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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrator%20of%20the%20government
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Administrator of the government
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An administrator (administrator of the government or officer administering the government) in the constitutional practice of some countries in the Commonwealth is a person who fulfils a role similar to that of a governor or a governor-general.
Temporary administrators
Usually the office of administrator is a temporary appointment, for periods during which the governor is incapacitated, outside the territory, or otherwise unable to perform his or her duties. The process for selecting administrators varies from country to country.
Australia
In the Commonwealth of Australia, the administrator is usually called the administrator of the Commonwealth. State governors hold a dormant commission and by convention the longest-serving state governor becomes administrator.
In the states of Australia, the administrator is usually the chief justice of the state's supreme court or the next most senior justice. In 2001, the Constitution of Queensland was amended to restore the office of lieutenant-governor in that state.
Canada
An "administrator of the government" in Canada is a constitutional practice where an individual is empowered to perform the functions of the office of the governor general if the governor general is incapable of rendering their constitutional duties, or if the position of Governor General is vacant following a resignation or death. The provisions to select the administrator of the government in Canada is outlined in Article VIII of the Letters Patent, 1947; which identifies that the Chief Justice of Canada assumes the role as administrator should the need arise. In the absence of the chief justice, the senior Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada is designated as the administrator of the government. Prior to the signage of the Letters Patent, 1947, the administrator of the government was directly appointed by the monarch. An administrator of the government is not required if a governor general is absent for less than 30 days, with the governor general empowered to designate a "deputy governor general" to act on their behalf. Richard Wagner is the most recent in Canada designated as the "administrator of the government," having been sworn in to the position on 23 January 2021 after the resignation of Julie Payette, and serving until the role of governor general was assumed by Mary Simon on 26 July 2021.
The constitutional practice of an "administrator of the government" is also found within the provinces of Canada, with provincial administrators of the government assuming the functions of the office of the lieutenant governor if office is vacant or its holder is incapable of rendering their duties. A justice of a provincial superior court is designated as a provincial administrator of government. The term "administrator" is also used in the Canadian territory of Yukon, although the position of administrator in Yukon is analogous to a "deputy commissioner of Yukon".
Ceylon
In Ceylon, the officer administering the government in the absence of the Governor-General of Ceylon was the Chief Justice of Ceylon. In the absence of the chief justice the acting chief justice would serve in this place. Ceylon had two acting Governors-General.
Hong Kong
When Hong Kong was a British Crown colony the chief secretary (colonial secretary before 1976) would be the acting governor, followed by the financial secretary and the attorney general. The practice has remained after the transfer of sovereignty to China. Rotation takes place between the chief secretary for administration (formerly chief secretary), the financial secretary and the secretary for justice (formerly attorney general) as the acting chief executive.
New Zealand
Under the Governor-General Act 2010, there are certain times where the Chief Justice, currently Helen Winkelmann, will fulfil the role of Administrator of the Government (acting governor-general). These times may be when the governor-general is outside New Zealand, or is incapacitated or otherwise unable to carry out their duties, or more prominently when the position is vacant . If the chief justice is unable to become administrator of the government for similar reasons as above then the title follows the order of seniority in the judicial system.
Papua New Guinea
As a former External Territory of Australia, the head of the territory's administration was called the Administrator of Papua-New Guinea before independence in 1975. The appointment was by the Governor-General of Australia on the advice of the Australian Minister of External Territories. The minister for external territories consulted with the territory's chief minister as part of the appointment process.
Rhodesia
On 11 November 1965, the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia made a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) although it continued to recognise the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as head of state, with oaths of allegiance to "Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth, Queen of Rhodesia, her heirs and successors". However, the Rhodesian Front government of Ian Smith ceased to recognise the authority of her de jure representative, Governor Sir Humphrey Gibbs.
Instead, on 17 November, it appointed the former deputy prime minister, Clifford Dupont, to the post of "acting officer administering the government". Opponents of UDI who considered it an illegal move, such as the independent member of the legislative assembly, Ahrn Palley, refused to recognise Dupont's office, and walked out of the opening of the Parliament of Rhodesia when Dupont came to deliver the Speech from the Throne.
On 2 December, Smith wrote a personal letter to the Queen, asking her to accept Dupont as the new governor-general. In response, he was told that "Her Majesty is not able to entertain purported advice of this kind, and has therefore been pleased to direct that no action shall be taken upon it".
Under the 1965 draft constitution, if the Queen did not appoint a governor-general within fourteen days of advice being tendered by the prime minister, a Regent was to be appointed. In deference to the Royal Family, however, on 16 December, Smith amended his original plan to appoint a Regent and Dupont was appointed as "officer administering the government".
Consequently, legislation passed after UDI was "enacted by His Excellency the Officer Administering the Government, as the representative of the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Parliament of Rhodesia". Dupont would continue to use the title until 1970. When Rhodesia adopted a republican constitution that year, he became the first President of Rhodesia, a position that was internationally unrecognised, given the fact that Rhodesia was de-jure a British colony.
The country was renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979, before it returned to colonial status following the Lancaster House Agreement later that year. In 1980, it achieved internationally recognised independence as Zimbabwe, becoming a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations.
Permanent administrators
The term administrator is also used for a permanent officer representing the head of state where the appointment of a governor would be inappropriate; it is also used for the representative of a governor.
Australia
In the Internal Northern Territory, the office of Administrator is a permanent appointment, and since the territory was granted self-government in 1978, the office of administrator has become a largely ceremonial appointment, like that of the governor in each state. Unlike the governors, who are appointed by the sovereign on advice of the premier, the administrator is appointed by the governor-general on advice of the prime minister after consultation with the chief minister.
External territories such as Norfolk Island and Indian Ocean Territories (including Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands)
Historically also on Lord Howe Island
There is no administrator in the Australian Capital Territory and the chief minister is elected by the legislative assembly.
India
In the Union territories of India, which are ruled directly by the Union government, the President of India appoints an administrator. Administrators differ from the governors of the states of India in that they are an agent of the president and not a head of state.
The president may also appoint the governor of a neighbouring state to be the administrator of a union territory. Since 1985 the Governor of Punjab has acted as the Administrator of Chandigarh. And Administrator of Lakshadweep also rules Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. In five union territories: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh and Puducherry; the administrator uses the title "lieutenant governor".
New Zealand
Tokelau has been governed by an administrator since 1949, when it was attached to New Zealand (previously it was part of the British colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands)
Historically in Samoa as a League of Nations and United Nations mandate (see List of colonial governors of Samoa).
United Kingdom overseas possessions
The civil Administrator of the Akrotiri and Dhekelia Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus is traditionally the military commander of British forces in the areas.
The Administrator of the British Indian Ocean Territory is the junior to a commissioner (Chagos Archipelago, notably Diego Garcia. He mandates the commander of British naval forces on Diego Garcia as his representative and justice of the peace.
The two dependencies of Saint Helena, both sparsely populated Atlantic islands, are responsible in the first instance to the Governor of St Helena:
Ascension Island (since June 1964; )
Tristan da Cunha (since 31 Jan 1950; )
Other
United States
In the United States, the rank of administrator denotes a high-level civilian official within the United States federal government. Generally an official of sub-cabinet rank, an administrator is appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the United States Senate and assigned to run a specific US government agency. Administrators often manage major agencies housed within specific cabinet departments (e.g., Research and Innovative Technology Administration within the United States Department of Transportation) while others are stand-alone agencies (e.g., the United States Environmental Protection Agency).
Israel
During mandatory times, the high commissioner was deputized by an administrator in case of high commissarial vacancy, and a deputy to the high commissioner when the high commissioner remained in office but temporarily could not fulfill his duties. Both posts were held ex-officio by the chief secretary. The rules for deputizing the analogous office in modern-day Israel, the president, are similar, with an interim president analogous to the administrator and an acting president analogous to the deputy to the high commissioner. However, these posts are held not by the prime minister, whose office is analogous to that of the chief secretary, but by the Speaker of the Knesset.
Sources and references
WorldStatesmen the present state
Notes
Governance of the British Empire
Gubernatorial titles
Government of Australia
Government of New Zealand
|
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242651
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campagnolo
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Campagnolo
|
Campagnolo is an Italian manufacturer of high-end bicycle components with headquarters in Vicenza, Italy. The components are organised as groupsets (gruppi), and are a near-complete collection of a bicycle's mechanical parts. Campagnolo's flagship components are the Super Record, Record, and Chorus groupsets with all three representing their recent shift to 12-speed drivetrains. Super Record and Record are the top groupsets, followed by Chorus, Potenza, Centaur and Veloce. Campagnolo also produces aluminum and carbon wheels, as well as other components (like carbon fiber seat posts, and bottle-cages).
History
Founded by Tullio Campagnolo, the company began in 1933 in a Vicenza workshop. The founder was a racing cyclist in Italy in the 1920s who conceived several ideas while racing, such as the quick release mechanism for bicycle wheels, derailleurs, and the rod gear for gear changing. Campagnolo has been awarded more than 135 patents for innovations in cycling technology.
At the end of the 1950s, Campagnolo started to manufacture magnesium parts such as wheels for sports cars like Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, Lamborghini, and Maserati, and built chassis for NASA satellites in 1969. In 1963, Campagnolo produced a disc brake for the Innocenti Lambretta TV motorscooter - the first two-wheel production vehicle with such a brake. In the 1970s they also supplied wheels for Ferrari's Formula One cars.
Campagnolo worked with the manufacturer Colnago and racer Eddy Merckx and produced lightweight parts for the bike he used to beat the world hour record in 1972. Merckx used Campagnolo exclusively and was a friend of Tullio Campagnolo.
Following Campagnolo's success during the 1970s and '80s, innovation lagged as rival SunTour developed indexed shifting, Shimano combined shifter/brake levers (Shimano Total Integration), and FSA introduced compact chainsets. An unsuccessful foray into mountain biking, the overbuilt and heavy Euclid, Centaur and Olympus groupsets contributed to the company's decline during those years. By the time the expensive Record O.R. (off-road) and Icarus MTB groupsets made it to the market, Campagnolo's reputation was firmly cemented as a road bike brand. As a result, Campagnolo pulled out of the Mountain Bike market in 1994. Despite its struggles, Campagnolo introduced its ErgoPower combined shifter/brake levers and renewed its focus on high-end road cycling components.
The late 1990s and early 2000s saw Campagnolo's increased use of carbon fibre and titanium parts in groupsets and the development of wheelsets. In 2004, Campagnolo introduced a complete Compact drivetrain with smaller chainrings, to give lower gears than traditional drivetrains. Other innovations included a Hirth-joint engineered Ultra-Torque external-bearing crankset and G3 spoke lacing for racing wheels. In 2008, Campagnolo introduced 11-speed drivetrains with Super Record, Record, and Chorus groupsets. Campagnolo has released an electronic version of its drivetrain. In April 2018 Campagnolo launched 12-speed Record and Super Record groupsets, and in 2020, the company launched Campagnolo Ekar, a 13-speed groupset aimed at gravel riders.
Campagnolo has focused on road cycling and track cycling. The teams it sponsors in the UCI ProTour are Lotto–Soudal, AG2R Citroën Team, UAE Team Emirates and Cofidis.
Timeline (Bicycle Parts)
1901
Tullio Campagnolo born on 26 August in the eastern suburbs of Vicenza, Italy
1922
Tullio Campagnolo begins his racing career
1930
Campagnolo patents the quick-release hub
1933
After fabricating parts in the backroom of his father's hardware store, Tullio starts Campagnolo SPA with production of the quick-release hub
1940
Tullio hires his first full-time employee. The derailleur enters production, enabling gears to change without removing the wheel. The pieces are handmade
1949
Campagnolo introduces a parallelogram rear derailleur, the Gran Sport
1956
Campagnolo introduces a parallelogram front derailleur
1963
The Record rear derailleur (chromed bronze) is introduced
1966
The Nuovo Record rear derailleur is introduced. Eddy Merckx uses it for his first four Tour de France victories
1973
The Super Record Road and Track groups are introduced. Learn more about the Super Record Road group.;
1983
Tullio Campagnolo dies on 3 February. Anniversary groupset to mark 50 years of Campagnolo bicycle parts.
1985 Campagnolo creates Delta brakes, with a parallelogram linkage to actuate the calipers.
1986
The re-designed Record road and track groupsets (also known as C-Record) are introduced, replacing Super Record as the top of range
1987
The last year of Super Record until 2008
1989
Campagnolo introduces a mountain bike groupset, which is heavier and less advanced than those by Shimano and SunTour.
1991
8-speed shifting components are introduced
1992
The ErgoPower levers are introduced, which combines brake lever and a shift lever to answer Shimano's STI levers
1993
Delta brakes are discontinued
1994
Campagnolo leaves the mountain bike components business
1995
Group names on components are introduced
1997
9-speed shifting components are introduced
1998
Next generation Ergo Levers
1999
Record Carbon Ergo levers, Daytona group, and for the Record, Chorus and Daytona groups new hubs (much lighter than the old ones, axles made of aluminum alloy) are introduced
2000
10-speed shifting is introduced
2001
Carbon-fiber shifting levers for Record group
2002
Former Daytona group is renamed "Centaur"
2004
Carbon-fiber cranks for Record and Chorus groups
2005
10-speed Centaur and Chorus shift and brake levers are introduced for flat bar road bikes
2006
Hollow external bearing crankset is announced
2007
10-speed Mirage and Xenon component groups and new Ultra-Torque components are introduced. Record hubs are now black, 20 g lighter and don't have greaseports any more
2008
11-speed Record, Super Record, and Chorus groups are introduced
2009
Re-introduction of Athena as an 11-speed component group below Chorus in product line
2010
Bora One wheels are introduced
2011
First electric 11-speed Super Record group was used at the Tour de France by Team Movistar
2012
Bora Ultra 80mm wheels are introduced.
2013
80th anniversary groupset made.
2014
Super Record RS groupset introduced following input from professional team riders.
Fulcrum Wheels, a company owned by Campagnolo, produces wheelsets compatible with Campagnolo and Shimano cassettes.
The ErgoBrain cyclocomputer compatible with the Ergo shifters displays cadence, gear, and the normal functions of a cyclocomputer.
2015
Athena EPS discontinued and Chorus EPS introduced.
Chorus, Record and Super Record groupsets are overhauled with a 4 arm, 8 bolt chainset introduced.
Bora 50 and 35 wheels become available in Clincher and adopt a wider rim profile.
2015
Potenza group is introduced.
2017
Centaur group reintroduced as Campagnolo's least expensive 11-speed group.
2018
12-speed Super Record and Record mechanical groups are introduced.(for disc and rimbrake)
Bora WTO (Wind Tunnel Optimized) wheels are introduced.
2019
12-speed Super Record EPS, and mechanical 12-speed Chorus groups are introduced. Chorus will have an 11-34 cassette option and a 96/123 mm BCD with sub-compact 48/32 gearing available.
2020
13-speed Ekar group are introduced.
2021
Bora Ultra WTO (only for discbrake) wheels are introduced.
Trademarks
Campagnolo has used various trademarks, the best known is the Campagnolo signature; another is a hub quick-release lever (Tullio's most famous innovation). The logo of the company is the winged wheel.
Race service
For many years Campagnolo provided professional race mechanics with spare parts and neutral technical assistance at races. Campagnolo relies on riders and mechanics to improve products.
See also
List of bicycle parts
List of Italian companies
References
External links
Official website
Catalog website
Campagnolo
Cycle parts manufacturers
Wheel manufacturers
Italian brands
Sporting goods manufacturers of Italy
Automotive companies established in 1933
Italian companies established in 1933
Companies based in Vicenza
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roshan%20Seth
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Roshan Seth
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Roshan Seth OBE (born 2 April 1942) is a British-Indian actor, writer and theatre director who has worked in the United Kingdom, United States and India. He began his acting career in the early 1960s in the UK, but left acting the following decade and moved to India to work as a journalist. In the 1980s, he rose to prominence for his comeback performance as Jawaharlal Nehru in Richard Attenborough's Academy Award-winning film Gandhi, which brought him a BAFTA Award nomination for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and reignited his interest in acting.
He has since appeared in numerous British and American feature films and television programmes, with roles ranging from Chattar Lal in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Amit Rao in A Passage to India, Papa Hussein in My Beautiful Laundrette, patriarch Jay in Mississippi Masala and Dhalsim in Street Fighter: The Movie. He won the Genie Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for the Canadian film Such a Long Journey. Other projects he has appeared include Bharat Ek Khoj, Not Without My Daughter, The Buddha of Suburbia, Vertical Limit, Monsoon Wedding, Proof, Ek Tha Tiger, Indian Summers and Dumbo.
Early life
Seth was born on 2 April 1942 in Patna, Bihar, India, to a Muslim Anglo-Indian mother and a Hindu father. His father was a biochemistry professor at Patna Medical College. He was educated at The Doon School, then did graduate studies in History at St Stephen's College. There, he honed his theatrical skills at the Shakespeare Society, before moving to England for further training. He trained at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art in 1965 and started working in British television and repertory theatre.
Career
Seth's first break came in Peter Brook's production of A Midsummer Night's Dream, which toured in 1972. Seth entered feature films in Richard Lester's Juggernaut (1974). However, subsequent filmmakers only wanted Seth for limited ethnic roles, so that his career stalled.
Discouraged, Seth abandoned acting and returned to India in 1977, where he worked as a journalist and editor of the quarterly journal published by the India International Centre, Delhi. He took leave from this job after Richard Attenborough asked Seth to play Jawaharlal Nehru in Gandhi (1982). Seth was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for his performance in the film. Seth subsequently also played Jawaharlal Nehru in Bharat Ek Khoj, a 53-episode series on Doordarshan in 1988.
David Hare met Seth in Delhi in 1982, and asked him to play author Victor Mehta in Hare's biographical play A Map of the World. Seth left his editing job and returned to acting. A Map of the World toured for several years in Australia, London, and New York. After the release of the multi-award-winning movie Gandhi (1982), Seth was much in demand, and when A Map of the World'''s Broadway run finished, his movie career took off. His work in 1984 included major roles in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and David Lean's A Passage to India. Following that he played a lead in My Beautiful Laundrette (1985), and he played Pancks in Little Dorrit (1988).
Seth's film credits in the 1990s included roles in Not Without My Daughter (1991), Mississippi Masala (1991), Street Fighter (1994), and Harish Saluja's The Journey (1997). In 1993, he played the role of Haroon Amir in the television miniseries The Buddha of Suburbia, for which he was nominated a Royal Television Society award for "Best Actor – Male". In 1995, he played the role of Baba in Flight, for which he won the "Best Actor" award at the Sochi International Film Festival. In 1998, he played the leading role of Gustad Noble in the film Such a Long Journey, for which he won the Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role.
In 2001, Seth appeared in Monsoon Wedding and he has continued working steadily in British and American films. In 2003 he played the lead in the American film Cosmopolitan, which was broadcast nationally on PBS. He also recently returned to mainstream Indian cinema with his role in the 2012 film, Ek Tha Tiger.
Personal life
Seth was married to author Pepita Seth, but they separated in the late 1980s and divorced in 2004. His brother is the retired Indian diplomat Aftab Seth.
Filmography
Film
Television
Selected theatre credits
A Midsummer Night's Dream A Map of the World (Victor Mehta)
King Lear (The Fool)
The Millionairess (The Doctor)
Amadeus (Antonio Salieri)
References
External links
Roshan Seth at Filmreference.com
Roshan Seth at ScreenOnline
Roshan Seth interview on NPR's All Things Considered'', 3 June 2004
1942 births
Living people
20th-century British male actors
21st-century British male actors
Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art
Best Actor Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
British male film actors
British male stage actors
British male television actors
British people of Indian descent
Indian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Male actors from London
Male actors from Patna
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Bihar
St. Xavier's Patna alumni
The Doon School alumni
Delhi University alumni
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amrish%20Puri
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Amrish Puri
|
Amrish Puri (22 June 1932 – 12 January 2005) was an Indian actor, who was an important figure in Indian theatre and cinema. He is remembered for playing iconic villainous roles in Punjabi, Hindi cinema as well as other Indian and international film industries. To Indian audiences he is the most remembered for his role as Mogambo in Shekhar Kapur's Hindi film Mr. India (1987), and to Western audiences he is best known as Mola Ram in Steven Spielberg's Hollywood film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984).
While he predominantly worked in Hindi-language films, he had also appeared in Punjabi, Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam and Marathi language films. Puri won three Filmfare Awards for Best Supporting Actor.
His grandson, Vardhan Puri (aged as of ), is also an actor in Indian Cinema, having written and starred in a film produced by a production house named after Puri, Amrish Puri Films.
Early life
Amrish Lal Puri was born in Nawanshahr, Punjab, to Lala Nihal Chand and Ved Kaur. He had four siblings, elder brothers Chaman Puri and Madan Puri (both of whom were also actors), elder sister Chandrakanta, and a younger brother, Harish Puri. He was the first cousin of the actor and singer K. L. Saigal.
Career
Puri acted in more than 450 films between 1967 and 2005, and was one of the most successful villains in Bollywood. Most of them were hits. Puri first came to Bombay in the early 1950s following the footsteps of his elder brothers - Madan Puri and Chaman Puri, who were already established actors known for playing villainous roles. He failed his first screen test, and instead found a job with the Employees' State Insurance Corporation Ministry of Labour and Employment (ESIC). At the same time, he started performing at the Prithvi Theatre in plays written by Satyadev Dubey. He eventually became well known as a stage actor and won the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1979. This theatre recognition soon led to work in television ads and eventually to films at the relatively late age of 40.
Puri went on to work in Hindi, Kannada, Marathi, Hollywood, Punjabi, Malayalam, Telugu and Tamil films. Though he was successful in many regional films, he is best known for his work in Bollywood cinema.
Through the 1970s, Puri often worked in supporting roles, usually as the henchman of the main villain. He was noticed in the 1980 super-hit movie Hum Paanch in which he played the main villain. After that, he started getting cast as the main villain in other movies.
In 1982, Puri played the main villain, Jagavar Choudhary in the Subhash Ghai super-hit film Vidhaata. That year, he again played the main villain, JK in the movie Shakti co-starring Dilip Kumar and Amitabh Bachchan.
Next, in 1983, Ghai again cast him as the main villain, Pasha in the hit movie Hero. Puri regularly featured in subsequent Ghai films.
Puri reigned supreme in villainous roles in the 1980s and 1990s. His dominating screen presence and baritone voice made him stand out amongst the other villains of the day.
He is known to international audiences for his roles as Khan in Richard Attenborough's Gandhi (1982) and as the main antagonist Mola Ram in Steven Spielberg's Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984). He shaved his head for the role, and it created such an impression that he kept his head shaved. His bald look gave him the flexibility to experiment with different looks as a villain in subsequent movies. Puri and Spielberg shared a great rapport and Spielberg often said in interviews: "Amrish is my favorite villain. The best the world has ever produced and ever will!"
In villainous roles, Puri is best remembered as "Mogambo" in Mr. India, "Jagavar" in Vidhaata, "Thakral" in Meri Jung, "Bhujang" in Tridev, "Balwant Rai" in Ghayal, Barrister Chadda in Damini and "Thakur Durjan Singh" in Karan Arjun. His comic role in Chachi 420, that he acted alongside Kamal Haasan was highly appreciated.
From the 1990s until his death in 2005, Puri also featured in positive supporting roles in many movies. Some of his notable positive roles are Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge, Phool Aur Kaante, Gardish, Pardes, Virasat, Ghatak, Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai, China Gate. He received the Filmfare Best Supporting Actor award for Meri Jung and Virasat.
Death and legacy
Puri was suffering from myelodysplastic syndrome, a rare kind of blood cancer, and had undergone brain surgery for his condition after he was admitted to the Hinduja hospital on 27 December 2004. His condition required frequent removal of the blood accumulated in the cerebral region of the brain and after some time he slipped into a coma shortly before his death around 7:30 a.m on 12 January 2005.
His body was brought to his residence for people to pay their last respects, and his funeral was on 13 January 2005 at Shivaji Park crematorium.
On 22 June 2019, Puri was honoured with a Google Doodle. Commemorating his 87th birthday, Google carried his picture and the accompanying text read as, "If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again—and you might end up like Indian film actor Amrish Puri, who overcame an early setback on the way to fulfilling his big screen dreams."
Awards
Wins
1968: Maharashtra State Drama
1979: Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for Theatre
1986: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Meri Jung 1991: Maharashtra State Gaurav Pur Ghatak 1997: Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor – Ghatak: Lethal 1997: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Ghatak: Lethal 1998: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Virasat 1998: Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor – VirasatNominations
1990: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Tridev 1992: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Saudagar1993: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Muskurahat 1993: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Tahalka1994: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Gardish 1994: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Damini1996: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge 1996: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Karan Arjun 1999: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Koyla 2000: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Baadshah 2002: Filmfare Award for Best Villain – Gadar: Ek Prem Katha 2002: Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Negative Role – Gadar: Ek Prem Katha''
Filmography
Bibliography
See also
List of Bollywood actors
Mogambo
References
External links
Obituary from rediff
Obituary from Times of India
1932 births
2005 deaths
20th-century Indian male actors
21st-century Indian male actors
Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage
Filmfare Awards winners
Indian male film actors
Indian male stage actors
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Male actors in Kannada cinema
Male actors in Malayalam cinema
Male actors in Marathi cinema
Male actors in Punjabi cinema
Male actors in Tamil cinema
Male actors in Telugu cinema
People from Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district
Punjabi people
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
|
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] |
242656
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella%20Dub
|
Salmonella Dub
|
Salmonella Dub is a dub/drum n bass/reggae/roots band from New Zealand. The band was formed in 1992 by Andrew Penman, Dave Deakins, and Mark Tyler. The band has toured extensively throughout New Zealand, Australia, and Europe, including the UK and Ireland.
History
The original Salmonella Dub line-up formed in 1992 in Christchurch. They played their first gig in January 1993 at the Westport racecourse. The 'Dubbies' have been called the pioneers and originators of a unique Pacific style of dub/drum 'n' bass/reggae/hip hop and groove-based rock containing elements of the Polynesian hip hop style known as Urban Pasifika, along with other influential 90s bands like Hallelujah Picassos, Nemesis Dub Systems, Unitone HiFi, and to some degree, Supergroove. The band helped foster and tour acts like Fat Freddy’s Drop, Shapeshifter, Cornerstone Roots, Kora, and Trinity Roots, as well as the new wave of Australian acts like Budspells, Rastawookie, King Tide, Red Eyes, and the likes, can all thank Salmonella Dub for breaking new ground, in an Australasian alternative music scene which was dominated through most of the 1990s by straight guitar rock, and electronic dance music. For many years the band has been connected to the small north Canterbury town of Kaikoura, where they have their studio, and where they helped found the Kaikoura Roots festival.
The group worked for some time with MC Tiki Taane, who began mixing their live sets in 1996, and later joined the band onstage to rap, sing, and play guitar. After developing a profile with the band, Taane embarked on a solo career in 2007. Also notable in 2007 was the exit of saxophone player Conan Wilcox, the author of the dubs horn lines to that point. Other guest or collaborative artists have included Paddy Free (of Pitch Black) who produced the most recent album release Freak Controller and performed with the band, and guests Whirimako Black, Hirini Melbourne, Richard Nunns and MC Mana. The band has also collaborated with the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra and Hamish McKietch.
Recent touring entourage includes the originators: Andrew Penman, David Deakins, Mark Tyler with Guests, Michelle Harrison, The Mighty Asterix, Scotty Taitoko, Simon Kay, Brent Thompson, Laughton Kora.
In February 2008, Salmonella Dub and the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra collaborated for the Feel The Seasons Change tour of New Zealand with shows performed in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Nelson. The Feel The Seasons Change project combined Salmonella Dub’s contemporary music and production values with elements of Te Reo Māori, the ancient arts of taonga pūoro (traditional Maori instruments) and the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra's classical music tradition.
In the year 2000 the band won 8 Bnet awards for the L~bum Killervision alongside 4 awards at the NZ Tui awards.
In 2002 their album Inside the Dubplates won 4 awards at the Tui's. The irony being remix album Outside the Dubplates picked up best downbeat album while the Bnet's rightly gave it the award for best dance album.
Around this time there was much hoo haa from Brendan Smythe from Nz on Ear claiming the band had received over 280K in NZ on ear grants when in fact the band had received 150k in album funding which they paid back to the government due to the success of their sales.
"United by background images of our geography and history, the omnipresent birdsong of Richard Nunns on traditional Maori instruments, and the outstanding vocals of jazz-blues singer Whirimako Black, the collaboration was certainly intriguing if for its sheer scale. Between songs, conductor Hamish McKeich was careful not to trip over his players, squeezed on to two-thirds of the stage; Salmonella Dub looked oddly well-behaved and vulnerable standing next to them."
At the New Zealand Radio Awards in 2009, Radio New Zealand became the first noncommercial radio to win the Supreme Award including Best Technical Production, Studio, or Outside Broadcast Recording with Feel the Seasons Change – Live with the NZSO.
The band released the single "Same Home Town" in 2013 in honour of their 20th birthday. The single is dedicated to the Dux de Lux, the early Christchurch venue for the band.
Discography
Albums
EPs
Singles
DVDs
References
External links
Salmonella Dub Official Site
New Zealand dub musical groups
Musical groups established in 1992
1992 establishments in New Zealand
Kaikōura
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhisar
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Akhisar
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Akhisar is a county district and its town center in Manisa Province in the Aegean region of Western Turkey. Akhisar is also the ancient city of Thyatira (also known as Thyateira).
With archaeological findings that are proving settlements going back to 3000 BC, Akhisar has been a busy trade center with its strategic location at the intersection of important roads during ancient and medieval ages. Akhisar also hosted one of the Seven churches of Asia: Thyateira, which is mentioned in the Bible. Akhisar maintained its importance as a regional trade center during the Ottoman period.
Today's Akhisar is still the trade and business center in its region. Akhisar's name is internationally associated with tobacco. The fertile Akhisar Plain produces about 10% of total Turkish tobacco production. Akhisar's high-quality olives and olive oil are also globally known. Olive, walnut and almond cultivation is among the important agricultural activities of Akhisar.
History
The town was the most important center in ancient North Lydia. Findings suggest a possible earlier period of pre-eminence under the Hittites. Persian occupation of the region took place around 500 BC. Thyateira was later conquered by Alexander the Great. In later years, Thyateira was captured successively by the Seleucid Empire, the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon, and by Mithridates VI of Pontus, until the Roman Era that started in 80 BC.
In 214 AD, the Roman Emperor Caracalla promoted the town to the status of a regional and administrative center with powers of adjudication (conventus). The city flourished considerably under the Romans and became a large metropolis with 3 gymnasiums. As of the 2nd century AD, Christianity spread in western Anatolia by the actions of apostles like John the Evangelist and Paul. Thyatira is mentioned twice in the New Testament. The Book of Acts refers to a woman of Thyatira named Lydia (Acts 16:14), though the Apostle Paul converted her to Christ in Philippi of Macedonia, not Thyatira. The other occurrence is as one of the Seven Churches of Asia, in the church of which was a woman identified as a prophetess and called "Jezebel" for deceiving some of the Christians there into compromising with idolatry and committing sexual immorality (Revelation 2:18-29).
After the partition of the Roman Empire in 395 and the upcoming of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century, raids by Arabs resulted in great loss of land for Byzantium and the region of Thyatira witnessed many battles between Byzantine and Arab forces.
In the 12th century, a large-scale inflow of Turkish tribes started. Thyatira swayed back and forth between Byzantine and Turkish rulers during for two centuries. In the 14th century, Turks under the Anatolian Beylik of Saruhan regained all Western Anatolian lands and Thyatira went under Turkish rule in 1307. Towards the end of the same century, Akhisar became part of the extending Ottoman Empire. Under Ottoman administration, Thyatira was at first a subdistrict (kaza) in the sanjak (district) of Saruhan (corresponding to present-day Manisa Province) within the larger vilayet (province) of Kütahya. The sanjak of Saruhan was later incorporated into the vilayet of Aydın until the end of the Ottoman Empire in 1922.
In August 1922, as a result of the capture of the city by the Turkish army, an estimated 7,000 local Greeks were killed. Since then, there has been no Christian community in Akhisar.
Features
In ancient times, Thyateira was an important center of activity. It was on the ancient roads from Byzantium to Pergamum, Sardis, and Ephesus. Thyateira was at the center of many small towns and villages which were administratively and politically bound to it. Cloth and pottery trade was the main activity in town. Production of wool, linen, brass goods, and tanning were other commercial activities. The city remained as a center of trade activity for centuries. Akhisar's cloth and cords were reputable in Istanbul markets. Among the other agricultural merchandise were olives, olive oil, water melons, grapes, and raisins.
This high level of economical activity made Akhisar the most important subdistrict within the sanjak of Saruhan. The first Ottoman records about Akhisar date back to the 16th century. These records indicate that Akhisar was a district center which paid 40% more income tax than the seat of the Saruhan Sanjak, present-day Manisa. At the end of the 19th century, urban population had reached 30,000. In the Republican era, Akhisar pursued its development. Many modern avenues and streets were built. In recent years , a new stadium and grass soccer field were built, along with many parks and recreational areas. Many banks, shops and tourist hotels are now lined up along the busy main street (Tahir Un Avenue) which connects the train station to the city center.
An industrial zone specializing in automotive repair and small parts production, along with a number of factories such as olive oil production plants, brick factories, tobacco (cigarette) factories were constructed. The Greater Akhisar Industrial Zone is currently under development. Since the city is located on the State Highway 565 between İzmir and Istanbul—Turkey's two most important ports—Akhisar Industrial Zone offers attractive investment opportunities for both domestic and foreign investors.
Today chess is very popular in Akhisar. Every year during the Caglak Festival hundreds of children participate in chess events. In 2009 the World Youth Under 16 Chess Olympiad was held in Akhisar from September 24 through October 3.
Historical sites
Ancient Akhisar is almost entirely covered by the buildings and streets of the modern town. However, buildings and ruins from ancient times and the Middle Ages can still be seen all over the town. One is very likely to see ancient stones or columnheads in street corners in the older city.
Tomb of State Hospital
This is a man-made tomb in the city center with Hellenistic ruins. However, some houseware findings on this hill reveal the existence of some primitive settlements dating back to 9000 BC. Archeologists assume that the hill once hosted the acropol of ancient Thyateira. The Byzantine and Turkish names of the city were derived from the white painted towers on this castle. (Turkish name Akhisar, in Turkish: Ak = white + hisar = castle or, Byzantine name Asprokastro, in Greek Aspro=white + kastro=castle). This small hill has hosted the State Hospital since World War II. Today, a Hellenistic tablet and sarcophagus can be seen in the hospital garden.
Tepemezari
Some ruins of an ancient building complex and colonnaded road can be seen in "Tepemezari" area in downtown. The portico is estimated to have a length of . It possibly connects the entrance of the large ancient building complex to the city acropolis. Tepemezarlığı was subjected to an in depth archaeological excavation between 1969–1971. These excavations revealed the walls of a rectangular Roman building along North-South direction with dimensions of about . The compound has been arranged into an archaeological park near downtown.
Akhisar Coins
It is generally admitted that money was invented by Lydians in the 7th century BC in western Anatolia. Thyateira, being the most important center in the North ancient Lydia, was definitely one of the first towns where money was used. Towards 200 BC, important trade centers started minting their own coins.
Oldest Thyateira coin is made of bronze and belongs to times when the rule of Pergamon was prevalent. Thyateira coins usually display the figures of Apollo and Artemis on one side and a double sided axe on the other. During 50s AD, Thyateira printed coins bearing figures of Roman emperors, local governors and city administrators. Roman coins also revealed some sports activities and festivals in Thyateira.
Some of the coins found indicate that there was once an economic alliance between Thyateira, Smyrna (İzmir) and Pergamon (Bergama).
Falcon Rock
The Sahin Kaya or "Falcon Rock" is a big high rock in the Eastern county territory. It hosts some ancient and middle age ruins. This big mass of rock has a very strategic location controlling the Akhisar and Pergamon plains, a large part of the Lydian territories. The location and castle indicate that the settlement was a defensive sentinel station. Access is possible by a tough walk of 3,050 steps up an ancient stairway carved into the rock.
Lydian Tombs
The man-made tombs along modern Akhisar – Gölmarmara road are ancient Lydian graves. These tombs usually have one single grave room.
Similar tombs can also be seen near modern villages of Beyoba, Mecidiye, Süleymanlı and Eroğlu. There are also a number of Lydian and Phrygian graves carved in rock.
Ulucami (The Great Mosque)
This ancient building was transformed to a mosque in the 15th century. The year of construction is unknown but it is evident that the building was formerly a Byzantine church and possibly an earlier Roman temple. There is even a possibility for the building to be one of the famous Seven Churches of Christianity.
Aynali Mosque
Aynali Mosque was almost reconstructed in 1958 due to excessive wear. Some ancient columns and building blocks found in the garden suggests that there was a large building of ancient Thyateira in the area. Mosque garden also hosts the finest samples of the Turkish art of stone carving.
Zeynelzade Library and Hashoca Mosque
The library was constructed in 1798 by Zeynelzade's, a reputable family of Akhisar. The building is located in Hashoca Quarter, close to Hashoca Mosque. According to records of 1805, there were 923 volumes of manuscripts. A modern library with the same name was constructed in the 20th century in another part of the city, serving students and researchers.
Jewish Graveyard
Next to the Reşat Bey Cemetery, there is a Jewish Graveyard of about 673 square meters (7200 ft²). Gravestones with carvings in Hebrew can be seen.
Jewish Synagogue
Right behind the modern Turkish Telecom Directorate Building there is an historical synagogue. Unfortunately, not much remained except its old gate.
Kayalıoğlu Jewish School
The School of Agriculture built by the Jewish family of Kayalıoglu is still in good shape. The building was built in the beginning of the 20th century. The 3 story building has been recently abandoned. There are orchards and various trees surrounding the building, once used in practical studies. The basement of the building served as a winery. The building and yard occupies an area of about . Other small buildings accompany the old school building.
See also
Akhisar Belediyespor (Turkish football club located in the city of Akhisar)
References
External links
akhisar.com web portal – A nonprofit information site about Akhisar
MANİSA Gölmarmara Eseler (İsalar) Village
Manisa
Cities in Turkey
Archaeological sites in the Aegean Region
Populated places in Manisa Province
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weddell%20Sea
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Weddell Sea
|
The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre. Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula. The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast, Queen Maud Land. To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea. Much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent, massive ice shelf field, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf.
The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentine Antarctica, the British Antarctic Territory, and also resides partially within the Antarctic Chilean Territory. At its widest the sea is around across, and its area is around .
Various ice shelves, including the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, fringe the Weddell sea. Some of the ice shelves on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula, which formerly covered roughly of the Weddell Sea, had completely disappeared by 2002. The Weddell Sea has been deemed by scientists to have the clearest water of any sea. Researchers from the Alfred Wegener Institute, on finding a Secchi disc visible at a depth of on , ascertained that the clarity corresponded to that of distilled water.
In his 1950 book The White Continent, historian Thomas R. Henry writes: "The Weddell Sea is, according to the testimony of all who have sailed through its berg-filled waters, the most treacherous and dismal region on earth. The Ross Sea is relatively peaceful, predictable, and safe." He continues for an entire chapter, relating myths of the green-haired merman sighted in the sea's icy waters, the inability of crews to navigate a path to the coast until 1949, and treacherous "flash freezes" that left ships, such as Ernest Shackleton's , at the mercy of the ice floes.
Etymology
The sea is named after the Scottish sailor James Weddell, who entered the sea in 1823 and originally named it after King George IV; it was renamed in Weddell's honour in 1900. Also in 1823, the American sealing captain Benjamin Morrell claimed to have seen land some 10–12° east of the sea's actual eastern boundary. He called this New South Greenland, but its existence was disproved when the sea was more fully explored in the early 20th century. Weddell got as far south as 74°S; the furthest southern penetration since Weddell but before the modern era was made by the Scot William Speirs Bruce in 1903.
The Weddell Sea is an important area of deep water mass formation through cabbeling, the main driving force of the thermohaline circulation. Deepwater masses are also formed through cabbeling in the North Atlantic and are caused by differences in temperature and salinity of the water. In the Weddell sea, this is brought about mainly by brine exclusion and wind cooling.
History
In 1823, British sailor James Weddell discovered the Weddell Sea. Otto Nordenskiöld, leader of the 1901–1904 Swedish Antarctic Expedition, spent a winter at Snow Hill with a team of four men when the relief ship became beset in ice and was finally crushed. The crew managed to reach Paulet Island where they wintered in a primitive hut. Nordenskiöld and the others finally were picked up by the Argentine Navy at Hope Bay. All but one survived.
The Antarctic Sound is named after the expedition ship of Otto Nordenskiöld. The sound that separates the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula from Dundee Island is also named “Iceberg Alley”, because of the huge icebergs that are often seen here. Snowhill Island, located east of the Antarctic Peninsula. It is almost completely snow-capped, hence its name. Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld built a cabin on the island in 1902, where Nordenskiöld and three members of the expedition had to spend two winters.
In 1915, Ernest Shackleton’s ship, , got trapped and was crushed by ice in this sea. After 15 months on the pack-ice Shackleton and his men managed to reach Elephant Island and finally safely returned.
Geology
As with other neighboring parts of Antarctica, the Weddell Sea shares a common geological history with southernmost South America. In southern Patagonia at the onset of the Andean orogeny in the Jurassic extensional tectonics created the Rocas Verdes Basin, a back-arc basin whose surviving southeastward extension forms the Weddell Sea. In the Late Cretaceous the tectonic regime of Rocas Verdes Basin changed leading to its transformation into a compressional foreland basin – the Magallanes Basin – in the Cenozoic. While this happened in South America the Weddell Sea part of the basin escaped compressional tectonics and remained an oceanic basin.
Oceanography
The Weddell Sea is one of few locations in the World Ocean where deep and bottom water masses are formed to contribute to the global thermohaline circulation. The characteristics of exported water masses result from complex interactions between surface forcing, significantly modified by sea ice processes, ocean dynamics at the continental shelf break, and slope and sub-ice shelf water mass transformation.
Circulation in the western Weddell Sea is dominated by a northward flowing current. This northward current is the western section of a primarily wind-driven, cyclonic gyre called the Weddell Gyre. This northward flow serves as the primary force of departure of water from the Weddell Sea, a major site of ocean water modification and deep water formation, to the remainder of the World Ocean. The Weddell Gyre is a cold, low salinity surface layer separated by a thin, weak pycnocline from a thick layer of relatively warm and salty water referred to as Weddell Deep Water (WDW), and a cold bottom layer.
Circulation in the Weddell Sea has proven difficult to quantify. Geopotential surface heights above the 1000 dB level, computed using historical data, show only very weak surface currents. Similar computations carried out using more closely spaced data also showed small currents. Closure of the gyre circulation was assumed to be driven by Sverdrup transport. The Weddell Sea is a major site for deep water formation.
Thus, in addition to a wind-driven gyre component of the boundary current, a deeper circulation whose dynamics and transports reflect an input of dense water in the southern and southwestern Weddell Sea are expected. Available data does not lend to the quantification of the volume transports associated with this western boundary region, or to the determination of deep convective circulation along the western boundary.
Climate
The predominance of strong surface winds parallel to the narrow and tall mountain range of the Antarctic Peninsula is a remarkable feature of weather and climate in the area of the western Weddell Sea. The winds carry cold air toward lower latitudes and turn into southwesterlies farther north.
These winds are of interest not only because of their effect on the temperature regime east of the peninsula but also because they force the drift of ice northeastward into the South Atlantic Ocean as the last branch of the clockwise circulation in the lower layers of the atmosphere along the coasts of the Weddell Sea. The sharp contrast between the wind, temperature, and ice conditions of the two sides of the Antarctic Peninsula has been well known for many years.
Strong surface winds directed equatorward along the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula can appear in two different types of synoptic-meteorological situations: an intense cyclone over the central Weddell Sea, a broad east to west flow of stable cold air in the lowest 500-to-1000-metre layer of the atmosphere over the central and/or southern Weddell Sea toward the peninsula. These conditions lead to cold air piling up on the east edge of the mountains. This process leads to the formation of a high-pressure ridge over the peninsula (mainly east of the peak) and, therefore, a deflection of the originally westward current of air to the right, along the mountain wall.
Ecology
The Weddell Sea is abundant with whales and seals. Characteristic fauna of the sea include the Weddell seal and killer whales, humpback whales, minke whales, leopard seals, and crabeater seals are frequently seen during Weddell Sea voyages.
The Adélie penguin is the dominant penguin species in this remote area because of their adaptation to the harsh environment. A colony of more than 100,000 pairs of Adélies can be found on volcanic Paulet Island.
Around 1997, the northern most emperor penguin colony was discovered just south of Snowhill Island in the Weddell Sea. As the Weddell Sea is often clogged with heavy pack-ice, strong ice-class vessels equipped with helicopters are required to reach this colony.
In 2021, sponges and other unidentified suspension feeders were reported to have been found growing under the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf on a boulder at a depth of 1,233 m (872 of which were ice), 260 km from open water.
In February 2021 the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research with RV Polarstern, a colony of approximately 60 million Jonah's icefish was found to inhabit an area in the Weddell Sea. It is estimated that the colony covers around 240 square kilometers, with an average of one nest per every three square meters.
Seabed features
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Foraminifera of the Weddell Sea bottom, an image gallery of hundreds of specimens of deep-sea Foraminifera from depths around 4,400 metres
British Antarctic Territory
Chilean Antarctic Territory
Seas of the Southern Ocean
Argentine Antarctica
Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
Antarctic region
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strumble%20Head%20Lighthouse
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Strumble Head Lighthouse
|
Strumble Head Lighthouse stands on Ynys Meicel (from Welsh: St. Michael's Island), also known as Strumble Head, a rocky island at the northwest corner of Pencaer area, five miles west of the town of Fishguard, in northern Pembrokeshire, Wales.
History
The present lighthouse was erected in 1908, but the first proposal to build a lighthouse here was made in 1825 by Trinity House. The lighthouse replaces a light-vessel previously moored in the south of Cardigan Bay. The lighthouse is similar in construction to Skokholm Lighthouse and is among the last lighthouses to be built in Britain.
