collected a variant of the story, titled The Summer and Winter Garden (Von dem Sommer- und Wintergarten). Here, the youngest daughter asks for a rose in the winter, so the father only finds one in a garden that is half eternal winter and half eternal summer. After making a deal with the beast, the father does not tell his daughters anything. Eight days later, the beast appears in the merchant's house and takes his youngest daughter away. When the heroine returns home, her father is ill. She cannot save him, and he dies. The heroine stays longer for her father's funeral, and when she finally returns, she finds the beast lying beneath a heap of cabbages. After the daughter revives the beast by pouring water over him, he turns into a handsome prince. The tale appeared in Brothers Grimm's collection's first edition, in 1812, but because the tale was too similar to its French counterpart, they omitted it in the next editions.
Despite the other folklorists collecting variants from German-speaking territories, Ludwig Bechstein published two versions of the story. In the first, Little Broomstick (Besenstielchen), the heroine, Nettchen, has a best friend called Little Broomstick because her father is a broommaker. Like in The Summer and Winter Garden, Nettchen asks for roses in the dead of winter, which her father only finds in the Beast's garden. When a carriage comes to bring Nettchen to the Beast's castle, Nettchen's father sends Little Broomstick, who pretends to be Nettchen. The Beast discovers the scheme, sends Little Broomstick back home, and Nettchen is sent to the Beast's castle. The prince is disenchanted before Nettchen's visit to her family to cure her father using the sap of a plant from the prince's garden. Jealous of her fortune, Nettchen's sisters drown her in the bath, but Nettchen is revived by the same sorceress who cursed the prince. Nettchen's eldest sisters are too dangerous, but Nettchen doesn't want them dead, so the sorceress turns them into stone statues.
In Bechstein's second version, The Little Nut Twig (Das Nußzweiglein), the heroine asks for the titular twig. When the father finally finds it, he has to make a deal with a bear, promising him the first creature that he meets when he arrives at home. This turns out to be his youngest daughter. Like in Little Broomstick, the merchant tries to deceive the bear by sending another girl, but the bear discovers his scheme and the merchant's daughter is sent to the bear. After she and the bear cross twelve rooms of disgusting creatures, the bear turns into a prince.Bechstein, Ludwig The Old Story-teller: Popular German Tales London: Addey & Co. 1854 pp. 17-22
Carl and Theodor Colshorn collected two versions from Hannover. In the first one, The Clinking Clanking Lowesleaf (Vom klinkesklanken Löwesblatt), the heroine is the daughter of a king. She asks for the titular leaf, which the king only gets after making a deal with a black poodle, promising to give him the first person that greets the king when he arrives home. This turns out to be his youngest daughter. The merchant tries to trick the poodle, giving him other girls pretending to be the princess, but the poodle sees through this. Finally, the princess is sent to the poodle, who brings her to a cabin in the middle of the woods, where the princess feels so alone. She wishes for company, even if it is an old beggar woman. In an instant, an old beggar woman appears, and she tells the princess how to break the spell in exchange for inviting her to the princess' wedding. The princess keeps her promise, and her mother and sisters, who expressed disgust at the sight of the old beggar woman, become crooked and lame.
In Carl and Theodor Colshorn's second version, The Cursed Frog (Der verwunschene Frosch), the heroine is a merchant's daughter. The enchanted prince is a frog, and the daughter asks for a three-colored rose.Zipes, Jack The Golden Age of Folk and Fairy Tales: From the Brothers Grimm to Andrew Lang Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company 2013 pp. 215-217
Ernst Meier collected a version from Swabia, in southwestern Germany, in which the heroine has only one sister instead of two.
Ignaz and Josef Zingerle collected an Austrian variant from Tannheim titled The Bear (Der Bär) in which the heroine is the eldest of the merchant's three daughters. Like in The Summer and Winter Garden and Little Broomstick, the protagonist asks for a rose in the middle of winter. Like in Zingerle's version, the Beast is a bear.
In the Swiss variant, The Bear Prince (Der Bärenprinz), collected by Otto Sutermeister, the youngest daughter asks for grapes.
Scandinavia
Evald Tang Kristensen collected a Danish version that follows Beaumont's version almost exactly. The most significant difference is that the enchanted prince is a horse.
In a version from the Faroe Islands, the youngest daughter asks for an apple instead of a rose.Bolte, Johannes; Polívka, Jiri. Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- u. hausmärchen der brüder Grimm Zweiter Band Leipzig: Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung 1913 p. 242
Russia and Eastern Europe
Alexander Afanasyev collected a Russian version, The Enchanted Tsarevich (Заклятый царевич), in which the youngest daughter draws the flower she wants her father to bring her. The beast is a three-headed winged snake.
In a Ukrainian version, both the heroine's parents are dead. The Beast, who has the form of a snake, gives her the ability to revive people.
An apple also plays a relevant role when the heroine goes to visit her family in a Polish version from Mazovia, in this case to warn the heroine that she is staying longer than she promised.
In another Polish version from Kraków, the heroine is called Basia and has a stepmother and two stepsisters. In a Czech variant, the heroine's mother plucks the flower and makes the deal with the Beast, who is a basilisk, who the heroine later will behead to break the spell.Baudiš, Josef The Key of Gold: 23 Czech Folk Tales London: George Allen & Unwind Ltd. 1917 pp. 123-128
In a Moravian version, the youngest daughter asks for three white roses, and the Beast is a dog;
In another Moravian version, the heroine asks for a single red rose and the Beast is a bear.
The Beast is also a bear in a Slovakian variant titled The Three Roses (Trojruža), collected by Pavol Dobšinský, in which the youngest daughter asks for three roses on the same stem.
In a Slovenian version from Livek titled The Enchanted Bear and the Castle (Začaran grad in medved), the heroine breaks the spell reading about the fate of the enchanted castle in an old dusty book.
In a Hungarian version titled The Speaking Grapes, the Smiling Apple and the Tinkling Apricot (Szóló szőlő, mosolygó alma, csengő barack), the princess asks her father for the titular fruits, and the Beast is a pig. The king agrees to give him his youngest daughter's hand in marriage if the pig is capable of moving the king's carriage, which is stuck in the mud.
Greece and Cyprus
In a version from the island of Zakynthos in Western Greece, the prince is turned into a snake by a nereid whom he rejected.
The prince is also turned into a snake in a version from Cyprus in which he is cursed by an orphan who was his lover. In the end, the heroine's elder sisters are turned into stone pillars.Garnett, Lucy M.J. Greek Folk Poesy vol. II Guildford: Billing and Sons 1896 pp. 152-157
Asia
Eastern Asia
North American missionary Adele M. Fielde collected a version from China titled The Fairy Serpent, in which the heroine's family is visited by wasps until she follows the beast, who is a serpent. One day, the well she usually fetches water from is dry, so she walks to a spring. When the heroine returns, she finds the snake dying and revives him plunging him in the water. This turns him into a human.
In a second Chinese variant, The King of the Snakes, the Prince of Snakes sees an old man plucking flowers in the Prince's gardens and, irritated, demands the old man sends one of his daughters to him. The youngest, Almond Blossom, being the "most devotedly filial", offers to go in her father's place.
In a third Chinese variant, Pearl of the Sea, the youngest daughter of rich merchant Pekoe asks for a chip of The Great Wall of China because of a dream she had. Her father steals a chip and is threatened by an army of Tatars who work for their master. In reality, the Tatar master is her uncle Chang, who has been enchanted prior to the story, and could only be released from his curse until a woman consented to live with him in the Great Wall.
Southeast Asia
America
North America
United States
William Wells Newell published an Irish American variant simply titled Rose in the Journal of American Folklore. In this version, the Beast takes the form of a lion.
Marie Campbell collected a version from the Appalachian Mountains, titled A Bunch of Laurela Blooms for a Present, in which the prince was turned into a frog.
Joseph Médard Carrière collected a version in which the Beast is described having a lion's head, horse legs, a bull's body and a snake's tail. Like the end of Beaumont's version, Beauty's sisters are turned into stone statues.
In a variant from Schoharie, New York, collected by Emelyn Elizabeth Gardner with the title The Rosy Story, the heroine is named Ellen. The character that demands the youngest daughter is a headless man, but the Beast-like figure is a large toad.
Folklorist Fanny Dickerson Bergen published a fragmentary variant from Ohio, with the title The Golden Bird, which is the object the youngest daughter asks for.
Mexico
Mexican linguist Pablo González Casanova collected a version from the Nahuatl titled La doncella y la fiera, in which after returning to her family's home, the heroine finds the beast dead on the ground. The girl falls asleep by his side, and she dreams of the beast, who tells her to cut a specific flower and spray its water on his face. The heroine does so, and the beast turns into a beautiful young man.
South and Central America
Lindolfo Gomes collected a Brazilian version titled A Bela e a Fera in which the deal consists of the father promising to give the Beast the first living creature that greets him at home. The heroine later visits her family because her eldest sister is getting married.
Broader themes
Harries identifies the two most popular strands of fairy tale in the 18th century as the fantastical romance for adults and the didactic tale for children. Beauty and the Beast is interesting as it bridges this gap, with Villeneuve's version being written as a salon tale for adults and Beaumont's being written as a didactic tale for children.
Commentary
Tatar (2017) compares the tale to the theme of "animal brides and grooms" found in folklore throughout the world,
pointing out that the French tale was specifically intended for the preparation of young girls in 18th century France for arranged marriages.
The urban opening is unusual in fairy tales, as is the social class of the characters, neither royal nor peasants; it may reflect the social changes occurring at the time of its first writing.
Hamburger (2015) points out that the design of the Beast in the 1946 film adaptation by Jean Cocteau was inspired by the portrait of Petrus Gonsalvus, a native of Tenerife who suffered from hypertrichosis, causing an abnormal growth of hair on his face and other parts, and who came under the protection of the French king and married a beautiful Parisian woman named Catherine.
Modern uses and adaptations
The tale has been notably adapted for screen, stage, prose, and television over many years.
Literature
The Scarlet Flower (1858), a Russian fairy tale by Sergey Aksakov.
Beauty and the Beast ... The Story Retold (1886), by Laura E. Richards.
Beauty: A Retelling of the Story of Beauty and the Beast (1978), by Robin McKinley.
Rose Daughter (1997), by Robin McKinley.
"The Courtship of Mr. Lyon" (1979), from Angela Carter's The Bloody Chamber, based on Madame Le Prince de Beaumont's version. "The Tiger's Bride" in the same book is a variant of the tale.
Beauty (1983), a short story by Tanith Lee, a science fiction retelling of Beauty and the Beast. Fashion Beast, a 1985 screenplay by Alan Moore, adapted into a graphic novel in 2012.
"A Grain of Truth" (1993), a short story by Andrzej Sapkowski in The Last Wish.
Lord of Scoundrels (1995), by Loretta Chase, a Regency romance and retelling of Beauty and the Beast.
The Fire Rose (1995), by Mercedes Lackey.
Beauty (1997), modern retelling by Susan Wilson
The Quantum Rose, by Catherine Asaro, a science fiction retelling of Beauty and the Beast.
Beastly (2007), by Alex Flinn, a version that sets the story in modern-day Manhattan.
Bryony and Roses (2015), by T. Kingfisher (pen name of Ursula Vernon)
Belle: An Amish Retelling of Beauty and the Beast (2017), by Sarah Price
A Court of Thorns and Roses (2015), by Sarah J. MaasA Curse So Dark and Lonely (2019), by Brigid Kemmerer
Film
La Belle et la Bête (1946), directed by Jean Cocteau, starring Jean Marais as the Beast and Josette Day as Beauty.
The Scarlet Flower (1952), an animated feature film directed by Lev Atamanov and produced at the Soyuzmultfilm.
Beauty and the Beast (1962), directed by Edward L. Cahn, starring Joyce Taylor and Mark Damon.Panna a netvor (1978), a Czech film directed by Juraj Herz.
Beauty and the Beast (1987), a musical live-action version directed by Eugene Marner, starring John Savage as Beast, and Rebecca De Mornay as Beauty.
Beauty and the Beast (1991), an animated film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and directed by Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale, with a screenplay by Linda Woolverton, and songs by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman.
Blood of Beasts (2005), a Viking period film directed by David Lister alternately known as Beauty and the Beast.
Spike (2008), directed by Robert Beaucage, a dark version of the fairy tale updated to modern times.
Beauty and the Beast (2009), an Australian fantasy reimagining of the tale, starring Estella Warren.
Beastly (2011), directed by Daniel Barnz and starring Alex Pettyfer as the beast (named Kyle) and Vanessa Hudgens as the love interest.
Beauty and the Beast (2014), a French-German film.
Beauty and the Beast (2017), a Disney live-action adaptation of the 1991 animated film, starring Emma Watson and Dan Stevens.
Belle (2021), a Japanese animated science fantasy film written and directed by Mamoru Hosoda and produced by Studio Chizu.
Television
Beauty and the Beast (1976), a made-for-television movie starring George C. Scott and Trish Van Devere.
"Beauty and the Beast" (1984), an episode of Shelley Duvall's Faerie Tale Theatre, starring Klaus Kinski and Susan Sarandon.
Beauty and the Beast (1987), a television series which centers around the relationship between Catherine (played by Linda Hamilton), an attorney who lives in New York City, and Vincent (played by Ron Perlman), a gentle but lion-faced "beast" who dwells in the tunnels beneath the city.
Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics episode "Beauty and the Beast (The Story of the Summer Garden and the Winter Garden)" (1988), in which the Beast has an ogre-like appearance.
Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child (1995), episode "Beauty and the Beast", featuring the voices of Vanessa L. Williams and Gregory Hines. The Beast is depicted as having a rhinoceros head, a lion-like mane and tail, a humanoid body, and a camel-like hump.
Stories from My Childhood, episode "Beauty and the Beast (A Tale of the Crimson Flower)" (1998), featuring the voices of Amy Irving as the Beauty, Tim Curry as the Beast, and Robert Loggia as Beauty's father.
Beauty (1998), a made-for-television movie starring Janine Turner and Jamey Sheridan.
Beauty & the Beast (2012), a reworking of the 1987 TV series starring Jay Ryan and Kristin Kreuk.
Once Upon a Time episode "Skin Deep" (2012), starring Emilie de Ravin and Robert Carlyle.
(2014), an Italian/Spanish two-part miniseries starring Blanca Suárez and Alessandro Preziosi.
Sofia the First episode "Beauty is the Beast" (2016), in which Princess Charlotte of Isleworth (voiced by Megan Hilty) is turned into a beast (a cross between a human and a wild boar with a wolf-like tail) by a powerful enchantress.
Theatre
La Belle et la Bête (1994), an opera by Philip Glass based on Cocteau's film. Glass's composition follows the film scene by scene, effectively providing a new original soundtrack for the movie.
Beauty and the Beast (1994), a musical adaptation of the Disney film by Linda Woolverton and Alan Menken, with additional lyrics by Tim Rice.
Beauty and the Beast (2011), a ballet choreographed by David Nixon for Northern Ballet, including compositions by Bizet and Poulenc.
Other
A hidden object game, Mystery Legends: Beauty and the Beast, was released in 2012.
The hidden object game series Dark Parables based the main story of 9th game (The Queen of Sands) on the tale.
The narrative of the Sierra Entertainment adventure game King's Quest VI follows several fairy tales, and Beauty and the Beast is the focus of one multiple part quest.
Stevie Nicks recorded "Beauty and the Beast" for her 1983 solo album, The Wild Heart.
Real Life based the video for their signature hit "Send Me an Angel" on the fairy story.
Disco producer Alec R. Costandinos released a twelve inch by his side project Love & Kisses with the theme of the fairy-tale set to a disco melody in 1978.
The interactive fiction work, Bronze by Emily Short, is a puzzle-oriented adaptation of Beauty and the Beast.
See also
Eros and Psyche
East of the Sun and West of the Moon
Noble savage
Shapeshifting
References
Footnotes
Further reading
Ralston, William. "Beauty and the Beast". In: The Nineteenth Century. Vol. 4. (July–December, 1878). London: Henry S. King & Co. pp. 990–1012.
External links
"The Story of the Beauty and the Beast", James Planché's translation of Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve's original version of the fairytale, on Project Gutenberg.
The story of beauty & the beast; the complete fairy story translated from the French by Ernest Dowson on Internet Archive. Ernest Dowson's translation of de Villeneuve's original fairytale.
"Beauty and the Beast", the revised and abridged version by Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont, at the website of the University of Pittsburgh.
"Beauty and the Beast: folktales of Aarne-Thompson type 425C
Cinderella Bibliography – includes an exhaustive list of B&tB productions in books, TV and recordings
Original version and psychological analysis of Beauty and the Beast (Archive on Wayback Machine)''
La Belle et la Bête, audio version
1740 works
Fiction about shapeshifting
French fairy tales
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] |
243675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyyrikki | Nyyrikki | Nyyrikki () is the Finnish god of the hunt and cattle, and son of Tapio and Mielikki. He has been tenuously associated with Nimrod.
References
Finnish gods
Hunting gods
Characters in the Kalevala
Nimrod | [
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243676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mennink%C3%A4inen | Menninkäinen | In Finnish mythology and lore, a menninkäinen is believed to be a leprechaun-like inhabitant of the forests. Fairy tale depictions often involve riddling, dominance struggles and favors elicited. Menninkäinen were probably originally thought to be spirits of dead people, but folklore about them has changed during time, and they turned to be something else.
In modern usage, the word is usually used to mean goblins, hobgoblins and gnomes. Not all Finnish words for the little folk have an English equivalent, and vice versa, so confusion in the translation of these terms is quite common.
Cultural References
Menninkäinen are mentioned in the Milo Murphy's Law episode "Star Struck", in which Tobias Trollhammer believes Milo Murphy to be a menninkäinen. tobias also states that menninkainen eat your souls. in that same episode, milo mentions the children's show called "milly and the menninkäinen" that he supposedly watched as a child. melissa however states that she did not watch this show and does not know what a menninkäinen is. this show is seen in the "Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Candace Against the Universe" movie, via a background tv screen.
Finnish mythology
Finnish legendary creatures
Leprechaun | [
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] |
243677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Denver | List of mayors of Denver | This is a list of mayors of Denver, the capital and largest city of the state of Colorado.
References
Denver
Government of Denver | [
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243679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Puttermans | The Puttermans | The Puttermans are a fictional family that appeared in a series of advertisements for Duracell from 1994 to 1996.
Background
The Puttermans were a family of plastic robots who outlasted others, thanks to their Duracell brand batteries (a playful reference to their deadpan 1970s ad campaign which featured head-to-head competition between toys). The campaign was made to combat the successful Energizer Bunny ad campaign. The fictional Brand X "other battery" depicted in the ad was made to look like rival Energizer batteries, much in the same way that Energizer's fictional rival "Supervolt" was made to resemble Duracell batteries.
The ad campaign was created by New York-based advertising agency Ogilvy & Mather. The original campaign was directed by Barry Sonnenfeld, whereas later executions (using the "No battery is stronger, longer" claim) were helmed by David Kellogg.
The characters were developed by special effects guru Steve Johnson and his company XFX, Inc. The actors were made up to look as if they were claymation or computer animation characters. The costumes consisted of boxy modular units of stiff foam rubber coated with urethane. The characters all had large copper-top batteries protruding from their backs and their faces were made of state-of-the-art latex prosthetics designed to heavily caricature the actors' own features, and complete character wardrobes. They tended to creep out viewers, due to their non-human yet non-toy nor cartoon appearance, and the series of commercials was abandoned. At the time, the actor identities were not revealed to preserve the family's mystique.
Characters
The family consisted of:
Herb, the father (Keith Langsdale)
Flo, his wife, the mother (Marla Frees)
Son, Zack (Debi Derryberry)
Daughter, Trish (Krystee Clark)
Grandma Putterman, who was actually played by a male actor (K.W. Miller)
Aunt Gert (Lanie Zera)
Other Characters
Larry
Todd
Trish's two boyfriends.
Plots
Some of the commercial plots included the following:
The Puttermans attend a family reunion barbecue. A talkative relative shuts off mid-sentence and falls face first into a full plate, after Herb swapped her battery out for "one of those other batteries."
Trish Putterman and boyfriend Bruce sit on a porch swing, and wish that their romantic night could go on forever with the help of Duracell.
Grandma Putterman is so filled with energy, she can't stop dancing, even though she has been on the same battery "since the last Ice Age."
The Putterman family go on a camping trip and find that their flashlights still work with the help of Duracell.
Herb answers the front door and it's Trish's date who thinks batteries are batteries.
Trish and Zack are in a drive thru and Todd, who has a crush on Trish, is working with an off brand battery.
The family visits a museum of art and the museum director is using an off-brand battery, leading to a domino disaster.
The family parrot is running low on batteries, Herb gives him a long lasting Duracell battery and he talks so much they take his cage outside.
The family spends some time at the miniature golf course with a friend who's using an off brand battery.
The family goes on a fishing trip while on vacation.
Halloween costumes of Herb and Flo, complete with latex masks, were released in North America.
On the December 3, 1994 episode of the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live, as part of Weekend Update, anchor Norm Macdonald joked, "The new ad campaign for Duracell batteries is already having a dramatic effect. Over seventy percent of consumers say they now find the batteries, quote, 'creepy and disturbing'."
Notes
References
"Battery-driven family gives comedic charge to Duracell", by Robert Goldrich, Shoot, volume 35 issue 42, October 21, 1994, page 11 (restricted access)
"'Battery family' ads jolt TV viewers", The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Constitution, November 8, 1994, page C3 (restricted access)
"Power Players: Duracell and Eveready do battle -- The two battery companies compete with commercials featuring the Energizer Bunny and the Puttermans", by Casey Davidson, Entertainment Weekly, issue 258, January 20, 1995
"Are Puttermans Weird or Lovable?", by Simi Horowitz / Washington Post, Wilmington Morning Star, volume 129 number 226, July 4, 1996, page 5D
"They're Weird; But Who -- or What -- Are the Battery Bunch?", by Simi Horowitz, The Washington Post, July 7, 1996 (restricted access)
"Meet the Puttermans: Oddball family gives Duracell positive charge", by Simi Horowitz / Washington Post, Chicago Sun-Times, July 30, 1996, page 33 (restricted access)
Fictional robots
Advertising characters
Mascots introduced in 1994 | [
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243680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro%20Uribe | Álvaro Uribe | Álvaro Uribe Vélez (born 4 July 1952) is a Colombian politician who served as the 39th President of Colombia from 7 August 2002 to 7 August 2010.
Uribe started his political career in his home department of Antioquia. He held offices in the Public Enterprises of Medellín and in the Ministry of Labor and was the director of the Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics (1980–1982). He became Mayor of Medellín in October 1982. He was Senator between 1986 and 1994 and finally Governor of Antioquia between 1995 and 1997 before he was elected President of Colombia in 2002. Following his 2002 election, Uribe led an all-out military offensive against leftist guerrilla groups such as the FARC and the ELN with funding and backing from the Clinton and Bush administrations in the form of a 2.8 billion dollars direct foreign aid package called "Plan Colombia", as well as leading a controversial effort to demobilize the rightwing paramilitary group known as the AUC, all of which are part of the Colombian Armed Conflict. On 13 January 2009 the United States awarded Uribe the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his role in fighting along the US lead War on Terror in the Colombian Armed Conflict. However, his role in the conflict was accompanied by large-scale alleged exactions: thousands of civilians were killed by the Colombian army (see "False positives" scandal) with almost total impunity. Their deaths are being investigated by the United Nations. Millions of people have been victims of forced displacement.
In August 2010 he was appointed vice-chairman of the UN panel investigating the Gaza flotilla raid. In 2012 Uribe and a group of political allies founded the right-wing Democratic Center movement to contest the 2014 national elections. He was elected senator in the 2014 parliamentary election and took office in July 2014. Uribe was critical of his successor Juan Manuel Santos's peace talks with the FARC guerrillas.
In August 2020 the Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia ordered his arrest as part of an investigation into bribery and witness tampering. He was released from house arrest on 10 October. The case went to Fiscalía General de la Nación, after Uribe resigned from his Senate seat. A number of his political opponents have claimed for years that Uribe should be prosecuted, alleging he has ties with paramilitarism.
Early life and education
Álvaro Uribe was born in Medellín, the oldest of five children. His father, Alberto Uribe, was a landowner. At the age of 10 his family left their Salgar ranch and moved to Medellín. He graduated in 1970 from the Instituto Jorge Robledo after being expelled from the Medellín Benedictine School for arguing with the Benedictine monks.
Uribe studied law at the University of Antioquia and he graduated in 1977. His father was killed by a guerrilla group during a 1983 kidnapping attempt. After his father's death, Uribe focused on his political career and became a member of the center-left Colombian Liberal Party. He served on the city council of Medellín between 1984 and 1986.
In 1993 he attended Harvard University, receiving a Certificate of Special Studies in Administration and Management from Harvard Extension School and a Certificate in Negotiation and Dispute Resolution from Harvard Law School. Between 1998 and 1999, after having completed his term in office as the governor of Antioquia, he studied at St Antony's College, Oxford, England, on a Chevening-Simón Bolívar scholarship and was appointed Senior Associate Member at St Antony's College.
Uribe married Lina María Moreno Mejía in 1979. They have two sons, Tomás and Jerónimo.
Political career
In 1976, at the age of 24, Uribe was Chief of Assets for the Public Enterprises of Medellín (Empresas Públicas de Medellín). He served as Secretary General of the Ministry of Labor under Alfonso López Michelsen from 1977 to 1978. During this time he married Lina Moreno, a philosopher from Medellín. President Julio César Turbay named him Director of Civil Aviation from 1980 to 1982, at the age of 28 after the previous director was assassinated. He was appointed Mayor of Medellín in 1982, but was removed five months later due to alleged connections with drug cartels.
Senator of Colombia
Uribe was elected one of Antioquia's senators from 1986 to 1990 and again from 1990 to 1994. As senator, he served as president of the Seventh Commission and he supported laws dealing with reform of pensions, labor and social security, as well as promotion of administrative careers, cooperative banking, brown sugar, and protection for women. Some of the legislation later drew criticism, in particular, that which reduced the state's responsibility for social security. During his later term, he received official and unofficial awards as one of the "best senators" (1990, 1992 and 1993) and as the senator with the "best legislative initiatives" (1992).
Governor of Antioquia
He was elected governor of the department of Antioquia for the 1995 to 1997 term. During his term, Uribe developed what he described as a model for a communitarian state, where in theory citizens would participate in the administration's decision making. It was claimed that this model would help improve employment, education, administrative transparency and public security.
Within his jurisdiction, Uribe openly supported a national program of licensed private security services that became known as CONVIVIR, which had been created by Decree 356 issued by the Colombian Defense Ministry in February 1994. The groups quickly became controversial – while some reportedly improved security in communities and intelligence coordination with the military, their members were accused of abusing civilians and operated without serious oversight. In 1998, Human Rights Watch stated: "we have received credible information that indicated that the CONVIVIR groups of the Magdalena Medio and of the southern Cesar regions were directed by known paramilitaries and had threatened to assassinate Colombians who were considered as guerrilla sympathizers or who refused to join the cooperative groups".
2002 presidential election
Uribe ran as an independent liberal candidate, having unofficially separated from his former party. His electoral platform centered on confronting Colombia's main guerrilla movement, the FARC. Other relevant propositions included slashing the national administration's expenses, fighting corruption and initiating a national referendum to resolve several of the country's political and economic concerns.
Colombia's government under President Andres Pastrana was undergoing peace negotiations with the largest guerrilla group, the FARC. but after four years of peace negotiations without cease-fires, disapproval of Colombia's main parties grew. Violence was rampant. The FARC had, as they claimed, taken control of some 100 municipalities of Colombia out of 1093 at that moment, kidnappings were common and were among the highest in the world, as well as the assassination and crime rate. The AUC was also gaining influence, and expanding its massacres and illicit drugs production, competing with FARC, ELN and other narco-traffickers.
Until at least 2001, polls showed that at most 2% of the electorate contemplated voting for Uribe and that the Liberal Party's Horacio Serpa would probably win. But public mood shifted in his favor after the peace process with the guerrillas degenerated. The administration of President Andrés Pastrana had failed for four years to secure a cease-fire, and Uribe began to be seen as a candidate who might provide a viable security program. Former General Harold Bedoya, a candidate with a superficially similar program, remained marginalized.
Uribe was elected President of Colombia in the first round of 26 May 2002 elections with 53% of the popular vote. His running mate was Francisco Santos Calderón, a member of the Santos family, who have a long-lasting tradition as members of the Colombian Liberal Party and as owners of Colombian daily newspaper El Tiempo. Santos was also one of the founders of the anti-kidnapping NGO Fundación País Libre, created shortly after his own experience as a hostage of drug lord Pablo Escobar.
Observers considered the elections mostly free of foul play at the national level, but there were instances of active intimidation of voters and candidates, by the actions of guerrilla and paramilitary groups. 47% of the potential electorate voted, down from the previous round of voting.
Some of Uribe's opponents made accusations during his campaign, especially in a speech by Horacio Serpa and a book published by Newsweek's Joseph Contreras, who interviewed Uribe that year. Claims centered on Uribe's alleged past personal relationships with members of the Medellín Cartel and the sympathy that some paramilitary spokesmen expressed towards Uribe as a candidate. Uribe and his supporters denied or undermined these claims, and critics never committed to legal action because there was no evidence for these claims.
Presidency (2002–2010)
Cabinet
Minister of Interior and Justice: Fernando Londoño | Sabas Pretelt de la Vega | Carlos Holguín Sardi | Fabio Valencia Cossio
Minister of Foreign Affairs: Carolina Barco | María Consuelo Araújo | Fernando Araújo Perdomo | Jaime Bermúdez
Minister of Finance: Roberto Junguito Bonnet | Alberto Carrasquilla | Oscar Iván Zuluaga
Minister of Defense: Marta Lucía Ramírez | Jorge Alberto Uribe | Camilo Ospina Bernal | Juan Manuel Santos | Gabriel Silva Luján
Minister of Agriculture: Carlos Gustavo Cano | Andrés Felipe Arias | Andrés Fernández Acosta
Minister of Health: Juan Luis Londoño | Diego Palacio Betancourt
Minister of Mining and Energy: Luis Ernesto Mejía | Hernán Martínez Torres
Minister of Commerce, Industry and Tourism: Jorge Humberto Botero | Luis Guillermo Plata Páez
Minister of Education: Cecilia María Vélez White
Minister of Environment: Cecilia Rodríguez | Sandra Suárez | Juan Francisco Lozano Ramírez | Carlos Costa Posada
Minister of Communications: María del Rosario Guerra de La Espriella | Daniel Enrique Medina Velandia
Minister of Transport: Andrés Uriel Gallego Henao
Minister of Culture: María Consuelo Araújo | Elvira Cuervo de Jaramillo | Paula Marcela Moreno
Minister Counselor of the Presidency: Juan Francisco Lozano Ramírez| Oscar Iván Zuluaga | Claudia Jiménez
Presidential Advisor for Peace and Reintegration: Luis Carlos Restrepo | Frank Pearl González
Presidential Advisor for the Regions: Miguel Peñaloza
Presidential Advisor for Communications: Jaime Bermúdez | Jorge Mario Eastman | Mauricio Carradini
Presidential Advisor for the Bicentenary: María Cecilia Donado
Presidential Advisor for Anti-cyclic Policy: Mateo Restrepo Villegas
Internal conflict
During his tenure, Uribe's declared priority was to contain or defeat the three main armed groups in Colombia, the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), National Liberation Army (ELN), and FARC. And by the end of his first term in office the AUC had other right-wing militias agree to disarm and go to jail under special sentences of seven years.
Uribe stated that the government had to first show military superiority in order to eventually make the guerrillas return to the negotiating table with a more flexible position, even if this would only happen after his term in office expired. Early in his government, he was quoted as saying that Colombia's main concerns were the challenges of terrorism and the narcotics trade. In a dialog with BBC's Talking Point, Uribe stated: "Of course we need to eliminate social injustice in Colombia but what is first? Peace. Without peace, there is no investment. Without investment, there are no fiscal resources for the government to invest in the welfare of the people".
His security program was based on a policy of democratic security, aiming to:
Gradually restore police presence in all municipalities.
Increase judicial action against crimes of high social impact.
Strengthen public institutions.
Reduce human rights violations.
Dismantle terrorist organizations (especially armed rebel groups; the main one is the FARC-EP).
Reduce kidnappings and extortion.
Reduce homicide levels.
Prevent forced displacement and facilitating the return of forcefully-displaced people.
Continue to fight the illegal drug trade through interdiction, eradication and judicial action.
The policy intended to achieve these goals by:
Engaging the civilian population more actively.
Supporting soldiers.
Increasing intelligence capacity.
Reinstating control over national roads.
Demobilizing illegal groups.
Integrating the armed forces services.
Increasing defense spending.
In early 2002, Uribe's administration decreed a one-time tax of 1.2% of the liquid assets of the higher-income Colombians and corporations, with the goal of raising US$800 million. More than $650 million was collected before the final payment quota was made, surpassing original expectations. Another goal was to increase defense expenditures from a current level of about 3.6% of GDP to 6% of GDP by 2006.
According to official government statistical information from August 2004, in two years, homicides, kidnappings, and terrorist attacks in Colombia decreased by as much as 50% – their lowest levels in almost 20 years. In 2003, there were 7,000 fewer homicides than in 2002 – a decrease of 27%. By April 2004, the government had established permanent police or military presence in every Colombian municipality for the first time in decades.
The Colombian Embassy in Washington states that, as a result of this policy, the Colombian armed forces would now have: "60% more combat-ready soldiers than four years ago; Helicopters which have significantly improved the mobility of the Armed Forces throughout the national territory; Attack helicopters ensuring the means to be more aggressive in the fight against FARC and AUC; Increased basic combat supplies, including rifles and ammunition; and [has received] significant less human rights complaints against them".
In January 2005, Human Rights Watch stated: "Paramilitary groups maintain close ties with a number of Colombian military units. The Uribe administration has yet to take effective action to break these ties by investigating and prosecuting high-ranking members of the armed forces credibly alleged to have collaborated with paramilitary groups. Credible reports indicate that some of the territories from which the military has ejected the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolutionarias de Colombia, FARC) are now under the control of paramilitary groups, which continue to carry out indiscriminate attacks on the civilian population".
A February 2005 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the year 2004 stated: "Achievements and advances were observed in the field of human rights and international humanitarian law; however, there were also difficulties and contradictions. ... Progress was recorded in terms of prevention and protection, including strengthening of the mechanism of community defenders and the early warning system, as well as regarding the Ministry of the Interior's programs for the protection of vulnerable groups. Weaknesses persisted in the Government's responses to warnings, as well as in decreasing risk factors for vulnerable groups. The Government adopted positive measures regarding the destruction of stored anti-personnel mines. The armed forces occasionally carried out operations in which they failed to observe humanitarian principles".
An anti-terror statute criticized by many human rights groups was approved by Congress on 11 December 2003 but was struck down in August 2004 by the Colombian Constitutional Court during its review. The statute granted the military judicial police rights and allowed limited arrests and communication intercepts without warrants. It was struck down due to an error in the approval procedure, an objection the court has also presented towards other bills.
After some of the AUC's main leaders had declared a cease-fire and agreed to concentrate in Santa Fe de Ralito, several paramilitary demobilizations began in earnest, thousands of their "rank and file" fighters were disarmed and incorporated into government rehabilitation programs late in 2004. The main AUC leaders, who would be held responsible for atrocities, remained in the concentration zone and continued talks with the government's High Commissioner for Peace, Luis Carlos Restrepo. A number of the paramilitary members who initially demobilized in Medellín apparently did not actually belong to the AUC and this caused public concern. The AUC commanders claimed, as the year ended, that they had difficulties controlling all of their personnel from their isolated position, that they had already demobilized some 20% of their forces, and that they would await for the drafting of the necessary legal framework before making any more significant moves.
In 2005, Uribe and Colombia's congressmen prepared for the elections held in May and March 2006 respectively. FARC, which had been perceived as relatively passive, began to show signs of what analysts considered renewed vigor in February. It made a series of attacks against small military units, which left at least three dozen casualties. Uribe said in a speech that FARC remained strong and had never retreated, and he credited Colombia's soldiers for previous successes against FARC activities.
Negotiations with the AUC also increased public anxiety. Discussions continued about the legal provisions to assure "justice, reparation and truth" after a full demobilization. Also according to many observers, paramilitary activity continued despite AUC's declared cease-fire, albeit at a reduced rate. The demobilizations were renewed in November and finished in the complete disbandment of the group by middle February 2007, although some of the paramilitary units rejected disbandment and returned to criminal activity. These groups became known as the Black Eagles. This group is relatively small in comparison to the AUC and have not been able to achieve the notoriety or the military power of their predecessor, but are present on some former paramilitary areas, like Catatumbo and Choco.
The Colombian Congress agreed to prosecute AUC leaders under the controversial Justice and Peace Law, by which the paramilitary leaders would receive reduced sentences in exchange for their testimony and declarations of their entire criminal activity: links with drug dealers, assassinations, disappearances and massacres. These declarations are to be brought before a specialized judge, in a public hearing attended by the victims. The paramilitary leaders are also forced to "repair" the damage caused to the victims or their families: By disclosing the location of mass graves and by repaying each of them through economic assistance. As of 2008, these public hearings are still underway.
To improve its results in the fight against guerrilla warfare, the Colombian army carried out mass executions of civilians transformed into false positives. If exactions of this kind already existed, the phenomenon became widespread from 2002, encouraged by the bonuses paid to the soldiers and by quasi-absolute impunity. In 2010 a mass grave containing 2,000 corpses was discovered near a military base in the department of Meta. This is the largest mass grave discovered to date in South America.
In 2008, the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances of the United Nation's Human Rights Council criticised the continuation of forced disappearances in Colombia.
According to the CODHES human rights NGO, forced displacement during Uribe's term affected over 2.4 million Colombian nationals by the end of 2009. A spokesperson for the organization stated: "It's true that there have been advances for some segments of society, but not for everyone, which casts into doubt the democratic component of (the government's) security policy". From 2000 to 2008, more that 130.000 Colombian nationals fled to Ecuador. According to the International Displacement Monitoring Centre, an estimated total of 3.303.979 to 4.915.579 people have been internally displaced in Colombia.
Colombian parapolitics scandal
In November 2006, a political crisis emerged as several of Uribe's congressional supporters were questioned or charged by the Colombian Supreme Court and the office of the Attorney General for having alleged links to paramilitary groups. Álvaro Araújo, brother of Uribe's Foreign Minister María Consuelo Araújo, was among those summoned for questioning. In November, the former ambassador to Chile, Salvador Arana, was charged with the murder of a mayor in a small town in the Department of Sucre. The Supreme Court sentenced Arana to 40 years in prison in December 2009.
In April 2007, Senator Gustavo Petro made several accusations against Uribe during a televised congressional debate about paramilitarism in Antioquia. Petro said that some of the Uribe family's farms in the north of the country had been previously used as staging grounds for paramilitary forces. He also showed a picture of Santiago Uribe, the President's brother, together with Fabio Ochoa, a drug dealer, in 1985. Petro also argued that Governor Uribe's office allowed paramilitary personnel to participate in some of the legal cooperative neighborhood watch groups known as CONVIVIR. Another accusation concerned the possible participation of a helicopter belonging to the former Antioquia Governor's administration during a paramilitary massacre.
Two days later, Uribe publicly revealed that former US Vice President Al Gore had canceled his participation in a pro-environment event Uribe was to attend in Miami due to the continuing allegations against him. The Colombian President reacted by organizing a press conference during which he addressed several of the accusations Senator Petro and others had made against him. Uribe argued that his family had nothing to do with any massacres and that they had already sold the implicated farms several years before the alleged events. He also stated that the Uribes and the Ochoas were both famous in the horse breeding business, causing their meetings to be both common and public. He claimed that the helicopter's hours and missions had been strictly logged, making it impossible for it to have participated in any massacre. Uribe said that he supported the CONVIVIR groups but was not solely responsible for their creation, adding that other civilian and military authorities also participated in their oversight. He also said that he dismantled some CONVIVIR groups when doubts began to surround their activities.
On 22 April 2008, former senator Mario Uribe Escobar, one of the Colombian President's cousins and a close political ally, was arrested after being denied asylum at the Costa Rican embassy in Bogotá, as part of a judicial inquiry into the links between politicians and paramilitary groups. Mario Uribe has been accused of meeting with paramilitary commander Salvatore Mancuso in order to plan land seizures. On 22 February 2011, Uribe Escobar was convicted and sentenced to 90 months in jail after the Colombian Supreme Court found him guilty of the charge of conspiring with paramilitary groups.
On 23 April 2008, Uribe revealed that a former paramilitary fighter had accused him of helping to plan the 1997 massacre of El Aro, a charge which he said was under official investigation. Uribe described the accuser as a "disgruntled convict with an axe to grind", denied the charges and said there was proof of his innocence. The Colombian newsweekly Revista Semana reported that the paramilitary in question, Francisco Enrique Villalba Hernández, had not mentioned Uribe during previous declarations made more than five years ago, when he was sentenced for his own role in the massacre. The magazine also listed a number of possible inconsistencies in his most recent testimony, including the alleged presence of General Manosalva, who had died months before the date of the meeting where the massacre was planned.
Wiretapping scandal
In May 2009 Colombian prosecutors officially began an investigation on a series of illegal wiretapping and spying activities carried out against opposition politicians, judges, journalists and others by the Department of Administrative Security (DAS). The probe has involved several of Uribe's top aides and former high-ranking personnel within the department.