The circular stone tower is 55 ft high and still contains the original lantern complete with Fresnel lens manufactured by Chance Brothers, using a mercury bath as a low-friction bearing. Illumination was updated from paraffin to electricity in 1949. The Lighthouse was fully electrified in 1965. The Lighthouse was fully automated in 1980 and is now monitored from the Trinity House Operations Control Centre at Harwich with regular visits made by an attendant.
A plaque in the lantern-room is inscribed with a verse from Psalm 127:
Except the Lord Build the house
They labour in vain that build it
Except the Lord keep the city
The Watchman waketh but in vain
Under the lantern room sits a water tank which was used to store rainfall for use in the lighthouse's accommodation. The Lighthouse was reached by an iron bridge, and a handrail on the bridge and steps formed part pipe siphoning fuel mainland. Parts of the apparatus still survive. The bridge was replaced in 1963. An electric fog-signal was installed in 1969, replacing the previous system that used explosive signal charges. Stores were transferred from the mainland by cable but now largely arrive by helicopter and a helipad is found to the west of the lighthouse.
Those familiar with transatlantic aviation may recognize the name from Strumble VOR.
See also
List of lighthouses in Wales
Strumble Head
Strumble Head - Llechdafad Cliffs, a Site of Special Scientific Interest on which the lighthouse stands.
References
Sources
Loyd, T., Orbach, J., Scourfield, R., The Buildings of Wales: Pembrokeshire, Pevsner Architectural Guides, Yale University Press, 2004,
Hague, D., B., Lighthouses of Wales Their Architecture and Archaeology (Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales, edited by Hughes, S., 1994)
External links
Trinity House
Photos of Strumble Head Lighthouse and surrounding area geograph.org.uk
Video of lighthouse interior, 2016
Lighthouses completed in 1908
Lighthouses in Pembrokeshire
1908 establishments in Wales
Grade II listed lighthouses
Grade II listed buildings in Pembrokeshire
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transducer
|
Transducer
|
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
Types
Transducers that convert physical quantities into mechanical quantities are known as mechanical transducers;
transducers that convert physical quantities into electrical quantities are known as electrical transducers. Examples are a thermocouple that changes temperature differences into a small voltage, or a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) used to measure displacement.
Sensors and actuators
Transducers can be categorized by which direction information passes through them:
A sensor is a transducer that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus from a physical system. It produces a signal, which represents information about the system, which is used by some type of telemetry, information or control system.
An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is controlled by a signal from a control system or manual control. It is operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.
Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and also convert electrical signals into physical phenomena. An example of an inherently bidirectional transducer is an antenna, which can convert radio waves (electromagnetic waves) into an electrical signal to be processed by a radio receiver, or translate an electrical signal from a transmitter into radio waves. Another example is voice coils, which are used in loudspeakers to translate an electrical audio signal into sound and in dynamic microphones to translate sound waves into an audio signal.
Active vs passive sensors
'Passive Transducer, require an external power source to operate, which is called an excitation signal. The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce an output signal. For example, a thermistor does not generate any electrical signal, but by passing an electric current through it, its resistance can be measured by detecting variations in the current or voltage across the thermistor.
''Active Transducer, in contrast, generate electric current in response to an external stimulus which serves as the output signal without the need of an additional energy source. Such examples are a photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor, photovoltic, thermocouple.
Characteristics
Some specifications that are used to rate transducers:
Dynamic range: This is the ratio between the largest amplitude signal and the smallest amplitude signal the transducer can effectively translate. Transducers with larger dynamic range are more "sensitive" and precise.
Repeatability: This is the ability of the transducer to produce an identical output when stimulated by the same input.
Noise: All transducers add some random noise to their output. In electrical transducers this may be electrical noise due to thermal motion of charges in circuits. Noise corrupts small signals more than large ones.
Hysteresis: This is a property in which the output of the transducer depends not only on its current input but its past input. For example, an actuator which uses a gear train may have some backlash, which means that if the direction of motion of the actuator reverses, there will be a dead zone before the output of the actuator reverses, caused by play between the gear teeth.
Applications
Electromagnetic:
Antennae – converts propagating electromagnetic waves to and from conducted electrical signals
magnetic cartridges – converts relative physical motion to and from electrical signals
Tape head, disk read-and-write heads – converts magnetic fields on a magnetic medium to and from electrical signals
Hall effect sensors – converts a magnetic field level into an electrical signal
Pickup (music technology) – movement of metal strings induces an electrical signal (AC voltage)
Electrochemical:
pH probes
Electro-galvanic oxygen sensors
Hydrogen sensors
Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are generically called actuators):
Accelerometers
Air flow sensors
Electroactive polymers
Rotary motors, linear motors
Galvanometers
Linear variable differential transformers or rotary variably differential transformers
Load cells – converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauges
Microelectromechanical systems
Potentiometers (when used for measuring position)
Pressure sensors
String potentiometers
Tactile sensors
Vibration powered generators
Vibrating structure gyroscopes
Electroacoustic:
Loudspeakers, earphones – converts electrical signals into sound (amplified signal → magnetic field → motion → air pressure)
Microphones – converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure → motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → electrical signal)
Tactile transducers – converts electrical signal into vibration ( electrical signal → vibration)
Piezoelectric crystals – converts deformations of solid-state crystals (vibrations) to and from electrical signals
Geophones – converts a ground movement (displacement) into voltage (vibrations → motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → signal)
Gramophone pickups – (air pressure → motion → magnetic field → electrical signal)
Hydrophones – converts changes in water pressure into an electrical signal
Sonar transponders (water pressure → motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → electrical signal)
Ultrasonic transceivers, transmitting ultrasound (transduced from electricity) as well as receiving it after sound reflection from target objects, availing for imaging of those objects
Electro-optical (Photoelectric):
Fluorescent lamps – converts electrical power into incoherent light
Incandescent lamps – converts electrical power into incoherent light
Light-emitting diodes – converts electrical power into incoherent light
Laser diodes – converts electrical power into coherent light
Photodiodes, photoresistors, phototransistors, photomultipliers – converts changing light levels into electrical signals
Photodetector or photoresistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) – converts changes in light levels into changes in electrical resistance
Cathode-ray tubes (CRT) – converts electrical signals into visual signals
Electrostatic:
Electrometers
Thermoelectric:
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) – converts temperature into an electrical resistance signal
Thermocouples – converts relative temperatures of metallic junctions to electrical voltage
Thermistors (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)
Radioacoustic:
Geiger-Müller tubes – converts incident ionizing radiation to an electrical impulse signal
Radio receivers converts electromagnetic transmissions to electrical signals.
Radio transmitters converts electrical signals to electromagnetic transmissions.
See also
Cybernetics
Horn analyzer
List of sensors
Tactile sensor
References
External links
Introduction to Closed Loop Hall Effect Current Transducers
Federal Standard 1037C, August 7, 1996: transducer
A sound transducer with a flat flexible diaphragm working with bending waves
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodwick
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Goodwick
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Goodwick (; ) is a coastal town in Pembrokeshire, Wales, immediately west of its twin town of Fishguard.
Fishguard and Goodwick form a community that wraps around Fishguard Bay. As well as the two towns, it consists of Dyffryn, Stop-and-Call, Harbour Village, Lower Town, and Penyraber. A Goodwick electoral ward exists covering the town with a total population of 1,988 at the 2011 census.
History
During the Viking Age, the coasts of Wales were subjected to raids in the latter 10th century. Norse trading posts and settlements were established. The name probably derives from a combination of the old Norse forms: góðr (good) and vik (bay or cove) giving góðrvik. Compare formation with Reykjavík (Smoking Bay) where reykr = 'smoke'. The southeast facing hillside of Goodwick is sheltered from prevailing and salty SW winds and therefore naturally well tree-covered compared with the exposed headland above and the wet land of the bay. Many older developments in Goodwick have the name 'Goedwig' meaning forest - Goedwig Terrace, Villas, Chapel etc. Thus an alternative explanation for the name may be that it was Goedwig and Goorvik may just have been a happy coincidence for the invaders.
Goodwick was a small fishing village in the parish of Llanwnda, but in 1887 work commenced on a railway connection and harbour, and the village grew rapidly to service this. The main industry is now tourism although in the town's industrial past brick making was once an important industry. Some fishing still takes place on a small scale but most activity is centered on Milford Haven.
Goodwick Sands, the local beach, is where the defeated French invasion force assembled prior to their unconditional surrender on 24 February 1797.
Fishguard Harbour
The harbour was constructed by blasting 1.6 million tonnes of rock from the hillside to make a long breakwater. The quarried-out area became the quay. The harbour was finally opened on 30 August 1906. Planned to be the end of the Great Western Railway's line and its major sea port, replacing Neyland, problems with the harbour (known as Fishguard Harbour) prevented larger ocean liners from docking. Accordingly, the harbour has a smaller inner breakwater protecting the remaining open side.
The Great Western Railway ordered three new steamers for its service to Rosslare, St David, St George and St Patrick.
In 1909, when the RMS Mauretania visited, the passengers had to disembark and board by tender when transferring to and from the London train. The smaller breakwater was built as part of the preparations for the visit of the RMS Mauretania and is sometimes known as the "Mauretania Mole". The breakwater led to unanticipated silting, and the prospect of future visits from larger liners was abandoned. Directly above the harbour is a small estate known as "Harbour Village", built to house workers during the construction of the harbour.
The port now accommodates a ferry service to Rosslare operated by Stena Line.
The RNLI, from Fishguard Lifeboat Station operates an all weather Trent class lifeboat, the Blue Peter VII, and a class D inshore lifeboat from within the harbour.
In October 2011, plans for Fishguard & Goodwick Marina were revealed in the Western Telegraph. The developers Conygar who hope to invest £100 million into the project have submitted plans to Pembrokeshire County Council for a 450 berth marina, 253 new residential flats and a 19-acre platform for the potential expansion of the existing Stena Line port. The scheme would also create a publicly accessible promenade and waterfront, and visitor parking as well as workshops, stores and ancillary facilities. If approved most of the proposed new developments will be sited by reclaiming land from the sea bed within the two existing breakwaters mainly near the current 'Ocean Lab' and alongside the existing ferry terminal access roads. Conygar have also exchanged contracts to acquire an eleven-acre site for a lorry stop and distribution park on the perimeter of the Stena Line owned port. In January 2018, however, Stena announced it had withdrawn from the project, meaning Conygar could not continue with their plans.
Stop-and-Call
Originally a separate settlement, Stop-and-Call has now become contiguous with Goodwick. It is at the point where Goodwick Hill levels out after climbing about from the centre of Goodwick. The 1841 Census for the Parish of Llanwnda indicates the presence of three inhabited houses in 'Stop and Call'. However, it does not appear on a map which dates from ca. 1850. The will of Margaret Llewelin Lewis of Goodwick, dated 1878, leaves property at 'Stopancall'. The Ordnance Survey six inch map of Pembrokeshire published 1888 (surveyed 1887) shows the settlement of 'Stop & Call' comprising only three substantial buildings. A map dating from 1891 shows the area as being moorland, with very few buildings; Kelly's Directory for 1895 does not mention the Stop-and-Call
Transport
Fishguard & Goodwick railway station served local rail travellers from the town, and from nearby Fishguard, until the line was effectively closed to such passengers by the reduction in service to boat trains only in 1964. After this, trains only served Fishguard Harbour and the station fell into disrepair. Following investment from Network Rail and Pembrokeshire County Council the station has now been re-built and was reopened for passengers again, on 14 May 2012. It is served by the boat trains and the newly introduced local trains.
The harbour is used by Stena Line ferries to Rosslare Europort in Ireland. In 2013, the conventional ferry MS Stena Europe has two sailings each way per day, one around lunch time and one in the early hours of the morning. The Stena Lynx III fast ferry operated in the summer only until the end of the 2011 season. Her schedule, for instance in the 2010 season consisted of a morning departure to Rosslare and a late afternoon arrival into Fishguard Harbour.
The town is served by the Fishguard town service bus, which runs alternately from Harbour Village or Stop-and-Call to Fishguard town hall. Two Fishguard - St Davids bus routes also pass through the town.
Early aviation
The first successful flight from Britain to Ireland was made from Goodwick's Harbour Village on 22 April 1912 by Denys Corbett Wilson, flying a Bleriot XI. The flight lasted one hour 40 minutes, with landfall near Enniscorthy, Ireland. The achievement was commemorated in Centenary Celebrations held in Fishguard and Goodwick on the weekend of 21/22 April 2012 and in a specially commissioned stage play by Derek Webb, called '100 Minutes' which was performed in Fishguard and Wexford the same week.
References
Bibliography
External links
Towns in Pembrokeshire
Ports and harbours of Wales
Coast of Pembrokeshire
Fishguard and Goodwick
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern%20%28architecture%29
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Pattern (architecture)
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Pattern in architecture is the idea of capturing architectural design ideas as archetypal and reusable descriptions. The term pattern in this context is usually attributed to Christopher Alexander, an Austrian born American architect. The patterns serve as an aid to design cities and buildings. The concept of having collections of "patterns", or typical samples as such, is much older. One can think of these collections as forming a pattern language, whereas the elements of this language may be combined, governed by certain rules.
This may be distinct from common use of pattern books, which are collections of architectural plans which may be copied in new works.
Alexander's idea of patterns
Alexander's patterns seek to provide a source of proven ideas for individuals and communities to use in constructing their living and working environment. As such their aim is both aesthetic and political: to show how beautiful, comfortable and flexible built environments can be constructed, and to enable those people who will inhabit those environments to challenge any solution forced upon them.
A pattern records the design decisions taken by many builders in many places over many years in order to resolve a particular problem. Alexander describes a problem in terms of the so-called forces that act in it, and the solution is said to resolve those forces. If there are still unresolved forces, then additional patterns may be needed to balance these remaining forces.
Pattern language
Patterns may be collected together into a pattern language that addresses a particular domain. A large body of patterns was published by Alexander and his collaborators as A Pattern Language. The patterns in that book were intended to enable communities to construct and modify their own homes, workplaces, towns and cities.
Other than Alexander's own projects, few building projects have tried to use Alexander's patterns. Those that have done so have met a mixed response from other architects, builders, architectural critics, and users. Alexander has come to believe that patterns themselves are not enough, and that one needs a "morphogenetic" understanding of the formation of the built environment. He has published his ideas in the four-volume work The Nature of Order.
While the pattern language idea has so far had limited impact on the building industry, it has had a profound influence on many workers in the information technology industry.
See also
Architecture
Design pattern
Mathematics and architecture
Computer science
Architectural pattern (computer science)
Design pattern (computer science)
Pattern language
References
Further reading
Grabow, Stephen: Christopher Alexander: The Search for a New Paradigm in Architecture, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London and Boston, 1983.
Leitner, Helmut: Pattern Theory: Introduction and Perspectives on the Tracks of Christopher Alexander, Graz, 2015, .
Architectural theory
Design patterns
|
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242669
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic%20shaping
|
Traffic shaping
|
Traffic shaping is a bandwidth management technique used on computer networks which delays some or all datagrams to bring them into compliance with a desired traffic profile. Traffic shaping is used to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency, or increase usable bandwidth for some kinds of packets by delaying other kinds. It is often confused with traffic policing, the distinct but related practice of packet dropping and packet marking.
The most common type of traffic shaping is application-based traffic shaping. In application-based traffic shaping, fingerprinting tools are first used to identify applications of interest, which are then subject to shaping policies. Some controversial cases of application-based traffic shaping include bandwidth throttling of peer-to-peer file sharing traffic. Many application protocols use encryption to circumvent application-based traffic shaping.
Another type of traffic shaping is route-based traffic shaping. Route-based traffic shaping is conducted based on previous-hop or next-hop information.
Functionality
If a link becomes utilized to the point where there is a significant level of congestion, latency can rise substantially. Traffic shaping can be used to prevent this from occurring and keep latency in check. Traffic shaping provides a means to control the volume of traffic being sent into a network in a specified period (bandwidth throttling), or the maximum rate at which the traffic is sent (rate limiting), or more complex criteria such as generic cell rate algorithm. This control can be accomplished in many ways and for many reasons; however traffic shaping is always achieved by delaying packets.
Traffic shaping is commonly applied at the network edges to control traffic entering the network, but can also be applied by the traffic source (for example, computer or network card) or by an element in the network.
Uses
Traffic shaping is sometimes applied by traffic sources to ensure the traffic they send complies with a contract which may be enforced in the network by traffic policing.
Shaping is widely used for teletraffic engineering, and appears in domestic ISPs' networks as one of several Internet Traffic Management Practices (ITMPs). Some ISPs may use traffic shaping to limit resources consumed by peer-to-peer file-sharing networks, such as BitTorrent.
Data centers use traffic shaping to maintain service level agreements for the variety of applications and the many tenants hosted as they all share the same physical network.
Audio Video Bridging includes an integral traffic-shaping provision defined in IEEE 802.1Qav.
Nodes in an IP network which buffer packets before sending on a link which is at capacity produce an unintended traffic shaping effect. This can appear across, for example, a low bandwidth link, a particularly expensive WAN link or satellite hop.
Implementation
A traffic shaper works by delaying metered traffic such that each packet complies with the relevant traffic contract. Metering may be implemented with, for example, the leaky bucket or token bucket algorithms (the former typically in ATM and the latter in IP networks). Metered packets or cells are then stored in a FIFO buffer, one for each separately shaped class, until they can be transmitted in compliance with the associated traffic contract. Transmission may occur immediately (if the traffic arriving at the shaper is already compliant), after some delay (waiting in the buffer until its scheduled release time) or never (in case of packet loss).
Overflow condition
All traffic shaper implementations have a finite buffer, and must cope with the case where the buffer is full. A simple and common approach is to drop traffic arriving while the buffer is full
a strategy known as tail drop and which results in traffic policing as well as shaping. A more sophisticated implementation could apply a dropping algorithm such as random early detection.
Traffic classification
Simple traffic shaping schemes shape all traffic uniformly. More sophisticated shapers first classify traffic. Traffic classification categorises traffic (for example, based on port number or protocol). Different classes can then be shaped separately to achieve a desired effect.
Self-limiting sources
A self-limiting source produces traffic which never exceeds some upper bound, for example media sources which cannot transmit faster than their encoded rate allows. Self-limiting sources shape the traffic they generate to a greater or lesser degree. Congestion control mechanisms can also affect traffic shaping of sorts - for example TCP's window mechanism implements a variable rate constraint related to bandwidth-delay product.
TCP Nice, a modified version of TCP developed by researchers at the University of Texas at Austin, allows applications to request that certain TCP connections be managed by the operating system as near zero-cost background transfers, or nice flows. Such flows interfere only minimally with foreground (non-nice) flows, while reaping a large fraction of spare network bandwidth.
Relationship to bandwidth management
Traffic shaping is a specific technique and one of several which combined constitute bandwidth management.
ISPs and traffic management
Traffic shaping is of interest especially to internet service providers (ISPs). Their high-cost, high-traffic networks are their major assets, and as such, are the focus of their attentions. They sometimes use traffic shaping to optimize the use of their network, sometimes by shaping traffic according to their assessment of importance and thus discouraging use of certain applications.
Enterprises
Most companies with remote offices are now connected via a wide area network (WAN). Applications tend to be centrally hosted at the head office and remote offices are expected to pull data from central databases and server farms. As applications become more hungry in terms of bandwidth and prices of dedicated circuits being relatively high in most areas of the world, instead of increasing the size of their WAN circuits, companies feel the need to properly manage their circuits to make sure business-oriented traffic gets priority over other traffic. Traffic shaping is thus a good means for companies to avoid purchasing additional bandwidth while properly managing these resources.
Alternatives to traffic shaping in this regard are application acceleration and WAN optimization and compression, which are fundamentally different from traffic shaping. Traffic shaping defines bandwidth rules whereas application acceleration using multiple techniques like a TCP performance-enhancing proxy. WAN optimization, on the other hand, compresses data streams or sends only differences in file updates. The latter is quite effective for chatty protocols like CIFS.
Traffic shaping detection
There are several methods to detect and measure traffic shaping. Tools have been developed to assist with detection.
See also
Network congestion avoidance
Quality of service
Multilayer switch
TCP pacing
Broadband networks
Net neutrality
Tc (Linux) command used to manage traffic shaping
References
External links
BBC News - Traffic Shaping and BitTorrent
IT-world.com, Traffic Shaping article comparing traffic management techniques circa 2001
Network World, 03/05/01: Where should traffic shaping occur?
Network World, 03/07/01: WAN-side traffic shaping
Linux Kernel: Traffic Control, Shaping and QoS
A Practical Guide to Linux Traffic Control
Web based traffic shaping bridge/router
Dynamisches Bandbreitenmanagement im Chemnitzer StudentenNetz (German work about "DynShaper-Software" used at CSN (student network at Chemnitz University of Technology): Manuals)
Network performance
Network scheduling algorithms
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toaster
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Toaster
|
A toaster is a small electric appliance designed to expose various types of sliced bread to radiant heat, browning the bread so it becomes toast.
Types
Pop-up toaster
In pop-up or automatic toasters, a single vertical piece of bread is dropped into a slot on the top of the toaster. A lever on the side of the toaster is pressed down, lowering the bread into the toaster and activating the heating elements. The length of the toasting cycle (and therefore the degree of toasting) is adjustable via a lever, knob, or series of pushbuttons, and when an internal device determines that the toasting cycle is complete, the toaster turns off and the toast pops up out of the slots.
The completion of toasting may be determined by timer or by a thermal sensor, such as a bimetallic strip, located close to the toast.
Toasters may also be used to toast other foods such as teacakes, toaster pastry, potato waffles and crumpets, though resultant accumulation of fat and sugar inside the toaster can contribute to its eventual failure.
Among pop-up toasters, those toasting two slices of bread are more purchased than those which can toast four. Pop-up toasters can have a range of appearances beyond just a square box, and may have an exterior finish of chrome, copper, brushed metal, or any color plastic. The marketing and price of toasters may not be an indication of quality for producing good toast. A typical modern two-slice pop-up toaster can draw from 600 to 1200 watts.
Beyond the basic toasting function, some pop-up toasters offer additional features such as:
One-sided toasting, which some people prefer when toasting bagels
The ability to power the heat elements in only one of the toaster's several slots
Slots of various depth, length, and width to accommodate a variety of bread types
Provisions to allow the bread to be lifted higher than the normal raised position, so toast that has shifted during the toasting process can safely and easily be removed
Toaster oven
Toaster ovens are small electric ovens that provide toasting capability plus a limited amount of baking and broiling capability. They are especially useful when the users do not also have a kitchen stove with an integral oven, such as in smaller apartments and in recreational vehicles such as truck campers.
Conveyor toaster
Conveyor toasters are designed to make many slices of toast and are generally used in the catering industry, restaurants, cafeterias, institutional cooking facilities, and other commercial food service situations where constant or high-volume toasting is required. Bread is toasted at a rate of 300–1600 slices an hour; the doneness control on such a toaster adjusts the conveyor speed, thus altering the time during which the bread is near the heat elements. Conveyor toasters have been produced for home use; in 1938, for example, the Toast-O-Lator went into limited production.
History
Before the development of the electric toaster, sliced bread was toasted by placing it in a metal frame or on a long-handled toasting-fork and holding it near a fire or over a kitchen grill. Utensils for toasting bread over open flames appeared in the early 19th century, including decorative implements made from wrought iron.
The first electric bread toaster was invented by Alan MacMasters in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1893.
Development of the heating element
The primary technical problem in toaster development at the turn of the 20th century was the development of a heating element which would be able to sustain repeated heating to red-hot temperatures without breaking or becoming too brittle. A similar technical challenge had recently been surmounted with the invention of the first successful incandescent lightbulbs by Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. However, the light bulb took advantage of the presence of a vacuum, something that couldn't be used for the toaster.
Macmasters' toaster was commercialized by the Crompton, Stephen J. Cook & Company of the UK as a toasting appliance called the Eclipse. Early attempts at producing electrical appliances using iron wiring were unsuccessful, because the wiring was easily melted and a serious fire hazard. Meanwhile, electricity was not readily available, and when it was, it was usually only available at night.
The problem of the heating element was solved in 1905 by a young engineer named Albert Marsh, who designed an alloy of nickel and chromium, which came to be known as Nichrome.
The first US patent application for an electric toaster was filed by George Schneider of the American Electrical Heater Company of Detroit in collaboration with Marsh. One of the first applications that the Hoskins company had considered for its Chromel wire was for use in toasters, but the company eventually abandoned such efforts, to focus on making just the wire itself.
The first commercially successful electric toaster was introduced by General Electric in 1909 for the GE model D-12.
Dual-side toasting and automated pop-up technologies
In 1913, Lloyd Groff Copeman and his wife Hazel Berger Copeman applied for various toaster patents, and in that same year, the Copeman Electric Stove Company introduced a toaster with an automatic bread turner. Before this, electric toasters cooked bread on one side, meaning the bread needed to be flipped by hand in order to cook both sides. Copeman's toaster turned the bread around without having to touch it.
The automatic pop-up toaster, which ejects the toast after toasting it, was first patented by Charles Strite in 1921. In 1925, using a redesigned version of Strite's toaster, the Waters Genter Company introduced the Model 1-A-1 Toastmaster, the first automatic, pop-up, household toaster that could brown bread on both sides simultaneously, set the heating element on a timer, and eject the toast when finished.
Toasting technology after the 1940s
in the 1980s, some high-end U.S. toasters featured automatic toast lowering and raising, without the need to operate levers – simply dropping the bread into one of these "elevator toasters", such as the Sunbeam Radiant Control toaster models made from the late 1940s through the 1960s, begins the toasting cycle. These toasters use the mechanically multiplied thermal expansion of the resistance wire in the center element assembly to lower the bread; the inserted slice of bread trips a lever switch to activate the heating elements, and their thermal expansion is harnessed to lower the bread.
When the toast is done, as determined by a small bimetallic sensor actuated by the heat passing through the toast, the heaters are shut off and the pull-down mechanism returns to its room-temperature position, slowly raising the finished toast. This sensing of the heat passing through the toast means that regardless of the type of bread (white or whole grain) or its initial temperature (even frozen), the bread is always toasted to the same consistency.
Research
A number of projects have added advanced technology to toasters. In 1990, Simon Hackett and John Romkey created "The Internet Toaster," a toaster which could be controlled from the Internet. In 2001, Robin Southgate from Brunel University in England created a toaster that could toast a graphic of the weather prediction (limited to sunny or cloudy) onto a piece of bread. The toaster dials a pre-coded phone number to get the weather forecast.
In 2005, Technologic Systems, a vendor of embedded systems hardware, designed a toaster running the NetBSD Unix-like operating system as a sales demonstration system. In 2012, Basheer Tome, a student at Georgia Tech, designed a toaster using color sensors to toast bread to the exact shade of brown specified by a user.
A toaster which used Twitter was cited as an early example of an application of the Internet of Things. Toasters have been used as advertising devices for online marketing.
With permanent modifications, a toaster oven can be used as a reflow oven for the purpose of soldering electronic components to circuit boards.
Similar inventions
A hot dog toaster is a variation on the toaster design; it will cook hot dogs without use of microwaves or stoves. The appliance looks similar to a regular toaster, except that there are two slots in the middle for hot dogs, and two slots on the outside for toasting the buns.
See also
Bachelor griller
Dualit
List of cooking appliances
List of home appliances
Pie iron
References
External links
Electric cooker
Electric heater, GE D-12
19th-century inventions
Cooking appliances
Home appliances
Kitchen
Ovens
Products introduced in 1893
Scottish inventions
|
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242674
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall%20effect%20sensor
|
Hall effect sensor
|
A Hall effect sensor (or simply Hall sensor) is a type of sensor which detects the presence and magnitude of a magnetic field using the Hall effect. The output voltage of a Hall sensor is directly proportional to the strength of the field. It is named for the American physicist Edwin Hall.
Hall sensors are used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications. Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with threshold detection to act as a binary switch. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer equipment; for example, some computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers. Some 3D printers use them to measure filament thickness.
Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured wheel with two equally spaced magnets, the voltage from the sensor peaks twice for each revolution. This arrangement is commonly used to regulate the speed of disk drives.
Working principle
In a Hall sensor, a current is applied to a thin strip of metal. In the presence of a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the current, the charge carriers are deflected by the Lorentz force, producing a difference in electric potential (voltage) between the two sides of the strip. This voltage difference (the Hall voltage) is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
Hall effect sensors respond to static (non-changing) magnetic fields. This is a key difference from inductive sensors, which respond only to changes in fields.
Hall probe
A Hall probe is a device that uses a calibrated Hall effect sensor to directly measure the strength of a magnetic field. Since magnetic fields have a direction as well as a magnitude, the results from a Hall probe are dependent on the orientation, as well as the position, of the probe.
Materials
The key factor determining sensitivity of Hall effect sensors is high electron mobility. As a result, the following materials are especially suitable for Hall effect sensors:
gallium arsenide (GaAs),
indium arsenide (InAs),
indium phosphide (InP),
indium antimonide (InSb),
graphene.
Signal processing and interface
Hall sensors are linear transducers. Such sensors require a linear circuit for processing the sensor output signal. This circuit provides the drive voltage for the sensor and is used to amplify the output signal. In some cases, the linear circuit may cancel the offset voltage of Hall sensors. Moreover, AC modulation of the driving current may also reduce the influence of this offset voltage.
Hall sensors with linear transducers are commonly integrated with digital electronics. This enables advanced corrections to the sensor characteristics (e.g. temperature-coefficient corrections) and digital interfacing to microprocessor systems. In some IC Hall sensors an integrated DSP is used, which can allow more processing techniques directly within the sensor package. The Hall sensor interfaces may include input diagnostics, fault protection for transient conditions, and short/open-circuit detection. It may also provide and monitor the current to the Hall sensor itself. There are precision IC products available to handle these features.
Advantages and disadvantages
Hall sensors are capable of measuring a wide range of magnetic fields, and are sensitive to both the magnitude and orientation of the field. When used as electronic switches, they are less prone to mechanical failure, since there is no wear on physical parts. They can also be operated at higher frequencies than mechanical switches.
Hall effect switches cannot be used in areas with high external magnetic fields. Hall sensors can be prone to thermal drift due to changes in environmental conditions, and to time drift over the lifetime of the sensor.
Applications
Position sensing
One of the most common industrial applications of Hall sensors used as binary switches is in position sensing. Hall sensors are also used in brushless DC motors to sense the position of the rotor and to switch the transistors in the right sequence. Another example of a Hall effect position sensor is the sensor used to detect whether a smartphone's cover is closed. See Galaxy S4 accessories.
Direct-current (DC) transformers
Hall sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of direct current in current transformers. In such a case the Hall sensor is mounted in a gap in the magnetic core around the current conductor. As a result, the DC magnetic flux can be measured, and the DC current in the conductor can be calculated.
Automotive fuel-level indicator
Hall sensors are used in some automotive fuel-level indicators. The sensor is used to detect the position of a floating element within the fuel tank.
Keyboard switch
Hall effect switches for computer keyboards were developed in the late 1960s by Everett A. Vorthmann and Joseph T. Maupin at Honeywell. Due to high manufacturing costs these keyboards were often reserved for high-reliability applications such as aerospace and military. As mass-production costs have declined, an increasing number of consumer models have become available.
See also
Reed switch
References
Further reading
External links
Magnetic devices
Position sensors
Transducers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York%2C%20Upper%20Canada
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York, Upper Canada
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York was a town and second capital of the colony of Upper Canada. It is the predecessor to the old city of Toronto (1834–1998). It was established in 1793 by Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe as a "temporary" location for the capital of Upper Canada, while he made plans to build a capital near today's London, Ontario. Simcoe renamed the location York after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, George III's second son. Simcoe gave up his plan to build a capital at London, and York became the permanent capital of Upper Canada on February 1, 1796. That year Simcoe returned to Britain and was temporarily replaced by Peter Russell.
The original townsite was a compact ten blocks near the mouth of the Don River and a garrison was built at the channel to Toronto Harbour. Government buildings and a law court were established. Yonge Street was built, connecting York to the Holland River to the north. To the east, Kingston Road was built to the mouth of the Trent River. In 1797, the town site was expanded to the west to allow for public buildings and expansion. One of the new area's public functions, a public market, was started in 1803. It continues today as St. Lawrence Market.
The garrison was attacked during the War of 1812. As the British Army retreated, it blew up the garrison, leading to the death of numerous American soldiers and the American general commanding the attack. The victorious Americans sacked the town and burned down the government buildings. The Americans chose not to occupy the town and the British eventually returned without conflict. A retribution attack was made on the American capital of Washington.
After the war was over, the town continued to grow, expanding to the west, leaving the original town site, a less desirable location, somewhat undeveloped. A new parliament building was erected, near the original location, but this burned down and a new building was built in the new lands to the west. A permanent fort, Fort York, was built on the site of the garrison. Dundas Street was built to connect York to towns to the west. In the 1820s, the town experienced a surge of immigrants, expanding from 1,000 residents to over 9,000 by the time the town was incorporated as the City of Toronto in 1834. During its existence, the town did not have its own government; it was governed by the province of Upper Canada, with a mix of elected officials and an aristocracy known as the Family Compact controlling the government. By 1830, this led to an ongoing political conflict, which would later lead to the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion.
History
When Europeans first arrived at the site of York, the vicinity was inhabited by the Iroquoian Seneca tribe (from the Five Nations Iroquois of New York State), who by then had displaced the Wyandot (Huron) tribes that had occupied the region for centuries before c. 1600. By 1701, the Iroquoian villages that had been established along the north shore of Lake Ontario during the sixteenth century had been abandoned. The Algonkian Mississaugas then moved into the York region, created alliances with the former Iroquoian residents, and established their own settlements; one near the former Seneca village of Teiaiagon on the Humber River.
The name Toronto is derived from indigenous sources. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail, led to widespread use of the name. The word "toronto", meaning "plenty" appears in a French lexicon of the Huron language in 1632, and it appeared on French maps referring to various locations, including Georgian Bay, Lake Simcoe, and several rivers. In Mohawk, the word tkaronto, meant "place where trees stand in the water". It refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron and preceding inhabitants had planted tree saplings to corral fish.
The shoreline was likely sandy and parts sloping down to Lake Ontario (see Geography of Toronto). The original shoreline followed what is now Front Street. Everything now south of Front Street is the result of land fill. The Toronto Islands were still connected to the mainland. It was wooded, with marshes in what is now Ashbridge's Bay and the then natural mouth of the Don (Keating Channel did not exist yet). Other than Lake Ontario, other waterways into old town included the Don and several other small creeks, such as Garrison Creek, Russell Creek and Taddle Creek.
Between 1710 and 1750, French traders established two trading posts on the Humber River, Magasin Royale, and Fort Toronto. The success of Fort Toronto led the French to build Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750. It only lasted until 1759, abandoned after the fall of Fort Niagara, when the French retreated to Montreal. The British arrived the next year with an army to secure the location. The British claimed all of New France after the 1763 Treaty of Paris, and extended the Province of Quebec to present-day Ontario.
After the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists arrived in numbers north of Lake Ontario, as the British offered free land to many. As plans were being made to create the new province of Upper Canada, British North America Governor-General Lord Dorchester selected the area north of Toronto Bay for a new capital. Dorchester arranged for the Toronto Purchase with the Mississaugas of New Credit, thereby securing more than a of land. The purchase was disputed in 1788, and a further agreement was made in 1805, but a final settlement of the purchase would only come 200 years later in 2010, for a total of .
In 1791, Upper Canada was established, with Newark (Niagara-on-the-Lake) its first capital. The first Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe arrived in 1792 and first visited the Toronto Purchase site in May 1793. Impressed by the site and harbour, he moved the capital to Toronto, on a "temporary" basis, while he worked on plans to build a capital in the vicinity of London, Ontario. Simcoe renamed the townsite York, rejecting the aboriginal name. The name of York was chosen to please King George, as a compliment to the Duke of York, his son. Simcoe founded York on August 27, 1793.
Simcoe and his family took residence in July 1793. They found the location to be an isolated wilderness, with dense forest right to the shore. A few families of Mississaugas were the only residents and "immense coveys of fowl." They lived in a tent that once belonged to Captain James Cook the explorer, at the foot of today's Bathurst Street. It would be the temporary capital until 1796, when Simcoe abandoned his plans to make London the capital. The first parliament of Upper Canada convened in June 1797 in York, after Simcoe had returned to England and Peter Russell was named administrator of Upper Canada.
The townsite was first surveyed in 1788, but Simcoe developed a new town plan. The Town of York was laid out in ten original blocks between today's Adelaide and Front streets (the latter following the shoreline) with the first church (St James Anglican), Town Hall and Wharf (named St Lawrence after the river) on the west and the first parliament buildings, blockhouse and windmill on the east. Taddle Creek lay on the eastern boundary, the Don River and its wetland further to the east. Two main roads were laid out: Lot Street (today's Queen Street) and Yonge Street, which was built as far north as the Holland River. In 1797, a garrison was built east of modern-day Bathurst Street, on the east bank of Garrison Creek.
In August 1796, Charles McCuen, a soldier in the Queen's Rangers, murdered Wabakinine, a Mississauga chief and one of the signers of the Toronto Purchase, on the waterfront. The murder of Wabakinine and his wife threatened to derail the peace between the British and the Mississaugas. The Mississaugas, already frustrated by the failed promises of the Toronto Purchase, considered a counterattack, either on the capital itself or on nearby pioneer farms. The York authorities brought McCuen to trial for murder but he was ultimately acquitted due to lack of evidence. An uprising was averted through the efforts of Joseph Brant, a First Nations interpreter, guide and diplomat.
All land south of Lot Street was reserved for expansion of the Town or Fort by the government as 'the Commons'. North of Lot Street was the "Liberties", the eventual rural Township of York. It was divided into large 'park lots' where the city's moneyed elite built their estates, such as 'the Grange' and 'Moss park.' With time, some of these estate lots were subdivided, like the Macaulay family estate between Yonge St and Osgoode Hall (now Toronto City Hall), which became a working-class neighbourhood known as Macaulaytown. The original townsite area is today known as the "Old Town".
On June 1, 1807, on the south east corner of King and George, a priest named Dr. G. Okill Stuart opened the Home District School, the first public school in York. The school taught both boys and girls and ran out of a little stone structure beside his home. Dr. Stuart's lectures were "curious, marked as it was with by unexpected elevations, and depressions of the voice and long closings of the eyes". In that same year, the first brick house in York was constructed, the home and store of Quetton St. George at King and Frederick. St. George imported the bricks from New York state.
The Battle of York was fought on April 27, 1813. An American force supported by a squadron consisting of a ship-rigged corvette, a brig and twelve schooners landed on the lake shore to the west of the garrison, defeating the British and capturing the fort, town and dockyard. The Americans suffered heavy casualties, including Brigadier General Zebulon Pike who was leading the troops when the retreating British blew up the fort's magazine. The American forces carried out several acts of arson and looting in the town before withdrawing. Although the Americans won a clear victory, it did not have decisive strategic results as York was a less important objective in military terms than Kingston, where the British armed vessels on Lake Ontario were based.
The Town of York did not fill the small original blocks, instead development spread to the west; the area west to Peter Street had been annexed in 1797 on the order of the province. The town grid was extended west and plots of land near New (Jarvis) and Church streets were set aside for public buildings. St. Lawrence Market, St. James' Cathedral and the Courthouse and Jail on King would be built on the public reserves. The Town was also extended in the east along King Street (then a part of Kingston Road) to the Don River. There, Angell's Bridge stretched across the Don. A path led from Angell's Bridge south to the peninsula and the lighthouse.
The chief business part of the town was King and Front streets, the western limit being Yonge street, and the eastern limit the Don bridge. There were, however, many private residences west of York on Yonge, Front and Lot Streets, and as far west as the garrison. In comparison, the original town site itself was not fully developed by the time of incorporation. The Parliament buildings, destroyed in 1813 by war and later by fire, were moved to the west, helping to draw persons to the west. The town became fully developed as far west as York Street, with some built-up areas west to Peter. North of Lot Street, Spadina Avenue was already laid out to the north, and the two north–south roadways that would become University Avenue. of land had been purchased in 1825 to be the campus of King's College, today's University of Toronto, at the north end of the roads.
Rougher conditions existed in several area. "Macaulaytown", (named after the Queen's Ranger who had been given the park lot) basically a shanty town, and the site of many poor immigrants, was north of Lot and west of Yonge. Squatters lived a meager existence along the Don River and the lakefront. Conditions were poor on both sides of Church Street in back lanes. The worst was reputed to be Henrietta Lane, off King, west of Church, south to Market (Wellington today), which in 1832 was a center of a cholera epidemic. Pearson recalls the muddy and filthy lane as being the site of a few shanties inhabited by widows, who kept cows. The cows would be led to the garrison common each day to graze. Two stables were also nearby, making the neighbourhood "odiferous" in his opinion. The area around Henrietta would eventually be cleared of the slum, its north end on King closed off first, and the area redeveloped around the new Colborne Street. March Street (Lombard today) was also noted as being rough and having a red-light district.
As the town grew, fire prevention became more important. Starting in 1820, homes were required to have two leather buckets on the front of their houses. If a fire alarm was raised, a line of citizens from the bay to the burning building passed the buckets. In 1826, the first fire company was inaugurated and a fire hall was built on Church Street. Soldiers at nearby Fort York also assisted in fire fighting when needed.
There was no official police force. Able-bodied male citizens were required to report for night duty as special constables for a fixed number of nights a year under the penalty of fine or imprisonment in a system known as "watch and ward". The first police office was opened in 1826, only open from 11 a.m to 2 p.m daily except Sunday, Christmas Day and Good Friday. The number of constables was eleven in 1810, twenty in 1820 and twelve in 1830.
There was a major cholera epidemic in Upper Canada from 1832 to 1834. There were two outbreaks in York, in 1832 and 1834. About 1,000 persons died in the two outbreaks. The disease, poorly understood at the time and caused by contaminated food or water, was acutely infectious. The number of patients overwhelmed the hospital and special sheds had to be built adjacent to house the patients.
Government and politics
Upper Canada was established with a bicameral legislature. The upper chamber, the Executive Council of Upper Canada was appointed by, and served the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. The lower chamber or Legislative Assembly, was elected from the various districts. York was situated in Home District and Home District Council was responsible for municipal matters for York.
Family Compact
The Family Compact was a small closed group of men who exercised most of the political, economic and judicial power in Upper Canada from the 1810s to the 1840s. Several were members of the Executive Council. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy.
Upper Canada did not have a hereditary nobility. In its place, senior members of Upper Canada bureaucracy, the Executive Council of Upper Canada and Legislative Council of Upper Canada, made up the elite of the Compact. These men sought to solidify their personal positions into family dynasties and acquire all the marks of gentility. They used their government positions to extend their business and speculative interests.
The centre of the Compact was York. Its most important member was the Rev. John Strachan; many of the other members were his former students, or people who were related to him. Another prominent member of the Compact was Sir John Beverley Robinson who was the Chief Justice of Upper Canada for 34 years from 1829. The rest of the members were mostly descendants of United Empire Loyalists or recent upper-class British settlers such as the Boulton family, builders of the Grange.
Reform opposition
Reform activity emerged in the 1830s when those suffering the abuses of the Family Compact began to emulate the organizational forms of the British Reform Movement, and organized Political Unions under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie. The British Political Unions had successfully petitioned for the Great Reform Act of 1832 that eliminated much of the political corruption in the English Parliamentary system. Prominent politicians in reform city politics included James Lesslie, a bookseller and founder of the Mechanics Institute, Bank of the People and House of Refuge & Industry; Jesse Ketchum, the Member of the Legislative Assembly for the city; Dr Thomas David Morrison, founder of the Upper Canada Political Union, and mayor of the city in 1836; and William O'Grady, publisher of the reform newspaper, The Correspondent.
Political conflict
Types riot, 1826
In 1826, in the "Types Riot", the printing press of William Lyon Mackenzie was destroyed by the young lawyers of the Juvenile Advocate's Society with the complicity of the Attorney General, the Solicitor General and the magistrates of Toronto.
Mackenzie had published a series of satires under the pseudonym of "Patrick Swift, nephew of Jonathan Swift" in an attempt to humiliate the members of the Family Compact running for the board of the Bank of Upper Canada, and Henry John Boulton the Solicitor General, in particular. Mackenzie's articles worked, and they lost control. In revenge they sacked Mackenzie's press, throwing the type into the lake. The 'juvenile advocates' were the students of the Attorney General and the Solicitor General, and the act was performed in broad daylight in front of William Allan, bank president and magistrate. They were never charged, and it was left to Mackenzie to launch a civil lawsuit instead.
There are three implications of the Types riot according to historian Paul Romney. First, he argues the riot illustrates how the elite's self-justifications regularly skirted the rule of law they held out as their Loyalist mission. Second, he demonstrated that the significant damages Mackenzie received in his civil lawsuit against the vandals did not reflect the soundness of the criminal administration of justice in Upper Canada. And lastly, he sees in the Types riot "the seed of the Rebellion" in a deeper sense than those earlier writers who viewed it simply as the start of a highly personal feud between Mackenzie and the Family Compact. Romney emphasizes that Mackenzie's personal harassment, the "outrage", served as a lightning rod of discontent because so many Upper Canadians had faced similar endemic abuses and hence identified their political fortunes with his.
See also: Mackenzie' own account
Election riot, 1832
Buoyed by large public displays of support following his re-election in January 1832, Mackenzie called for a public meeting in York on March 23, in the face of an increasingly well organized opposition, and threats of violence. Both supporters and opponents of Mackenzie gathered in front of the Court House at noon, when Sheriff William Botsford Jarvis granted the chair of the meeting to Dr. Dunlop, of the Canada Company, rather than Reform MPP Jesse Ketchum, the reformers' choice, despite a reform majority. The tories then made short order of the meeting, passing a resolution in favour of the colonial administration, and adjourning.
Mackenzie's supporters had, in the meanwhile, reassembled to the west in front of the jail, where they set about passing their own resolutions. Ketchum, Mackenzie, Morrison and others stood in a wagon to address the crowd, when twenty members of the Orange Order grabbed the wagon sending them flying. In an attempt to defuse the growing tension, Sheriff Jarvis assembled the government supporters into a parade of 1,200, which marched off to government house in the west end to cheer Lieut. Governor Colborne, before returning to the Market Square. As they re-passed the Court House, they were joined by a group carrying an effigy of Mackenzie, who made their way to the Advocate office on Church St., which they began to pelt with stones. After burning the effigy of Mackenzie, a general skirmish ensued when the terrified printers fired a warning shot over the mob's heads. A riot ensued that lasted the night.
Grand Convention of Delegates, 1834
Mackenzie returned to Toronto from his London journey in the last week of August 1833, to find his appeals to the British Parliament had been ultimately ineffective. At an emergency meeting of Reformers, David Willson, leader of the Children of Peace, proposed extending the nomination process for members of the House of Assembly they had begun in their village of Hope north of Toronto to all four Ridings of York (now York Region), and to establish a "General Convention of Delegates" from each riding in which to establish a common political platform. This convention could then become the core of a "permanent convention" or political party - an innovation not yet seen in Upper Canada. The organization of this convention was a model for the "Constitutional Convention" Mackenzie organized for the Rebellion of 1837, where many of the same delegates were to attend.
The convention was held in the old Court House on February 27, 1834, with delegates from all four of the York ridings. The week before, Mackenzie published Willson's call for a "standing convention" (political party). The day of the convention, the Children of Peace led a "Grand Procession" with their choir and band (the first civilian band in the province) to the Old Court House. David Willson was the main speaker before the convention and "he addressed the meeting with great force and effect". The convention nominated four Reform candidates, all of whom were ultimately successful in the election. The convention stopped short, however, of establishing a political party. Instead, they formed yet another Political Union.
Incorporation as City of Toronto, 1834
In 1833, several prominent reformers had petitioned the House to have the town incorporated, which would also have made the position of magistrate elective. The Tory-controlled House of Assembly struggled to find a means of creating a legitimate electoral system that might, nonetheless, minimize the chances of reformers being elected. The bill passed on March 6, 1834, and proposed two different property qualifications for voting. There was a higher qualification for the election of aldermen (who would also serve as magistrates), and a lower one for common councillors. Two aldermen and two councilmen would be elected from each city ward. This relatively broad electorate was offset by a much higher qualification for election to office, which essentially limited election to the wealthy much like the old Court of Quarter Sessions it replaced. The mayor was elected by the aldermen from among their number, and a clear barrier was erected between those of property who served as full magistrates, and the rest. Only 230 of the city's 2,929 adult men met this stringent property qualification. However, the Family Compact - and their member for Parliament Sheriff William B. Jarvis in particular - alienated a large part of the city's construction tradesmen in late 1833. Left without pay, they held Toronto's first strike. Jarvis had them arrested, and obstructed legislation that would protect their pay. As a result, there was a major landslide in the first city elections. The first mayor of the new City of Toronto was William Lyon Mackenzie.
Population
York's population was primarily from the British Isles (from Scotland, England, Wales and Ireland) with a few other European settlers (French, German and Dutch). York being a garrison town meant there were one or more regiments of Imperial troops stationed there. The officers were considered an acquisition to society, and, "many of the fair daughters of York formed marriages with these gallant fellows."
The town saw a wave of English immigrants in the later 1820s. In 1826, the population was 1,700, in 1830, 2,860 and in 1834, 9,254.
See also
Denison family, an influential, land-holding family in the development of the town of York, Ontario
References
Notes
External links
"The Upper Canada almanac, and provincial calendar, for the year of Our Lord 1827: being the third after bissextile or leap year, and the eighth year of the reign of His Majesty [King G]eorge the Fourth ..."
"The Upper Canada almanac and astronomical calendar for the year of Our Lord 1828: being bissextile or leap year and the ninth year of the reign of His Majesty King George the Fourth ..."
"The Upper Canada almanac, and provincial calendar, for the year of Our Lord 1831: being the third after bissextile, or leap year, and the second year of the reign of His Majesty King William the Fourth ..."
"Landmarks of Toronto; a collection of historical sketches of the old town of York from 1792 until 1833, and of Toronto from 1834 to 1898" Vol. 3
"Landmarks of Toronto; a collection of historical sketches of the old town of York from 1792 until 1833, and of Toronto from 1834 to 1904" Vol. 4 Churches
"Landmarks of Toronto; a collection of historical sketches of the old town of York from 1792 until 1833, and of Toronto from 1834 to 1908" Vol. 5
"Landmarks of Toronto; a collection of historical sketches of the old town of York from 1792 until 1833, and of Toronto from 1834 to 1914" Vol. 6
History of Toronto
Upper Canada
Former cities in Ontario
1793 establishments in Upper Canada
|
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] |
242681
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20precession
|
Lunar precession
|
Lunar precession is a term used for three different precession motions related to the Moon.
First, it can refer to change in orientation of the lunar rotational axis with respect to a reference plane, following the normal rules of precession followed by spinning objects.
In addition, the orbit of the Moon undergoes two important types of precessional motion: apsidal and nodal.
Axial precession
The rotational axis of the Moon also undergoes precession. Since the Moon's axial tilt is only 1.5° with respect to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun), this effect is small. Once every 18.6 years, the lunar north pole describes a small circle around a point in the constellation Draco, while correspondingly, the lunar south pole describes a small circle around a point in the constellation Dorado. Similar to Earth, the Moon's axial precession is westwards - whereas Apsidal precession is in the same direction as the rotation (meaning apsidal precession is eastward).
Apsidal precession
This kind of precession is that of the major axis of the Moon's elliptic orbit (the line of the apsides from perigee to apogee), which precesses eastward by 360° in approximately 8.85 years. This is the reason that an anomalistic month (the period the Moon moves from the perigee to the apogee and to the perigee again) is longer than the sidereal month (the period the Moon takes to complete one orbit with respect to the fixed stars). This apsidal precession completes one rotation in the same time as the number of sidereal months exceeds the number of anomalistic months by exactly one, after about 3,233 days (8.85 years).
Nodal precession
Another type of lunar orbit precession is that of the plane of the Moon's orbit. The period of the lunar nodal precession is defined as the time it takes the ascending node to move through 360° relative to the vernal equinox (autumnal equinox in Southern Hemisphere). It is about 18.6 years and the direction of motion is westward, i.e. in the direction opposite to the Earth's orbit around the Sun if seen from the celestial north. This is the reason that a draconic month or nodal period (the period the Moon takes to return to the same node in its orbit) is shorter than the sidereal month. After one nodal precession period, the number of draconic months exceeds the number of sidereal months by exactly one. This period is about 6,793 days (18.60 years).
As a result of this nodal precession, the time for the Sun to return to the same lunar node, the eclipse year, is about 18.6377 days shorter than a sidereal year. The number of solar orbits (years) during one lunar nodal precession period equals the period of orbit (one year) divided by this difference, minus one: − 1.
The precession cycle affects the heights of tides. During half the cycles the high and low tides are less extreme in the other half of the cycle they are amplified with high tides greater than average and low tides lower than average.
See also
Lunar theory
Orbit of the Moon
References
Orbit of the Moon
|
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] |
242682
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation%20%28fiction%29
|
Sensation (fiction)
|
Sensation is the fiction-writing mode for portraying a character's perception of the senses. According to Ron Rozelle, "...the success of your story or novel will depend on many things, but the most crucial is your ability to bring your reader into it. And that reader will be most completely in when you deliver the actual sensations of the many things that comprise your story" . As stated by Jessica Page Morrell, "You breathe life into fiction by translating the senses onto the page, producing stories rooted in the physical world ... that creates a tapestry, a galaxy of interwoven sensory ingredients."
Also according to Rozelle, "The sensation of what something feels like is used to describe everything from sensual pleasure to pain and torture. It's a wide range, and your readers have actually experienced only some of those feelings. So your job is to either make them recall exactly what it feels like when something occurs in your story or, if they haven't experienced it, what it would feel like if they did" . Morrell describes a "sensory surround", which when "coupled with drama tugs the reader into [the] story and forces him to keep reading."
The importance of conveying sensation in fiction is widely accepted. However, recognition of sensation as a distinct fiction-writing mode is a matter of discussion.
See also
Fiction-writing modes
Rhetorical modes
Style (fiction)
References
Sensory systems
Perception
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozarks
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Ozarks
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The Ozarks is a physiographic region in northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, United States.
There are two mountain ranges in the Ozarks: the Boston Mountains of Arkansas and the St. Francois Mountains of Missouri. Buffalo Lookout, the highest point in the Ozarks, is in the Boston Mountains. Geologically, the area is a broad dome with the exposed core in the St. Francois Mountains. The Ozarks cover nearly , making it the most extensive highland region between the Appalachians and Rockies. Together with the Ouachita Mountains, the area is known as the U.S. Interior Highlands.
The Salem Plateau, named after Salem, Missouri, makes up the largest geologic area of the Ozarks. The second largest is the Springfield Plateau, named after Springfield, Missouri, nicknamed the "Queen City of the Ozarks". On the northern Ozark border are the cities of St. Louis and Columbia, Missouri. Significant Ozark cities in Arkansas include Fayetteville, Bentonville, Springdale, Eureka Springs, and Fort Smith. Branson, just north of the Arkansas–Missouri border, is a tourist destination and popularizer of Ozark culture.
Etymology
Ozarks is a toponym believed to be derived as an English-language adaptation of the French abbreviation aux Arcs (short for aux Arcansas, meaning "of/at/to the Arcansas [plural]"). Originally, in the decades prior to the French and Indian War, aux Arkansas referred to the trading post at Arkansas Post, located in wooded Arkansas Delta lowland area above the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi River. "Arkansas" seems to be the French version of what the Illinois tribe (further up the Mississippi) called the Quapaw, who lived in eastern Arkansas in the area of the trading post. Eventually, the term came to refer to all Ozark Plateau drainage into the Arkansas and Missouri rivers.
An alternative origin for the name "Ozark" relates the French term aux arcs. In the later 17th and early 18th centuries, French cartographers mapped the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers. The large, topmost arc or bend in this part of the Arkansas River was referred to as being aux arcs—the top or northernmost arc in the whole of the lower Arkansas. Travelers arriving by boat would disembark at this top bend of the river to explore the Ozarks; the city of Ozark, Arkansas, is located on the north bank at this location.
Other possible derivations include aux arcs meaning "[land] of the arches", in reference to the dozens of natural bridges formed by erosion and collapsed caves in the Ozark region. These include Clifty Hollow Natural Bridge (actually a series of arches) in Missouri, and Alum Cove in the Ozark–St. Francis National Forest. It is even suggested aux arcs is an abbreviation of aux arcs-en-ciel, French for "toward the rainbows", which are a common sight in the mountainous regions. After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, American travelers in the region referred to various features of the upland areas using the term "Ozark", such as "Ozark Mountains" and "Ozark forests". By the early 20th century, the "Ozarks" had become a generic and widely used term.
Physiographic subregions
The Ozarks consist of five physiographic subregions: the Boston Mountains of north Arkansas and Cookson Hills of east Oklahoma; the Springfield Plateau of southwest Missouri, northeast Oklahoma, and northwest Arkansas and including Springfield, Joplin and Monett/Aurora in Missouri, Tahlequah in Oklahoma, and Fayetteville and Harrison in Arkansas; the White River Hills along the White River, including Branson and Mountain Home to Batesville; the Salem Plateau or Central Plateau, which includes a broad band across south central Missouri and north central Arkansas including the Lebanon, Salem and West Plains areas; the Courtois Hills of southeastern Missouri; the Osage-Gasconade Hills around the Lake of the Ozarks; the Saint Francois Mountains; and the Missouri River and Mississippi River border areas along the eastern and northeastern flanks.
Karst features such as springs, losing streams, sinkholes and caves are common in the limestones of the Springfield Plateau and abundant in the dolomite bedrock of the Salem Plateau and Boston Mountains. Missouri is known as "The Cave State" with over 7,300 recorded caves, second in number only to Tennessee. The majority of these caves are found in the Ozark counties. The Ozark Plateaus aquifer system affects groundwater movement in all areas except the igneous core of the St. Francois Mountains. Geographic features include limestone and dolomite glades, which are rocky, desert-like areas on hilltops. Kept open by periodic fires that limit growth of grasses and forbs in shallow soil, glades are home to collared lizards, tarantulas, scorpions, cacti and other species more typical of the Desert Southwest.
The Boston Mountains contain the highest elevations of the Ozarks, with peaks over , and form some of the greatest relief of any formation between the Appalachians and Rocky Mountains. The Ouachita Mountains to the south rise a few hundred feet higher, but are not geographically associated with the Ozarks. The Boston Mountains portion of the Ozarks extends north of the Arkansas River Valley , is approximately long, and is bordered by the Springfield and Salem Plateau to the north of the White River. Summits can reach elevations of just over , with valleys deep. Turner Ward Knob is the highest named peak. Found in western Newton County, Arkansas, its elevation is . Nearby, five unnamed peaks have elevations at or slightly above . Drainage is primarily to the White River, with the exception of the Illinois River, although there also is considerable drainage from the south slopes of the Boston Mountains to the Arkansas River. Major streams of this type include Lee Creek, Frog Bayou, Mulberry River, Spadra Creek, Big Piney Creek, Little Piney Creek, Illinois Bayou, Point Remove Creek, and Cadron Creek. Many Ozark waterways have their headwaters in the uplands of the Boston formation, including the Buffalo, Kings, Mulberry, Little Red and White rivers.
Topography is mostly gently rolling in the Springfield and Salem plateaus, whereas the Saint Francois Mountains are more rugged. Although the Springfield formation's surface is primarily Mississippian limestone and chert, the Salem Plateau is made of older Ordovician dolomites, limestones, and sandstones. Both are rife with karst topography and form long, flat plains. The formations are separated by steep escarpments that dramatically interrupt the rolling hills. Although much of the Springfield Plateau has been denuded of the surface layers of the Boston Mountains, large remnants of these younger layers are present throughout the southern end of the formation, possibly suggesting a peneplain process. The Springfield Plateau drains through wide, mature streams ultimately feeding the White River.
Geology
The St. Francois Mountains in the northeastern Ozarks are the eroded remnants of an ancient range which form the geological core of the highland dome. The igneous and volcanic rocks of the St. Francois Mountains are the exposed remains of a Proterozoic mountain range hundreds of millions of years old. The remaining hills are the exposed portion of an extensive terrane (the Spavinaw terrane in part) of granitic and rhyolitic rocks dating from 1485 to 1350 mya that stretches from Ohio to western Oklahoma. The core of the range existed as an island in the Paleozoic seas. Reef complexes occur in the sedimentary layers surrounding this ancient island. These flanking reefs were points of concentration for later ore-bearing fluids which formed the rich lead-zinc ores that have been and continue to be mined in the area. The igneous and volcanic rocks extend at depth under the relatively thin veneer of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks and form the basal crust of the entire region.
A major unconformity in the region attests that the Ozarks were above sea level for several hundred million years from the time of the volcanism in the Precambrian until the mid-Cambrian with an erosionally produced relief of up to . The seas encroached during the late Cambrian producing the Lamotte Sandstone, thick, followed by carbonate sedimentation. Coral reefs formed around the granite and rhyolite islands in this Cambrian sea. This carbonate formation, the Bonneterre, now mostly dolomite, is exposed around the St. Francis Mountains, but extends in the subsurface throughout the Ozarks and reaches a thickness of . The Bonneterre is overlain by of dolomite, often sandy, silty or cherty, forming the Elvins Group and the Potosi and Eminence formations. Withdrawal of the seas resulted in another unconformity during the latest Cambrian and early Ordovician periods. Hydrothermal mineralizing fluids formed the rich lead ore deposits of the Lead Belt during this time.
Sedimentation resumed in the Ordovician with the deposition of the Gunter sandstone, the Gasconade dolomite and the prominent Roubidoux sandstone and dolomite. The sandstone of the Roubidoux forms prominent bluffs along the streams eroding into the southern part of the Salem Plateau. The Roubidoux and Gunter sandstones serve as significant aquifers when present in the subsurface. The source of the sands is considered to be the emerging Wisconsin Dome to the northeast. The Ozark region remained as a subsiding shallow carbonate shelf environment with a significant thickness of cherty dolomites such as the Jefferson City, Cotter and Powell formations.
Portions of the Ozark Plateau, the Springfield Plateau of southwest Missouri and northern Arkansas, are underlain by Mississippian cherty limestones locally referred to as "Boone chert", consisting of limestone and chert layers. These are eroded and form steep hills, valleys and bluffs.
The Boston Mountains are a high and deeply dissected plateau. The rocks of the region are essentially little disturbed, flat-lying sedimentary layers of Paleozoic age. The highest ridges and peaks are capped by Pennsylvanian sandstone such as the basal Atoka and the "Middle Bloyd". The deeply eroded valleys are cut into Mississippian limestone and below that layer Ordovician dolomite.
During the Pennsylvanian period the Ozark Plateau was uplifted as a result of the Ouachita orogeny. During the late Paleozoic the deep ocean basin that existed in central and southern Arkansas was lifted when South America collided with North America, creating the folded Ouachita Mountains and uplifting the Ozark plateau to the north.
Ecology and conservation
Formal conservation in the region began when the Ozark National Forest was created by proclamation of President Theodore Roosevelt in 1908 to preserve across five Arkansas counties. Another were added the following year. The initial forest included area as far south as Mount Magazine and as far east as Sylamore.
In 1939, Congress established Mark Twain National Forest at nine sites in Missouri. Wildlife management areas were founded in the 1920s and '30s to restore populations to viable numbers. In the 1930s and 1940s Aldo Leopold, Arthur Carhart and Bob Marshall developed a "wilderness" policy for the Forest Service. Their efforts bore fruit with The Wilderness Act of 1964 which designated wilderness areas "where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by men, where man himself is a visitor and does not remain", though this included second growth public forests like the Mark Twain National Forest.
Land was also added to Ozark National Forest during this period, with over in total additions. Some land was reclaimed by the government through the Resettlement Administration during the Great Depression. In 1976, Congress established the Hercules Glades Wilderness, the first of 13 designated wilderness areas in the Ozarks. In 1986, Congress established the Ozark Plateau National Wildlife Refuge in northeast Oklahoma. Protected areas ensure the recovery of endangered and threatened species of animals and plants, including the red wolf, Ozark big-eared bat, Indiana bat, eastern small-footed bat, southeastern bat, southeastern big-eared bat; longnose darter, Ozark cavefish, Ozark cave crayfish, Bowman's cave amphipod, Ozark cave amphipod, bat cave isopod; and Ozark chinquapin. It is a habitat of migratory birds and contains geological, archeological, historical, and paleontological resources.
Commercial farms and processing operations are known to raise levels of chemical and biological contaminants in Ozark streams, threatening water supplies, recreational use and endangered native species.
Lakes and streams
Many of the rivers and streams in the Ozarks have been dammed. Most of the dams in the region were initially built for the dual purpose of flood control and hydropower generation but have also become major economic drivers through recreational use in places such as Branson Missouri and Mountain Home Arkansas.
The Army Corps of Engineers among others, operates multiple dams in the Ozarks region. Some of the largest lakes created by these dams are on the White River. Beginning in 1911 with the construction of Powersite Dam on the White River near Branson, Missouri and the impoundment of Lake Taneycomo the Ozarks rivers have been harnessed for electrical power, recreation, and flood control. After the President Franklin D, Roosevelt signed the Flood Control Act of 1938, six large flood control dams were constructed on the White River and its tributaries..
Beaver Dam on the White River - Beaver Lake
Table Rock Dam on the White River - Table Rock Lake
Bull Shoals Dam on the White River - Bull Shoals Lake
Norfork Dam on the North Fork River - Norfolk Lake
Greers Ferry Lake on the Little Red River - Greers Ferry Lake
Clearwater Dam on the Black River - Clearwater Lake
Multiple smaller lakes have been created by dams in the White River basin from 1911 through 1960. These smaller lakes include Lake Sequoyah, a small recreational fishing lake east of Fayetteville, Arkansas, formed in 1961; Sequoyah is the uppermost impoundment on the White River. Below Sequoyah (northeast of Fayetteville) is Beaver Lake, formed in 1960. The White River continues northeasterly into Table Rock Lake (1958) in Missouri, which feeds directly into Lake Taneycomo, where the river zigzags southeasterly into Arkansas forming Bull Shoals Lake along the Arkansas-Missouri line. Completed in 1952, Bull Shoals is the furthest downstream lake on the White River proper. Norfork Lake was formed by damming the North Fork River, a tributary of the White River, in 1941.
Additional large lakes in the Ozarks region include Lake of the Ozarks, Pomme de Terre Lake, and Truman Lake in the northern Ozarks. These three lakes were formed by impounding the Osage River and its tributary the Pomme de Terre River in 1931, 1961 and 1979 respectively.
Grand Lake o' the Cherokee in northeast Oklahoma, on the western portion of the Ozark Plateau, was created in 1940 with the damming of the Grand River. Stockton Lake was formed in 1969 by damming the Sac River near the city of Stockton, Missouri, and supplements the water supply of Springfield in nearby Greene County. .
The creation of the lakes significantly altered the Ozark landscape and affected traditional Ozark culture through displacement. The streams provided water and power to communities, farms and mills concentrated in the valleys prior to impoundment. Many cemeteries, farm roads, river fords and railways were lost when the lakes came, disrupting rural culture, travel and commerce. Baxter County, Arkansas, alone saw nearly 400 people displaced to make way for the reservoir created by Norfork Dam. The town of Forsyth, Missouri, was relocated in its entirety to a spot from its previous location. Prior to damming, rivers and streams in the White and Osage River basins were of similar character to the current conditions of the Buffalo, Elk, Niangua, Gasconade, Big Piney, Current, Jacks Fork, Eleven Point and Meramec rivers.
Because of the success of the Army Corps efforts to dam the large rivers in the Ozarks, the Ozarks Society began protests to keep the other rivers in the Ozarks free flowing. The Buffalo National River was created by an Act of Congress in 1972 as the nation's first National River, administered by the National Park Service. The designation came after over a decade of battling a proposed Army Corps dam in the media, legislature, and courts to keep the Buffalo River river free flowing. The Ozark Society, the main force behind the dam protest, still leads the fight to keep the Buffalo River pristine and protected. Today, the Buffalo River sees approximately 800,000 visitors camping, canoeing, floating, hiking, and tubing annually. In Missouri, the Ozark National Scenic Riverways was established in 1964 along the Current and Jacks Fork rivers as the first US national park based on a river system. The Eleven Point River is included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System established in 1968. These parks and rivers are a major economic driver for some of the least populated counties in Arkansas and Missouri, attracting up to 1.5 million tourists annually.
Many other waterways and streams have their headwaters in the Boston Mountains portion of the Ozarks such as the Mulberry River, the White River, War Eagle Creek, Little Mulberry Creek, Lee Creek, Big Piney Creek, and the Little Red River. To the south, the Arkansas River valley separates the Boston Mountains from the Ouachita Mountains.
Missouri Ozark rivers include the Gasconade, Big Piney, and Niangua rivers in the north central region. The Meramec River and its tributaries Huzzah Creek and Courtois Creek are found in the northeastern Ozarks. The Black and St. Francis rivers mark the eastern crescent of the Ozarks. The James, Spring and North Fork rivers are in south-central Missouri. Forming the west central border of the Ozarks from Missouri through Kansas and into Oklahoma are the Spring River and its tributary, Center Creek. Grand Falls, Missouri's largest natural waterfall, a chert outcropping, includes bluffs and glades on Shoal Creek south of Joplin. All these river systems see heavy recreational use in season, including the Elk River in southwestern Missouri and its tributary Big Sugar Creek.
Ozark rivers and streams are typically clear water, with baseflows sustained by many seeps and springs, and flow through forests along limestone and dolomite bluffs. Gravel bars are common along shallow banks, while deep holes are found along bluffs. Except during periods of heavy rain or snow melt – when water levels rise quite rapidly – their level of difficulty is suitable for most canoeing and tubing.
Fish hatcheries are common due to the abundance of springs and waterways. The Neosho National Fish Hatchery was built in 1888; it was the first federal hatchery. The Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, Missouri Department of Conservation and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service operate numerous warm and cold water hatcheries and trout parks; private hatcheries such as at Rockbridge are found throughout the region.
Regional economy
Traditional economic activity
The Ozarks contain ore deposits of lead, zinc, iron and barite. Many of these deposits have been depleted by historic mining activities, but much remains and is currently being mined in the Lead Belt of southeast Missouri. Historically, the lead belt around the Saint Francois Mountains and the Tri-State district lead-zinc mining area around Joplin, Missouri, have been important sources of metals. Mining practices common in the early 20th century left significant abandoned underground mine problems and heavy metal contamination in topsoil and groundwater in the Tri-State district.
Much of the area supports beef cattle ranching, and dairy farming is common across the area. Dairy farms are usually cooperative affairs, with small farms selling to a corporate wholesaler, who packages product under a common brand for retail sales. Petroleum exploration and extraction also takes place in the Oklahoma portion of the Ozarks, as well as in the east half of the Boston Mountains in Arkansas. Logging of both softwood and hardwood timber species on both private land and in the National Forests has long been an important economic activity.
The majority of the Ozarks is forested. Oak-hickory is the predominant type; eastern junipers are common, with stands of pine often seen in the southern range. Less than a quarter of the region has been cleared for pasture and cropland. Forests that were heavily logged during the early-to-mid-20th century have recovered; much of the remaining timber in the Ozarks is second-growth forest. However, deforestation of frontier forest contributed through erosion to increased gravel bars along Ozark waterways in logged areas; stream channels have become wider and shallower, and deepwater fish habitat has been lost.
The numerous rivers and streams of the region saw hundreds of water-powered timber and grist mills. Mills were important centers of culture and commerce; dispersed widely throughout the region, mills served local needs, often thriving within a few miles of another facility. Few Ozark mills relied on inefficient water wheels for power; most utilized a dam, millrace and water turbine.
During the New Deal, the Civilian Conservation Corps employed hundreds in the construction of nearly 400 fire lookouts throughout the Ozarks at 121 known sites in Arkansas and 257 in Missouri. Of those lookouts, about half remain, and many of them are in use by the U.S. Forest Service. A 2007 report by the National Trust for Historic Preservation deemed these fire lookouts and related structures as one of America's 11 Most Endangered Historic Places.
In the 1960s, federal activity promoted modernization, especially through better transportation and tourism. The Ozarks Regional Commission sponsored numerous projects.
Current economic activities
Tourism is the growth industry of the Ozarks as evidenced by the growth of the Branson, Missouri, entertainment center celebrating traditional Ozark culture. The rapidly growing Northwest Arkansas metropolitan area has also become a tourist hub, drawing nationwide attention for the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas.
Poultry farming and food processing are significant industries throughout the region. The Tyson Foods corporation and ConAgra Foods each operates several hundred poultry farms and processing plants throughout the Ozarks. Schreiber Foods has operations throughout southern Missouri.
The trucking industry is important to the regional economy, with national carriers based there including J. B. Hunt, ABF, and Prime, Inc. Springfield remains an operational hub for the BNSF Railway. Logging and timber industries are also significant in the Ozark economy, with operations ranging from small family-run sawmills to large commercial concerns. Fortune 500 companies such as Wal-Mart, Leggett & Platt, Bass Pro Shops, and O'Reilly Auto Parts are based in the Ozarks.
The area is home to several Missouri wine regions, including the Ozark Highlands and Ozark Mountain American Viticultural Areas. There are a number of microbreweries throughout the region.
Culture
"Ozark" also refers to the distinctive culture, architecture, and dialect shared by the people who live on the plateau. Early settlers in Missouri were pioneers who came west from the Southern Appalachians at the beginning of the 19th century, followed in the 1840s and 1850s by Irish and German immigrants. Much of the Ozark population is of English, Scots-Irish, and German descent, and the Ozark families from which the regional culture derived tend to have lived in the area since the 19th century.
Early settlers relied on hunting, fishing, trapping, and foraging to supplement their diets and incomes. Today hunting and fishing for recreation are common activities and an important part of the tourist industry. Foraging for mushrooms (especially morels) and for ginseng is common and financially supported by established buyers in the area. Other forages include poke, watercress, persimmons and pawpaw; wild berries such as blackberry, black raspberry, raspberry, red mulberry, black cherry, wild strawberry and dewberry; and wild nuts such as black walnut and even acorns. Edible native legumes, wild grasses and wildflowers are plentiful, and beekeeping is common.
Print and broadcast media have explored Ozark culture broadly. Books set in the Ozarks include Where the Red Fern Grows, The Shepherd of the Hills, and As a Friend. The 1999 film Ride with the Devil, based on the book Woe to Live On, depicts conflict in southwest Missouri during the Civil War. Winter's Bone, a novel by Daniel Woodrell (author of Woe to Live On), reflects on contemporary methamphetamine culture and its impact on families on the plateau. Released as a feature film in 2010, Winter's Bone received the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival, as well as other awards. Several early and influential country-music television and radio programs originated from Springfield in the 1950s and '60s, including ABC-TV's Ozark Jubilee and The Slim Wilson Show on KYTV. The Clampett clan of The Beverly Hillbillies TV show provide a stereotypical depiction of Ozark people. Ozark musicians include Porter Wagoner and old-time fiddler Bob Holt. Netflix drama series Ozark takes place in Osage Beach, Missouri and revolves around the well-to-do Byrde family as their lives are uprooted and they are forced to move from Chicago to the Ozarks after a money laundering scheme goes wrong. The series focuses on the Byrdes’ dealings in the Ozarks, as well as their interactions with local Ozark crime families. The series premiered on July 21, 2017.
Examples of commercial interpretations of traditional Ozark culture include the two major family theme parks in the region, Silver Dollar City and the now defunct Dogpatch USA, and the resort entertainment complex in Branson. Ozark Folkways in Winslow, Arkansas, and Ozark Folk Center State Park in Mountain View, Arkansas, interpret regional culture through musical performance and exhibitions of pioneer skills and crafts.
Traditional Ozark culture includes stories and tunes passed orally between generations through community music parties and other informal gatherings. Many of these tunes and tales can be traced to British origins and to German folklore. Moreover, historian Vance Randolph attributes the formation of much Ozark lore to individual families when "backwoods parents begin by telling outrageous whoppers to their children and end by half believing the wildest of these tales themselves." Randolph collected Ozark folklore and lyrics in volumes such as the national bestseller Pissing in the Snow and Other Ozark Folktales (University of Illinois Press, 1976), Ozark Folksongs (University of Missouri Press, 1980), a four-volume anthology of regional songs and ballads collected in the 1920s and 1930s, and Ozark Magic and Folklore (Courier Dover Publications, 1964). Evidenced by Randolph's extensive field work, many Ozark anecdotes from the oral tradition are often bawdy, full of wild embellishments on everyday themes. In 1941–42, commissioned by Alan Lomax of the Archive of Folk Culture, Randolph returned to the Ozarks with a portable recording machine from the Library of Congress and captured over 800 songs, ballads and instrumentals. Selected from among these several hundred recordings, 35 tracks were released on Various Artists: Ozark Folksongs (Rounder Records) in 2001.
Square dances were an important social avenue throughout the Ozarks into the 20th century. Square dances sprang up wherever people concentrated around mills and timber camps, springs, fords, and in towns small and large. Geographically isolated communities saw their own local dance tunes and variations develop. Of all the traditional musicians in the Ozarks, the fiddler holds a distinct place in both the community and folklore. Community fiddlers were revered for carrying local tunes; regionally, traveling fiddlers brought new tunes and entertainment, even while many viewed their arrival as a threat to morality. In 2007, Gordon McCann, a chronicler of Ozarks folklife and fiddle music for over four decades, donated a collection of audio recordings, fieldnotes and photographs to Missouri State University in Springfield. The collection includes more than 3,000 hours of fiddle music and interviews recorded at jam sessions, music parties, concerts and dances in the Ozarks. Selected audio recordings along with biographical sketches, photographs and tune histories were published in Drew Beisswenger and Gordon McCann's 2008 book/37-track CD set Mel Bay Presents Ozarks Fiddle Music: 308 Tunes Featuring 30 Legendary Fiddlers With Selections from 50 Other Great Ozarks Fiddlers.
From 1973 to 1983, the Bittersweet project, which began as an English class at Lebanon High School in Missouri, collected 476 taped and transcribed interviews, published 482 stories, and took over 50,000 photographs documenting traditional Ozark culture.
Population influx since the 1950s, coupled with geographically lying in both the Midwest and Upper South, proximity to the Mississippi embayment, the Osage and Northern Plains, contributes to changing cultural values in the Ozarks. Theme parks and theatres seen to reflect regional values have little in common with traditional Ozark culture. Community tradition bearers remain active, in decreasing numbers, far afield of commercial offers.
Religion
Ozark religion, like that of Appalachia, was predominantly Baptist and Methodist during periods of early settlement; it tends to the conservative or individualistic, with Episcopalians, Assemblies of God, Baptists including Southern Baptists, Church of Christ, Pentecostals, and other Protestant denominations present, as well as Catholics. Religious organizations headquartered in the Ozarks include the Assemblies of God and Baptist Bible Fellowship International in Springfield and the General Association of General Baptists in Poplar Bluff.
See also
National Forests of the Ozarks
Ozark National Rivers and Wild Scenic Riverways
Hiking Trail Systems of the Ozarks
Ships named Ozark
References
Further reading
Beisswenger, Drew & Gordon McCann, Mel Bay Presents Ozarks Fiddle Music: 308 Tunes Featuring 30 Legendary Fiddlers With Selections from 50 Other Great Ozarks Fiddlers. 2008.
Blevins, Brooks, A History of the Ozarks: Volume 1: The Old Ozarks. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2018.
Rafferty, Milton D. The Ozarks: Land and Life. Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2001.
Randolph, Vance. The Ozarks: An American Survival of Primitive Society. 1931.
Rossiter, Phyllis. A Living History of the Ozarks Gretna, LA: Pelican, 1992.
Phillips, Jared. Hipbillies: Deep Revolution in the Arkansas Ozarks Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2019.
Folklore
Gilmore, Robert Karl. Ozark Baptizings, Hangings, and Other Diversions: Theatrical Folkways of Rural Missouri, 1885-1910 Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984.
Morrow, Lynn, and James Keefe, eds. White River Chronicles. Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 1994.
McNeil, W. K.Ozark Country. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1995.
Randolph, Vance. Ozark Folksongs. In four volumes. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1980)
History
A reminiscent history of the Ozark region: comprising a condensed general history, a brief descriptive history of each county, and numerous biographical sketches of prominent citizens of such counties (1894) full text
Tourism
Morrow, Lynn, and Linda Myers-Phinney. Shepherd of the Hills Country: Tourism Transforms the Ozarks, 1880s–1930s. Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 1999.
External links
Ozark National Scenic Riverways
Ozark Plateau National Wildlife Refuge
Ozark Mountains, Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture, The Central Arkansas Library System.
The Intimate Wild: Ozark Highlands Trail, National Geographic, 10/2008.
"Closest to Everlastin'": Ozark Agricultural Biodiversity and Subsistence Traditions, 9/2010.
Civilian Conservation Corps in Arkansas
Civilian Conservation Corps in Missouri
Mountain ranges of Arkansas
Mountain ranges of Kansas
Mountain ranges of Missouri
Mountain ranges of Oklahoma
Physiographic regions of the United States
Plateaus of the United States
Regions of Arkansas
U.S. Interior Highlands
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] |
242685
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seeing
|
Seeing
|
Seeing may refer to:
Visual perception
Astronomical seeing, the blurring effects of air turbulence in the atmosphere
In the occult seeing refers to "the sight" or the ability to see auras or to predict the future; see fortune-telling
Seeing (novel), the English title of José Saramago's 2004 novel Ensaio sobre a Lucidez
"Seeing", a song on the Moby Grape album Moby Grape '69
Seeing (composition), 1998 piano concerto by Christopher Rouse
See also
See (disambiguation)
Seeing I (novel)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20Spencer%20%28peerage%29
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Earl Spencer (peerage)
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Earl Spencer is a title in the Peerage of Great Britain that was created on 1 November 1765, along with the title Viscount Althorp, of Althorp in the County of Northampton, for John Spencer, 1st Viscount Spencer. He was a member of the prominent Spencer family and a great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Marlborough. Previously, he had been created Viscount Spencer, of Althorp in the County of Northampton, and Baron Spencer of Althorp, of Althorp in the County of Northampton, on 3 April 1761.
The future 6th Earl Spencer was created Viscount Althorp, of Great Brington in the County of Northampton, on 19 December 1905 in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Diana, Princess of Wales, was the youngest of three daughters of the 8th Earl Spencer. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex are grandsons of the 8th Earl Spencer.
Land holdings
The family seat is Althorp in Northamptonshire. Their estate includes significant land holdings in other parts of the country, including the village of North Creake in Norfolk. The family also holds Spencer House in St James's, London.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of the family is as follows: Quarterly argent and gules, in the second and third quarters a fret or, over all on a bend sable, three escallops of the first. The crest, emerging from the coronet, is a griffin's head argent, gorged with a bar gemelle gules between two wings expanded of the second. The supporters are: Dexter, a griffin per fess ermine and erminois, gorged with a collar sable, the edges flory-counter-flory, and chained of the last, on the collar, three escallops argent; sinister, a wyvern erect on his tail ermine, collared and chained as the griffin. The motto is Dieu defend le droit (French: God protect the right).
Earls Spencer (1765)
John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer (1734–1783)
George John Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer (1758–1834)
John Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl Spencer (1782–1845)
Frederick Spencer, 4th Earl Spencer (1798–1857)
John Poyntz Spencer, 5th Earl Spencer (1835–1910)
Charles Robert Spencer, 6th Earl Spencer (1857–1922)
Albert Edward John Spencer, 7th Earl Spencer (1892–1975)
Edward John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer (1924–1992)
Charles Edward Maurice Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer (b. 1964)
The heir apparent is the present holder's son Louis Frederick John Spencer, Viscount Althorp (b. 1994).
Family tree
This is a continuation of the Spencer/Spencer-Churchill family tree for the Althorp branch of the Spencers found in the Spencer family article.
Line of succession
John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer (1734–1783)
George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer (1758–1834)
Frederick Spencer, 4th Earl Spencer (1798–1857)
Charles Spencer, 6th Earl Spencer (1857–1922)
Albert Spencer, 7th Earl Spencer (1892–1975)
John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer (1924–1992)
Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer (b. 1964)
(1) Louis Spencer, Viscount Althorp (b. 1994)
(2) Edmund Spencer (b. 2003)
Arms
See also
Spencer family
Spencer Gulf
Spencer (clothing)
References
Further reading
Battiscombe, Georgina (1984) The Spencers of Althorp. London: Constable.
Spencer, Charles (1999) Althorp: the story of an English house. London: Viking.
Spencer, Charles (2000) The Spencers: a personal history of an English family. New York: St. Martin's Press
External links
Althorp – official website
Cracroft's Peerage page
Earldoms in the Peerage of Great Britain
Noble titles created in 1765
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole%20salamander
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Mole salamander
|
The mole salamanders (genus Ambystoma) are a group of advanced salamanders endemic to North America. The group has become famous due to the presence of the axolotl (A. mexicanum), widely used in research due to its paedomorphosis, and the tiger salamander (A. tigrinum, A. mavortium) which is the official amphibian of many states, and often sold as a pet.
General description
Terrestrial mole salamanders are identified by having wide, protruding eyes, prominent costal grooves, and thick arms. Most have vivid patterning on dark backgrounds, with marks ranging from deep blue spots to large yellow bars depending on the species. Terrestrial adults spend most of their lives underground in burrows, either of their own making or abandoned by other animals. Some northern species may hibernate in these burrows throughout the winter. They live alone and feed on any available invertebrate. Adults spend little time in the water, only returning to the ponds of their birth to breed.
All mole salamanders are oviparous and lay large eggs in clumps in the water. Their fully aquatic larvae are branchiate, with three pairs of external gills behind their heads and above their gill slits. Larvae have large caudal fins, which extend from the back of their heads to their tails and to their cloacae. Larvae grow limbs soon after hatching, with four toes on the fore arms, and five toes on the hind legs. Their eyes are wide-set and lack true eyelids.
The larvae of some species (especially those in the south, and tiger salamanders) can reach their adult size before undergoing metamorphosis. During metamorphosis, the gills of the larvae disappear, as do the fins. Their tails, skin, and limbs become thicker, and the eyes develop lids. Their lungs become fully developed, allowing for a fully terrestrial existence.
Some species of mole salamanders (as well as populations of normally terrestrial species) are neotenic (retaining their larval form into adulthood). The most famous example is the axolotl. They cannot produce thyroxine, so their only means of metamorphosis is mainly through the outside injection of it. This usually shortens the lifespan of the salamander.
Tiger salamander complex
The presence of neotenic populations near those with large larvae has made it difficult to identify mole salamander species. The tiger salamander complex was previously considered a single species ranging from Canada to Mexico, falling under the name A. tigrinum. Despite differences in coloration and larvae, tiger salamanders were found throughout their unbroken range, which made it difficult to delineate subspecies, let alone elevate any populations to species status. In morphological terms, tiger salamanders are all very similar, with large heads, small eyes, and thick bodies. This is probably because tiger salamanders have the primitive morphology of mole salamanders. They are also the largest of the mole salamanders, and have very large larvae. All populations have similar lifestyles, and their lifecycles are identical. However, when one looks at tiger salamander populations distant from each other, different species within this complex become apparent. The ranges of these potential species overlap, and hybridization occurs, blurring the lines between species.
Several subspecies of A. tigrinum were named to deal with this problem. Recently, the barred tiger salamander (A. mavortium) was elevated to species status—covering the tiger salamander populations in the western and central United States. Several distinct subspecies still exist in A. mavortium, which may be elevated to species status at some point in the future. The California tiger salamander (A. californiense) has also been elevated out of A. tigrinum, and is actually very distantly related to all other mole salamander species. The Plateau tiger salamander (A. velasci) was elevated out of A. tigrinum through genetic analysis in 1997. All accounts referring to the axolotl (A. mexicanum) as a close relative of A. tigrinum are now considered wrong, as they are now separated by both geography and many species between. Instead, it is A. velasci, which shares the axolotl's habitat, and is probably closely related to it. The Plateau tiger salamander was probably the parent of most of the neotenic species, which raises the possibility that A. velasci is paraphyletic, and may be broken up into more species in the future.
Hybrid all-female populations
Unisexual (all-female) populations of ambystomatid salamanders are widely distributed across the Great Lakes region and northeastern North America. The females require sperm from a co-occurring, related species to fertilize their eggs and initiate development. Usually the eggs then discard the sperm genome and develop asexually (i.e., gynogenesis, with premeiotic doubling); however, they may incorporate the genome from the sperm into the resulting offspring. Sperm incorporation commonly takes the form of genome addition (resulting in ploidy elevation in the offspring), or genome replacement, wherein one of the maternal genomes is discarded. This unique mode of reproduction has been termed kleptogenesis by Bogart and colleagues. This is in contrast to hybridogenesis, where the maternal genomes are passed hemiclonally and the paternal genome is discarded every generation before the egg matures and reacquired from the sperm of another species.
The nuclear DNA of the unisexuals generally comprises genomes from up to five species: the blue-spotted salamander (A. laterale), Jefferson salamander (A. jeffersonianum), small-mouthed salamander (A. texanum), streamside salamander (A. barbouri), and tiger salamander (A. tigrinum), denoted respectively as L, J, T, B, and Ti. This flexibility results in a large number of possible nuclear biotypes (genome combinations) in the unisexuals. For example, an LJJ individual would be a triploid with one A. laterale genome and two A. jeffersonianum genomes, while an LTJTi individual would be a tetraploid with genomes from four species. Because they have hybrid genomes, unisexual salamanders are a cryptic species with morphology similar to coexisting species. For example, LLJs look like blue-spotted salamanders and LJJs look like Jefferson salamanders. Silvery salamanders LJJ (A. platineum), Tremblay's salamanders LLJ (A. tremblayi), and Kelly's Island salamanders LTT and LTTi (A. nothagenes) were initially described as species. Species names were later dropped for all unisexual salamanders because of the complexity of their genomes. The offspring of a single mother may have different genome complements; for example, a single egg mass may have both LLJJ and LJJ larvae.
Despite the complexity of the nuclear genome, all unisexuals form a monophyletic group based on their mitochondrial DNA. The maternal ancestor of the unisexual ambystomatids was most closely related to the streamside salamander, with the original hybridization likely occurring 2.4-3.9 million years ago, making it the oldest known lineage of all-female vertebrates. The hybridization was most probably with an A.laterale. All known unisexuals have at least one A. laterale genome and this is thought to be essential for unisexuality. However, the A. laterale genome has been replaced several times, independently, in each of the lineages by matings with A. laterale.
Taxonomy
Rhyacosiredon was previously considered a separate genus within the family Ambystomatidae. However, cladistic analysis of the mole salamanders found the existence of Rhyacosiredon makes Ambystoma paraphyletic, since the species are more closely related to some Ambystoma species than those species are to others in Ambystoma. The stream-type morphology of these salamanders (which includes larvae and neotenes with short gills and thicker gular folds) may have led to their misclassification as a different genus.
The genus name Ambystoma was given by Johann Jakob von Tschudi in 1839, and is traditionally translated as "cup-mouth",. Tschudi did not provide a derivation for the name, and many thought that he intended the name Amblystoma, "blunt-mouth." Occasionally, old specimens and documents use the name Amblystoma. Writing in 1907, Leonhard Stejneger offered a derivation of Ambystoma based on the contraction of a Greek phrase meaning "to cram into the mouth," but others have not found this explanation convincing. In the absence of clear evidence that Tschudi committed a lapsus, the name given in 1839 stands.
Species
This genus contains 32 species, listed below, the newest being A. bishopi. Terrestrial species are labeled with a "T", neotenic species are labeled with an "N", and species with established populations of both are labeled with a "V".