Former DAS counterintelligence director Jorge Alberto Lagos has told investigators that information on the country's Supreme Court judges was provided to Bernardo Moreno and José Obdulio, two of Uribe's aides. Gaviria has claimed that criminals have tried to damage the government's image as part of a "political war" against the administration. El Tiempo has criticized these explanations, raising questions about the President's knowledge of these activities. Uribe himself has denied ordering any illegal wiretapping and claims that those responsible for spying on the opposition are part of "a mafia group that hurts the Colombian Democracy, freedom, the country and the government itself".
The DAS, an "intelligence service that answers to the president" as described by the Washington Post, has been the subject of earlier controversies during the Uribe administration. According to Revista Semana, revelations about the infiltration of paramilitaries affected the entity under former DAS chief Jorge Noguera in 2007 and further accusations have continued to surface. The magazine reported that information gathered by the DAS has been allegedly forwarded to paramilitaries, narcotraffickers and guerrillas.
Previously, former DAS computer systems chief Rafael García had claimed that the department and Colombian paramilitaries were involved in a plan to assassinate Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez.
According to Reporters Without Borders, Colombia was demoted from 114th to 145th place between 2002 and 2010 on freedom of the press.
International relations
Uribe's administration was responsible for arresting and extraditing more drug traffickers to the United States and to other countries than all other previous presidents. He has been publicly recognized as a supporter of the US war on drugs by continually implementing the anti-drug strategy of Plan Colombia.
He is also recognized as a supporter of the US war on terror, and the invasion of Iraq. In January 2003, Uribe ended a radio interview by asking "why isn't there any thought of [making] an equivalent deployment [as in the invasion of Iraq] to put an end to this problem [the Colombian conflict], which has such potentially grave consequences?".
In a 22 November visit to the coastal city of Cartagena, US President George W. Bush stood by the results of Uribe's security policies and declared he would continue to provide Plan Colombia aid in the future: "My nation will continue to help Colombia prevail in this vital struggle. Since the year 2000, when we began Plan Colombia, the United States has provided more than $3 billion in vital aid. We'll continue providing aid. We've helped Colombia to strengthen its democracy, to combat drug production, to create a more transparent and effective judicial system, to increase the size and professionalism of its military and police forces, to protect human rights, and to reduce corruption. Mr. President, you and your government have not let us down. Plan Colombia enjoys wide bipartisan support in my country, and next year I will ask our Congress to renew its support so that this courageous nation can win its war against narco-terrorists".
The Uribe administration has maintained generally positive diplomatic relations with Spain and most Latin American nations. It signed several accords, including one in 2004 for the joint construction of a pipeline with Venezuela, a security and anti-drug trafficking cooperation deal with Paraguay in 2005, a commercial and technological cooperation agreement with Bolivia in 2004, a defense agreement with Spain (which was modified in 2004 but still remained valid), and economic and cultural agreements with the People's Republic of China in April 2005.
Several analysts consider that, being an ally of the US, Uribe would be ideologically opposed to left wing governments in Latin America and elsewhere. Yet, Uribe has participated in multilateral meetings and has held bilateral summits with presidents Hugo Chávez, Martín Torrijos, Lula da Silva, Ricardo Lagos, and Carlos Mesa, among others. Colombia has also maintained diplomatic relations with Cuba and the People's Republic of China.
There have been some diplomatic incidents and crises with Venezuela during his term, in particular around the 2005 Rodrigo Granda affair, Colombia's frustrated 2004 acquisition of 46 AMX-30 tanks from Spain, and an Alleged planned Venezuelan coup in 2004 by Colombian paramilitaries. These internationally worrying circumstances have been ultimately resolved through the use of official diplomatic channels and bilateral presidential summits (in the first two cases).
International law enforcement cooperation has been maintained with countries such as the US, Spain, the United Kingdom, México, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Panama, Paraguay, Honduras and Brazil among others.
Uribe's government, along with Peru and Ecuador, negotiated and (with Peru) signed a free trade agreement with the US. On 30 December 2005, Uribe signed a free trade agreement (FTA) with Mercosur and gives Colombian products preferential access to the market of 230 million people. Trade negotiations have also been underway with Mexico, Chile, the Andean community and the USA over its current proposal.
After the 2009 Honduran election Uribe joined a list of leaders that are supporting the next government following the coup d'état. "Colombia recognizes the next government", Uribe told reporters during an Ibero-American summit in Portugal on 30 November 2009. "A democratic process has taken place in Honduras with high participation, without fraud".
In 2009, bilateral negotiations between the United States and Colombia which would give U.S. forces increased access to several Colombian military bases for the stated purpose of fighting terrorism and the drug trade generated controversy throughout the region. Venezuela's Hugo Chávez criticized the proposed deal as the creation of a purported "imperialist beachhead" while Colombian diplomats defended the agreement. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated that "there was no intention to expand the number of permanent [U.S.] personnel [in Colombia] beyond the maximum permitted by Congress". Other Latin American nations, including Brazil, also expressed their own concerns about the matter.
On 2 July 2008 a covert rescue operation codenamed Operation Jaque by the Colombian Special Forces disguised as FARC guerrillas resulted in the rescue of Senator and former presidential candidate Ingrid Betancourt, the Americans Marc Gonsalves, Thomas Howes, and Keith Stansell and eleven soldiers and police officers. It was done without bloodshed and led to the capture of two guerrilla leaders. The operation heightened Uribe's already soaring popularity. Uribe stated that the rescue operation "was guided in every way by the light of the Holy Spirit, the protection of our Lord and the Virgin Mary". The hostages agreed, indicating that they had spent much time in captivity praying the rosary, and Ms. Betancourt, formerly a lapsed Catholic who prayed daily on a wooden rosary which she made while a hostage, attributed the rescue as follows: "I am convinced this is a miracle of the Virgin Mary. To me it is clear she has had a hand in all of this".
Despite significant political differences, until 2007 Colombia and Venezuela had only one major impasse in their relations, the Rodrigo Granda affair, which had been overcome thanks to the direct talks between Uribe and Chávez. Uribe's main political problem during 2007 was his handling of the humanitarian exchange situation: the FARC guerrillas held over 700 hostages, living in poor conditions in the Colombian jungle. These hostages included presidential candidate and French citizen Ingrid Betancourt (later freed), three American citizens (later freed), and several Colombian politicians and law enforcers. Some of the captives had been in the jungle for over 10 years. For the release of 40 of these hostages (the so-called "canjeables" or "exchangeables") the FARC demands a Demilitarized Zone that includes the towns of Florida and Pradera. The government has refused to comply with this demand, deciding instead to push for a military rescue of the hostages, or by searching the mediation of third parties like Switzerland and the Catholic Church.
As all of those plans failed to get any positive outcome, Uribe appointed Senator Piedad Córdoba to mediate between the government and the guerrillas in an attempt to secure the liberation of the hostages. Córdoba then asked Chávez to mediate as well, with Uribe's consent. French president Nicolas Sarkozy was also willing to help in the mediation effort.
On 8 November 2007 Chávez met with alias "Iván Márquez" one of the highest members of the FARC and some other members of its secretariat at the Palacio de Miraflores in a widely publicized event. After the event Chavez promised to deliver evidence that some of the hostages remained alive. When Chávez met with Sarkozy on 19 November, Chávez was still waiting for the evidence. Lacking the "proof of life" that was promised to the families of the hostages, and seeing prominent FARC members using the media attention to promote their own ideology, Uribe became disgruntled with the mediation process.
On 22 November Uribe abruptly ended the mediation after Chávez spoke with the high command of the Colombian military during a call made by Córdoba. Uribe had warned Chávez against any attempt to talk to military high command. Chávez initially accepted the decision, but tensions escalated as the presidents increasingly attacked each other verbally, with Chávez claiming that Uribe and the U.S. simply preferred the war continue, and Uribe implying Chávez supported the rebels.
Chávez announced a "freeze" of political relations and called Uribe a "pawn of the empire" and cut contact with the Colombian government, including rejecting calls from the Colombian embassy in Caracas. He announced his intent to sharply reduce bilateral commerce.
Chávez continued negotiating with the rebels and eventually secured the unilateral release of two, then four more, hostages to Venezuela which were meant as signs of good faith and preceded calls for more negotiations, which Uribe dismissed.
A regional crisis began after Colombian troops killed FARC commander Raúl Reyes in a guerrilla camp inside Ecuadorian borders on 1 March. Ecuador, Venezuela and Nicaragua, which has a maritime dispute with Colombia, cut diplomatic ties with Colombia as a response, with Chavez and Ecuadorean President Rafael Correa ordering troops to their respective borders with Colombia. Uribe in response placed the armed forces on high alert but did not move his troops to confront them even though the Colombian army is larger than Ecuador's and Venezuela's combined.
Several countries in the Americas criticized the incursion into Ecuador as a violation of national sovereignty, which was also denounced by an OAS resolution. The United States backed Colombia's position and internal support for the action remained strong, Uribe's popularity rising as a result.
The impasse was finally solved when Leonel Fernández, President of the Dominican Republic, hosted an emergency summit of Latin American nations in Santo Domingo. He got Uribe, Correa, and Chavez to shake hands. Nicaragua's Daniel Ortega also announced the restoration of relations with Colombia at which Uribe told him that he would send him the bill for the plane fare for his ambassador.
In early March 2010, judge Eloy Velasco of Spain brought forth allegations against Hugo Chávez, the FARC and ETA of conspiring to assassinate Uribe, along with other Colombian political figures.
Socio-economic policy
The Uribe administration has continued dealing with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, securing loans, agreeing to cut expenses, agreeing to continue debt payments, privatize public companies and foment investor confidence, in order to comply with financial orthodoxy.
Under Uribe, social spending has also seen a huge increase. The government's High Advisor for Social Policy, Juan Francisco Lozano Ramírez, stated in February 2005 that the administration had by 2004 achieved an increase of 5 million affiliates to the subsidized health system (3.5 million added in 2004, for a total of 15.4 million affiliates), an increase of 2 million Colombians that receive meals and care through the Institute of Family Welfare (ICBF) (for a total of 6.6 million), an increase of 1.7 million education slots in the National Service of Learning (SENA) (for a total of 2.7 million), an increase of 157% in the amount of microcredit available to small entrepreneurs, a reduction of unemployment from 15.6% in December 2002 to 12.1% by December 2004, the addition of almost 200,000 new houses to existing housing projects for the poor, a total of 750,000 new school slots in primary and high school, some 260,000 new university slots, the return of 70,000 displaced persons to their homes (under an 800% increase in the budget assigned to this matter), and support for a program that seeks to increase economic subsidies from 170,000 to 570,000 of the elderly by the end of the term. The High Advisor added that a "colossal effort" is still required and work must continue, and that this progress would constitute a sign of the Uribe administration's positive effects on social indicators.
Companies such as Carbocol, Telecom Colombia, Bancafé, Minercol and others, which were either already in crisis or considered by the government as overly expensive to maintain under their current spending conditions, were among those restructured or privatized.
Most direct critics have considered Uribe's administration neoliberal, and argued that it has not addressed the root causes of poverty and unemployment, because continued application of traditional trade and tax policies tend to benefit private and foreign investors over small owners and workers. Union and labor claim that many of the privatizations and liquidations have been done to please the IMF, the World Bank and multinational companies, and will hurt several national industries in the long run.
Unemployment remains at a high level (between 11 and 12% under Uribe's administration).
Referendum for reelection
A national referendum was promoted during Uribe's campaign and later modified by Congress and judicial review. The ability to revoke Congress was removed, as was the option to vote "Yes" or "No" as a whole. The modified proposal was defeated at the polls on 25 October 2003, and several left-wing candidates opposed to the referendum were victorious at regional elections the following day. At least 25% of the electorate needed to vote on each of the 15 proposals in order it to be accepted, but overall participation was only 24.8% and only the first proposal ("political death for the corrupt") achieved this. All 15 proposals were approved by a substantial majority of those who voted.
Analysts considered these events a political setback for Uribe, as one of his main campaign propositions had failed, despite his personal leadership. The "active abstention" and blank voting campaigns that his opponents, in particular the Independent Democratic Pole and the Colombian Liberal Party, had promoted were allegedly successful in convincing enough of their sympathizers to stay home and instead participate in the next day's round of elections.
A number of Uribe's own supporters did not participate, as they found the referendum, which had been modified by Congress and later by the Judicial branch, to be too complex, long and uninspiring. Some also pointed out that extraordinary electoral initiatives (that is, those voted outside standard electoral dates) have traditionally suffered complications in Colombia, including a lack of participation.
In September 2003, Uribe issued a speech that contained allegations against what he called "agents of terrorism" inside a minority of human rights organizations, while at the same time declaring that he respected criticism from most other established organizations and sources. Similar statements were later repeated in other instances.
These statements were sharply criticized inside and outside Colombia because they could endanger the work of human rights and opposition figures.
Contacts begun in 2002 with the paramilitary AUC forces and their leader Carlos Castaño, which had publicly expressed their will to declare a cease-fire, continued in 2003 amid a degree of national and international controversy.
Reelection proposal
In 2004, Uribe successfully sought a Congressional amendment to the Colombian Constitution of 1991 which allowed him to run for a second term as president. For years, Colombian presidents had been limited to a single four-year term and had been barred from any sort of reelection, even if nonconsecutive. Uribe originally had expressed his disagreement with consecutive reelection during his campaign, but later changed his mind, first at a private level and later in public appearances.
Many analysts considered that, in order to secure the approval of this reform, Uribe may have slacked on his campaign promises, because of what has been perceived as his indirect bribing of congressmen, through the alleged assignment of their relatives to the diplomatic corps and through promises of investment in their regions of origin. Uribe's supporters consider that no actual bribing took place, and that a consensus among the diverse sectors that back Uribe's policies in Congress had to be reached through political negotiation.
The amendment permitting a single reelection was approved by Congress in December 2004, and by the Constitutional Court in October 2005.
2006 presidential elections
In 2004, Uribe's political supporters amended the constitution to allow him to run for a second term, previously proscribed by the Colombian constitution, and his own decision to run for a second term was announced in late 2005. With this amendment, Uribe was re-elected on 28 May 2006 for a second presidential term (2006–2010), and became the first president to be consecutively re-elected in Colombia in over a century. He received about 62% of the vote, winning over 7.3 million votes. This was the largest victory for a presidential candidate in Colombian history.
The Organization of American States (OAS) deployed electoral observers in 12 departments: Antioquia, Risaralda, Quindío, Atlántico, Bolívar, Santander, Córdoba, Cauca, César, Nariño, Magdalena and Valle. In a statement made on 28 May, OAS mentioned that the elections "have taken place in an atmosphere of freedom, transparency and normalcy", despite incidents "related to the use of indelible ink, voter substitution and the accreditation of electoral witnesses, though these have no effect on the electoral process as a whole" and "developments in northern Santander province that took the lives of army personnel and left others injured in an ambush carried out by subversive groups".
Bribery investigation
In April 2008, Yidis Medina, a former congresswoman from the pro-government Colombian Conservative Party, claimed that members of Uribe's administration had offered her to appoint local officials in her home province, in exchange for voting in favor of the 2004 reelection bill. According to Medina, the government had not fulfilled that promise, prompting her declaration. The Attorney General of Colombia ordered her arrest, after which she turned herself over to authorities and testified to the Supreme Court as part of the investigation. The opposition Alternative Democratic Pole party asked for Uribe to be investigated for bribery. After the declarations made by Medina, the Supreme Court of Colombia sent copies of the process to other judicial authorities, who have the jurisdiction to investigate several former and current cabinet members and other high officials. The Accusations Commission of the Colombian Congress will study the matter and decide if there are enough merits to officially investigate Uribe.
Popularity
Since his 2002 election Uribe's approval ratings had remained high, usually staying between 60 and 70 percent after eight years in office, but this status has radically changed.
During early 2008, Uribe's approval rating hit 81%, one of the highest popularity levels of his entire presidency. In June 2008, after Operation Jaque, Uribe's approval rate rose to an unprecedented 91%. In May 2009 his popularity had dropped to 68%.
According to a June 2009 Ipsos-Napoleón Franco national poll for the 2010 presidential campaign, covering over thirty cities and municipalities, Uribe's overall approval rating was 76% but only 57% would vote in favor of his potential reelection for a third term.
During the eight years of Uribe's government, internal polling, communications strategy and government and presidential image were managed by Uribe's Communications Advisors Jaime Bermudez, who later became Ambassador to Argentina and then Foreign Affairs Minister; Jorge Mario Eastman, who was Vice-minister of Defense before and left to become Vice-minister of Defense again; and Mauricio Carradini who served under Uribe until the end the period in office.
Uribe's popularity on leaving office was measured to be between 79% and 84% depending on the source consulted. However, those opinion polls in Colombia were mostly carried out among the inhabitants of big cities and did not include the opinion of rural populations, most affected by war and poverty. Some journalists were also surprised that the president's popularity is not reflected in the elections, where the abstention varies between 50% and 80% of the electorate.
In 2019, 69% of the population surveyed said they had an unfavourable image of Uribe, while 26% said they had a favourable image.
2010 third term proposal
As the end of Uribe's second term approached, his followers sought a new amendment that would grant him the right to run for a third term.
In May 2009, Defense Minister Juan Manuel Santos resigned so he could run for president in case Uribe either did not or could not run again. Santos said before resigning that he did not want to run against Uribe.
Congress backed a proposed referendum on the matter, but the Constitutional Court rejected it after reviewing the resulting law. On 26 February 2010 lead justice Mauricio Gonzalez publicly announced the Court's decision. Gonzalez said that the Court had found numerous irregularities in the way signatures were obtained to allow the referendum to pass. He also said that the law calling for a referendum contained "substantial violations to the democratic principle" that made it unconstitutional. Uribe stated that he would respect the decision but called for voters to continue supporting his administration's policies in the upcoming elections.
The Constitutional Court not only threw out the referendum, but declared Colombian presidents could only serve two terms, even if they were nonconsecutive. This effectively foreclosed a potential Uribe run for president in 2014. The Constitution has since been amended to limit the president to a single four-year term, restoring the status quo that prevailed before 2005.
Post-presidency and controversy
In late 2010, a few months after leaving office, Uribe was named visiting scholar at Georgetown University's Walsh School of Foreign Service, where he taught students in different disciplines as a guest lecturer in seminars and classes. In 2011, Uribe was granted an honorary award by the Latin American Student Association of Georgetown, for his leadership and commitment with the Latin American community of the university.
Uribe's appointment at Georgetown sparked controversy. In September, more than 150 scholars, including 10 Georgetown professors and leading experts on Latin America and Colombia, signed a letter calling for Uribe's firing. A Colombian humorist suggested Uribe teach a course on wiretapping, which his administration illegally conducted on opposition figures, human rights workers, journalists and Supreme Court justices. Many students protested, with some hanging banners calling him a "mass murderer" for the deaths of thousands of civilians that the army was accused of later dressed up as guerrillas.
In November 2010, while at the Georgetown campus, Uribe was served a criminal subpoena in the case Claudia Balcero Giraldo v. Drummond, regarding hundreds of civilians murdered by paramilitary forces loyal to Uribe.
After a year at Georgetown, Uribe left to continue with his personal endeavors in Colombia.
In October 2012, News Corporation welcomed Uribe to the Board of Directors upon the retirement of Andrew Knight, John Thornton, and Arthur Siskind.
In 2012, Uribe joined the Leadership Council of Concordia, a nonprofit organization in New York City that creates public-private partnerships.
Prosecutors accuse Uribe of helping to plan paramilitary massacres in La Granja (1996), San Roque (1996) and El Aro (1997) while he was governor of Antioquia, and the February 1998 assassination of Jesús María Valle, an attorney and human rights defender working with victims in those cases.
Senator of Colombia (2014–2020)
Uribe, who had served in the Senate prior to his election as president, is the only former Colombian head of state in history to have become a Senator after occupying the presidency.
Founded by the former president, the Democratic Center (Centro Democrático) party managed to win 20 seats in the Senate during the 9 March congressional election, the second highest number after the 21 seats held by President Juan Manuel Santos U Party (Partido de la U). Uribe's new Democratic Center party also won 19 of the House of Representatives' 166 seats.
Uribe campaigned actively against the peace deal between the Juan Manuel Santos administration and FARC. He argued the deal would undermine the constitution by appointing FARC leaders, who received no prison terms for their crimes, to congress.
Home detention
In August 2020, Uribe was placed under house arrest at his hacienda "El Uberrimo" by the Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia, while it decides whether he should stand trial for bribery and witness tampering as well as crimes against humanity for his alleged involvement in El Aro and La Granja massacres, which took place while he was Governor of Antioquia, as part of ongoing judicial investigations. The day following his arrest, Uribe tested positive for COVID-19, but he announced he was cured 6 days later. On 18 August 2020, Uribe resigned his seat in the Senate of Colombia. Uribe was later freed on 10 October 2020, due to a lack of evidence to prove the case against him.
The court case called "Caso Uribe" has been a dispute in which Uribe began as a victim and ended up being a victimizer, according to the status granted by the high court to his counterpart in this process, Senator Iván Cepeda.
The process passed into the hands of the Office of the Attorney General of the Nation, thus evading the jurisdiction that the Supreme Court of Justice had over it. The prosecutor delegated to this high court, Gabriel Jaimes Durán, requested the preclusion of the process, ruling out in 4 months investigation, the probative material that the Court compiled in 3 years.
"False positives" scandal
In 2008, the case of so-called false positives, or extrajudicial executions, was revealed. Several Army brigades created a policy, according to which commanders and soldiers reporting combat casualties, received prizes, vacations and promotions, while commanders who did not report results were disciplined and punished. Such policy did not reward the military for capturing guerrillas but for reporting the death toll in combat. It subsequently came to light that several National Army units executed civilians, often from a poor background, to pass them off as combat casualties and thus inflate the number of deaths in combat, which sought to demonstrate the success of the democratic security policy. The killings were systematically committed by several National Army units as the fourth brigade in Medellin, which lured young people under the pretext of employing them, thus murdering them in the field simulating combat. In December 2019, the Special Jurisdiction for Peace discovered the first mass grave of false positives in the municipality of Dabeiba, Antioquia, where 50 civilian deaths were found, presented as guerrillas who were killed by National Army units during the Uribe government between 2006 and 2008. Those responsible for digging the tombs were soldiers of the Fourth Brigade of Medellin, located less than 3 hours away by car from Dabeiba. It is estimated that across the country there are between 3500 and 10,000 victims of false positives in what Human Rights Watch has called as a case of unreleased human rights violation in the world where the army murders its own civilians to pass them off as enemies killed in combat. Such a violation of human rights by the Army entailed the resignation of the National Army Commander at the time, General Mario Montoya, who would subsequently benefit from special jurisdiction after requesting that such entity could ensure his personal security.
For these crimes, several international analysts have considered Uribe to be at risk of trial for crimes against humanity in the International Criminal Court or for War Crimes. Currently, the prosecutor's office of the International Criminal Court has information on 2047 cases of execution of civilians by the National Army. In February 2021, the Special Peace Jurisdiction has claimed that, during Uribe's rule, 6,402 people were victims of this scourge. In 2021 the president of the Truth Commission, Francisco de Roux, demanded from him to ask for forgiveness due to its responsibility in the events related to the False Positives, but Uribe declined even the invitation to talk with the commission.
Awards
International awards
In 2003 he received the Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay in the grade of Grand Cordon, and on 4 February 2005, he was made Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic by King Juan Carlos I of Spain.
In May 2007 the American Jewish Committee (AJC) gave Uribe its "Light Unto The Nations" award. AJC President E. Robert Goodkind, who presented the award at AJC's Annual Dinner held at the National Building Museum in Washington, stated: "President Uribe is a staunch ally of the United States, a good friend of Israel and the Jewish people, and is a firm believer in human dignity and human development in Colombia and the Americas".
On 13 January 2009 US President George W. Bush awarded Uribe, along with former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair and former Prime Minister of Australia John Howard, the highest civilian award; the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Dana Perino, the White House Press Secretary explained that he received this award "for (his) work to improve the lives of (his) citizens and for (his) efforts to promote democracy, human rights and peace abroad". She said (speaking of the three leaders who received the reward on this day): "All three leaders have been staunch allies of the United States, particularly in combating terrorism".
On 23 November 2009 Nicolas De Santis, President of Gold Mercury International, presented Uribe with the Gold Mercury International Award for Peace and Security in a ceremony at the Nariño Presidential Palace in Bogota. The Award recognized Uribe's efforts to transform Colombia's internal security mechanisms, improve human rights, social cohesion and general development of the country.
Other awards
1992: Senator with the best initiatives.
1993: Best senator.
2013: El Gran Colombiano (The Great Colombian) through a poll conducted by History Channel, an award obtained in competition with 125 other Colombian personalities. It was rejected and criticized by some historians and journalists.
2015: Best senator.
See also
2010 Colombia-Venezuela diplomatic crisis
Colombian Armed Conflict
Colombian parapolitics scandal
Democratic security
"False positives" scandal
List of presidents of Colombia
Plan Colombia
Yidispolitics scandal
References
External links
Álvaro Uribe Velez official website
Alvaro Uribe political profile on www.colombia-politics.com
Álvaro Uribe profile on Colombia Reports
Biography by CIDOB Foundation (in Spanish)
Álvaro Uribe in genealogy wiki
1952 births
Living people
People from Medellín
University of Antioquia alumni
Harvard Extension School alumni
Colombian lawyers
Mayors of Medellín
Governors of Antioquia Department
Presidents of Colombia
Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Colombian Liberal Party politicians
Colombian people of Basque descent
Colombia First politicians
Colombian anti-communists
Walsh School of Foreign Service faculty
Social Party of National Unity politicians
Democratic Center (Colombia) politicians
Right-wing populism in South America
Colombian Roman Catholics
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century Roman Catholics
Harvard Law School alumni | [
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243683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmarinen | Ilmarinen | Ilmarinen (), the Eternal Hammerer, blacksmith and inventor in the Kalevala, is a god and archetypal artificer from Finnish mythology. He is immortal and capable of creating practically anything, but is portrayed as being unlucky in love. He is described as working the known metals of the time, including brass, copper, iron, gold, and silver. The great works of Ilmarinen include the crafting of the dome of the sky and the forging of the Sampo. His usual epithet in the Kalevala is seppo, a poetic word for "smith". and the source of the given name Seppo.
Etymology and origin
Cognates of the Finnish word ilma ('air') are attested in almost all the main Finno-Ugric languages apart from the Mari and Mordvinic languages, allowing the reconstruction of proto-Finno-Ugric *ilma meaning something like 'sky'. This noun is also attested as the name of a god in Khanty (Num-Iləm), Komi (Jen), Udmurt (Inmar) and the Finnic languages, suggesting that proto-Finno-Ugric likewise had a sky god credited with creating the sky called *Ilma. In Proto-Finnic, the suffix -r(i), which is used to form words for people associated with the root word, was added to *ilma to give the god-name *Ilmar(i) ('Sky-being'); rare attestations of similar forms such as Udmurt Ilmar and Sámi Ilmaris seem to be loans from Finnic.) In Kalevala metre poetry, the diminutive suffix -nen enabled the formation of the name Ilmarinen, which neatly fills two trochaic feet and so became the dominant form of the name in that tradition.
Ilmari(nen) is believed to have taken on the qualities of a smith through the Proto-Finnic contact with iron-working cultures, such as the Indo-European Balts or speakers of Common Germanic.
Ilmarinen is also directly appealed to for aid in several incantation runes. Insofar as Elias Lönnrot heavily redacted the original runes collected by him and others, it's valuable to differentiate between the Kalevala and the original poems sung by rune singers.
Other names for Ilmarinen that are found in rune variants include Ilmorinen and Ilmollini.
Stories about Ilmarinen
The forging of the Sampo
From the Kalevala
Summary based on
When the old sage, Väinämöinen, was traveling wide in the search of a wife, he was captured by the old mistress of Pohjola, the land of the North. In return for giving him safe passage from the land of Pohjola back to his native country, the enchantress Louhi of Pohjola wanted to have made the Sampo, a magic artifact. Väinämöinen replied that he could not make her one, but that Ilmarinen could, and promised to send the great smith to Pohjola to do just that. In return for this wondrous device, Louhi would also give Ilmarinen her daughter's hand in marriage.
On having returned home, Väinämöinen tries to awe Ilmarinen with tales of the maiden's beauty and so lure him to Pohjola. Ilmarinen sees through the ruse, however, and refuses. Not to be outdone, Väinämöinen tricks the smith into climbing a fir tree trying to bring down moonlight that is glimmering on the branches. Conjuring a storm-wind with his magical song, Väinämöinen then blows Ilmarinen away to Pohjola.
Once there, Ilmarinen is approached by the toothless hag, Louhi, and her daughter, the Maiden of Pohjola, and having seen the maiden's beauty, consents to build a Sampo. For three days, he sought a place to build a great forge. In that forge he placed metals and started working, tending the magic fire with help of the slaves of Pohjola.
On the first day, Ilmarinen looked down into the flames and saw that the metal had taken the form of a crossbow with a golden arch, a copper shaft and quarrel-tips of silver. But the bow had an evil spirit, asking for a new victim each day, and so Ilmarinen broke it and cast the pieces back into the fire.
On the second day, there came a metal ship from the fire, with ribs of gold and copper oars. Though beautiful to behold, it too was evil at heart, being too eager to rush towards battle, and so, Ilmarinen broke the magic boat apart and cast back the pieces once more.
On the third day, a metal cow emerged, with golden horns and the sun and the stars on its brow. But alas, it was ill-tempered, and so the magical heifer was broken into pieces and melted down.
On the fourth day, a golden plow is pulled from the forge, with a golden plowshare, a copper beam and silver handles. But it too is flawed, plowing up planted fields and furrowing meadows. In despair, Ilmarinen destroys his creation once more.
Angered at his lack of success, Ilmarinen conjures the four winds to fan the flames. The winds blow for three days, until finally, the Sampo is born, taking the shape of a magic mill that produces grain, salt and gold. Pleased with his creation at last, Ilmarinen presents it to Louhi, who promptly locks it in a vault deep underground.
Returning triumphant to the Maiden of Pohjola, Ilmarinen bids her to become his wife. To his dismay, she refuses to leave her native land, forcing him to return home alone and dejected.
From original rune variants
Variants of the original runes used by Lönnrot in compiling the Kalevala present a different picture of Ilmarinen. In one variant of The Sampo for example, Ilmarinen goes willingly to Pohjola to forge the Sampo, not because he was tricked by Väinämöinen, but in order to redeem Väinämöinen from death. In addition, the same rune portrays Ilmarinen as returning home successfully with the Maiden of the North.
Ilmarinen's portrayal as "unlucky in love" in the Kalevala is primarily due to Lönnrot's own choices while revising and compiling the original runes to form a cohesive narrative. In another example from an original rune entitled Kosinta (The Courtship), Ilmarinen takes a journey to compete for Hiisi's daughter. He again succeeds in obtaining his wife after completing the tasks of ploughing a field of vipers, bringing Tuoni's bear, and bringing the pike of Tuoni.
Ilmarinen's bride of gold
From the Kalevala
Summary based on
After the loss of his first wife to Kullervo's curse, the disheartened Ilmarinen attempts to craft a new one from gold and silver, but finds the golden wife hard and cold. Dismayed, he attempts to wed her to his brother Väinämöinen instead, but the old sage rejects her, saying that the golden wife ought to be cast back into the furnace and tells Ilmarinen to "forge from her a thousand trinkets". Speaking to all of his people, he further adds:
"Never, youths, however wretched,
Nor in future, upgrown heroes,
Whether you have large possessions,
Or are poor in your possessions,
In the course of all your lifetime,
While the golden moon is shining,
May you woo a golden woman,
Or distress yourselves for silver,
For the gleam of gold is freezing,
Only frost is breathed by silver."
The tale of the Golden Wife can be seen as a cautionary tale based on the theme of "money cannot buy happiness". To a contemporary reader, there is also a similarity to the hubristic nature of the Golem legend, or to Frankenstein, in that even the most skilled of mortals cannot rival divine perfection when creating life.
From original rune variants
In another example of Lönnrot's editorial license, the Kullervo cycle originally existed as an independent series of runes. In his effort to create a homogeneous narrative, Lönnrot presented Kullervo as Ilmarinen's slave in order to insert Kullervo into the Sampo cycle of runes. However, some scholars are convinced that the Golden Bride was originally an independent rune that was eventually added to the Sampo cycle. Furthermore, independent variants of the Kultamorsian (Golden Bride) rune have been collected. In Matti Kuusi's opinion, the warning reproduced above is a secondary element that was probably added during the Christian period. Rather than serving as a cautionary tale, the original runes probably expressed the widespread myth of a Golden Woman found throughout Arctic Eurasia.
In popular culture
A portrayal of Ilmarinen and depiction of selected tales from the Kalevala can be found in the 1959 movie Sampo (film).
Finnish metal band Amorphis released their ninth album in 2009 called Skyforger, which is a concept album based around the stories and legends of Ilmarinen.
The band Turisas recorded a song called "Cursed Be Iron" about the aforementioned smith, and he is mentioned in "Rauta" by Korpiklaani.
In the trilogy The Winter of the World by Michael Scott Rohan, Ilmarinen is the godlike Power revered by the duergar, who say he forged the mountains in which they live. Another Power, the Odin-like Raven, speaks of Ilmarinen, "greatest of the Elder Powers," having taught him.
Ilmarinen appears in Joseph Michael Linsner's comic Dawn: Return of the Goddess when the title character seeks him out to forge a sword for her.
Ilmarinen appears as Ilmari Heikkinen the Wonder-smith in Mercedes Lackey's 500 Kingdoms Series' homage to Sámi (among other Scandinavian and northern European) myths and legends, The Snow Queen (2008).
Gallery
See also
Dwarf (mythology), in Germanic myth dwarfs commonly fit the "artificer" archetype
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Story of the forging of the Sampo at sacred texts.com
Story of the Golden Wife at sacred texts.com
Finnish mythology
Finnish gods
Smithing gods
Characters in the Kalevala | [
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243684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20long-distance%20trails%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland | Lists of long-distance trails in the Republic of Ireland | These are lists of long-distance trails in Ireland, and include recognised and maintained walking trails, pilgrim trails, cycling greenways, boardwalk-mountain trails, and interconnected national and international trail systems.
There are 43 National Waymarked Trails by the 'National Trails Office' of the Irish Sports Council. Each trail is waymarked with square black posts containing an image, in yellow, of a walking man and a directional arrow, a symbol reserved for use only by National Waymarked Trails. The oldest trail is the Wicklow Way, which was opened in 1980, and there are now over of waymarked trails Ireland. The most frequented trails are the Wicklow, Sheep's Head, Kerry, Dingle, Beara, Burren and Western Ways.
In 1997, the Heritage Council, started developing a series of walking routes based on medieval pilgrimage paths, and there are now of major penitential trails: Cnoc na dTobar, Cosán na Naomh, St. Finbarr's Pilgrim Path, Saint Kevin's Way, and Tochar Phádraig. These pilgrim trails, and seven others, are supported by Pilgrim Paths of Ireland who follow the same guidelines for developing National Waymarked Trails.
In 2017, the 46-kilometre Waterford Greenway was opened for cyclists, and many others are planned or in development. Many of the National Waymarked Trails form part of larger long-distance and transnational trails such as European walking route E8, the Beara-Breifne Way and the International Appalachian Trail.
National waymarked trails
The establishment of the Ulster Way in Northern Ireland in the 1970s, prompted the creation of the Cospóir Long Distance Walking Routes Committee (now the 'National Trails Advisory Committee' of the Irish Sports Council) to establish a national network of long-distance trails in Ireland. The committee included An Taisce nominee, J. B. Malone who had done much to popularise walking through an Evening Herald newspaper column, television programs and books. The first trail – the Wicklow Way – was based on a series of articles Malone had written for the Evening Herald in 1966, and was opened in 1980; it was followed by the South Leinster and East Munster Ways in 1984; the Kerry Way and the Táin Way in 1985; and the Dingle and Slieve Bloom Ways in 1987.
The work of the committee was not supported by compulsory powers, and access had to be achieved by agreement with local authorities and private landowners, which was not usually forthcoming. Most of the trails are therefore dependent on access from by the state: Coillte, the state-owned forestry company, is the largest single manager of any of the trails with more than 30 National Waymarked Trails making use of its property. Coillte provides and maintains 52% of all off-road walking trails and 24% of the total amount of developed walking trails in Ireland. Access issues mean that many trails have substantial sections on public roads. Author John G. O'Dwyer summed up the situation of trails using long stretches on boring public roads interspersed with monotone Coillte Sitka spruce forests.
A 2006 'National Trails Strategy', by the Irish Sports Council noted that Irish trails fell well behind international standards, and that access was "the single most important" issue. A 2010 review of the National Waymarked Trails by the Irish Sports Council restated many of these issues and made recommendations on a new standard of trail called a 'National Long Distance Trail' (NLDT), intended to meet international standards for outstanding trails. Five trails – the Beara, Dingle, Kerry, Sheep's Head and Wicklow Ways – were recommended to be upgraded to NLDT.
Pilgrim paths
Influenced by the work of the Council of Europe on the Camino de Santiago de Compostela in the 1980s and 1990s, the Pilgrim Paths Project was set up by the Heritage Council as its Millennium Project in 1997. The purpose was to develop and support a network of walking routes along Irish medieval pilgrimage paths to raise awareness of natural and built heritage along these routes and to contribute to tourism and community development.
In 2013, Pilgrim Paths of Ireland (PPI) was set up as a non-denominational representative body for Ireland's medieval pilgrim paths, and represents 12 community groups supporting specific paths. PPI holds and annual National Pilgrimage Paths Week during Easter, and issues a National Pilgrimage Passport to finishers of the 5 main trails: Cnoc na dTobar, Cosán na Naomh, St. Finbarr's Pilgrim Path, Saint Kevin's Way, and Tochar Phádraig.
The routes follow the guidelines for National Waymarked Trails, with black marker posts with a yellow pilgrim symbol; this image is based on a stone from a pilgrimage site in County Cork which depicts a pilgrim with a Celtic tonsure, wearing a tunic and carrying a staff. Beneath the symbol is a directional arrow inset with a cross of arcs, one of the main symbols of pilgrimage in Ireland.
Cycle greenways
, there were four greenways (mostly rail trails) in Ireland:
A project has been initiated to create an Connemara Greenway along the route of the former Galway to Clifden Midland Great Western Railway. The Dublin-Galway Greenway has also been initiated. The 280 km route was planned to be completed by 2020. Sections of the route follow the Royal Canal from Dublin, as well as the disused Mullingar-Athlone rail line. Funding was made available for the development of a greenway on the former Tralee to Fenit railway line in County Kerry, with (as of 2011) the development of further greenways under consideration in other parts of the country. There is also a campaign to create a greenway on the Claremorris, County Mayo to Collooney, County Sligo section of the Western Rail Corridor.
The Royal Canal Greenway is due to be extended along the Royal Canal to Dublin to an expanded length of .
Boarded mountain paths
The Irish Office of Public Works (OPW) maintains a number of "boarded paths", often using railway sleepers, on some Irish mountains.
The driver of their creation has been to protect the underlying ground (often delicate bogland) from erosion by hill-walkers, however, in most cases, the creation of the paths has also materially increased the use and popularity of the paths by the public. When the Stairway to Heaven was opened in 2015, it was estimated that visitors to Cuilcagh Mountain increased from circa 3,000 per annum, to over 60,000 per annum.
, there are five boarded mountain paths (also called Tóchars by the NPWS) in Ireland:
Cuilcagh "Stairway to Heaven" (Cavan/Fermanagh). A 7.5–kilometre boarded path to the summit of Cuilcagh mountain (e.g. a 15–kilometre round-trip), that was opened in 2015 to protect the underlying bog, but has since become a significant tourist attraction in the area.
Diamond Hill. A 7–kilometre boarded and stone path round-trip trail that starts and ends at the National Park visitor centre in Letterfrack in Connemara. The mountain was closed to climbing in 2002 due to severe erosion but was re-opened in December 2005 after the completion of a Euro 1.4 million wooden boardwalk and stone path trail to limit further erosion; since construction, only Croagh Patrick has a higher footfall in Connemara mountains.
Djouce (Wicklow). A 4–kilometre boarded path consisting of railway sleepers was constructed during 1997–1999 to protect the underlying bog from erosion due to the popularity of the mountain hill walking; the path does not go all the way to the summit, and instead, a gravel-track is used.
Glendalough "Spinc/White Trail" (Wicklow). An 8–kilometre "loop-route" on the mountains surrounding the Upper Glendalough Lake, that takes in the rocky The Spinc outcrop and associated views into the valley below.
Torc Mountain (Kerry). A boarded path to the summit that enables hill-walkers to complete the longer 8–kilometre Torc Waterfall to Torc Mountain summit route without requiring any special mountain footwear or navigation skills.
Teresa Wall vs NPWS (2016)
The future of boarded mountain paths and trails in Ireland was put in doubt when a climber, Teresa Wall, successfully sued the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) in the Circuit Court for Euro 40,000 in 2016 for an injury sustained in on the Djouce boarded walk (she required seven stitches after tripping on the boardwalk and cutting her knee near the J.B. Malone memorial stone); however, her award was overturned in February 2017 following a High Court appeal by the NPWS, which rejected her arguments that a "trip hazard" is the same whatever the location.
Interconnecting trails
National
Beara-Breifne Way is a walking and cycling route under development intended to run from the Beara Peninsula, Cork to Breifne, Leitrim following the line of Donal Cam O'Sullivan Beare's march in the aftermath of the Battle of Kinsale in 1602. The intended route will make use of the Beara Way; Ballyhoura Way; Suck Valley Way; Miner's Way and Historical Trail; Leitrim Way; and Cavan Way.
International
European walking route E8 is an international walking trail that extends from Dursey Island, County Cork to Istanbul in Turkey. In Ireland the E8 follows the Wicklow, South Leinster, East Munster and Blackwater Ways and parts of the Kerry and Beara Ways.