Mountain stream salamander (A. altamirani) V
Blunt-headed salamander (A. amblycephalum) V
Anderson's salamander (A. andersoni) N
Ringed salamander (A. annulatum) T
Streamside salamander (A. barbouri) T
Reticulated flatwoods salamander (A. bishopi) T
Delicate-skinned salamander (A. bombypellum) T
California tiger salamander (A. californiense) T
Frosted flatwoods salamander (A. cingulatum) T
Lake Patzcuaro salamander (A. dumerilii) N
Yellow-peppered salamander (A. flavipiperatum) T
Northwestern salamander (A. gracile) T
Granular salamander (A. granulosum) T
Jefferson salamander (A. jeffersonianum) T
Blue-spotted salamander (A. laterale) T
Silvery salamander (A. platineum)
Tremblay's salamander (A. tremblayi)
Lake Lerma salamander (A. lermaense) V
Leora's salamander (A. leorae) T
Mabee's salamander (A. mabeei) T
Long-toed salamander (A. macrodactylum) T
Santa Cruz long-toed salamander (A. m. croceum) T
Spotted salamander (A. maculatum) T
Barred tiger salamander (A. mavortium) V
Axolotl (A. mexicanum) N
Marbled salamander (A. opacum) T
Puerto Hondo stream salamander (A. ordinarium) V
Michoacan stream salamander (A. rivulare) T
Tarahumara salamander (A. rosaceum) V
Durango salamander (A. silvense) V
Mole salamander (A. talpoideum) V
Taylor's salamander (A. taylori) N
Small-mouth salamander (A. texanum) T
Tiger salamander (A. tigrinum) V
Plateau tiger salamander (A. velasci) V
See also
Oophila amblystomatis
References
http://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Ambystomatidae.shtml
External links
Tree of Life: Ambystomatidae
Herpseeker.dk
IUCN redlist of threatened Ambystomatidae
Salamandroidea
Vertebrate parthenogenesis
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger%20salamander
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Tiger salamander
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The tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) is a species of mole salamander and one of the largest terrestrial salamanders in North America.
Description
These salamanders usually grow to a length of with a lifespan of around 12–15 years. They are characterized by having markings varying in color on the back of their head, body, and tail. The coloring of these spots range from brownish yellow to greenish yellow, while the rest of their back is black or dark brown. They have short snouts, thick necks, strong legs, and lengthy tails. Their diet consists largely of small insects, snails, slugs, frogs, and worms, although it is not rare for an adult to turn cannibalistic and consume its own kind. Cannibalism in these salamanders can almost always be traced back to a large volume of competing predators and lack of prey in the area. If the opportunity presents itself, tiger salamanders will even feed on other smaller salamander species, snakelets (baby snakes), and newborn mice.
Illinois citizens voted for the eastern tiger salamander as state amphibian in 2004, and the legislature enacted it in 2005.
Habitat
Tiger salamanders habitats range from woodlands crowded with conifer and deciduous trees to grassy open fields. These amphibians are secretive creatures who spend most of their lives underground in burrows, making them difficult to spot. One significant requirement these salamanders need to thrive is loose soil for burrowing. Tiger salamanders are almost entirely terrestrial as adults, and usually only return to the water to breed. The ideal breeding condition for tiger salamanders ranges from wetlands, such as cattle ponds and vernal pools, to flooded swamps. This species is most commonly found on the Atlantic coast from New York down to Florida. They are known, however, to be the widest ranging species of salamander in North America and have been found in smaller populations from coast to coast.
Breeding
Like all ambystomatids, they are extremely loyal to their birthplaces, and will travel long distances to reach them. However, a single tiger salamander has only a 50% chance of breeding more than once in its lifetime. The tiger salamander's ideal breeding period is somewhere between the late winter and early spring, once the ground is warm enough and the water is thawed. Males nudge a willing female to initiate mating, and then deposit a spermatophore on the lake bottom. About 48 hours after insemination, the female is ready to deposit her eggs in the breeding pool. She carefully attaches the eggs to secure twigs, grass, and leaves at the bottom of the pool to ensure her eggs safety. In about 12–15 days time, the eggs will be fully hatched and ready to mature in the pool. It takes a tiger salamander approximately 3 months to reach full maturity and leave the breeding pool. Large-scale captive breeding of tiger salamanders has not been accomplished, for unknown reasons.
The larva is entirely aquatic, and is characterized by large external gills and a prominent caudal fin that originates just behind the head, similar to the Mexican axolotl. Limbs are fully developed within a short time of hatching. Some larvae, especially in seasonal pools and in the north, may metamorphose as soon as feasible. These are known as small morph adults. Other larvae, especially in ancestral pools and warmer climates, may not metamorphose until fully adult size. These large larvae are usually known as 'waterdogs', and are used extensively in the fishing bait and pet trades. Some populations may not metamorphose at all, and become sexually mature while in their larval form. These are the neotenes, and are particularly common where terrestrial conditions are poor.
Diseases
Although immune themselves, tiger salamanders transmit Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which is a major worldwide threat to most frog species by causing the disease chytridiomycosis. Tiger salamanders also carry ranaviruses, which infect reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Using tiger salamander larvae as fishing bait appears to be a major source of exposure and transport to wild populations. Severe mortality of tiger salamander larvae sometimes occurs from recurring ranavirus infections.
Related species
The California tiger salamander (Ambystoma californiense) (listed at Vulnerable), the barred tiger salamander (A. mavortium), and the plateau tiger salamander (A. velasci) were all once considered subspecies of A. tigrinum, but are now considered separate species. Genetic studies made it necessary to break up the original A. tigrinum population, though some hybridization between groups occurs.
The axolotl is also a relative of the tiger salamander. Axolotls live in a paedomorphic state, retaining most characteristics of their larval stage for their entire lifespans. While they never metamorphose under natural conditions, metamorphosis can be induced in them, resulting in a form very similar to the plateau tiger salamander. This is not, however, their natural condition, and dramatically shortens their lifespan.
References
External links
Project Tigrinum Florida
LeClere, 2006 Iowa Herpetology Species account, photo and range map of the Tiger Salamander in Iowa
Mole salamanders
Salamander, Tiger
Salamander, Tiger
Salamander, Tiger
Salamander, Tiger
Amphibians described in 1825
Extant Miocene first appearances
Symbols of Illinois
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class%20field%20theory
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Class field theory
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In mathematics, class field theory is the branch of algebraic number theory concerned with describing the Galois extensions of local and global fields. Hilbert is often credited for the notion of class field. But it was already familiar for Kronecker and it was actually Weber who coined the term before Hilbert's fundamental papers came out. This theory has its origins in the proof of quadratic reciprocity by Gauss at the end of the 18th century. These ideas were developed over the next century, giving rise to a set of conjectures by Hilbert that were subsequently proved by Takagi and Artin. These conjectures and their proofs constitute the main body of class field theory.
One major result states that, given a number field F, and writing K for the maximal abelian unramified extension of F, the Galois group of K over F is canonically isomorphic to the ideal class group of F. This statement can be generalized to the Artin reciprocity law; writing CF for the idele class group of F, and taking L to be any finite abelian extension of F, this law gives a canonical isomorphism
where denotes the idelic norm map from L to F. This isomorphism is then called the reciprocity map. The existence theorem states that the reciprocity map can be used to give a bijection between the set of abelian extensions of F and the set of closed subgroups of finite index of
A standard method for developing global class field theory since the 1930s is to develop local class field theory, which describes abelian extensions of local fields, and then use it to construct global class field theory. This was first done by Artin and Tate using the theory of group cohomology, and in particular by developing the notion of class formations. Later, Neukirch found a proof of the main statements of global class field theory without using cohomological ideas.
Class field theory also encompasses the explicit construction of maximal abelian extensions of number fields in the few cases where such constructions are known. Currently, this portion of the theory consists of Kronecker–Weber theorem, which can be used to construct the abelian extensions of , and the theory of complex multiplication, which can be used to construct the abelian extensions of CM-fields.
The Langlands program gives one approach for generalizing class field theory to non-abelian extensions. This generalization is mostly still conjectural. For number fields, class field theory and the results related to the modularity theorem are the only cases known.
Formulation in contemporary language
In modern mathematical language class field theory can be formulated as follows. Consider the maximal abelian extension A of a local or global field K. It is of infinite degree over K; the Galois group G of A over K is an infinite profinite group, so a compact topological group, and it is abelian. The central aims of class field theory are: to describe G in terms of certain appropriate topological objects associated to K, to describe finite abelian extensions of K in terms of open subgroups of finite index in the topological object associated to K. In particular, one wishes to establish a one-to-one correspondence between finite abelian extensions of K and their norm groups in this topological object for K. This topological object is the multiplicative group in the case of local fields with finite residue field and the idele class group in the case of global fields. The finite abelian extension corresponding to an open subgroup of finite index is called the class field for that subgroup, which gave the name to the theory.
The fundamental result of general class field theory states that the group G is naturally isomorphic to the profinite completion of CK, the multiplicative group of a local field or the idele class group of the global field, with respect to the natural topology on CK related to the specific structure of the field K. Equivalently, for any finite Galois extension L of K, there is an isomorphism (the Artin reciprocity map)
of the abelianization of the Galois group of the extension with the quotient of the idele class group of K by the image of the norm of the idele class group of L.
For some small fields, such as the field of rational numbers or its quadratic imaginary extensions there is a more detailed very explicit but too specific theory which provides more information. For example, the abelianized absolute Galois group G of is (naturally isomorphic to) an infinite product of the group of units of the p-adic integers taken over all prime numbers p, and the corresponding maximal abelian extension of the rationals is the field generated by all roots of unity. This is known as the Kronecker–Weber theorem, originally conjectured by Leopold Kronecker. In this case the reciprocity isomorphism of class field theory (or Artin reciprocity map) also admits an explicit description due to the Kronecker–Weber theorem. However, principal constructions of such more detailed theories for small algebraic number fields are not extendable to the general case of algebraic number fields, and different conceptual principles are in use in the general class field theory.
The standard method to construct the reciprocity homomorphism is to first construct the local reciprocity isomorphism from the multiplicative group of the completion of a global field to the Galois group of its maximal abelian extension (this is done inside local class field theory) and then prove that the product of all such local reciprocity maps when defined on the idele group of the global field is trivial on the image of the multiplicative group of the global field. The latter property is called the global reciprocity law and is a far reaching generalization of the Gauss quadratic reciprocity law.
One of the methods to construct the reciprocity homomorphism uses class formation which derives class field theory from axioms of class field theory. This derivation is purely topological group theoretical, while to establish the axioms one has to use the ring structure of the ground field.
There are methods which use cohomology groups, in particular the Brauer group, and there are methods which do not use cohomology groups and are very explicit and fruitful for applications.
History
The origins of class field theory lie in the quadratic reciprocity law proved by Gauss. The generalization took place as a long-term historical project, involving quadratic forms and their 'genus theory', work of Ernst Kummer and Leopold Kronecker/Kurt Hensel on ideals and completions, the theory of cyclotomic and Kummer extensions.
The first two class field theories were very explicit cyclotomic and complex multiplication class field theories. They used additional structures: in the case of the field of rational numbers they use roots of unity, in the case of imaginary quadratic extensions of the field of rational numbers they use elliptic curves with complex multiplication and their points of finite order. Much later, the theory of Shimura provided another very explicit class field theory for a class of algebraic number fields. In positive characteristic , Kawada and Satake used Witt duality to get a very easy description of the -part of the reciprocity homomorphism.
However, these very explicit theories could not be extended to more general number fields. General class field theory used different concepts and constructions which work over every global field.
The famous problems of David Hilbert stimulated further development, which led to the reciprocity laws, and proofs by Teiji Takagi, Phillip Furtwängler, Emil Artin, Helmut Hasse and many others. The crucial Takagi existence theorem was known by 1920 and all the main results by about 1930. One of the last classical conjectures to be proved was the principalisation property. The first proofs of class field theory used substantial analytic methods. In the 1930s and subsequently saw the increasing use of infinite extensions and Wolfgang Krull's theory of their Galois groups. This combined with Pontryagin duality to give a clearer if more abstract formulation of the central result, the Artin reciprocity law. An important step was the introduction of ideles by Claude Chevalley in the 1930s to replace ideal classes, essentially clarifying and simplifying the description of abelian extensions of global fields. Most of the central results were proved by 1940.
Later the results were reformulated in terms of group cohomology, which became a standard way to learn class field theory for several generations of number theorists. One drawback of the cohomological method is its relative inexplicitness. As the result of local contributions by Bernard Dwork, John Tate, Michiel Hazewinkel and a local and global reinterpretation by Jürgen Neukirch and also in relation to the work on explicit reciprocity formulas by many mathematicians, a very explicit and cohomology-free presentation of class field theory was established in the 1990s. (See, for example, Class Field Theory by Neukirch.)
Applications
Class field theory is used to prove Artin-Verdier duality. Very explicit class field theory is used in many subareas of algebraic number theory such as Iwasawa theory and Galois modules theory.
Most main achievements toward the Langlands correspondence for number fields, the BSD conjecture for number fields, and Iwasawa theory for number fields use very explicit but narrow class field theory methods or their generalizations. The open question is therefore to use generalizations of general class field theory in these three directions.
Generalizations of class field theory
There are three main generalizations, each of great interest. They are: the Langlands program, anabelian geometry, and higher class field theory.
Often, the Langlands correspondence is viewed as a nonabelian class field theory. If and when it is fully established, it would contain a certain theory of nonabelian Galois extensions of global fields. However, the Langlands correspondence does not include as much arithmetical information about finite Galois extensions as class field theory does in the abelian case. It also does not include an analog of the existence theorem in class field theory: the concept of class fields is absent in the Langlands correspondence. There are several other nonabelian theories, local and global, which provide alternatives to the Langlands correspondence point of view.
Another generalization of class field theory is anabelian geometry, which studies algorithms to restore the original object (e.g. a number field or a hyperbolic curve over it) from the knowledge of its full absolute Galois group or algebraic fundamental group.
Another natural generalization is higher class field theory, divided into higher local class field theory and higher global class field theory. It describes abelian extensions of higher local fields and higher global fields. The latter come as function fields of schemes of finite type over integers and their appropriate localizations and completions. It uses algebraic K-theory, and appropriate Milnor K-groups generalize the used in one-dimensional class field theory.
See also
Non-abelian class field theory
Citations
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburg-Prussia
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Brandenburg-Prussia
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Brandenburg-Prussia (; ) is the historiographic denomination for the Early Modern realm of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollerns between 1618 and 1701. Based in the Electorate of Brandenburg, the main branch of the Hohenzollern intermarried with the branch ruling the Duchy of Prussia, and secured succession upon the latter's extinction in the male line in 1618. Another consequence of the intermarriage was the incorporation of the lower Rhenish principalities of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg after the Treaty of Xanten in 1614.
The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was especially devastating. The Elector changed sides three times, and as a result Protestant and Catholic armies swept the land back and forth, killing, burning, seizing men and taking the food supplies. Upwards of half the population was killed or dislocated. Berlin and the other major cities were in ruins, and recovery took decades. By the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648, Brandenburg gained Minden and Halberstadt, also the succession in Farther Pomerania (incorporated in 1653) and the Duchy of Magdeburg (incorporated in 1680). With the Treaty of Bromberg (1657), concluded during the Second Northern War, the electors were freed of Polish vassalage for the Duchy of Prussia and gained Lauenburg–Bütow and Draheim. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679) expanded Brandenburgian Pomerania to the lower Oder.
The second half of the 17th century laid the basis for Prussia to become one of the great players in European politics. The emerging Brandenburg-Prussian military potential, based on the introduction of a standing army in 1653, was symbolized by the widely noted victories in Warsaw (1656) and Fehrbellin (1675) and by the Great Sleigh Drive (1678). Brandenburg-Prussia also established a navy and German colonies in the Brandenburger Gold Coast and Arguin. Frederick William, known as "The Great Elector", opened Brandenburg-Prussia to large-scale immigration ("Peuplierung") of mostly Protestant refugees from all across Europe ("Exulanten"), most notably Huguenot immigration following the Edict of Potsdam. Frederick William also started to centralize Brandenburg-Prussia's administration and reduce the influence of the estates.
In 1701, Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, succeeded in elevating his status to King in Prussia. This was made possible by the Duchy of Prussia's sovereign status outside the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, and approval by the Habsburg emperor and other European royals in the course of forming alliances for the War of the Spanish succession and the Great Northern War. From 1701 onward, the Hohenzollern domains were referred to as the Kingdom of Prussia, or simply Prussia. Legally, the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia continued until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. However, by this time the emperor's overlordship over the empire had become a legal fiction. Hence, after 1701, Brandenburg was de facto treated as part of the Prussian kingdom. Frederick and his successors continued to centralize and expand the state, transforming the personal union of politically diverse principalities typical for the Brandenburg-Prussian era into a system of provinces subordinate to Berlin.
Establishment under John Sigismund (1618)
The Margraviate of Brandenburg had been the seat of the main branch of the Hohenzollerns, who were prince-electors in the Holy Roman Empire, since 1415. In 1525, by the Treaty of Krakow, the Duchy of Prussia was created through partial secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order. It was a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland and was governed by Duke Albert of Prussia, a member of a cadet branch of the House of Hohenzollern. On behalf of her mother Elisabeth of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollern, Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg became Albert's second wife in 1550, and bore him his successor Albert Frederick. In 1563, the Brandenburgian branch of the Hohenzollern was granted the right of succession by the Polish crown. Albert Frederick became duke of Prussia after Albert's death in 1568. His mother died in the same year, and thereafter he showed signs of mental disorder. Because of the duke's illness, Prussia was governed by Albert's nephew George Frederick of Hohenzollern-Ansbach-Jägersdorf (1577–1603). In 1573, Albert Frederick married Marie Eleonore of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, with whom he had several daughters.
In 1594, Albert Frederick's then 14-year-old daughter Anna married the son of Joachim Frederick of Hohenzollern-Brandenburg, John Sigismund. The marriage ensured the right of succession in the Prussian duchy as well as in Cleves. Upon George Frederick's death in 1603, the regency of the Prussian duchy passed to Joachim Frederick. Also in 1603, the Treaty of Gera was concluded by the members of the House of Hohenzollern, ruling that their territories were not to be internally divided in the future.
The Electors of Brandenburg inherited the Duchy of Prussia upon Albert Frederick's death in 1618, but the duchy continued to be held as a fief under the Polish Crown until 1656/7. Since John Sigismund had suffered a stroke in 1616 and as a consequence was severely handicapped physically as well as mentally, his wife Anna ruled the Duchy of Prussia in his name until John Sigismund died of a second stroke in 1619, aged 47.
George William, 1619–1640
From 1619 to 1640, George William was elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia. He strove, but proved unable to break the dominance of the Electorate of Saxony in the Upper Saxon Circle. The Brandenburg-Saxon antagonism rendered the defense of the circle ineffective, and it was subsequently overrun by Albrecht von Wallenstein during the Thirty Years' War. While George William had claimed neutrality before, the presence of Wallenstein's army forced him to join the Catholic-Imperial camp in the Treaty of Königsberg (1627) and accept garrisons. When the Swedish Empire entered the war and advanced into Brandenburg, George William again claimed neutrality, yet Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden compelled George William to join Sweden as an ally by occupying substantial territory in Brandenburg-Prussia and concentrating an army before the town walls of Berlin. George William did not conclude an alliance, but granted Sweden transit rights, two fortresses and subsidies. Consequently, Roman Catholic armies repeatedly ravaged Brandenburg and other Hohenzollern lands.
"The Great Elector", Frederick William, 1640–1688
During the Thirty Years' War, George William was succeeded by Frederick William, born 1620, who became known as "The Great Elector" (Der Große Kurfürst). The character of the young elector had been stamped by his Calvinist nurturer Calcum, a long stay in the Dutch Republic during his grand tour, and the events of the war, of which a meeting with his uncle Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in Pomerania was among the most impressive.
Conclusion of the Thirty Years' War
Frederick William took over Brandenburg-Prussia in times of a political, economical and demographic crisis caused by the war. Upon his succession, the new elector retired the Brandenburgian army, but had an army raised again in 1643/44. Whether or not Frederick William concluded a truce and neutrality agreement with Sweden is disputed: while a relevant 1641 document exists, it was never ratified and has repeatedly been described as a falsification. However, it is not disputed that he established the growth of Brandenburg-Prussia.
At the time, the forces of the Swedish Empire dominated Northern Germany, and along with her ally France, Sweden became guarantee power of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Swedish aim of controlling the Baltic Sea by establishing dominions on the coastline ("dominium maris baltici") thwarted Frederick William's ambitions to gain control over the Oder estuary with Stettin (Szczecin) in Pomerania.
The Brandenburgian margraves had long sought to expand northwards, connecting land-locked Brandenburg to the Baltic Sea. The Treaty of Grimnitz (1529) guaranteed Brandenburgian succession in the Duchy of Pomerania upon the extinction of the local House of Pomerania, and would have come into effect by the death of Pomeranian duke Bogislaw XIV in 1637. By the Treaty of Stettin (1630) however, Bogislaw XIV had also effectively handed over control of the duchy to Sweden, who refused to give in to the Brandenburgian claim. The Peace of Westphalia settled for a partition of the duchy between Brandenburg and Sweden, who determined the exact border in the Treaty of Stettin (1653). Sweden retained the western part including the lower Oder (Swedish Pomerania), while Brandenburg gained the eastern part (Farther Pomerania). Frederick William was dissatisfied by this outcome, and the acquisition of the whole Duchy of Pomerania was to become one of the main goals of his foreign policy.
In the Peace of Westphalia, Frederick William was compensated for Western Pomerania with the secularized bishoprics of Halberstadt and Minden and the right of succession to the likewise secularized Archbishopric of Magdeburg. With Halberstadt, Brandenburg-Prussia also gained several smaller territories: the Lordship of Derenburg, the County of Regenstein, the Lordship of Klettenberg and the Lordship of Lohra. This was primarily due to French efforts to counterbalance the power of the Habsburg emperor by strengthening the Hohenzollern, and while Frederick William valued these territories lower than Western Pomerania, they became step-stones for the creation of a closed, dominant realm in Germany in the long run.
Devastation
Of all Brandenburg-Prussian territories, the Electorate of Brandenburg was among the most devastated at the end of the Thirty Years' War. Already before the war, the population density and wealth in the electorate had been low compared to other territories of the empire, and the war had destroyed 60 towns, 48 castles and about 5,000 villages. An average of 50% of the population was dead, in some regions only 10% survived. The rural population, due to deaths and flight to the towns, had dropped from 300,000 before the war to 75,000 thereafter. In the important towns of Berlin-Cölln and Frankfurt an der Oder, the population drop was one third and two-thirds, respectively. Some of the territories gained after the war were likewise devastated: in Pomerania, only one third of the population survived, and Magdeburg, once among the wealthiest cities of the empire, was burned down with most of the population slain. Least hit were the Duchy of Prussia, which was only peripherally involved in the war, and Minden.
Despite efforts to resettle the devastated territories, it took some of them until the mid-18th century to reach the pre-war population density.
Cow War
In June 1651, Frederick William broke the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia by invading Jülich-Berg, bordering his possessions in Cleves-Mark at the lower Rhine river. The Treaty of Xanten, which had ended the War of the Jülich succession between Brandenburg and the count palatines in 1614, had partitioned the once united Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg among the belligerents, and Jülich-Berg was since ruled by the Catholic counts of Palatinate-Neuburg. After the Thirty Years' War, Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg, disregarded a 1647 agreement with Frederick William which had favored the Protestants in the duchies, while Frederick William insisted that the agreement be upheld. Besides these religious motives, Frederick William's invasion also aimed at territorial expansion.
The conflict had the potential to spark another international war since Wolfgang William wanted to have the still not demobilized army of Lorraine, which continued to operate in the region despite the Peace of Westphalia, to intervene on his side, and Frederick William sought support of the Dutch Republic. The latter however followed a policy of neutrality and refused to aid Frederick William's campaign, which was furthermore opposed by the Imperial estates as well as the local ones. Politically isolated, Frederick William aborted the campaign after the Treaty of Cleves negotiated by Imperial mediators in October 1651. The underlying religious dispute was only solved in 1672. While military confrontations were avoided and the Brandenburg-Prussian army was primarily occupied with stealing cattle (hence the name), it considerably lowered Frederick William's reputation.
Standing Army
Due to his wartime experiences, Frederick William was convinced that Brandenburg-Prussia would only prevail with a standing army. Traditionally, raising and financing army reserves was a privilege of the estates, yet Frederick William envisioned a standing army financed independently of the estates. He succeeded in getting the consent and necessary financial contributions of the estates in a landtag decree of 26 July 1653. In turn, he confirmed several privileges of the knights, including tax exemption, assertion of jurisdiction and police powers on their estates (Patrimonialgerichtsbarkeit) and the upholding of serfdom (Leibeigenschaft, Bauernlegen).
Initially, the estates' contributions were limited to six years, yet the Frederick William obliged the estates to continue the payments thereafter and created a dedicated office to collect the contributions. The contributions were confirmed by the estates in 1662, but transformed in 1666 by decree from a real estate tax to an excise tax. Since 1657, the towns had to contribute not soldiers, but monetary payments to the army, and since 1665, the estates were able to free themselves from contributing soldiers by additional payments. The initial army size of 8,000 men had risen to 25,000 to 30,000 men by 1688. By then, Frederick William had also accomplished his second goal, to finance the army independently of the estates. By 1688, these military costs amounted to considerable 1,500,000 talers or half of the state budget. Ensuring a solid financial basis for the army, undisturbed by the estates, was the foremost objective of Frederick William's administrative reforms. He regarded military success as the only way to gain international reputation.
Second Northern War
The Swedish invasion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the following year started the Second Northern War. Frederick William offered protection to the Royal Prussian towns in the Treaty of Rinsk, but had to yield Swedish military supremacy and withdraw to his Prussian duchy. Pursued by Swedish forces to the Prussian capital, Frederick William made peace and allied with Sweden, taking the Duchy of Prussia and Ermland (Ermeland, Warmia) as fiefs from Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the Treaty of Königsberg in January 1656. The alliance proved victorious in the Battle of Warsaw in June, enhancing the elector's international reputation. Continued pressure on Charles X Gustav resulted in him conceding full sovereignty in Ducal Prussia and Ermland to Frederick William by the Treaty of Labiau in November to ensure the maintenance of the alliance. The Treaty of Radnot, concluded in December by Sweden and her allies, further awarded Greater Poland to Brandenburg-Prussia in case of a victory.
When the anti-Swedish coalition however gained the upper hand, Frederick William changed sides when Polish king John II Casimir Vasa confirmed his sovereignty in Prussia, but not in Ermland, in the Treaty of Wehlau-Bromberg in 1657. The duchy would legally revert to Poland if the Hohenzollern dynastic line became extinct. Hohenzollern sovereignty in the Prussian duchy was confirmed in the Peace of Oliva, which ended the war in 1660. Brandenburg-Prussian campaigns in Swedish Pomerania did not result in permanent gains.
Dutch and Scanian Wars
In 1672, the Franco-Dutch War broke out, with Brandenburg-Prussia involved as an ally of the Dutch Republic. This alliance was based on a treaty of 1669, and resulted in French occupation of Brandenburg-Prussian Cleves. In June 1673, Frederick William abandoned the Dutch alliance and concluded a subsidy treaty with France, who in return withdrew from Cleves. When the Holy Roman Empire declared war on France, a so-called Reichskrieg, Brandenburg-Prussia again changed sides and joined the imperial forces. France pressured her ally Sweden to relieve her by attacking Brandenburg-Prussia from the north. Charles XI of Sweden, dependent on French subsidies, reluctantly occupied the Brandenburgian Uckermark in 1674, starting the German theater of the Scanian War (Brandenburg-Swedish War). Frederick William reacted promptly by marching his armies from the Rhine to northern Brandenburg, and encountered the rear of the Swedish army, which was in the process of crossing a swamp, in the Battle of Fehrbellin (1675). Though a minor skirmish from a military perspective, Frederick William's victory turned out to be of huge symbolic significance. The "Great Elector" started a counter-offensive, pursuing the retreating Swedish forces through Swedish Pomerania.
Polish king John III Sobieski planned to restore Polish suzerainty over the Duchy of Prussia, and for this purpose concluded an alliance with France on 11 June 1675. France promised assistance and subsidies, while Sobieski in turn allowed French recruitment in Poland-Lithuania and promised to aid Hungarian rebel forces who were to distract the Habsburgs from their war against France. For this plan to work out, Poland-Lithuania had to first conclude her war against the Ottoman Empire, which French diplomacy despite great efforts failed to achieve. Furthermore, Sobieski was opposed by the Papacy, by Polish gentry who saw the Ottomans as the greater threat, and by Polish magnates bribed by Berlin and Vienna. Inner-Polish Catholic opposition to an intervention on the Protestant Hungarian rebels' side added to the resentments. Thus, while Treaty of Żurawno ended the Polish-Ottoman war in 1676, Sobieski sided with the emperor instead, and the plan for a Prussian campaign was dropped.
By 1678, Frederick William had cleared Swedish Pomerania and occupied most of it, with the exception of Rügen which was held by Denmark–Norway. This was followed by another success against Sweden, when Frederick William cleared Prussia of Swedish forces in what became known as the Great Sleigh Drive. However, when Louis XIV of France concluded the Dutch War by the Nijmegen treaties, he marched his armies east to relieve his Swedish ally, and forced Frederick William to basically return to the status quo ante bellum by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679). Though the Scanian War resulted only in minor territorial gains, attaching a small strip of the Swedish Pomeranian right bank of the lower Oder to Brandenburg-Prussian Pomerania, the war resulted in a huge gain of prestige for the elector.
Frederick III (I), 1688–1713
Frederick III of Brandenburg, since 1701 also Frederick I of Prussia, was born in Königsberg in 1657. Already in the last years of the reign of his father, the friendly relations with France established after Saint Germain (1679) had cooled, not least because of the Huguenot question. In 1686, Frederick William turned toward the Habsburg emperor, with whom he concluded an alliance on 22 December 1686. For this alliance, Frederick William relinquished rights on Silesia in favor of the Habsburgs, and in turn received the Silesian County of Schwiebus which bordered the Neumark. Frederick III, present at the negotiations as crown prince, assured the Habsburgs of the continuation of the alliance once he was in power, and secretly concluded an amendment to return Schwiebus to the Habsburgs, which he eventually did in 1694. Throughout his reign, Brandenburg-Prussia remained a Habsburg ally and repeatedly deployed troops to fight against France. In 1693, Frederick III began to sound out the possibility of an elevation of his status at the Habsburg court in Vienna, and while the first attempt was unsuccessful, elevation to a king remained the central goal on his agenda.
The envisioned status elevation did not merely serve a decorative purpose, but was regarded a necessity to prevail in political competition. Though Frederick III held the elevated status of a prince elector, this status was also gained by Maximilian I of Bavaria in 1623, during the Thirty Years' War, also by the Elector of the Palatinate in the Peace of Westphalia (1648), and by Ernest Augustus of the House of Hanover in 1692. Thus, the formerly exclusive club of the prince-electors now had nine members, six of whom were secular princes, and further changes seemed possible. Within the circle of prince-electors, August the Strong, Elector of Saxony, had secured the Polish crown in 1697, and the House of Hanover had secured succession of the British throne. From Frederick III's perspective, stagnation in status meant loss of power, and this perspective seemed to be confirmed when the European royals ignored Brandenburg-Prussia's claims in the Treaty of Rijswijk (1697).
Frederick decided to raise the Duchy of Prussia to a kingdom. Within the Holy Roman Empire, no one could call himself king except the emperor and the king of Bohemia. However, Prussia was outside the empire, and the Hohenzollerns were fully sovereign over it. The practicability of this plan was doubted by some of his advisors, and in any case the crown was only valuable if recognized by the European nobility, most important the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1699, negotiations were renewed with emperor Leopold I, who in turn was in need of allies since the War of the Spanish Succession was about to break out. On 16 November 1700, the emperor approved Frederick's coronation in the Crown Treaty. With respect to Poland-Lithuania, who held the provinces of Royal Prussia and Ermland, it was agreed that Frederick would call himself King in Prussia, instead of King of Prussia. Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, for similar reasons as the emperor, accepted Frederick's elevation prior to the coronation.
On 17 January 1701, Frederick dedicated the royal coat of arms, the Prussian black eagle, and motto, "suum cuique". On 18 January, he crowned himself and his wife Sophie Charlotte in a baroque ceremony in Königsberg Castle.
On 28 January, Augustus the Strong congratulated Frederick, yet not as Polish king, but as Saxon elector. In February, Denmark–Norway accepted Frederick's elevation in hope of an ally in the Great Northern War, and the Tsardom of Russia likewise approved in 1701. Most princes of the Holy Roman Empire followed. Charles XII of Sweden accepted Frederick as Prussian king in 1703. In 1713, France and Spain also accepted Frederick's royal status.
The coronation was not accepted by the Teutonic Order, who despite the secularization of the Duchy of Prussia in 1525 upheld claims to the region. The Grand Master protested at the emperor's court, and the pope sent a circular to all Catholic regents to not accept Frederick's royal status. Until 1787, papal documents continued to speak of the Prussian kings as "Margraves of Brandenburg". Neither did the Polish–Lithuanian nobility accept Frederick's royal status, seeing the Polish province of Royal Prussia endangered, and only in 1764 was the Prussian kingship accepted.
Since Brandenburg was still legally part of the Holy Roman Empire, the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia technically continued until the empire's dissolution in 1806. However, the emperor's power was only nominal by this time, and Brandenburg soon came to be treated as a de facto province of the Prussian kingdom. Although Frederick was still only an elector within the portions of his domain that were part of the empire, he only acknowledged the emperor's overlordship over them in a formal way.
Administration
In the mid-16th century, the margraves of Brandenburg had become highly dependent on the estates (counts, lords, knights and towns, no prelates due to the Protestant Reformation in 1538). The margraviate's liabilities and tax income as well as the margrave's finances were controlled by the Kreditwerk, an institution not controlled by the elector, and the Großer Ausschuß ("Great Committee") of the estates. This was due to concessions made by Joachim II in 1541 in turn for financial aid by the estates, however, the Kreditwerk went bankrupt between 1618 and 1625. The margraves further had to yield the veto of the estates in all issues concerning the "better or worse of the country", in all legal commitments, and in all issues concerning pawn or sale of the elector's real property.
To reduce the influence of the estates, Joachim Frederick in 1604 created a council called Geheimer Rat für die Kurmark ("Privy Council for the Electorate"), which instead of the estates was to function as the supreme advisory council for the elector. While the council was permanently established in 1613, it failed to gain any influence until 1651 due to the Thirty Years' War.
Until after the Thirty Years' War, the territories of Brandenburg-Prussia were politically independent from each other, connected only by the common feudal superior. Frederick William, who envisioned the transformation of the personal union into a real union, started to centralize the Brandenburg-Prussian government with an attempt to establish the Geheimer Rat as a central authority for all territories in 1651, but this project proved to be unfeasible. Instead, the elector continued to appoint a governor (Kurfürstlicher Rat) for each territory, who in most cases was a member of the Geheimer Rat. The most powerful institution in the territories remained the governments of the estates (Landständische Regierung, named Oberratsstube in Prussia and Geheime Landesregierung in Mark and Cleves), which were the highest government agencies regarding jurisdiction, finances and administration. The elector attempted to balance the estates' governments by creating Amtskammer chambers to administer and coordinate the elector's domains, tax income and privileges. Such chambers were introduced in Brandenburg in 1652, in Cleves and Mark in 1653, in Pomerania in 1654, in Prussia in 1661 and in Magdeburg in 1680. Also in 1680, the Kreditwerk came under the aegis of the elector.
Frederick William's excise tax (Akzise), which since 1667 replaced the property tax raised in Brandenburg for Brandenburg-Prussia's standing army with the estates' consent, was raised by the elector without consultation of the estates. The conclusion of the Second Northern War had strengthened the elector politically, enabling him to reform the constitution of Cleves and Mark in 1660 and 1661 to introduce officials loyal to him and independent of the local estates. In the Duchy of Prussia, he confirmed the traditional privileges of the estates in 1663, but the latter accepted the caveat that these privileges were not to be used to interfere with the exertion of the elector's sovereignty. As in Brandenburg, Frederick William ignored the privilege of the Prussian estates to confirm or veto taxes raised by the elector: while in 1656, an Akzise was raised with the estates' consent, the elector by force collected taxes not approved by the Prussian estates for the first time in 1674. Since 1704, the Prussian estates had de facto relinquished their right to approve the elector's taxes while formally still entitled to do so. In 1682, the elector introduced an Akzise to Pomerania and in 1688 to Magdeburg, while in Cleves and Mark an Akzise was introduced only between 1716 and 1720. Due to Frederick William's reforms, the state income increased threefold during his reign, and the tax burden per subject reached a level twice as high as in France.
Under the rule of Frederick III (I), the Brandenburg Prussian territories were de facto reduced to provinces of the monarchy. Frederick William's testament would have divided Brandenburg-Prussia among his sons, yet firstborn Frederick III with the emperor's backing succeeded in becoming the sole ruler based on the Treaty of Gera, which forbade a division of Hohenzollern territories. In 1689, a new central chamber for all Brandenburg-Prussian territories was created, called Geheime Hofkammer (since 1713: Generalfinanzdirektorium). This chamber functioned as a superior agency of the territories' Amtskammer chambers. The General War Commissariat (Generalkriegskommissariat) emerged as a second central agency, superior to the local Kriegskommissariat agencies initially concerned with the administration of the army, but until 1712 transformed into an agency also concerned with general tax and police tasks.
Map
List of territories
(Kotulla (2008), p. 261)
Religion and immigration
In 1613, John Sigismund converted from Lutheranism to Calvinism, but failed to achieve the conversion of the estates by the rule of cuius regio, eius religio. Thus, on 5 February 1615, he granted the Lutherans religious freedom, while the electors court remained largely Calvinist. When Frederick William I rebuilt Brandenburg-Prussia's war-torn economy, he attracted settlers from all Europe, especially by offering religious asylum, most prominently by the Edict of Potsdam which attracted more than 15,000 Huguenots.
Navy and colonies
Brandenburg-Prussia established a navy and colonies during the reign of Frederick William. The "Great Elector" had spent part of his childhood at the Pomeranian court and port cities of Wolgast (1631–1633) and Stettin (1633–1635), and afterwards studied at the Dutch universities of Leyden and The Hague (1635–1638). When Frederick William became elector in 1640, he invited Dutch engineers to Brandenburg, sent Brandenburgian engineers to study in the Netherlands, and in 1646 married educated Luise Henriette of the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau. After the Thirty Years' War, Frederick William tried to acquire finances to rebuild the country by participating in oversea trade, and attempted to found a Brandenburg-Prussian East Indies Company. He engaged former Dutch admiral Aernoult Gijsels van Lier as advisor and tried to persuade the Holy Roman Emperor and princes of the empire to participate. The emperor, however, declined the request as he considered it dangerous to disturb the interest of the other European powers. In 1651, Frederick William bought Danish Fort Dansborg and Tranquebar for 120,000 reichstalers. As Frederick William was unable to raise this sum, he asked several people and Hanseatic towns to invest in the project, but since none of these were able or willing to give sufficient money, the treaty with Denmark was nullified in 1653.
Army
In 1675, after the victory at Fehrbellin and the Brandenburg-Prussian advance in Swedish Pomerania during the Scanian War, Frederick William decided to establish a navy. He engaged Dutch merchant and shipowner Benjamin Raule as his advisor, who after a first personal meeting with Frederick William in 1675 settled in Brandenburg in 1676 and became the major figure of Brandenburg-Prussia's emerging naval and colonial enterprise. The Brandenburg-Prussian navy was established from ten ships which Frederick William leased from Raule, and achieved first successes in the war against Sweden supporting the siege of Stralsund and Stettin and the invasion of Rügen. In Pillau (now Baltiysk) on the East Prussian coast, Raule established shipyards and enlarged the port facilities.
After the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679), the navy was used to hijack Swedish ships in the Baltic Sea, and in 1680, six Brandenburg-Prussian vessels captured the Spanish vessel Carolus Secundus near Ostend to pressure Spain to pay promised subsidies. The Spanish ship was renamed Markgraf von Brandenburg ("Margrave of Brandenburg") and became the flagship of an Atlantic fleet that was ordered to capture Spanish vessels carrying silver; it was not successful in this mission. In the following years, the navy was expanded, and the policy of leasing ships was replaced by the policy of building or purchasing them. On 1 October 1684 Frederick William bought all ships that had been leased for 110,000 talers. Also in 1684, the East Frisian port of Emden replaced Pillau as the main Brandenburg-Prussian naval base. From Pillau, part of the shipyard, the admiral's house and the wooden church of the employees was transferred to Emden. While Emden was not part of Brandenburg-Prussia, the elector owned a nearby castle, Greetsiel, and negotiated an agreement with the town to maintain a garrison and a port.
West African Gold Coast (Großfriedrichsburg)
In 1679, Raule presented Frederick William a plan to establish colonies in African Guinea, and the elector approved. In July 1680, Frederick William issued respective orders, and two ships were selected to establish trade contacts with African tribes and explore places where colonies could be established. On 17 September, frigate Wappen von Brandenburg ("Seal of Brandenburg") and Morian (poetic for "Mohr", "Negro") left for Guinea. The ships reached Guinea in January 1681. Since the crew of the Wappen von Brandenburg sold a barrel of brandy to Africans in a territory claimed by the Dutch West Indies Company, the latter confiscated the ship in March. The crew of the remaining ship Morian managed to have three Guinean chieftains sign a contract on 16 May, before the Dutch expelled the vessel from the coastal waters. This treaty, officially declared as trade agreement, included a clause of subjection of the chiefs to Frederick William's overlordship and an agreement allowing Brandenburg-Prussia to establish a fort, and is thus regarded the beginning of the Brandenburg-Prussian colonial era.
To facilitate the colonial expeditions, the Brandenburg African Company was founded on 7 March 1682, initially with its headquarters in Berlin and its shipyards in Pillau, since 1683 in Emden. Throughout its existence, the company was underfunded, and expeditions were financed also by private capital, including payments by Raule and Frederick William. In July 1682, an expedition under East Prussian Otto Friedrich von der Groeben was sent to Guinea to erect the fortress Großfriedrichsburg. On 24 February 1684, another treaty with indigenous chiefs was signed that allowed the erection of a second fort in nearby Accada (now Akwida), named Dorotheenschanze after Frederick William's second wife. On 4 February 1685, a treaty was signed with the chiefs of Taccararay (now Takoradi), some 30 kilometers east of Großfriedrichsburg. A fourth fort was built at a spring near the village of Taccrama, between Großfriedrichsburg and Dorotheenschanze, named Loge or Sophie-Louise-Schanze. Overall, the colony comprised roughly 50 kilometers of coastline, and did not extend into the hinterland.
Arguin
A second colony was established at the Arguin archipelago off the West African coast (now part of Mauritania). In contrast to the Guinean colony, Arguin had been a colony before: In 1520, Portugal had built a fort on the main island, which with all of Portugal came under Spanish control in 1580. In 1638 it was conquered by the Dutch Republic, and in 1678 by France, who due to high maintenance costs abandoned it and demolished the fort soon after. On 27 July 1685, an expedition was mounted by Frederick William and Raule, who took possession of the vacated colony on 1 October. Subsequently, the fort was rebuilt and contacts to the indigenous population established. France was alarmed and sent a vessel to re-conquer the fort in late 1687, but the attack of a French frigate and a smaller vessel was beaten back by the Brandenburg-Prussian garrison. The victory improved the relations to the indigenous people, many of whom were carried off as slaves by the French before. While Arguin did not reach the economic importance of Großfriedrichsburg, it temporarily advanced to the world's primary staple port for slaves.
Caribbean
The African colonies enabled Brandenburg-Prussia to participate in the Triangular trade, yet it lacked its own trading post in the Caribbean Sea. In 1684, Brandenburg-Prussia was denied the purchase of the French islands Sainte Croix and Saint Vincent. In November 1685, after a failed attempt to purchase Saint Thomas from Denmark–Norway, a Brandenburg-Danish agreement was reached that allowed the Brandenburg African Company to rent part of Saint Thomas as a base for 30 years, while the sovereignty remained with Denmark and administration with the Danish West Indies and Guinean Company. The first Brandenburgian vessel arrived in 1686 with 450 slaves from Großfriedrichsburg. Brandenburg-Prussia was allotted an area near the capital city Charlotte Amalie, called Brandenburgery, and other territories named Krum Bay and Bordeaux Estates further west. In 1688, 300 Europeans and several hundred slaves lived on the Brandenburgian estates. In November 1695, French forces looted the Brandenburgian (not the Danish) colony. In 1731, the Brandenburg-Prussian company on Saint Thomas (BAAC) became insolvent, and abandoned the island in 1735. Their last remains were sold by auction in 1738.
Brandenburg-Prussia tried to claim Crab Island in 1687, but the island was also claimed by other European powers beforehand, and when a second expedition in 1692 found the island under Danish control, the plan was abandoned. In 1689, Brandenburg-Prussia claimed Peter Island, but the small rock proved unsuitable for trade or settlement. In 1691, Brandenburg-Prussia and the Duchy of Courland agreed on a partition of Tobago, but since Courland later abandoned the territory and thus was no longer present on the island, the agreement was nullified, and negotiations with the English government which had interests in Tobago did not result in an agreement. In 1695, Brandenburg-Prussia attempted to acquire Tortola from England via diplomacy, but the negotiations went nowhere, and were eventually called off. Likewise, England declined an offer to purchase Sint Eustatius in 1697.
See also
List of rulers of Brandenburg
List of rulers of Prussia
German colonial projects before 1871
Sources
References
Bibliography
In English
Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947 (2008)
Gieysztor, Aleksander, Stefan Kieniewicz, Emanuel Rostworowski, Janusz Tazbir, and Henryk Wereszycki. History of Poland. PWN. Warsaw, 1979.