There is also a proposal to extend the International Appalachian Trail (IAT), an extension of the Appalachian Trail through Canada to Newfoundland, to all terrain that formed part of the Appalachian Mountains of Pangaea, including Ireland. It is proposed that the Irish leg of the IAT will make use of the Slí Colmcille and the Bluestack Way in County Donegal before joining the Ulster Way in Northern Ireland.
See also
Bangor Trail
Malin to Mizen
Wild Atlantic Way
Lists of mountains in Ireland
List of mountains of the British Isles by height
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
National Waymarked Trails on Irishtrails.ie
National Trails Office
The Pilgrim Paths
Ireland
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243685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julianne%20Moore | Julianne Moore | Julie Anne Smith (born December 3, 1960), known professionally as Julianne Moore, is an American actress and author. Prolific in film since the early 1990s, she is particularly known for her portrayals of emotionally troubled women in independent films, as well as for her roles in blockbusters. She is the recipient of numerous accolades, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award, two Golden Globe Awards, and two Emmy Awards.
After studying theater at Boston University, Moore began her career with a series of television roles. From 1985 to 1988, she was a regular in the soap opera As the World Turns, earning a Daytime Emmy Award for her performance. Her film debut was in Tales from the Darkside: The Movie (1990), and she continued to play small roles for the next four years, including in the thriller The Hand That Rocks the Cradle (1992). Moore first received critical attention with Robert Altman's Short Cuts (1993), and successive performances in Vanya on 42nd Street (1994) and Safe (1995) continued this acclaim. Starring roles in the blockbusters Nine Months (1995) and The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997) established her as a Hollywood leading lady.
Moore received considerable recognition in the late 1990s and early 2000s, earning Academy Award nominations for Boogie Nights (1997), The End of the Affair (1999), Far from Heaven (2002) and The Hours (2002). In the first of these, she played a 1970s pornographic actress, while in the other three, she starred as a mid-20th century unhappy housewife. She also had success with the films The Big Lebowski (1998), Magnolia (1999), Hannibal (2001), Children of Men (2006), A Single Man (2009), The Kids Are All Right (2010), and Crazy, Stupid, Love (2011). She won a Primetime Emmy Award for her portrayal of Sarah Palin in the television film Game Change (2012). She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of an Alzheimer's patient in Still Alice (2014) and was named Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival for her role in Maps to the Stars (2014). Among her highest-grossing releases are the final two films in the series The Hunger Games and the spy film Kingsman: The Golden Circle (2017).
In addition to her acting work, Moore has written a series of children's books about a character named "Freckleface Strawberry". In 2015, Time magazine named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world, and in 2020, The New York Times named her one of the greatest actors of the 21st century. She is married to director Bart Freundlich, with whom she has two children.
Early life
Moore was born Julie Anne Smith on December 3, 1960, at the Fort Bragg army installation in North Carolina, the oldest of three siblings. Her father, Peter Moore Smith, a paratrooper in the United States Army during the Vietnam War, attained the rank of colonel and became a military judge. Her mother, Anne (née Love 1940-2009), was a Scottish psychologist and social worker from Greenock, who immigrated to the United States in 1951 with her family. Moore has a younger sister, Valerie Smith, and a younger brother, the novelist Peter Moore Smith. Being half-Scottish, Moore claimed British citizenship in 2011 to honor her late mother.
Moore frequently moved around the United States as a child, due to her father's occupation. She was close to her family as a result, but has said she never had the feeling of coming from one particular place. The family lived in multiple locations, including Alabama, Georgia, Texas, Panama, Nebraska, Alaska, New York, and Virginia, and Moore attended nine different schools. The constant relocating made her an insecure child, and she struggled to establish friendships. Despite these difficulties, Moore later remarked that an itinerant lifestyle was beneficial to her future career: "When you move around a lot, you learn that behavior is mutable. I would change, depending on where I was ... It teaches you to watch, to reinvent, that character can change."
When Moore was sixteen, the family moved from Falls Church, Virginia, where Moore had been attending Justice High School, to Frankfurt, West Germany, where she attended Frankfurt American High School. She was clever and studious, a self-proclaimed "good girl", and she planned to become a doctor. She had never considered performing, or even attended the theater, but she was an avid reader and it was this hobby that led her to begin acting at the school. Moore appeared in several plays, including Tartuffe and Medea, and with the encouragement of her English teacher, she chose to pursue a theatrical career. Her parents supported her decision, but asked that she train at university to provide the added security of a college degree. She was accepted to Boston University and graduated with a BFA in Theatre in 1983.
Career
Early work (1985–1993)
Moore moved to New York City after graduating, and worked as a waitress. After registering her stage name with Actors' Equity, she began her career in 1985 with off-Broadway theatre. Her first screen role came in 1985, in an episode of the soap opera The Edge of Night. Her break came the following year, when she joined the cast of As the World Turns. Playing the dual roles of half-sisters Frannie and Sabrina Hughes, she found this intensive work to be an important learning experience, and she said of it fondly: "I gained confidence and learned to take responsibility." Moore performed on the show until 1988, when she won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Ingenue in a Drama Series. Before leaving As the World Turns, she had a role in the 1987 CBS miniseries I'll Take Manhattan. Once she finished her contract at World Turns, she played Ophelia in a Guthrie Theater production of Hamlet opposite Željko Ivanek. The actress returned intermittently to television over the next three years, appearing in the TV movies Money, Power, Murder (1989), The Last to Go (1991), and Cast a Deadly Spell (1991).
In 1990, Moore began working with stage director Andre Gregory on a workshop theatre production of Chekhov's Uncle Vanya. Described by Moore as "one of the most fundamentally important acting experiences I ever had", the group spent four years exploring the text and giving intimate performances to friends. Also in 1990, Moore made her cinematic debut as a mummy's victim in Tales from the Darkside: The Movie, a low-budget horror that she later described as "terrible". Her next film role, in 1992, introduced her to a wide audience. The thriller The Hand That Rocks the Cradlein which she played the main character's ill-fated friendwas number one at the US box office, and Moore caught the attention of several critics for her performance. She followed it the same year with the crime comedy The Gun in Betty Lou's Handbag, appearing as the protagonist's kooky sister. She continued to play supporting roles throughout 1993, first featuring in the erotic thriller Body of Evidence as Madonna's love rival. The film was panned by reviewers and heavily mocked, and Moore later regretted her involvementcalling it "a big mistake". She had greater success in a 1993 romantic comedy with Johnny Depp. In Benny & Joon, Moore played a gentle waitress who falls for Aidan Quinn's character, Benny. She also appeared briefly as a doctor in one of the year's biggest hits, the Harrison Ford-starring thriller The Fugitive.
Rise to prominence (1993–1997)
Filmmaker Robert Altman saw Moore in the Uncle Vanya production, and was sufficiently impressed to cast her in his next project: the ensemble drama Short Cuts (1993), based on short stories by Raymond Carver. Moore was pleased to work with him, as his film 3 Women (1977) gave her a strong appreciation for cinema when she saw it in college. Playing artist Marian Wyman was an experience she found difficult, as she was a "total unknown" surrounded by established actors, but this proved to be Moore's breakthrough role. The critic Todd McCarthy called her performance "arresting" and remarked that her monologue, delivered naked from the waist down, would "no doubt be the most discussed scene" of the film. Short Cuts was critically acclaimed, and received awards for Best Ensemble Cast at the Venice Film Festival and the Golden Globe Awards. Moore received an individual nomination for Best Supporting Female at the Independent Spirit Awards, and the monologue scene earned her a degree of notoriety.
Short Cuts was one of a trio of successive film appearances that boosted Moore's reputation. It was followed in 1994 with Vanya on 42nd Street, a filmed version of her ongoing Uncle Vanya workshop production, directed by Louis Malle. Moore's performance of Yelena was described as "simply outstanding" by Time Out, and she won the Boston Society of Film Critics award for Best Actress. Following this, Moore was given her first leading role, playing an unhappy suburban housewife who develops multiple chemical sensitivity in Todd Haynes' low-budget film Safe (1995). She had to lose a substantial amount of weight for the role, which made her ill, and she vowed never to change her body for a film again. In their review, Empire writes that Safe "first established [Moore's] credentials as perhaps the finest actress of her generation". The film historian David Thomson later described it as "one of the most arresting, original and accomplished films of the 1990s", and the performance earned Moore an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Actress. Reflecting on these three roles, Moore has said, "They all came out at once, and I suddenly had this profile. It was amazing."
Moore's next appearance was a supporting role in the comedy-drama Roommates (1995), playing the daughter-in-law of Peter Falk. Her following film, Nine Months (1995), was crucial in establishing her as a leading lady in Hollywood. The romantic comedy, directed by Chris Columbus and co-starring Hugh Grant, was poorly reviewed, but a box office success; it remains one of her highest-grossing films. Her next release was also a Hollywood production, as Moore appeared alongside Sylvester Stallone and Antonio Banderas in the thriller Assassins (1995). Despite negativity from critics, the film earned $83.5 million worldwide. Moore's only appearance of 1996 came in the Merchant Ivory film Surviving Picasso, where she played the artist Dora Maar opposite Anthony Hopkins. The period drama met with poor reviews.
A key point in Moore's career came when she was cast by Steven Spielberg to star as paleontologist Dr. Sarah Harding in The Lost World: Jurassic Park – the sequel to his 1993 blockbuster Jurassic Park. Filming the big-budget production was a new experience for Moore, and she has said she enjoyed herself "tremendously". It was a physically demanding role, with the actress commenting, "There was so much hanging everywhere. We hung off everything available, plus we climbed, ran, jumped off things ... it was just non-stop." The Lost World (1997) finished as one of the ten highest-grossing films in history to that point, and was pivotal in making Moore a sought-after actress: "Suddenly I had a commercial film career", she said. The Myth of Fingerprints was her second film released in 1997. During its production she met her future husband in director Bart Freundlich. Later that year, Moore made a cameo appearance in the dark comedy Chicago Cab.
Worldwide recognition (1997–2002)
The late 1990s and early 2000s saw Moore achieve significant industry recognition. Her first Academy Award nomination came for the critically acclaimed Boogie Nights (1997), which centers on a group of individuals working in the 1970s pornography industry. Director Paul Thomas Anderson was not a well-known figure before its production, with only one feature credit to his name, but Moore agreed to the film after being impressed with his "exhilarating" script. The ensemble piece featured Moore as Amber Waves, a leading porn actress and mother-figure who longs to be re-united with her real son. Martyn Glanville of the BBC commented that the role required a mixture of confidence and vulnerability, and was impressed with Moore's effort. Time Out called the performance "superb", while Janet Maslin of The New York Times found it "wonderful". Alongside her Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actress, Moore was nominated at the Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild awards, and several critics groups named her a winner.
Moore followed her success in Boogie Nights with a role in the Coen brothers' dark comedy The Big Lebowski (1998). The film was not a hit at the time of release, but subsequently became a cult classic. Her role was Maude Lebowski, a feminist artist and daughter of the eponymous character who becomes involved with "The Dude" (Jeff Bridges, the film's star). At the end of 1998, Moore had a flop with Gus Van Sant's Psycho, a remake of the classic Alfred Hitchcock film of the same name. She played Lila Crane in the film, which received poor reviews and is described by The Guardian as one of her "pointless" outings. A review in Boxoffice magazine bemoaned that "a group of enormously talented people wasted several months of their lives" on the film.
After re-uniting with Robert Altman for the dark comedy Cookie's Fortune (1999), Moore starred in An Ideal Husband – Oliver Parker's adaptation of the Oscar Wilde play. Set in London at the end of the 19th century, her performance of Mrs. Laura Cheverly earned a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy. She was also nominated in the Drama category that year for her work in The End of the Affair (1999). Based on the novel by Graham Greene, Moore played opposite Ralph Fiennes as an adulterous wife in 1940s Britain. The critic Michael Sragow was full of praise for her work, writing that her performance was "the critical element that makes [the film] necessary viewing". Moore received her second Academy Award nomination for the role – her first for Best Actress – as well as nominations at the British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA) and Screen Actors Guild (SAG) awards.
In between her two Golden Globe-nominated performances, Moore was seen in A Map of the World, supporting Sigourney Weaver, as a bereaved mother. Her fifth and final film of 1999 was the acclaimed drama Magnolia, a "giant mosaic" chronicling the lives of multiple characters over one day in Los Angeles. Paul Thomas Anderson, in his follow-up to Boogie Nights, wrote a role specifically for Moore. His primary objective was to "see her explode", and he cast her as a morphine-addicted wife. Moore has said it was a particularly difficult role, but she was rewarded with a SAG nomination. She was subsequently named Best Supporting Actress of 1999 by the National Board of Review, in recognition of her three performances in Magnolia, An Ideal Husband, and A Map of the World.
Apart from a cameo role in the comedy The Ladies Man, Moore's only other appearance in 2000 was in a short-film adaptation of Samuel Beckett's play Not I. In early 2001, she appeared as FBI Agent Clarice Starling in Hannibal, a sequel to the Oscar winning film The Silence of the Lambs. Jodie Foster had declined to reprise the role, and director Ridley Scott eventually cast Moore, over Angelina Jolie, Cate Blanchett, Gillian Anderson, and Helen Hunt. The change in actress received considerable attention from the press, but Moore claimed she was not interested in upstaging Foster. Despite mixed reviews, Hannibal earned $58 million in its opening weekend and finished as the tenth-highest-grossing film of the year. Moore starred in three more 2001 releases: with David Duchovny in the science fiction comedy Evolution, in her husband's dramatic film World Traveler, and with Kevin Spacey, Judi Dench, and Cate Blanchett in The Shipping News. All three films were poorly received.
The year 2002 marked a high point in Moore's career, as she became the ninth performer to be nominated for two Academy Awards in the same year. She received a Best Actress nomination for the melodrama Far from Heaven, in which she played a 1950s housewife whose world is shaken when her husband reveals he is gay. The role was written specifically for her by Todd Haynes, the first time the pair had worked together since Safe, and Moore described it as "a very, very personal project ... such an incredible honor to do". David Rooney of Variety praised her "beautifully gauged performance" of a desperate woman "buckling under social pressures and putting on a brave face". Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "what Moore does with her role is so beyond the parameters of what we call great acting that it nearly defies categorization". The role won Moore the Best Actress award from 19 different organizations, including the Venice Film Festival and the National Board of Review.
Moore's second Oscar nomination that year came for The Hours, which she co-starred in with Nicole Kidman and Meryl Streep. She again played a troubled 1950s housewife, prompting Kenneth Turan to write that she was "essentially reprising her Far from Heaven role". Moore said it was an "unfortunate coincidence" that the similar roles came at the same time, and claimed that the characters had differing personalities. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the performance "wrenching", while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised a "superbly controlled, humane performance". The Hours was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Moore also received BAFTA and SAG Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress, and was jointly awarded the Silver Bear for Best Actress with Kidman and Streep at the Berlin International Film Festival.
Established actress (2003–2009)
Moore did not make any screen appearances in 2003, but returned in 2004, with three films. There was no success in her first two ventures of the year: Marie and Bruce, a dark comedy co-starring Matthew Broderick, did not get a cinematic release; Laws of Attraction followed, where she played opposite Pierce Brosnan in a courtroom-based romantic comedy, but the film was panned by critics. Commercial success returned to Moore with The Forgotten, a psychological thriller in which she played a mother who is told her dead son never existed. Although the film was unpopular with critics, it opened as the US box office number one.
In 2005, Moore worked with her husband for the third time in the comedy Trust the Man, and starred in the true story of 1950s housewife Evelyn Ryan in The Prize Winner of Defiance, Ohio. Her first release of 2006 was Freedomland, a mystery co-starring Samuel L. Jackson. The response was overwhelmingly negative, but her follow-up, Alfonso Cuarón's Children of Men (2006), was highly acclaimed. Moore had a supporting role in the dystopian drama, playing the leader of an activist group. It is listed on Rotten Tomatoes as one of the best reviewed films of her career, and was named by Peter Travers as the second best film of the decade.
Moore made her Broadway debut in the world premiere of David Hare's play The Vertical Hour. The production, directed by Sam Mendes and co-starring Bill Nighy, opened in November 2006. Moore played the role of Nadia, a former war correspondent who finds her views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq challenged. Ben Brantley of The New York Times was unenthusiastic about the production, and described Moore as miscast: in his opinion, she failed to bring the "tough, assertive" quality that Nadia required. David Rooney of Variety criticized her "lack of stage technique", adding that she appeared "stiffly self-conscious". Moore later confessed that she found performing on Broadway difficult and had not connected with the medium, but was glad to have experimented with it. The play closed in March 2007 after 117 performances.
Moore played an FBI agent for the second time in Next (2007), a science fiction action film co-starring Nicolas Cage and Jessica Biel. Based on a short story by Philip K. Dick, the response from critics was highly negative. Manohla Dargis wrote, "Ms. Moore seems terribly unhappy to be here, and it's no wonder." The actress has since described it as her worst film. Next was followed by Savage Grace (2007), the true story of Barbara Daly Baekeland – a high-society mother whose Oedipal relationship with her son ended in murder. Moore was fascinated by the role. Savage Grace had a limited release, and received predominantly negative reviews. Peter Bradshaw, however, called it a "coldly brilliant and tremendously acted movie".
I'm Not There (2007) saw Moore work with Todd Haynes for the third time. The film explored the life of Bob Dylan, with Moore playing a character based on Joan Baez. In 2008, she starred with Mark Ruffalo in Blindness, a dystopian thriller from the director Fernando Meirelles. The film was not widely seen, and critics were generally unenthusiastic. Moore was not seen on screen again until late 2009, with three new releases. She had a supporting role in The Private Lives of Pippa Lee, and then starred in the erotic thriller Chloe with Liam Neeson and Amanda Seyfried. Shortly afterwards, she appeared in the well-received drama A Single Man. Set in 1960s Los Angeles, the film starred Colin Firth as a homosexual professor who wishes to end his life. Moore played his best friend, "a fellow English expat and semi-alcoholic divorcee", a character that Tom Ford, the film's writer-director, created with her in mind. Leslie Felperin of Variety commented that it was Moore's best role in "some time", and was impressed by the "extraordinary emotional nuance" of her performance. A Single Man was selected as one of the top 10 films of 2009 by the American Film Institute, and Moore received a fifth Golden Globe nomination for her performance in the film.
Return to television and comedic films (2010–2013)
Moore returned to television for the first time in 18 years when she played a guest role in the fourth season of 30 Rock. She appeared in five episodes of the Emmy-winning comedy, playing Nancy Donovan, a love interest for Alec Baldwin's character Jack Donaghy. She later appeared in the series finale in January 2013. She also returned to As the World Turns as Frannie Hughes, making a brief cameo appearance in a scene with her character's family near the end of the show's run in 2010.
Her first big-screen appearance of the new decade was Shelter (2010), a film described as "heinous" by Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph. The psychological thriller received negative reviews and did not have a U.S. release until 2013 (retitled 6 Souls). Moore next starred with Annette Bening in the independent film The Kids Are All Right (2010), a comedy-drama about a lesbian couple whose teenage children locate their sperm donor. The role of Jules Allgood was written for her by writer-director Lisa Cholodenko, who felt that Moore was the right age, adept at both drama and comedy, and confident with the film's sexual content. The actress was drawn to the film's "universal" depiction of married life, and committed to the project in 2005. The Kids Are All Right was widely acclaimed, eventually garnering an Oscar nomination for Best Picture. The critic Betsy Sharkey praised Moore's performance of Jules, who she called an "existential bundle of unrealized need and midlife uncertainty", writing, "There are countless moments when the actress strips bare before the camera – sometimes literally, sometimes emotionally ... and Moore plays every note perfectly." The Kids Are All Right earned Moore a sixth Golden Globe Award nomination and a second BAFTA nomination for Best Actress.
For her next project, Moore actively looked for another comedy. She had a supporting role in Crazy, Stupid, Love, playing the estranged wife of Steve Carell, which was favorably reviewed and earned $142.8 million worldwide. Moore was not seen on screens again until March 2012, with a performance that received considerable praise and recognition. She starred in the HBO television film Game Change, a dramatization of Sarah Palin's 2008 campaign to become Vice President. Portraying a well-known figure was something she found challenging; in preparation, she conducted extensive research and worked with a dialect coach for two months. Although the response to the film was mixed, critics were highly appreciative of Moore's performance. For the first time in her career, she received a Golden Globe, a Primetime Emmy, and a SAG Award.
Moore made two film appearances in 2012. The drama Being Flynn, in which she supported Robert De Niro, had a limited release. Greater success came for What Maisie Knew, the story of a young girl caught in the middle of her parents' divorce. Adapted from Henry James's novel and updated to the 21st century, the drama earned near-universal critical praise. The role of Susanna, Maisie's rock-star mother, required Moore to sing on camera, which was a challenge she embraced despite finding it embarrassing. She called Susanna a terrible parent, but said the role did not make her uncomfortable, as she fully compartmentalized the character: "I know that that's not me".
Following her well-received performance in What Maisie Knew, Moore began 2013 with a supporting role in Joseph Gordon-Levitt's comedy Don Jon, playing an older woman who helps the title character to appreciate his relationships. Reviews for the film were favorable, and Mary Pols of Time magazine wrote that Moore was a key factor in its success. Her next appearance was a starring role in the comedy The English Teacher (2013), but this outing was poorly received and earned little at the box office. In October 2013, she played the demented mother Margaret White in Carrie, an adaptation of Stephen King's horror novel. Coming 37 years after Brian De Palma's well-known take on the book, Moore stated that she wanted to make the role her own. By drawing on King's writing rather than the 1976 film, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that she managed to "[suggest] a history – one never told, just hinted at – of serious damage in [Margaret's] past". Although the film was a box office success, it was generally considered an unsuccessful and unnecessary adaptation.
Critical and commercial success (2014–present)
At age 53, Moore enjoyed a considerable degree of critical and commercial success in 2014. Her first release of the year came alongside Liam Neeson in the action-thriller Non-Stop, set aboard an airplane. The response to the film was mixed, but it earned $223 million worldwide. She followed this by winning the Best Actress award at the Cannes Film Festival for her performance as Havana Segrand, an aging actress receiving psychotherapy in David Cronenberg's black comedy Maps to the Stars. Described by The Guardian as a "grotesque, gaudy, and ruthless" character, Moore based her role on "an amalgam of Hollywood casualties she ha[d] encountered", and drew upon her early experiences in the industry. Peter Debruge of Variety was critical of the film, but found Moore to be "incredible" and "fearless" in it. Moore's success at Cannes made her the second actress in history, after Juliette Binoche, to win Best Actress awards at the "Big Three" film festivals (Berlin, Cannes, and Venice). She also received a Golden Globe nomination for her performance.
Moore played the supporting role of President Alma Coin, the leader of a rebellion against The Capitol, in the third installment of the lucrative The Hunger Games film series, Mockingjay – Part 1. The film ranks as her highest-grossing to date. Her final film performance of 2014 ranks among the most acclaimed of her career. In the drama Still Alice, Moore played the leading role of a linguistics professor diagnosed with early onset Alzheimer's disease. She spent four months training for the film, by watching documentaries on the disease and interacting with patients at the Alzheimer's Association. Critic David Thomson wrote that Moore was "extraordinary at revealing the gradual loss of memory and confidence", while according to Kenneth Turan, she was "especially good at the wordless elements of this transformation, allowing us to see through the changing contours of her face what it is like when your mind empties out". Several critics felt it was her finest performance to date, and Moore was awarded with the Golden Globe, SAG, BAFTA, and Academy Award for Best Actress.
Moore began 2015 by appearing as an evil queen in Seventh Son, a poorly received fantasy-adventure film co-starring Jeff Bridges. She also appeared opposite Elliot Page in Freeheld, a drama based on a true story about a detective and her same-sex partner, and in the romantic comedy Maggie's Plan, with Greta Gerwig and Ethan Hawke. Both films were presented at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival in September 2015. In Maggie's Plan, Moore played a pretentious Danish professor, a comedic role which critic Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair deemed as the film's "chief pleasure". Later that year, she reprised her role as Alma Coin in The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2, the final film of the series.
After a one-year absence from the screen, Moore had three film releases in 2017. She appeared in a dual role in Wonderstruck, a film adaptation of Brian Selznick's historical children's novel of the same name, which reteamed her with Todd Haynes. Her parts were of a silent movie star in the 1920s and a deaf librarian in the 1970s; in preparation, she studied sign language and watched the films of Lillian Gish. Richard Lawson considered her to be "eminently watchable" despite her limited screen time. Moore portrayed a dual role for the second time that year in Suburbicon, a satirical thriller written by the Coen brothers and directed by George Clooney. She was cast opposite Matt Damon as twin sisters in 1950s America, named Rose and Margaret, who become embroiled in a local crime. The film received negative reviews, with critics saying it failed to effectively portray American racism, but Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent praised Moore for giving "a perfectly judged comic performance as a Barbara Stanwyck-like femme fatale".
Moore's final release of the year was the sequel to the 2015 spy film Kingsman: The Secret Service, subtitled The Golden Circle, co-starring Colin Firth, Taron Egerton, Channing Tatum, and Halle Berry. She played the part of the villainous entrepreneur Poppy Adams, who runs a drug cartel. Despite her character's actions, Moore played the part to make Poppy seem "strange, but reasonable". Peter Debruge described the film as "outlandish", and wrote that Moore had played her part "as Martha Stewart crossed with a demonic 1950s housewife". The film earned over $410 million worldwide.
Moore had two films that premiered in 2018. She was drawn to Sebastián Lelio's Gloria Bell, an English-language remake of Lelio's own Chilean film Gloria, for its rare depiction of a middle-age woman's quest for meaning in life. Stephen Dalton of The Hollywood Reporter believed she had delivered "an utterly natural and quietly spellbinding star performance". Her second film that year was Bel Canto, a thriller based on Ann Patchett's novel of the same name about the Japanese embassy hostage crisis. For her performance as an opera singer, she learned to mimic the body language of professionals for scenes in which Renée Fleming performed the vocals. Guy Lodge of the Chicago Tribune deemed the film an unsuccessful adaptation of the novel and considered Moore's work to be "edgeless fare by her standards". The following year, she teamed with her husband once again in After the Wedding, a remake of Susanne Bier's Danish film of the same name. It featured her and Michelle Williams in roles played by men in the original film. That same year, she starred in The Staggering Girl, a short film directed by Luca Guadagnino.
In 2020, Moore portrayed the feminist icon Gloria Steinem in the biopic The Glorias, sharing the part with the actresses Alicia Vikander and Lulu Wilson. In 2021, she had a supporting role in Joe Wright's thriller The Woman in the Window, based on the novel of the same name, alongside Amy Adams and Gary Oldman, and starred in Lisey's Story, an Apple TV+ miniseries adapted from Stephen King's thriller novel of the same name. Moore also had a supporting role in Stephen Chbosky's musical film Dear Evan Hansen, based on the stage musical of the same name. Moore has also committed to portray Joy Mothertrucker, an ice road trucker, in Joey Soloway's biopic Mothertrucker.
Other ventures
Alongside her acting work, Moore has established a career as a children's author. Her first book, Freckleface Strawberry, was published in October 2007 and became a New York Times Best Seller. Described by Time Out as a "simple, sweet and semi-autobiographical narrative", it tells the story of a girl who wishes to be rid of her freckles, but eventually accepts them. Moore decided to write the book when her young son began disliking aspects of his appearance; she was reminded of her own childhood, when she was teased for having freckles and called "Freckleface Strawberry" by other children.
The book has turned into a series with six follow-ups : Freckleface Strawberry and the Dodgeball Bully was published in 2009, and Freckleface Strawberry: Best Friends Forever in 2011. Both carry the message that children can overcome their own problems. Freckleface Strawberry: Backpacks!, Freckleface Strawberry: Lunch, or What's That? and Freckleface Strawberry: Loose Tooth! were released as part of Random House publisher's "Step Into Reading" program. These were followed by Freckleface Strawberry and the Really Big Voice in summer 2016.
Freckleface Strawberry has been adapted into a musical, written by Rose Caiola and Gary Kupper, which premiered at the New World Stages, New York, in October 2010. Moore had an input in the production, particularly through requesting that it retain the book's young target audience. The show has since been licensed and performed at several venues, which she calls "extremely gratifying and extremely flattering".
Moore has written one children's book separate from the Freckleface Strawberry series. Released in 2013, My Mom is a Foreigner, But Not to Me is based on her experiences of growing up with a mother from another country. The book had a negative reception from Publishers Weekly and Kirkus Reviews; while recognizing it as well-intentioned, Moore's use of verse and rhyme was criticized.
Reception and acting style
Moore has been described by the media as one of the most talented and accomplished actresses of her generation. As a woman in her sixties, she is unusual in being an older actress who continues to work regularly and in prominent roles. She enjoys the variety of starring in both low-budget independent films and large-scale Hollywood productions. In 2004, an IGN journalist wrote of this "rare ability to bounce between commercially viable projects like Nine Months to art house masterpieces like Safe unscathed", adding, "She is respected in art houses and multiplexes alike." She is noted for playing in a range of material, and Ridley Scott, who directed Moore in Hannibal, has praised her versatility. In October 2013, Moore received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. She has been included in People magazine's annual beauty lists on four occasions (1995, 2003, 2008, 2013). In 2015, Time magazine named Moore one of the 100 most influential people in the world on the annual Time 100 list. In 2020, The New York Times ranked her at number 11 in its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century.
Moore is particularly known for playing troubled women, and specializes in "ordinary women who suppress powerful emotions". Oliver Burkeman of The Guardian writes that her characters are typically "struggling to maintain a purchase on normality in the face of some secret anguish or creeping awareness of failure". Suzie Mackenzie, also of The Guardian, has identified a theme of "characters in a state of alienation ... women who have forgotten or lost themselves. People whose identity is a question." Her performances often include small hints at emotional turmoil, until there comes a point when the character breaks. The journalist Kira Cochrane has identified this as a "trademark moment" in many of her best films, while it has led Burkeman to call her the "queen of the big-screen breakdown". "When she does finally crack", writes journalist Simon Hattenstone, "it's a sight to behold: nobody sobs from the soul quite like Moore." Ben Brantley of The New York Times has praised Moore's ability to subtly reveal the inner-turmoil of her characters, writing that she is "peerless" in her "portraits of troubled womanhood". When it comes to more authoritative roles, Brantley believes she is "a bit of a bore". "Emotional nakedness is Ms. Moore's specialty", he says, "and it's here that you sense the magic she is capable of."
An interest in portraying "actual human drama" has led Moore to these roles. She is particularly moved by the concept of an individual repressing their troubles and striving to maintain dignity. Parts where the character achieves an amazing feat are of little interest to her, because "we're just not very often in that position in our lives". Early in her career, Moore established a reputation for pushing boundaries, and she continues to be praised for her "fearless" performances and for taking on difficult roles. When asked if there are any roles she has avoided, she replied, "Nothing within the realm of human behavior." She is known for her willingness to perform nude and appear in sex scenes, although she has said she will only do so if she feels it fits the role.
Regarding her approach to acting, Moore said in a 2002 interview that she leaves 95 percent of the performance to be discovered on set: "I want to have a sense of who a character is, and then I want to get there and have it happen to me on camera." The aim, she said, is to "try to get yourself in a position to let the emotion [happen] to you, that you don't bring the emotion to it ... and when it happens, there's nothing better or more exciting or more rewarding."
Personal life
Actor, producer, and stage director John Gould Rubin was Moore's first husband, whom she met in 1984 and married two years later. They separated in 1993, and their divorce was finalized in August 1995. "I got married too early and I really didn't want to be there", she has since explained. Moore began a relationship with Bart Freundlich, her director on The Myth of Fingerprints, in 1996. The couple have a son, Caleb Freundlich (born December 1997) and a daughter, Liv Freundlich (born April 2002). They married in August 2003 and reside in Greenwich Village, New York City. Moore has commented, "We have a very solid family life, and it is the most satisfying thing I have ever done." She tries to keep her family close when working and picks material that is practical for her as a parent.
Moore is politically liberal and endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections. She is a pro-choice activist and sits on the board of advocates for Planned Parenthood. She is also a campaigner for gay rights and gun control and, since 2008, she has been an Artist Ambassador for Save the Children. Moore is a supporter of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School students in Parkland, Florida, who organized the March For Our Lives. She also helped release a music video for the group. Moore is an atheist; when asked on Inside the Actors Studio what God might say to her upon arrival in heaven, she gave God's response as, "Well, I guess you were wrong, I do exist." She works with Everytown for Gun Safety.
Acting credits and awards
Moore's most acclaimed films, according to the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, include:
Short Cuts (1993)
Vanya on 42nd Street (1994)
Safe (1995)
Boogie Nights (1997)
The Big Lebowski (1998)
Magnolia (1999)
The Hours (2002)
Far from Heaven (2002)
Children of Men (2006)
Blindness (2008)
A Single Man (2009)
The Kids Are All Right (2010)
What Maisie Knew (2012)
Still Alice (2014)
Maggie's Plan (2015)
Gloria Bell (2018)
Her films that have earned the most at the box office are:
The Hand That Rocks the Cradle (1992)
The Fugitive (1993)
Nine Months (1995)
The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997)
Hannibal (2001)
The Forgotten (2004)
Crazy, Stupid, Love (2011)
Non-Stop (2014)
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 (2014)
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2 (2015)
Kingsman: The Golden Circle (2017)
Moore has received five Academy Award nominations, nine Golden Globe nominations, seven SAG nominations, and four BAFTA nominations. From these, she has won an Academy Award, two Golden Globes, a BAFTA, and two SAG Awards; she also has a Primetime Emmy and a Daytime Emmy. In addition, she has been named Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival, Berlin International Film Festival, and Venice Film Festival – the fourth person, and second woman, in history to achieve this. Her recognized roles came in As the World Turns, Boogie Nights, An Ideal Husband, The End of the Affair, Magnolia, Far From Heaven, The Hours, A Single Man, The Kids Are All Right, Game Change, Maps to the Stars, and Still Alice.
Bibliography
References
External links
Freckleface Strawberry. Official website for Moore's book series.
1960 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American writers
Activists from North Carolina
Actresses from New York City
Actresses from North Carolina
American abortion-rights activists
American atheists
American children's writers
American film actresses
American film producers
American gun control activists
American people of English descent
American people of German-Jewish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American soap opera actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American television producers
American video game actresses
American women children's writers
American women film producers
American women television producers
Audiobook narrators
Best Actress AACTA International Award winners
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actress Golden Globe winners
Boston University College of Fine Arts alumni
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series winners
Film producers from New York (state)
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners
LGBT rights activists from the United States
New York (state) Democrats
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Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Fort Bragg, North Carolina
People from Greenwich Village
Silver Bear for Best Actress winners
Television producers from New York (state)
Volpi Cup for Best Actress winners
Volpi Cup winners
Writers from Manhattan
Writers from North Carolina | [
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243686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubol%20Ratana | Ubol Ratana | Princess Ubol Ratana (, , ; born 5 April 1951) is a member of the Thai royal family. She is the eldest child of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit and elder sister of King Vajiralongkorn.
In 1972, she married American citizen Peter Ladd Jensen and settled in the United States, losing her royal title in the process. The couple divorced in 1998, whereupon she resumed her royal duties and position within the Thai court. She is styled in English as Princess Ubol Ratana, without the style Her Royal Highness.
In 2001, she permanently returned to Thailand after a series of visits in the years following her divorce. Almost immediately, she began to fulfill her royal duties by taking part in many ceremonies. She started many charitable foundations that focused on improving the quality of life for the disadvantaged.
In February 2019, in an "unprecedented" move, Ubol Ratana announced her candidacy for Prime Minister of Thailand in the 2019 general election, running as a candidate of the Thai Raksa Chart Party. Later that same day, her younger brother King Vajiralongkorn issued a statement, stating that her candidacy is "inappropriate" and "unconstitutional". Thailand’s election commission then disqualified her from running for prime minister, formally putting an end to her candidacy.
Early life
Princess Ubol Ratana Rajakanya is the eldest child of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit. She was born on 5 April 1951, at Clinique de Montchoisi in Lausanne, Switzerland. She is the only child born outside of Thailand from the four children of former King Bhumibol and Queen Sirikit.
Ubol Ratana, part of her royal name, means "glass lotus", a reference to her maternal grandmother, Bua ("lotus") Kitiyakara. Her parents nicknamed her "Pay", short for poupee (French for "doll"). To her family she is known as Phi Ying. In the media and by Thai people in general, she is called Thun Kramom, a title identifying the daughter of a reigning queen.
She returned to Thailand and stayed at Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall, Dusit Palace. She was styled "Her Royal Highness" by her father at the royal celebration of the first month birthday ceremony (Phra Ratchaphithi Somphot Duean Lae Khuen Phra U; พระราชพิธีสมโภชเดือนและขึ้นพระอู่) King Bhumibol Adulyadej gave her full name and title "Her Royal Highness Princess Ubol Ratana Rajakanya Sirivadhana Barnavadi".
Ubol Ratana was Bhumibol's favorite child because she was attractive and excelled at academics and sports, where her brother, Vajiralongkorn did not. The king greatly enjoyed playing tennis and badminton with her. This was partly due to his suspicion that others were not trying their hardest when playing sports with him and he admired Ubol Ratana for always trying her best.
In the 1967 Southeast Asian Peninsular Games (today called the "Southeast Asian Games") held in Bangkok, the king and the princess competed in the OK Dinghy sailing class and won gold medals for Thailand.
Their participation was conceived by Air Chief Marshal Dawee Chullasapya who wanted Bhumibol to be seen excelling in sports, much like a Norwegian king who won a gold Olympics medal. During the race, Ubol Ratana was ahead and the king was trailing behind. Davee feared that this would tarnish the king's prestige, but ultimately the king won the race and the father and daughter shared the medal.
Education
Ubol Ratana attended primary to secondary levels at Chitralada School. She went to the United States for her tertiary education. She studied at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, graduating with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics in 1973. She later obtained a master's degree in public health at University of California, Los Angeles.
Marriage and family
While studying at university, Ubol Ratana dated an American, Peter Ladd Jensen. The palace discovered this, and her parents strongly opposed their relationship. The princess refused to conform to their wishes; on 25 July 1972, she married Jensen.
According to Paul M. Handley's biography of Bhumibol, the king became furious at Ubol Ratana and stripped her of her royal title. Ubol Ratana made many attempts to ask her father to reinstate her royal title before and after her permanent return to Thailand, but the king never relented.
The princess lived in the United States with her husband for over 26 years and took the name "Mrs. Julie Jensen". After years of rumoured marital problems, they divorced in 1998. Ubol Ratana and her children continued to reside in San Diego until 2001, when they returned to Thailand.
The couple had three children, two daughters and a son, all born in the United States:
Than Phu Ying Ploypailin Mahidol Jensen (born 12 February 1981) married David Wheeler on 25 August 2009, and has three children.
Khun Bhumi Jensen (affectionately known as Khun Poom) (16 August 1983 – 26 December 2004), who had autism, died in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Princess Ubol Ratana established the Khun Poom Foundation in his memory, to aid children with autism and other learning disabilities.
Than Phu Ying Sirikitiya Mai Jensen (born 18 March 1985) holds a degree in history.
While Ubol Ratana remained in the US, her mother (Queen Sirikit) and other members of the royal family often flew there for visits. Ubol Ratana likewise flew to Thailand along with her husband to visit her parents and the other members of the royal family, while joining them in royal ceremonies when she visited Thailand. She visited in 1980, 1982, 1987, 1992 and 1996, taking part in several family events, before her permanent return in 2001.
Charitable work
Ubol Ratana launched the "To Be Number One" Foundation in 2002 to combat drug use by young people. the foundation has more than 31 million members throughout Thailand. She hosts the television show, "Talk to the Princess" on TVT11 NBT where she promotes the aims of her anti-drug work.
Film career
In 2003, Ubol Ratana starred in a Thai soap opera, Kasattiya. In 2006 she had a role in Anantalai, a drama series she wrote under the pen name "Ploykampetch". In 2011, the princess and her daughter Ploypailin Jensen starred in Dao Long Fah, Pupha Si-ngen.
Ubol Ratana acted in the Thai movie Where The Miracle Happens (Neung Jai Diaokan) (หนึ่งใจ..เดียวกัน), released on 7 August 2008 (in this film she also participated as a screenwriter). She plays a "lonely-at-the-top" CEO who begins a life of philanthropy after the death of her only daughter.
In 2010, she appeared in the action film My Best Bodyguard (มายเบสท์บอดี้การ์ด), released on 21 October 2010. In 2012, she appeared in the romantic film Together (Wan Tee Rak) (ร่วมกัน), released on 20 December 2012.
Political career
In 2019, it was announced Ubol Ratana would run as the prime ministerial candidate for the Thaksin-affiliated Thai Raksa Chart Party in the 2019 general election, called an "astonishing" move without precedent, as the royal family has never been directly involved in electoral politics. Her candidacy was quickly quashed by her brother, King Rama X, on the grounds that members of the royal family may not overtly participate in politics. After his statement, the Thai Raksa Chart Party withdrew their support for her run. The Election Commission, citing the king's statement, disqualified her.
Ancestry
Notes
References
External links
Movie: หนึ่งใจ..เดียวกัน (Where The Miracle Happens)
Movie review (en)
1951 births
Living people
20th-century Thai women
20th-century Chakri dynasty
Mahidol family
Thai princesses
21st-century Thai women politicians
Thai people of Mon descent
UCLA School of Public Health alumni
Knights Grand Cordon of the Order of Chula Chom Klao
People from Lausanne
Thai film actresses
21st-century Thai actresses
Thai female Chao Fa
Children of Bhumibol Adulyadej | [
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243689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20National%20League%20pennant%20winners | List of National League pennant winners | The National League pennant winner of a given Major League Baseball season is the team that wins the championship—the pennant—of MLB's National League (NL). This team receives the Warren C. Giles Trophy and the right to play in the World Series against the champion of the American League (AL). The current NL pennant winners are the Atlanta Braves, who beat out the Los Angeles Dodgers to win the NL pennant in October 2021.