Gagliardo, John G. Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 (1991) online edition
Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany. Vol 2: 1648–1840 (1962)
Hughes, Michael. Early Modern Germany, 1477–1806 (1992)
Ogilvie, Sheilagh. Germany: A New Social and Economic History, Vol. 1: 1450–1630 (1995) 416pp; Germany: A New Social and Economic History, Vol. 2: 1630–1800 (1996), 448pp
In German
17th century in Germany
17th century in Prussia
Early Modern history of Germany
Former subdivisions of Brandenburg
Former subdivisions of Germany
History of Prussia
States and territories established in 1618
States and territories disestablished in 1701
1610s establishments in Germany
1701 disestablishments in Germany
Personal unions
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20of%20Prussia
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Kingdom of Prussia
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The Kingdom of Prussia () was a German kingdom that constituted the state of Prussia between 1701 and 1918. It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Its capital was Berlin.
The kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Brandenburg-Prussia, predecessor of the kingdom, became a military power under Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, known as "The Great Elector". As a kingdom, Prussia continued its rise to power, especially during the reign of Frederick II, more commonly known as Frederick the Great, who was the third son of Frederick William I. Frederick the Great was instrumental in starting the Seven Years' War (1756–63), holding his own against Austria, Russia, France and Sweden and establishing Prussia's role in the German states, as well as establishing the country as a European great power. After the might of Prussia was revealed, it was considered as a major power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles, and many wars. Because of its power, Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states (excluding the German cantons in Switzerland) under its rule, and whether Austria would be included in such a unified German domain was an ongoing question.
After the Napoleonic Wars led to the creation of the German Confederation, the issue of unifying the German states caused a number of revolutions throughout the German states, with all states wanting to have their own constitution. Attempts to create a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful member states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation, which lasted from 1867 to 1871, created a closer union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War but many of its laws were later used in the German Empire. The German Empire lasted from 1871 to 1918 with the successful unification of all the German states aside from Austria under Prussian hegemony; this was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. The war united all the German states against a common enemy, and with the victory came an overwhelming wave of nationalism which changed the opinions of some of those who had been against unification. In 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power.
Prussia is considered the legal predecessor of the unified German Reich (1871–1945) and as such a direct ancestor of today's Federal Republic of Germany. The formal abolition of Prussia, carried out on 25 February 1947 by the Allied Control Council, referred to a tradition of the kingdom as a bearer of militarism and reaction, and made way for the current setup of the German states. However, the Free State of Prussia (), which followed the abolition of the Kingdom of Prussia in the aftermath of World War I, was a major democratic force in Weimar Germany until the nationalist coup of 1932 known as the Preußenschlag. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation (), which has become one of the largest cultural organisations in the world.
History
Background and establishment
Frederick, Margrave of Ansbach, sided with Sigismund of Hungary in his 1410–11 dispute with Jobst of Moravia for the titles King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor-elect. At the 1415 Council of Constance Sigismund rewarded Frederick with the Margraviate of Brandenburg and in 1417 he was made a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire.
After the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states, including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia. The towns were poverty-stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, forced to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussia's neighbours, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete. These issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these towns gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west, and allowed the urban middle class of Brandenburg to prosper.
It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, as it faced two dangers that the other German territories did not: partition from within and the threat of invasion by its neighbours. It prevented partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea, which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories. The second issue was resolved through expansion. Brandenburg was surrounded on every side by neighbours whose boundaries were merely political. Any neighbour could attack and consume Brandenburg at any moment. The only way to defend herself was to absorb her neighbours before they absorbed her. Through negotiations and marriages Brandenburg slowly but surely expanded her borders, absorbing neighbours and eliminating the threat of attack.
The Hohenzollerns were made rulers of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1518. In 1529 the Hohenzollerns secured the reversion of the Duchy of Pomerania after a series of conflicts, and acquired its eastern part following the Peace of Westphalia.
In 1618 the electors of Brandenburg also inherited the Duchy of Prussia, since 1511 ruled by a younger branch of the House of Hohenzollern. In 1525, Albrecht of Brandenburg, the last grand master of the Teutonic Order, secularized his territory and converted it into a duchy. It was ruled in a personal union with Brandenburg, known as "Brandenburg-Prussia". A full union was not possible, since Brandenburg was still legally part of the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Prussia was a fief of Poland. The Teutonic Order had paid homage to Poland since 1466, and the Hohenzollerns continued to pay homage after secularizing Ducal Prussia.
In the course of the Second Northern War, the treaties of Labiau and Wehlau-Bromberg granted the Hohenzollerns full sovereignty over the Prussian duchy by September 1657.
In return for an alliance against France in the War of the Spanish Succession, the Great Elector's son, Frederick III, was allowed to elevate Prussia to a kingdom in the Crown Treaty of 16 November 1700. Frederick crowned himself "King in Prussia" as Frederick I on 18 January 1701. Legally, no kingdoms could exist in the Holy Roman Empire except for Bohemia. However, Frederick took the line that since Prussia had never been part of the empire and the Hohenzollerns were fully sovereign over it, he could elevate Prussia to a kingdom.
The style "King in Prussia" was adopted to acknowledge the legal fiction that the Hohenzollerns were legally kings only in their former duchy. In Brandenburg and the portions of their domains that were within the Empire, they were still legally only electors under the overlordship of the emperor. However, by this time the emperor's authority was only nominal. The rulers of the empire's various territories acted largely as the rulers of sovereign states, and only acknowledged the emperor's suzerainty in a formal way. In addition, the Duchy was only the eastern half of the region of Prussia; the western half was held along with the title King of Prussia by the King of Poland. While the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia legally continued until the end of the empire in 1806, from 1701 onward Brandenburg was de facto treated as an integral part of the kingdom. Since the Hohenzollerns were nominally still subjects of the emperor within the parts of their domains that were part of the empire, they continued to use the additional title of Elector of Brandenburg until the empire was dissolved. It was not until 1772 that the title "King of Prussia" was ceded along with Royal Prussia to the King in Prussia by the Polish monarch, following the First Partition of Poland.
1701–1721: Plague and the Great Northern War
The Kingdom of Prussia was still recovering from the devastation of the Thirty Years' War and poor in natural resources. Its territory was disjointed, stretching from the lands of the Duchy of Prussia on the south-east coast of the Baltic Sea to the Hohenzollern heartland of Brandenburg, with the exclaves of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg in the Rhineland. In 1708 about one third of the population of East-Prussia died during Great Northern War plague outbreak. The bubonic plague reached Prenzlau in August 1710 but receded before it could reach the capital Berlin, which was only away.
The Great Northern War was the first major conflict in which the Kingdom of Prussia was involved. Starting in 1700, the Great Northern War involved a coalition led by Tsarist Russia against the dominant North European power at the time, the Swedish Empire. Frederick William in 1705 tried to get Prussia involved in the war, stating it "best Prussia has her own army and make her own decisions." His views, however, were not considered acceptable by those in power. It was not until 1713 that Frederick William gained full royal powers. Therefore, in 1715, Prussia, led by Frederick William, joined the coalition for various reasons, including the danger of being attacked from both her rear and the sea; her claims on Pomerania; and the fact that if she stood aside and Sweden lost, she would not get a share of the territory. Prussia only participated in one battle, the Battle of Stresow on the island of Rügen, as the war had already been practically decided in the 1709 Battle of Poltava. In the Treaty of Stockholm Prussia gained all of Swedish Pomerania east of the river Oder. Sweden would however keep Vorpommern until 1815. The Great Northern War not only marked the end of the Swedish Empire but also elevated Prussia and Russia at the expense of the demising Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as new powers in Europe.
The Great Elector had incorporated the Junkers, the landed aristocracy, into the empire's bureaucracy and military machine, giving them a vested interest in the Prussian Army and compulsory education. King Frederick William I inaugurated the Prussian compulsory system in 1717.
1740–1762: Silesian Wars
In 1740 King Frederick II (Frederick the Great) came to the throne. Using the pretext of a 1537 treaty (vetoed by Emperor Ferdinand I) by which parts of Silesia were to pass to Brandenburg after the extinction of its ruling Piast dynasty, Frederick invaded Silesia, thereby beginning the War of the Austrian Succession. After rapidly occupying Silesia, Frederick offered to protect Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria if the province were turned over to him. The offer was rejected, but Austria faced several other opponents, and Frederick was eventually able to gain formal cession with the Treaty of Berlin in 1742.
To the surprise of many, Austria managed to renew the war successfully. In 1744 Frederick invaded again to forestall reprisals and to claim, this time, the province of Bohemia. He failed, but French pressure on Austria's ally Great Britain led to a series of treaties and compromises, culminating in the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that restored peace and left Prussia in possession of most of Silesia.
Humiliated by the cession of Silesia, Austria worked to secure an alliance with France and Russia (the "Diplomatic Revolution"), while Prussia drifted into Great Britain's camp forming the Anglo-Prussian Alliance. When Frederick preemptively invaded Saxony and Bohemia over the course of a few months in 1756–1757, he began a Third Silesian War and initiated the Seven Years' War.
This war was a desperate struggle for the Prussian Army, and the fact that it managed to fight much of Europe to a draw bears witness to Frederick's military skills. Facing Austria, Russia, France, and Sweden simultaneously, and with only Hanover (and the non-continental British) as notable allies, Frederick managed to prevent serious invasion until October 1760, when the Russian army briefly occupied Berlin and Königsberg. The situation became progressively grimmer, however, until the death in 1762 of Empress Elizabeth of Russia (Miracle of the House of Brandenburg). The accession of the Prussophile Peter III relieved the pressure on the eastern front. Sweden also exited the war at about the same time.
Defeating the Austrian army at the Battle of Burkersdorf and relying on continuing British success against France in the war's colonial theatres, Prussia was finally able to force a status quo ante bellum on the continent. This result confirmed Prussia's major role within the German states and established the country as a European great power. Frederick, appalled by the near-defeat of Prussia, lived out his days as a much more peaceable ruler.
1772, 1793, and 1795: Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
To the east and south of Prussia, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had gradually weakened during the 18th century. Alarmed by increasing Russian influences in Polish affairs and by a possible expansion of the Russian Empire, Frederick was instrumental in initiating the first of the Partitions of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772 to maintain a balance of power. The Kingdom of Prussia annexed most of the Polish province of Royal Prussia, including Warmia, allowing Frederick to finally adopt the title of the King of Prussia; the annexed land was organised the following year into the Province of West Prussia. The new territory connected the Province of East Prussia (the territory previously known as the Duchy of Prussia) with the Province of Pomerania, uniting the kingdom's eastern territories.
After Frederick died in 1786, his nephew Fredrick William II continued the partitions, gaining a large part of western Poland in 1793.
In 1787, Prussia invaded Holland to restore the Orangist stadtholderate against the increasingly rebellious Patriots, who sought to overthrow House of Orange-Nassau and establish a democratic republic. The direct cause of the invasion was the Arrest at Goejanverwellesluis, where Frederick William II's sister Wilhelmina of Prussia, also stadtholder William V of Orange's wife, was stopped by a band of Patriots who denied her passage to The Hague to reclaim her husband's position.
In 1795, the Kingdom of Poland ceased to exist and a large area (including Warsaw) to the south of East Prussia became part of Prussia. These new territories were organised into the Provinces of New Silesia, South Prussia, and New East Prussia.
The Partitions were facilitated by the fact that they occurred just before the 19th-century rise of nationalism in Europe, and the national self-awareness was yet to be developed in most European peoples, especially among commoners. The Kingdom of Prussia was perceived in Poland more as nationality-neutral personal holding of the ruling House of Hohenzollern, rather than a German nation-state, and any anxiety concerned predominantly freedom to practice religion rather than rights to maintain national identity. The onset of Germanisation in the following decades, later joined by the Kulturkampf, changed quickly this benign picture and alienated Poles from the Prussian state, ultimately boosting their national self-awareness and eliciting their national resistance against Prussian rule.
1801–1815: Napoleonic Wars
The Treaty of Basel (1795) ended the War of the First Coalition against France. In it, the First French Republic and Prussia had stipulated that the latter would ensure the Holy Roman Empire's neutrality in all the latter's territories north of the demarcation line of the river Main, including the British continental dominions of the Electorate of Hanover and the Duchies of Bremen-Verden. To this end, Hanover (including Bremen-Verden) also had to provide troops for the so-called demarcation army maintaining this state of armed neutrality.
In the course of the War of the Second Coalition against France (1799–1802) Napoleon Bonaparte urged Prussia to occupy the continental British dominions. In 1801, twenty-four thousand Prussian soldiers invaded, surprising Hanover, which surrendered without a fight. In April 1801 the Prussian troops arrived in Bremen-Verden's capital Stade and stayed there until October of the same year. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland first ignored Prussia's hostility, but when it joined the pro-French coalition of armed "neutral" powers such as Denmark–Norway and Russia, Britain started to capture Prussian sea vessels. After the battle of Copenhagen the coalition fell apart and Prussia again withdrew its troops.
At Napoleon's instigation, Prussia recaptured British Hanover and Bremen-Verden in early 1806. On August 6 of the same year, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved as a result of Napoleon's victories over Austria. The title of Kurfürst (Prince-elector) of Brandenburg became meaningless, and was dropped. Nonetheless, Frederick William III was now de jure as well as de facto sovereign of all of the Hohenzollern domains. Before this time, the Hohenzollern sovereign had held many titles and crowns, from Supreme Governor of the Protestant Churches (summus episcopus) to King, Elector, Grand Duke, Duke for the various regions and realms under his rule. After 1806 he was simply King of Prussia and summus episcopus.
But when Prussia, after it turned against the French Empire, was defeated in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt (October 14, 1806), Frederick William III was forced to temporarily flee to remote Memel. After the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807, Prussia lost about half of its territory, including the land gained from the Second and Third Partitions of Poland (which now fell to the Duchy of Warsaw) and all land west of the Elbe River. France recaptured Prussian-occupied Hanover, including Bremen-Verden. The remainder of the kingdom was occupied by French troops (at Prussia's expense) and the king was obliged to make an alliance with France and join the Continental System.
The Prussian reforms were a reaction to the Prussian defeat in 1806 and the Treaties of Tilsit. It describes a series of constitutional, administrative, social and economic reforms of the kingdom of Prussia. They are sometimes known as the Stein-Hardenberg Reforms after Karl Freiherr vom Stein and Karl August Fürst von Hardenberg, their main instigators.
After the defeat of Napoleon in Russia in 1812, Prussia quit the alliance and took part in the Sixth Coalition during the "Wars of Liberation" (Befreiungskriege) against the French occupation. Prussian troops under Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher contributed crucially in the Battle of Waterloo of 1815 to the final victory over Napoleon.
1815: After Napoleon
Prussia's reward for its part in France's defeat came at the Congress of Vienna. It regained most of its pre-1806 territory. Notable exceptions included much of the territory annexed in the Second and Third Partitions of Poland, which became Congress Poland under Russian rule (though it did retain Danzig, acquired in the Second Partition). It also did not regain several of its former towns in the south. However, as compensation it picked up some new territory, including 40% of the Kingdom of Saxony and much of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Prussia now stretched uninterrupted from the Niemen in the east to the Elbe in the west, and possessed a chain of disconnected territories west of the Elbe. This left Prussia as the only great power with a predominantly German-speaking population.
With these gains in territory, the kingdom was reorganized into 10 provinces. Most of the kingdom, aside from the Provinces of East Prussia, West Prussia, and Posen, became part of the new German Confederation, a confederacy of 39 sovereign states (including Austria and Bohemia) replacing the defunct Holy Roman Empire.
Frederick William III submitted Prussia to a number of administrative reforms, among others reorganising the government by way of ministries, which remained formative for the following hundred years.
As to religion, reformed Calvinist Frederick William III—as Supreme Governor of the Protestant Churches—asserted his long-cherished project (started in 1798) to unite the Lutheran and the Reformed Church in 1817, (see Prussian Union). The Calvinist minority, strongly supported by its co-religionist Frederick William III, and the partially reluctant Lutheran majority formed the united Protestant Evangelical Church in Prussia. However, ensuing quarrels causing a permanent schism among the Lutherans into united and Old Lutherans by 1830.
As a consequence of the Revolutions of 1848, the Principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen (ruled by a Catholic cadet branch of the House of Hohenzollern) were annexed by Prussia in 1850, later united as Province of Hohenzollern.
1848–1871: German wars of unification
During the half-century that followed the Congress of Vienna a conflict of ideals took place within the German Confederation between the formation of a single German nation and the conservation of the current collection of smaller German states and kingdoms. The main debate centered around whether Prussia or the Austrian Empire should be the leading member of any unified Germany. Those advocating for Prussian leadership contended that Austria had far too many non-German interests to work for the greater good of Germany. They argued that Prussia, as by far the most powerful state with a majority of German-speakers, was best suited to lead the new nation.
The establishment of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) in 1834, which excluded Austria, increased Prussian influence over the member states. In the wake of the Revolutions of 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849 offered King Frederick William IV of Prussia the crown of a united Germany. Frederick William refused the offer on the grounds that revolutionary assemblies could not grant royal titles. But he also refused for two other reasons: to do so would have done little to end the internal power-struggle between Austria and Prussia, and all Prussian kings (up to and including William I) feared that the formation of a German Empire would mean the end of Prussia's independence within the German states.
In 1848 actions taken by Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein led to the First War of Schleswig (1848–51) between Denmark and the German Confederation, resulting in a Danish victory.
Frederick William issued Prussia's first constitution by his own authority in 1848. This document—moderate by the standards of the time but conservative by today's standards—provided for a two-chamber parliament, the Landtag. The lower house, later known as the Abgeordnetenhaus, was elected by all taxpayers, who were divided into three classes whose votes were weighted according to the amount of taxes paid. Women and those who paid no taxes had no vote. This allowed just over one-third of the voters to choose 85% of the legislature, all but assuring dominance by the more well-to-do men of the population. The upper house, later renamed the Herrenhaus ("House of Lords"), was appointed by the king. He retained full executive authority and ministers were responsible only to him. As a result, the grip of the landowning classes, the Junkers, remained unbroken, especially in the eastern provinces.
Frederick William suffered a stroke in 1857, and his younger brother, Prince William, became regent. William pursued a considerably more moderate policy. Upon Frederick William IV's death in 1861 he succeeded to the Prussian throne as William I. However, shortly after becoming king, he faced a dispute with his parliament over the size of the army. The parliament, dominated by the liberals, balked at William's desire to increase the number of regiments and withheld approval of the budget to pay for its cost. A deadlock ensued, and William seriously considered abdicating in favour of his son, Crown Prince Frederick William. Ultimately, he decided to appoint as prime minister Otto von Bismarck, at that time the Prussian ambassador to France. Bismarck took office on September 23, 1862.
Although Bismarck had a reputation as an unyielding conservative, he initially inclined to seek a compromise over the budget issue. However, William refused to consider it; he viewed defence issues as the crown's personal province. Forced into a policy of confrontation, Bismarck came up with a novel theory. Under the constitution, the king and the parliament were responsible for agreeing on the budget. Bismarck argued that since they had failed to come to an agreement, there was a "hole" in the constitution, and the government had to continue to collect taxes and disburse funds in accordance with the old budget in order to keep functioning. The government thus operated without a new budget from 1862 to 1866, allowing Bismarck to implement William's military reforms.
The liberals violently denounced Bismarck for what they saw as his disregard for the fundamental law of the kingdom. However, Bismarck's real plan was an accommodation with liberalism. Although he had opposed German unification earlier in his career, he had now come to believe it inevitable. To his mind, the conservative forces had to take the lead in the drive toward creating a unified nation in order to keep from being eclipsed. He also believed that the middle-class liberals wanted a unified Germany more than they wanted to break the grip of the traditional forces over society. He thus embarked on a drive to form a united Germany under Prussian leadership, and guided Prussia through three wars which ultimately achieved this goal.
The first of these wars was the Second War of Schleswig (1864), which Prussia initiated and succeeded in, and in which it gained the assistance of Austria. Denmark was soundly defeated and surrendered both Schleswig and Holstein, to Prussia and Austria respectively.
The divided administration of Schleswig and Holstein then became the trigger for the Austro-Prussian War of 1866—also known as the Seven Weeks' War. Prussia, allied with the Kingdom of Italy and various northern German states, declared war on the Austrian Empire. The Austrian-led coalition was crushed, and Prussia annexed four of its smaller allies—the Kingdom of Hanover, the Electorate of Hesse, the Duchy of Nassau and the Free City of Frankfurt. Prussia also annexed Schleswig and Holstein, and also effectively annexed Saxe-Lauenburg by forcing it into a personal union with Prussia (which was turned into a full union in 1876). King William initially wanted to take territory from Austria itself, but Bismarck persuaded him to abandon the idea. While Bismarck wanted Austria to play no future role in German affairs, he foresaw that Austria could be a valuable future ally.
With these gains in territory, the Prussian possessions in the Rhineland and Westphalia became geographically connected to the rest of the kingdom for the first time. Counting the de facto annexation of Saxe-Lauenburg, Prussia now stretched uninterrupted across the northern two-thirds of Germany. It would remain at this size until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1918.
Bismarck used this opportunity to end the budget dispute with parliament. He proposed a bill of indemnity granting him retroactive approval for governing without a legal budget. He guessed, correctly as it turned out, that this would lead to a split between his liberal adversaries. While some of them argued that there could be no compromise with the principle of constitutional government, most of the liberals decided to support the bill in hopes of winning more freedom in the future.
The German Confederation was dissolved as part of the war. In its place, Prussia cajoled the 21 states north of the Main into forming the North German Confederation in 1867. Prussia was the dominant state in this new grouping, with four-fifths of its territory and population—more than the other members of the confederation combined. Its near-total control was cemented in a constitution written by Bismarck. Executive power was vested in a president—a hereditary office of the rulers of Prussia. He was assisted by a chancellor responsible only to the president. There was also a bicameral parliament. The lower house, or Reichstag (Diet), was elected by universal male suffrage. The upper house, or Bundesrat (Federal Council) was appointed by the state governments. The Bundesrat was, in practice, the stronger chamber. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes and could easily control proceedings through alliances with the other states. For all intents and purposes, Bismarck dominated the new grouping. He served as his own foreign minister for virtually his entire tenure as prime minister of Prussia, and in that capacity was able to instruct the Prussian delegates to the Bundesrat.
The southern German states (except Austria) were forced to accept military alliances with Prussia, and Prussia began steps to merge them with the North German Confederation. Bismarck's planned Kleindeutschland unification of Germany had come considerably closer to realisation.
The final act came with the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), where Bismarck maneuvered Emperor Napoleon III of France into declaring war on Prussia. Activating the German alliances put in place after the Austro-Prussian War, the German states, aside from Austria, came together and swiftly defeated France, even managing to take Napoleon prisoner (2 September 1870). Even before then, Bismarck was able to complete the work of unifying Germany under Prussian leadership. The patriotic fervour aroused by the war against France overwhelmed the remaining opponents of a unified Kleindeutschland nation, and on 18 January 1871 (the 170th anniversary of the coronation of the first Prussian king, Frederick I), the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles outside of Paris, while the French capital was still under siege. King William became the first emperor (Kaiser) of a unified Germany. However, the titles of Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia were to be borne by the same man until the end of the monarchy.
1871–1918: Peak and fall
Bismarck's new empire was the most powerful state on the Continent. Prussia's dominance over the new empire was almost as absolute as it was with the North German Confederation. It included two-thirds of the empire's territory and three-fifths of its population. The imperial crown was a hereditary office of the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia also had a large plurality of seats in the Bundesrat, with 17 votes out of 58 (17 out of 61 after 1911); no other state had more than six votes. As before, it could effectively control the proceedings with the support of its allies in the secondary states. As mentioned above, Bismarck served as foreign minister of Prussia for almost his entire career, and in that role instructed the Prussian deputies to the Bundesrat. The Imperial Army was essentially an enlarged Prussian army, and the embassies of the new empire were mostly old Prussian embassies. The constitution of the German Empire was essentially an amended version of the constitution of the North German Confederation.
However, the seeds for future problems lay in a gross disparity between the imperial and Prussian systems. The empire granted the vote to all men over 25. However, Prussia retained its restrictive three-class voting system, in which the well-to-do had 17½ times the voting power of the rest of the population. Since the imperial chancellor was, except for two periods (January–November 1873 and 1892–94) also prime minister of Prussia, this meant that for most of the empire's existence, the king/emperor and prime minister/chancellor had to seek majorities from legislatures elected by two completely different franchises.
At the time of the empire's creation, both Prussia and Germany were roughly two-thirds rural. Within 20 years, the situation was reversed; the cities and towns accounted for two-thirds of the population. However, in both the kingdom and the empire, the constituencies were never redrawn to reflect the growing population and influence of the cities and towns. This meant that rural areas were grossly overrepresented from the 1890s onward.
Bismarck realized that the rest of Europe was skeptical of his powerful new Reich, and turned his attention to preserving peace with such acts as the Congress of Berlin. The new German Empire improved its already-strong relations with Britain. The ties between London and Berlin had already been sealed with a golden braid in 1858, when Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia married Princess Victoria of Britain.
William I died in 1888, and the Crown Prince succeeded to the throne as Frederick III. The new emperor, a decided Anglophile, planned to transform Prussia and the empire into a more liberal and democratic monarchy based on the British model. However, Frederick was already ill with inoperable throat cancer, and died after only 99 days on the throne. He was succeeded by his 29-year-old son, William II. As a boy, William had rebelled against his parents' efforts to mould him as a liberal, and had become thoroughly Prussianized under Bismarck's tutelage.
The new Kaiser Wiliam rapidly soured relations with the British and Russian royal families (despite being closely related to them), becoming their rival and ultimately their enemy. Before and during World War I (1914–1918), Prussia supplied significant numbers of soldiers and sailors in the German military, and Prussian Junkers dominated the higher ranks. In addition, portions of the Eastern Front were fought on Prussian soil. Prussia – along with Germany as a whole – experienced increasing troubles with revolutionaries during the war. The Great War ended by armistice on 11 November 1918.
Uprisings in Berlin and other centres began the civil conflict of the German Revolution of 1918–19 (German: Novemberrevolution). By late 1918, the Prussian House of Representatives was controlled by the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), which advocated Marxism. William knew that he had lost his imperial crown for good, but still hoped to retain his Prussian crown; he believed that as ruler of two-thirds of Germany, he could remain a major figure in any successor regime. However, William discovered this was impossible under the imperial constitution. Although he believed he ruled the empire in personal union with Prussia, the imperial constitution stipulated that the imperial crown was tied to the Prussian crown. In any event, he had lost support of the military who might have fought for him. William's abdication as both king of Prussia and German emperor was announced on 9 November 1918, and he went into exile in the Netherlands the next day. With armed revolts, mass strikes, and street fighting in Berlin, the Prussian state government declared a state of siege and appealed for imperial military aid. The Garde-Kavallerie-Schützen-Division, commanded by Waldemar Pabst, moved against the strikers in Berlin. By the end of the fighting on 16 March, they had killed approximately 1,200 people, many of them unarmed and uninvolved. The revolutionary period lasted from November 1918 until the establishment in August 1919 of a republic that later became known as the Weimar Republic.
Prussia was incorporated as a state in the Weimar Republic. Under the republic, undemocratic public institutions were abolished, including the disappearance "of the Prussian Upper House, [and] the former Prussian Lower House that had been elected in accordance with the three-class suffrage".
Free State, Nazi era and final dissolution
The Kingdom of Prussia had been turned into the Free State of Prussia, a state within the German Weimar Republic. It was somewhat stable and democratic in the post war years being mostly run by Otto Braun of the Social Democratic Party as Minister President of the state from 1920 to April 1921, then again from November 1921 to February 1925 and again from April 1925 to 1932 when he was forced out by Franz von Papen, an ally of Hitler in a coup (Preußenschlag). After the Nazis gained power in 1933 they dissolved the Landtag of Prussia and later the free state itself, dividing Germany into new states called Reichsgaue in 1934 effectively ending Prussia. The Province of East Prussia was seen as independent Prussia’s successor state which was now ruled by two people, Erich Koch as Gauleiter of the Province and Oberpräsident, and Hermann Göring as Reichsstatthalter acting for Hitler. Goring was also the last Minister President of Prussia before Germany’s reorganization. After World War II Otto Braun consulted with the allies about restoring Prussia but was turned down as many allied leaders viewed the legacy of Prussia as the root of German extremism and militarism. The final Abolition of Prussia occurred on 25 February 1947, ordered by the Allied Control Council. Other end of war treaties gave nearly all of the former kingdom's land to Poland and the Soviet Union after the war, marking the official end of one of Europe’s most influential countries.
State
Government
The joint authority, feudal and bureaucratic, on which Prussian absolute monarchy was based, saw its interests laid in suppression of the drive for personal freedom and democratic rights. It therefore had to recourse on police methods. The "police state", as Otto Hintze described it, replaced the older system with its feudal squirearchy run in the interests of the ruling class, but which in its rudimentary form was a constitutional state.
Politics
The Kingdom of Prussia was an absolute monarchy until the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, after which Prussia became a constitutional monarchy and Adolf Heinrich von Arnim-Boitzenburg was appointed as Prussia's first prime minister. Following Prussia's first constitution, a two-house parliament was formed. The lower house, or Landtag was elected by all taxpayers, who were divided into three classes according to the amount of taxes paid. This allowed just over 25% of the voters to choose 85% of the legislature, all but assuring dominance by the more well-to-do elements of the population. The upper house, which was later renamed the Prussian House of Lords, was appointed by the king. He retained full executive authority and ministers were responsible only to him. As a result, the grip of the landowning classes, the Prussian Junkers, remained unbroken, especially in the eastern provinces. Prussian Secret Police, formed in response to the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, aided the conservative government.
Constitutions
There were two constitutions during the kingdom's existence, the 1848 and 1850. The constitution of 1848 was enacted and set into effect on 5 December 1848, by Frederick William IV. This was set out in response to the revolutions of 1848. The second constitution was enacted on 31 January 1850 and was continually amended in the following years.
The Constitution of 1848 occurred under the rule of Frederick William IV who took power from his father after his death in the year 1840. After taking power, William set an appointment of committees to confer on points of various questions. With this the king believed that he could give a sense of unity without revolution. The government was then cautiously brought together, all members of the eight provincial assemblies, and split into two houses, a house of lords and a second house that enveloped the three estates of the knights, the burgesses and the peasants. Although they had no real power and the king did not consult them or allow them to veto or argue the legislatures that were being made, it was a step towards a constitutional state. Known as the "March Days", radical changes began to occur. When the king refused to add the United Diets into an actual representative institution, the people began to rebel. On 18 March, the king made the decision to agree to some concessions. However, there were multiple stand-offs with soldiers as he had not been able to stop them from attacking even peaceful crowds. In March, the king agreed to demands issued by the people and made a number of concessions. At the 22 May 1848, convention he put out the sketch of the new constitution. The people submitted a revised draft on 26 July 1848. When all discussions were finished, Frederick dissolved the convention and the constitution was officially put in place on 5 December 1848.
The constitution was separated into 105 different articles headed under eight separate headings. The nine headings are titled The Territory of the State, The Rights of the Prussians, The King, The Ministers, The Chambers, The Judicial Power, Public Officials Not Belonging to the Judicial Class, The Finances and The Communes, Circuits, Districts, and Provincial Bodies. Each of these groups varies in numbers of articles with the seventh and ninth sections having only one article each and the second section having forty separate articles. There have also been fourteen provisions divided into General Provisions and Temporary Provisions.
Religion
The Prussian constitution of 1850 allowed for the freedom of conscience, the freedom of public and private worship and the freedom of association onto religious bodies. It stated that all churches and other religious associations should administer everything independently and privately from the state and that no part of the government may affect the Church. The constitution also stated that all children should be taught their religion from people of their own religion and not by someone else.
According to a census taken in the early or mid 1800s, around the 1830s there was a division of six religions: this was, per million inhabitants, 609,427.0 practising Protestants, 376,177.1 practising Catholics, 13,348.8 practising Jews, 925.1 Mennonites, 121.4 Greek Orthodox and 0.6 Muslims. At this time the total population was 14,098,125 people, meaning there were approximately 8,591,778 practising Protestants, 5,303,392 practising Catholics, 188,193 practising Jews, 13,042 Mennonites, 1,712 Greek Orthodox, and 8 Muslims.
Although dominated by Protestant Lutherans (along with some Calvinist), it contained millions of Catholics in the west and in Poland. There were numerous Catholic populations in the Rhineland and parts of Westphalia. In addition, West Prussia, Warmia, Silesia, and the Province of Posen had predominantly Catholic Polish-speaking populations. East Prussia's southern region of Masuria was mostly made up of Germanised Protestant Masurs.
Subdivisions
The original core regions of the Kingdom of Prussia were the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia which together formed Brandenburg-Prussia. A Further Pomeranian province had been held by Prussia since 1653. Combined with Swedish Pomerania, gained from Sweden in 1720 and 1815, this region formed the Province of Pomerania. Prussian gains in the Silesian Wars led to the formation of the Province of Silesia in 1740.
After the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the newly annexed Royal Prussia and Warmia became the Province of West Prussia, while the Duchy of Prussia (along with part of Warmia) became the Province of East Prussia. Other annexations along the Noteć (Netze) River became the Netze District. Following the second and third partitions (1793–1795), the new Prussian annexations became the Provinces of New Silesia, South Prussia, and New East Prussia, with the Netze District redivided between West and South Prussia. All the acquired Polish lands remained outside of the Holy Roman Empire, and the latter three provinces were disentangled from Prussia following the Treaties of Tilsit to be included in the Napoleonic Grand Duchy of Warsaw in 1806, and were ultimately lost to Congress Poland after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, except for the western part of South Prussia, which would form part of the Grand Duchy of Posen, the latter however also remained outside of German Confederation, the successor of the dissolved Holy Roman Empire, as did the Province of East Prussia and the Province of West Prussia.
Following the major western gains made by Prussia after the Vienna Congress, a total of ten provinces were established, each one subdivided further into smaller administrative regions known as Regierungsbezirke. The provinces were:
Province of Brandenburg
Province of East Prussia (outside of German Confederation)
Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg
Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine
Province of Pomerania
Grand Duchy of Posen (autonomous, outside of German Confederation)
Province of Saxony
Province of Silesia
Province of West Prussia (outside of German Confederation)
Province of Westphalia
In 1822 the provinces of Jülich-Cleves-Berg and the Lower Rhine were merged to form the Rhine Province. In 1829, the Provinces of East and West Prussia merged to form the Province of Prussia, but the separate provinces were reformed in 1878. The principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen were annexed in 1850 to form the Province of Hohenzollern.
After Prussia's victory in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, territories annexed by Prussia were reorganised into three new provinces:
Hanover
Hesse-Nassau
Schleswig-Holstein
References
Notes
Bibliography
Kingdom of Prussia
Former kingdoms
Former monarchies of Europe
States of the German Confederation
States of the North German Confederation
States of the German Empire
.Kingdom of Prussia
.Kingdom of Prussia
.Kingdom of Prussia
.Kingdom of Prussia
States and territories established in 1701
States and territories disestablished in 1918
.Kingdom of Prussia
.Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
Former countries
Christian states
sv:Kungariket Preussen
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkeypox
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Monkeypox
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Monkeypox is an infectious disease caused by the monkeypox virus that can occur in certain animals and humans. Symptoms begin with fever, headache, muscle pains, swollen lymph nodes, and feeling tired. This is followed by a rash that forms blisters and crusts over. The time from exposure to onset of symptoms is around 10 days. The duration of symptoms is typically 2 to 5 weeks.
Monkeypox may be spread from handling bushmeat, an animal bite or scratch, body fluids, contaminated objects, or close contact with an infected person. The virus is believed to normally circulate among certain rodents in Africa. Diagnosis can be confirmed by testing a lesion for the virus's DNA. The disease can appear similar to chickenpox.
The smallpox vaccine is believed to prevent infection. In 2019 a vaccine was approved for the disorder in the United States. There is no known cure. Cidofovir or brincidofovir may be useful. The risk of death in those infected is up to 10%.
The disease mostly occurs in Central and West Africa. It was first identified in 1958 among laboratory monkeys. The first cases in humans were found in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. An outbreak that occurred in the United States in 2003 was traced to a pet store where rodents imported from Ghana were sold.
Signs and symptoms
Monkeypox is similar to smallpox, although it is often milder.
Limited person-to-person spread of infection has been reported in disease-endemic areas in Africa.
Non-fatal cases of monkeypox can result in permanent vision loss due to damage of the cornea.
Cause
Monkeypox virus
Monkeypox virus causes the disease in both humans and animals. It was first identified in 1958 as a pathogen of crab-eating macaque monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) being used as laboratory animals. The crab-eating macaque is often used for neurological experiments. Monkeypox virus is an Orthopoxvirus, a genus of the family Poxviridae that contains other viral species that target mammals. The virus is found mainly in tropical rainforest regions of Central and West Africa.
The virus was first discovered in monkeys (hence the name) in 1958, and in humans in 1970. Between 1970 and 1986, over 400 cases in humans were reported. Small viral outbreaks with a death rate in the range of 10% and a secondary human-to-human infection rate of about the same amount occur routinely in equatorial Central and West Africa. The primary route of infection is thought to be contact with the infected animals or their bodily fluids. The first reported outbreak outside of the African continent occurred in the United States in 2003 in the Midwestern states of Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, with one occurrence in New Jersey. The outbreak was traced to a prairie dog infected from an imported Gambian pouched rat. No deaths occurred.
Humans can be infected by an animal via a bite, or by direct contact with an infected animal’s bodily fluids. The virus can also spread from human to human, by respiratory (airborne) contact or by contact with an infected person's bodily fluids. Risk factors for transmission include sharing a bed or room, or using the same utensils as an infected person. An increased transmission risk is associated with factors involving the introduction of virus to the oral mucosa. The incubation period is 10–14 days. Prodromal symptoms include swelling of lymph nodes, muscle pain, headache, and fever prior to the emergence of the rash. The rash is usually only present on the trunk, but may spread to the palms and soles of the feet in a centrifugal distribution. The initial macular lesions exhibit a papular, then vesicular and pustular appearance.
Reservoir
In addition to monkeys, reservoirs for the virus are found in Gambian pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus), dormice (Graphiurus spp.) and African squirrels (Heliosciurus, and Funisciurus). The use of these animals as food may be an important source of transmission to humans.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis can be verified by testing for the virus. The virus does not remain very long in the blood, and hence blood testing may not detect the disease. Test results interpreted together with clinical features.
Prevention
Vaccination against smallpox is assumed to provide protection against human monkeypox infection, because they are closely related viruses and the vaccine protects animals from experimental lethal monkeypox challenges. This has not been conclusively demonstrated in humans, because routine smallpox vaccination was discontinued following the apparent eradication of smallpox and owing to safety concerns with the vaccine.
Smallpox vaccine has been reported to reduce the risk of monkeypox among previously vaccinated persons in Africa. The decrease in immunity to poxviruses in exposed populations is a factor in the prevalence of monkeypox. It is attributed both to waning cross-protective immunity among those vaccinated before 1980 when mass smallpox vaccinations were discontinued, and to the gradually increasing proportion of unvaccinated individuals. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that persons investigating monkeypox outbreaks and involved in caring for infected individuals or animals should receive a smallpox vaccination to protect against monkeypox. Persons who have had close or intimate contact with individuals or animals confirmed to have monkeypox should also be vaccinated.
The CDC does not recommend pre-exposure vaccination for unexposed veterinarians, veterinary staff, or animal control officers, unless such persons are involved in field investigations.
Treatment
Currently, no treatment for monkeypox has been shown to be effective or safe. A number of measures may be used to try to decrease spread of the disease including the smallpox vaccine, cidofovir, and vaccinia immune globulin (VIG).
Epidemiology
Monkeypox as a disease in humans was first associated with an illness in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), in the town of Basankusu, Équateur Province, in 1970. A second outbreak of human illness was identified in DRC/Zaire in 1996–1997. In 2003, a small outbreak of human monkeypox in the United States occurred among owners of pet prairie dogs. The outbreak originated from Villa Park, Illinois, outside of Chicago, when an exotic animal dealer kept young prairie dogs in close proximity to an infected Gambian pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) recently imported from Accra, Ghana. Seventy-one people were reportedly infected, in which no fatalities occurred. In 2005, 49 cases were reported Sudan for the first time. No one who was infected died. The genetic analysis suggests that the virus did not originate in Sudan but was imported, most likely from DRC.
Many more monkeypox cases have been reported in Central and West Africa, and in the Democratic Republic of Congo in particular. The collected data is often incomplete and unconfirmed which hinders realistic estimations of the people affected and the number of cases of monkeypox over time. Nevertheless, it was suggested that the number of reported monkeypox cases has increased and that the geographical occurrence broadened in recent years.
2003 U.S. outbreak
In May 2003, a young child became ill with fever and rash after being bitten by a prairie dog purchased at a local swap meet near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In total, 71 cases of monkeypox were reported through June 20, 2003. All cases were traced to Gambian pouched rats imported by a Texas exotic animal distributor, from Accra, Ghana, in April 2003. No deaths resulted. Electron microscopy and serologic studies were used to confirm that the disease was human monkeypox.
People with monkeypox typically experienced prodromal symptoms of fever, headaches, muscle aches, chills, and drenching sweats. Roughly one-third of infected people had nonproductive coughs. This prodromal phase was followed 1–10 days later by the development of a papular rash that typically progressed through stages of vesiculation, pustulation, umbilication, and crusting. In some people, early lesions had become ulcerated. Rash distribution and lesions occurred on head, trunk, and extremities; many of the people had initial and satellite lesions on palms, soles, and extremities. Rashes were generalized in some people. After onset of the rash, people generally manifested rash lesions in different stages. Everyone affected reported direct or close contact with prairie dogs, later found to be infected with the monkeypox virus.
2017–19 Nigeria outbreak
Monkeypox has been reportedly spread around southeast and south Nigeria. Some states and the federal government of Nigeria are currently seeking a way to contain it, as well as find a cure for the infected ones. It has spread to Akwa Ibom, Abia, Bayelsa, Benue, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Ekiti, Enugu, Imo, Lagos, Nasarawa, Oyo, Plateau, Rivers and Federal Capital Territory. The outbreak started in September 2017 and remains ongoing across multiple states as of May 2019.
2018 United Kingdom cases
In September 2018, the United Kingdom's first case of monkeypox was recorded. The person, a Nigerian national, is believed to have contracted monkeypox in Nigeria before travelling to the United Kingdom. According to Public Health England, the person was staying in a naval base in Cornwall before being moved to the Royal Free Hospital's specialised infectious disease unit. People who had been in contact with the person since he contracted the disease were contacted. A second case was confirmed in the town of Blackpool, with a further case that of a medical worker who cared for the case from Blackpool. A fourth case occurred on 3 December 2019, when monkeypox was diagnosed in a person in south west England. They were travelling to the UK from Nigeria.
2019 Singapore case
On 8 May 2019, a 38-year-old man who travelled from Nigeria was hospitalised in an isolation ward at the National Centre for Infectious Diseases in Singapore, after being confirmed as the country's first case of monkeypox. As a result, 22 people were quarantined. The case may be linked to the ongoing outbreak in Nigeria.
2021 cases
On 24 May in the UK, three cases of monkeypox from a single household were identified by Public Health Wales. The cases were also announced by Health Secretary Matt Hancock while addressing MPs. The index case was diagnosed on 24 May after traveling from Nigeria. The second case was reported on 2 June, and the third on 24 June.
On 16 July in the US, an American returning from a trip in Nigeria was diagnosed with Monkeypox. They were promptly hospitalized and were reportedly in stable condition. It was reported that the chances of the disease spreading to others was low due to airport and plane requirements for everyone to wear masks for the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 20 July 2021, the CDC is monitoring 200 people across 27 US states for possible exposure.
History
Monkeypox was first described by Preben von Magnus in 1958 in laboratory cynomolgus monkeys, when two outbreaks of a smallpox-like disease occurred in colonies of monkeys kept for research. The first reported case of monkeypox in humans was discovered more than a decade later, in 1970 in a person with a suspected smallpox infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo during efforts to eradicate smallpox. The disease was subsequently reported in humans in other central and western African countries. Almost 50 cases were reported between 1970 and 1979, with more than two thirds of these being from Zaire. The other cases originated from Liberia, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Sierra Leone.
References
External links
CDC – Monkeypox Fact Sheet
WHO – Monkeypox Fact Sheet
Virology.net Picturebook: Monkeypox
"Could Monkeypox Take Over Where Smallpox Left Off? Smallpox may be gone, but its viral cousins – monkeypox and cowpox – are staging a comeback". Scientific American, March 4, 2013
Animal viral diseases
Poxviruses
Virus-related cutaneous conditions
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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] |
242707
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Thought (disambiguation)
|
Thought encompasses an "aim-oriented flow of ideas and associations that can lead to a reality-oriented conclusion".
Thought may also refer to:
In philosophy, thought is also a synonym for idea
School of thought, a collections of ideas that result from the adoption of a particular paradigm
Thought: Fordham University Quarterly, published by Fordham University
Thought: A Journal of Philosophy, published by Wiley-Blackwell for the Northern Institute of Philosophy
"Thought", in Gottlob Frege's theory of meaning, "something for which the question of truth can arise at all"
"Thought" (Myel), a short story by Leonid Andreyev
Thought (film), a 1916 Russian silent film
Thought (sculpture), a sculpture by S. D. Merkurov
Thoughts (album), a 1985 album by Bill Dixon
"Thoughts" (song), a 2013 song by Luna Sea
"Thoughts", a 1969 song by Vanilla Fudge
"Thoughts", a 2019 song by Charli XCX
|
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242709
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20IV%20%28disambiguation%29
|
William IV (disambiguation)
|
William IV (1765–1837) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover from 1830 to 1837.
William IV may also refer to:
William IV, Duke of Aquitaine (937–994)
William IV of Provence (died 1030)
William IV of Weimar or William, Margrave of Meissen (died 1062)
William IV of Montpellier (r. 1058–1068)
William IV, Count of Toulouse (c. 1040–1094)
William IV, Marquis of Montferrat (c. 1030–1100)
William IV, Count of Nevers (c. 1130–1168)
William IV of Forcalquier (1130–1208)
William IV of Saint Omer (fl. 1157–1191)
William IV, Count of Ponthieu (1179–1221)
William IV, Count of Jülich (c. 1210–1278)
William IV, Lord of Douglas (died 1333)
William IV of Holland or William II, Count of Hainaut (1307–1345)
William IV of Hainault or William II, Duke of Bavaria (1365–1417)
William IV, Lord of Egmont (1412–1483)
William IV, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (c. 1425–1503)
William IV, Duke of Jülich-Berg (1455–1511)
William IV, Princely count of Henneberg-Schleusingen (1478–1559)
William IV, Duke of Bavaria (1493–1550)
William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (1532–1592)
William IV, Prince of Orange (1711–1751)
William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (1852–1912)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20academic%20disciplines
|
Outline of academic disciplines
|
An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of knowledge, taught and researched as part of higher education. A scholar's discipline is commonly defined by the university faculties and learned societies to which they belong and the academic journals in which they publish research.
Disciplines vary between well-established ones that exist in almost all universities and have well-defined rosters of journals and conferences, and nascent ones supported by only a few universities and publications. A discipline may have branches, and these are often called sub-disciplines.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next highest level (e.g., Music) is a discipline having some degree of autonomy and being the basic identity felt by its scholars; and lower levels of the hierarchy are sub-disciplines not normally having any role in the structure of the university's governance.
Humanities
Performing arts
Music (outline)
Accompanying
Chamber music
Church music
Conducting
Choral conducting
Orchestral conducting
Wind ensemble conducting
Early music
Jazz studies (outline)
Musical composition
Music education
Music history
Musicology
Historical musicology
Systematic musicology
Ethnomusicology
Music theory
Orchestral studies
Organology
Organ and historical keyboards
Piano
Strings, harp, oud, and guitar (outline)
Singing
Woodwinds, brass, and percussion
Recording
Dance (outline)
Choreography
Dance notation
Ethnochoreology
History of dance
Television (outline)
Television studies
Theatre (outline)
Acting
Directing
Dramaturgy
History
Musical theatre
Playwrighting
Puppetry
Scenography
Stage design
Ventriloquism
Film (outline)
Animation
Film criticism
Filmmaking
Film theory
Live action
Visual arts
Applied arts
Animation
Calligraphy
Decorative arts
Mixed media
Printmaking
Studio art
Architecture (Outline of architecture)
Interior architecture
Landscape architecture
Landscape design
Landscape planning
Architectural analytics
Historic preservation
Interior design (interior architecture)
Technical drawing
Fashion
Fine arts
Graphic arts
Drawing (outline)
Painting (outline)
Photography (outline)
Sculpture (outline)
History
African history
American history
Ancient history
Ancient Egypt
Carthage
Ancient Greek history (outline)
Ancient Roman history (outline)
Assyrian Civilization
Bronze Age Civilizations
Biblical history
History of the Indus Valley Civilization
Preclassic Maya
History of Mesopotamia
The Stone Age
History of the Yangtze civilization
History of the Yellow River civilization
Asian history
Chinese history
Indian history (outline)
Indonesian history
Iranian history
Australian history
Cultural history
Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church
Economic history
Environmental history
European history
Intellectual history
Jewish history
Latin American history
Modern history
Philosophical history
Ancient philosophy
Contemporary philosophy
Medieval philosophy
Humanism (outline)
Scholasticism
Modern philosophy
Political history
History of political thought
Pre-Columbian era history
Prehistory
Public history
Russian history
Scientific history
Technological history
World history
Languages and literature
Linguistics (Outline of linguistics)
Applied linguistics
Composition studies
Computational linguistics
Discourse analysis
English studies
Etymology
Grammar
Grammatology
Historical linguistics
History of linguistics
Interlinguistics
Lexicology
Linguistic typology
Morphology (linguistics)
Natural language processing
Philology
Phonetics
Phonology
Pragmatics
Psycholinguistics
Rhetoric
Semantics
Semiotics (outline)
Sociolinguistics
Syntax
Usage
Word usage
Comics studies
Comparative literature
Creative writing
Fiction (outline)
Non-fiction
English literature
History of literature
Ancient literature
Medieval literature
Post-colonial literature
Post-modern literature
Literary theory
Critical theory (outline)
Literary criticism
Poetics
Poetry
World literature
African-American literature
American literature
British literature
Law
Administrative law
Canon law
Civil law
Admiralty law
Animal law/Animal rights
Civil procedure
Common law
Contract law
Corporations
Environmental law
Family law
Federal law
International law
Public international law
Supranational law
Labor law
Property law
Tax law
Tort law (outline)
Comparative law
Competition law
Constitutional law
Criminal law
Criminal justice (outline)
Criminal procedure
Forensic science (outline)
Police science
Islamic law
Jewish law (outline)
Jurisprudence (Philosophy of Law)
Legal management
Commercial law
Corporate law
Procedural law
Substantive law
Philosophy
Aesthetics (outline)
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of economics
Philosophy of education
Philosophy of engineering
Philosophy of history
Philosophy of language
Philosophy of law
Philosophy of mathematics
Philosophy of music
Philosophy of psychology
Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of physical sciences
Philosophy of biology
Philosophy of chemistry
Philosophy of physics
Philosophy of social science
Philosophy of technology
Systems philosophy
Epistemology (outline)
Justification
Reasoning errors
Ethics (outline)
Applied ethics
Animal rights
Bioethics
Environmental ethics
Meta-ethics
Moral psychology, Descriptive ethics, Value theory
Normative ethics
Virtue ethics
Logic (outline)
Mathematical logic
Philosophical logic
Meta-philosophy
Metaphysics (outline)
Philosophy of Action
Determinism and Free will
Ontology
Philosophy of mind
Philosophy of pain
Philosophy of artificial intelligence
Philosophy of perception
Philosophy of space and time
Teleology
Theism and Atheism
Philosophical traditions and schools
African philosophy
Analytic philosophy
Aristotelianism
Continental philosophy
Eastern philosophy
Feminist philosophy
Platonism
Social philosophy and political philosophy
Anarchism (outline)
Feminist philosophy
Libertarianism (outline)
Marxism
Theology
Biblical studies
Biblical Hebrew, Koine Greek, Aramaic
Religious studies
Buddhist theology
Pali Studies
Christian theology
Anglican theology
Baptist theology
Catholic theology
Eastern Orthodox theology
Protestant theology
Hindu theology
Sanskrit Studies
Dravidian Studies
Jewish theology
Muslim theology
Arabic Studies
Social science
Anthropology
Biological anthropology
Linguistic anthropology
Cultural anthropology
Social anthropology
Archaeology
Biocultural anthropology
Evolutionary anthropology
Feminist archaeology
Forensic anthropology
Maritime archaeology
Palaeoanthropology
Economics
Agricultural economics
Anarchist economics
Applied economics
Behavioural economics
Bioeconomics
Complexity economics
Computational economics
Consumer economics
Development economics
Ecological economics
Econometrics
Economic geography
Economic sociology
Economic systems
Education economics
Energy economics
Entrepreneurial economics
Environmental economics
Evolutionary economics
Experimental economics
Feminist economics
Financial econometrics
Financial economics
Green economics
Growth economics
Human development theory
Industrial organization
Information economics
Institutional economics
International economics
Islamic economics
Labor economics
Law and economics
Macroeconomics
Managerial economics
Marxian economics
Mathematical economics
Microeconomics
Monetary economics
Neuroeconomics
Participatory economics
Political economy
Public economics
Public finance
Real estate economics
Resource economics
Social choice theory
Socialist economics
Socioeconomics
Transport economics
Welfare economics
Geography
Physical geography
Atmology
Biogeography
Climatology
Coastal geography
Emergency management
Environmental geography
Geobiology
Geochemistry
Geology
Geomatics
Geomorphology
Geophysics
Glaciology
Hydrology
Landscape ecology
Lithology
Meteorology
Mineralogy
Oceanography
Palaeogeography
Palaeontology
Petrology
Quaternary science
Soil geography
Human geography
Behavioural geography
Cognitive geography
Cultural geography
Development geography
Economic geography
Health geography
Historical geography
Language geography
Mathematical geography
Marketing geography
Military geography
Political geography
Population geography
Religion geography
Social geography
Strategic geography
Time geography
Tourism geography
Transport geography
Urban geography
Integrated geography
Cartography
Celestial cartography
Planetary cartography
Topography
Political science
American politics
Canadian politics
Civics
Comparative politics
European studies
Geopolitics (Political geography)
International relations
International organizations
Nationalism studies
Peace and conflict studies
Policy studies
Political behavior
Political culture
Political economy
Political history
Political philosophy
Public administration
Public law
Psephology
Social choice theory
Singapore politics
Psychology
Abnormal psychology
Applied psychology
Biological psychology
Clinical neuropsychology
Clinical psychology
Cognitive psychology
Community psychology
Comparative psychology
Conservation psychology
Consumer psychology
Counseling psychology
Criminal psychology
Cultural psychology
Asian psychology
Black psychology
Developmental psychology
Differential psychology
Ecological psychology
Educational psychology
Environmental psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Experimental psychology
Group psychology
Family psychology
Feminine psychology
Forensic developmental psychology
Forensic psychology
Health psychology
Humanistic psychology
Indigenous psychology
Legal psychology
Mathematical psychology
Media psychology
Medical psychology
Military psychology
Moral psychology and Descriptive ethics
Music psychology
Neuropsychology
Occupational health psychology
Occupational psychology
Organizational psychology (a.k.a., Industrial Psychology)
Parapsychology (outline)
Pediatric psychology
Pedology (children study)
Personality psychology
Phenomenology
Political psychology
Positive psychology
Psychoanalysis
Psychobiology
Psychology of religion
Psychometrics
Psychopathology
Child psychopathology
Psychophysics
Quantitative psychology
Rehabilitation psychology
School psychology
Social psychology
Sport psychology
Traffic psychology
Transpersonal psychology
Sociology
Analytical sociology
Applied sociology
Leisure studies
Political sociology
Public sociology
Social engineering
Architectural sociology
Area studies
African studies
American studies
Appalachian studies
Canadian studies
Latin American studies
Asian studies
Central Asian studies
East Asian studies
Indology
Iranian studies
Japanese studies
Korean studies
Pakistan studies
Sindhology
Sinology (outline)
Southeast Asian studies
Thai studies
Australian studies
European studies
Celtic studies
German studies
Sociology in Poland
Scandinavian studies
Slavic studies
Middle Eastern studies
Arab studies
Assyriology
Egyptology
Jewish studies
Behavioral sociology
Collective behavior
Social movements
Community informatics
Social network analysis
Comparative sociology
Conflict theory
Criminology/Criminal justice (outline)
Critical management studies
Critical sociology
Cultural sociology
Cultural studies/ethnic studies
Africana studies
Cross-cultural studies
Culturology
Deaf studies
Ethnology
Utopian studies
Whiteness studies
Demography/Population
Digital sociology
Dramaturgical sociology
Economic sociology
Educational sociology
Empirical sociology
Environmental sociology
Evolutionary sociology
Feminist sociology
Figurational sociology
Futures studies (outline)
Gender studies
Men's studies
Women's studies
Historical sociology
Human ecology
Humanistic sociology
Industrial sociology
Interactionism
Interpretive sociology
Ethnomethodology
Phenomenology
Social constructionism
Symbolic interactionism
Jealousy sociology
Macrosociology
Marxist sociology
Mathematical sociology
Medical sociology
Mesosociology
Microsociology
Military sociology
Natural resource sociology
Organizational studies
Phenomenological sociology
Policy sociology
Psychoanalytic sociology
Science studies/Science and technology studies
Sexology
Heterosexism
Human sexual behavior
Human sexuality (outline)
Queer studies/Queer theory
Sex education
Social capital
Social change
Social conflict theory
Social control
Pure sociology
Social economy
Social philosophy
Social policy
Social psychology
Social stratification
Social theory
Social transformation
Computational sociology
Economic sociology/Socioeconomics
Economic development
Social development
Sociobiology
Sociocybernetics
Sociolinguistics
Sociology of aging
Sociology of agriculture
Sociology of art
Sociology of autism
Sociology of childhood
Sociology of conflict
Sociology of culture
Sociology of cyberspace
Sociology of development
Sociology of deviance
Sociology of disaster
Sociology of education
Sociology of emotions
Sociology of fatherhood
Sociology of finance
Sociology of food
Sociology of gender
Sociology of generations
Sociology of globalization
Sociology of government
Sociology of health and illness
Sociology of human consciousness
Sociology of immigration
Sociology of knowledge
Sociology of language
Sociology of law
Sociology of leisure
Sociology of literature
Sociology of markets
Sociology of marriage
Sociology of motherhood
Sociology of music
Sociology of natural resources
Sociology of organizations
Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict
Sociology of punishment
Sociology of race and ethnic relations
Sociology of religion
Sociology of risk
Sociology of science
Sociology of scientific knowledge
Sociology of social change
Sociology of social movements
Sociology of space
Sociology of sport
Sociology of technology
Sociology of terrorism
Sociology of the body
Sociology of the family
Sociology of the history of science
Sociology of the Internet
Sociology of work
Sociomusicology
Structural sociology
Theoretical sociology
Urban studies or Urban sociology/Rural sociology
Victimology
Visual sociology
Social work
Clinical social work
Community practice
Mental health
Psychosocial rehabilitation
Person-centered therapy
Family therapy
Financial social work
Natural science
Biology
Aerobiology
Anatomy
Comparative anatomy
Human anatomy (outline)
Biochemistry (outline)
Bioinformatics
Biophysics (outline)
Biotechnology (outline)
Botany (outline)
Ethnobotany
Phycology
Cell biology (outline)
Chronobiology
Computational biology
Cryobiology
Developmental biology
Embryology
Teratology
Ecology (outline)
Agroecology
Ethnoecology
Human ecology
Landscape ecology
Endocrinology
Epigenetics
Ethnobiology
Anthrozoology
Evolutionary biology
Genetics (outline)
Behavioural genetics
Molecular genetics
Population genetics
Histology
Human biology
Immunology (outline)
Limnology
Linnaean taxonomy
Marine biology
Mathematical biology
Microbiology
Bacteriology
Protistology
Molecular biology
Mycology
Neuroscience (outline)
Behavioral neuroscience
Nutrition (outline)
Paleobiology
Paleontology
Parasitology
Pathology
Anatomical pathology
Clinical pathology
Dermatopathology
Forensic pathology
Hematopathology
Histopathology
Molecular pathology
Surgical pathology
Physiology
Human physiology
Exercise physiology
Structural Biology
Systematics (Taxonomy)
Systems biology
Virology
Molecular virology
Xenobiology
Zoology (outline)
Animal communications
Apiology
Arachnology
Arthropodology
Batrachology
Bryozoology
Carcinology
Cetology
Cnidariology
Entomology
Forensic entomology
Ethnozoology
Ethology
Helminthology
Herpetology
Ichthyology (outline)
Invertebrate zoology
Mammalogy
Cynology
Felinology
Malacology
Conchology
Limacology
Teuthology
Myriapodology
Myrmecology (outline)
Nematology
Neuroethology
Oology
Ornithology (outline)
Planktology
Primatology
Zootomy
Zoosemiotics
Chemistry
Agrochemistry
Analytical chemistry
Astrochemistry
Atmospheric chemistry
Biochemistry (outline)
Chemical biology
Chemical engineering (outline)
Cheminformatics
Computational chemistry
Cosmochemistry
Electrochemistry
Environmental chemistry
Femtochemistry
Flavor
Flow chemistry
Geochemistry
Green chemistry
Histochemistry
Hydrogenation
Immunochemistry
Inorganic chemistry
Marine chemistry
Mathematical chemistry
Mechanochemistry
Medicinal chemistry
Molecular biology
Molecular mechanics
Nanotechnology
Natural product chemistry
Neurochemistry
Oenology
Organic chemistry (outline)
Organometallic chemistry
Petrochemistry
Pharmacology
Photochemistry
Physical chemistry
Physical organic chemistry
Phytochemistry
Polymer chemistry
Quantum chemistry
Radiochemistry
Solid-state chemistry
Sonochemistry
Supramolecular chemistry
Surface chemistry
Synthetic chemistry
Theoretical chemistry
Thermochemistry
Earth science
Edaphology
Environmental chemistry
Environmental science
Gemology
Geochemistry
Geodesy
Physical geography (outline)
Atmospheric science / Meteorology (outline)
Biogeography / Phytogeography
Climatology / Paleoclimatology / Palaeogeography
Coastal geography / Oceanography
Edaphology / Pedology or Soil science
Geobiology
Geology (outline) (Geomorphology, Mineralogy, Petrology, Sedimentology, Speleology, Tectonics, Volcanology)
Geostatistics
Glaciology
Hydrology (outline)/ Limnology / Hydrogeology
Landscape ecology
Quaternary science
Geophysics (outline)
Paleontology
Paleobiology
Paleoecology
Space science
Astrobiology
Astronomy (outline)
Observational astronomy
Gamma ray astronomy
Infrared astronomy
Microwave astronomy
Optical astronomy
Radio astronomy
UV astronomy
X-ray astronomy
Astrophysics
Gravitational astronomy
Black holes
Cosmology
Physical cosmology
Interstellar medium
Numerical simulations
Astrophysical plasma
Galaxy formation and evolution
High-energy astrophysics
Hydrodynamics
Magnetohydrodynamics
Star formation
Stellar astrophysics
Helioseismology
Stellar evolution
Stellar nucleosynthesis
Planetary science
Physics
Acoustics
Aerodynamics
Applied physics
Astrophysics
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
Biophysics (outline)
Computational physics
Condensed matter physics
Cryogenics
Electricity
Electromagnetism
Elementary particle physics
Experimental physics
Fluid dynamics
Geophysics (outline)
Mathematical physics
Mechanics
Medical physics
Molecular physics
Newtonian dynamics
Nuclear physics
Optics
Plasma physics
Quantum physics
Solid mechanics
Solid state physics
Statistical mechanics
Theoretical physics
Thermal physics
Thermodynamics
Formal science
Computer science
Also a branch of electrical engineering
Logic in computer science
Formal methods (Formal verification)
Logic programming
Multi-valued logic
Fuzzy logic
Programming language semantics
Type theory
Algorithms
Computational geometry
Distributed algorithms
Parallel algorithms
Randomized algorithms
Artificial intelligence (outline)
Cognitive science
Automated reasoning
Computer vision (outline)
Machine learning
Artificial neural networks
Natural language processing (Computational linguistics)
Expert systems
Robotics (outline)
Data structures
Computer architecture
Computer graphics
Image processing
Scientific visualization
Computer communications (networks)
Cloud computing
Information theory
Internet, World Wide Web
Ubiquitous computing
Wireless computing (Mobile computing)
Computer security and reliability
Cryptography
Fault-tolerant computing
Computing in mathematics, natural sciences, engineering, and medicine
Algebraic (symbolic) computation
Computational biology (bioinformatics)
Computational chemistry
Computational mathematics
Computational neuroscience
Computational number theory
Computational physics
Computer-aided engineering
Computational fluid dynamics
Finite element analysis
Numerical analysis
Scientific computing (Computational science)
Computing in social sciences, arts, humanities, and professions
Community informatics
Computational economics
Computational finance
Computational sociology
Digital humanities (Humanities computing)
History of computer hardware
History of computer science (outline)
Humanistic informatics
Databases (outline)
Distributed databases
Object databases
Relational databases
Data management
Data mining
Information architecture
Information management
Information retrieval
Knowledge management
Multimedia, hypermedia
Sound and music computing
Distributed computing
Grid computing
Human-computer interaction
Operating systems
Parallel computing
High-performance computing
Programming languages
Compilers
Programming paradigms
Concurrent programming
Functional programming
Imperative programming
Logic programming
Object-oriented programming
Program semantics
Type theory
Quantum computing
Software engineering
Formal methods (Formal verification)
Theory of computation
Automata theory (Formal languages)
Computability theory
Computational complexity theory
Concurrency theory
VLSI design
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Mathematical logic and Foundations of mathematics
Intuitionistic logic
Modal logic
Model theory
Proof theory
Recursion theory
Set theory
Algebra (outline)
Associative algebra
Category theory
Topos theory
Differential algebra
Field theory
Group theory
Group representation
Homological algebra
K-theory
Lattice theory (Order theory)
Lie algebra
Linear algebra (Vector space)
Multilinear algebra
Non-associative algebra
Representation theory
Ring theory
Commutative algebra
Noncommutative algebra
Universal algebra
Analysis
Complex analysis
Functional analysis
Operator theory
Harmonic analysis
Fourier analysis
Non-standard analysis
Ordinary differential equations
p-adic analysis
Partial differential equations
Real analysis
Calculus (outline)
Probability theory
Ergodic theory
Measure theory
Integral geometry
Stochastic process
Geometry (outline) and Topology
Affine geometry
Algebraic geometry
Algebraic topology
Convex geometry
Differential topology
Discrete geometry
Finite geometry
Galois geometry
General topology
Geometric topology
Integral geometry
Noncommutative geometry
Non-Euclidean geometry
Projective geometry
Number theory
Algebraic number theory
Analytic number theory
Arithmetic combinatorics
Geometric number theory
Applied mathematics
Approximation theory
Combinatorics (outline)
Coding theory
Cryptography
Dynamical systems
Chaos theory
Fractal geometry
Game theory
Graph theory
Information theory
Mathematical physics
Quantum field theory
Quantum gravity
String theory
Quantum mechanics
Statistical mechanics
Numerical analysis
Operations research
Assignment problem
Decision analysis
Dynamic programming
Inventory theory
Linear programming
Mathematical optimization
Optimal maintenance
Real options analysis
Scheduling
Stochastic processes
Systems analysis
Statistics (outline)
Actuarial science
Demography
Econometrics
Mathematical statistics
Data visualization
Theory of computation
Computational complexity theory
Applied science
Agriculture
Aeroponics
Agroecology
Agrology
Agronomy
Animal husbandry (Animal science)
Beekeeping (Apiculture)
Anthroponics
Agricultural economics
Agricultural engineering
Biological systems engineering
Food engineering
Aquaculture
Aquaponics
Enology
Entomology
Fogponics
Food science
Culinary arts
Forestry
Horticulture
Hydrology (outline)
Hydroponics
Pedology
Plant science (outline)
Pomology
Pest control
Purification
Viticulture
Architecture and design
Architecture (outline)
Interior architecture
Landscape architecture
Architectural analytics
Historic preservation
Interior design (interior architecture)
Landscape architecture (landscape planning)
Landscape design
Urban planning (urban design)
Visual communication
Graphic design
Type design
Technical drawing
Industrial design (product design)
Ergonomics (outline)
Toy and amusement design
User experience design
Interaction design
Information architecture
User interface design
User experience evaluation
Decorative arts
Fashion design
Textile design
Business
Accounting
Accounting research
Accounting scholarship
Business administration
Business analysis
Business ethics
Business law
Business management
E-Business
Entrepreneurship
Finance (outline)
Industrial and labor relations
Collective bargaining
Human resources
Organizational studies
Labor economics
Labor history
Information systems (Business informatics)
Management information systems
Health informatics
Information technology (outline)
International trade
Management (outline)
Marketing (outline)
Operations management
Purchasing
Risk management and insurance
Systems science
Divinity
Canon law
Church history
Field ministry
Pastoral counseling
Pastoral theology
Religious education techniques
Homiletics
Liturgy
Sacred music
Missiology
Hermeneutics
Scriptural study and languages
Biblical Hebrew
Biblical studies/Sacred scripture
Vedic Study
New Testament Greek
Latin
Old Church Slavonic
Theology (outline)
Dogmatic theology
Ecclesiology
Sacramental theology
Systematic theology
Christian ethics
Hindu ethics
Moral theology
Historical theology
Education
Comparative education
Critical pedagogy
Curriculum and instruction
Alternative education
Early childhood education
Elementary education
Secondary education
Higher education
Mastery learning
Cooperative learning
Agricultural education
Art education
Bilingual education
Chemistry education
Counselor education
Language education
Legal education
Mathematics education
Medical education
Military education and training
Music education
Nursing education
Outdoor education
Peace education
Physical education/Sports coaching
Physics education
Reading education
Religious education
Science education
Special education
Sex education
Sociology of education
Technology education
Vocational education
Educational leadership
Educational philosophy
Educational psychology
Educational technology
Distance education
Engineering and technology
Chemical Engineering
Bioengineering
Biochemical engineering
Biomolecular engineering
Catalysis
Materials engineering
Molecular engineering
Nanotechnology
Polymer engineering
Process design
Petroleum engineering
Nuclear engineering
Food engineering
Process engineering
Reaction engineering
Thermodynamics
Transport phenomena
Civil Engineering
Coastal engineering
Earthquake engineering
Ecological engineering
Environmental engineering
Geotechnical engineering
Engineering geology
Hydraulic engineering
Mining engineering
Transportation engineering
Highway engineering
Structural engineering
Architectural engineering
Structural mechanics
Surveying
Educational Technology
Instructional design
Distance education
Instructional simulation
Human performance technology
Knowledge management
Electrical Engineering
Applied physics
Computer engineering (outline)
Computer science
Control systems engineering
Control theory
Electronic engineering
Instrumentation engineering
Engineering physics
Photonics
Information theory
Mechatronics
Power engineering
Quantum computing
Robotics (outline)
Semiconductors
Telecommunications engineering
Materials Science and Engineering
Biomaterials
Ceramic engineering
Crystallography
Nanomaterials
Photonics
Physical Metallurgy
Polymer engineering
Polymer science
Semiconductors
Mechanical Engineering
Aerospace engineering
Aeronautics
Astronautics
Acoustical engineering
Automotive engineering
Biomedical engineering
Biomechanical engineering
Neural engineering
Continuum mechanics
Fluid mechanics
Heat transfer
Industrial engineering
Manufacturing engineering
Marine engineering
Mass transfer
Mechatronics
Nanoengineering
Ocean engineering
Optical engineering
Robotics
Thermodynamics
Systems science
Chaos theory
Complex systems
Conceptual systems
Control theory
Affect control theory
Control engineering
Control systems
Dynamical systems
Perceptual control theory
Cybernetics
Biocybernetics
Engineering cybernetics
Management cybernetics
Medical cybernetics
New Cybernetics
Second-order cybernetics
Sociocybernetics
Network science
Operations research
Systems biology
Computational systems biology
Synthetic biology
Systems immunology
Systems neuroscience
System dynamics
Social dynamics
Systems ecology
Ecosystem ecology
Systems engineering
Biological systems engineering
Earth systems engineering and management
Enterprise systems engineering
Systems analysis
Systems psychology
Ergonomics
Family systems theory
Systemic therapy
Systems theory
Biochemical systems theory
Ecological systems theory
Developmental systems theory
General systems theory
Living systems theory
LTI system theory
Mathematical system theory
Sociotechnical systems theory
World-systems theory
Systems theory in anthropology
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Coastal management
Fisheries management
Land management
Natural resource management
Waste management
Wildlife management
Environmental policy
Wildlife observation
Recreation ecology
Silviculture
Sustainability studies
Sustainable development
Toxicology
Ecology
Family and consumer science
Consumer education
Housing
Interior design
Nutrition (outline)
Foodservice management
Textiles
Human physical performance and recreation
Biomechanics / Sports biomechanics
Sports coaching
Escapology
Ergonomics
Physical fitness
Aerobics
Personal trainer / Personal fitness training
Game design
Exercise physiology
Kinesiology / Exercise physiology / Performance science
Leisure studies
Navigation
Outdoor activity
Physical activity
Physical education / Pedagogy
Sociology of sport
Sexology
Sports / exercise
Sports journalism / sportscasting
Sport management
Athletic director
Sport psychology
Sports medicine
Athletic training
Survival skills
Batoning
Bushcraft
Scoutcraft
Woodcraft
Toy and amusement design
Journalism, media studies and communication
Journalism (outline)
Broadcast journalism
Digital journalism
Literary journalism
New media journalism
Print journalism
Sports journalism / sportscasting
Media studies (Mass media)
Newspaper
Magazine
Radio (outline)
Television (outline)
Television studies
Film (outline)
Film studies
Game studies
Fan studies
Narratology
Internet (outline)
Communication studies
Advertising
Animal communication
Communication design
Conspiracy theory
Digital media
Electronic media
Environmental communication
Hoax
Information theory
Intercultural communication
Marketing (outline)
Mass communication
Nonverbal communication
Organizational communication
Popular culture studies
Propaganda
Public relations (outline)
Speech communication
Technical writing
Translation
Law
Legal management
Corporate law
Mercantile law
Business law
Administrative law
Canon law
Comparative law
Constitutional law
Competition law
Criminal law
Criminal procedure
Criminal justice (outline)
Police science
Forensic science (outline)
Islamic law
Jewish law (outline)
Jurisprudence (Philosophy of Law)
Civil law
Admiralty law
Animal law/Animal rights
Common law
Corporations
Civil procedure
Contract law
Environmental law
Family law
Federal law
International law
Public international law
Supranational law
Labor law
Paralegal studies
Property law
Tax law
Tort law (outline)
Law enforcement (outline)
Procedural law
Substantive law
Library and museum studies
Archival science
Archivist
Bibliographic databases
Bibliometrics
Bookmobile
Cataloging
Citation analysis
Categorization
Classification
Library classification
Taxonomic classification
Scientific classification
Statistical classification
Security classification
Film classification
Collections care
Collection management
Collection Management Policy
Conservation science
Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
Curator
Data storage
Database management
Data modeling
Digital preservation
Dissemination
Film preservation
Five laws of library science
Historic preservation
History of library science
Human-computer interaction
Indexer
Informatics
Information architecture
Information broker
Information literacy
Information retrieval
Information science (outline)
Information systems and technology
Integrated library system
Interlibrary loan
Knowledge engineering
Knowledge management
Library
Library binding
Library circulation
Library instruction
Library portal
Library technical services
Management
Mass deacidification
Museology
Museum education
Museum administration
Object conservation
Preservation
Prospect research
Readers' advisory
Records management
Reference
Reference desk
Reference management software
Registrar
Research methods
Slow fire
Special library
Statistics
Medicine and health
Alternative medicine
Audiology
Clinical laboratory sciences/Clinical pathology/Laboratory medicine
Clinical biochemistry
Cytogenetics
Cytohematology
Cytology (outline)
Haemostasiology
Histology
Clinical immunology
Clinical microbiology
Molecular genetics
Parasitology
Clinical physiology
Dentistry (outline)
Dental hygiene and epidemiology
Dental surgery
Endodontics
Implantology
Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Orthodontics
Periodontics
Prosthodontics
Dermatology
Emergency medicine (outline)
Epidemiology
Geriatrics
Gynaecology
Health informatics/Clinical informatics
Hematology
Holistic medicine
Infectious disease
Intensive care medicine
Internal medicine
Cardiology
Cardiac electrophysiology
Endocrinology
Gastroenterology
Hepatology
Nephrology
Neurology
Oncology
Pulmonology
Rheumatology
Medical toxicology
Music therapy
Nursing
Nutrition (outline) and dietetics
Obstetrics (outline)
Occupational hygiene
Occupational therapy
Occupational toxicology
Ophthalmology
Neuro-ophthalmology
Optometry
Otolaryngology
Pathology
Pediatrics
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmaceutical chemistry
Pharmaceutical toxicology
Pharmaceutics
Pharmacocybernetics
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacognosy
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacology
Pharmacy
Physical fitness
Group Fitness / aerobics
Kinesiology / Exercise science / Human performance
Personal fitness training
Physical therapy
Physiotherapy
Podiatry
Preventive medicine
Primary care
General practice
Psychiatry (outline)
Forensic psychiatry
Psychology (outline)
Public health
Radiology
Recreational therapy
Rehabilitation medicine
Respiratory therapy
Sleep medicine
Speech–language pathology
Sports medicine
Surgery
Bariatric surgery
Cardiothoracic surgery
Neurosurgery
Orthoptics
Orthopedic surgery
Plastic surgery
Trauma surgery
Traumatology
Traditional medicine
Urology
Andrology
Veterinary medicine
Military sciences
Amphibious warfare
Artillery
Battlespace
Air
Information
Land
Sea
Space
Campaigning
Military engineering
Doctrine
Espionage
Game theory
Grand strategy
Containment
Limited war
Military science (outline)
Philosophy of war
Strategic studies
Total war
War (outline)
Leadership
Logistics
Materiel
Supply chain management
Military operation
Military history
Prehistoric
Ancient
Medieval
Early modern
Industrial
Modern
Fourth-generation warfare
Military intelligence
Military law
Military medicine
Naval science
Naval engineering
Naval tactics
Naval architecture
Organization
Command and control
Doctrine
Education and training
Engineers
Intelligence
Ranks
Staff
Technology and equipment
Military exercises
Military simulation
Military sports
Strategy
Attrition
Deception
Defensive
Offensive
Counter-offensive
Maneuver
Goal
Naval
Tactics
Aerial
Battle
Cavalry
Charge
Counter-attack
Counter-insurgency
Counter-intelligence
Counter-terrorism
Foxhole
Endemic warfare
Guerrilla warfare
Infiltration
Irregular warfare
Morale
Naval tactics
Siege
Surgical strike
Tactical objective
Trench warfare
Military weapons
Armor
Artillery
Biological
Cavalry
Conventional
Chemical
Cyber
Economic
Electronic
Infantry
Nuclear
Psychological
Unconventional
Other Military
Arms control
Arms race
Assassination
Asymmetric warfare
Civil defense
Clandestine operation
Collateral damage
Cold war (general term)
Combat
Covert operation
Cyberwarfare
Defense industry
Disarmament
Intelligence agency
Laws of war
Mercenary
Military campaign
Military operation
Mock combat
Network-centric warfare
Paramilitary
Principles of war
Private defense agency
Private military company
Proxy war
Religious war
Security
Special forces
Special operations
Theater (warfare)
Theft
Undercover
War crimes
Warrior
Public administration
Civil service
Corrections
Conservation biology
Criminal justice (outline)
Disaster research
Disaster response
Emergency management
Emergency services
Fire safety (Structural fire protection)
Fire ecology (Wildland fire management)
Governmental affairs
International affairs
Law enforcement
Peace and conflict studies
Police science
Policy studies
Policy analysis
Public administration
Nonprofit administration
Non-governmental organization (NGO) administration
Public policy doctrine
Public policy school
Regulation
Public safety
Public service
Public policy
Agricultural policy
Commercial policy
Cultural policy
Domestic policy
Drug policy
Drug policy reform
Economic policy
Fiscal policy
Incomes policy
Industrial policy
Investment policy
Monetary policy
Tax policy
Education policy
Energy policy
Nuclear energy policy
Renewable energy policy
Environmental policy
Food policy
Foreign policy
Health policy
Pharmaceutical policy
Vaccination policy
Housing policy
Immigration policy
Knowledge policy
Language policy
Military policy
Science policy
Climate change policy
Stem cell research policy
Space policy
Technology policy
Security policy
Social policy
Public policy by country
Social work
Child welfare
Community practice
Community organizing
Social policy
Human Services
Corrections
Gerontology
Medical social work
Mental health
School social work
Transportation
Highway safety
Infographics
Intermodal transportation studies
Logistics
Marine transportation
Port management
Seafaring
Operations research
Mass transit
Travel
Vehicles
See also
Academia (outline)
Academic genealogy
Curriculum
Interdisciplinarity
Transdisciplinarity
Professions
Classification of Instructional Programs
Joint Academic Coding System
List of fields of doctoral studies in the United States
List of academic fields
International Academic Association for the Enhancement of Learning in Higher Education
References
US Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences. Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP). National Center for Education Statistics.
External links
Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP 2000): Developed by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics to provide a taxonomic scheme that will support the accurate tracking, assessment, and reporting of fields of study and program completions activity.
Complete JACS (Joint Academic Classification of Subjects) from Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) in the United Kingdom
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification (ANZSRC 2008) (web-page ) Chapter 3 and Appendix 1: Fields of research classification.
Fields of Knowledge, a zoomable map allowing the academic disciplines and sub-disciplines in this article be visualised.
Sandoz, R. (ed.), Interactive Historical Atlas of the Disciplines, University of Geneva
academic disciplines
academic disciplines
Education-related lists
Science-related lists
Higher education-related lists
|
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] |
242711
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETU
|
ETU
|
Etu is a form of boxing practiced in Flores, Indonesia.
Etu or ETU may also refer to:
People
Etu Molden (born 1979), American football player
Etu Uaisele (born 1984), Tongan rugby league footballer
Universities
Eckernforde Tanga University, in Tanzania
Erzurum Technical University, in Turkey
Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University, in Russia
TOBB University of Economics and Technology, in Ankara, Turkey
Other uses
Energy transfer upconversion
Electrical Trades Union (disambiguation)
Ethylene thiourea, a fungicide and pesticide
European Taekwondo Union
European Triathlon Union
Jagham language
See also
E tū, a New Zealand trade union
|
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] |
242712
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swallow-tailed%20bee-eater
|
Swallow-tailed bee-eater
|
The swallow-tailed bee-eater (Merops hirundineus) is a near passerine bird in the bee-eater family, Meropidae. It breeds in savannah woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa. It is partially migratory, moving in response to rainfall patterns.
This species, like other bee-eaters, is a richly coloured, slender bird. Its colours and readily visible forked tail make this species unmistakable. It is mainly green with a yellow throat, blue gorget and black eye stripe and beak. It can reach a length of 20–22 cm, including the long forked green or blue feathers. Sexes are alike.
This is a species which prefers somewhat more wooded country than most bee-eaters. This attractive bird is readily approached. Just as the name suggests, bee-eaters predominantly eat insects, especially bees, wasps and hornets, which are caught in the air by sorties from an open perch. Swallowtail has a preference for honeybees.
These bee-eaters are nesting as pairs or in very small colonies in sandy banks, or similar flat ground. They make a relatively long tunnel in which the 2 to 4 spherical, white eggs are laid. These birds also feed and roost communally.
References
External links
Swallow-tailed bee-eater - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
swallow-tailed bee-eater
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
swallow-tailed bee-eater
swallow-tailed bee-eater
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton%20Elks
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Edmonton Elks
|
The Edmonton Elks are a professional Canadian football team based in Edmonton, Alberta. The club competes in the Canadian Football League (CFL) as a member of the league's West Division and plays their home games at the Brick Field at Commonwealth Stadium. The Elks were founded in 1949 as the Edmonton Eskimos and have won the Grey Cup championship fourteen times (including a three-peat between 1954 and 1956 and an unmatched five consecutive wins between 1978 and 1982), most recently in 2015. The team has a rivalry with the Calgary Stampeders and is one of the three community-owned teams in the CFL. The team name change from "Eskimos" to "Elks" was formally announced on June 1, 2021.
Ownership
The Edmonton Elks are one of three "community owned" teams in the CFL (owned by local shareholders).
Edmonton Elks Football Team, Inc., is governed by a ten-member board of directors. The board consists of a chairman, treasurer, secretary, and seven directors. , the board of directors included chairman Brad Sparrow, treasurer Janice Agrios, secretary Murray Scambler, directors Douglas Cox, Rob Heron, Ian Murray, Harold Roozen, Marshall Sadd, Lindsay Dodd and Tom Richards. The club's president and CEO was Chris Presson until he was fired on November 22, 2021.
History
Football in Edmonton 1895–1939
The Edmonton Rugby Foot-ball Club, unaffiliated with the current team, was an early Canadian football-rugby union team based in Edmonton. The team played its first organized games with the formation of the Alberta Rugby Football League in 1895. In 1908 the name Esquimaux was adopted. In 1910 the club was officially named the Edmonton Eskimos and was briefly called the Edmonton Elks during 1922. (The city was represented by the Edmonton Civics in 1914 and the Edmonton Canucks in 1919.) After appearing in and losing the 9th Grey Cup and 10th Grey Cup games (being the first western teams to play for the Cup) the team folded in 1925, but returned for two seasons beginning 1928, and then folded again. It was succeeded by the Edmonton Boosters, who played for three more seasons, and the Edmonton Hi-Grads in 1936 (a team of high school graduate all stars.) Elite-level football returned to Edmonton in 1938 with a team once again called the Eskimos, this time in the Western Interprovincial Football Union (WIFU). This team ceased operating after only two seasons because of the Second World War.
Team history
The current incarnation of the team began in the 1949 WIFU season as the Edmonton Eskimos under head coach Annis Stukus, for whom the CFL's annual coach of the year award is named. The team played home games at Clarke Stadium and quickly saw success under quarterback Jackie Parker and running back Johnny Bright, winning the Grey Cup three years in a row from 1954 to 1956. The team did not win the Grey Cup again until 1975, the longest drought in team history. The team moved to Commonwealth Stadium in 1978.
The team won five consecutive Grey Cups (1978–82), led by superstar quarterbacks Warren Moon and Tom Wilkinson and head coach Hugh Campbell. After a brief absence, Campbell returned to the team in 1986 and worked for Edmonton in an administrative capacity until his retirement in 2006. This five-year dynasty, followed by the dominance of the city's NHL team the Edmonton Oilers, led the city to be nicknamed the "City of Champions" in the 1980s. Edmonton made it to nine Grey Cups in a ten-year span from 1973 to 1982.
In the 1980s and 90s the team's marquee player was Gizmo Williams who still holds many CFL records in punt and kickoff returns and was a key part in Grey Cup victories in 1987 and 1993 under head coach Ron Lancaster. During this period the team was also known for its stellar defensive line, with future Canadian Football Hall of Famers like Danny Kepley and Danny Bass winning Defensive Player of the Year Awards and Willie Pless winning the trophy a record five times.
After winning the Grey Cup in both 2003 and 2005, under quarterback Ricky Ray, who is Edmonton's all-time leader in passing yards, the team missed the playoffs the following year, for the first time in 34 years, a North American professional sport record. This led to a ten year Grey Cup drought. After a gap of ten years, Edmonton won the Grey Cup again in 2015, under the leadership of quarterback Mike Reilly, their most recent championship.
In the 2010s and 2020s, North American sports teams began to view the use of Indigenous names and imagery in team names as culturally insensitive. The term Eskimo is considered an offensive term placed on Inuit people. On June 1, 2021, it was formally announced that the new Edmonton team name would be the Edmonton Elks, a name used by the Edmonton football club of 1922. The team colours, green and gold, have remained essentially the same over the years with only minor modifications to the uniform or logo until 2021, when the EE logo was changed to a stylized image of an elk and the Elks helmet logo was changed to antlers.
Team records and achievements
The Elks have won the Grey Cup more than any other team except the Toronto Argonauts, including more championships than any other since the CFL was formed in the 1950s. This places the Elks second overall to the Toronto Argonauts, who have won 17 Grey Cups (seven since the CFL was formed in 1954). The team also made playoffs for 37 consecutive years from 1927 to 2005, a North American professional sport record. Since re-entering the WIFU in 1949, Edmonton is the only team to have two dynasties of three or more successive Grey Cups: 1954–1956 and 1978-1982.
The Elks have also led the CFL in attendance for many years. As of August 2016, Edmonton had the highest average attendance in the league 27 times since moving to Commonwealth Stadium in 1978.
Team alumni have figured prominently in Alberta political life: past players include two former provincial premiers (Peter Lougheed and Donald Getty), a former mayor of Edmonton (Bill Smith), and a lieutenant-governor (Norman Kwong).
Wall of Honour
The Edmonton Elks have a policy of honouring the players who have best represented the team on the field. The player's name, number and seasons played with the Edmonton Elks are displayed on the edge of the concrete separating the field level from the lower bowl of The Brick Field at Commonwealth Stadium. The Elks keep the numbers in circulation rather than retire them from use.
Numbers so honoured :
† Honoured posthumously
Current roster
Current coaching staff
Head coaches
General managers
CFL awards and trophies
Grey Cup
1954, 1955, 1956, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1987, 1993, 2003, 2005, 2015
N. J. Taylor Trophy
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Grey Cup MVP
Dave Fennell (DT): 1978, 1982
Tom Wilkinson (QB): 1978
Warren Moon (QB): 1980, 1982
Dale Potter (LB): 1980
Damon Allen (QB): 1987, 1993
Stewart Hill (DE): 1987
Jason Tucker (WR): 2003
Ricky Ray (QB): 2005
Mike Reilly (QB): 2015
Dick Suderman Trophy
Garry Lefebvre (DB): 1973
Dave Cutler (K): 1975
Angelo Santucci (RB): 1978
Dale Potter (LB): 1980
Neil Lumsden (RB): 1981
Dave Fennell (DT): 1982
Milson Jones (RB): 1987
Sean Fleming (P/K): 1993
Mike Maurer (FB): 2005
Shamawd Chambers (WR): 2015
Most Outstanding Player Award
Billy Vessels (RB):
Jackie Parker (QB/RB): , ,
Johnny Bright (RB):
George McGowan (WR):
Tom Wilkinson (QB):
Warren Moon (QB):
Tracy Ham (QB):
Mike Reilly (QB):
Most Outstanding Canadian Award
Norman Kwong (RB): ,
Dave Fennell (DT):
Blake Marshall (FB):
Leroy Blugh (DE):
Kamau Peterson (WR):
Jerome Messam (RB):
Most Outstanding Defensive Player Award
Danny Kepley (LB): , ,
Dave Fennell (DT):
James Parker (LB):
Danny Bass (LB):
Willie Pless (LB): , , , ,
Elfrid Payton (DE):
J. C. Sherritt (LB):
Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award
Charlie Turner (OT):
Michael Wilson (OT): ,
Rod Connop (C):
Most Outstanding Lineman Award
Roger Nelson (OT):
John LaGrone (DT):
Most Outstanding Rookie Award
Brian Kelly (WR):
Shalon Baker (WR):
Dexter McCoil (LB):
Derel Walker (WR):
Annis Stukus Trophy
Ray Jauch:
Hugh Campbell:
Ron Lancaster:
Tom Higgins:
Tom Pate Memorial Award
David Boone (DE):
Hector Pothier (OT):
Rick Walters (SB):
Adarius Bowman (WR):
Ryan King (LS):
Rogers Fans' Choice Award
Ricky Ray (QB):
Defunct
Mascots
Punter (an anthropomorphic football) and Spike (an elk) are the mascots for the Edmonton Elks. They were introduced in 2004 and 2021, respectively. Nanook, a polar bear, was introduced in 1997, but was retired and replaced with Spike in 2021, coinciding with the rebranding.