The trophy is named for Warren Giles, the league president from 1951 to 1969, and is presented immediately after each NL Championship Series (NLCS) by Warren's son Bill Giles, the honorary league president and owner of the Philadelphia Phillies.
From 1876 through 1968, the pennant was awarded to the team with the best regular-season record. Beginning in 1969, the league was divided into East and West divisions, with the champions of each playing for the pennant in the League Championship Series (NLCS). From 1995 there have been three divisions and a two-round playoff bracket which begins with two Division Series (NLDS).
The pennant has been awarded every year since 1876, except for 1994, when a players' strike forced the cancellation of the postseason. Until 1969, the pennant was presented to the team with the best win–loss record at the end of the season. In 1969, the league split into two divisions, and the teams with the best records in each division played one another in the NLCS to determine the pennant winner. The format of the NLCS was changed from a best-of-five to a best-of-seven format for the 1985 postseason. In 1995, an additional playoff series was added when MLB restructured the two divisions in each league into three. , the winners of the Eastern, Central, and Western Divisions, as well as one wild card team, play in the NL Division Series, a best-of-five playoff to determine the opponents who will play for the pennant.
By pennants, the Los Angeles Dodgers (formerly the Brooklyn Dodgers; 24 pennants, 31 playoff appearances) are the winningest team in NL history. The San Francisco Giants (formerly the New York Giants; 23 pennants, 27 playoff appearances) are in second place, with the St. Louis Cardinals (19 pennants and 28 playoff appearances), in third place, followed by the Atlanta Braves (18 pennants and 23 postseason appearances between their three home cities of Atlanta, Milwaukee, and Boston) in fourth place and the Chicago Cubs (17 pennants and 20 playoff appearances as the Cubs and White Stockings) in fifth. The Philadelphia Phillies were NL champions in back-to-back seasons in 2008 and 2009, becoming the first NL team to do so since the Braves in 1995 and 1996. The Dodgers were also league champions in back-to-back seasons in 2017 and 2018. The modern World Series began in 1903, when the National League recognized the upstart American League, founded in 1901. There was an earlier "World's Championship Series" played between the pennant winners of the NL and the American Association 1884–1890; from 1894 to 1897 the NL's first- and second-place teams played a postseason series for the Temple Cup, which was considered to be the league championship. As of 2021, the Dodgers have the most modern-era World Series appearances at 21, followed by the San Francisco Giants with 20.
The team with the best record to win the NL pennant was the 1906 Cubs, who won 116 of 152 games during that season and finished 20 games ahead of the New York Giants. The best record by a pennant winner in the Championship Series era is 108–54, which was achieved by the Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and the New York Mets in 1986; both of these teams went on to win the World Series.
NL champions have gone on to win the World Series 51 times, most recently in 2021. Pennant winners have also won the Temple Cup and the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup, two pre-World Series league championships, although second-place teams won three of the four Temple Cup meetings. The largest margin of victory for a pennant winner, before the league split into two divisions in 1969, is games; the Pittsburgh Pirates led the Brooklyn Superbas (now the Dodgers) by that margin on the final day of the 1902 season.
The only currently existing National League franchise to have never won an NL pennant are the Milwaukee Brewers; however, they did win a pennant during their time in the American League.
Key
Single table era (1876–1968)
League Championship Series era (1969–present)
Notes
A mid-season labor stoppage split the season into two halves. The winner of the first half played the winner of the second half in each division in the 1981 National League Division Series. The winners played in the 1981 NLCS for the National League pennant.
The leagues were re-aligned in 1994 to three divisions and a wild card was added to the playoffs, but the labor stoppage cancelled the postseason. Wild cards were first used in the 1995 playoffs.
NL pennants won by franchise
Italics represent a franchise that is defunct in Major League Baseball as of the 2019 season.
Notes
Previously known as Brooklyn Dodgers, Brooklyn Robins, Brooklyn Superbas, Brooklyn Bridegrooms, Brooklyn Grooms, Brooklyn Grays and Brooklyn Atlantics. Does not include American Association pennant won in 1889
Previously known as New York Giants and New York Gothams
Previously known as St. Louis Perfectos, St. Louis Browns, and St. Louis Brown Stockings. Does not include four American Association pennants won in 1885–1888
Previously known as Milwaukee Braves, Boston Braves, Boston Bees, Boston Rustlers, Boston Doves, Boston Beaneaters and Boston Red Caps
Previously known as Chicago Orphans, Chicago Colts and Chicago White Stockings
Previously known as Pittsburgh Alleghenys
Previously known as Cincinnati Redlegs and Cincinnati Red Stockings. Does not include American Association pennant won in 1882
Previously known as Philadelphia Quakers and unofficially as Philadelphia Blue Jays
The 19th-century Baltimore Orioles who played in the National League are no longer in existence; two current American League franchises later used the Orioles name (New York Yankees and Baltimore Orioles).
Previously known as Houston Colt .45s Does not include three American League pennants.
Previously known as Montreal Expos. In 1994, the Expos led the National League East and had the best win-loss record in the league when the season was cut short by a labor dispute.
The Brewers were members of the American League through the 1997 season after which they switched to the National League. This table records only the Brewers' National League accomplishments. They won the American League pennant in 1982.
See also
American League Championship Series – the American League counterpart to the NLCS
List of American League pennant winners
National League Division Series – has preceded this series since 1994
References
General
Inline citations
External links
Official League Championship Series Overview from Major League Baseball
Major League Baseball playoffs and champions
National League | [
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243692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Littleton%2C%20Colorado | List of mayors of Littleton, Colorado | The following is a list of mayors of Littleton, Colorado.
Littleton, Colorado
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243694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo%20Theorell | Hugo Theorell | Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell (6 July 1903 – 15 August 1982) was a Swedish scientist and Nobel Prize laureate in medicine.
He was born in Linköping as the son of Thure Theorell and his wife Armida Bill. Theorell went to Secondary School at Katedralskolan in Linköping and passed his examination there on 23 May 1921. In September, he began to study medicine at the Karolinska Institute and in 1924 he graduated as a Bachelor of Medicine. He then spent three months studying bacteriology at the Pasteur Institute in Paris under Professor Albert Calmette. In 1930 he obtained his M.D. degree with a theory on the lipids of the blood plasma, and was appointed professor in physiological chemistry at the Karolinska Institute.
Theorell, who dedicated his entire career to enzyme research, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1955 for discovering oxidoreductase enzymes and their effects. His contribution also consisted of the theory of the toxic effects of sodium fluoride on the cofactors of crucial human enzymes. In 1936 he was appointed Head of the newly established Biochemical Department of the Nobel Medical Institute, the first researcher related to the Institute to be awarded a Nobel Prize. His work had led to pioneering progress on alcohol dehydrogenases, enzymes that break down alcohol in the liver and other tissues. He received honorary degrees at universities in France, Belgium, Brazil and the United States.
Theorell died in Stockholm and is interred in Norra begravningsplatsen (The Northern Cemetery) alongside his wife, Elin Margit Elisabeth (née Alenius) Theorell, a distinguished pianist and harpsichordist who died in 2002.
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1955 The Nature and Mode of Action of Oxidation Enzymes
1903 births
1982 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Swedish biochemists
Karolinska Institute alumni
Swedish Nobel laureates
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Burials at Norra begravningsplatsen | [
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243708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelham%2C%20New%20York%20%28disambiguation%29 | Pelham, New York (disambiguation) | Pelham, New York is the name of two locations in Westchester County, New York:
Pelham (town), New York, the Town of Pelham
Pelham Manor (village), New York, the Village of Pelham Manor
Pelham (village), New York, the Village of Pelham | [
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243709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic%20function | Cubic function | In mathematics, a cubic function is a function of the form
where the coefficients , , , and are complex numbers, and the variable takes real values, and . In other words, it is both a polynomial function of degree three, and a real function. In particular, the domain and the codomain are the set of the real numbers.
Setting produces a cubic equation of the form
whose solutions are called roots of the function.
A cubic function has either one or three real roots (which may not be distinct); all odd-degree polynomials have at least one real root.
The graph of a cubic function always has a single inflection point. It may have two critical points, a local minimum and a local maximum. Otherwise, a cubic function is monotonic. The graph of a cubic function is symmetric with respect to its inflection point; that is, it is invariant under a rotation of a half turn around this point. Up to an affine transformation, there are only three possible graphs for cubic functions.
Cubic functions are fundamental for cubic interpolation.
History
Critical and inflection points
The critical points of a cubic function are its stationary points, that is the points where the slope of the function is zero. Thus the critical points of a cubic function defined by
,
occur at values of such that the derivative
of the cubic function is zero.
The solutions of this equation are the -values of the critical points and are given, using the quadratic formula, by
The sign of the expression inside the square root determines the number of critical points. If it is positive, then there are two critical points, one is a local maximum, and the other is a local minimum. If , then there is only one critical point, which is an inflection point. If , then there are no (real) critical points. In the two latter cases, that is, if is nonpositive, the cubic function is strictly monotonic. See the figure for an example of the case .
The inflection point of a function is where that function changes concavity. An inflection point occurs when the second derivative is zero, and the third derivative is nonzero. Thus a cubic function has always a single inflection point, which occurs at
Classification
The graph of a cubic function is a cubic curve, though many cubic curves are not graphs of functions.
Although cubic functions depend on four parameters, their graph can have only very few shapes. In fact, the graph of a cubic function is always similar to the graph of a function of the form
This similarity can be built as the composition of translations parallel to the coordinates axes, a homothecy (uniform scaling), and, possibly, a reflection (mirror image) with respect to the -axis. A further non-uniform scaling can transform the graph into the graph of one among the three cubic functions
This means that there are only three graphs of cubic functions up to an affine transformation.
The above geometric transformations can be built in the following way, when starting from a general cubic function
Firstly, if , the change of variable allows supposing . After this change of variable, the new graph is the mirror image of the previous one, with respect of the -axis.
Then, the change of variable provides a function of the form
This corresponds to a translation parallel to the -axis.
The change of variable corresponds to a translation with respect to the -axis, and gives a function of the form
The change of variable corresponds to a uniform scaling, and give, after multiplication by a function of the form
which is the simplest form that can be obtained by a similarity.
Then, if , the non-uniform scaling gives, after division by
where has the value 1 or –1, depending on the sign of . If one defines the latter form of the function applies to all cases (with and ).
Symmetry
For a cubic function of the form the inflection point is thus the origin. As such a function is an odd function, its graph is symmetric with respect to the inflection point, and invariant under a rotation of a half turn around the inflection point. As these properties are invariant by similarity, the following is true for all cubic functions.
The graph of a cubic function is symmetric with respect to its inflection point, and is invariant under a rotation of a half turn around the inflection point.
Collinearities
The tangent lines to the graph of a cubic function at three collinear points intercept the cubic again at collinear points. This can be seen as follows.
As this property is invariant under a rigid motion, one may suppose that the function has the form
If is a real number, then the tangent to the graph of at the point is the line
}.
So, the intersection point between this line and the graph of can be obtained solving the equation , that is
which can be rewritten
and factorized as
So, the tangent intercepts the cubic at
So, the function that maps a point of the graph to the other point where the tangent intercepts the graph is
This is an affine transformation that transforms collinear points into collinear points. This proves the claimed result.
Cubic interpolation
Given the values of a function and its derivative at two points, there is exactly one cubic function that has the same four values, which is called a cubic Hermite spline.
There are two standard ways for using this fact. Firstly, if one knows, for example by physical measurement, the values of a function and its derivative at some sampling points, one can interpolate the function with a continuously differentiable function, which is a piecewise cubic function.
If the value of a function is known at several points, cubic interpolation consists in approximating the function by a continuously differentiable function, which is piecewise cubic. For having a uniquely defined interpolation, two more constraints must be added, such as the values of the derivatives at the endpoints, or a zero curvature at the endpoints.
Reference
External links
History of quadratic, cubic and quartic equations on MacTutor archive.
Calculus
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243718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashlight | Flashlight | A flashlight (US, Canada) or torch (UK, Australia) is a portable hand-held electric lamp. Formerly, the light source typically was a miniature incandescent light bulb, but these have been displaced by light-emitting diodes (LEDs) since the mid-2000s. A typical flashlight consists of the light source mounted in a reflector, a transparent cover (sometimes combined with a lens) to protect the light source and reflector, a battery, and a switch, all enclosed in a case.
The invention of the wet cell and miniature incandescent electric lamps made the first battery-powered flashlights possible around 1899. Today, flashlights use mostly light-emitting diodes and run on disposable or rechargeable batteries. Some are powered by the user turning a crank, shaking the lamp, or squeezing it. Some have solar panels to recharge the battery. Flashlights are used as a light source outdoors, in places without permanently installed lighting, during power outages, or when a portable light source is needed.
In addition to the general-purpose, hand-held flashlight, many forms have been adapted for special uses. Head- or helmet-mounted flashlights designed for miners and campers leave the hands free. Some flashlights can be used under water or in flammable atmospheres.
Etymology
Early flashlights ran on zinc–carbon batteries, which could not provide a steady electric current and required periodic "rest" to continue functioning. Because these early flashlights also used energy-inefficient carbon-filament bulbs, "resting" occurred at short intervals. Consequently, they could be used only in brief flashes, hence the common North American name "flashlight".
History
The first dry cell battery was invented in 1887. Unlike previous batteries, it used a paste electrolyte instead of a liquid. This was the first battery suitable for portable electrical devices, as it did not spill or break easily and worked in any orientation. The first mass-produced dry cell batteries came in 1896, and the invention of portable electric lights soon followed. Portable hand-held electric lights offered advantages in convenience and safety over (combustion) torches, candles and lanterns. The electric lamp was odorless, smokeless, and emitted less heat than combustion-powered lighting. It could be instantly turned on and off, and avoided fire risk.
On January 10, 1899, British inventor David Misell obtained U.S. Patent No. 617,592, assigned to American Electrical Novelty and Manufacturing Company. This "electric device" designed by Misell was powered by "D" batteries laid front to back in a paper tube with the light bulb and a rough brass reflector at the end. The company donated some of these devices to the New York City police, who responded favorably to them.
Carbon-filament bulbs and fairly crude dry cells made early flashlights an expensive novelty, with low sales and low manufacturer interest. Development of the tungsten-filament lamp in 1904, with three times the efficacy of carbon filament types, and improved batteries, made flashlights more useful and popular. The advantage of instant control, and the absence of flame, meant that hand-held electric lights began to replace combustion-based lamps such as the hurricane lantern. By 1922 several types were available; the tubular hand-held variety, a lantern style that could be set down for extended use, pocket-size lamps for close work, and large reflector searchlight-type lamps for lighting distant objects. In 1922 there were an estimated 10 million flashlight users in the United States, with annual sales of renewal batteries and flashlights at $20 million, comparable to sales of many line-operated electrical appliances. Flashlights became very popular in China; by the end of the 1930s, 60 companies made flashlights, some selling for as little as one-third the cost of equivalent imported models. Miniature lamps developed for flashlight and automotive uses became an important sector of the incandescent lamp manufacturing business.
LED flashlights were made in the early 2000s. Maglite made their first LED flashlight in 2006.
Incandescent
Incandescent flashlights use incandescent light bulbs, which consists of a glass bulb and a tungsten filament. The bulbs are under vacuum or filled with argon, krypton, or xenon. Some high-power incandescent flashlights use a halogen lamp where the bulb contains a halogen gas such as iodine or bromine to improve the life and efficacy of the bulb. In all but disposable or novelty flashlights, the bulb is user-replaceable; the bulb life may be only a few hours.
The light output of an incandescent lamp in a flashlight varies widely depending on the type of lamp. A miniature keychain lamp produces one or two lumens. A two-D-cell flashlight using a common prefocus-style miniature lamp produces on the order of 15 to 20 lumens of light and a beam of about 200 candlepower. One popular make of rechargeable focusing flashlight uses a halogen lamp and produces 218 lumens. By comparison, a 60-watt household incandescent lamp will produce about 900 lumens. The luminous efficacy or lumens produced per watt of input of flashlight bulbs varies over the approximate range of 8 to 22 lumens/watt, depending on the size of the bulb and the fill gas, with halogen-filled 12-volt lamps having the highest efficiency.
LED
Powerful white-light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have mostly replaced incandescent bulbs in practical flashlights. LEDs existed for decades, mainly as low-power indicator lights. In 1999, Lumileds Corporation of San Jose, California, introduced the Luxeon LED, a high-power white-light emitter. This made possible LED flashlights with power and running time better than incandescent lights. The first Luxeon LED flashlight was the Arc LS, designed in 2001. White LEDs in 5 mm diameter packages produce only a few lumens each; many units may be grouped together to provide additional light. Higher-power LEDs, drawing more than 100 milliamperes each, simplify the optical design problem of producing a powerful and tightly controlled beam.
LEDs can be significantly more efficient than incandescent lamps, with white LEDs producing on the order of 100 lumens for every watt, compared to 8-10 lumens per watt of small incandescent bulbs. An LED flashlight has a longer battery life than an incandescent flashlight with comparable output. LEDs are also less fragile than glass lamps. LED lamps have different spectra of light compared to incandescent sources, and are made in several ranges of color temperature and color rendering index. Since the LED has a long life compared to the usual life of a flashlight, very often it is permanently installed. Flashlights made for an incandescent lamp can often be upgraded to a more efficient LED lamp.
LEDs generally must have some kind of control to limit current through the diode. Flashlights using one or two disposable 1.5-volt cells require a boost converter to provide the higher voltage required by a white LED, which needs around 3.4 volts to function. Flashlights using three or more dry cells may only use a resistor to limit current. Some flashlights electronically regulate the current through the LEDs to stabilize light output as the batteries discharge. LEDs maintain nearly constant color temperature regardless of input voltage or current, while the color temperature of an incandescent bulb rapidly declines as the battery discharges, becoming redder and less visible. Regulated LED flashlights may also have user-selectable levels of output appropriate to a task, for example, low light for reading a map and high output for checking a road sign. This would be difficult to do with a single incandescent bulb since efficacy of the lamp drops rapidly at low output.
LED flashlights may consume 1 watt or much more from the battery, producing heat as well as light. In contrast to tungsten filaments, which must be hot to produce light, both the light output and the life of an LED decrease with temperature. Heat dissipation for the LED often dictates that small, high-power LED flashlights have aluminium or other high heat-conductivity bodies, reflectors, and other parts to dissipate heat; they can become warm during use.
Light output from LED flashlights varies even more widely than for incandescent lights. "Keychain" type lamps operating on button batteries, or lights using a single 5 mm LED, may only produce a few lumens. Even a small LED flashlight operating on an AA cell, but equipped with an LED, can emit 100 lumens. The most powerful LED flashlights produce more than 100,000 lumens and may use multiple LEDs.
LEDs are highly efficient at producing colored light compared with incandescent lamps and filters. An LED flashlight may contain different LEDs for white and colored light, selectable by the user for different purposes. Colored LED flashlights are used for signalling, special inspection tasks, forensic examination, or to track the blood trail of wounded game animals. A flashlight may have a red LED intended to preserve dark adaptation of vision. Ultraviolet LEDs may be used for inspection lights, for example, detecting fluorescent dyes added to air conditioning systems to detect leakage, examining paper currency, or checking UV-fluorescing marks on laundry or event ticket holders. Infrared LEDs can be used for illuminators for night-vision systems. LED flashlights may be specified to be compatible with night vision devices.
HID
A less common type of flashlight uses a high-intensity discharge lamp (HID lamp) as the light source. An HID gas discharge lamp uses a mixture of metal halide salts and argon as a filler. HID lamps produce more light than an incandescent flashlight using the same amount of electricity. The lamp lasts longer and is more shock resistant than a regular incandescent bulb, since it lacks the relatively fragile electrical filament found in incandescent bulbs. However, they are much more expensive, due to the ballast circuit required to start and operate the lamp. An HID lamp requires a short warm-up time before it reaches full output.
A typical HID flashlight has a 35-watt lamp and produces more than 3,000 lumens.
Accessories
Certain accessories for a flashlight allow the color of the light to be altered or allow light to be dispersed differently. Translucent colored plastic cones slipped over the lens of a flashlight increase the visibility when looking at the side of the light. Such marshalling wands are frequently used for directing automobiles or aircraft at night. Colored lenses placed over the end of the flashlight are used for signalling, for example, in railway yards. Colored light is occasionally useful for hunters tracking wounded game after dusk, or for forensic examination of an area. A red filter helps preserve night vision after the flashlight is turned off, and can be useful to observe animals (such as nesting loggerhead sea turtles) without disturbing them.
Detachable light guides, consisting of rigid, bent plastic rods or semirigid or flexible tubes containing optical fibers, are available for some flashlights for inspection inside tanks, or within walls or structures; when not required, the light guide can be removed and the light used for other purposes.
Formats and specialized designs
A penlight is a small, pen-sized flashlight, often containing two AA or AAA batteries. In some types, the incandescent light bulb has an integral lens that focuses the light, so no reflector is built into the penlight. Others use incandescent bulbs mounted in reflectors. LED penlights are becoming increasingly common. Low-cost units may be disposable with no provision to replace batteries or bulbs and are sometimes imprinted with advertising for promotional purposes.
A headlamp is designed to be worn on the head, often having separate lamp and battery components. The battery pack may be attached at the back of the head or in a pocket to improve balance. Headlamps leave the users' hands' free. A headlamp can be clipped to the brim of a hat, or built to mount on a hard hat, instead of using straps; other types resemble eyeglass frames. Similar to the headlamp, an angle-head flashlight emits light perpendicular to the length of the battery tube; it can be clipped to a headband, belt, or webbing or set on a flat surface. Some types allow the user to adjust the angle of the head. The Fulton MX991/U Flashlight was an angle-head flashlight issued to US military personnel; similar style lights remain popular.
Tactical lights are sometimes mounted to a handgun or rifle. They allow momentary illumination of a target. They are small enough to be easily rail-mounted to a gun barrel. Tactical lights must withstand the impact of recoil and must be easily controlled while holding the weapon.
Although most flashlights are designed for user replacement of the batteries and the bulb as needed, fully sealed disposable flashlights, such as inexpensive keyring lights, are made. When the batteries are depleted or the bulb fails, the entire product is discarded.
Diving lamps must be watertight under pressure and are used for night diving and supplemental illumination where surface light cannot reach. The battery compartment of a dive lamp may have a catalyst to recombine any hydrogen gas emitted from the battery since gas cannot be vented in use.
People working in hazardous areas with significant concentrations of flammable gases or dusts, such as mines, engine rooms of ships, chemical plants, or grain elevators, use "nonincendive", "intrinsically safe", or "explosion-proof" flashlights constructed so that any spark in the flashlight is not likely to set off an explosion outside the light. The flashlight may require approval by an authority for the particular service and particular gases or dusts expected. The external temperature rise of the flashlight must not exceed the autoignition point of the gas, so substitution of more powerful lamps or batteries may void the approval.
Inspection flashlights have permanently mounted light guides containing optical fibers or plastic rods. Another style has a lamp mounted at the end of a flexible cable, or a semirigid or articulated probe. Such lamps are used for inspection inside tanks, or inside structures such as aircraft. Where used for inspecting the interior of tanks containing flammable liquids, the inspection lights may also be rated as flame-proof (explosion-proof) so that they cannot ignite liquids or vapors.
Otoscopes and ophthalmoscopes are medical instruments that combine a hand-held light source and magnifying lenses for examination of the ear canal and eyes, respectively.
Aboard naval ships, battle lanterns may be used as emergency portable lighting. Installed in major compartments of the ship, a battle lantern can be detached from its mounting and used as portable lighting in the event primary lighting is out of service. Battle lanterns may use either incandescent or LED lamps and may have either disposable primary or rechargeable batteries.
Many flashlights are cylindrical in design, with the lamp assembly attached to one end. However, early designs came in a variety of other shapes. Some resembled candlesticks, with a bulb mounted at the top of a battery tube fixed to a flat base, with a handle. Many resembled lanterns, consisting of a battery box with a handle and the lamp and reflector attached to the front. Electric lanterns are used for lighting the broad area immediately around the lantern, as opposed to forming a narrow beam; they can be set down on a level surface or attached to supports. Some electric lanterns use miniature fluorescent lamps for higher efficiency than incandescent bulbs. Portable hand-held electric spotlights can provide larger reflectors and lamps and more powerful batteries than tubular flashlights meant to fit in a pocket.
Multifunction portable devices may include a flashlight as one of their features, for example, a portable radio/flashlight combination. Many smartphones have a button or software application available to turn up their screen backlights to full intensity or to switch on the camera flash or video light, providing a "flashlight" function.
In addition to utilitarian flashlights, novelty, toy, and ornamental portable electric lights have been made in a myriad of shapes; in the 1890s, one of the earliest portable battery light applications was a type of novelty porcelain tie pin with a concealed bulb and battery.
Power sources
Batteries
The most common power source for flashlights is the battery. Primary battery (disposable) types used in flashlights include button cells, carbon-zinc batteries in both regular and heavy duty types, alkaline, and lithium.
Secondary, rechargeable types include lead-acid batteries, NiMH, NiCd batteries and lithium ion batteries. The choice of batteries plays a determining role in the size, weight, run time, and shape of the flashlight. Flashlight users may prefer a common battery type to simplify replacement.
Primary cells are most economical for infrequent use. Some types of lithium primary cell can be stored for years with less risk of leakage compared with zinc-type batteries. Long storage life is useful where flashlights are required only in emergencies. Lithium primary batteries are also useful at lower temperatures than zinc batteries, all of which have water-based electrolytes. Lithium primary batteries have a lower internal resistance than zinc primary batteries, so are more efficient in high-drain flashlights.
Flashlights used for extended periods every day may be more economically operated on rechargeable (secondary) batteries. Flashlights designed for rechargeable batteries may allow charging without removing the batteries; for example, a light kept in a vehicle may be trickle-charged and always ready when needed. Some rechargeable flashlights have indicators for the state of charge of the battery. Power-failure lights are designed to keep their batteries charged from a wall plug and to automatically turn on after an AC power failure; the power-failure light can be removed from the wall socket and used as a portable flashlight. Solar powered flashlights use energy from solar cells to charge an on-board battery for later use.
Mechanical power
One type of mechanically powered flashlight has a winding crank and spring connected to a small electrical generator (dynamo). Some types use the dynamo to charge a capacitor or battery, while others only light while the dynamo is moving. Others generate electricity using electromagnetic induction. They use a strong permanent magnet that can freely slide up and down a tube, passing through a coil of wire as it does. Shaking the flashlight charges a capacitor or a rechargeable battery that supplies current to a light source. Such flashlights can be useful during an emergency, when utility power and batteries may not be available. Dynamo-powered flashlights were popular during the Second World War since replacement batteries were difficult to find.
Capacitor
At least one manufacturer makes a rechargeable flashlight that uses a supercapacitor to store energy. The capacitor can be recharged more rapidly than a battery and can be recharged many times without loss of capacity; however, the running time is limited by the relative bulk of capacitors compared to electrochemical batteries.
Reflectors and lenses
A reflector with an approximately parabolic shape concentrates the light emitted by the bulb into a directed beam. Some flashlights allow the user to adjust the relative position of the lamp and reflector, giving a variable-focus effect from a wide floodlight to a narrow beam. Reflectors may be made of polished metal, glass, or plastic with an aluminized reflective finish. Some manufacturers use a pebbled or "orange peel", instead of a smooth reflector, to improve the uniformity of the light beam emitted. Where multiple LEDs are used, each one may be put in its own parabolic reflector. Flashlights using a "total internal reflection" assembly have a transparent optical element (light pipe) to guide light from the source into a beam; no reflector surface is required. For a given size of light source, a larger reflector or lens allows a tighter beam to be produced, while capturing the same fraction of the emitted light. Some flashlights use Fresnel lenses, which allow the weight of the lens to be reduced.
The reflector may have a flat transparent cover to keep out dirt and moisture, but some designs have a plastic or glass "bulls-eye" lens to form a concentrated beam. The lens or reflector cover must resist impacts and the heat of the lamp, and must not lose too much of the transmitted light to reflection or absorption. Very small flashlights may not have a reflector or lens separate from the lamp. Some types of penlight bulbs or small LEDs have a built-in lens.
A reflector forms a narrow beam called the "throw", while light emitted forward misses the reflector and forms a wide flood or "spill" of light. Because LEDs emit most light in a hemisphere, lens lights with the LED facing forward or reflector lights with it facing backwards radiate less spill. Variable focus "zoom" or "flood to throw" lights may move the reflector or lens or they may move the emitter; moving the emitter presents the designer with the problem of maintaining heat dissipation for the LED.
Control switch
The original 1890s flashlights used a metal ring around the fiber body of the flashlight as one contact of a switch; the second contact was a movable metal loop that could be flipped down to touch the ring, completing the circuit. A wide variety of mechanical switch designs using slide switches, rocker switches, or side-mounted or end-mounted pushbuttons has been used in flashlights. A common combination is a slide switch that allows the light to be left on for an extended time, combined with a momentary button for intermittent use or signalling. (On earlier models, the button was a switch and the slider simply locked the button down.) Since voltages and currents are low, switch design is limited only by the available space and desired cost of production. Switches may be covered with a flexible rubber boot to exclude dirt and moisture and may be backlit for easy location. Another common type of switch relies on twisting the head of the light. Weapon-mounted lights may have remote switches for convenience in operation.
Electronic controls allow the user to select variable output levels or different operating modes such as pre-programmed flashing beacon or strobe modes. Electronic controls may be operated by buttons, sliders, magnets, rotating heads, or rotating control rings. Some models of flashlight include an acceleration sensor to allow them to respond to shaking, or to select modes based on what direction the light is held when switched on. At least one manufacturer allows user programming of the features of the flashlight through a USB port. An electronic control may also provide an indication of remaining battery capacity, voltage, or provide information regarding recharging or automatic step-down of brightness as the battery nears full discharge.
Materials
Early flashlights used vulcanized fiber or hard rubber tubes with metal end caps. Many other materials including drawn steel, plated brass, copper, or silver, and even wood and leather have been used. Modern flashlights are generally made of plastic or aluminum. Plastics range from low-cost polystyrene and polyethylene to more complex mixtures of ABS or glass-reinforced epoxies. Some manufacturers have proprietary plastic formulations for their products. A desirable plastic for manufacturing flashlights allows for ease of molding and adequate mechanical properties of the finished flashlight case. Aluminum, either plain, painted or anodized, is a popular choice. It is electrically conductive, can be easily machined, and dissipates heat well. Several standard alloys of aluminum are used. Other metals include copper, stainless steel, and titanium, which can be polished to provide a decorative finish. Zinc can be die-cast into intricate shapes. Magnesium and its alloys provide strength and heat dissipation similar to aluminum with less weight, but they corrode easily.
Metals may be drawn into a tubular shape, or tubular extruded stock can be machined to add threads for the head and tail cap, knurling for grip, and decorative and functional flats or holes in the body. LED flashlights may have cooling fins machined into their metal cases. Plastics are often injection molded into nearly final shape, requiring only a few more process steps to complete assembly.
Metal cases provide better heat dissipation for the LED, but plastics are not electrically conductive and may resist corrosion and wear.
Ratings and standards
Safety regulations
Industrial, marine, public safety, and military organizations develop specifications for flashlights in specialized roles. Typically, light output, overall dimensions, and battery compatibility and durability are required to meet minimum limits. Flashlights may be tested for impact resistance, water and chemical resistance, and the lifespan of the control switch.
Flashlights intended for use in hazardous areas with flammable gas or dust are tested to ensure they cannot set off an explosion. Flashlights approved for flammable gas areas have markings indicating the approving agency (MSHA, ATEX, UL, etc.) and symbols for the conditions that were tested. Flashlights for hazardous areas may be designed to automatically disconnect the lamp if the bulb is broken, to prevent ignition of flammable gas.
Regulations for ships and aircraft specify the number and general properties of flashlights included as part of the standard safety equipment of the vessel. Flashlights for small boats may be required to be waterproof and to float. Uniformed services may issue particular models of flashlights, or may only provide minimum performance standards for the member to purchase his or her own flashlights.
Performance standards
The United States Army former standard MIL-F-3747E described the performance standard for plastic flashlights using two or three D-cell dry batteries, in either straight or angle form, and in standard, explosion-proof, heat-resistant, traffic direction, and inspection types. The standard described only incandescent lamp flashlights and was withdrawn in 1996.
In the United States, ANSI in 2009 published FL1 Flashlight basic performance standard. This voluntary standard defines test procedures and conditions for total light output, beam intensity, working distance, impact and water resistance, and battery running time to 10% of initial light output. The FL1 standard gives definitions for terms used in marketing flashlights, with the intention of allowing the consumer to compare products tested to the standard. The standard recommends particular graphic symbols and wording for the product package, so that the consumer can identify products tested to the standard. Testing may be carried out by the manufacturer itself or by a third-party test laboratory.
The FL1 standard requires measurements reported on the packaging to be made with the type of batteries packaged with the flashlight, or with an identified type of battery. Initial light output is measured with an integrating sphere photometer, 30 seconds after the light is switched on with fresh (or newly charged) batteries. The total light emitted is reported in lumens. Luminous intensity is determined by measuring the brightest spot in the beam produced by the flashlight, in candelas. Since this is a measure of all the light emitted in a solid angle (the "cone" of light in a particular direction), the beam intensity is independent of distance.
The working distance is defined as the distance at which the maximum light falling on a surface (illuminance) would fall to 0.25 lux. This is comparable to a full moon on a clear night. The distance is calculated from the square root of (the beam intensity in candelas divided by 0.25 lux); for example, a beam intensity of 1000 candelas produces a working range rating of the square root of (1000/0.25), or 63 meters. The result is reported in meters or feet. The working distance is from the point of view of the user of the flashlight. A light directly pointed at an observer may be visible against a dark background for many times this distance, especially if the observer has night-vision equipment.
Run time is measured using the supplied or specified batteries and letting the light run until the intensity of the beam has dropped to 10% of the value 30 seconds after switching on. The standard does not evaluate the behavior of the flashlight output during run time. A regulated flashlight may run at only a slowly declining output and then abruptly cut off, but unregulated types may have steeply-declining light output after only a short time. Manufacturers of headlamps may use a different standard which rates run times until light output falls to 1 lux at 2 meters distance; this value is not comparable to the FL 1 runtime measurement.
Impact resistance is measured by dropping the flashlight in six different orientations and observing that it still functions and has no large cracks or breaks in it; the height used in the test is reported. Water resistance, if specified, is evaluated after impact testing; no water is to be visible inside the unit and it must remain functional. Ratings are given in IP Code terms, where jet spray corresponds to IP X6, brief immersion to IPX7, 30 minutes immersion at 1 meter or more is IP X8; (the depth is reported if greater than 1 meter). An IP X8 rating by FL1 does not imply that the lamp is suitable for use as a diver's light since the test protocol examines function of the light only after immersion, not during immersion.
The consumer must decide how well the ANSI test conditions match their requirements, but all manufacturers testing to the FL1 standard can be compared on a uniform basis. The light measurements are more directly related to the use of flashlights than is the nominal power input to the lamp (watts), since different LED and incandescent lamp types vary widely in the amount of light produced per watt. Even the same LED or lamp in different optical systems will show different beam characteristics. The visibility of objects depends on many factors as well as the amount of light emitted by the flashlight.
ANSI standard FL1 does not specify measurements of the beam width angle but the candela intensity and total lumen ratings can be used by the consumer to assess the beam characteristics. Where two flashlights have similar total light (lumen) measures, the unit with the higher candela rating produces a more concentrated beam of light, suitable for lighting distant objects; it will also have a higher working distance. If two lights have similar candela ratings, the light with higher lumen value will produce a wider beam and will light a wider area overall. A beam width (containing most of the power of the beam, or "hot spot") of a few degrees corresponds to a spot light, useful for searching for distant objects; beam widths of 20 degrees or more are described as flood lights, suitable for lighting a wide nearby area. Typically even a flashlight beam with a small hot spot will have some light visible as "spill" around the spot.
In 2018, in the United States, Underwriter's Laboratories published UL standard 1576 for flashlights and lanterns, outlining safety requirements and performance tests.
Applications
See also
Bicycle lighting
Carbide lamp
DME torch
Flashlight tag
Glow stick
Headlamp (for automobile lighting)
Headlight
Kerosene lamp
Lantern
Lantern battery
List of battery sizes
List of battery types
Safety lamp
Searchlight
Spotlighting
Torch
Tritium illumination
Trouble light
Wheat lamp
References
External links
J. Tracy, Flashlights in Kenya: revealing the social, economic, health and environmental implications in the absence of quality assurance, a Master's thesis that discusses flashlight use in Kenya
The Flashlight Museum, a collector's Web site with many old or unusual flashlights shown
1899 introductions
American inventions
Domestic implements
Types of lamp | [
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243723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission%20of%20Burma | Mission of Burma | Mission of Burma was an American post-punk band formed in Boston, Massachusetts in 1979. The band was formed by Roger Miller (guitar), Clint Conley (bass), Peter Prescott (drums) and Martin Swope (tape manipulator/sound engineer). Miller, Conley and Prescott share singing and songwriting duties.
In early years the band's recordings were all released on the small Boston-based record label Ace of Hearts. Despite initial success, Mission of Burma disbanded in 1983 due to Miller's development of tinnitus caused by the volume of the band's live performances. In its original lineup, the band released only two singles, an EP, and one LP, Vs.
The band reformed in 2002, with Bob Weston replacing Swope, and released four more albums, ONoffON, The Obliterati, The Sound the Speed the Light and Unsound before splitting up in June 2020.
History
Formation and early history
Mission of Burma's history began with a short-lived Boston rock group called Moving Parts. The band included Roger Miller, who had moved to Boston from Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Clint Conley, who came from Darien, Connecticut. When Moving Parts broke up amicably in December 1978, Miller and Conley began practicing. Auditioning new drummers was accomplished, as Michael Azzerad puts it, "by playing 'out' music, such as Sun Ra and James Brown, until the applicant left." They eventually recruited ex-Molls drummer Peter Prescott, who had admired the music of Moving Parts.
They took their name from a "Mission of Burma" plaque Conley saw on a New York City diplomatic building; he thought the phrase had a "sort of murky and disturbing" quality. Mission of Burma made their debut on April 1, 1979 as a trio, performing at The Modern Theater. Later that month Miller wrote a song, "Nu Disco", that he felt would be improved by a tape loop. Miller then contacted Martin Swope, with whom he had earlier written some John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen-inspired pieces for piano and tape. Swope was immediately enlisted as the group's live audio engineer and occasional tape-effects artist. His latter role grew gradually, until by 1981 he was adding tape work to most of the group's songs, and was regarded as an integral part of the group, appearing in group photographs and receiving equal credit on recordings.
From the start, Mission of Burma received support from local music magazine Boston Rock, which printed a lengthy interview with the band before they released their first record, and MIT community radio station WMBR. The station played Conley's "Peking Spring" repeatedly, and it became the station's most-played song of 1979. Mission of Burma wanted to release the song as a single, but by the time they had found a label, they felt the song had run its course.
Signals and Vs.
By 1981, the band signed a record deal with the Boston-based record label Ace of Hearts. Their debut single was Conley's "Academy Fight Song", with Miller's "Max Ernst" (titled after the dada artist) as the B-side. Rick Harte's layered production was far more refined than the band's ragged live performances, and the band initially objected to the single. However, the first pressing of the single sold out quickly, and the band thereafter trusted Harte's judgment.
Their debut release, the EP Signals, Calls, and Marches, was released in 1981. By the end of that year, the EP had sold out its initial pressing of 10,000
copies.
In 1982, Mission of Burma released their first full-length album, Vs.. The album has since seen wide praise; one review notes "very few American bands from the 1980s released an album as ambitious or as powerful as Vs., and it still sounds like a classic".
In February 1982, the band recorded a two-song single in collaboration with vocalist Dan Ireton under the name Dredd Foole and the Din. Several members played instruments that they did not play in Mission of Burma, with Miller on organ, Conley handling lead guitar, and Swope joining more directly in the instrumentation on prepared bass. The collaboration was further developed with a series of live shows, which continued nearly a year beyond Mission of Burma's breakup in 1983. This was Mission of Burma's only collaboration during their initial period of activity (1979-1983).
Breakup and aftermath
In 1983, after the release of Vs., the group disbanded due to Miller's worsening tinnitus, attributed in large part to their notoriously loud live performances—during their farewell tour, Miller took to augmenting his usual small foam earplugs with rifle-range earphones onstage. A live compilation, The Horrible Truth About Burma, was assembled of recordings from the farewell tour and released on Ace of Hearts in 1985. In 1988, Rykodisc released a compilation album, Mission of Burma, the first compact disc to exceed 80 minutes of playing time.
Miller and Swope then turned their attention to their side project, the quieter Birdsongs of the Mesozoic (co-founded with their old friend Erik Lindgren, who had played with Miller and Conley in Moving Parts), which they both left in the 1990s, Miller to produce several solo efforts and film scores, and Swope to semi-reclusion in Hawaii. Prescott remained active in the Boston music scene, forming Volcano Suns and later Kustomized and The Peer Group. Other than producing Yo La Tengo's debut record, Conley dropped out of music (working as a producer for Boston television station WCVB's newsmagazine Chronicle); in 2001 he returned with Consonant.