See also
Edmonton Elks all-time records and statistics
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Canadian football
Comparison of Canadian and American football
List of Canadian Football League seasons
List of fan-owned sports teams
References
External links
Watch Football Story, a 1953 National Film Board of Canada documentary about the Edmonton Eskimos
Edmonton Elks
Sports clubs established in 1949
Canadian Football League teams
Canadian football teams in Edmonton
1949 establishments in Alberta
|
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] |
242719
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMS%20%28disambiguation%29
|
PMS (disambiguation)
|
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a collection of physical, psychological and emotional symptoms related to a woman's menstrual cycle.
PMS may also refer to:
Computers
Process management system, a system for business process management
Philip's Music Scribe, music scorewriter software
Pop'n Music Script, a computer file format for rhythm action games
Project management software
Property management system, software for hotel management
Pavement management#Pavement management systems, software for maintaining a road network
Nationality and politics
Partido Mexicano Socialista, a socialist political party in Mexico
Presidential Management Staff (Philippines), a government agency
Prime Ministers, see List of current prime ministers
Prime Minister's Spokesman, UK civil service post
Science and medicine
PMS1, a human protein involved in nucleotide mismatch repair
Medical practice management software, dealing with the management of a medical practice
Postmarketing surveillance, monitoring of a pharmaceutical drug or device
Pre-main-sequence star, a star that has not yet reached the main sequence
Other uses
PMS Clan, an all-female gaming clan
Pantone Matching System, a proprietary color space
Piedmontese language (ISO 639-3 language code), a language used in northwest Italy.
Pleasanton Unified School District#Pleasanton Middle School, California, USA
Pontifical Mission Societies, a group of Catholic missionary societies
Pretty Mean Sisters, a 1990s stable in the World Wrestling Federation
Preventive maintenance schedule, a schedule for preventive maintenance
|
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] |
242723
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfleet%20Command
|
Starfleet Command
|
Starfleet Command may refer to:
Video games
Star Trek: Starfleet Command, a computer game based on the table-top wargame Star Fleet Battles
Star Trek: Starfleet Command II: Empires at War, the sequel to Starfleet Command and second in the series of real-time space combat games
Star Trek: Starfleet Command: Orion Pirates, a stand-alone expansion for the computer game Star Trek: Starfleet Command II: Empires at War
Star Trek: Starfleet Command III, a Star Trek video game published in 2002
Other
Starfleet Command, the headquarters of, the fictional Star Trek exploration agency
|
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] |
242727
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mathematics%20reference%20tables
|
List of mathematics reference tables
|
See also: List of reference tables
Mathematics
List of mathematical topics
List of statistical topics
List of mathematical functions
List of mathematical theorems
List of mathematical proofs
List of matrices
List of numbers
List of relativistic equations
List of small groups
Mathematical constants
Sporadic group
Table of bases
Table of Clebsch-Gordan coefficients
Table of derivatives
Table of divisors
Table of integrals
Table of mathematical symbols
Table of prime factors
Taylor series
Timeline of mathematics
Trigonometric identities
Truth table
Reference tables
List
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Westminster
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Duke of Westminster
|
{{Infobox nobility title
| name = Dukedom of Westminster
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Quarterly: 1st and 4th, Azure a Portcullis with chains pendant Or on a Chief of the last between two united Roses of York and Lancaster a Pale charged with the Arms of King Edward the Confessor (City of Westminster); 2nd and 3rd, Azure a Garb Or (Grosvenor).
| creation_date = 27 February 1874
| creation =
| monarch = Queen Victoria
| peerage = Peerage of the United Kingdom
| baronetage =
| first_holder = Hugh Grosvenor,3rd Marquess of Westminster
| last_holder =
| present_holder = Hugh Grosvenor, 7th Duke of Westminster
| heir_apparent = None
| heir_presumptive =
| remainder_to = the 1st Duke's heirs male of the body lawfully begotten
| subsidiary_titles = Marquess of WestminsterEarl GrosvenorViscount BelgraveBaron GrosvenorBaronet of Eaton
| status =
| extinction_date =
| family_seat = Eaton Hall
| former_seat =
| motto = VIRTUS NON STEMMA (Virtue, not ancestry)
| footnotes =
}}
Duke of Westminster is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created by Queen Victoria in 1874 and bestowed upon Hugh Grosvenor, 3rd Marquess of Westminster. It is the most recent dukedom conferred on someone not related to the British royal family.
The 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th Dukes were each grandsons of the first. The present holder of the title is Hugh Grosvenor, the 7th Duke, who inherited the dukedom on 9 August 2016 on the death of his father, Gerald. The present duke is a godfather of Prince George of Cambridge.
The Duke of Westminster's seats are at Eaton Hall, Cheshire, and at Abbeystead House, Lancashire. The family's London town house was Grosvenor House, Park Lane, while Halkyn Castle was built as a sporting lodge for the family in the early 1800s. The traditional burial place of the Dukes is the Old Churchyard adjacent to St Mary's Church, Eccleston.
History of the Grosvenor family
Richard Grosvenor was created Baronet of Eaton in January 1622. Sir Richard Grosvenor, the 7th Baronet, was created Baron Grosvenor in 1761, and in 1784 became both Viscount Belgrave (Belgrave, Cheshire) and Earl Grosvenor under George III. The title Marquess of Westminster was bestowed upon Robert Grosvenor, the 2nd Earl Grosvenor, at the coronation of William IV in 1831.
The subsidiary titles are: Marquess of Westminster (created 1831), Earl Grosvenor (1784), Viscount Belgrave, of Belgrave in the County of Chester (1784), and Baron Grosvenor, of Eaton in the County of Chester (1761). The Dukedom and Marquessate are in the Peerage of the United Kingdom; the rest are in the Peerage of Great Britain. The courtesy title of the eldest son and heir to the Duke is Earl Grosvenor''.
Grosvenor Baronets, of Eaton (1622)
Sir Richard Grosvenor, 1st Baronet (1584–1645) was an MP
Sir Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Baronet (1604–1664), a son of the 1st Baronet
Roger Grosvenor (c. 1628–1661), a son of the 2nd Baronet, predeceased his father
Sir Thomas Grosvenor, 3rd Baronet (1656–1700), son of Roger
Sir Richard Grosvenor, 4th Baronet (1689–1732), eldest son of the 3rd Baronet, died without issue
Sir Thomas Grosvenor, 5th Baronet (1693–1733), second son of the 3rd Baronet, died unmarried
Sir Robert Grosvenor, 6th Baronet (1695–1755), third and youngest son of the 3rd Baronet
Sir Richard Grosvenor, 7th Baronet (1731–1802) (created Baron Grosvenor in 1761)
Barons Grosvenor (1761)
Earls Grosvenor (1784)
Marquesses of Westminster (1831)
Dukes of Westminster (1874)
Line of succession
There is no heir to the Dukedom of Westminster. The Earl of Wilton is heir presumptive to the Marquessate.
Family tree
See also
Earl of Wilton
Baron Ebury
Baron Stalbridge
References
External links
Mayfair
Dukedoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Duke
1874 establishments in the United Kingdom
1622 establishments in England
Noble titles created in 1874
Noble titles created for UK MPs
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine%20Hat
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Medicine Hat
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Medicine Hat is a city in southeast Alberta, Canada. It is located along the South Saskatchewan River. It is approximately east of Lethbridge and southeast of Calgary. This city and the adjacent Town of Redcliff to the northwest are within Cypress County. Medicine Hat was the sixth-largest city in Alberta in 2016 with a population of 63,230. It is also the sunniest place in Canada according to Environment and Climate Change Canada, averaging 2,544 hours of sunshine a year.
Started as a railway town, today Medicine Hat is served by the Trans-Canada Highway (Highway 1) and the eastern terminus of the Crowsnest Highway (Highway 3). Nearby communities considered part of the Medicine Hat area include the Town of Redcliff (abutting the city's northwest boundary) and the hamlets of Desert Blume, Dunmore, Irvine, Seven Persons, and Veinerville. The Cypress Hills (including Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park) is a relatively short distance (by car) to the southeast of the city.
Historically, Medicine Hat has been known for its large natural gas fields, being immortalized by Rudyard Kipling as having "all hell for a basement". Because of these reserves, the city is known as "The Gas City".
History
Name origins and ancient history
The name "Medicine Hat" is an English interpretation of Saamis (SA-MUS) – the Blackfoot word for the eagle tail feather headdress worn by medicine men. Several legends are associated with the name of a mythical mer-man river serpent named Soy-yee-daa-bee – the Creator – who appeared to a hunter and instructed him to sacrifice his wife to get mystical powers which were manifest in a special hat. Another legend tells of a battle long ago between the Blackfoot and the Cree in which a retreating Cree "Medicine Man" lost his headdress in the South Saskatchewan River.
A number of natural factors have always made Medicine Hat a gathering place. The gently sloping valley with its converging waterways and hardy native cottonwood trees attracted both the migratory bison herds which passed through the area, and humans who used the waterways and hunted the bison. Before Europeans arrived, the historic Blackfoot, Cree and Assiniboine nations used the area for hundreds of years, and were preceded for thousands of years by previous indigenous cultures.
Beginning in 1971, archeological excavations supervised by scholars from Medicine Hat College (MHC) were conducted at what became known as Saamis Archeological Site along Seven Persons Creek, near a historic Blackfoot buffalo jump. These revealed numerous artifacts associated with bands of First Nations ancestors, known as the Old Women's Phase to archeologists. They found "quantities of stone tools, fire cracked rock, butchered bone and pottery", marking this as an important spot. Most of the bones were identified as bison. Additional excavations were conducted in 1972 and 1973, and a field school for college students was based there. They "excavated and mapped over 3,200 sq. ft. of living floors and nearly 80 features including hearths and stone boiling pits. Radiocarbon dates indicate the Saamis Site was initially occupied about AD 1500 and again around AD 1750", well before most European contact.
Also in this area, further to the west, other MHC students and faculty were part of an excavation in 2000 at what became known as the Hillside Campsite, where two layers of finds were made. The upper layer had artifacts from the Old Women's Phase, but the lower layers were found to be much older, containing Pelican Lake Phase remains that were dated to between 1000 and 1500 BC.
Modern founding
In 1883, when the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) reached Medicine Hat and crossed the river, European Canadians established a town site. They named it from the First Nations legends. As growth took place, in 1889 Medicine Hat built the first hospital west of Winnipeg. The CPR established this town as a railway divisional point. The frontier settlement was incorporated as a town on October 31, 1898, and as a city on May 9, 1906. Medicine Hat is halfway between Winnipeg and Vancouver, British Columbia, on the Pacific Coast.
Progress and growth
Rich in natural resources including natural gas, coal, clay, and farmland, the town became industrialized and was known in its early days as "the Pittsburgh of the West", referring to the industrial city in western Pennsylvania of the United States. A number of large industries located here, attracted by the cheap and plentiful energy resources. Coal mines, brick works, pottery and glass bottle manufacturing plants, flour mills, etc. became established. With transportation access via the railway and river, the town became a service and trade center for the agriculture and its products, both commodity crops and livestock, of the surrounding area. Between 1909–1914 the town had an economic boom that increased the population to more than 10,000. Little growth occurred between the World Wars.
During World War II, one of the largest prisoner-of-war camps (P.O.W.) in Canada was established here in the mid-1940s, used primarily to hold German and Italian prisoners. It was not until the 1950s of the post-war period that the town again had commercial growth.
In the 21st century, Medicine Hat promotes its quality of life and affordable cost of living, enjoying the savings of a city-owned gas utility and power generation plant. Major industries have included chemical plants, a Goodyear tire and rubber plant, greenhouses, numerous oil and gas related companies, a foundry, I-XL Industries (a brickworks dating from the 1880s), to name a few. Friends of Medalta is a non-profit that has been formed to preserve some of the city's industrial heritage.
Geography
The Medicine Hat landscape is dominated by the South Saskatchewan River valley. In addition, the tributaries Seven Persons Creek and Ross Creek both flow into the South Saskatchewan River within the boundaries of the city. These waterways have cut a dramatic valley landscape with numerous cliffs, and finger coulees throughout the city. Beyond the city and river valley, the land is flat to slightly rolling and is characterized by short-grass vegetation.
Located about to the east at lies the Badlands Guardian Geological Feature. It is a landscape formation taking the form of a head wearing a feathered headdress. The head is wide. It is in inverse relief, formed by valleys rather than raised ground.
2013 Alberta floods
During the 2013 Alberta floods Medicine Hat, located on the South Saskatchewan River downstream from the confluence of the Bow and Oldman Rivers was hit with significant flooding. The city evacuated 10,000 residents ahead of the flooding, and facilities including the Medicine Hat Arena had begun to flood late Sunday evening, June 23. The South Saskatchewan River peaked at , which was below earlier predictions of , but exceeded the highest recorded rate of in 1995.
Neighbourhoods
Cottonwood – A community located above the Cottonwood golf course, between the light industrial area and the airport. Overlooks the World's Largest Teepee.
Crescent Heights – Mainly built in the 1950s through to the 1960s. Located on the north side of city on the entire ridge above the river valley.
Crestwood and Norwood – This is an older area of town mainly built in the 1950s. It is located on a plateau southeast of the South Flats and the Seven Person's Creek. The Medicine Hat Exhibition & Stampede grounds is within this area.
Hamptons - A four-phase neighbourhood approved for development in 2005. It is located in south Medicine Hat, and is bounded by South Boundary Road to the south, 13 Avenue SE to the east, South Vista Heights to the west and South Ridge to the north. It features architectural controls implemented by the developer.
North Flats / River Flats – The oldest area in Medicine Hat. Located northeast of the CPR marshalling yards near the South Saskatchewan River and downtown. An inner-city neighbourhood that is home to residential and industrial uses. This area is in the east valley.
Park Meadows – An area that was developed in the 1990s, adjacent to Crestwood. Primarily residential with several apartments.
Parkview – A subdivision developed in the 1990s, and located north of the South Saskatchewan River. It is adjacent to Police Point Park and Medicine Hat Golf and Country Club.
Ranchlands – A neighbourhood developed in the mid 2000s and located in the northeast sector of the city. The neighbourhood includes residential lands both above and in the South Saskatchewan River valley.
River Heights – Located on the Southwest Hill north of the hospital, and south of the South Saskatchewan River. Includes River Heights Elementary School and an extended care wing, which was originally a part of the hospital.
Riverside – A mature inner-city neighbourhood along the north bank of the South Saskatchewan River. The community has experienced gentrification. Mature trees line the boulevards and streets.
Ross Glen – Low density middle-class neighbourhood located in the southeast end of the city. First developed in the late 1970s.
Saamis Heights – Located west of South Ridge in the south sector of the city. Saamis Heights was developed in under five years. The community borders the Seven Person's Creek valley and thus provides some walkout view lots.
South Flats – Located south of the CPR marshalling yard, also in the valley, and adjacent to downtown.
South Ridge – The first residential development south of the Trans-Canada Highway. First developed in the late 1970s. Adjacent to the World's Largest Teepee.
South Vista Heights – A new residential suburban community south of the Trans-Canada Highway.
Southeast Hill – One of the oldest areas of the city. It originally overlooked downtown on the north side of the hill and Kin Coulee on the south side. Originally this area housed CPR workers. It is home to four schools.
Southlands – A community that opened in 2007. It is home to a significant regional commercial centre including Walmart, Staples, Canadian Tire and The Home Depot. The residential community includes parks, future school sites, many low-density residential lots, and several large multi-family sites.
Southview – Located in the southeast part of the city between Ross Glen and Crestwood. First developed in the 1960s.
Southwest Hill – Located west of Division Avenue next to the SE Hill area. It is home to five schools and the city's hospital.
Housing
The average home price in Medicine Hat in 2018 was $277,294.
Climate
Located in the steppe region known as Palliser's Triangle, Medicine Hat has a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk), with cold winters, and warm to hot, dry summers. Frequently, the winter cold is ameliorated by mild and dry Chinook winds blowing from the west, and hot summer daytime temperatures are made more tolerable by low humidity and rapid cooling in the evening. As Medicine Hat receives less precipitation annually than most other cities on the Canadian Prairies and plentiful sunshine (it is widely known as "The sunniest city in Canada"), it is a popular retirement city. Maximum precipitation typically occurs in the late spring and early summer.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Medicine Hat was on July 12, 1886. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on February 4, 1887.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Medicine Hat recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Medicine Hat recorded a population of 63,260 living in 26,652 of its 27,970 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 60,005. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
The population of the City of Medicine Hat according to its 2015 municipal census is 63,018, a change of from its 2012 municipal census population of 61,180,
More than 89 percent of residents identified English as their first language at the time of the 2006 census, while 6 percent identified German and just over 1 percent each identified Spanish and French as their first language learned. The next most common languages were Ukrainian, Chinese, Dutch, and Polish.
More than 79 percent of residents identified as Christian at the time of the 2001 census while almost 20 percent indicated they had no religious affiliation. For specific denominations Statistics Canada counted 16,175 Roman Catholics (26.5 percent), 9,445 members of the United Church of Canada (15.5 percent), and 6,170 Lutherans (slightly more than 10 percent). Less numerous denominations included 3,780 Anglicans (more than 6 percent), 1,745 members of the Evangelical Missionary Church (almost 3 percent), 1,470 Baptists (over 2 percent), 1,220 identifying as Pentecostal (2 percent), 1,220 Latter-day Saints (2 percent), and 675 Presbyterians (just over 1 percent).
Attractions
The Medicine Hat Clay Industries National Historic District is a living, working museum based on the Medalta Potteries and Hycroft China Factory Complexes as the focal points of the district. It offers guided tours, educational and arts programming, as well as experience through collections, exhibits, and interpretation. This nationally recognized industrial historic district is a cultural initiative of the Friends of Medalta Society with federal, provincial, municipal and private support. They are working to restore, preserve and culturally develop the Medicine Hat Clay Industries National Historic District for education and public enjoyment.
Located in downtown Medicine Hat, The Esplanade is a large multi-purpose cultural centre. The facility features a 700+ seat performing arts theatre, art gallery, museum, archives, gift shop, and cafe. The Esplanade officially opened in October 2005.
The Medicine Hat Family Leisure Centre is the largest indoor multi-purpose sports facility in the city. The building is and is sited on in the north end of the city. The facility includes an Olympic-sized ice rink, pool, waterslide, diving platforms, kiddies pool, wave pool, and cafe. It is being renovated to include an indoor soccer facility, track, and improved fitness centre. These will almost double the size of the facility. In the area surrounding the Leisure Centre facility are several other sportvenues including; four ball diamonds, lighted football field, three soccer pitches, and one of the largest BMX racing facilities in Southern Alberta.
The Medicine Hat Drag Racing Association is located just off the Trans-Canada Highway on Boundary Road or the spectators entrance on Box Springs Road. This is Alberta's only sanctioned National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) track and is a 1/4 mile in length. The facility supports affordable family entertainment and encourages people to race the strip, not the street. The seasons typically run from May till September, with events featuring jet and alcohol cars, bracket racing, and the NHRA National open, which attracts approximately 300 cars from all over North America.
Medicine Hat Public Library is located across the street from The Esplanade. It has over 10,000 annual members and is the resource library for the Shortgrass Library System of Southern Alberta.
The Shannon House is a historical landmark built in 1906 by James Shannon for his wife and nine children. He had purchased the land and a team of horses for $40.00 in 1895. The family kept the property for three generations, using part of it as a campground in the early 20th century. In 1930, they built the Maple Leaf motel on the property to generate some income. In 1990 a local family bought the property. With a view toward keeping the prominent property as part of the community, they adapted it as the Saamis Memorial Funeral Chapel & Crematorium.
Now named the Saamis Tepee, this work of public art is the world's tallest teepee. It was installed in 1991 south of the Trans-Canada Highway and at the edge of the Blackfoot buffalo jump, above the Saamis Archeological Site along Seven Persons Creek. Commissioned for the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary as a symbol of Canada's Plains Indians, it stood high (more than 20 storeys) and is in diameter at the base. The sculpture was designed by Steve Illes of steel and concrete. He had the teepee painted "white for purity, red for the rising and setting sun, and blue for flowing waters". Within the teepee are ten circles, with painted illustrations that express ideas about the cultures of the Plains tribes. Explanation are on plaques set in the base. Although designed to withstand extreme temperatures and winds up to , during a severe windstorm in January 2007, a portion of the teepee was damaged. Inspection revealed that extensive weathering had weakened the structure. The necessary repairs resulted in lowering the height of Saamis Teepee by approximately .
Parks
There are over of walking trails in the city. All of the major parks are linked by the extensive trail system.
Police Point Park was an early North-West Mounted Police outpost. It has and shale paths next to the South Saskatchewan River. It is one of Southern Alberta's well-known birding destinations. The Medicine Hat Interpretive Program building is located on-site, to run programs and inform the public about nature around the city.
Strathcona Island Park is located along the south bank of the South Saskatchewan River. The park has of walking trails, playgrounds, a water park, ball diamonds, a pavilion centre, washrooms, ice skating, kitchens and fire pits. The park is heavily treed.
Kin Coulee Park is located along the banks of Seven Persons Creek. This park is almost entirely manicured. The park features a skateboard park, two ball diamonds, beach volleyball courts, fire pits, a band shell, washrooms, and two playgrounds. It is the venue for the annual Canada Day festival and fireworks.
Echodale Regional Park is a park that includes a manmade swimming lake. Amenities include a beach, walking trails, fire pits, canoe rentals, paddle boats, snack bar, washrooms and historic ranch.
Central Park – located in the Southeast Hill neighbourhood, this is surrounded by large cottonwood trees and, on the north side, a row of cedar trees. It has play structures and a spray-deck, and a street basketball court.
Riverside Veterans' Memorial Park – located downtown across River Road from the South Saskatchewan River and across 6th Avenue from City Hall. It contains the city's Cenotaph, a WWII-era Sherman tank, a brick mural by James Marshall, and two Canadian Pacific Railway locomotives.
Sports
The city is home to the Medicine Hat Tigers, a major junior ice hockey team in the Western Hockey League (WHL). Established in 1970, the team has won seven division titles, five WHL league championships and back-to-back Canadian Hockey League (CHL) Memorial Cup national championships in 1987 and 1988 in its history. Numerous Tigers alumni moved on to play in the National Hockey League (NHL). Lanny McDonald played WHL hockey for the Medicine Hat Tigers. He played in 1971–1972 and scored 50 goals and assisted on 64 goals. In 1972–1973 seasons he scored 62 goals and 77 assists. They play at Co-op Place which opened in 2015 and replaced the 40-year-old Medicine Hat Arena.
The city is also home to the Medicine Hat Mavericks, a summer collegiate baseball team in the Western Canadian Baseball League (WCBL). Established in 2003, the team plays at Athletic Park stadium, formerly home to the Medicine Hat Blue Jays, in the River Flats neighbourhood adjacent to downtown.
Government
In 2012 the riding of Medicine Hat was renamed to Medicine Hat—Cardston—Warner. Jim Hillyer of the Conservative Party of Canada (CPC) was elected in the 2015 election. Hillyer died in 2016 and in a special by-election, held on October 24, 2016, Glen Motz (CPC) was elected.
LaVar Payne (CPC) was the Member of Parliament for Medicine Hat since October 2008, and was re-elected in the 2011 election. He announced in 2014 that he would not be running in the next election in October 2015. Previous to Payne the MP was Monte Solberg (CPC).
Medicine Hat has two provincial ridings. One is named Cypress-Medicine Hat, and is represented by Drew Barnes of the United Conservative Party (UCP), while the other one is named Brooks-Medicine Hat, and is represented by Michaela Glasgo of the United Conservative Party.
Medicine Hat Police Service
The Medicine Hat Police Service (MHPS) can trace its history back to January 13, 1899. Among concern by the town council that the five North-West Mounted Police could no longer safely protect the town and the district, council passed By-Law 8, which authorized a town constable position to be created; at this time the officer was also in charge of health enforcement and other duties. the MHPS employs around 100 officers. In October 2016 Medicine Hat Police Service opened a police museum, the third of its kind in Alberta.
The MHPS was the first police force in Canada to receive a Police Service Banner and first in Alberta to be granted a National Municipal Police Service Badge by the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
Infrastructure
Alberta Transportation is currently negotiating with landowners south of the city to secure land for the future Highway 1 (Trans-Canada Highway) bypass. The bypass is expected to be constructed in the next 10–20 years.
The city owns the gas production, gas distribution, electric generation and electric distribution utilities that serve the citizens. The city-owned gas utility is the 30th largest natural gas producer (by volume produced) in Canada.
The city is working on design of the South-West Sector Sanitary Trunk main, extension of South Boundary Road from Strachan Road to South Ridge Drive, and a South-West Sector water transmission line. This infrastructure will accommodate the development of new residential communities west of South Ridge Dr, and south of the Seven Persons Creek.
The city is served by the Medicine Hat Airport and Medicine Hat Transit.
Acute medical care is provided to residents at Medicine Hat Regional Hospital.
Beginning in 2009, several ICT business leaders began working together to facilitate economic growth and diversify the local economy by building a robust community network based on fiber optic technologies.
Education
Medicine Hat School District No. 76 has been serving the needs of public school students since it came into existence in 1886. The district has five trustees and comprises three secondary schools, Alexandra Middle School (formerly Alexandra Junior High School), Crescent Heights High School and Medicine Hat High School, 12 elementary (K–6) schools, a special needs school for the severely disabled, as well as an Alternative School program which incorporates a joint partnership with the YMCA Teen Moms' Program, YMCA Stay-in-School Program, a program with the former Palliser Health Region for secondary students and a program supported by Alberta Children Services for students with behavioural needs. French immersion programming is provided as an option at one elementary school and at Crescent Heights High. The district currently works with the BHTH Institution for Education, part of the International Education Association of Western Canada, to operate an international educational program in China and three schools have joined this program, Tangshan Caofeidian #2 School, Qinhuangdao Foreign Language School, and Shandong Weifang Middle School.
The Medicine Hat Catholic/Separate School District provides educational programming for students from kindergarten through Grade 12. French immersion programming is provided as an option in select District schools. It operates one high school, Monsignor McCoy, and nine other schools.
Medicine Hat also has a Francophone school, École Les Cyprès, and a public/charter school, the Centre for Academic and Personal Excellence (CAPE).
Medicine Hat College is located in the south part of the city. The first students were accepted to the college in 1965. Now with over 2,500 students and three campuses, the college has grown into an integral part of the community. The Medicine Hat College Rattlers athletic program include cross-country running, basketball, volleyball, golf, soccer and futsal.
Media
Medicine Hat has several radio and television stations broadcasting from it, and can receive a few distant AM radio stations from Calgary. Medicine Hat News publishes a daily newspaper.
Military
Medicine Hat is home to the South Alberta Light Horse (SALH), an army reserve unit. The SALH dates back to 1885 when it took part in the suppression of the North-West Rebellion. It gained battle honours in the First and Second World Wars and today its members serve overseas on United Nations and North Atlantic Treaty Organization missions. Members served in Afghanistan.
During the First World War the 175th (Medicine Hat) Battalion, CEF, commanded by Nelson Spencer, was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force.
Medicine Hat was also home to a British Commonwealth Air Training Plan airfield (located at the present airport) and a POW camp (located at the present Exhibition & Stampede grounds) during the Second World War.
Canadian Forces Base Suffield is located west of the city. It is estimated that the base contributes C$120 million annually to the local economy, principally through its two lodger units: British Army Training Unit Suffield, and Defence Research and Development Canada – Suffield).
Notable people
Terri Clark, country singer
Amanda (Falk) Cook, singer-songwriter and worship leader and winner of eight GMA Covenant Awards
Glen Edwards, test pilot for the United States Air Force and the namesake of Edwards Air Force Base in southern California.
Jurgen Gothe, radio broadcaster
Richard Hortness, Olympic swimmer
Trevor Linden, former professional hockey player, member of the Order of Canada, former president of hockey operations for Vancouver Canucks and recipient of the Order of British Columbia
Dawson Murschell, Darts Player
Bud Olson, former Member of Parliament and Senator for Medicine Hat, former Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
Chris Osgood, former professional hockey player
Kalan Porter, singer-songwriter known for winning season 2 of Canadian Idol
MacKenzie Porter, TV actress known for her roles as Marci in Travelers and as Naomi in Hell on Wheels
Rhoda Cosgrave Sivell, poet
Richard E. Taylor, co-recipient of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics
Arnold Tremere, Executive director of the Canadian International Grains Institute (government official)
Sage Watson, Olympic track athlete
Jadyn Wong, actress known for her role as Happy in the American TV series Scorpion
Ronnie Burkett Canadian puppeteer, best known for his original theatrical plays for adults, performed with marionettes.
Bruno Gerussi Canadian stage and television actor, best known for the lead role in the CBC Television series The Beachcombers.
Gordie Johnson Canadian musician, best known as the front man for the reggae rock band Big Sugar, Austin-based Latin jazz band Sit Down Servant and southern rock band Grady.
David Campbell, Packey J. Dee Professor of American Democracy at the University of Notre Dame
See also
List of communities in Alberta
List of place names in Canada of Indigenous origin
References
External links
Further reading
Babs Congram and Laurie Milne Brumley, The Saamis Site: A Late Prehistoric-Protohistoric Campsite in Medicine Hat, Alberta, National Museums of Canada: 1978.
1894 establishments in the Northwest Territories
Cities in Alberta
Populated places established in 1894
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siol%20nan%20Gaidheal
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Siol nan Gaidheal
|
Siol nan Gaidheal (, meaning "Seed of the Gaels") is a minor Scottish ultranationalist and ethnic nationalist group which describes itself as a "cultural and fraternal organisation".
The first incarnation of the group was founded by Tom Moore in 1978, though it became defunct twice and was re-established by Jackie Stokes in 1987 and again in 1997.
Though the group publicly disavows politics, SnG has been variously described by commentators as anywhere from "traditionalist" to "crypto-fascist" or "proto-fascist". Members of the group have been banned from membership of the mainstream nationalist Scottish National Party since 1982.
Name
The name, properly spelled Sìol nan Gàidheal (), is Scottish Gaelic for Seed of the Gaels. The term sìol has numerous meanings, most commonly translated as "breed, brood, lineage, progeny, seed".
History
First incarnation (19781985)
The first incarnation of Siol nan Gaidheal was founded in 1978 by Tom Moore, a Scot who spent his childhood in the USA. It grew in the immediate aftermath of the 1979 devolution referendum, despite being shunned by the mainstream nationalist SNP, whose ruling executive attempted to ban SnG from the party as early as 1980. In September 1980, the SNP launched an inquiry into the group, with Colin Bell as vice-chairman. SnG was fully proscribed after the SNP's 1982 conference. The 1320 Club, which was banned by the SNP in 1968, merged into SnG in the same year.
Throughout the 1980s, Siol nan Gaidheal published a magazine called Firinn Albannach [sic] (Scottish Truth), which has been described as having a rhetoric which was "anti-communist, neo-fascist and sometimes violent in tone". Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's personal security was stepped up in Scotland after members of SnG tried to accost her outside the Conservative Party conference in Perth in 1982. Some members of SnG formed an unofficial paramilitary wing called Arm nan Gaidheal (AnG; Army of the Gael), which was responsible for a number of petrol bomb attacks in 1982 and 1983. Against the background of internal division and arrests of members, the first incarnation of Siol nan Gaidheal eventually folded in 1985.
Second incarnation (198790s)
Siol nan Gaidheal was re-established in 1987 by Jackie Stokes, a member of the Scottish Republican Socialist Party. This second incarnation of the group explicitly rejected violence. By 1988, it was claiming a membership of 300. Its activities included, in 1989, erecting a cairn in memory of Willie McRae—who was sympathetic to SNG, and possibly at one point a member—along with Michael Strathern. By the early 1990s, however, Stokes had suffered a heart attack and then kidney problems, which effectively killed the organisation.
Third incarnation (1997)
Jackie Stokes eventually re-established Siol nan Gaidheal for a second time in 1997, this time concentrating mainly on its website and online discussion forum. Chapters were set up in the United States of America and in Canada as a focus for the Scottish diaspora in North America. Stokes died on 24 July 2001, leading to a downturn in the group's activity. In May 2006, SnG held its first Ard Fhèis (party annual conference) in 14 years, in Dalwhinnie, Scotland.
Siol nan Gaidheal actively campaigned during the 2014 independence referendum, though the mainstream Yes Scotland campaign distanced itself from SnG. The group made headlines in the run-up to the referendum for heckling Labour MP Jim Murphy on his visits to Dundee and Montrose.
On 11 January 2020 the All Under One Banner pro-independence demonstration in Glasgow marched behind a banner badged with the Siol nan Gaidheal symbol.
Aim and ideology
The Siol nan Gaidheal website summarises its views as follows:
They have been branded as like "proto fascists" by former SNP leader Gordon Wilson.
See also
Ailtirí na hAiséirghe, an Irish fascist political party active 1942–1958
References
The Hollow Drum, Arnold Kemp, , pp166–172
Britain's Secret War, Andrew Murray Scott and Iain Macleay, , pp 113–131.
Notes
External links
Official website
1978 establishments in Scotland
Proto-fascists
Ethnic nationalism
Far-right politics in Scotland
Political advocacy groups in Scotland
Scottish nationalist organisations
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald%20Grosvenor%2C%206th%20Duke%20of%20Westminster
|
Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster
|
Major General Gerald Cavendish Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, (22 December 1951 – 9 August 2016), was a British landowner, businessman, philanthropist, Territorial Army general, and peer. He was the son of Robert Grosvenor, 5th Duke of Westminster, and Viola Lyttelton. He was Chairman of the property company Grosvenor Group. In the first ever edition of The Sunday Times Rich List, published in 1989, he was ranked as the second richest person in the United Kingdom, with a fortune of £3.2 billion (approximately £ in today's value), with only The Queen above him.
Born in Northern Ireland, Grosvenor moved from an island in the middle of Lower Lough Erne to be educated at Sunningdale and Harrow boarding schools in the south of England. After a troubled education, he left school with two O-levels. He entered the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, and served in the Territorial Army, where he was promoted to major-general in 2004.
Via Grosvenor Estates, the business he inherited along with the dukedom in 1979, the Duke was the richest property developer in the United Kingdom and one of the country's largest landowners, with property in Edinburgh, Liverpool, Oxford, Cambridge, Southampton and Cheshire, including the family's country seat of Eaton Hall, as well as of Mayfair and Belgravia in Central London. The business also has interests in other parts of Europe. According to The Sunday Times Rich List in 2016, the Duke was worth £9.35 billion, placing him sixth in the list and making him the third-richest British citizen.
The Duke died on 9 August 2016 after suffering a heart attack. The title then passed to his son, Hugh.
Family and other businesses
The Grosvenor family's first development was in Mayfair, Central London, in the early 18th century; the second big development came around 100 years later and was in another exclusive part of London – Belgravia, developed by the family after the end of Napoleonic Wars and the conversion of Buckingham Palace – which is just one mile East. After developing the two parts of Central London, the family business expanded. During the second half of the 20th century, the business expanded into the Americas and developed Annacis Island and Vancouver, both in British Columbia in the west of Canada in the 1950s. The family business started developing in Australia in the 1960s. They moved to Asia in the early 1990s and to Continental Europe just before the millennium. In April 2000, the firm moved into new London offices. The business was headed by the 6th Duke himself, who was Chairman of the Trustees.
The Duke was also Director of Claridge's Hotel from 1981 until 1993, and of Marcher Sound from 1992 until 1997.
Early life
As a child the Duke lived on an island in the middle of Lower Lough Erne in Ulster (Ely Lodge, Blaney, County Fermanagh). His early education was in Northern Ireland before he was sent at age 7 to Sunningdale School in Ascot, followed by Harrow. Because of his Ulster accent, the Duke struggled to fit in at first, and even after his accent was "bullied" out of him, he found it difficult to make friends. Unhappy at boarding school, his education suffered. He left school with two O-levels in history and English.
Military career
As Earl Grosvenor he joined the Territorial Army in 1970, as a trooper, family estate responsibilities having caused him to abandon a Regular Army career in the 9th/12th Lancers. After entering RMA Sandhurst in 1973, he passed out as an officer cadet and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve of the Royal Armoured Corps (Queen's Own Yeomanry) on 13 May 1973. He was promoted to lieutenant on 13 May 1975 and to captain on 1 July 1980. He was promoted to the acting rank of major on 1 January 1985 and to the substantive rank on 22 December.
Promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 1 April 1992, he subsequently commanded the North Irish Horse, the Cheshire Yeomanry Squadron, founded by his ancestors, and the Queen's Own Yeomanry. He was promoted to colonel on 31 December 1994 and was appointed honorary colonel of the 7th Regt Army Air Corps (1 January 1996) and the Northumbrian Universities Officer Training Corps (30 November 1995). Promoted to brigadier on 17 January 2000, he was also appointed Honorary Colonel of the Royal Mercian and Lancastrian Yeomanry on 14 May 2001. He was also appointed Colonel-in-Chief of the Canadian Royal Westminster Regiment, the North Irish Horse, and as Colonel Commandant Yeomanry.
The Duke was Grand Prior of the Priory of England of the Military and Hospitaller Order of St Lazarus of Jerusalem, 1995–2001. In 2004, he was appointed to the new post of Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff (Reserves and Cadets), with promotion in the rank of major-general. In March 2007, having served in the Ministry of Defence as Assistant CDS for four years, he handed over responsibility for 50,000 reservists and 138,000 cadets to Major General Simon Lalor, in the wake of the Eliot Spitzer prostitution scandal in which Westminster was also implicated. The Duke became Deputy Commander Land Forces (Reserves) in May 2011. He retired from the Armed Forces in 2012.
Benevolent work for service personnel
The Duke was President of the BLESMA from 1992, and the Yeomanry Benevolent Fund from 2005, national Vice-President of the Royal British Legion from 1993, and the Reserve Forces' Ulysses Trust from 1995, the Not Forgotten Society from 2004, and Chairman of the Nuffield Trust for the Forces of the Crown from 1992, all until his death. He was Vice-President of the Royal Engineers Music Foundation 1990–94.
In 2011, having already funded a feasibility study, the Duke purchased the estate at Stanford Hall, Nottinghamshire, to make possible the creation of a Defence and National Rehabilitation Centre (DNRC) to provide the highest quality support for military casualties. Work started on the £300m project in April 2016, and was completed in 2018 to replace those at Headley Court. The Duke remained actively involved in the project until his death.
He was Vice-President of the Royal United Services Institute from 1993 until 2012, President of The Tank Museum, Bovington, from 2002, and a committee member of the National Army Museum between 1988–1997 and from 2013 until his death.
Educational interests
Despite his poor educational attainments, Westminster was given several honorary degrees and fellowships (listed below) in later life and took an outward-looking interest in youth. He was Director of the International Students Trust from 1976 until 1993, Pro-Chancellor of Keele University from 1986 until 1993, Chancellor of Manchester Metropolitan University from 1992 until 2002, and first appointed Chancellor of the University of Chester in 2005, serving until his death.
He was a supporter of The Prince's Trust, and was a committee member of the Trust and a Patron from 2001 for North West England.
Sports interests and conservation work
His main personal recreations were field shooting and fishing, and he served as President of the British Association for Shooting and Conservation from 1992 until 2000, and the Atlantic Salmon Trust from 2004 until his death, President of the Game and Wildlife Conservancy Trust for 2000–01 and Vice-President thereafter. He was a member of the MCC and Royal Yacht Squadron and President of Worcestershire County Cricket Club in 1984–1986 and of the Youth Sports Trust 1996–2004.
He was President of the committee planning the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester from 1998, and from 1991 until 1994 had been Director of the committee set up to coordinate the projected 2000 Summer Olympic Games and Paralympics that would have been held at Manchester had the British bid succeeded.
Other charities and organisations
President, Scope (formerly the Spastics Society), 1982–2005
President, National Kidney Research Fund, 1985–1997
President, Royal National Institute for the Blind, 1986–2012
President, North of England Zoological Society, 1987 until death
President, Drugs and Alcohol Foundation, 1987–1997
Vice-President, Royal Society of St George, 1987 until death
President, Holstein UK & Ireland (formerly British Holstein Society), 1988
Life Vice-President, National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 1988 until death
President, Chester and District Scout Council, 1979 until death
President, Abbeyfield Society, 1989–1995
President, Institution of Environmental Sciences, 1989–2013
Director, Business in the Community (BITC), 1991–1995
Life Governor, Royal Agricultural Society of England
Committee member, North American Advisory Group, British Overseas Trade Board, 1994
Committee member, Nuffield Hospitals, 1995 until death
Vice-President, Country Landowners' Association, 1999 until death
President, Life Education Centre (Drug Prevention), 2000–2012
Vice-President, Royal Smithfield Club, 2004 until death
Foundation Chancellor of the University of Chester, 2005 until death
He served as a judge in Prince Edward's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament in 1987.
Personal life
The Duke of Westminster married Natalia Ayesha Phillips, the daughter of Lt-Col. Harold Pedro Joseph Phillips and his wife Georgina Wernher, in 1978. His wife is a descendant of the Russian poet Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin and therefore of his African ancestor Abram Gannibal as well as of King George II. Their children are:
Lady Tamara Katherine Grosvenor (b. 20 December 1979), married Edward van Cutsem (son of Hugh van Cutsem) on 6 November 2004. They have three children:
Jake Louis Hannibal van Cutsem (b. 21 May 2009)
Louis Hugh Lupus van Cutsem (b. 17 April 2012)
Isla van Cutsem (b. December 2015)
Lady Edwina Louise Grosvenor (b. 4 November 1981), a goddaughter of Diana, Princess of Wales. She is a prison reformer and philanthropist, co-founding The Clink Restaurants. She married Dan Snow on 27 November 2010. They have three children:
Zia Snow (b. 13 October 2011)
Wolf Robert Snow (b. 9 September 2014)
Orla Snow (b. December 2015)
Hugh Grosvenor, 7th Duke of Westminster (b. 29 January 1991), one of Prince George of Cambridge's seven godparents.
Lady Viola Georgina Grosvenor (b. 12 October 1992).
In 1998, the Duke suffered a nervous breakdown and depression, citing the overwhelming pressures of business and public life. His depression worsened after reports in newspapers that he had employed the services of prostitutes.
Death
The Duke died on 9 August 2016 at Royal Preston Hospital in Preston, Lancashire, after suffering a heart attack at his Abbeystead Estate. A private funeral attended by close relatives was held on 12 August, and a memorial service was held at Chester Cathedral on 28 November. He is buried in the family plot at St Mary's Church, Eccleston.
That the Grosvenor family stood to pay very little, if any, inheritance tax on his £9bn+ fortune led to calls for a review of how the inheritance of trust funds and similar assets are handled in the UK.
Honours
Orders
20 February 1979 Baronet, 15th baronet, of Eaton (cr. 1621)
13 January 1987 Commander of the Order of St John (CStJ)
11 November 1991 Knight of the Order of St John (KStJ)
30 December 1994 Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE)
23 April 2003 Knight of the Order of the Garter (KG)
14 June 2008 Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB)
16 June 2012 Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO)
Decorations
1994 Territorial Decoration (TD)
2004 Canadian Forces Decoration (CD)
Medals
6 February 1977 Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal
6 February 2002 Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal
6 February 2012 Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal
29 May 2012 Volunteer Reserves Service Medal (VR)
Foreign dynastic orders
1995 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Lazarus, (House of Orléans)
2006 Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Francis I, (House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies)
Other
1973 He received the Freedom of the City of Chester
20 July 1981 He received the Freedom of the City of London
1982 He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Cheshire (DL)
1990 He received the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws from Keele University.
1990 He received an Honorary Fellowship from Liverpool Polytechnic
1993 He received the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Letters from Manchester Metropolitan University.
14 March 2000 He received the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Letters from University of Salford
2000 He received the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Chester
2001 He received an Honorary Fellowship from the University of Central Lancashire
2013 He was awarded an Honorary Degree from Harper Adams University.
Honorary military appointments
Honorary Colonel The Queen's Own Yeomanry
Honorary Colonel 7th Regt. Army Air Corps (1 January 1996 – 9 August 2016)
Honorary Colonel The Queen's Own Yeomanry (14 May 2001 – April 2014)
Colonel-in-Chief Royal Westminster Regiment, New Westminster, BC, Canada
Honorary Colonel Yeomanry, Royal Armoured Corps
Honorary Colonel Northumbrian Universities Officer Training Corps (30 November 1995 – 9 August 2016)
Arms
Ancestry
See also
List of billionaires
List of dukes in the peerages of Britain and Ireland
Westminster City Council v Duke of Westminster
Bibliography
Quinn, Tom The Reluctant Billionaire: The Tragic Life of Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, Biteback Publishing 2017.
References
External links
Grosvenor Estate
Burke's Peerage
Institution of Environmental Sciences
1992 interview by Hunter Davies
[Public Speaking 2012-MIFFY]
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1951 births
2016 deaths
People from Omagh
People educated at Harrow School
Graduates of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
People from Cheshire
6
Knights of the Garter
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
British billionaires
British Army generals
Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster
People associated with the University of Chester
North Irish Horse officers
Deputy Lieutenants of Cheshire
British Yeomanry officers
Queen's Own Yeomanry officers
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Cheshire Yeomanry officers
British landowners
English Anglicans
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children people
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242740
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abe%20Holzmann
|
Abe Holzmann
|
Abraham "Abe" Holzmann (19 August 1874 – 16 January 1939) was an American composer, who is most famous today for his march Blaze-Away!
Abraham Holzmann was born in New York City. His parents were Jacob Holzmann, a Hungarian-Jewish immigrant and Isabella Holzmann, a native of Louisiana. The young Holzmann learned music in Germany. A review originally published by the New York Herald on Sunday, 13 January 1901, entitled German Composer who Writes American Cakewalk Music describes "[h]is knowledge of bass and counterpoint is thorough, and his standard compositions bear the stamp of harmonic lore, which makes his proclivity for the writing of the popular style of music the more remarkable."