Reunion
While disbanded, Mission of Burma accrued a larger fanbase. In the 1980s and 90s, Taang! Records and Rykodisc kept the band's music in print via reissues of the Ace of Hearts catalog as well as unreleased recordings. Mission of Burma was also one of the 13 groups featured in Michael Azerrad's book Our Band Could Be Your Life: Scenes from the American Indie Underground, 1981–1991, marking them as an iconic group in the American indie rock canon.
In 2002, Mission of Burma reunited but without Swope as he declined to join. Conley, Miller and Prescott instead played reunion shows with Bob Weston of Shellac (and formerly Prescott's Volcano Suns bandmate) replacing Swope at the mixing board and tape manipulation. In an interview Miller relates that "when we approached Bob Weston to fill Martin's position, we told him he could use current digital technology which accomplishes Martin's antics in an easier fashion. However, Bob opted for maintaining the original integrity, and uses a tape deck." Weston began using a digital looping box from Electro-Harmonix in 2007 during live performances, but still uses actual tape loops in the studio. Weston regularly joins the band onstage during encores, playing bass while Conley plays second guitar.
The band initially planned on playing just two reunion gigs, one in Boston and another in New York. When tickets sold out very quickly and concert dates expanded to two nights in New York and three in Boston, Mission of Burma decided to re-form more permanently to tour and record new material.
A new album, ONoffON, was produced in 2004 by Weston with Rick Harte and the band, and released by Matador Records in May. The album finished 90th in the Village Voice Pazz & Jop critic's poll. They also released Snapshot, a live recording of the reunited lineup, through online digital channels. In September 2005, the band returned to the studio with Weston for an album tentatively titled (among other names) Aluminum Washcloth and rechristened The Obliterati. Released in May 2006, again on Matador, it ranked #33 of best records of 2006 by Pitchfork Media and placed 50th in the Pazz & Jop poll.
In 2006, a documentary about the band was released entitled Not a Photograph: The Mission of Burma Story.
In March 2008, Matador re-released remastered versions of Signals, Calls, and Marches, Vs., and The Horrible Truth About Burma from the band's original era. In a September 2008 interview with the L.A. RECORD, Prescott explained that the sheer physical exertion involved in performing Mission of Burma songs meant that the band could only play together for a "couple more years at most."
In March 2009 the band recorded 14 tracks for their fourth full-length studio album, The Sound The Speed The Light. Matador released a two non-album songs on a 7″ single in August and the full album in October.
In January 2012, Mission of Burma parted ways with Matador and recorded their fifth full-length album, Unsound, for Fire Records. The album saw release in July 2012, preceded by the single "Dust Devil".
In a June 2019 Facebook post, it was revealed that the band has no plans to make further albums. As of June 2020, the band was officially finished.
Musical style
Miller's songs were typically more unorthodox, both lyrically and structurally. Critic Franklin Bruno described Conley as a "hook machine". "That's When I Reach for My Revolver" has been covered by Moby, Graham Coxon, and Catherine Wheel. Though Miller and Conley handled most of the singing and songwriting, Prescott contributes a few songs per record as well.
Live performances
Prescott explained Swope's methods in a 1997 interview: "What Martin did ... was tape something that was going on live, manipulate it, and send it back in (via the soundboard) as a sort of new instrument. You couldn't predict exactly how it would sound, and that got to be the really fun thing I think we all liked. We wanted to play this hammer-down drony noise stuff, but we also wanted another sound in there." Swope's tapework ranged from subtle and nearly subaural (such as the quiet shifting feedback sounds in Conley's "That's When I Reach For My Revolver"), to prominent and even jarring (such as the high-pitched two-note squeal in Miller's "Red"). Journalist Michael Azerrad later wrote: "A lot of people never knew about Swope's contribution and were mystified by how the musicians onstage could wring such amazing phantom sounds from their instruments." Though his contribution is widely considered an integral part of Burma's sound, Swope very rarely appeared onstage, only occasionally appearing to play second guitar during encores.
Their live performances were notoriously hit-or-miss, and were usually far more rough-edged than their recordings; the Horrible Truth of their live album (The Horrible Truth About Burma) being an in-joke about their inconsistency. Boston critic Tristam Lozaw described Mission of Burma live: "When they were good, they were very very good, but when they were bad they were horrid ... But that was the nature of the beast ... Because they took chances, you never knew whether you were going to get one of the most spectacular experiences of your life or if it was going to be a ball of incomprehensible noise." While the band's improvisational side and the unpredictable chaos of Swope's tape work contributed a little to this inconsistency, the two main factors were (as Lozaw implies) the live sound and the pacing and timing of their sets. When faced with a venue where the sound system or room acoustics weren't up to the task of conveying clarity along with the band's trademark volume, Swope always refused to compromise, and opted for volume. The band's set lists (composed by committee a few minutes before going on stage) could range from well-constructed to seemingly picked at random, and (aside from "Secrets" as a frequent opener and "All World Cowboy Romance" or a cover as an encore) there was a general reluctance to repeat any song placement or sequence that had worked in the past.
Legacy
Many bands and musicians have cited Burma as an inspiration, including Pearl Jam, Foo Fighters, Superchunk, Jawbox, The Grifters, R.E.M., Miracle Legion (the last two have even covered "Academy Fight Song": the former on both their Green tour and a 1989 fan club single, and the latter on their debut), The Replacements, Thurston Moore, Drive Like Jehu, Throwing Muses, Yo La Tengo, Pixies, Hüsker Dü, Guided by Voices, Big Black, Unwound, Catherine Wheel, Graham Coxon, Pegboy, Moby and Down by Law—the last five of which have covered Conley's "That's When I Reach for My Revolver". In 2009 the city of Boston declared October 4 to be "Mission of Burma Day" in honor of the band's work in a ceremony held at the MIT East Campus Courtyard. The indie rock band Versus took their name from the Mission of Burma album Vs.
Discography
Studio albums
Vs. (1982)
ONoffON (2004)
The Obliterati (2006)
The Sound the Speed the Light (2009)
Unsound (2012)
Notes
References
Azerrad, Michael. Our Band Could Be Your Life. Little, Brown and Company, 2001.
External links
Rock music groups from Massachusetts
Musical groups from Boston
Musical groups established in 1979
Musical groups disestablished in 1983
Musical groups reestablished in 2002
Musical groups disestablished in 2020
American post-punk music groups
Matador Records artists
Rykodisc artists | [
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243725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skald | Skald | A Skald, or skáld (Old Norse: , later ; , meaning "poet"), is one of the often named poets who composed skaldic poetry, one of the two kinds of Old Norse poetry, the other being Eddic poetry, which is anonymous. Skaldic poems were traditionally composed on one occasion, sometimes extempore, and include both extended works and single verses (lausavísur). They are characteristically more ornate in form and diction than eddic poems, employing many kennings and heiti, more interlacing of sentence elements, and the complex dróttkvætt metre.
More than 5,500 skaldic verses have survived, preserved in more than 700 manuscripts, including in several sagas and in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, a handbook of skaldic composition that led to a revival of the art. Many of these verses are fragments of originally longer works, and the authorship of many is unknown. The earliest known skald from whom verses survive is Bragi Boddason, known as Bragi the Old, a Norwegian skald of the first half of the 9th century. Most skalds of whom we know were attached to the courts of Norwegian kings during the Viking Age, and increasingly were Icelanders; the subject matter of their extended poems was sometimes mythical before the conversion, thereafter usually historical and encomiastic, detailing the deeds of the skald's patron. The tradition continued into the late Middle Ages.
The standard edition of the skaldic poetic corpus, Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, was edited by Finnur Jónsson and published in 1908–15. A new edition was prepared online by the Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages project and began publication in 2007.
Etymology
The word skald (which internal rhymes show to have had a short vowel until the 14th century) is perhaps ultimately related to (). Old High German has , and . The Old High German variant stem , etymologically identical to the skald- stem (), means "to scold, blame, accuse, insult". The person doing the insulting is a or . The West Germanic counterpart of the skald is the . Like , which is related to Modern English scoff, the word skald is thus probably cognate with English scold, reflecting the importance of mocking taunts in the poetry of the skalds.
Skaldic poetry
Skaldic poetry and Eddic poetry stem from the same tradition of alliterative verse, and in Old Norse as well as Icelandic, the word skald simply means "poet". Skaldic verse is distinguished from Eddic by being associated with a single poet rather than with tradition, and by characteristically being more complex in style, using dróttkvætt ("court metre"), which requires internal rhyme as well as alliteration, rather than the simpler and older fornyrðislag ("way of ancient words"), ljóðaháttr ("song form"), and málaháttr ("speech form") metres of the Eddic poems. Skaldic poetry is also characteristically more ornate in its diction, using more interlacing of elements of meaning within the verse and many more kennings and heiti, which both assisted in meeting the greater technical demands of the metre and allowed the poets to display their skill in wordplay. The resulting complexity can appear somewhat hermetic to modern readers, as well as creating ambiguity in interpretation; but the original audiences, familiar with the conventions of the syntactic interweaving as well as the vocabulary of the kennings, may have understood much on the first hearing and derived intellectual satisfaction from decoding the remainder.
Eddic poems are also largely mythological or heroic in content, while skaldic verse has a wider range of subject matter, including mythological narratives by heathen skalds, accounts of battles and the deeds of courtly patrons, and personal statements. Eddic poetry typically includes a large amount of dialogue and rarely recounts battles; skaldic poetry, the reverse. Skalds also composed spontaneous verses reacting to events, insult verses (níðvísur) such as Þorleifr jarlsskáld's curse on his former patron Jarl Hákon Sigurðarson and the níð that provoked the missionary Þangbrandr into killing Vetrliði Sumarliðason, and occasionally love poems and erotic verse (mansöngr); Hallfreðr Óttarsson and especially Kormákr Ögmundarson are known for their love poetry.
However, the distinction is a modern one that is not absolute. Eddic poetry is defined primarily by what has been preserved in the Codex Regius manuscript, while skaldic verses are preserved in a large number of manuscripts, including many sagas, and some skaldic poetry, including prophetic, dream, and memorial poems, uses the simpler metres. Medieval Scandinavians appear to have distinguished between older and more modern poetry rather than considering skaldic verse as a distinct genre.
Extemporaneous composition was especially valued, to judge by the sagas. Egill Skallagrímsson is supposed to have composed his Höfuðlausn in one night to ransom his head. King Harald Hardrada is said to have set his skald, Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, a hard challenge as they were walking down the street, to compose two stanzas casting a quarreling smith and tanner through the choice of kennings as specific figures first from mythology and then from heroic legend. However, the impression from the sagas that many Icelanders could improvise a skaldic verse on the spur of the moment is probably exaggerated.
There is debate over how skaldic poetry was originally performed. General scholarly consensus is that it was spoken rather than sung; although there is no evidence that the skalds employed musical instruments, some speculate that they may have accompanied their verses with the harp or lyre.
Forms
A large number of the preserved skaldic verses are individual stanzas, called lausavísur ("loose verses"), often said to have been improvised impromptu. Long forms include the drápa, a series of stanzas with a refrain (stef) at intervals, and the flokkr, vísur, or dræplingr, a shorter series of verses without refrain. There are also some shield poems, which supposedly describe (mythological) scenes on a shield presented to the poet by a patron.
Poems
The corpus of skaldic poetry comprises 5797 verses by 447 skalds preserved in 718 manuscripts. Many of the longer poems are preserved only in part, in sagas and in the Prose Edda.
Most of the longer skaldic poems were composed by court poets to honor kings and jarls. They typically have historical content, relating battles and other deeds from the king's career. Examples include:
Glymdrápa ‒ the deeds of King Harald Fairhair, by Þorbjörn Hornklofi, partially preserved
Vellekla ‒ the deeds of Jarl Hákon Sigurðarson, by Einarr skálaglamm, partially preserved
Bandadrápa ‒ the deeds of Jarl Eiríkr Hákonarson by Eyjólfr dáðaskáld, partially preserved
Knútsdrápa ‒ the deeds of King Cnut the Great, three poems by Sigvatr Þórðarson, Óttarr svarti, and Óttarr svarti (partially preserved)
Geisli ‒ the deeds of King Olaf Haraldsson, Saint Olaf, a Christian drápa by Einarr Skúlason
Hrafnsmál ‒ by Þorbjörn Hornklofi describing life and martial deeds of Harald Fairhair
A few surviving skaldic poems have mythological content:
Ragnarsdrápa, a shield poem by Bragi Boddason, partially preserved: originally consisted of sections on two mythological scenes and two from the deeds of his patron, Ragnarr
Haustlöng ‒ a shield poem by Þjóðólfr of Hvinir, partially preserved
Húsdrápa ‒ by Úlfr Uggason describing mythological scenes depicted on the walls of Olaf the Peacock's feast hall in Iceland, partially preserved
Þórsdrápa ‒ deeds of the god Thor, two partially preserved poems by Eilífr Goðrúnarson and Eysteinn Valdason
Ynglingatal ‒ on the mythological and legendary history of the Ynglings, presented as ancestors of the Norwegian kings, by Þjóðólfr of Hvinir
Háleygjatal ‒ a similar work on the Hlaðir dynasty, by Eyvindr skáldaspillir
To these could be added two poems relating the death of a king and his reception in Valhalla:
Eiríksmál ‒ on the death of King Eric Bloodaxe, by an unknown skald
Hákonarmál ‒ on the death of King Hákon the Good, by Eyvindr skáldaspillir
Some extended works were composed as circumstance pieces, such as the following by Egill Skallagrímsson:
Sonatorrek ‒ a lament on the deaths of his sons
Höfuðlausn ‒ in praise of Eric Bloodaxe, his enemy, to ransom his head
Arinbjarnarkviða ‒ in praise of his friend Arinbjörn
History
The dróttkvætt metre appears to have been an innovation associated with a new fashion in formally more elaborate poetry associated with named poets. The metre has been compared to Irish and Latin poetic forms, which may have influenced its development; origins in magic have also been suggested, because of the existence of skaldic curses (such as Egill Skallagrímsson's on King Eric Bloodaxe) and because there are 10th-century magical inscriptions on runestones in the metre. Since the first example of skaldic poetry of which we know is Bragi Boddason's Ragnarsdrápa from the early 9th century, some have argued that he and his associates invented it, but his work is already highly accomplished, suggesting that this style of poetry had been developing for some time. Bragi (whom many scholars consider was deified as the god Bragi) was a Norwegian, and skaldic poetry is thought to have originated in either Norway or the Scandinavian Baltic.
Most of the skalds of whom we know spent all or part of their careers as court poets, either those of kings, particularly the kings of Norway, or those of jarls, particularly the Hlaðir jarls, a dynasty based in what is now Trøndelag some of whose members ruled all or part of Norway as heathens in alternation with the Christian converters King Olaf Tryggvason and King Olaf Haraldsson (Saint Olaf). They produced praise poetry telling of their patrons' deeds, which became an orally transmitted record and was subsequently cited in history sagas. Their accuracy has been the subject of debate, but the verse form guards against corruption and the skalds traditionally criticized as well as advised their patrons. Skalds at the court at Hlaðir have been credited with developing the Valhalla complex and the cult of Odin as an aristocratic, educated form of heathenism influenced by Christian eschatology. Poetic ability was highly valued; the art was practised by the Norwegian kings themselves, and several skalds, such as Egill Skallagrímsson, are the subject of their own biographical sagas.
Icelandic skalds came to dominate at Norwegian courts; the last prominent Norwegian skald was Eyvindr skáldaspillir, and from the second half of the 10th century, all known court skalds were Icelanders. By the end of the 10th century, skaldic poetry had become increasingly internally complex, and in the 11th century Christian skalds reacted against this complexity by using far fewer kennings, especially avoiding those referencing heathen deities. In the 12th century, a century after the conversion of Iceland, some skalds reintroduced heathen kennings as literary formulae, interest in ancient tradition was revived, and drápur were produced on historical figures, such as Einarr Skúlason's Geisli on Olaf Tryggvason, composed 150 years after his death. Skalds experimented with new metres, notably hrynhent, which uses longer lines than dróttkvætt and was probably influenced by Latin metres. This metre arose in the 10th century and was popularized in the 11th by Arnórr jarlaskáld, whose Hrynhenda (c. 1045} is about King Magnus the Good; in the 12th century it was the dominant metre of religious skaldic poetry.
Despite these adaptations, the skaldic tradition itself was endangered by the popularity of newer and simpler forms of poetry and loss of knowledge of the kenning tradition. Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, a handbook produced around 1220 that includes a guide to the metres, an explanation of kennings and their mythological and heroic bases grounded in contemporary learning, and numerous examples that preserve many skaldic verses, enabled skaldic poetry to continue in Iceland after the tradition of court poetry ended in the 13th century.
Christian religious poetry became an increasingly important part of the skaldic tradition beginning in the 12th century, and by the 14th represents all that survives. Eysteinn Ásgrímsson's Lilja was particularly influential: it uses the hrynhent metre and almost no kennings, and was much imitated. Christian skaldic poetry died out in Iceland only with the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, although that produced after 1400 is rarely studied as part of the skaldic corpus.
Notable skalds
More than 300 skalds are known from the period between 800 and 1200 AD. Many are listed in the Skáldatal, a list of court skalds by the ruler they served that runs from the legendary Ragnar Lodbrok to the late 13th century and includes some poets from whom no verses are preserved. Notable names include:
Bragi Boddason "the Old", early 9th century
Þorbjörn Hornklofi, 9th century, court poet of King Harald Fairhair
Þjóðólfr of Hvinir, active c. 900
Eyvindr skáldaspillir, 10th century
Egill Skallagrímsson, first half of the 10th century, protagonist of Egils saga
Kormákr Ögmundarson, mid-10th century, protagonist of Kormáks saga
Eilífr Goðrúnarson, late 10th century
Þórvaldr Hjaltason, 10th century, a skald of King Eric the Victorious
Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld, late 10th century, court poet of King Olaf Tryggvason
Einarr Helgason "skálaglamm", late 10th century
Úlfr Uggason, late 10th century
Tindr Hallkelsson, active c. 1000, one of Jarl Hákon Sigurðarson's court poets
Gunnlaugr Ormstunga, 10th–11th century, nicknamed "Wormtongue" on account of his propensity for satire and invective
Sigvatr Þórðarson, first half of the 11th century, court poet to King Olaf Haraldsson (Saint Olaf)
Þórarinn loftunga, first half of the 11th century, a court poet to Sveinn Knútsson
Óttarr svarti, first half of the 11th century, a skald at the court of King Olof Skötkonung and King Olaf Haraldsson
Valgarðr á Velli, mid-11th century, court poet to King Harald Hardrada
Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, mid-11th century, court poet to King Magnus the Good and King Harald Hardrada
Arnórr jarlaskáld, mid-11th century, court poet to the Jarls of Orkney and several Norwegian kings
Einarr Skúlason, 12th century
Eysteinn Ásgrímsson, mid-14th century, monk who adapted skaldic tradition to high medieval Christianity
Many lausavísur attributed in sagas to women have traditionally been regarded as inauthentic, and few female skalds are known by name. They include:
Hildr Hrólfsdóttir, 9th century
Jórunn skáldmær, first half of the 10th century
Steinunn Refsdóttir, late 10th century
Steinvör Sighvatsdóttir, 13th century
Editions
The first comprehensive edition of skaldic poetry, by Finnur Jónsson, was Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, published in 4 volumes in Copenhagen in 1908–15 (2 volumes each diplomatic and corrected text; with Danish translations). Later editions include 's Den norsk-isländska Skaldedigtningen, published in 2 volumes in Lund in 1946–50, and Magnus Olsen's Edda- og Skaldekvad: forarbeider til kommentar, published in 7 volumes in Oslo in 1960–64 (analysis in Norwegian). In the early 21st century, the Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages project has prepared a new edition with associated database online; 5 of a projected 9 volumes had been published . This edition groups the poems according to the type of prose source in which they are preserved.
See also
Old Norse Women's Poetry: The Voices of Female Skalds
Bard
Filí
References
Further reading
Margaret Clunies Ross (2007) Eddic, Skaldic, and Beyond: Poetic Variety in Medieval Iceland and Norway (Fordham University Press, 2014)
External links
Finnur Jónsson, ed. Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, at heimskringla.no.
Finnur Jónsson, ed. pdfs of Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning photographic reprints, Copenhagen: Rosenkilde og Bagger, 1967, at Septentrionalia.net
Index of Old Norse/Icelandic Skaldic Poetry at the Jörmungrund database
Sveinbjörn Egilsson and Finnur Jónsson, eds. Lexicon poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentriolanis: ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog, 2nd ed. Copenhagen: Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab, 1913–16 at Septentrionalia.net. Also in partial form at the Jörmungrund database
Gudbrand Vigfusson and F. York Powell, ed. and tr. Corpus poeticum boreale. Volume 2: Court Poetry, 1883 at the Internet Archive: Skaldic poems with literal English translations
Icelandic literature
Old Norse literature
Medieval poets
Scandinavian folklore
Norse mythology
Medieval performers
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243727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Kariya | Paul Kariya | Paul Tetsuhiko Kariya (born October 16, 1974) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey winger who played 15 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). Known as a skilled and fast-skating offensive player, he played in the NHL for the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, Colorado Avalanche, Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues.
After a two-year career with the Penticton Panthers, in which he was named Canadian Junior A Player of the Year in 1992, Kariya joined the college ranks with the University of Maine's Black Bears men's ice hockey team. In his freshman year, he received the Hobey Baker Award while leading his team to the 1993 NCAA title. Selected fourth overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft by the Mighty Ducks, he joined the team in 1994–95 and was named to the NHL All-Rookie Team. During his nine-year tenure with Anaheim, Kariya formed an effective duo with fellow winger Teemu Selänne that helped him to three NHL First All-Star Team distinctions, while also finishing as the first runner-up for the Hart Memorial Trophy in 1997. Not an aggressive player, he won back-to-back Lady Byng Trophies in 1996 and 1997 as the League's most gentlemanly player. Serving as a captain for seven seasons, he led the Mighty Ducks to the 2003 Stanley Cup Final, where they lost to the New Jersey Devils in seven games. After a single-season stint with the Avalanche for the purpose of reuniting with Selänne, who had previously been traded away from Anaheim, Kariya signed with the Predators in August 2005. He played two seasons in Nashville, setting team records for assists and points scored in a single-season in 2005–06. Kariya then finished his career playing three seasons with the Blues.
Internationally, Kariya represented Canada on numerous stages and at different levels. He won gold at the 1993 World Junior Championships, his second appearance at the tournament. He made his first appearance at the Winter Olympics in 1994 as an amateur, winning silver. Eight years later, he helped Canada win gold at the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. In between Olympic appearances, he won gold and silver at the 1994 and 1996 World Championships, respectively.
Throughout his NHL career, Kariya struggled with concussions, which eventually forced his retirement in June 2011 after sitting out the season because of post-concussion syndrome. Psychiatrist Daniel Amen provided diagnosis and therapy for Kariya, advising him to retire as a professional, which he did.
In June 2017, Kariya was voted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. His number, 9, was retired by the Ducks on October 21, 2018.
Early life and education
Kariya was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, to parents Sharon and Tetsuhiko (T.K.) Kariya. His father, a Japanese-Canadian born in a World War II concentration camp at Greenwood, British Columbia, worked as a math teacher. Tetsuhiko died from a heart attack suffered on December 27, 2002. Kariya's mother, a Scottish-Canadian, was also a teacher. Coming from an athletic family, his father played rugby with the Canadian national team. Kariya is one of four siblings who play professional sports. Brothers Steve and Martin are also hockey players. His sister, Noriko, played hockey, as well, before turning to boxing.
As a teenager, Kariya worked for a summer in construction. At age 16, he left home to play Junior A hockey in Penticton, British Columbia, where he also worked at a clothing store that belonged to the team's coach and general manager. Two years later, he enrolled at the University of Maine to join the school's hockey team and was a dean's list student.
Playing career
Amateur
Kariya played two seasons of Junior A with the Penticton Panthers of the British Columbia Junior Hockey League (BCJHL), beginning in 1990–91. Recording 45 goals and 112 points over 54 games in his first season, he was awarded the Vern Dye and Bruce Allison Memorial Trophies as the Interior Conference's most valuable player (MVP) and rookie of the year, respectively. The following season, he improved to 46 goals and 132 points over 40 games and was awarded the Vern Dye Memorial Trophy for a second consecutive year; he was also further distinguished as the Canadian Junior A player of the year.
During his second BCJHL season, in November 1991, he verbally committed to joining the Maine Black Bears of the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA)'s Hockey East conference for the 1992–93 campaign. Before deciding to join the University of Maine, Kariya also visited and received offers from Boston University and Harvard University for their respective programs, while entertaining offers from several other NCAA teams. He also turned down major junior teams from the Western Hockey League (WHL). His WHL rights originally belonged to the Victoria Cougars before they were traded to the Tri-City Americans in October 1991.
In his first year with the Black Bears, Kariya scored 100 points (25 goals and 75 assists) in 39 games. He was named Hockey East's Rookie and Player of the Year, becoming the second player to receive both awards in the same year after Brian Leetch did so with Boston College in 1987. Kariya also received Hockey East First All-Star Team honours alongside teammates Jim Montgomery, Chris Imes and Mike Dunham. Nationally, Kariya was recognized with the Hobey Baker Award as the NCAA's top player, becoming the first freshman in history to earn the distinction. During the Black Bears' playoff run, head coach Shawn Walsh heralded him as one of the top three college players all-time. Kariya's efforts led Maine to a record of 42 wins, one loss and two ties, en route to the Lamoriello Trophy as the Hockey East's playoff champion and the NCAA title as the country's top college team. Facing Lake Superior State University in the NCAA final, Kariya registered three assists in the third period to help Maine overcome a two-goal deficit; they won the game 5–4.
A top prospect heading into the off-season, Kariya was projected to be selected between second and fifth overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft. Kariya went on to be chosen fourth overall by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, one of the NHL's two expansion teams. In addition to becoming Anaheim's first-ever draft pick, he also became the second-highest pick from Vancouver (after Barry Beck was chosen by the Colorado Rockies second overall in 1977). Following his draft, Kariya returned to the University of Maine for his sophomore year as team captain. He had been voted by his teammates for the role, along with defenceman Chris Imes. However, with Imes joining the United States' national team full-time in 1993–94, Kariya returned as the lone captain. Kariya was also committed to the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics and left the Black Bears in December 1993. Following the Olympics, Kariya chose not to return to Maine, foregoing his remaining college hockey eligibility to turn professional with the Mighty Ducks. He finished the season with seven goals and 41 points over 23 games with the national team, as well as 8 goals and 24 points over 12 games with Maine.
Five years after his tenure with the Black Bears, Kariya was selected for induction into the University of Maine Sports Hall of Fame. The ceremony was held on October 15, 1999, at Wells Conference Center on the University's Orono campus. Two years later, in July 2001, Kariya's number 9 was retired by the Black Bears.
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim
1994–98
Upon returning from the 1994 Olympics, Kariya began contract negotiations with the Mighty Ducks in hopes of joining the team for the remainder of the 1993–94 NHL season. However, a deal failed to materialize and there was speculation in the media he would instead play in Europe. It was reported Kariya was seeking a US$12 million contract over five years from the Ducks. As both sides continued contract talks leading up to training camp for the 1994–95 season, Kariya agreed to a three-year, $6.5 million deal on August 31, 1994. The majority of the contract consisted of a signing bonus worth $4.775 million, while the annual base salary was valued at $575,000. Clarification regarding Kariya's free agency status had he not signed was required from the NHL before the contract was agreed upon; it was ruled he would have become a free agent on June 1, 1995, had the Mighty Ducks not signed him by then.
Garnering a great degree of attention from the Mighty Ducks' fanbase, Kariya's first public practice at Arrowhead Pond drew an attendance of 9,000, while 16,000 fans watched his first exhibition game. Due to the NHL lockout, resulting from a dispute between players and owners, his regular-season debut was delayed until January 1995 and the campaign was shortened to 48 games. During the suspension, Kariya participated in a charity tournament held in Hamilton, Ontario, sponsored by the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA).
As NHL play resumed, Kariya made his debut against the Edmonton Oilers. He later scored his first career NHL goal on January 21, 1995, against Winnipeg Jets goaltender Tim Cheveldae. The goal came after a scramble around the crease knocked the puck loose in front of the net on a power play; Anaheim won the game 4–3. During his rookie season, he played on a line with Stéphan Lebeau and Shaun Van Allen. Early in the campaign, Kariya held the scoring lead amongst NHL rookies, but was later overtaken by Quebec Nordiques centre Peter Forsberg. Playing in 47 games, Kariya finished the season with a team-leading 18 goals and 39 points. However, the Mighty Ducks struggled in their second year since joining the NHL, finishing last in the Western Conference. Nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL's rookie of the year, Kariya lost the award to Forsberg. Despite being edged out, Kariya was named to the NHL All-Rookie Team. His play during his first NHL season earned him comparisons to Wayne Gretzky for his vision and Pavel Bure for his speed, while also earning accolades from Gretzky himself.
During Kariya's second season, he was chosen to play for the Western Conference in the 1996 All-Star Game as the lone Ducks representative. At the time of his selection, in January 1996, he was ranked 14th in NHL scoring with 51 points (23 goals and 28 assists) over 42 games. He later replaced the injured Pavel Bure of the Vancouver Canucks on the West's starting lineup. Kariya scored a goal and an assist for the Western Conference in a 5–4 loss to the Eastern Conference. Less than a month after the All-Star Game, the Mighty Ducks acquired Finnish winger Teemu Selänne in a trade with the Winnipeg Jets. Despite Kariya's efforts, the Ducks were low-scoring as a team; the deal was designed to give Kariya offensive support. Following the trade, Ducks centre Steve Rucchin commented, "Paul had a lot of pressure on him...He singlehandedly won some games for us this year...Now that we have Teemu, there's no way everybody can just key on Paul." Selänne was immediately placed on Kariya's line. Centred by Rucchin, the two wingers formed one of the NHL's most high-scoring duos for several seasons. In the last month of the 1995–96 campaign, Kariya achieved the 100-point single-season mark with a goal and three assists in a 5–3 win against the San Jose Sharks on April 7, 1996. A week later, he became the 14th-youngest NHL player to register 50 goals in one season, scoring twice in the final game of the campaign, a 5–2 win over Winnipeg. With seven goals and seven assists over the final seven games of the season, Kariya was named NHL Player of the Month for April. He finished the season with 50 goals and 58 assists for 108 points, tying him with Selänne for seventh overall in NHL scoring. His three overtime goals set a team record. With 20 penalty minutes over 82 games, Kariya won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most gentlemanly player and was also named to the season-ending NHL First All-Star Team. Following the addition of Selänne, the Mighty Ducks pushed for a playoff spot, winning 12 of their final 15 games, but finished the season ninth place in the West (the top eight teams qualify for the playoffs); they had an equal 78 points to the eighth-ranked Jets, but finished a spot below them by virtue of having fewer wins.
Following the 1995–96 season, Ducks captain Randy Ladouceur retired, leaving the team's leadership position vacant. After serving as an alternate captain the previous year, Kariya was chosen as the third captain in team history, following Ladouceur and Troy Loney. At age 21, he was the youngest active captain in the NHL and remained so until defenceman Bryan McCabe became captain of the New York Islanders two years later. Also during the off-season, there was speculation the Mighty Ducks would acquire Wayne Gretzky, whose contract had expired with the St. Louis Blues. Gretzky's agent had publicly declared that the All-Star centre had interest in joining the Ducks, particularly to play with Kariya and Selänne, though the team had not contacted him with an offer. Instead, the Ducks signed 36-year-old winger Jari Kurri from the New York Rangers. Following the signing, Ducks head coach Ron Wilson commented, "A veteran player is much better prepared to play with guys like Teemu and Paul." (Though Kariya began the season centred by Kurri, the Finnish veteran did not often play on the top line in his lone season with the team.)
As the ensuing 1996–97 season began, Kariya was out of the lineup with a pulled abdominal muscle. After missing the first 11 games of the season, he returned to the lineup at the end of October 1996. However, two weeks after his return, he was injured again after suffering a concussion during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on November 13, 1996, after opposing defenceman Mathieu Schneider hit Kariya in the head with his elbow. While the play was not penalized during the game, Schneider was suspended by the NHL following the game. Kariya missed two games as a result of the hit. In the 13 games he was out of the Ducks' lineup, the team won one game, lost ten and tied two. Later in the season, Kariya was voted in by fans to the West's starting lineup in the 1997 All-Star Game. Receiving 210,015 votes, he was second among Western Conference wingers to Brett Hull's 254,414. Joining him on the Western squad were Ducks teammates Selänne and Guy Hebert. During the game, he scored one goal in an 11–7 loss to the East. Returning to club play with the Ducks, he scored the fastest goal to start a game in team history, eight seconds into a match against the Colorado Avalanche on March 9, 1997. The contest ended in a 2–2 tie. Kariya finished the season with 44 goals and 55 assists, one point short of reaching the 100-point mark for the second consecutive year. Limited to 69 games due to his injuries, he still ranked third in NHL point-scoring, behind Selänne and Pittsburgh Penguins captain Mario Lemieux. His +36 plus-minus rating and ten game-winning goals set Ducks records (the latter mark was tied by Selänne twice in 1997–98 and 2006–07, then broken by Corey Perry's 11 game-winning goals in 2010–11). Nominated for the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's MVP, alongside Lemieux and Buffalo Sabres goaltender Dominik Hašek, Kariya finished as a runner-up to Hašek. However, Kariya won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy after recording six penalty minutes during the season. In so doing, he became the third player in NHL history to win the award in consecutive years after Mike Bossy (1983 and 1984) and Wayne Gretzky (1991 and 1992). He was also named to the NHL First All-Star Team once more, an honour he shared with Selänne. His efforts helped the Ducks achieve a winning record (36 wins, 33 losses and 13 ties) and reach the playoffs for the first time in team history. Trailing three-games-to-two against the Phoenix Coyotes in the opening round of the 1997 playoffs, the Ducks faced elimination in Game 6 of the series. Kariya scored two goals in the contest, including the overtime-winner, leading the Ducks to a 3–2 win. In the ensuing Game 7, Anaheim won 3–0 to eliminate Phoenix. Facing the (eventual Stanley Cup champions) Detroit Red Wings in the second round, they were swept in four games. Of the four-game series, one went to overtime, one went to double overtime and one went to triple overtime. Playing 11 games in his first NHL playoff season, Kariya had seven goals and 13 points, which ranked first in team scoring.
With his original NHL contract expiring in the off-season, Kariya and the Ducks struggled to agree on a new deal. As a result, Kariya missed the first 32 games of the 1997–98 campaign. After making $2.1 million the previous season, he was reportedly asking for a three-year deal worth $27 million, while the Ducks countered with five-year, $25 million and seven-year, $49 million contracts. Both sides eventually agreed on a two-year, $14 million deal in December 1997. While the initial year of the contract paid Kariya a pro-rated salary of $5.5 million (it was also agreed in contract negotiations that Kariya would donate $2 million of his first year's salary to Orange County charities), the second year of the contract paid him $8.5 million, making him the second-highest-paid player in NHL history (behind Mario Lemieux's $11 million salary in 1996–97). During his absence from the Ducks, Kariya trained with the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. Due to the contract impasse, he missed an opportunity to play in his father's home country, Japan, as the Mighty Ducks opened the season with a two-game series against the Vancouver Canucks in Tokyo, an effort on the NHL's part to attract attention to the sport ahead of the Olympics. In his first game back, he recorded two goals and two assists, helping the Mighty Ducks rally from a three-goal deficit to defeat the Washington Capitals 6–4. During the second period of the contest, he took a team record seven shots on goal.
With several weeks remaining until the start of the Olympics, Kariya suffered another concussion after receiving a cross-check to the face from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter during a game on February 1, 1998. Kariya had scored a goal and was standing still at the side of the Blackhawks' net when Suter hit him. As a result, the Blackhawks defenceman received a four-game suspension from the NHL. There was wide speculation in the media that the incident was an intentional effort to keep Kariya from playing for Canada at the Olympics; Suter and teammate Chris Chelios were both members of the United States' national team. In the past, Suter was also accused of intentionally injuring Wayne Gretzky during a game between Canada and the United States in the 1991 Canada Cup. Canada general manager Bobby Clarke called the hit a "cheap shot" and publicly echoed the sentiment that Suter wanted to eliminate Kariya from Olympic play. While Kariya was initially expected to recover in time for the Olympics, the injury (his fourth concussion in three years) ultimately sidelined him from the competition, as well as the remaining three months of NHL play. Limited to 22 games in 1997–98, Kariya recorded 17 goals and 31 points.
Following Suter's return from suspension, NHL Senior Vice President Brian Burke was supposed by Ducks head coach Pierre Pagé to have said he would have given Suter a longer ban if the extent of Kariya's injuries were immediately known. Later in the season, prior to a game between the Blackhawks and Maple Leafs in April 1998, Suter received a death threat, presumably for his actions against Kariya, forcing the NHL to position added security at the Blackhawks bench for the contest. With Kariya away from the team for extended periods of time, the Ducks struggled and finished second-last in the West.
Suffering from post-concussion syndrome, Kariya experienced headaches and a loss of short-term memory. During his recovery, he was personally encouraged by fellow NHL players Eric Lindros and Pat LaFontaine, who were also dealing with serious concussions. He was not permitted by doctors to begin training until May 1998. Leading up to the 1998–99 season, Kariya told reporters he was ready to play a rougher style to protect himself from the opposition, including "getting [his] stick up" against oncoming players. He also adopted a helmet with increased protection, featuring extra padding and a tighter chin strap. In a similar effort, the Ducks additionally acquired enforcers Stu Grimson and Jim McKenzie during the off-season. During his recovery, Kariya was outspoken regarding the culture of the NHL regarding excessive physicality, as well as the lack of deterrence. In an article from the Sporting News, he commented, "There's too much of a lack of respect players have for one another ... If the league wants to stop that kind of conduct, it will have to punish players ... Ten-game suspensions ... and more, have to be brought back to help wake up players." He also added, "There probably isn't a player in the league who hasn't had a concussion."
1998–2003
Fully recovered for the start of the 1998–99 season, Kariya returned to NHL play in October 1998. During a 3–2 loss against the Detroit Red Wings in November 1998, he put a team-record 12 shots on goal. Kariya established several other Ducks records in the first half of the campaign, including a 17-game point-scoring streak on home ice that ended on January 15, 1999. He finished with the second 100-plus point season of his career with 39 goals and a personal best 62 assists. His assists total set a Ducks record that stood for ten years until Ryan Getzlaf recorded 66 in 2008–09. He ranked third in point-scoring among NHL scorers, behind Selänne and leader Jaromír Jágr of the Pittsburgh Penguins, while ranking first in the NHL with 429 shots on goal. Ranked sixth in the West, the Mighty Ducks drew the Red Wings in the opening round of the 1999 playoffs. In Game 3, Kariya blocked a shot with his skate, breaking his right foot. Unavailable for Game 4, the Ducks lost to the Red Wings and were eliminated. Prior to his injury, Kariya had a goal and four points over three games. Kariya's comeback season following injury was capped off with his third NHL First Team All-Star distinction, receiving 47 of the possible 58 first-place votes for the left-wing position from the Professional Hockey Writers' Association. Kariya was also nominated for the League's Bill Masterton Trophy, awarded for perseverance, sportsmanship and dedication to hockey; he lost to Tampa Bay Lightning forward John Cullen, who attempted to return to the NHL after missing the previous season with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. While Selänne finished as second runner-up for the Lady Byng Trophy, Kariya finished sixth in voting.
Having played the final year of his contract, Kariya agreed on a new three-year deal with the Ducks, reported to be worth between $32 and $33 million, during the ensuing summer. The contract was signed on June 30, 1999, one day before he was set to become a restricted free agent. In the three seasons that ensued, Kariya's offensive production decreased, a period that coincided with the Mighty Ducks failing to qualify for the playoffs each year.
During the 1999–2000 season, Kariya's younger brother Steve Kariya began playing for the Vancouver Canucks. On December 8, 1999, the Ducks and Canucks met for a contest, marking the first time the brothers played against each other at any level. Steve recorded an assist on the Canucks' first goal of the game, before being called for a penalty. On the ensuing Ducks power play, Paul Kariya scored to tie the game at a final score of 2–2. Later in the season, Kariya was speared by San Jose Sharks defenceman Bryan Marchment during a game in March 2000. Kariya was not injured on the play, though Marchment received a three-game suspension from the NHL. Kariya finished the season with the third-highest goals total of his career with 42, though his points total dipped to 86. Nevertheless, he ranked fourth in NHL scoring, behind Jaromír Jágr, Pavel Bure and Mark Recchi. In the NHL's season-ending awards, Kariya was named to the NHL Second All-Star Team, having been outvoted for left wing on the First Team by Red Wings forward Brendan Shanahan. He also ranked seventh in Lady Byng voting.
During pre-season play in September 2000, Kariya received a one-game suspension after slashing Minnesota Wild player Aaron Gavey, though he was able to serve the suspension during exhibition play. Several months into the 2000–01 season, Kariya suffered a broken right foot after blocking a shot from Tampa Bay Lightning defenceman Pavel Kubina during a game in December 2000. Missing 15 games, he returned to the lineup in late-January 2001. The Ducks struggled as a team while both Kariya and Selänne's paled in comparison to previous years. In March 2001, Selänne was traded to the San Jose Sharks, marking the end of his duo with Kariya. Despite he and Kariya's success playing with each other, the Ducks had advanced to the second round of the playoffs just once in their tenure together. While disappointed with the trade, Kariya later commented that with the tandem constituting nearly half of the Ducks' $39 million payroll, "If [he] were running the business, [he] would have done something too." Kariya finished the season with 67 points (33 goals and 34 assists) over 66 games. In addition to losing Selänne via trade, Kariya played the majority of the season without centre Steve Rucchin, who was suffering from post-concussion syndrome.
Without Selänne for a full season in 2001–02, Kariya's points total continued to decrease. During the opening month of the campaign, he went ten consecutive game without a goal. Nevertheless, at mid-season, he was named to his sixth NHL All-Star Game in January 2002 (although it marked the first time he had been named to the All-Star Game without being voted in as a starter by fans). Kariya played on a line with Mario Lemieux and Joe Sakic (a trio that remained intact two weeks later for the 2002 Winter Olympics) and notched an assist in an 8–5 victory for the North American All-Stars. Shortly thereafter, Kariya played in his 500th career NHL game, against the Philadelphia Flyers, a contest in which he recorded a hat-trick to lead his team to a 5–4 win. Though he finished with a team-leading 57 points over 82 games, the 2001–02 season marked Kariya's worst statistical year as a Duck and the third-straight year his points total had decreased. The Ducks also suffered as a team, finishing with the third-worst record in the West. Losing fan support, the team drew the worst attendance in franchise history at home games during the season. During the season, he was often asked by reporters how long he was willing to remain with the Ducks while the franchise floundered. In the Canadian media especially, there was a widespread position Kariya should be moved to a better club.
Run to the Stanley Cup Final with the Ducks
During the off-season, Kariya became a restricted free agent before re-signing with the Ducks to a one-year, $10 million contract in July 2002. Prior to the signing, the Ducks made two key acquisitions, signing playmaking centre Adam Oates to a one-year deal and trading for winger Petr Sýkora from the New Jersey Devils. Both acquisitions were made with Kariya's input, as well as with the expectation they would play on a line with him. Although Oates was injured at the beginning of the season (during which time Kariya played with his usual centre, Rucchin), the trio formed the Ducks' top line. Despite playing under a defensive system implemented by new head coach Mike Babcock, the arrival of Kariya's new linemates coincided with a resurgence in offensive production for him in 2002–03. However, several months into the campaign, his father died of a heart attack. The Ducks gave Kariya the option to sit out the following game against the Vancouver Canucks, which he played nonetheless on December 28, 2002. He recorded an assist in a 7–3 loss. At mid-season, Kariya was selected as a reserve to his seventh and final NHL All-Star Game, held in February 2003. He scored the deciding shootout goal for the Western Conference, as his team beat the East 6–5. While his 25 goals marked the lowest total of his career since his 22-game 1997–98 season, his 56 assists approached a personal best. With 81 points over 82 games, he led the Ducks in scoring for the fifth time. His efforts helped the Mighty Ducks to the seventh seed in the West, marking the team's return to the playoffs for the first time in four years. Matching up against the second-seeded Red Wings in the first round, Kariya opened the playoffs with a triple-overtime winner in Game 1, resulting in a 2–1 Ducks win. Anaheim went on to sweep the Red Wings in four games; Kariya scored his second goal of the series in the deciding contest, a 3–2 overtime win. It marked the second time in NHL history a team eliminated the defending Stanley Cup champion in four-straight games in the first round. The Mighty Ducks went on to eliminate the Dallas Stars and Minnesota Wild in the next two rounds to advance to the Stanley Cup Final for the first time in franchise history. During Game 6 of the series against New Jersey, a contest in which the Ducks faced elimination, Kariya received a hard open-ice hit from opposing defenceman Scott Stevens. Laying motionless on the ice for several minutes, he needed to be helped to the dressing room. Many felt Kariya's equipment changes following his first concussion may have saved him from being rendered unconscious from the Stevens hit. Four-and-a-half minutes of playing time later, he returned to the game. Following his return, he scored on a slapshot while skating down the wing to give the Ducks a 4–1 lead. Anaheim went on to win the game 5–2 to force a Game 7; Kariya finished the contest with a goal and two assists. Reactions regarding Stevens' hit were divided following the game. Kariya told reporters that after looking at replays that Stevens had used his elbow, while Ducks head coach Mike Babcock described it as a late hit. However, the play was not penalized during the game, and Stevens received no subsequent disciplinary measures from the NHL. Playing the deciding Game 7 in New Jersey, the Ducks lost the Stanley Cup by a 3–0 score. Over 21 games, Kariya finished third on the team in playoff scoring (behind Adam Oates and Petr Sýkora), scoring six goals and 12 points. Much of Anaheim's success was predicated on goaltender Jean-Sébastien Giguère's performance, who was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP. Kariya, meanwhile, was often singled out for his lack of consistent impact throughout the playoffs. As the highest-profile player on the Ducks, he drew matchups against opposing teams top defencemen during the post-season, such as Willie Mitchell against the Wild and Stevens against the Devils. He had also played part of the post-season with a separated shoulder.
Game 7 of the Final marked Kariya's last game as a Mighty Duck. After nine seasons, he left Anaheim as the team's all-time leader in games played (606), goals (300), assists (369), points (669), short handed goals (16) and shots (2,455). His seven seasons as team captain also set a Ducks record. Kariya's records for games played, goals, assists and points have since been surpassed by Selänne, who returned to the Ducks in 2005 and remained with the team until his retirement in 2014. Kariya's record for most seasons as the Ducks' captain has been surpassed by Ryan Getzlaf, who has held the title since 2010.
Colorado Avalanche
Following the Mighty Ducks' Stanley Cup run, Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in the off-season. With Kariya requiring a $10 million qualifying offer from Anaheim to remain with the team, general manager Bryan Murray let him go to free agency. Murray went on record saying, "We understand that he is an important player for the franchise... but when you are trying to build a team it's hard to have one player at $10 million when your payroll is the mid to low ($40 million range)." It was reported the team had tried negotiating a longer-term deal with a decreased salary, while Murray told media at the time he would remain in negotiations with Kariya to sign him for less. With former linemate Teemu Selänne also entering unrestricted free agency that summer after three years with San Jose (he decided to opt out of his final year, valued at $6.5 million), the duo agreed to reunite and sign with the same team. Together, they approached the Colorado Avalanche, having decided the team had the best chance of winning the Stanley Cup. On July 3, 2003, the Avalanche announced the signing of Kariya and Selänne to one-year contracts. In order for the team to afford both players, Kariya took an $8.8 million pay cut from his $10 million salary with Anaheim the previous year, marking the highest decrease in compensation for a player in NHL history. At $1.2 million, his salary was below the NHL average, ensuring he would have the freedom of unrestricted free agency at the end of the season. Selänne, meanwhile, signed for $5.8 million. Their deals were partially facilitated by goaltender Patrick Roy's retirement, which freed up $8.5 million in salary.
Kariya and Selänne joined an already high-powered Avalanche team that included such forwards as Joe Sakic, Peter Forsberg, Milan Hejduk and Alex Tanguay. Despite high expectations for the duo's reunion, Kariya and Selänne both struggled in their sole years with Colorado. After beginning the 2003–04 season on a line with Selänne centred by Joe Sakic, Kariya suffered a sprained right wrist in a game against the Boston Bruins on October 21, 2003. After being sidelined for ten games, he returned in mid-November, but re-injured his wrist in his first contest back. Due to the injury, Kariya missed playing against the Ducks for the first time in a home game on November 18. Still recovering a month later, he remained sidelined for a return to Anaheim's Arrowhead Pond on December 20. Kariya's departure from the Ducks drew criticism from his previous team's fans. In anticipation of the Avalanche-Ducks game on December 20, Anaheim fans began a fund that raised over $1,200 to be given to the favourite charity of the Ducks player who scores the game-winning goal against Colorado. The idea was precipitated by reports that Kariya had given Selänne $3,000 for scoring the game-winning goal against the Ducks on November 18 (it is an informal tradition in the NHL for players to offer rewards to teammates who score against former teams). Kariya returned to the Avalanche lineup in time for their next game against the Ducks on January 13, 2004, at the Pepsi Center. He scored one goal in a 3–1 win. Later that month, he played his first game against the Ducks in Anaheim on January 30. Booed every time he touched puck, he recorded two assists, as the Avalanche lost 4–3 in overtime. Limited by injuries, Kariya scored below his career pace with 11 goals and 36 points over 51 games. Selänne recorded 32 points, while playing in 78 games. In the final game of the regular season, Kariya injured his right ankle against the Nashville Predators on April 4. As a team, Colorado lost their division for the first time in nine years to the Vancouver Canucks. Qualifying for the 2004 playoffs as the fourth seed in the West, they lost in the second round to the Sharks. Kariya returned to the Colorado lineup in time for Game 6 against the Sharks, recording an assist as the Avalanche were eliminated by a score of 3–1.
Nashville Predators
Due to the NHL lockout, Kariya was professionally inactive for the 2004–05 season, using the time to recover from several nagging injuries. He incorrectly predicted that the dispute would last "a year-and-a-half [or] two years," as the players and owners agreed on a new collective agreement in July 2005. With NHL play set to resume for the 2005–06 season, Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in August 2005. Entertaining offers from ten different teams, Kariya signed a two-year, $9 million contract with the Nashville Predators on August 5, 2005, making him the highest-paid player in team history. Four days later, he was officially introduced as a member of the Predators at a news conference. Predators general manager David Poile heralded the acquisition as "unquestionably the biggest signing in [the] club's history". He ultimately chose the Predators for their style of play emphasizing skating and speed. Following the lockout, the NHL adopted several rule changes meant to benefit fast and skilled players such as Kariya. He was one of many NHL players who had publicly spoken out regarding the NHL's failed attempts in the past to reduce obstruction. During an earlier NHL-sponsored conference call with the media, Kariya criticized NHL rules, stating, "As an offensive player, I'm going through the neutral zone, and I have a player tugging me the whole way. If I don't go down, I'm not going to get a call because they are not going to make the call." Having come off the worst statistical season of his career in 2003–04, Kariya was admittedly looking to have a bounce-back season.
During the Predators' training camp in September 2005, Kariya suffered separate ankle and groin injuries that limited his participation in team practices and pre-season games. Recovering in time for the season-opener, he debuted with the Predators on October 5, 2005, at home against the San Jose Sharks. Early in the game, Kariya was routinely cheered by fans when he touched the puck. Trailing 2–1 in the third period, he scored on goaltender Evgeni Nabokov to the tie the game, en route to a 3–2 win. The following game, Kariya participated in his first NHL shootout (the tie-breaker was newly implemented by the League for the 2005–06 season) after the Predators remained tied with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 2–2 following overtime. The last of three shooters for the Predators, Kariya was the lone player to score in the shootout, leading Nashville to a 3–2 win. The two wins helped Nashville go undefeated in their first eight games, two wins shy of the NHL's record for consecutive victories to start a season. On April 18, 2006, the last day of the regular season, Kariya scored a hat-trick against the Detroit Red Wings in a 6–3 win, helping the Predators secure the fourth seed in the Western Conference. In his first season with Nashville, Kariya set team records with 31 goals, 54 assists and 85 points. His 14 power play goals also tied defenceman Andy Delmore's team record set in 2002–03, while his 245 shots came within three of Cliff Ronning's mark set in 1998–99. With five shootout goals over seven attempts, Kariya ranked fourth in the NHL in shootout scoring percentage at 71.4% (among players who had taken at least five attempts). On a team basis, the Predators set franchise records with 49 wins and 106 points, ranking fourth in the West. Matching up against the San Jose Sharks in the first round of the 2006 playoffs, Kariya opened the post-season with four assists in Game 1 to lead Nashville to a 4–3 win. After taking Game 1, the Predators went on to lose the next four contests and were eliminated from the playoffs. The team was markedly weakened for the playoffs with starting goaltender Tomáš Vokoun unavailable due to injury and Kariya's linemate Steve Sullivan playing hurt. Kariya had two goals and seven points over the series.
After the Predators' regular-season success in 2005–06, the team bolstered their lineup by acquiring centre Jason Arnott and winger Jean-Pierre Dumont. In response to Arnott's signing, Kariya commented that the centre position, as well as size, were weaknesses for the team the previous year, especially when they matched up against the Sharks' top two centres, Joe Thornton and Patrick Marleau, in the playoffs. Leading up to the 2006–07 season, the Predators were picked by many analysts in the media (including those from The Globe and Mail and ESPN) to contend for the Stanley Cup. Prior to the start of the campaign, the Predators announced defenceman Kimmo Timonen as the team's new captain, while naming Kariya and Steve Sullivan as alternates (the two served in that role the previous season, as well, but not on a permanent basis). With Kariya leading the team in scoring, the team boasted the top record in the NHL by the All-Star break. At the NHL trade deadline, the team further bolstered their lineup by acquiring high-profile centre Peter Forsberg from Philadelphia. Forsberg joined Kariya on the top line, though not consistently. With 76 points (24 goals and 52 assists)—the second highest total in team history—over 82 games, Kariya led the Predators in scoring for a second-straight year. His seven shootout goals (over 11 attempts) tied for second in the league, one behind Erik Christensen of the Pittsburgh Penguins. The Predators continued to improve and finished with a new team record of 51 wins and 110 points. Despite ranking as the second-best team in the West, Nashville seeded fourth in their conference (divisional winners within the conference take the top three seeds; Detroit beat the Predators by three points in the Central Division). Playing against the San Jose Sharks for the second consecutive year, the Predators were once again eliminated in five games. Kariya struggled with two assists during the series.
During the off-season, Predators owner Craig Leipold put the team up for sale; two of the leading candidates to buy the franchise both had plans to relocate the team. With Kariya's contract expiring, he chose not to re-sign with Nashville, citing the team's uncertain future.
St. Louis Blues
On July 1, 2007, Kariya signed a three-year contract worth $18 million with the St. Louis Blues. In similar fashion to his signing with Nashville, his arrival in St. Louis marked one of the team's first notable free-agent acquisitions in a while (arguably since the team signed Brendan Shanahan in 1991). While the Predators were a team on the rise when he joined them, the Blues had contrastingly missed the playoffs in the previous two seasons.
Although Blues winger Jay McClement was in possession of the jersey number 9 upon Kariya's arrival in the off-season, he surrendered it so Kariya could retain his usual number. Assigned as an alternate captain for the team, Kariya rotated the position with Keith Tkachuk, and Barret Jackman throughout the 2008–09 season. Kariya debuted with the team on October 4, 2007, registering an assist in a 3–2 loss to the Phoenix Coyotes. After recording six assists in his first four games as a Blue, Kariya scored his first goal with St. Louis on October 17, 2007, in a 3–1 win against the Chicago Blackhawks. Two months later, Kariya recorded his tenth career NHL hat-trick against the Dallas Stars on December 29, scoring the Blues' final three goals, including the game-tying marker with ten seconds remaining in regulation. He was stopped in the shootout, however, by Mike Smith as the Stars won the game 5–4. With the hat trick, Kariya reached the 900-point mark in his NHL career. Despite a decrease in offensive production, Kariya tied winger Brad Boyes for the team lead in scoring with 65 points (16 goals and 49 assists) over 82 games. The Blues finished with the second-worst record in the Western Conference with 33 wins and 79 points.
A month into 2008–09 season, Kariya suffered a hip injury after being hit from behind in a game against the Anaheim Ducks on November 5, 2008, tearing muscle fibers near the top of his left thigh. The injury was initially undisclosed at the time and was erroneously reported as having resulted from a blocked shot. At the time of the injury, he had 15 points (2 goals and 13 assists) over 11 games, tying him for sixth in NHL scoring. After nearly two months of recovery, he began practicing with the Blues, but had a setback in late-December; a subsequent MRI exam revealed additional hip damage. Undergoing surgery for a torn acetabular labrum on January 5, 2009, the team listed him as sidelined indefinitely, while Blues president John Davidson told reporters he might be back late that season or the next. The following month, another MRI revealed a torn labrum in the opposite side of his hip, as well, requiring a second surgery. Despite the loss of Kariya, the Blues made the playoffs for the first time since 2004. With the Blues matching up against the Vancouver Canucks in the first round, Kariya began practicing with the team in hopes of a comeback for the playoffs. He told reporters he felt "stronger than [he had]… since 1999". The Blues were swept in four games however, before Kariya could return.
Fully recovered by the start of the 2009–10 season, Kariya made his return to the Blues lineup on October 2, 2009, a game played in Stockholm. He scored two goals in a 4–3 win against the Detroit Red Wings. On March 18, 2010, Kariya scored the 400th goal of his NHL career, against the New York Rangers. A week later, he recorded the 402nd and final goal of his career, in a 3–1 win against the Los Angeles Kings. Kariya played his last NHL game on April 11, 2010, against his former team, the Nashville Predators. With the Blues trailing by one goal in the third period, Kariya helped set up David Backes' game-tying goal, marking his 25th assist of the season and final point of his career. The Blues went on to lose the game 2–1 in a shootout.
On December 27, 2009, Kariya received the sixth and last concussion of his NHL career, an elbow to the head delivered from behind by Buffalo Sabres' forward Patrick Kaleta. During what would become Kariya's last season in the NHL, the League began expanding their efforts to eliminate hits to the head with new rules and stiffer penalties. NHL officials also began looking to penalize "blindside hits", defined as a bodycheck against a player from the side, where he cannot see the ensuing player coming. At the time, Kariya called the pending rule changes "long overdue", adding, "[H]av[ing] been through so much with that… It's something that should've been in place years and years ago."
With his contract expiring in the off-season, Teemu Selänne, who had since returned to the Ducks, was reportedly in talks with team management to sign Kariya. However, on August 27, 2010, on the advice of doctors who refused to clear him to play, Kariya announced he would sit out the 2010–11 season with post-concussion syndrome. While the symptoms eventually did subside somewhat, the same doctors advised Kariya it was too risky to try to play again, and Kariya officially announced his retirement from hockey on June 29, 2011, through the NHLPA. He continued to be outspoken regarding the prevalence of concussions among hockey players; in an interview with the Globe and Mail, he commented, "The thing I worry about is that you'll get a guy who is playing with a concussion, and he gets hit, and he dies at centre ice."
International career
In the summer of 1991, Kariya joined the Canadian Under-18 Selects Team at the Phoenix Cup, the inaugural tournament of what would go on to become the Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament. Kariya led all scorers with ten points in six games while being named to the Tournament All-Star Team. Canada won the silver medal, losing out to the Soviet Union.
The following year, he moved up to the Canadian under-20 team for the 1992 World Junior Championships in Germany. The youngest player on the team, he recorded a goal and an assist over six games as Canada finished in sixth place. Playing in the tournament a second consecutive year in 1993, Kariya improved to two goals and eight points over seven games, ranking second in team scoring behind Martin Lapointe. Helping Canada to a record of six winsand one loss, they tied Sweden for first overall in the standings, but won the gold medal by way of their 5–4 win against them in their second game. The championship marked Kariya's first international gold medal and began a streak of five consecutive gold medals for Canada at the tournament. He was named to the Tournament All-Star Team, alongside Canadian goaltender Manny Legace and defenceman Brent Tully. Nearly ten years later, TSN held a fan-voted poll on the Internet to select Canada's all-time World Junior team. The poll garnered in excess of 350,000 votes with Kariya chosen as one of 13 forwards on the team.
Four months later, in April 1993, Kariya debuted with the Canadian men's team in the IIHF World Championships, held in Germany. At 18 years and six months, he became the youngest player in Canadian history to play at the tournament. He scored nine points in eight games as Canada finished in fourth place.
Later that year, in December 1993, Kariya left his college team, the Maine Black Bears, to join the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. At the start of the tournament, Canada was seeded seventh overall and were not considered favourites to do well. Playing on a line with Chris Kontos and Petr Nedved, Kariya led his team in scoring with three goals and seven points over eight games, helping Canada to a silver medal. Tied with the Czech Republic 2–2 in the quarterfinal, Kariya scored the game-winning goal after 16 minutes of overtime play to help the Canadians advance. In the gold medal game, Kariya scored the first goal as Canada went on to lose 3–2 in a shootout to Sweden. With a chance to tie the shootout after Swedish forward Peter Forsberg scored, Swedish goaltender Tommy Salo stopped Kariya with a glove save.
Two months later, Kariya joined Team Canada for the 1994 Men's World Championships in Italy. He was the lone player on the team to have continued on from the Olympics, as well as the youngest, while playing on a line with Jason Arnott and Brendan Shanahan. During round-robin play, he scored a hat-trick against Austria in a 6–1 win. In the quarter-final, he added a goal and an assist in a win over the Czech Republic. Canada advanced to the final, where they defeated Finland 2–1 to capture the gold medal. It marked the first championship at the tournament for Canada in 33 years. Kariya finished the tournament with a team-high five goals and 12 points over eight games and received Best Forward and All-Star Team honours on the latter, he was joined by Canadian goaltender Bill Ranford. With his success at the 1994 Winter Olympics and World Championships, Wayne Gretzky heralded Kariya as the next NHL superstar.
In January 1996, Kariya finished as a runner-up to Wayne Gretzky for the inaugural Jean Beliveau Award, an annual distinction from Hockey Canada for players who have demonstrated "outstanding playing ability and international experience while maintaining the fundamentals of sportsmanship and fair play". Unlike most annual awards, the distinction did not take into account players' performances in the prior year, but their contributions on a career basis. The initial three nominees were chosen by a selection committee, while the winner was determined by fan vote. Randy Gregg was the other nominee.
Following his second NHL season, Kariya was named to Canada's team for the 1996 World Championships in Vienna. During the round-robin, he scored a hat-trick against the United States, helping Canada to a 5–1 win, qualifying them for the quarter-finals. During their semi-final against Russia, Kariya scored in the shootout to help Canada to a 3–2 win. Advancing to the gold medal game, they lost 4–2 to the Czech Republic. Kariya finished the competition with four goals and seven points over eight games, earning him a spot as Canada's lone representative on the Tournament's First All-Star Team. Over three World Championship appearances, Kariya recorded 28 points (11 goals and 17 assists) over 24 games, which at the time, ranked him at third all-time among Canadian scorers, behind Steve Yzerman's 39 points and Marcel Dionne's 32.
Prior to the World Championships, Canada also named Kariya to their team for the 1996 World Cup, which was held in August and September. However, Kariya was kept from competing due to a groin inflammation. During a news conference, he called his withdrawal the "biggest disappointment of [his] hockey career". The World Cup would have marked his first international appearance in a best-on-best tournament, as the competition did not interfere with the Stanley Cup playoffs as the World Championships did. Kariya was replaced in the lineup by New York Rangers winger Adam Graves. Canada went on to finish as runner-up to the United States in the tournament.
In June 1997, Kariya was again nominated for the Jean Beliveau Award, alongside Gregg, but lost to Bobby Orr.
Four years after his first Olympic appearance as an amateur, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, were set to become the first Games in which NHL players could compete in ice hockey. While Kariya was involved in a contract dispute with the Mighty Ducks, causing him to miss the start of the 1997–98 NHL season, Hockey Canada contacted Kariya, asking him to provide a training regimen by December 1, 1997, ensuring that he would be physically ready to play in the Olympics, given his inactivity in the NHL. Before agreeing to a contract with the Ducks in December, he joined the Canadian national team in training. On November 29, 1997, Canadian General Manager Bobby Clarke announced his roster for the Games, which included Kariya. He was the youngest player named to the team, behind defenceman Chris Pronger, who was born six days earlier. Less than a month to go before the start of the tournament, held in February 1998, however, he suffered a concussion, resulting from an on-ice crosscheck to the head from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter. The hit received much publicity as Suter, a member of the United States' national team, was accused by many in the media, as well as Bobby Clarke for targeting Kariya specifically in order to sideline him for the Olympics. He again described the missed opportunity as the "biggest disappointment of [his] career," adding that he was looking forward to playing in Japan, having family there.
Leading up to the next Winter Olympics, Kariya was chosen as one of eight initial players to Canada's roster on March 23, 2001. Playing on the top line with Mario Lemieux, Kariya scored three goals and one assist over six games, tying for fourth in Canadian point-scoring. He registered his first goal of the tournament in Canada's second game, a 3–2 win against Germany. His second came against Belarus in the semi-final, qualifying Canada for the gold medal game. Playing the United States in the final, Kariya scored Canada's first goal of the game, tying the score at 1–1 in the first period. Canada went on to win 5–2, capturing their first Olympic gold medal since 1952. Canada's roster was later inducted into the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame under the team category on March 26, 2009, during a ceremony in Vancouver.
Despite Kariya's success with Canada at the 2002 Olympics, he had come off the worst statistical season of his career prior to the national team's summer development camp in preparation for the 2006 Winter Olympics. His omission was singled out by the media; general manager Wayne Gretzky, who selected the camp's participants, explained publicly, "Paul is a great player, but at some point you have to have a cutoff," while also asserting he had spoken to Kariya personally regarding the situation. After a strong start to the 2005–06 NHL season, Kariya was one of 49 forwards chosen in October 2005 to Canada's preliminary list of players to be selected from for the final roster. When the team was announced in December 2005, however, he was not chosen.
During his career, Kariya became involved with Hockey Canada off the ice, as well. In the late 1990s, he joined the organization as a national spokesperson with women's team forward Jayna Hefford for the Initiation Program, promoting a safe and positive experience for children first becoming involved with hockey.
Playing style
Kariya was known for his skilled and entertaining style of play. An offensive player, he was a fast skater with strong puck-handling and passing abilities. Prior to and early in his NHL career, Kariya drew comparisons to Wayne Gretzky. During the 1994 Winter Olympics, American Head Coach Tim Taylor likened his skating and playmaking ability to Gretzky's, while Kariya's linemate, Chris Kontos, described his on-ice vision as "Gretzky-like." Canadian head coach Tom Renney heralded him as "think[ing] and play[ing] at a better speed than anybody else," adding that his teammates "are usually a half-step behind him". His speed made him particularly adept in international competition, as games were played on a larger ice surface in comparison to the NHL. Following his first NHL goal against Winnipeg, Jets head coach John Paddock told reporters, "[L]ike with Gretzky the puck seems to following him around... It looks like he's cherry-picking, but he's not. That's just great instinct." Kariya himself cited Gretzky, as well as Brett Hull, Jeremy Roenick and Pavel Bure, as players he liked patterning his game after. Kariya was also recognized for his "hockey sense" and the cerebral aspect of his game, which included analyzing the game at a high level. His first NHL coach, Ron Wilson, also once described Kariya as "the hardest-working athlete [he's] ever been associated with".
While recognized primarily as a playmaker leading up to his NHL career, Kariya was forced into shooting more as the Mighty Ducks lacked scorers in his first two seasons with the team. During his third NHL season, he commented, "If Teemu [Selänne] had been here right off the bat, then maybe I wouldn't have focused so much on shooting." Kariya was able to put many shots on goal due to his quick release. In 1998–99, he led the NHL with 429 shots on goal, which at the time was the second-highest recorded total in NHL history. Nonetheless maintaining his passing ability, Kariya was particularly adept at making plays from deep in the offensive zone and beside the opposing team's net.
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
International
Awards and honours
Records
Last NCAA Division I player to score 100 points in a single season - 12th overall
Anaheim Ducks record; most overtime goals, single season – 3 in 1995–96
Anaheim Ducks record; highest plus-minus, single season – +36 in 1996–97
Anaheim Ducks record; most shots, single season – 429 in 1998–99
Nashville Predators record; most assists, single season – 54 in 2005–06
Nashville Predators record; most points, single season – 85 in 2005–06
Most Puck Control Relay wins at NHL SkillsCompetition – 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002
Personal life
During his rookie NHL season, Kariya lived in the Anaheim area with a family that was close friend with Mighty Ducks head coach, Ron Wilson. Following his departure from the Ducks in 2003, he maintained a summer home in Orange County, California. With a background in competitive swimming as a child, he became an avid surfer in the area.
Kariya still resides in California with his long-time girlfriend Valerie, nearby another former Ducks player, Scott Niedermayer. Kariya has maintained a close friendship with Teemu Selänne, and even attended Selänne's final regular season game at the Honda Center in 2014. Despite Kariya having only once attended the arena following his retirement, Selänne made sure to invite his old teammate as "he has meant so much to me, all my best years and the chemistry I’ve had with him." Selänne even went so far to threaten to tie him up and toss him in his trunk of his car, then drive him to the stadium himself if Kariya refused. Paul Kariya was shown on the Jumbotron during the third period, which lead to a loud ovation from the home crowd.
As captain of the Mighty Ducks, Kariya made a cameo appearance in Disney's D3: The Mighty Ducks movie, which was released in October 1996.
Kariya and Selanne were honored by the Anaheim Ducks during a home game against the Florida Panthers shortly after Kariya and Selanne were inducted into the hall of fame. Players on the ice during warmups wore either Paul Kariya Mighty Ducks jerseys or Anaheim Ducks Selanne jerseys. Ducks team owner Henry Samueli brought up that Selanne's jersey retirement banner “looked lonely in the rafters” and told Kariya “they may have to do something about that in the future”.
The Anaheim Ducks retired his number on October 21, 2018, at a ceremony attended by Selanne and Scott Niedermayer.
In 2018, he was the subject of "Surfacing", a documentary feature on TSN. The segment's creators, Matt Dunn, Michael Farber, Brent Blanchard and David Midgley, received a Canadian Screen Award nomination for Best Sports Feature Segment at the 7th Canadian Screen Awards.
Notes
References
External links
1974 births
Anaheim Ducks draft picks
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian sportspeople of Japanese descent
Colorado Avalanche players
Hobey Baker Award winners
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Ice hockey people from British Columbia
Ice hockey players at the 1994 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Lady Byng Memorial Trophy winners
Living people
Maine Black Bears men's ice hockey players
Medalists at the 1994 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim players
Nashville Predators players
National Hockey League All-Stars
National Hockey League first round draft picks
Olympic gold medalists for Canada
Olympic ice hockey players of Canada
Olympic medalists in ice hockey
Olympic silver medalists for Canada
Penticton Panthers players
People from North Vancouver
St. Louis Blues players
NCAA men's ice hockey national champions
AHCA Division I men's ice hockey All-Americans | [
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243730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dion%20DiMucci | Dion DiMucci | Dion Francis DiMucci (born July 18, 1939), better known simply as Dion, is an American singer and songwriter whose music has incorporated elements of doo-wop, rock, R&B and blues. Initially as lead singer of Dion and the Belmonts, and then in his solo career, he was one of the most popular American rock and roll performers of the pre-British Invasion era. He had 39 Top 40 hits in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a solo performer, with the Belmonts or with the Del-Satins. He is best remembered for the singles "Runaround Sue", "The Wanderer", "Ruby Baby" and "Lovers Who Wander", among other hits.
Dion's popularity waned in the mid-1960s. Toward the end of the decade, he shifted his style and produced songs that were more mature and contemplative, such as "Abraham, Martin and John". He remained popular in the late 1960s until the mid-1970s, and continues making music. During the 1980s, Dion produced several Christian albums, winning a GMA Dove Award in 1984 for the album I Put Away My Idols. He returned to secular music in the late 1980s with Yo Frankie (1989). Between the mid-2000s and 2021, Dion released six chart-topping blues albums. Critics who had dismissed his early work, labeling him as a teen idol, praised his later work and noted the influence he has had on other musicians.
A Grammy-nominated artist, Dion has released nearly 40 albums and scored eight Top 10 hits (ten including the Belmonts) on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989.
Early life
Dion was born to an Italian-American family in the Bronx, New York. As a child, he accompanied his father, Pasquale DiMucci, a vaudeville entertainer, on tour, and developed a love of country music – particularly the work of Hank Williams. He also developed a fondness for the blues and doo-wop musicians he heard performing in local bars and on the radio. His singing was honed on the street corners and local clubs of the Bronx, where he and other neighborhood singers created a cappella riffs.
In early 1957, he auditioned for Bob and Gene Schwartz for their short-lived Mohawk Records label. They asked Dion to sing a song which had been arranged by Hugo Montenegro and recorded featuring Vic Damone doing vocals. At first Dion refused, stating the song would sound like something his old fashioned parents would listen to, but the Schwartzes convinced him to give it a try. The backing vocals were by a group called "the Timberlanes", whom Dion had never met. The resulting single, "The Chosen Few", was released under the name "Dion and the Timberlanes", and became a minor regional hit. Dion himself stated in 2019 during an interview at "Crashing the Party" (a radio program related to Norton Records in Brooklyn, New York) that "The Chosen Few" hit the Top Ten locally in Boston and enabled him to perform this song on American Bandstand where the kids at the show started screaming during his performance, which gave him his first impression of being a record star. Writing about this experience later, in his autobiography, The Wanderer, Dion said that he had never met the Timberlanes and did not even know who they were. "The vocal group was so white bread, I went back to my neighborhood and I recruited a bunch of guys – three guys – and we called ourselves Dion and the Belmonts."
Career
Beginnings with the Belmonts: 1957–1960
Bob and Gene Schwartz signed Dion's friends, the Belmonts (Carlo Mastrangelo, Fred Milano, and Angelo D'Aleo), a vocal group named for the Belmont, Bronx neighborhood, and teamed them up with Dion singing lead. The new group's breakthrough came in early 1958, when "I Wonder Why" (on their newly formed Laurie Records) made No. 22 on the U.S. charts. Dion said of the Belmonts; "I'd give 'em sounds. I'd give 'em parts and stuff. That's what 'I Wonder Why' was about. We kind of invented this percussive rhythmic sound. If you listen to that song, everybody was doing something different. There's four guys, one guy was doing bass, I was singing lead, one guy's going 'ooh wah ooh,' and another guy's doing tenor. It was totally amazing. When I listen to it today, oftentimes I think, 'man, those kids are talented.'"
Their initial hit was followed by "No One Knows" and "Don't Pity Me", which also charted the Billboard Top 100. This success won a place for Dion and the Belmonts on the ill-fated "The Winter Dance Party" tour with Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, the Big Bopper (J.P. Richardson), Frankie Sardo, and other performers. On February 3, 1959, after a concert stop in Clear Lake, Iowa, Holly and others decided to charter a flight to the next venue rather than travel on the tour bus. Dion was invited to accompany the group but decided that he did not want to spend $36 for the flight, as it was the same monthly rent his parents paid for his childhood apartment and he could not justify the indulgence. The plane crashed, killing all on board: Holly, Valens, Richardson, and the pilot Roger Peterson. Dion and the Belmonts continued on the tour, along with Frankie Sardo, while Bobby Vee, then an unknown artist, performed in Holly's place at the very next concert. Later, Jimmy Clanton, Frankie Avalon, and Fabian were added to replace the other now-deceased headliners.
Dion and the Belmonts' next single, "A Teenager in Love", was released in March 1959, eventually hitting No. 5 on the U.S. pop charts and No. 28 in the UK. The group's biggest hit, "Where or When", was released in November of that year, and reached No. 3 on the U.S. charts. However, in early 1960, Dion checked into hospital for heroin addiction, a problem he had had since his mid-teens. Further single releases for the group that year were less successful. There were musical, personal and financial differences between Dion and members of the Belmonts, and in October 1960, Dion decided to quit for a solo career. By the time of their breakup, all eight Laurie releases had charted on the Hot 100.
Solo stardom and touring worldwide: 1960–1964
By the end of 1960, Dion produced his first solo album on Laurie Records, Alone with Dion, released in 1961. The single "Lonely Teenager" rose to No. 12 in the US charts. The name on his solo releases was simply "Dion". Follow-ups "Havin' Fun" and "Kissin' Game" had less success, and the signs were that Dion would drift onto the cabaret circuit. However, he then recorded an up-tempo number co-written with Ernie Maresca with a new vocal group, the Del-Satins. The record, "Runaround Sue", stormed up the U.S. charts, reaching No. 1 in October 1961, and No. 11 in the UK, where he also toured. "Runaround Sue" sold over a million copies, achieving gold disc status.
For the next single, Laurie promoted the A-side, "The Majestic", but it was the B-side, Maresca's "The Wanderer", which received more radio play and climbed swiftly up the charts to reach No. 2 in the U.S. in February 1962 and No. 10 in the UK. The 1976 re-release made the UK Top 20.
By the end of 1961, Dion had become a major star, touring worldwide and making an appearance in the Columbia Pictures musical film Twist Around the Clock. In 1962, he followed with a string of singles he wrote or co-wrote including "Lovers Who Wander" (No. 3), "Little Diane" (No. 8), "Love Came to Me" (No. 10). He also had successful albums with Runaround Sue and Lovers Who Wander.
At the end of 1962, Dion moved from Laurie to Columbia Records. He was the first rock and roll artist signed to the label, which was an anomaly considering that its then-A&R director, Mitch Miller, loathed that particular genre of music. The first Columbia single, Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller's "Ruby Baby" (originally a hit for the Drifters) reached No. 2, while "Donna the Prima Donna" and "Drip Drop" (another remake of a Drifters hit) both reached No. 6 in late 1963. (Dion also recorded an Italian version of "Donna the Prima Donna" using the identical backup vocals.) His other Columbia releases were less successful, and problems with his drug addiction and changing public tastes, especially the British Invasion, saw a period of commercial decline.
Belmonts reunion and renewed contract: 1965–1968
Following a European tour, Dion returned to the U.S. and was introduced to classic blues by Columbia's John Hammond. To the consternation of his management, he began recording more blues-oriented material, including Willie Dixon's "Hoochie Coochie Man" and "Spoonful", but these releases – some produced by Tom Wilson, with Al Kooper on keyboards – were not commercially successful. In 1965, still with Columbia, Dion formed a new group to back him, The Wanderers, composed of John Falbo on guitar, Pete Baron (Pete Falciglia) on bass, and Carlo Mastrangelo of the Belmonts on drums. They made national appearances on Dick Clark's, Where The Action Is, and The Lloyd Thaxton Show. A number of self-penned tracks were recorded and released unsuccessfully as singles, and did not appear in album format until years later. In June 1965 he recorded fellow Columbia Records's contemporary Bob Dylan's composition "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue" a half-year before Them (featuring Van Morrison)'s hit version.
In 1966–67, Dion briefly reunited with the Belmonts, recording the LP Together Again for ABC Records. The album was unsuccessful, despite one classic self-penned song, "My Girl the Month of May". Two singles were released from the LP. While neither charted in the United States, they fared better in the UK. "My Girl The Month of May" entered the Radio London "Fab 40" at No. 9 the week of December 25, 1966. A 'turntable' hit at London underground clubs like Middle Earth, the disc received a lot of play from pirate radio DJ's John Peel and Kenny Everett. The follow up, "Movin' Man", reached No. 17 on the "Radio London" charts on Easter Sunday, March 26, 1967. "My Girl The Month of May" was later covered by English artists Alan Bown in 1967, and Island Records artists The Bunch (featuring Sandy Denny and other members of Fairport Convention) in April 1972. During their brief mid-60's reunion, Dion and the Belmonts appeared on the popular Clay Cole Show performing "Berimbau" and "My Girl The Month of May", and occasionally performed at local New York City clubs such as "The Mardi Gras" on Staten Island (April 29, 1967) before disbanding. While Dion's career appeared to be nearing an end, he still retained enough credibility to be, along with Bob Dylan, one of only two rock artists featured on the album cover of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967.
In April 1968, Dion experienced what he identified as a powerful religious transformation. After getting clean once again from heroin addiction, an experience he documented in his 1970 song "Your Own Backyard", he approached Laurie Records for a new contract. They agreed on the condition that he record the song "Abraham, Martin & John", written by Dick Holler (also the writer of the Royal Guardsmen's "Snoopy Vs. The Red Baron") in response to the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, and those of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy during the spring of 1968. The success of this song (released by Dion in August 1968 and later recorded by many others including Marvin Gaye) which reached No. 4 in the US charts and No. 1 in Canada, resuscitated Dion's career. It sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc.
Mature and Christian music period: 1969–1986
For the next few years, Dion's music became radically different, moving to more contemplative and mature material. He released several albums essentially as a singer-songwriter, to moderate sales, moving to the Warner Brothers label in 1969.
There followed a live reunion show with the Belmonts at Madison Square Garden on June 2, 1972, which was recorded and released as a live album by Warner. A year later, in 1973, Dion and the original Belmonts performed once more, doing a sold-out concert at the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island, New York. However, no recording of the 1973 reunion was released. This was followed in 1975 by the album Born to Be with You produced by Phil Spector. The album was a commercial failure, but has been subsequently praised by such artists as Jason Pierce of Spiritualized and Pete Townshend of The Who with the track "Only You Know" being sampled by Pulp frontman Jarvis Cocker for his single "Don't Let Him Waste Your Time" from his 2006 solo album Jarvis.
In 1978, Dion released an album drawing on many of his teenage influences, Return of the Wanderer, another commercial failure.
In December 1979, there was a radical spiritual change in Dion, who had become a born again Christian. Thereafter, his recordings for several years were in a contemporary Christian vein, in which he released five albums on the DaySpring Records label, a division of Word Records in Waco, Texas. These albums reflecting his evangelical Christian convictions were Inside Job (1980), Only Jesus (1981), I Put Away My Idols (1983) which charted at No. 37, Seasons (1984), Kingdom in the Streets (1985) and Velvet & Steel (1986). Several singles were successfully released to Christian radio, notably "Still in the Spirit" from Kingdom in the Streets.
In 1984, Dion won the GMA Dove Award (Christian Music Award) for the album I Put Away My Idols. He was also nominated for Grammy Award for Best Gospel Vocal Performance, Male for the same album.
On September 24, 1985, Dion was a guest on 100 Huntley Street.
Return to secular music and RRHOF induction: 1987–1999
In 1987, Dion agreed to do a concert of his old hits at Radio City Music Hall in New York. The two disc CD of this concert was released in 2005, featuring concert photos by Dion's friend, Michael J. Friedman. This concert helped free him to celebrate both his past and his future, and led to a series of special appearances, including a fundraiser for homeless medical relief. There he shared the stage with fans such as Bruce Springsteen, Paul Simon and Lou Reed, all of whom cited Dion as one of their prime influences.
Dion's autobiography, The Wanderer: Dion's Story, co-authored by Davin Seay, was published in the late-1980s.
In 1989, DiMucci returned to rock music with the contemporary album Yo Frankie, which included appearances by Paul Simon, Lou Reed, k.d. lang, Patty Smyth and Bryan Adams. Produced by Dave Edmunds (who also played guitar on the album), "Yo Frankie has a sharp sound while never losing sight of Dion's soulful, doo-wop voice." Overall, "the relevant and nostalgic statement from an artist who helped forge rock & roll's first wave" found his way back on radio and in music videos during this period (both on VH1 and MTV), as well as touring.
Dion was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (RRHOF) in 1989 (with an introduction by Lou Reed). Controversially, when Dion's solo induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame occurred, the other original members of the Belmonts (Carlo Mastrangelo, Fred Milano, and Angelo D'Aleo) were not inducted. A January 3, 2012 Billboard magazine article stated: "There was strife between DiMucci and Belmonts members, who were not pleased when DiMucci was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame without them in 1989."
DiMucci joined Scott Kempner and Frank Funaro of the Del-Lords and Mike Mesaros of the Smithereens in a short-lived band called Little Kings. A live album was later released, but not widely circulated or promoted.
Grammy Hall of Fame and blues success: 2000–2019
Dion has released several albums with contemporary rock artists. His Déjà Nu album in 2000 found him covering Bruce Springsteen, a major follower over the years. He joined Springsteen onstage in Miami in 2002 for a performance of "If I Should Fall Behind" from Dream on Fire.
In 2002, Dion was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for "Runaround Sue". He continues to perform songs from his albums live, including a concert in 2004 being recorded for release on DVD.
In January 2006, Dion released Bronx in Blue, an album of blues and country standards, which was nominated for a Grammy Award. It peaked at No. 2 on the Top Blues Albums chart. In November 2007, Dion issued a follow-up album titled Son of Skip James, which peaked at No. 4 on the Top Blues Albums chart.
In October 2008, DiMucci released Heroes: Giants of Early Guitar Rock, an album of his covers of early rock and roll songs he considers seminal to the genre. The album includes versions of songs originally recorded by Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, Ricky Nelson, Johnny Cash, and many other early rock guitarists.
In October 2009, Dion performed "The Wanderer" with Paul Simon at the 25th Anniversary Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Concert.
An audiobook and paperback by Dion and Mike Aquilina, titled Dion: The Wanderer Talks Truth (Stories, Humor Music), was published in April 2011. DiMucci shares stories about The Bronx in the 1950s, how he ended up on the cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and his travels with Sam Cooke in the Jim Crow South.
Dion released Tank Full of Blues on January 24, 2012. It peaked at No. 3 on the Top Blues Albums chart.
While touring on April 5, 2015, Dion performed "Donna the Prima Donna" live in Las Vegas. On July 11, 2015, he held a concert in Westbury, New York.
In 2015, Dion released the single "New York Is My Home" with Paul Simon. Dion had previously worked with Simon on his 1989 hit "Written on the Subway Wall". The single was followed by the album New York Is My Home, released February 12, 2016. The album peaked at No. 3 on the Top Blues Album chart.
Dion planned four concerts in the U.S. during early 2016 and was invited as a keynote speaker for the 2016 SXSW in Texas. He spoke on the topic A Conversation with Dion: Rock's Enduring Voice on March 17, 2016.
Dion appeared on The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon on April 8, 2016.
In May 2017, Dion released Kickin' Child: The Lost Album 1965 from Norton Records, containing songs recorded in 1965 when he was with Columbia Records but were not previously released. Also in May 2017, Richard Barone's Sorrows & Promises: Greenwich Village in the 1960s was released, which included Dion performing a duet of his 1964 song "The Road I'm On (Gloria)" with Barone. The album is a celebration of the New York City scene that Dion was part of during that pivotal era.
Recent albums with KTBA Records: 2020–present
In June 2020, Dion released Blues with Friends via Keeping the Blues Alive Records (KTBA), a new record label created by Joe Bonamassa and Roy Weisman for Dion and other blues musicians to showcase their talents. The album features Van Morrison, Jeff Beck, Paul Simon, Bruce Springsteen, and others (including liner notes by Bob Dylan). A digital album (and a double vinyl record set), Dion released a music video for every song from the album on his website and social media platforms such as Facebook and YouTube. The album reached No. 1 on the Billboard Blues Albums chart (9 weeks at No. 1 and 59 weeks total). It also charted in United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, Canada and Australia.
American Songwriter magazine honored Dion's "Song for Sam Cooke (Here in America)" as the "Greatest of the Great 2020 Songs".
Dion also released two Christmas songs in 2020: "Hello Christmas" (featuring Amy Grant) and "You Know It's Christmas" (featuring Bonamassa). Both songs were co-written with Mike Aquilina. Music videos were produced for both songs.
Dion's song "Blues Comin' On" (with Bonamassa) from Blues with Friends was nominated for a 2021 Blues Music Award.
In November 2021, Dion released Stomping Ground (with music videos), which includes extensive liner notes written by Pete Townshend. Except for a cover of "Red House", the songs were written by Dion and Aquilina. Multiple guest artists participate on the album. The album became Dion's second No. 1 blues album.
The Wanderer musical
On October 13, 2011, an industry-only reading of a new play about Dion's life was performed in New York City.
In a December 9, 2011 article from The New York Times, Dion and his collaborator (writer/director Charles Messina) discussed details about the project – titled The Wanderer: The Life and Music of Dion – which will focus on the years between 1957 until the late-1960s, and will feature more than 20 songs from that era as well as new/original music. In the article, Dion gave his perspective on the story: "You know, I always saw my story as a young Sopranos with great music and a Rocky Graziano Somebody Up There Likes Me ending. It's a story of redemption. A rock and roll redemption story!"
DiMucci revealed that Michael Wartella would be starring in The Wanderer on December 16, 2017. There was a reading of the musical on November 2, 2017 while working on it continued. On December 4, 2019, it was announced that former New Kids on the Block member Joey McIntyre would star as Johnny, Michael Wartella as Dion, and Christy Altomare as wife, Susan. The first performance was scheduled to start on May 28, 2020, at the Paper Mill Playhouse. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the opening performance was rescheduled to March 24, 2022.
Personal life
Dion lives in Boca Raton, Florida and New York City.
In the late 1990s, Dion visited his old Bronx parish, Our Lady of Mount Carmel, and returned to Catholicism. Sparking Dion's reversion to Catholicism was "a chance viewing of The Journey Home program on EWTN."
As a practicing Roman Catholic and having struggled with a heroin addiction during his youth, Dion has been involved in prison religion, reaching out to men going through drug recovery.
DiMucci was a member of the American board of directors for Renewal Ministries in 2004.
Dion appeared on The Journey Home and discussed his wanderings from Catholicism to Protestantism and back again on May 1, 2006.
Selective discography
With the Belmonts
Presenting Dion and the Belmonts (1959)
Wish Upon a Star with Dion and the Belmonts (1960)
Together Again (1966)
Live at Madison Square Garden 1972 (1973)
Solo albums
Alone with Dion (1961)
Runaround Sue (1961)
Donna the Prima Donna (1963)
Dion (1968)
Suite for Late Summer (1972)
Born to Be with You (1975)
Streetheart (1976)
I Put Away My Idols (1983)
Yo Frankie (1989)
Son of Skip James (2007)
Blues with Friends (2020)
Stomping Ground (2021)
References
External links
Comprehensive Rolling Stone profile
The Spiritual Journey of the Wanderer Who Came Home By Dion Dimucci
Dion the Wanderer, Back In Blue (an article at NPR.com)
1939 births
Living people
American male singers
American people of Italian descent
American male pop singers
American folk singers
American rock singers
Musicians from the Bronx
American performers of Christian music
Laurie Records artists
Columbia Records artists
Singers from New York City
Dion and the Belmonts members
Doo-wop musicians
Catholics from New York (state) | [
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243731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimline%20telephone | Trimline telephone | The Trimline telephone is a series of telephones produced by Western Electric, the manufacturing unit of the Bell System, and first introduced in 1965. It was designed by Henry Dreyfuss Associates under the project direction of Donald Genaro; the firm had designed all previous desktop telephone models for the American Telephone & Telegraph conglomerate.
History
After the introduction of the popular Princess telephone line, in 1959 and the early 1960s, the design motivation for the Trimline series was to create an alternative design that was stylish and easier to use than a traditional telephone. This was accomplished by moving the dial from the telephone's base to the underside of the handset, between the earpiece and mouthpiece. The same concept was later used for cellular telephone and cordless telephone models. To miniaturize the rotary dial sufficiently to fit in the Trimline handset, the designers invented an unusual moving fingerstop. Like in the Princess line, the dial was lit when the handset was removed from the base. The Trimline was also one of the first phones to use the predecessor of the now-ubiquitous RJ11 modular phone plug and jack.
First introduced in 1965, the Trimline included a lighted dial and was encased in a sleek, curved plastic housing that took up much less space than earlier Western Electric telephones. However, the glass-smooth and shallowly-curved plastic handset proved difficult to retain between cheek and shoulder for hands-free communication without slipping, and this problem was never corrected over the life of the model line. Cushioned clamp-on adaptors were manufactured and sold by third parties to make it easier to cradle the handset, but these add-ons were unsightly.
The first Trimline models used incandescent dial lights powered by a power transformer plugged into a standard 120VAC outlet. The bulky transformer and the need for a conveniently-placed 120-volt outlet was criticized by many consumers, but was necessary because of the power demands of the incandescent light bulb. Years later, Western Electric redesigned the Trimline to use a low-power green LED backlit dial powered by current from the phone line, eliminating the need for a separate transformer. Always eager to re-use its older stocks of turned-in rental phones, AT&T later repainted and sold early-model non-LED Trimlines as "non-lighted" models, without a transformer.
Variants
The Trimline handset was produced in both rotary dial and Touch-Tone versions. Rotary dial Trimline production began in late 1965 and a Touch Tone keypad was added in mid-1966. The Trimline base was available in desk-top and wall-mount versions. The handsets and bases were interchangeable. The Trimline was the first US telephone to achieve some design recognition in Europe, where it was referred to as the "Manhattan" model or the "Gondola". Today, similarly designed telephones are sold by many companies. AT&T retained the Trimline name for the later "Trimline III", a more compact successor featuring squared corners and straight lines.
In the 21st century, Advanced American Telephones produces the Trimline models 205, 210 (based upon original design), and the 265, under license from AT&T.
Powered RJ11 jacks for illumination
In the Trimline version designed for connection to an RJ11 telephone jack, pins 2 and 5 (black and yellow) may carry very low voltage AC or DC power. While the phone line itself (tip and ring) supplies enough power for most telephones, older telephone instruments with incandescent dial lights in them (such as the classic Western Electric Princess and Trimline models) needed different voltages and more current than the phone line could supply. Typically, the power on pins 2 and 5 came from a transformer plugged into a power outlet near one telephone jack, wired to supply power to just that telephone (or to all of the jacks in the house, depending on local telephone company practices). It is now usually recommended that only the one local jack used by such older telephones be wired for power, to avoid any potential interference with other types of service that might be using pins 2 and 5 (black and yellow pair) in jacks in other parts of the house. The early Trimline and Princess phone dial light incandescent lamps were rated at 6.3 volts, 0.25 amp and the transformer output is approximately 6–8 volts AC. Later Trimline versions had LED light sources, powered directly from the phone line, and the last Western Electric-made Princess version had no dial light.
Timeline
1965 Original Trimline introduced in the winter of 1965. Only rotary dial versions produced that first year, and availability was limited.
1966 Touch Tone keypads become available in addition to dial models at mid-year. First touch-tone phones lack pound and star buttons and so only have ten buttons.
1968 Keypads on Touch Tone models were expanded to 12 keys, adding a pound and a star button to prepare for future functionality not yet available in 1968.
early 70s The clear plastic button backplate with colored paper backing matching the color of the phone is replaced with an aluminum backplate on the round button Touch-Tone phones. Also at this time, the round handset cords using proprietary connectors are replaced with modern flat modular cords and jacks. On all Trimline phones, the screw cover above the dial changes from reading "Bell System made by Western Electric" to just "Trimline" with a bell logo to the left of the text.
late 70s A green LED light fed by the phone line power replaces the incandescent lamp, additionally, the Touch-Tone version now sports slightly larger, square keys, as opposed to the earlier small round keys. Also the Touch-Tone version receives an aluminum faceplate behind the keys.
1983 AT&T begins selling phones, including the Trimline, to the public (as opposed to their previous leasing only policy) through its newly created American Bell, Inc. subsidiary.
1984 AT&T is divested of its regional operating companies and is prohibited from using the Bell name or logo, so the American Bell brand is dropped and replaced with simply AT&T. All telephone production continues as normal.
Late 1984 The Touch-tone Trimline phone is heavily modified with the following new features:
Electronic chirp ringer in the handset, replacing the previous real bell ringer
Keys are now made of a soft rubber material
Line switch (switchhook) eliminated from base, moved to top of phone just below the receiver
Handset screws' cover no longer says "Trimline"; made smaller in the middle to conform to new switchhook location
Only one handset-to-jack cord is required for the telephone connection; cord can be tightly secured onto the bottom of the base, which now only exists with no purpose other than as a rest for the handset
1985 The rotary Trimline is discontinued, and further modifications are made to the touch-tone model:
Desk or wall convertible, eliminating separate desk and wall models
Touch-Tone/dial pulse switch, eliminating separate Touch-Tone and rotary models
Redial and Mute functions
One cord to connect telephone is eliminated, base-to-handset and base-to-jack cords reinstated
1986 With the closing of the Western Electric Indianapolis Works, Trimline production is moved overseas to Singapore and China. Minor modifications included:
Earpiece Volume Control
Chirp Ringer/ringer loudness switch moved to base of the phone
Bottom of the base is now made of plastic, with a lead weight inside the base
Only 1 screw is used to hold the handset together; location of screw and screw cover is moved to below the dialpad
2220 Trimline is dropped as a model number, replaced by the 210, 220, and 230.
1993 The Trimline phone is again updated with the following features:
The soft rubber keys are again replaced with hard plastic keys, similar to the late 70s and early 80s models, but the keys are even larger and rectangular rather than square
The faceplate behind the keys, aluminum since the late 70s LED conversion is now a dark gray plastic with a matte surface
Production is moved to Mexico
Caller ID models, the 250 & 260, are introduced under the Trimline brand. The design shares nothing in common with the 210 model.
1996 Lucent Technologies is spun off from AT&T, and minor modifications are added:
Phones are marked "Lucent Technologies", though this turned out to be temporary, and the boxes and marketing materials were always co-branded with AT&T
"Trimline" again marked above the dialpad on the matte surface
Ringer loudness switch is moved back to dialpad; ringer remains inside the base
1997 Lucent enters a joint venture with Philips, creating Philips Consumer Communications. Shortly after, more changes are made:
Handset screws are eliminated completely. Handset is only held together by "snap" ends at both ends of the phone, above the receiver and below the microphone.
Telephones are again branded AT&T; Lucent Technologies branding ends.
Ringer moved into handset.
2000 Lucent dissolved the joint venture with Philips in 1998, and sells its consumer division to Hong Kong company VTech, where it becomes Advanced American Telephones. VTech moved all production to the People's Republic of China.
See also
Bell System Practices
Contempra, a similar form factor handset designed by Northern Electric and deployed by Bell Canada.
References
External links
Western Electric Telephone Models
Western Electric Trimline Phone
Western Electric telephones | [
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243734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Pink | Arthur Pink | Arthur Walkington Pink (1 April 1886 – 15 July 1952) was an English Bible teacher who sparked a renewed interest in the exposition of Calvinism or Reformed Theology. Little known in his own lifetime, Pink became "one of the most influential evangelical authors in the second half of the twentieth century."
Biography
Arthur Walkington Pink was born in Nottingham, England, to a corn merchant, a devout non-conformist of uncertain denomination, though probably a Congregationalist. Otherwise, almost nothing is known of Pink's childhood or education except that he had some ability and training in music. As a young man, Pink joined the Theosophical Society, an occult gnostic group in contemporary England, and he apparently rose to enough prominence within its ranks that Annie Besant, its head, offered to admit him to its leadership circle. In 1908 he renounced Theosophy for evangelical Christianity.
Desiring to become a minister but unwilling to attend a liberal theological college in England, Pink very briefly studied at Moody Bible Institute in Chicago in 1910 before taking the pastorate of the Congregational church in Silverton, Colorado. In 1912 Pink left Silverton, probably for California, and then took a joint pastorate of churches in rural Burkesville and Albany, Kentucky. In 1916, he married Vera E. Russell (1893–1962), who had been reared in Bowling Green, Kentucky, and Pink's next pastorate was at Scottsville Baptist Church, Scottsville, Kentucky. Then the newlyweds moved in 1917 to Spartanburg, South Carolina, where Pink became pastor of Northside Baptist Church.
By this time Pink had become acquainted with prominent dispensationalist Fundamentalists, such as Harry Ironside and Arno C. Gaebelein, and his first two books, published in 1917 and 1918, were in agreement with that theological position. Yet Pink's views were changing, and during these years he also wrote the first edition of The Sovereignty of God (1918), which argued that God did not love sinners who had not been predestined unto salvation, and that He had deliberately created "unto damnation" those who would not accept Christ. Whether because of his Calvinistic views, his nearly incredible studiousness, his weakened health, or his lack of sociability, Pink left Spartanburg in 1919 believing that God would "have me give myself to writing." But Pink then seems next to have taught the Bible—with some success—in California for a tent evangelist named Thompson while continuing his intense study of Puritan writings.
In January 1922, Pink published the first issue of Studies in the Scriptures, which by the end of the following year had about a thousand subscribers and which was to occupy most of his time for the remainder of his life and become the source for dozens of books, some arranged from Studies articles after his death. In 1923 Pink suffered a nervous breakdown, and he and his wife lived with friends in Philadelphia until he regained his health. In 1925, the Pinks sailed to Sydney, Australia, where he served as both an evangelist and Bible teacher at the Ashfield Tabernacle. But his impolitic preaching of Calvinist doctrine resulted in a unanimous resolve of the Baptist Fraternal of New South Wales not to endorse him. From 1926 to 1928, Pink served as pastor of two groups of Strict and Particular Baptists.
Returning to England, Pink was invited to preach at a pastorless church in Seaton, Devon; but though he was welcomed by some members, the overseers thought his installation as pastor would split the church. In the spring of 1929, Pink and wife returned to her home state of Kentucky where he intended to become pastor of the Baptist church in Morton's Gap. Once again his hopes were unrealized. To a friend he wrote, "I am more firmly convinced today than I was 14 months ago that our place is on the 'outside of the camp.' That is the place of 'reproach,' of loneliness, and of testing." In 1930 Pink was able to start a Bible class in Glendale, California, while also turning down opportunities to speak in some Fundamentalist churches. The following year, the Pinks rented an unpainted wooden house in Union County, Pennsylvania, where a small group met; then in 1933 they moved to York, Pennsylvania.
Pink decided that if his ministry was to be totally one of writing, he could do that just as well in England. In September 1934 he and his wife moved to Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, near honorary agents of Studies in the Scriptures. Pink seems to have finally given way to despair. To a friend he wrote "that those of my friends who would dearly like to help me are powerless to do so; while those who could, will not. And in a very few years at most it will be too late. What I have gone through the last seven years is so reacting on my physical and mental constitution, that ere long I shall be incapacitated even if doors should be opened unto me. However, I can see nothing else than to attempt to seek grace to bow to the Lord's sovereign pleasure, and say, 'Not my will, but thine be done.'"
In 1936, the Pinks moved to Hove, on the south coast near Brighton. After the death of his father in 1933, Pink received enough of the estate to allow him and his wife to live very simply without financial concerns; and between 1936 until his death in 1952, Pink devoted himself completely to Studies in the Scriptures. Vera believed her husband's almost unrelenting work schedule unhealthy, and she remarkably succeeded in having him take up stamp collecting as a hobby. In 1940, Hove became a regular target of German air raids, and the Pinks moved to Stornoway, Isle of Lewis, Outer Hebrides, Scotland, where they remained for the rest of his life. The island was a bastion of Calvinism, but church services were held mostly in Scots Gaelic, and visitors were not especially welcomed in any case. Pink governed his time in study and writing with "military precision." To a friend he wrote that he went out to shop and get exercise for an hour, six days a week, but that otherwise he never left his study except when working in a small garden. While in Hove, he even published a note in Studies advising subscribers that "it is not convenient for us to receive any visitors, and respectfully ask readers who may visit these parts to kindly refrain from calling upon us, but please note that we are always glad to hear from Christian friends." Rather than attend church, on Sunday mornings, Pink spent time ministering to readers by letter.
In 1951 Vera became aware that Pink was failing. He lost weight and was in pain but refused to take any medicine that might dull his mind and hinder him from completing his work. He died on 15 July 1952. His last words were "The Scriptures explain themselves." Pink left enough written material to allow publication of Studies until December 1953. Vera Pink survived her husband by ten years and after his death made new friends and mingled more freely with others.
Influence
It is alleged that Pink's personality made it difficult for him to have a successful pastoral ministry. He has been criticized for being too individualistic and of too critical a temperament, lacking the benefit of thorough theological discussions with other men of similar gifts. One young pastor, Rev. Robert Harbach who corresponded with Pink for years remembered a very different Pink, who possessed a "pastor's heart." Pink's correspondence with Harbach (until Pink's failing health ended their correspondence in 1949) was warm, heartfelt and fatherly. Early in their correspondence, Pink wrote "I want you to feel perfectly free to call on me for any help I may be able to render you. I am in touch with a number of young pastors, and I deem it part of my work, and a privilege, to offer what advice I can."
Pink's acclaimed contemporary D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones received spiritual benefit from reading Pink and recommended him to others. To one young minister, he said, "Don't waste your time reading Barth and Brunner. You will get nothing from them to aid you with preaching. Read Pink." But Lloyd-Jones also said, "If I had behaved as Pink did, I would have achieved nothing. Nothing at all... I had to be very patient and take a very long-term look at things. Otherwise I would have been dismissed and whole thing would have been finished." Furthermore, without the assistance and companionship of his wife, who dedicated herself completely to him and his work, Pink would have (as he freely admitted) "been overwhelmed" and probably would have achieved little even in writing.
Theologically Pink was rejected during his lifetime because of his opposition to Arminianism; but after his death, there was a major shift of evangelical opinion towards Calvinistic theology. By 1982, Baker Book House had published 22 of Pink's books and sold 350,000 total copies. Nevertheless, it was Pink's Sovereignty of God that did "more than any other in redirecting the thinking of a younger generation." After Banner of Truth Trust republished it in 1961—modifying it to remove Pink's alleged hyper-Calvinism—the book sold 177,000 copies by 2004.
Bibliography
References
External links
Studies in the Scriptures
Pink's works in HTML All or nearly all of A. W. Pink's works in HTML
Pink's Archive – most of Pink's writings made available to the public
The Forgotten Pink – Critical review of Banner of Truth's revision of Pink's "Sovereignty of God."
1886 births
1952 deaths
British biblical scholars
English evangelicals
English Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Moody Bible Institute alumni
People from Nottingham
Bible commentators | [
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] |
243736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocchinia%20reducta | Brocchinia reducta | Brocchinia reducta is one of a few carnivorous bromeliads. It is native to southern Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, and Guyana, and is found in nutrient-poor soil. B. reducta adapts to different environments, when growing on rocks it uses its roots as anchors.
Structure
Brocchinia reducta, like many other bromeliads, forms a water-storing cup with its tightly overlapping leaves. The leaves surrounding the cup of B. reducta are coated with loose, waxy scales. These scales are highly reflective of ultraviolet light. Since many insects are attracted to ultraviolet (it is also reflected by many flowers), this is an efficient lure. The water in the cup also emits a sweet odor, which may serve to attract ants and other insects. B. reducta absorbs its nutrients from the outer cell wall, which is covered in trichomes that can transport molecules as small as 6.6 nm.
The loose scales provide a poor foothold for landing insects, causing them to slip into the water-filled cup and eventually drown.
References
Further reading
reducta
Carnivorous plants of South America
Flora of South America
Plants described in 1882
Taxa named by John Gilbert Baker | [
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243737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan | Himalayan | Himalayan may refer to:
Himalayas mountain range
Transhimalayas, a subrange (some species found there are referred to as "Himalayan" not "Transhimalayan")
Himalayan cat, the breed of domesticated cat
Himalayan guinea pig, a coloration pattern in the domesticated guinea pig (cavy)
Himalayan rabbit, the breed of rabbit
The Himalayans, a band
Himalayan (album), an album by the band Band of Skulls | [
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243744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20chess | Grand chess | Grand chess is a large-board chess variant invented by Dutch games designer Christian Freeling in 1984. It is played on a 10×10 board, with each side having two additional pawns and two new pieces: the marshal and the cardinal.
The marshal (M) combines powers of a rook and a knight.
The cardinal (C) combines powers of a bishop and a knight.
Grand chess uses the same pieces as the earlier variant Capablanca chess, but differs in board size, start position, rules governing pawn moves and promotion, and castling.
A series of Grand Chess Cyber World Championship matches was sponsored by the Dutch game site Mindsports. Grand chess tournaments were held annually beginning in 1998 by the (now defunct) correspondence game club NOST.
Rules
The pieces are placed on the players' first and second ranks, respectively, with the rooks alone on the players' first ranks. The pawns are placed on the players' third ranks. Since the rooks are not blocked as much by the other pieces as in standard chess, it is easier for them to activate earlier in the game.
A pawn that reaches a player's eighth or ninth ranks can elect to either promote or remain a pawn, but it must promote upon reaching the tenth rank. Unlike standard chess, a pawn may be promoted only to a captured piece of the same colour. (So, it is impossible for either side to own two queens, or two marshals, or three rooks, etc.) If, and for as long as, no captured piece is available to promote to, a pawn on a player's ninth rank must stay on the ninth rank, but it can still give check.
As in standard chess: pawns can move one or two squares on their first move; pawns can capture en passant; checkmate is a win; stalemate is a draw. There is no castling in grand chess.
Play examples
Vehre vs. Schmittberger, 2001
Played between John Vehre and R. Wayne Schmittberger at the 2001 Grand Chess Cyber Championship Final:
1.f5 f6 2.Nh4 Nh7 3.g4 g7 4.Nc4 Nc7 5.d4 d7 6.e5 Bd8 7.Rje1 Kd10 8.Kf1 fxe5 9.Ncxe5 Kc9 10.Re2? Kb9 11.Kg1 Rjf10 12.Bd3 e6 13.Rf1 Mh10?! 14.Nc4 Ci10 15.Nd6 exf5 16.Bxf5 Bd5 17.Ci1 Bxh4 18.ixh4 g6 19.Rfe1 gxf5 20.Nxf5! Qd8 21.Bxc7 Qxc7 22.Re9+ Kc10 23.Cxc7 bxc7 24.Qf4 d6 25.Qe3 Mg8 26.Me2 Nf6 27.Qe7 Nd7 28.Qe8+ Mxe8 29.Mxe8 [Annotations by Vehre]
Fool's mate
1.Cf4 Qd10 2.Ce6 Qf10 3.Cxc8
Composition
See also
Embassy Chess
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
2001 Cyber World Championship game annotated by John Vehre
Grand Chess: The Yerevan Games by Malcolm Horne
Christian Freeling's Grand Chess by Hans Bodlaender, The Chess Variant Pages
Grand Chess a simple program by Ed Friedlander (Java)
Chess variants
Capablanca Chess variants
1984 in chess
Board games introduced in 1984 | [
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243749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiracial%20people | Multiracial people | Multiracial people are people of more than one race or ethnicity. A variety of terms have been used for multi-racial people, including mixed-race, biracial, multiethnic, polyethnic, occasionally bi-ethnic, Métis, Creole, Muwallad, mulatto, Colored, Dougla, half-caste, mestizo, Melungeon, quadroon, octoroon, sambo/zambo, Eurasian, hapa, hāfu, Garifuna, pardo and Guran.
Individuals of multiracial backgrounds make up a significant portion of the population in many parts of the world. In North America, studies have found that the multiracial population is continuing to grow. In many countries of Latin America, mestizos make up the majority of the population. In the Caribbean, multiracial people officially make up the majority of the population in both the Dominican Republic (73%), Aruba (68%), and Cuba (51%).
Definitions
While defining race is controversial, race remains a commonly used term for classification, often related to visible physical characteristics or known community. In so far as race is defined differently in different cultures, perceptions of multiraciality are subjective.
According to U.S. sociologist Troy Duster and ethicist Pilar Ossorio:
In the United States:
Related terms
In the English-speaking world, many terms for multiracial people exist, some of which are pejorative or are no longer used. Mulato, zambo and mestizo are used in Spanish, mulato, caboclo, cafuzo, ainoko (from Japanese) and mestiço in Portuguese, and mulâtre and métis in French. These terms are also in certain contexts used in the English-speaking world. In Canada, the Métis are a recognized ethnic group of mixed European and First Nation descent, who have status in the law similar to that of First Nations.
Terms such as mulatto for people of partially African descent and mestizo for people of partially Native American descent are still used by English-speaking people of the Western Hemisphere but mostly to refer to the past or to the demography of Latin America and its diasporic population. Half-breed is a historic term that referred to people of partial Native American ancestry; it is now considered pejorative and discouraged from use. Mestee, once widely used, is now used mostly for members of historically mixed-race groups, such as Louisiana Creoles, Melungeons, Redbones, Brass Ankles and Mayles.
In South Africa and much of English-speaking southern Africa, the term Coloured was used to describe both mixed-race persons of African and European descent, and those Asians not of African descent. While the term is socially accepted, it is becoming outdated because of its association with the apartheid era.
In Latin America, populations became triracial after the introduction of African slavery. A panoply of terms developed during the Spanish and Portuguese colonial periods, including terms such as zambo for persons of Amerindian and African descent. Charts and diagrams intended to explain the classifications were common. The well-known Casta paintings in Mexico and, to some extent, Peru, were illustrations of the different classifications.
At one time, Latin American census categories have used such classifications. In Brazilian censuses since the Imperial times, for example, most persons of multiracial heritage, except Asian Brazilians with some European descent (or any other to the extent it is not clearly perceptible) and vice versa, tend to be thrown into the single category of "pardo". But racial boundaries in Brazil are related less to ancestry than to phenotype. A westernized Amerindian with copper-colored skin may also be classified as a "pardo", a caboclo in this case, despite not being multiracial. A European-looking person, even with one or more African or Indigenous ancestors, is not classified as "pardo" but as "branco", a white Brazilian. The same applies to "negros", Afro-Brazilians whose European or Amerindian ancestors are not visible in their appearance. According to genetic research, most Brazilians of all racial groups (except Asian-Brazilians and natives) are, to some extent, mixed-race.
In English, the terms miscegenation and amalgamation were used for unions between whites, blacks, and other ethnic groups. Those terms are now often considered offensive and are becoming obsolete. The terms mixed-race, biracial or multiracial are becoming generally accepted. In other languages, terms for miscegenation are not necessarily considered offensive.
Regions with significant multiracial populations
Africa
In East Africa, specifically Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania (including portions of the East African Community), people of mixed raced are called Half-castes (in English) or chotara (singular, in Swahili), wachotara (plural in Swahili).
North Africa
In North Africa, numerous multiracial communities can be found, reflecting a history of both extensive Mediterranean trade around the region and later colonization and migration by African groups. Among these are the Haratin, oasis-dwellers of Saharan southern Morocco, Algeria, and Mauritania. They are believed to be an ethnicity composed of Sub-Saharan Africans and Berber ancestry. They constitute a socially and ethnically distinct group.
For centuries Arab slave traders sold sub-Saharan Africans as slaves in cumulatively large numbers throughout the Persian Gulf, Anatolia, Central Asia and the Arab world. Communities descended from these slaves and local peoples can be found throughout these regions. Barbary pirates were known to attack European and British ships and take Europeans into slavery as well. So many were taken, that the memoirs of survivors are considered a literary genre known as captivity narratives. When English and other European colonists were taken captive by Native Americans, they had models for recounting their trials.
According to a recent genetic study in 2019, North African populations are composed of admixture of extensive gene flow from four different geographical regions (North Africa (Iberomaurusian), Europe, West Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa) and temporal sources (Palaeolithic migrations, Neolithization, Arabization, and recent migrations).
Madagascar
Almost the entire population of Madagascar is an about equal admixture of South East Asian (Indonesian), primarily from Borneo, and Bantu-speaking settlers primarily from the mainland at Mozambique. Years of intermarriages created the Malagasy people, who primarily speak Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu influences.
South Africa
In South Africa, the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 prohibited marriage between Whites (people of European descent) and non-Whites (being classified as Black, Asian and Coloured). But this followed centuries of interaction and unions resulting in multiracial children, especially among whites, Africans (black), and coloured. This law was repealed in 1985.
Multiracial South Africans are commonly referred to as Coloureds. According to the 2016 South African Census, they are the second-largest ethnic group (8.8%), behind Black Africans, or Bantu peoples, who constitute (80.8%) of the current population. White South Africans make up 8.1%.
Asia
Central Asia
Today, many Central Asian populations are an amalgamation of various peoples such as Mongols, Turkics, and Iranians. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia in 13th century resulted in the massacre of the population of Iranians and other Indo-European peoples, as well as a large degree of unions and assimilation. Genetic studies shows that Central Asian Turkic people and Hazara are a mixture of Northeast Asians and Indo-European people. Caucasian ancestry is prevalent in almost all central Asian Turkic people. Kazakhs, Hazara, Karakalpaks, Crimean Tatars have more European MtDNA than European Y-DNA. Kyrgyz have mostly European Y-DNA, with substantial European MtDNA. Other Turkic people, such as Uyghurs and Uzbeks, have mostly European Y-DNA but also a significantly higher percentage of European MtDNA. Turkmen have predominantly European DNA in both paternal and maternal lines.
India
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a radical thinker and educator, was of Indian and European background.
Prior to colonization, the peoples of India had a long history of trade and other interaction with other peoples. More recently a Eurasian mix developed during the Colonial period, beginning with the French, Dutch, Portuguese and other European traders and merchants, including British. Such interaction continued during the British Rule in India, although it lessened as British families settled in the country. The estimated population of Anglo-Indians, the term for these Eurasians, is 600,000 worldwide, with the majority living in India and the UK.
Article 366(2) of the Indian Constitution defines Anglo-Indian as: (2) an Anglo-Indian means a person whose father or any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein and not established there for temporary purposes only;
Goans are an assimilation of Indo-Aryan, Eurasian, and Luso-Asian ancestries. Many have Portuguese ancestors, as they had considerable influence in Goa for over 450 years. Many Goans have traced family trees to find Portuguese ancestors from hundreds of years ago. Some Goans today identify as Portuguese-Goan as they have much Portuguese ancestry and Portuguese surnames.
Myanmar (Burma)
Myanmar (formerly Burma) was a British colony from 1826 until 1948. Other European nationals were active in the country before the British arrived. Intermarriage and relationships took place among such settlers and merchants with the local Burmese population, and subsequently between British colonists and the Burmese. The local Eurasian population is known as the Anglo-Burmese. This group dominated colonial society and through the early years of independence. After Burma gained independence in 1948, many Anglo-Burmese left the country; the diaspora resides primarily in Australia, New Zealand and the UK. An estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese live in Burma.
Philippines
The Philippines was a Spanish colony for almost four centuries, or 333 years. The United States took it over after the Spanish-American War, ruling for 46 years. Many Filipinos are of mixed Spanish Filipino and Philippine-American descent.
After the defeat of Spain during the Spanish–American War in 1898, the Philippines and other remaining Spanish colonies were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. The Philippines was under U.S. sovereignty until 1946, though occupied by Japan during World War II. In 1946, in the Treaty of Manila, the U.S. recognized the Republic of the Philippines as an independent nation. Even after 1946, the U.S. maintained a strong military presence in the Philippines, with as many as 21 U.S. military bases and 100,000 U.S. military personnel stationed there as defense in Asia and during the Vietnam War.
After the bases closed in 1992, American troops left, often abandoning partners and their Amerasian children. The Pearl S. Buck International foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians in the Philippines, with 5,000 in the Clark area of Angeles City. An academic research paper presented in 2012 in the U.S. by an Angeles, Pampanga, Philippines Amerasian college research study unit suggests that the number could be much higher.
In the United States, intermarriage between Filipinos and other ethnicities is common. They have the highest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California. Some 21.8% of Philippine-Americans are of mixed ancestry.
Singapore and Malaysia
According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million. Multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%.
In Singapore and Malaysia, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian". The Malaysian government classifies them only by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages usually involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it uncommon for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist. But Muslims and Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia often take local Malay wives, because of their common Islamic faith.
The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are Tamils with considerable Malay ancestry. The early Tamil settlers took local wives, as they had not brought their own women at that time.
In the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, intermarriage has been common between Chinese and native tribespeople, such as the Murut and Dusun in Sabah, and the Iban and Bisaya in Sarawak. A mixture of cultures has resulted in both states. The offspring of these marriages are called "Sino-(name of tribe)", e.g. Sino-Dusun. Normally, children are strongly affected by the father's ethnicity and culture, being raised in his culture. These Sino-natives usually become fluent in both Malay and English. A smaller number are able to speak Chinese dialects and Mandarin, especially those who have received education in vernacular Chinese schools.
Sri Lanka
Due to its strategic location in the Indian Ocean, the island of Sri Lanka has been a confluence for settlers from various parts of the world. There are several mixed-race ethnicities in the Island. The most notable mixed-race group are the Sri Lankan Moors, who trace their ancestry to Arab traders who settled on the island and intermarried with local women. Today, the Sri Lankan Moors live primarily in urban communities. They preserve Arab-Islamic cultural heritage while adopting many Southern Asian customs.
The Burghers are a Eurasian ethnic group. They are descendants through paternal lines of European colonists from the 16th to 20th centuries (mostly Portuguese, Dutch, German and British) and with maternal ancestry among local women. Other European minorities in such admixtures include Swedish, Norwegian, French and Irish.
The Sri Lanka Kaffirs are an ethnic group partially descended from 16th-century Portuguese traders and their enslaved Africans. The Kaffirs spoke a distinctive creole based on Portuguese, the Sri Lanka Kaffir language, which is now extinct. Their cultural heritage includes the dance styles Kaffringna and Manja, as well as the Portuguese Sinhalese, Creole, Afro-Sinhalese varieties.
Taiwan
During the 1662 Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and child prisoners. The Dutch missionary Antonius Hambroek, two of his daughters, and his wife were among the Dutch prisoners of war with Koxinga. Koxinga sent Hambroek to Fort Zeelandia demanding Hambroek persuade them to surrender or else he would be killed when he returned. Hambroek returned to the Fort where two of his other daughters were. He urged the Fort not to surrender, and returned to Koxinga's camp. He was then executed by decapitation. In addition to this, a rumor was spreading among the Chinese that the Dutch were encouraging native Taiwan aboriginals to kill the Chinese, so Koxinga ordered the mass execution of Dutch male prisoners in retaliation, in addition to a few women and children also being killed. The surviving Dutch women and children were then turned into slaves. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine, and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives. The daily journal of the Dutch fort recorded that "the best were preserved for the use of the commanders, and then sold to the common soldiers. Happy was she that fell to the lot of an unmarried man, being thereby freed from vexations by the Chinese women, who are very jealous of their husbands." In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.
Some Dutch physical traits like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders. The Chinese took Dutch women as slave concubines and wives who were never freed: in 1684 some were reported to be living. In Quemoy a Dutch merchant was contacted with an arrangement to release the prisoners, proposed by a son of Koxinga's, but it came to nothing. The Chinese officers used the Dutch women they received as concubines. The Dutch women were used for sexual pleasure by Koxinga's commanders. This event of Dutch women being distributed to the Chinese soldiers and commanders was recorded in the daily journal of the fort.
A teenage daughter of the Dutch missionary Anthonius Hambroek became a concubine to Koxinga. She was described by the Dutch commander Caeuw as "a very sweet and pleasing maiden".
Dutch language accounts record this incident of Chinese taking Dutch women as concubines and the date of Hambroek's daughter.
Vietnam
Under terms of the Geneva Accords of 1954, departing French troops took thousands of Vietnamese wives and children with them after the First Indochina War. Some Eurasians stayed in Vietnam, after independence from French rule.
China
West Asia
Ottoman slave traders sold slaves in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries throughout the Persian Gulf, Anatolia, Central Asia and the Arab world and communities descended from these slaves can be found throughout these regions.
Europe
United Kingdom
In 1991 an analysis of the census showed that 50% of Black/Mixed Caribbean men born in the UK have white partners, and the 2011 BBC documentary Mixed Britannia noted that 1 in 10 British children are growing up in interracial households.
In 2000, The Sunday Times reported that "Britain has the highest rate of interracial relationships in the world" and certainly the UK has the highest rate in the European Union. The 2001 census showed the population of England to be 1.4% mixed-race, compared with 2.7% in Canada and 1.4% in the U.S. (estimate from 2002), although this U.S. figure did not include mixed-race people who had a black parent. Both the US and UK have fewer people identifying as mixed race, however, than Canada.
In the United Kingdom, many multiracial people have Caribbean, African or Asian heritage. For example, supermodel Naomi Campbell, who has Jamaican, African and Asian roots. Some, like 2008 Formula One World Champion, Lewis Hamilton, are referred to or describe themselves as 'mixed'.
The 2001 UK Census included a section entitled 'Mixed' to which 1.4% (1.6% by 2005 estimates) of people responded, which was split further into White and Black Caribbean, White and Asian, White and Black African and Other Mixed. In the 2011 census, 2.2% chose 'Mixed' for the question on ethnicity.
North America
Canada
Multiracial Canadians in 2006 officially totaled 1.5% of the population, up from 1.2% in 2001. The official mixed race population grew by 25% since the previous census. Of these, the most frequent combinations were multiple visible minorities (for example, people of mixed black and South Asian heritage form the majority, specifically in Toronto), followed closely by white-black, white-Chinese, white-Arab and many other smaller mixes.
During the time of slavery in the United States, a very large but unknown number of African American slaves escaped to Canada, where slavery was made illegal in 1834, via the Underground Railroad. Many of these people married in with European Canadian and Native Canadian populations, although their precise numbers and the numbers of their descendants, are not known.
Another 1.2% of Canadians officially are Métis (descendants of a historical population who were partially Aboriginal—also called "Indian" or "Native"—and European, particularly English, Scottish, Irish and French ethnic groups). Although the term "Métis" stems from the Latin verb , "to mix", the Métis people are a distinct ethnic group within Canada.
United States
In the United States, the 2000 census was the first in the history of the country to offer respondents the option of identifying themselves as belonging to more than one race. This multiracial option was considered a necessary adaptation to the demographic and cultural changes that the United States has been experiencing.
Multiracial Americans officially numbered 6.1 million in 2006, or 2.0% of the population. There is considerable evidence that an accurate number would be much higher. Prior to the mid-20th century, many people hid their multiracial heritage. The development of binary thinking about race meant that African Americans, a high proportion of whom have also had European ancestry, were classified as black. Some are now reclaiming additional ancestries. Many Americans today are multi-racial without knowing it. According to the Census Bureau, as of 2002, over 75% of all African Americans had multiracial ancestries usually Native American.
In 2010, the number of Americans who checked both "black" and "white" on their census forms was 134 percent higher than it had been a decade earlier. In 2012, those choosing 'Two or more races' on the census was 2.4% of the total.
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner, by some calculations in the 2000 Census, the multiracial population that is part white is as follows:
White/Native American and Alaskan Native: 7,015,017
White/African American: 737,492
White/Asian: 727,197 and
White/Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander: 125,628.
The stigma of a mixed race heritage, associated with racial discrimination among numerous racial groups, has decreased significantly in the United States. People of mixed-race heritage can identify themselves now in the U.S. Census by any combination of races, whereas before Americans were required to select from only one category. For example, in 2010, they were offered choices of one or more racial categories from the following list:
White
Black, African Am. or Negro
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian Indian
Chinese
Filipino
Japanese
Korean
Vietnamese
Native Hawaiian
Guamanian or Chamorro
Samoan
Other Asian [specify]
Other Pacific Islander [specify]
Some Other Race [specify]
Many mixed raced Americans use the term biracial. The US has a growing multiracial identity movement, reflective of a desire by people to claim their full identities. Interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks, was historically deemed immoral and illegal in most states in the 18th, 19th and first half of the 20th century because of its long association of blacks with the slave caste. California and the Western United States had similar laws to prohibit European-Asian marriages, which was associated with discrimination against Chinese and Japanese on the West Coast. Many states eventually repealed such laws and a 1967 decision by the US Supreme Court (Loving v. Virginia) overturned all remaining US anti-miscegenation laws.
The United States is one of the most racially diverse countries in the world. Americans are mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities culturally distinct in their former countries. Assimilation and integration took place, unevenly at different periods of history, depending on the American region. The "Americanization" of foreign ethnic groups and the inter-racial diversity of millions of Americans has been a fundamental part of its history, especially on frontiers where different groups of people came together.
On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama was sworn in as America's first multiracial president, as he is the son of a European American mother and a Luo father from Kenya. He acknowledges both parents. His official White House biography describes him as African American. In Hawai'i, the U.S. state in which he was born, he would be called "hapa", which is the Hawaiian word for "mixed ethnic heritage".
Oceania
Fiji
Fiji has long been a multi-ethnic country, with a vast majority of people having multi-racial heritages even if they do not self-identify in that manner. The indigenous Fijians are of mixed Melanesian and Polynesian ancestry, resulting from years of migration of islanders from various places mixing with each other. Fiji Islanders from the Lau group have intermarried with Tongans and other Polynesians over the years. The overwhelming majority of the rest of the indigenous Fijians, though, can be genetically traced to having mixed Polynesian/Melanesian ancestry.
The Indo-Fijian population is also a hodge-podge of South Asian immigrants (called Girmits in Fiji), who came as indentured labourers beginning in 1879. While a few of these labourers managed to bring wives, many of them either took or were given wives once they arrived in Fiji. The Girmits, who are classified as simply "Indians" to this day, came from many parts of the Indian subcontinent of present-day India, Pakistan and to a lesser degree Bangladesh and Myanmar. It is easy to recognize the Indian mixtures present in Fiji and see obvious traces of Southern and Northern Indians and other groups who have been categorised together. To some degree, even more of this phenomenon would have likely happened if the religious groups represented (primarily Hindu, Muslim and Sikh) had not resisted to some degree marriage between religious groups, which tended to be from more similar parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Over the years, particularly in the sugar cane-growing regions of Western Viti Levu and parts of Vanua Levu, Indo-Fijians and Indigenous Fijians have mixed. Others have Chinese/Fijian ancestry, Indo-Fijian/Samoan or Rotuman ancestry and European/Fijian ancestry (often called "part Fijians"). The latter are often descendants of shipwrecked sailors and settlers who came during the colonial period. Migration from a dozen or more different Pacific countries (Tuvalu, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Samoa and Wallis and Futuna being the most prevalent) have added to the various ethnicities and intermarriages.
Latin America and the Caribbean
Mestizo is the common word used to describe multiracial people in Latin America, especially people with Native American and Spanish or other European ancestry. Mestizos make up a large portion of Latin Americans, comprising a majority in many countries.
In Latin America, racial mixture was officially acknowledged from colonial times. There was official nomenclature for every conceivable mixture present in the various countries. Initially, this classification was used as a type of caste system, where rights and privileges were accorded depending on one's official racial classification. Official caste distinctions were abolished in many countries of the Spanish-speaking Americas as they became independent of Spain. Several terms have remained in common usage.
Race and racial mixture have played a significant role in the politics of many Latin American countries. In most countries, for example Mexico, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and Panama, a majority of the population can be described as biracial or multiracial (depending on the country). In Mexico, over 80% of the population is mestizo in some degree or another.
The Mexican philosopher and educator José Vasconcelos authored an essay on the subject, La Raza Cósmica, celebrating racial mixture. Venezuelan ex-president Hugo Chávez, himself of Spanish, indigenous and African ancestry, made positive references to the mixed race ancestry of most Latin Americans from time to time.
Colonialism throughout the West Indies has created diverse populations on many islands, including people of multiracial identities. Of note is the mixture of West African communities, most brought to the region as slaves and East Indian settlers most of whom came as indentured labor after the abolition of slavery. Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname claim the highest populations of such mixtures, known locally as douglas. In addition to such mixtures, many inhabitants of the West Indies can also have any combination of Amerindian, Latino, European, Chinese, Arab and Jewish heritage.
Brazil
According to the 2010 official census, 43.13% of Brazilians identified themselves as pardo skin color. That option is normally marked by people that consider themselves multiracial (mestiço). The Mixed Race Day or Mestizo Day (Dia do Mestiço), on 27 June, is official event in States of Amazonas, Roraima e Paraíba and a holyday in two cities. The term pardo is formally used in the official census but is not used by the population. In Brazilian society, most people who are multiracial call themselves moreno: light-moreno or dark-moreno. Those terms are not considered offensive and focus more on skin color than on ethnicity (it is considered more like other human characteristics such as being short or tall).
The most common multiracial groups are between European and African (mulatto) and Amerindian and European (caboclo or mameluco). But there are also African and Amerindian (cafuzo) and East Asian (mostly Japanese) and European/other (ainoko or more recently, hāfu). All groups are more or less found throughout the whole country. Brazilian multiracials with the following three origins, Amerindian, European and African, make up the majority. It is said today that 89% or even more of the "Pardo" population in Brazil has at least one Amerindian ancestor (most of brancos or White Brazilian population have some Amerindian or African ancestry too despite nearly half of the country's population self-labeling as "Caucasian" in the censuses. In Brazil, it is very common for multiracial people to claim that they have no Amerindian ancestry, but studies have found that if a Brazilian multiracial can trace their ancestry back to nearly eight to nine generations, they will have at least one Amerindian ancestor from their maternal side of the family.
Since multiracial relations in Brazilian society have occurred for many generations, some people find it difficult to trace their own ethnic ancestry. Today a majority of mixed-race Brazilians do not really know their ethnic ancestry. Their unique features make them Brazilian-looking in skin color, lips and nose shape or hair texture, but they are aware only that their ancestors were probably Portuguese, African or Amerindian. Also, there was a very large number of other Europeans (counted in the millions) who contributed to the Brazilian racial make up, Japanese (the largest Japanese population outside Japan), Italian (the largest Italian population outside Italy) Lebanese (the largest population of Lebanese outside Lebanon), Germans, Poles and Russians. There is also a high percentage of Brazilians of Jewish descent, perhaps hundreds of thousands, mostly found in the northeast of the country who cannot be sure of their ancestry as they descend from the so-called "Crypto-Jews" (Jews who practiced Judaism in secret but outwardly pretended to be Catholics), also called Marranos or New Christians, often considered Portuguese. According to some sources, one third of families arrived from Portugal during colonization were of Jewish origin.
There is a high level of integration between all groups but also a great social and economic difference between European descendants (more common in upper and middle classes) and African, Amerindian and multiracial descendants (more common tin lower classes), which is called Brazilian apartheid.
See also
Amalgamation (history)
Interracial marriage
Half-caste
Melting pot
Miscegenation
Mixed Race Day
Race (human classification)
Race and genetics
Multiethnic society
One-drop rule
Origins of Tutsi and Hutu
Passing (racial identity)
Plaçage
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact hypotheses
Race and society
Race traitor
William Loren Katz
Guran
Notes
References
External links
The Multiracial Activist, an online activist publication registered with the Library of Congress, focused on multiracial individuals and interracial families since 1997
ProjectRACE, an organization leading the movement for a multiracial classification
Advocacy groups
Association of MultiEthnic Americans, Inc., US
Blended People of America, US-based nonprofit organization representing the interests of the mixed-race community
Brazilian Multiracial Movement, Brazilian mixed-race organization
The Hafu Project, a study of half-Japanese people, London-, Munich-, Tokyo-based nonprofit organisation
MAVIN Foundation, an organization advocating for mixed-heritage people and families
Mixed Race UK , UK-based nonprofit organization representing the interests of the mixed-race community
Mosaic UK, a UK-based organisation for mixed-race families
People in Harmony UK
Swirl, US-based mixed community
Multiracial affairs
Race (human categorization) | [
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243750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20Iraq%20War | Timeline of the Iraq War | The following is a timeline of major events during the Iraq War, following the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
2003
March
March 19: The United States begins the invasion of Iraq; coordinating a satellite-guided Tomahawk cruise missile strike on Baghdad. American, British, Australian, Polish, and Danish military operations begin; ground troops move into Iraq.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/lcwa/html/iraq/iraq-overview.html | title =Iraq War, 2003 Web Archive | author =United States Library of Congress | publisher =loc.gov | date =August 5, 2011}}</ref>
April
April 10: Fall of Baghdad: Coalition forces moved into Baghdad, symbolically ending the twenty-four year reign of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
May
May 1: U.S. President George W. Bush declares major combat operations in Iraq over.
May 15 - U.S. forces launch Operation Planet X, capturing roughly 260 people.
May 23 - L. Paul Bremer issues Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number 2, dissolving the Iraqi Army and other entities of the former Ba'athist state.
June
June 15: The U.S. military begins Operation Desert Scorpion, a series of raids across Iraq intended to find Iraqi resistance and heavy weapons.
June 24 - Six soldiers from the British Royal Military Police are killed by a mob in Majar al-Kabir in Southern Iraq.
July
July 2: U.S. President George W. Bush challenges those attacking U.S. troops to "bring 'em on!".
July 13: The Iraqi Governing Council is established under the authority of the Coalition Provisional Authority.
July 22: Uday and Qusay Hussein, Saddam Hussein's sons, are killed in Mosul during a raid by Task Force 20.
August
August 7: Bus bombing of the Jordanian embassy, the first VBIED bombing of the occupation.
August 19: Canal Hotel bombing: Truck bomb at the United Nations headquarters kills the top UN envoy, Sergio Vieira de Mello, and 21 others.
August 29: Influential Shiite cleric Ayatollah Mohammed Baqr al-Hakim is killed in a car bombing as he leaves his mosque after Friday prayers. At least 84 others are killed.
September
September 3: First post-Saddam government.
September 23: Gallup poll shows majority of Iraqis expect better life in 5 years. Around two-thirds of Baghdad residents state the Iraqi dictator's removal was worth the hardships they've been forced to endure.
October
October 2: David Kay's Iraq Survey Group report finds little evidence of WMD in Iraq, although the regime did intend to develop more weapons with additional capabilities. Such plans and programs appear to have been dormant, the existence of these though were concealed from UNSCOM during the inspections that began in 2002. Weapons inspectors in Iraq did find a clandestine "network of biological laboratories''" and a deadly strain of botulinum. The US-sponsored search for WMD has so far cost $300 million and is projected to cost around $600 million more.
October 16: UN Security Council issues Resolution 1511 which envisions a multinational force and preserves Washington's quasi-absolute control of Iraq.
October 27: 27 October 2003 Baghdad bombings, beginning of the Ramadan Offensive.
November
November 2: In the heaviest single loss for the coalition troops up to that time, two US Chinook helicopters are fired on by two surface-to-air missiles and one crashes near Fallujah and on its way to Baghdad airport; 16 soldiers are killed and 20 wounded.
November 12: A suicide truck bomb blows up the Italian headquarters in Nasiriyah, killing 19 Italians (17 of them soldiers) and 14 Iraqis.
November 15: The Governing Council unveils an accelerated timetable for transferring the country to Iraqi control.
November 22: 2003 Baghdad DHL attempted shoot down incident: An Airbus A-300 freighter belonging to German courier firm DHL is forced to make an emergency landing with a wing fire and all three hydraulics lost. Using different engine power to land the aircraft, after being struck by a portable shoulder-fired SA-14 missile.
November 27: U.S. President George W. Bush makes a stealthy Thanksgiving Day visit to Baghdad (the White House having announced that he would be at home with his family) in an attempt to boost morale among the troops and ordinary Iraqis. Bush is accompanied by National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, and he is flown in to Baghdad International Airport aboard Air Force One.
November 30: The US military reports killing 46 militants and wounding 18 in clashes in the central =
December
December 13: Saddam Hussein is captured in Operation Red Dawn; it was announced the next day.
December 17: The U.S. 4th Infantry Division launches Operation Ivy Blizzard, lasting from dawn until mid-morning. The operation resulted in the arrest of 12 insurgents.
December 27: 2003 Karbala bombings.
2004
January
January 26: Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support groupe: Japanese troops begin participation in most risky military expedition since World War II.
January 28: David Kay testifies before the Senate Armed Services Committee expressing doubt about the presence of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction.
February
February 1: Two suicide bombers strike Kurdish political offices in the northern city of Erbil, killing 117 and injuring 133.
February 21: U.S. permits Red Cross to visit Saddam Hussein for first time since his capture in December.
March
March 2: Multiple bombings in Baghdad and Karbala at the climax of the Shi'a festival of Aashurah kill nearly 200, the deadliest attacks up to that time.
March 8: Provisional Iraqi Constitution signed.
March 31: 31 March 2004 Fallujah ambush: Four Blackwater contractors ambushed and killed in Fallujah, causing a First Battle of Fallujah.
April
April 4: Beginning of violent clashes between the coalition and followers of Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr, which will end at the end of August 2004.
April 8: Beginning of the kidnapping of foreign civilians in Iraq, with the abduction of several Japanese.
April 18: Spain, led by newly elected José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (Socialist Party) vows to withdraw its troops.
April 18: Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse; Beginning of the diffusion of images of humiliated Iraqi detainees by US soldiers in Abu Ghraib.
April 26: The Iraq Interim Governing Council announce a new flag for post-Saddam Iraq. This creates much controversy, in part because of the similarity of color and design with the flag of Israel, and difference with other Arab nation flags. The flag is not adopted.
May
May 17: Ezzedine Salim, head of the Iraqi Governing Council, killed in a suicide attack.
May 19: Mukaradeeb killings; US bombs a wedding party, killing 42 people.
June
June 1: Assuming of functions of the Iraqi Interim Government led by Prime minister Iyad Allawi; Ghazi al-Yawer is designed head of the Iraqi state.
June 8: UN Security Council Resolution 1546 on the transfer of sovereignty from the Coalition Provisional Authority to the Iraqi Interim Government.
June 21: 2004 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel
June 28: At 10:26 AM, the US-led Coalition Provisional Authority formally transferred sovereignty of Iraqi territory to the Iraqi interim government, two days ahead of schedule. L. Paul Bremer departed the country two hours later.
June 30: Saddam Hussein and eleven high ex-governmental figures are put under the Iraqi Interim Government's authority.
July
July 1: Trial of Saddam Hussein: Saddam Hussein appears at his first hearing.
July 20: Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, president of the Philippines, confirms that hostage Angelo de la Cruz has been freed by his captors after their demands for a one-month-early withdrawal of all 51 Filipino troops from Iraq were met.
August
August 5–27: Forces loyal to Muqtada al-Sadr resist government authority in Najaf; the fighting is ended with Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani's help.
September
September 14: The Haifa Street helicopter incident kills 13 Iraqis and is televised around the world.
September 30: A car strikes an American officer handing out candy to children, killing up to 35 children.
October
October 1: Battle of Samarra (2004)
17 October: Al-Zarqawi pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda network
Late October: The Al Qa'qaa high explosives controversy comes to light.
November
November 7: Second Battle of Fallujah begins.
November 8: Insurgents regroup and begin the Battle of Mosul.
December
December 21: 2004 Forward Operating Base Marez bombing kills 22, including 18 Americans.
2005
January
January 26: 31 US soldiers die in a helicopter crash, deadliest day of the entire postwar period for the US military.
January 30: Iraqi legislative election. The Shia United Iraqi Alliance obtained a majority, followed by the Kurdish Alliance; Sunnis largely boycotted.
February
February 28: 2005 Al Hillah bombing: In the deadliest single blast up to that time, a car bomb kills 127 in Hillah; the identity of the bomber as a Jordanian caused a diplomatic row between Iraq and Jordan.
March
March 4: Rescue of Giuliana Sgrena: Liberation of Italian journalist Giuliana Sgrena, during which secret Italian agent Nicola Calipari is killed by US fire. Berlusconi's government announces a partial retreat of Italian troops from the coalition.
March 16 First meeting of the transitional National Assembly.
March 31: The Iraqi Intelligence Commission concludes in its final report that prewar intelligence regarding WMD's was false.
April
April 2: Battle of Abu Ghraib
April 6: Election of Kurdish Jalal Talabani as President of Iraq.
April 7: Ibrahim al-Jaafari is nominated as Prime minister of Iraq.
April 28: The Parliament votes its trust towards the new government.
May
May 8: Battle of Al Qaim, US aiming to stop the flow of foreign fighters into Iraq.
May 15 Formation of the parliamentary commission charged of the draft of the new Constitution.
July
July 19: 2005 Musayyib bombing kills nearly 100 Shia.
August
August 1–4: Battle of Haditha
August 15: Unable to find a consensus between the main political leaders, the Parliament postpones for a week the transmission of the draft constitution to its members.
August 22: The constitution's draft is presented to the Iraqi Parliament.
August 28: The constitution is presented to parliament.
August 31: 2005 Baghdad bridge stampede: Rumors of a suicide bomber lead to a stampede on the Al-Aaimmah bridge; about 1,000 people died.
September
September 1: Battle of Tal Afar: US troops launch an offensive in Tal Afar, a city that would become a "model" for the Americans.
September 14: 14 September 2005 Baghdad bombings: In the deadliest day of the insurgency in Baghdad, bombs kill 160 and injure more than 500.
September 19: Basra prison incident: British troops storm a police station in Basra to free two soldiers being held there.
September 29: Bombings in Balad kill at least 95.
October
October 15: 2005 Iraqi constitutional referendum: Voters approve Iraq's new constitution.
Oct. 19: Start of Saddam Hussein's trial.
Oct. 24 – The Palestine Hotel and the Sheraton Ishtar hotel in Baghdad are hit by truck bombs; the attacks are captured on film.
November
Nov. 5: Operation Steel Curtain launched to root out foreign fighters.
Nov. 15 - 173 prisoners are found in an Iraqi government bunker in Baghdad, having been starved, beaten and tortured.
Nov. 18: Bombings in Khanaqin kill at least 74.
Nov. 19: Haditha killings: American soldiers kill 24 people, including 15 noncombatants, in Haditha, after an insurgent attack.
Nov. 25: 2005–2006 Christian Peacemaker hostage crisis begins.
December
December 14 - U.S. President George W. Bush says that the decision to invade Iraq in 2003 was the result of faulty intelligence, and accepts responsibility for that decision. He maintains that his decision was still justified.
December 15 December 2005 Iraqi legislative election
2006
February
February 22 The al-Askari Mosque bombing (2006): Shi’ite Al Askari Mosque is bombed by Sunni militants, sparking a sectarian civil war. Shi’ite, Sunni and other militant groups also start advancing within Baghdad.
March
March 12: Mahmudiyah killings.
April
April 24: Hamdania incident. Marines allegedly abduct an Iraqi civilian from a house, kill him, and place components and spent AK-47 cartridges near his body to make it appear he was planting an IED.
May
May 20 The new Iraqi government, which succeeds to the Iraqi Transitional Government, begins its functions.
June
June 7 Abu Musab al-Zarqawi is killed.
June 14: Operation Together Forward begins.
June 17: Battle of Ramadi (2006) begins.
July
July 9: Hay al Jihad massacre - Shia militias kill 40 Sunnis.
July 23: Two powerful bombs in Baghdad's Sadr City neighborhood kill at least 66.
July 24 Saddam Hussein, 69, the deposed former Iraqi President, is force-fed in a Baghdad hospital through a tube after 16 days of hunger strike.
July 25 Operation River Falcon begins.
August
October
Oct. 19: Battle of Amarah. Clashes erupt between the Mahdi Army and the Badr Organization.
Oct. 28: The first of the Chlorine bombings in Iraq.
November
November 7 - The United States midterm elections removed the Republican Party from control of both chambers of the United States Congress. The failings in the Iraq War were cited as one of the main causes of the Republicans' defeat, even though the Bush administration had attempted to distance itself from its earlier "stay the course" rhetoric.
November 19: Ammar al-Saffar, Deputy Health Minister, becomes the highest-ranking Iraqi to be kidnapped.
23 November 2006 Sadr City bombings kill more than 200 Shias in Sadr City.
December
December 6: The Iraq Study Group releases their final report.
December 21: 2006 US raid on Iranian diplomats
December 25: Diyala campaign begins.
Dec. 30: Execution of Saddam Hussein.
2007
January
January 10: The Iraq War troop surge of 2007 is announced.
January 11: US raid on Iranian Liaison Office in Arbil.
January 20: The Karbala provincial headquarters raid results in the kidnapping and killing of five American soldiers. The US blames Iran.
January 28: Followers of the Shia cult Soldiers of Heaven initiate the Battle of Najaf (2007), which left nearly 300 dead.
February
February 3: A bomb in Baghdad market kills 135 people.
February 6: Baghdad kidnapping of Iranian diplomat.
February 27: Siege of U.K. bases in Basra begins.
Charlie Loftus
March
March 6: 2007 Al Hillah bombings kill 120 Shias.
March 23: 2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel: Iran seizes 15 British Royal Navy personnel patrolling near Iraq, who are released on 4 April.
March 27: A bombing in Tal Afar, which killed 152, set off Shia retaliation which left 70 Sunnis dead.
March 29: Suicide bombings in Baghdad kill 82 Shias.
Battle of Baqubah.
April
April 6: Operation Black Eagle. Fighting between Coalition forces and the Madhi Army.
April 18: Bombings across Baghdad kill nearly 200.
April 23: 2007 Mosul massacre of Yazidi workers, in revenge for the Stoning of Du'a Khalil Aswad.
May
The Iraq oil law (2007) is proposed.
June
June 13: 2007 al-Askari Mosque bombing blows up two of the mosque's minarets.
June 16: Operation Phantom Thunder begins.
July
July 12: The Initial Benchmark Assessment Report is released.
July 16: The 2007 Kirkuk bombings kill 86.
July 17: Truck bomb in Amirli kills 156.
July 26: A Baghdad market is bombed, killing 92.
August
Operation Phantom Strike begins.
August 14: 2007 Yazidi communities bombings. In the most deadly insurgent strikes to date, four bombings in Kahtaniya and Jazeera, in northern Iraq, strike Yazidi communities, killing 796 people and injuring more than 1,500.
September
The Nisour Square massacre in Baghdad killed 17 Iraqi civilians.
2008
January
January 8: Operation Phantom Phoenix begins.
January 18: 2008 Iraqi Day of Ashura fighting.
January 23: Ninawa campaign begins.
February
Bombings in Baghdad kill 98.
February 21: 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq Turkey launches an offensive in northern Iraq against PKK rebels.
March
March 23: Iraq spring fighting of 2008.
March 25: Battle of Basra (2008).
July
July 29: Operation Augurs of Prosperity launched.
October
Oct. 26: 2008 Abu Kamal raid into Syria.
November
2008 attacks on Christians in Mosul
The U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, which stipulates that U.S. troops will be out of Iraq by the end of 2011, is approved and ratified by the Iraqi Parliament.
2009
January
January 31: 2009 Iraqi governorate elections
A total of 191 Iraqis were killed in violence during January, the lowest monthly toll since the US-led invasion of March 2003. Sixteen U.S. troops died in Iraq during this month.
May
May 11: Camp Liberty killings
May 28: The last of the U.K.'s combat troops are withdrawn.
July 25
2009 Iraqi Kurdistan legislative election
August
19 August 2009 Baghdad bombings kill 101.
October
25 October 2009 Baghdad bombings kill 155.
December
8 December 2009 Baghdad bombings kill 127.
December 31: The US suffers only four troop deaths, and no combat deaths, the lowest figure since the war began.
2010
March
March 7: 2010 Iraqi parliamentary election
April
April 18: Islamic State of Iraq leaders Abu Ayyub al-Masri and Abu Omar al-Baghdadi are killed in a joint U.S.-Iraqi operation near Tikrit, Iraq.
August
August 18: American combat operations in Iraq end as its last combat brigade departs for Kuwait.
September
September 30: 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment conducted a Transition of Authority with 3rd BDE, 3rd ID and assumed responsibility for the five northern Provinces of United States Division-South under MG Vincent Brooks and the 1st Infantry Division.
References
United States military history timelines | [
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243757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TTT | TTT | TTT or Triple T may stand for:
TTT (education), a life skills education program in India
TT Technologies, a construction equipment manufacturer
Taitung Airport, IATA code
Talk TV (Philippine TV network), an English-language news and talk television network in the Philippines
Team time trial, a bicycle racing event
Tekken Tag Tournament, the fourth installment of the Tekken fighting game series
Tic-tac-toe, a game
Tilt table test, a medical test for dysautonomia and/or syncope
Time-temperature transformation, a plot of temperature versus time; see Isothermal transformation diagram
Tres tristes tigres (novel), a 1967 novel by Guillermo Cabrera Infante
Trinidad and Tobago Television, a television network in Trinidad and Tobago
"Triple T", former name of radio station Sea FM
Triple Trip Touch, a free-jazz band
Trouble in Terrorist Town, a mod for Garry's Mod
The Two Towers (1954) or its 2002 film adaptation, from Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien
Morse code prefix for messages announcing safety warnings, equivalent of Sécurité
The production code for the 1973 Doctor Who serial The Green Death
A codon for the amino acid Phenylalanine
See also
TT (disambiguation)
3T (disambiguation)
T3 (disambiguation) | [
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243759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Bush | Neil Bush | Neil Mallon Bush (born January 22, 1955) is an American businessman and investor. He is the fourth of six children of former President George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush (née Pierce). His five siblings are George W. Bush, the 43rd President of the United States; Jeb Bush, a former governor of Florida; the late Pauline Robinson Bush; Marvin Bush; and Dorothy Bush Koch. Neil Bush is currently a businessman based in Texas.
Early life
On January 22, 1955, Bush was born in Midland, Texas. Bush was named after a good friend of the family, Henry Neil Mallon, chairman of Dresser Industries, George H. W. Bush's employer. As a child, Bush spent some summers and holidays at his family's estate in Maine, the Bush compound.
At age 11, he entered the exclusive St. Albans School in Washington, D.C. He struggled through school; a counselor told his mother that it was doubtful the boy had the potential to graduate. He was later diagnosed as having dyslexia, and his mother spent much time coaching him through his learning disability. Eventually, his grades improved and he graduated from St. Albans in 1973.
Education
In 1977, Bush earned a degree in economics from Tulane University. In 1979, Bush earned an MBA.
Career and business dealings
Silverado Savings and Loan
He settled in the Denver area where he was friends with members of the family of John Hinckley Jr., who shot President Reagan.
Neil Bush was a member of the board of directors of Denver-based Silverado Savings and Loan from 1985 to 1988 during the S&L crisis of the 1980s. Since his father George H. W. Bush was Vice President of the United States, his role in Silverado's failure was a focal point of publicity.
The U.S. Office of Thrift Supervision investigated Silverado's failure and determined that Bush had engaged in numerous "breaches of his fiduciary duties involving multiple conflicts of interest." Although Bush was not indicted on criminal charges, a civil action was brought against him and the other Silverado directors by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation; it was eventually settled out of court, with Bush paying $50,000 as part of the settlement.
A friend who also donated funds to the Republican Party set up a fund to help defer costs Neil incurred in his S&L
legal defense.
Ignite! Learning
In 1999, Bush co-founded Ignite! Learning, an educational software corporation. Bush has said he started Austin-based Ignite! Learning because of his learning difficulties in middle school and those of his son, Pierce. The software uses multiple intelligence methods to provide varying types of content to appeal to multiple learning styles.
To fund Ignite!, Bush raised $23 million from US investors, including his parents, as well as businessmen from Taiwan, Japan, Kuwait, the British Virgin Islands and the United Arab Emirates, according to documents filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Documented investors included Kuwaiti company head Mohammed Al Saddah, and Chinese computer executive Winston Wong, as well as the late Russian billionaire expatriate Boris Berezovsky, and Berezovsky's partner Badri Patarkatsishvili.
Bush's relationship with the late controversial oligarch Boris Berezovsky, a political enemy of Russian President Vladimir Putin who at the time of his death had been under indictment for fraud in Russia and an applicant for asylum in the United Kingdom, has been noted in the media. Berezovsky, who died in 2013, had been an investor in Bush's Ignite! program since at least 2003. Bush met with Berezovsky in Latvia. The meeting caused tension between that country and Russia due to Berezovsky's fugitive status. Bush was also seen in Berezovsky's box at Arsenal's Emirates Stadium for a football game in 2006, which prompted some stateside criticism. There had also been speculation in the English language Moscow Times that the relationship may cause tension in U.S.-Russian bilateral relations, "especially since Putin had taken pains to build a personal relationship with the U.S. president," George Bush.
In 2002, Neil Bush commended his brother, George, for his efforts on education as president, but he questioned the emphasis on constant testing to keep federal aid coming to public schools: "I share the concerns of many that if our system is driven around assessments, pencil-and-paper tests that test a kid's ability to memorize stuff, I would say that reliance threatens to institutionalize bad teaching practices."
As of October 2006, over 13 US school districts (out of over 14,000 school districts nationwide) have used federal funds made available through the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 to buy Ignite's portable learning centers at $3,800 apiece.
A December 2003 Style section article in The Washington Post reported that Bush's salary from Ignite! was $180,000 per year.
Kopin stock trades
In July 1999, Bush made at least $798,000 on three stock trades in a single day of a company where he had been employed as a consultant. The company, Kopin Corporation of Taunton, Massachusetts, announced on the same day good news about a new Asian client that sent its stock value soaring. Bush stated that he had no inside knowledge and that his financial advisor had recommended the trades. He said, "any increase in the price of the stock on that day was purely coincidental, meaning that I did not have any improper information."
When asked in January 2004 about the stock trades, Bush contrasted the capital gains he reported in 1999 and 2000 with the capital losses on Kopin stock he reported ($287,722 in all) in 2001. In 2001 Kopin joined a broad decline in high-tech stock valuations.
Speaking engagements
Bush has often been invited to speak to audiences overseas. Bush says he has courtesy visits with world leaders but has no plans to wade into foreign policy. "Oftentimes because of my father's goodwill, and because of the president being who he is, people might extend an invitation, and it's enjoyable for me," Bush said. "Some of these folks are family friends."
Speaking at a Saudi Arabian economic forum in January 2002, Bush referred to growing anti-American sentiment in Arab countries and said the two peoples must communicate better. He said the Arab P.R. machine is not as good as Israel's.
Bush frequently travels to the Middle East, Europe and Asia to negotiate deals and raise capital for various businesses. According to court filings from his divorce, in 2000 he was paid $1.3 million for such work. This includes $642,500 as a commission for introducing an Asian investor to the owners of an American high-tech company. The George W. Bush-era White House Administration appeared unfazed by his world travel. "The president knows his brother will always do the right thing," press secretary Ari Fleischer said."
Other business engagements
In 2002, Bush signed a consulting contract that paid $2 million in stock over five years to work for Grace Semiconductor Manufacturing Corp., a firm backed by Jiang Mianheng, the son of former Chinese President Jiang Zemin, plus $10,000 for every board meeting he attends.
Bush serves as co-chairman of a company called Crest Investment. Crest pays him $60,000 a year to provide miscellaneous consulting services.
In 2001, Neil Bush incorporated an investment firm called LehmanBush with veteran China lawyer Edward Lehman.
Philanthropy and charity involvement, volunteer work
George H.W. Bush Foundation For U.S.-China Relations
Neil Bush is the founder and chairman of the George H.W. Bush Foundation For U.S.-China Relations. Created in 2017, the Foundation serves as a U.S.-China Relations Think Tank, Track 2 Diplomacy Policy Hub and for Business, Trade and U.S. Investment. The organization holds an annual George H.W. Bush Conference on U.S.-China Relations. The purpose of The George H. W. Bush Foundation for U.S.-China Relations seeks to advance U.S.-China relations in ways that reflect the ethos and values of President George H. W. Bush, whose visionary, wise, deft and steady stewardship of the U.S.-China relationship during his tenure as president was exemplary of the highest attributes and values of true statesmanship. Through an active, wide-ranging and highly innovative program of activities, the Bush China Foundation promotes the late president's life-long view that the U.S.-China relationship is the most consequential bilateral relationship in the world and that a positive and constructive relationship between the two countries is in the best interest of both the United States and China as well as the entire global community.
Points of Light
Neil Bush is the chairman of Points of Light; an international nonprofit that works to increase volunteerism in the world. Points of Light has approximately 250 affiliates in 22 countries and partnerships with thousands of nonprofits and companies dedicated to volunteer service around the world. In 2012, Points of Light mobilized 4 million volunteers in 30 million hours of service worth $635 million.
Foundation for Interreligious and Intercultural Research and Dialogue
Bush was a founding director, along with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (the future Pope Benedict XVI), of the Foundation for Interreligious and Intercultural Research and Dialogue (FIIRD). The foundation promotes ecumenical understanding and publishes religious texts and was founded in 1999. Bush is no longer on the board of the foundation.
Anti-Ritalin campaign
In 2002, Neil Bush told the New York Post that he "endured his own Ritalin hell seven years ago when educators in a Houston private school diagnosed his son, Pierce, (then) 16, with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and pushed medication."
In a September 26, 2002, episode of CNN Interview, Bush told Connie Chung:
Bush decided "the educators were wrong" about his son. "There is a systemic problem in this country, where schools are often forcing parents to turn to Ritalin," he said. "It's obvious to me that we have a crisis."
Also that year, Bush testified before a hearing of the United States Congress to speak out against over-medicating children for learning disorders.
He has suggested that many parents believe the ADD and ADHD diagnoses and subsequent medicating of their children because it explains why they aren't doing well in school, saying "it's the system that is failing to engage children in the classroom. My heart goes out to any parents who are being led to believe their kids have a disorder or are disabled."
Neil Bush (along with filmmaker Michael Moore) is credited in the cast of a 2005 documentary film, The Drugging of Our Children directed by Gary Null. In the film's trailer Bush says: "Just because it is easy to drug a kid and get them to be compliant doesn't make it right to do it."
Ted Cruz presidential campaign
After his brother Jeb dropped out of the 2016 Republican presidential nomination race, Neil and his wife Maria signed on to the finance team of fellow Republican Ted Cruz.
Personal life
Bush was married to Sharon (née Smith) Bush (born May 19, 1952) for 23 years. The couple have three children: Lauren Bush Lauren (born June 25, 1984), Pierce Mallon Bush (born March 11, 1986) and Ashley Walker Bush (born February 7, 1989). The couple divorced in April 2003. Bush's divorce deposition gained public attention when he admitted to several sexual encounters in Thailand and Hong Kong. Sharon gained custody of their minor child Ashley, who for a while was estranged from her father. In addition, Sharon kept their marital home after she collected enough money to pay off the mortgage.
In 2004, Bush remarried in Houston, Texas, to Mexican-born Maria (née Manass) Andrews, a volunteer at the Houston literacy-foundation office of Bush's mother, Barbara. Robert Andrews, Andrews' ex-husband, sued Sharon Bush in September 2003 for defamation after she alleged that Neil Bush was the father of Andrews' two-year-old son. DNA testing showed that Andrews was the father, but the suit was dismissed in 2005.
Bush's son, Pierce was a candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives in 2020 from Texas' 22nd district, but finished third in a fifteen-way primary.
References
External links
Excerpt from "George Bush—the unauthorized biography"
Wilmsen, Steven. Silverado: Neil Bush and the Savings and Loan Scandal National Press Books, August 1991,
Ignite! Learning Webpage
Neil Bush's political donations
Neil Bush profile as non-executive Chairman of SingHaiyi Group Ltd.
1955 births
American computer businesspeople
American consulting businesspeople
American education businesspeople
American philanthropists
American stock traders
Bush family
Businesspeople from Texas
Businesspeople in software
Children of presidents of the United States
Children of vice presidents of the United States
Freeman School of Business alumni
Living people
Livingston family
People with dyslexia
People from Midland, Texas
Savings and loan crisis
Schuyler family
Texas Republicans
St. Albans School (Washington, D.C.) alumni
Tulane University alumni | [
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243763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic%20copper%20carbonate | Basic copper carbonate | Basic copper carbonate is a chemical compound, more properly called copper(II) carbonate hydroxide. It is an ionic compound (a salt) consisting of the ions copper(II) , carbonate , and hydroxide .
The name most commonly refers to the compound with formula ()2. It is a green crystalline solid that occurs in nature as the mineral malachite. It has been used since antiquity as a pigment, and it is still used as such in artist paints, sometimes called verditer, green bice, or mountain green.
Sometimes the name is used for ()2()2, a blue crystalline solid also known as the mineral azurite. It too has been used as pigment, sometimes under the name mountain blue or blue verditer.
Both malachite and azurite can be found in the verdigris patina that is found on weathered brass, bronze, and copper. The composition of the patina can vary, in a maritime environment depending on the environment a basic chloride may be present, in an urban environment basic sulfates may be present.
This compound is often improperly called (even in chemistry articles) copper carbonate, cupric carbonate, and similar names. The true (neutral) copper(II) carbonate CuCO3 is not known to occur naturally. It is decomposed by water or moisture from the air, and was synthesized only in 1973 by high temperature and very high pressures.
Preparation
Basic copper carbonate is prepared by combining aqueous solutions of copper(II) sulfate and sodium carbonate at ambient temperature and pressure. Basic copper carbonate precipitates from the solution, with release of carbon dioxide :
2 CuSO4 + 2 Na2CO3 + H2O → Cu2(OH)2CO3 + 2 Na2SO4 + CO2
Basic copper carbonate can also be prepared by reacting aqueous solutions of copper(II) sulfate and sodium bicarbonate at ambient conditions. Basic copper carbonate precipitates from the solution, again with release of carbon dioxide:
2 CuSO4 + 4 NaHCO3 → Cu2(OH)2CO3 + 2 Na2SO4 + 3 CO2 + H2O
Reactions
Basic copper carbonate is decomposed by acids, such as solutions of hydrochloric acid , into the copper(II) salt and carbon dioxide.
In 1794 the French chemist Joseph Louis Proust (1754–1826) thermally decomposed copper carbonate to CO2 and CuO, cupric oxide.
The basic copper carbonates, malachite and azurite, both decompose forming CO2 and CuO, cupric oxide.
Uses
Both malachite and azurite, as well as basic copper carbonate have been used as pigments. One example of the use of both azurite and its artificial form blue verditer is the portrait of the family of Balthasar Gerbier by Peter Paul Rubens. The green skirt of Deborah Kip is painted in azurite, smalt, blue verditer (artificial form of azurite), yellow ochre, lead-tin-yellow and yellow lake. The green color is achieved by mixing blue and yellow pigments.
It has also been used in some types of make-up, like lipstick, although it can also be toxic to humans. It also has been used for many years as an effective algaecide in farm ponds and in aquaculture operations.
References
External links
National Pollutant Inventory – copper and compounds fact sheet
Azurite at ColourLex
Blue verditer at ColourLex
Carbonates
Copper(II) compounds
Pyrotechnic colorants
Hydroxides | [
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