Abe married Isabelle Fishblatt around 1908, and he became the manager of the Orchestra Department at Jerome Remick & Company, music publisher in New York.
He was an early member (1923) of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP). He earned his livelihood as composer/arranger for Tin Pan Alley publishers, including Leo Feist. He later was advertising manager for the American Federation of Musicians publication, International Musician. He was a member of Freemasonry, the Elks, and Knights of Pythias, all in New York City.
Holzmann died in East Orange, New Jersey at age 64. He was survived by his widow, a daughter Natalie Holzmann, three half-brothers, and four sisters. His music was especially revered by ragtime enthusiasts, although he composed marches, waltzes, and other light music.
His 1899 composition Smokey Mokes was briefly featured in the 1936 movie San Francisco.
Works
A-la-carte (1915)
Alagazam (1902)
Blaze-Away! (1901) possibly a tribute to "Rough Rider" turned U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt
Bunch O' Blackberries (1899)
Calanthe (1900)
Cowperthwait Centennial March (1907)
Flying Arrow (1906)
The Hand That Rocks The Cradle Rules The World (1901)
Hunky Dory (1900)
Love-Land (1905)
Old Faithful (1908)
The Rialto (1916)
Smokey Mokes (1899)
Spirit of Independence (1912)
Symphia (1902)
Uncle Sammy (1904)
The Whip (1908)
The Winning Fight (1911)
Yankee Grit (1905)
See also
List of ragtime composers
References
External links
1874 births
1939 deaths
American male composers
American composers
German composers
Ragtime composers
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Texas%20System
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University of Texas System
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The University of Texas System (UT System) is an American government entity of the state of Texas that includes 13 higher educational institutions throughout the state including eight universities and five independent health institutions. The UT System is headquartered in Downtown Austin, and has a total enrollment of nearly 240,000 students (largest university system in Texas) and employs 21,000 faculty and more than 83,000 health care professionals, researchers and support staff. The UT System's $30 billion endowment (as of the 2019 fiscal year) is the largest of any public university system in the United States. As of 2018, Reuters ranks the UT System among the top 10 most innovative academic institutions in the world.
Component institutions
Academic institutions
The University of Texas System has eight separate and distinct 4-year academic institutions; each is a university and confers its own degrees.
UT Brownsville and UT Pan American (UTRGV) merger
On June 14, 2013, Texas Governor Rick Perry signed a law officially approving the creation of a new university in South Texas within the UT System and replacing UT Brownsville and UT Pan American. The initiative resulted in a single institution, including a medical school, spanning the entire Rio Grande Valley, with a presence in each of the major metropolitan areas of Brownsville, Edinburg, Harlingen, and McAllen. On December 12, 2013, the UT Board of Regents voted to name the new university the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. The new university began full operation in the 2015–16 school year.
UT Tyler and UTHSC Tyler merger
In December 2019, the UT System Board of Regents unanimously agreed to merge The University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler (UTHSCT) under The University of Texas at Tyler (UTT), creating a single unified institution. Two months later, the UT System formally announced its intention to establish a new medical school that will be added under the new unified UT Tyler administration. It will be the first medical school in the East Texas region.
On December 8, 2020, The Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Schools approved a plan to merge UT Tyler and UTHSCT. UTHSCT will retain its status as a health-related institution but will now come under the administration of UT Tyler. The UT System Board of Regents met in late December 2020 and took action on the implementation of the merger which began on January 1, 2021.
On January 4, 2021, the Board of Regents installed Dr. Kirk A. Calhoun, M.D. as president of the newly aligned UT Tyler and UTHSCT. As of January 4, these two institutions are officially one. On January 15, 2021 the institution publicly named the new line of executive leadership for the merged institution.
The medical school is expected to open in 2023.
Health institutions
The University of Texas System has 5 independent health institutions. None are officially associated with any of the 4-year academic institutions, though some may have close relationships or special joint programs with them due to geographical location (Dallas–Fort Worth area institutions & San Antonio institutions) or historical relationships (UT Austin & UT Medical Branch at Galveston).
UT MD Anderson Cancer Center is one of the six schools at UT Health Science Center at Houston. Despite being officially associated under UT Houston, the UT System lists MD Anderson as a separate health institution due to its unique specialization.
Additionally, there are medical schools at UT Austin and UT Rio Grande Valley that are not directly affiliated with any of the independent health institutions. The third medical school organized under an academic institution in the UT System will open in 2023 under the UT Tyler administration.
Independent UT Health institutions
Medical schools within academic institutions
Attempted academic and health institution mergers
Dallas–Fort Worth
In 2001 the 77th Texas Legislature proposed HB 3568, which would have merged all Dallas–Fort Worth UT System institutions (UT Dallas, UT Arlington, and UT Southwestern) under the name "The University of Texas at Dallas". UTD's Richardson campus would have been designated as the main campus, UTA's Arlington campus would have become a satellite campus, and UTSW's Dallas campus would have become the merged university's medical school. The purpose was to help the metroplex gain one unified flagship-level university, but the House Bill ultimately failed to pass due to objections from UT Arlington (which wanted to retain its identity as a separate university) and the lack of time to properly explain the complex process to state representatives.
San Antonio
Nine years later, in 2010, a study was commissioned to explore the possibility of merging UT San Antonio and UT Health San Antonio. Officials ultimately decided against it, citing significant costs, administrative challenges, and different university cultures. In 2016, an op-ed published in the San Antonio Express-News urged the UT System Board of Regents to reconsider their decision, but no further actions from the UT System have been taken since.
Students
Administration
The administrative offices are in Downtown Austin. The UT system approved moving the system headquarters in November 2012. Bonds from the UT System's endowment funded the construction of the new 19-story, headquarters, which had a price tag of $102 million. The UT System planned to lease a portion of the facility for shops and other offices, with the approximately remaining portion used for its own employees. The system headquarters opened on August 1, 2017.
In July 2018, the Pentagon announced it had selected the UT System administrative building as the headquarters for the Army Futures Command, a new organization committed to coordinating modernization efforts and integrating innovation across the Army.
The University of Texas System was previously headquartered in O. Henry Hall in Downtown Austin. The system headquarters complex previously included multiple buildings, which had 550 employees in 2014. These facilities included O. Henry Hall, Claudia Taylor Johnson Hall (named after Lady Bird Johnson), Ashbel Smith Hall, the Colorado Building, and the Lavaca Building,
In 2013 the UT system approved the demolitions of the Colorado Building and the Lavaca Building, and the new UT System headquarters was built where these buildings previously stood. The Texas State University System purchased O. Henry Hall in 2015 for $8.2 million; the UT System leased it and continued using it as its administrative headquarters prior to the 2017 completion of the UT System's current headquarters. The UT System leased the land containing Claudia Taylor Johnson Hall and Ashbel Smith Hall to Trammell Crow which is constructing a commercial property on the site that uses the facade of Johnson Hall. Ashbel Smith Hall was imploded on March 25, 2018.
Coordinated Admissions Program
The Coordinated Admissions Program (CAP) offers some UT Austin applicants the chance to attend the university if they complete their freshman year at another system school and meet specified requirements. Each institution in the University of Texas System sets its own admissions standards, and not all schools may accept a particular CAP student.
UT Dallas does not participate in the CAP program, and University of Texas at San Antonio, the largest recipient of CAP students, has stated that it will be phasing out the program within the next ten years.
See also
Permanent University Fund (Texas)
Education in Texas
University of Texas at Austin admissions controversy
List of colleges and universities in the United States by endowment over $1 billion
References
External links
Current Regents
Administration and Leadership
University of Texas
Educational institutions established in 1876
T
1876 establishments in Texas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposition%20table
|
Transposition table
|
A transposition table is a cache of previously seen positions, and associated evaluations, in a game tree generated by a computer game playing program. If a position recurs via a different sequence of moves, the value of the position is retrieved from the table, avoiding re-searching the game tree below that position. Transposition tables are primarily useful in perfect-information games (where the entire state of the game is known to all players at all times). The usage of transposition tables is essentially memoization applied to the tree search and is a form of dynamic programming.
Transposition tables are typically implemented as hash tables encoding the current board position as the hash index. The number of possible positions that may occur in a game tree is an exponential function of depth of search, and can be thousands to millions or even much greater. Transposition tables may therefore consume most of available system memory and are usually most of the memory footprint of game playing programs.
Functionality
Game-playing programs work by analyzing millions of positions that could arise in the next few moves of the game. Typically, these programs employ strategies resembling depth-first search, which means that they do not keep track of all the positions analyzed so far. In many games, it is possible to reach a given position in more than one way. These are called transpositions. In chess, for example, the sequence of moves 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 (see algebraic chess notation) has 4 possible transpositions, since either player may swap their move order. In general, after n moves, an upper limit on the possible transpositions is (n!)2. Although many of these are illegal move sequences, it is still likely that the program will end up analyzing the same position several times.
To avoid this problem, transposition tables are used. Such a table is a hash table of each of the positions analyzed so far up to a certain depth. On encountering a new position, the program checks the table to see whether the position has already been analyzed; this can be done quickly, in amortized constant time. If so, the table contains the value that was previously assigned to this position; this value is used directly. If not, the value is computed, and the new position is entered into the hash table.
The number of positions searched by a computer often greatly exceeds the memory constraints of the system it runs on; thus not all positions can be stored. When the table fills up, less-used positions are removed to make room for new ones; this makes the transposition table a kind of cache.
The computation saved by a transposition table lookup is not just the evaluation of a single position. Instead, the evaluation of an entire subtree is avoided. Thus, transposition table entries for nodes at a shallower depth in the game tree are more valuable (since the size of the subtree rooted at such a node is larger) and are therefore given more importance when the table fills up and some entries must be discarded.
The hash table implementing the transposition table can have other uses than finding transpositions. In alpha–beta pruning, the search is fastest (in fact, optimal) when the child of a node corresponding to the best move is always considered first. Of course, there is no way of knowing the best move beforehand, but when iterative deepening is used, the move that was found to be the best in a shallower search is a good approximation. Therefore this move is tried first. For storing the best child of a node, the entry corresponding to that node in the transposition table is used.
Use of a transposition table can lead to incorrect results if the graph-history interaction problem is not studiously avoided. This problem arises in certain games because the history of a position may be important. For example, in chess a player may not castle if the king or the rook to be castled with has moved during the course of the game. A common solution to this problem is to add the castling rights as part of the Zobrist hashing key. Another example is draw by repetition: given a position, it may not be possible to determine whether it has already occurred. A solution to the general problem is to store history information in each node of the transposition table, but this is inefficient and rarely done in practice.
Replacement strategies
A transposition table is a cache whose maximum size is limited by available system memory, and it may overflow at any time. In fact, it is expected to overflow, and the number of positions cacheable at any time may be only a small fraction (even orders of magnitude smaller) than the number of nodes in the game tree. The vast majority of nodes are not transposition nodes, i.e. positions that will recur, so effective replacement strategies that retain potential transposition nodes and replace other nodes can result in significantly reduced tree size. Replacement is usually based on tree depth and aging: nodes higher in the tree (closer to the root) are favored, because the subtrees below them are larger and result in greater savings; and more recent nodes are favored because older nodes are no longer similar to the current position, so transpositions to them are less likely.
Other strategies are to retain nodes in the principal variation, nodes with larger subtrees regardless of depth in the tree, and nodes that caused cutoffs.
Size and performance
Though the fraction of nodes that will be transpositions is small, the game tree is an exponential structure, so cacheing a very small number of such nodes can make a significant difference. In chess, search time reductions of 0-50% in complex middle game positions and up to a factor of 5 in the end game have been reported.
Related techniques
Similar techniques can be used to cache evaluations of certain features of a position. For example, a pawn hash table can be used to store an evaluation of the pawn structures in a position. Since the number of pawn positions examined is generally much smaller than the total number of positions searched, the pawn hash table has a very high hit rate, allowing a program to spend more time on sophisticated pawn evaluations because they are reused many times.
A refutation table can be used to store sequences of moves from the root node to leaf nodes. This includes the principal variation and responses to other lines showing that they are inferior. Refutation tables were sometimes used instead of transposition tables in the earlier years of computer chess, when memory was more limited. Some modern chess programs use refutation tables in addition to transposition tables for move ordering.
Static bitmaps of the possible moves of each type of piece on each space of the board can be cached at program initialization, so that the legal moves of a piece (or together, all legal moves for move generation) can be retrieved with a single memory load instead of having to be serially enumerated. These are commonly used in bitboard implementations.
See also
Minimax algorithm
Alpha-beta pruning
Zobrist hashing
Notes and references
External links
Transposition Tables Sigmachess.com
Technical The Main Transposition Table (information on the data structure and implementation)
The anatomy of chess programs T.A. Marsland, University of Alberta
Transposition Table The Chess Programming Wiki
Game artificial intelligence
Computer chess
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian%20Basin%20%28North%20America%29
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Permian Basin (North America)
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The Permian Basin is a large sedimentary basin in the southwestern part of the United States. The basin contains the Mid-Continent Oil Field province. This sedimentary basin is located in western Texas and southeastern New Mexico. It reaches from just south of Lubbock, past Midland and Odessa, south nearly to the Rio Grande River in southern West Central Texas, and extending westward into the southeastern part of New Mexico. It is so named because it has one of the world's thickest deposits of rocks from the Permian geologic period. The greater Permian Basin comprises several component basins; of these, the Midland Basin is the largest, Delaware Basin is the second largest, and Marfa Basin is the smallest. The Permian Basin covers more than , and extends across an area approximately wide and long.
The Permian Basin lends its name to a large oil and natural gas producing area, part of the Mid-Continent Oil Producing Area. Total production for that region up to the beginning of 1993 was over . The Texas cities of Midland, Odessa and San Angelo serve as the headquarters for oil production activities in the basin.
The Permian Basin is also a major source of potassium salts (potash), which are mined from bedded deposits of sylvite and langbeinite in the Salado Formation of Permian age. Sylvite was discovered in drill cores in 1925, and production began in 1931. The mines are located in Lea and Eddy counties, New Mexico, and are operated by the room and pillar method. Halite (rock salt) is produced as a byproduct of potash mining.
Components
Delaware Basin
The Delaware Basin is the larger of the two major lobes of the Permian Basin within the foreland of the Ouachita–Marathon thrust belt separated by the Central Basin Platform. The basin contains sediment dating to Pennsylvanian, Wolfcampian (Neal Ranch and Lenox Hills Formations), Leonardian (Avalon Shale), and early Guadalupian times. The eastward-dipping Delaware basin is subdivided into several formations (Figure2) and contains approximately of laminated siltstone and sandstone. Aside from clastic sediment, the Delaware basin also contains carbonate deposits of the Delaware Mountain Group, originating from the Guadalupian times when the Hovey Channel allowed access from the sea into the basin.
Midland Basin
The westward-dipping Midland Basin is subdivided into several formations (Figure 4) and is composed of laminated siltstone and sandstone. The Midland Basin was filled via a large subaqueous delta that deposited clastic sediment into the basin. Aside from clastic sediment, the Midland Basin also contains carbonate deposits originating from the Guadalupian times when the Hovey Channel allowed access from the sea into the basin.
Central Basin Platform
The Central Basin Platform (CBP) is a tectonically uplifted basement block capped by a carbonate platform. The CBP separates the Delaware and Midland Basins and is subdivided into several formations, from oldest to youngest Neal Ranch, Lennox Hills, Abo, Yeso, Glorieta, San Andres, Grayburg, Queen, Seven Rivers, Yates, and Tansill Formations (Figure5). The sequence mainly comprises carbonate reef deposits and shallow marine clastic sediments.
Eastern and Northwest Shelves
The Eastern and Northwestern Shelves are composed of shelf edge reefs and shelf carbonates flanking the Delaware and Midland Basins that grade up-dip into siltstones and evaporites. The Eastern and Northwestern Shelves are subdivided into the San Andres, Grayburg, Queen, Seven Rivers, Yates, and Tansill Formations.
San Simon Channel
The San Simon Channel is a narrow syncline that separated the Central Basin Platform from the Northwestern Shelf during Leonardian and Guadalupian times.
Sheffield Channel
The Sheffield Channel separates the southern margin of the Midland Basin from the southern shelf and the Ouachita–Marathon thrust-belt during Leonardian and Guadalupian times.
Hovey Channel
The Hovey Channel is a topographical low located on the southern edge of the Delaware Basin, allowing access to the Panthalassa sea during Guadalupian times. The Hovey Channel was originally an anticline which formed during Precambrian faulting, and was the main source of sea water for the Delaware Basin. The closing of the Hovey Channel towards the end of the Permian Period eventually caused the death of the Permian Reef, as without water being brought in through the Channel, salinity levels rose drastically in the Delaware Basin and the reef could not survive.
Horseshoe Atoll
The Horseshoe Atoll is a westward-tilting arcuate chain of reef mounds long located in the Midland Basin, consisting of of limestone accumulated in the Pennsylvanian and in the Permian, with 15 significant petroleum reservoirs from to in depth. The reef complex consists of Upper Pennsylvanian Strawn, Canyon and Cisco limestones, overlain by Lower Permian Wolfcamp sandstones and shales of terrigenous origin prograding northeast to southwest. The first production well, Seabird Oil Company of Delaware No.1-B J.C. Caldwell, was completed in 1948.
Depositional history
The Permian Basin is the thickest deposit of Permian aged rocks on Earth which were rapidly deposited during the collision of North America and Gondwana (South America and Africa) between the late Mississippian through the Permian. The Permian Basin also includes formations that date back to the Ordovician Period, 445 million years ago (mya).
Proterozoic
Prior to the breakup of the Precambrian supercontinent and the formation of the modern Permian Basin geometry, shallow marine sedimentation onto the ancestral Tobosa Basin characterized the passive margin, shallow marine environment. The Tobosa Basin also contains basement rock that dates back to 1330 million years ago (mya), and that is still visible in the present-day Guadalupe Mountains. The basement rock contains biotite-quartz granite, discovered at a depth of . In the nearby Apache and Glass Mountains, the basement rock is made of metamorphosed sandstone and Precambrian-aged granite. The entire area is also underlain by layered mafic rocks, which are thought to be a part of Pecos Mafic Igneous Suite, and extends into the southern US. It has been dated to 1163 mya.
Early to Mid Paleozoic (Late Cambrian to Mississippian)
Ordovician Period (485.4–443.8 mya)
Each period from the Paleozoic Era has contributed a specific lithology to the Tobosa Basin, accumulating into almost of sediment at the start of the Pennsylvanian Period (323.2–298.9 mya). The Montoya Group is the youngest rock formation in the Tobosa Basin and was formed in the Ordovician Period (485.4–443.8 mya), and sit directly on the igneous and metamorphic basement rocks. The rocks from the Montoya Group are described as light to medium grey, fine to medium grained crystalline calcareous dolomite. These rocks were sometimes inter-bedded with shale, dark grey limestone, and, less commonly, chert. the Montoya Group sequence is made up of carbonate limestone and dolomite which is described as dense, impermeable, and non-porous, and is more commonly found in the Glass Mountains outcrop, with thickness varying from .
Silurian Period (443.8–419.2 mya)
During the Silurian Period, the Tobosa Basin experienced dramatic changes in sea level which led to the formation of multiple rock groups. The first of these groups, called the Fusselman Formation, is mostly made up of light grey, medium to coarse grained dolomite. The thickness of this formation varies from , and parts of the Fusselman Formation were also subject to karstification, which indicates a drop in sea level. The second rock group that formed during the Silurian Period is called the Wristen Formation, which is mud, shale, and dolomite rich rock that reaches a thickness of in some places. Karstification of the Fusselman Formation shows that a drop in sea level occurred, but sea levels rose again during a transgressive event, which lead to the creation of the Wristen Formation. Sea levels would then drop again, which led to major exposure, erosion, and karstification of these formations.
Devonian Period (419.2–358.9 mya)
The Thirtyone Formation was developed during the Devonian Period. This formation is characterized by its limestone, chert, and shale beds, some of which had a peak thickness of . this formation had many different types of limestone, including light-colored siliceous, chert-dominated, crinoid-rich, and sandy limestone. The Thirtyone Formation is very similar to the formation of the Mississippian Period, which is likely because there was little to no change in the environment during this time.
Mississippian Period (358.9–323.2 mya)
The Mississippian Limestone is the main formation to develop during this Period. This formation, similar to the previously mentioned Thirtyone Formation, is composed primarily of limestone and shale. The limestone beds are described as being "brown to dark brown, micro-crystalline to very finely crystalline, commonly sandy, and dolomitic", while the shale beds are "grey to black, hard, platy, pyritic, organic, and very siliceous". The Mississippian Limestone ranges from between in thickness, while generally being thinner towards the southern part of the Tobosa Basin.
The Barnett Shale is the second formation to have developed during the Mississippian Period. It consists mainly of silty brown shale and fine-grained sandstone and siltstone. This Formation was much thicker than the Mississippian Limestone, ranging from . The increased thickness can be explained by increased sedimentation in the area, which was likely caused by tectonic activity in the region.
Tectonic Activity During the Mississippian Period
The Ouachita Orogeny occurred during the Late Mississippian, leading to tectonic activity in the region. The subsequent folding and faulting caused by this Orogeny led to the Tobosa Basin being divided into three sections: the Delaware Basin, the Midland Basin, and the Central Basin Platform. The end of the Mississippian Period also led to the beginning of the formation of the modern Permian Reef Complex. The legacy of the early to mid Paleozoic is almost of sediments that were accumulated due to almost uninterrupted sedimentation.
Late Paleozoic (Pennsylvanian to Permian)
Pennsylvanian Period (323.2–298.9 mya)
The Pennsylvanian Period marked the beginning of geological processes that would shape the Permian Basin into what we see today. Rifting events during the Cambrian Period (early Paleozoic) left fault zones in the region. This fault zones acted as planes of weakness for faulting that was later initiated by the Ouachita Orogeny. These fault zones caused the Tobosa Basin to be transformed, due to tectonic activity, into the Permian Reef Complex, which comprises three parts: the Central Basin Platform, which is encircled by faults, and the Midland and Delaware Basins on either side. Mississippian sediments are absent either due to erosion or nondeposition. Marine shales were deposited in the center of the Delaware, Midland and Val Verde basins, while the basins' periphery saw the deposition of shallow marine, carbonate shelf and limestone sediments.
The Morrow Formation
The Early Pennsylvanian Morrow Formation underlies the Atoka Formation. The Morrow is an important reservoir consisting of clastic sediments, sandstones and shales, deposited in a deltaic environment.
Other formations
The Pennsylvanian Period also led to the development of other geologic formations, although none had the importance of the Morrow Formation. The Atoka Formation lies conformably on top of the Morrow Formation, and is characterized by its fossil-rich limestone inter-bedded with shale, reaching a max thickness of . During the formation of the Atoka, uplift was still occurring in the region, leading to increased sedimentation as the surrounding highlands were eroded. The increased sedimentation led to the formation of medium- to coarse-grained sandstone. In the Atoka Formation, the first reef structures that formed in the Delaware Basin are visible.
The Strawn Formation formed after the Atoka, also during the Pennsylvanian Period, and reached a max thickness of . In this formation, there was a significant increase in reef mounds. The Strawn Formation is primarily made up of massive limestone, along with "fine to medium-grained sandstone, dark to light-grey shale, and occasional reddish-brown, greenish-gray, bituminous shale". A great number of different fossil types were preserved in this formation, including brachiopods, foraminifera, bryozoans, corals, and crinoids.
The Pennsylvanian Period also includes two other formations, the Canyon and Cisco Formations, which are significant due to the major oil reservoirs discovered in them.
Permian Period (298.9–251 mya)
The Permian Period was a time of major reef building to transform the Permian Reef Complex into a major reef system, with Permian-aged rock formations making up 95% of the present-day outcrops in the Permian Basin. When considering any type of reef building that occurred in the Permian, it is important to keep in mind that tectonics played a major part. During this period, the supercontinent of Pangaea, which lasted from 335 to 175 mya, started undergoing breakup. Pangea was clustered together near the equator and surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa, with the Permian Basin located on its western edge within 5-10 degrees of the equator. Any reef building environment would need a source of water, and the Delaware Basin was located near a marginal sea. Thanks to the Hovey Channel, this sea transported water into the Delaware Basin. Global temperatures during this time were warm, as the world climate was changing from icehouse to greenhouse. This rise in global temperatures also led to the melting of ice masses located towards the South Pole, which then led to a rise in sea levels.
The Permian Period has been split up into main Epochs, each of which has separate subdivision. In each sub epoch, a different formation was formed in the different parts of the Permian Reef Complex.
Cisuralian Epoch (298.9–272.3 mya)
The Cisuralian Epoch contained two ages, the Wolfcampian and the Leonardian, both of which have a geological formation in the Permian Basin named after them.
The Wolfcampian Formation lies conformably on top of the Pennsylvanian Formation and is the first formation from the Permian Period. Its composition varies depending on its location in the Basin, with the northernmost part being more rich in shale. The thickness of this formation also varies, reaching a maximum of . The Wolfcampian is made up primarily of grey to brown shale and fine-grained, chert-dominated, brown limestone. There are also interbedded layers of fine-grained sandstone found within the formation.
The primary formation that remains from the Leonardian Age is called the Bone Spring Limestone, which reaches a max thickness of and lies directly below the Capitan Reef Complex. The Bone Spring limestone can be divided into two formations: the Victorio Peak Member, which consists of massive beds of limestone measuring up to ; and the Cutoff Shale Member, which is formed from black, platy, siliceous shale and shaley sandstone. The Bone Spring Limestone consists of several fossils, such as bryozoans, crinoids, and spirifers, but lack algae and sponges that are plentiful in the rest of the Permian Reef Complex. Rocks from the Bone Spring Limestone are predominantly found in the Delaware Basin, but the Victorio Peak Member extends into the shelf margin area.
Guadelupian Epoch (272.3–259.8 mya)
The Guadalupian Epoch was named after the Guadalupe Mountains, since this epoch in the Permian is when reef building was at its most efficient. Lasting from approximately 272–260 mya, this epoch was dominated by the Delaware Mountain Group, which can be further subdivided into rock divisions based on location in the Permian Reef Complex.
Brushy Canyon Formation
The first formation that makes up the Delaware Mountain Group is the Brushy Canyon Formation, and it lies in the Delaware Basin. The Brushy Canyon Formation is made up of thin interbedded layers of alternating fine grained and massive quartz sandstone, as well as shaley brown to black sandstone. This formation reaches a maximum thickness of but thins out significantly as it approaches the basin margins due to transgressive onlap. The Brushy Canyon Formation also contains small reef patches, ripple marks, and crossed bedded strata, that indicate that the Delaware Basin had a shallow water environment at this time.
Cherry Canyon Formation
The next unit of the Delaware Mountain Group is the Cherry Canyon, which had multiple different sub-units and extended into the Delaware Basin and the surrounding shelf environments. The Cherry Canyon Formation can be subdivided into four sub-units, each of which will be discussed briefly.
Lower Gateway Formation
The Lower Getaway member is a limestone that has different characteristics based on its location in the Delaware Basin, and contains patch reefs close to the basin margin. These reefs are often found on limestone conglomerate and breccias. The Upper Getaway Member is more consistent and is characterised as a thick bedded dolomite which integrates into the San Andres Formation as it moves toward the shelf. The middle unit of the Cherry Canyon Formation is the South Wells Member, which is composed of sandstone and integrates itself into the Goat Seep Reef as it moves towards the basin shelf.
Manzanita Member
The upper unit is the Manzanita Member, which consists of dolomite, and gets pinched out underneath the Capitan Formation as it moves into the basin margins. All four members of the Cherry Canyon Formation have undergone dolomitization near the basin margins. This is evident since the calcite/aragonite bioclastic debris that existed as a part of this formation has been preserved as molds in dolomite. It has been suggested by some authors that the clasts and debris might have been dolomitic upon deposition, but that is improbable since the debris came from the reef, which was not dolomitic.
Bell Canyon Formation
The Bell Canyon Formation is the next unit in the Delaware Mountain Group, and it is the age equivalent unit to the Capitan Reef Formation which formed on the shelf. The Bell Canyon Formation consists of "un-fossiliferous, dark-gray to black, platy, fine-grained limestone". All the Cherry Canyon Formation and the bottom part of the Bell Canyon Formation have thin interbeds of dark-colored bioclastic limestone and fine-grained sandstone. As these formations move towards the basin margins, the sandstone wedges out and the limestone thickens into massive, meters thick beds, containing reef talus.
Goat Seep Reef Formation
The Goat Seep Reef Formation lies on the shelf margin and integrates with the Getaway Formation in the basin and the San Andres Formation towards the Shelf. This formation is described as thick, long, and made up entirely of massive dolomite. In the bottom half of the formation, the dolomite is stratified into massive beds. This formation also contains molds of organisms destroyed by the dolomitization process.
Reef building in the Guadalupian Epoch
The Guadalupian Epoch is one of the most successful in history in terms of reef building, since most Permian reefs reached their maximum in size, diversity, extent, and abundance during this Epoch, with the Capitan Reef being one of the most famous examples. In the Guadalupian, reefs were abundant globally, and grew in places such as the Delaware Basin, the Zechstein Basin in Eastern Europe, along the Tethys Ocean, and in cool water shelves in the Panthalassa Ocean. The end of this golden age for reef building occurred due to the "end-Guadalupian reef crisis", which involved global drops in sea levels and regional salinity fluctuations. The movement and collision of micro-continents during the break up of Pangea also caused the destruction of many Guadalupian Reefs. Even with the number of reefs from that epoch that have been destroyed, there are over 100 Guadalupian reefs that remain in the world, the most from any Permian epoch.
Reef growth during the Late Permian
The growth of the Capitan Reef, which is referred to as a "massive member" due to it being formed from massive limestone, can be described in three stages. The first stage is the establishment of the reef and its rapid growth. Due to the slower rates of subsidence of this time, the reef was able to build itself up quickly. Once the reef reached sea level, it began to grow horizontally, since it could not grow vertically anymore. The reef environment during the first stage of development was described as warm (around ), shallow, high energy, clear water that was free from debris and which had a normal salinity level of 27 to 40 ppt (parts per thousand). The basin water provided plenty of nutrients, since there was continuous upwelling of water that mixed newly brought marine water with anoxic water from the basin floor. The makeup of the reef is described as being built primarily from erect sponges, which have large, rigid skeletons, and abundant red algae, microbial micrite, and inorganic cement. The microbial micrite worked to trap sediment.
One of the most prominent sponges that made up the Capitan Reef was the sponge family Guadalupiidae, a sponge that first appeared on Glass Mountains in the mid Permian and had spread into the Delaware Basin by the late Permian.
There were more environmental changes to mark the second stage of the formation of the Capitan Reef. This period of growth was marked by eustatic changes in global sea levels, due to frequent glaciations. The reef experienced major growth vertically at this stage and grew at a rapid enough pace to keep up with rising sea levels. The Capitan Reef also found a stable foundation on the reef debris and talus that rested on its slopes, and this foundation allowed the reef to grow outward. In some locations, nutrients and minerals were so abundant that the Capitan Reef grew out almost 50 km from the starting point.
Reef death during the Late Permian
The third stage of the Capitan Reef is the death of the reef system. Ocean currents in the Permian played a huge role in setting up the climate of the region and for aiding in the growth and death of the Capitan Reef. The climate of the basin region was hot and arid, which is shown in the evaporite deposits that can be found in the back reef region.
The end in growth and accumulation of the Permian Reef Complex was influenced by tectonics. During the end of the Permian Period, the supercontinent of Pangaea was beginning its break up, which drastically changed the conditions that were previously favourable for reef growth. Change in tectonics limited the exchange of sea water in the Hovey Channel, which then led to a salinity increase in the Permian Basin. The reef could not survive this drastic change in water salinity, and was therefore destroyed.
Up until the Guadalupian, the Permian Basin had adequate water circulation with fresh water coming in from the Hovey Channel. Evaporite growth along the bottom portions of the basin showed that the water column was most likely stratified and euxinic, meaning the water was both anoxic and sulfidic. The passageways between the Delaware and Midland Basins were restricted due to tectonic changes, and this caused the salinity of the water to rise. The growing temperatures in the late Permian combined with the increase in salinity caused the extinction of the Capitan Reef, as well as the formation of evaporites with the basin.
The layers of evaporites that formed as a result of increased salinity is called the Castile Formation. This formation consists of alternating layers of gypsum/anhydrite and limestone, as well as massive beds of gypsum/anhydrite, salt, and some limestone. The unit measures almost in total and was formed during the Lopingian Epoch. The individual layers (laminae) of gypsum/anhydrite are between and in thickness, which is thought to correlate with the basin salinity on a year by year basis.
The Capitan Reef had been altered diagenetically early on in its history, especially after the deposition of the Castile Formation. There is evidence of fabric alteration throughout this formation, which is thought to indicate the dehydration and rehydration process of the gypsum and anhydrites. There is also evidence of evaporite calcitization. The reef system was buried until it was exposed in the Mesozoic Era as a result of tectonic activity by the Laramide Orogeny. The deep water shale and carbonate reefs of the Delaware and Midland Basins and the Central Basin Platform would become lucrative hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Generalized facies tracts of the Permian Basin
The Permian basin is divided into generalized facies belts differentiated by the depositional environment in which they formed, influenced by sea level, climate, salinity, and access to the sea.
Lowstand systems tract
Lowering sea level exposes the peritidal and potentially, the shelf margin regions, allowing linear channel sandstones to cut into the shelf, extending beyond the shelf margin atop the slope carbonates, fanning outward toward the basin. The tidal flats during a lowstand contain aeolian sandstones and siltstones atop supratidal lithofacies of the transgressive systems tract. The basin fill during a lowstand is composed of thin carbonate beds intermingled with sandstone and siltstone at the shelf and sandstone beds within the basin.
Transgressive systems tract
These facies results from the abrupt deepening of the basin and the reestablishment of carbonate production. Carbonates such as bioturbated wackstone and oxygen poor lime mud accumulate atop the underlying lowstand systems tract sandstones in the basin and on the slope. The tidal flats are characterized by supratidal faces of hot and arid climate such as dolomudstones and dolopackstones. The basin is characterized by thick carbonate beds on or close to the shelf with the shelf margin becoming progressively steeper and the basin sandstones becoming thinner.
Highstand systems tract
Highstand systems tract facies results from the slowing down in the rise of sea level. It is characterized by carbonate production on the shelf margin and dominant carbonate deposition throughout the basin. The lithofacies is of thick beds of carbonates on the shelf and shelf margin and thin sandstone beds on the slope. The basin becomes restricted by the formation of red beds on the shelf, creating evaporites in the basin.
Tectonic history
During the Cambrian–Mississippian, the ancestral Permian Basin was the broad marine passive margin Tobosa Basin containing deposits of carbonates and clastics. In the early Pennsylvanian–early Permian the collision of North American and Gondwana Land (South America and Africa) caused the Hercynian orogeny. The Hercynian Orogeny resulted in the Tobosa basin being differentiated into two deep basins (the Delaware and the Midland Basins) surrounded by shallow shelves. During the Permian, the basin became structurally stable and filled with clastics in the basin and carbonates on the shelves.
Lower Paleozoic passive margin phase (late Precambrian–Mississippian, 850–310 Mya)
This passive margin succession is present throughout the southwestern US and is up to thick. The ancestral Permian basin is characterized by weak crustal extension and low subsidence in which the Tobosa basin developed. The Tobosa basin contained shelf carbonates and shales.
Collision phase (late Mississippian–Pennsylvanian, 310–265 Mya)
The two lobed geometry of the Permian basin separated by a platform was the result of the Hercynian collisional orogeny during the collision of North America and Gondwana Land (South America and Africa). This collision uplifted the Ouachita-Marathon fold belt and deformed the Tobosa Basin. The Delaware Basin resulted from tilting along areas of Proterozoic weakness in Tobosa basin. Southwestern compression reactivated steeply dipping thrust faults and uplifted the Central Basin ridge. Folding of the basement terrane split the basin into the Delaware basin to the west and the Midland Basin to the east.
Permian Basin phase (Permian, 265–230 Mya)
Rapid sedimentation of clastics, carbonate platforms and shelves, and evaporites proceeded synorogenically. Bursts of orogenic activity are divided by three angular unconformities in basin strata. Evaporite deposits in the small remnant basin mark the final stage of sedimentation as the basin became restricted from the sea during sea level fall.
Hydrocarbon production and reserves
The Permian Basin is the largest petroleum-producing basin in the United States and has produced a cumulative 28.9billion barrels of oil and 75trillion cubic feet of gas. Currently in early 2020, over 4 million barrels of oil a day are being pumped from the basin. Eighty percent of estimated reserves are located at less than depth. Ten percent of the oil recovered from the Permian Basin has come from Pennsylvanian carbonates. The largest reservoirs are within the Central Basin Platform, the Northwestern and Eastern shelves, and within Delaware Basin sandstones. The Primary lithologies of the major hydrocarbon reservoirs are limestone, dolomite, and sandstone due to their high porosities. However, advances in hydrocarbon recovery such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing have expanded production into unconventional, tight oil shales such as those found in the Wolfcamp Shale.
History of resources
In 1917, J.A. Udden, a University of Texas geology professor, speculated that the Marathon Fold, associated with the Marathon Mountains, may extend northward. This fold theory was further elaborated on in 1918 by geologists R.A. Liddle and J.W. Beede. The potential structure was thought to be a potential trap for oil. Based on this Marathon Fold theory, and known oil seeps, test drilling commenced in the eastern Permian Basin.
Oil reserves in the Permian Basin were first documented by W.H Abrams in Mitchell County, West Texas in 1920. The first commercial well was opened a year later in 1921, in the newly discovered Westbrook Oil Field in Mitchell County, at a depth of . Initially, the Permian Basin was thought to have a bowl-like shape, with geological survey crews unable to study the inside of the basin due to a lack of outcrops. The next few years contained discoveries of multiple oil fields, such as the Big Lake oil field (1923), the World oil field (1925), the McCamey oil field (1925), the Hendrick oil field (1926), and the Yates Oil Field (1926). All of these discoveries were made by random drilling or surfacing mapping. Geophysical tests were vital in mapping the region, since tools such as seismographs and magnetometers were used to find anomalies in the area.
By 1924, companies establishing regional geological offices in the basin included the California Company (Standard Oil of California), Gulf Oil, Humble (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Roxana (Shell Oil Company), Dixie Oil (Standard Oil of Indiana), Midwest Exploration (Standard Oil of Indiana), and The Texas Company.
Due to distances and lack of pipes in which to move oil, deep drilling tests were few in the 1920s, since the costs were high. As a result, all the oil wells up to 1928 were less than or deep. However, in 1928, the No. I-B University discovery well found oil at 8,520 feet within the Ordovician formations of Big Lake. Exploration and development increased in the 1930s with the discovery of the Harper oil field (1933), the Goldsmith oil field (1934), the Foster oil field (1935), the Keystone oil field (1935), the Means oil field (1934), the Wasson oil field( 1936-1937), and the Slaughter Field (1936). During World War II the need for oil in the US became urgent, justifying the high costs of deep oil drilling. This breakthrough led to major oil reservoirs being found in every geological formation from the Cambrian Period to the Permian Period. Significant discoveries included the Embrar oil field (1942), the TXL oil field (1944), the Dollarhide oil field (1945), and the Block 31 oil field (1945).
In 1966, the production of the Permian Basin measured 600 million barrels of oil, along with 2.3 trillion cubic ft of gas, which totaled $2 billion. The production values steadily increased thanks to the installation of gas pipelines and oil refineries in the area, reaching a total production of over 14.9 billion barrels in 1993.
In addition to oil, one of the main commodities that is mined from the Permian Basin is potash, which was first discovered in the region in the late 1800s by geologist Johan August Udden. Early studies by Udden, and the presence of potash in the Santa Rita well between 1100 and 1700 feet, led to the United States Geological Survey exploring the area in search of potash, which was highly important during World War I as the US could no longer import it from Germany. by the mid 1960s, seven potash mines were operating on the New Mexico side of the Permian Basin.
Current production
As of 2018, the Permian Basin has produced more than 33 billion barrels of oil, along with 118 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. This production accounts for 20% of US crude oil production and 7% of US dry natural gas production. While the production was thought to have peaked in the early 1970s, new technologies for oil extraction, such as hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, have increased production dramatically. Estimates from the Energy Information Administration have predicted that proven reserves in the Permian Basin still hold 5 billion barrels of oil and approximately 19 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.
Environmental Concerns
By October 2019, the fossil-fuel executives said that until recently they had been making progress in cutting back on flaring, which is to burn natural gas. Drilling companies focus on drilling and pumping oil, which is highly lucrative but the less-valuable gas which is pumped along with the oil, is considered to be a "byproduct". During the current boom in the Permian oil fields, drilling for oil has "far outpaced pipeline construction" so the use of flaring has increased along with venting "natural gas and other potent greenhouse gases directly into the atmosphere", causing considerably larger greenhouse effect than flaring. Both practices are legal under states' legislation. Most of the methane emitted comes from a small number of sources. The price of natural gas is so cheap that smaller companies that have the pipeline capacity are choosing to flare rather than pay pipeline costs.
Counties and municipalities of the Permian Basin
Due to its economic significance, the Permian Basin has also given its name to the geographic region in which it lies. The counties of this region include:
Andrews County pop. 18,705
Borden County pop. 648
Brewster County pop. 9,267
Chaves County pop. 64,615
Cochran County pop. 2,836
Coke County pop. 3,370
Concho County pop. 4,276
Coke County pop. 3,320
Cottle County pop. 1,389
Crane County pop. 4,794
Crockett County pop. 3,499
Crosby County pop. 5,737
Culberson County pop. 2,204
Dawson County pop. 12,728
Dickens County pop. 2,249
Ector County pop. 166,223
Eddy County pop. 58,460
Edwards County pop. 1,928
Fisher County pop. 3,974
Floyd County pop. 5,837
Gaines County pop. 20,901
Garza County pop. 6,578
Glasscock County pop. 1,388
Hale County pop. 33,406
Hockley County pop. 23,021
Howard County pop. 36,664
Hudspeth County pop. 4,886
Irion County pop. 1,536
Jeff Davis County pop. 2,252
King County pop. 265
Kimble County pop. 4,362
Kent County pop. 277
Knox County pop. 3,653
Lamb County pop. 13,158
Lea County pop. 71,070
Loving County pop. 169
Lubbock County pop. 310,569
Lynn County pop. 5,951
Martin County pop. 5,771
McCulloch County pop. 7,987
Menard County pop. 2,139
Midland County pop. 176,832
Mitchell County pop. 8,145
Motley County pop. 1,234
Nolan County pop. 14,714
Pecos County pop. 15,673
Presidio County pop. 6,948
Reagan County pop. 3,741
Reeves County pop. 15,976
Runnels County pop. 10,234
Schleicher County pop. 2,895
Scurry County pop. 16,703
Sterling County pop. 1,291
Stonewall County pop. 1,362
Sutton County pop. 3,758
Taylor County pop. 138,034
Terrell County pop. 823
Terry County pop. 12,287
Tom Green County pop. 119,200
Upton County pop. 3,671
Val Verde County pop. 49,025
Ward County pop. 11,720
Winkler County pop. 7,720
Yoakum County pop. 8,591
See also
List of geographical regions in Texas
University of Texas of the Permian Basin
Permian Basin Petroleum Museum
Permian Basin (Europe)
Slaughter Field
Val Verde Basin
Spraberry Trend
References
External links
Permian Basin—Texas State Historical Association article
Sedimentary basins of North America
Carboniferous United States
Permian United States
Geologic provinces of Texas
Regions of New Mexico
Regions of Texas
Carboniferous geology of New Mexico
Carboniferous geology of Texas
Permian geology of New Mexico
Permian geology of Texas
Oil fields of the United States
Oil fields in Texas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philolaus
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Philolaus
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Philolaus (; , Philólaos; ) was a Greek Pythagorean and pre-Socratic philosopher. He was born in a Greek colony in Italy and migrated to Greece. Philolaus has been called one of three most prominent figures in the Pythagorean tradition and the most outstanding figure in the Pythagorean school. Pythagoras developed a school of philosophy that was dominated by both mathematics and mysticism. Most of what is known today about the Pythagorean astronomical system is derived from Philolaus's views. He may have been the first write about Pythagorean doctrine. According to August Böckh (1819), who cites Nicomachus, Philolaus was the successor of Pythagoras.
He argued that at the foundation of everything is the part played by the limiting and limitless, which combine in a harmony. With his assertions that the Earth was not the center of the universe (geocentrism), he is credited with the earliest known discussion of concepts in the development of heliocentrism, the theory that the Earth is not the center of the Universe, but rather that the Sun is. Philolaus discussed a Central Fire as the center of the universe and that spheres (including the Sun) revolved around it.
Biography
Various reports give the birthplace of Philolaus as either Croton, Tarentum, or Metapontum—all part of Magna Graecia (the name of the coastal areas of Southern Italy on the Tarentine Gulf that were colonized extensively by Greek settlers). It is most likely that he came from Croton. He migrated to Greece, perhaps while fleeing the second burning of the Pythagorean meeting-place around 454 BC.
According to Plato's Phaedo, he was the instructor of Simmias and Cebes at Thebes, around the time the Phaedo takes place, in 399 BC. That would make him a contemporary of Socrates, and would agree with the statement that Philolaus and Democritus were contemporaries.
The writings of much later writers are the sources of further reports about his life. They are scattered and of dubious value in reconstructing his life. Apparently, he lived for some time at Heraclea, where he was the pupil of Aresas (perhaps Oresas), or (as Plutarch calls him) Arcesus. Diogenes Laërtius is the only authority for the claim that shortly after the death of Socrates, Plato traveled to Italy where he met with Philolaus and Eurytus. The pupils of Philolaus were said to have included Xenophilus, Phanto, Echecrates, Diocles, and Polymnastus.
As to his death, Diogenes Laërtius reports a dubious story that Philolaus was put to death at Croton on account of being suspected of wanting to be the tyrant; a story which Diogenes Laërtius even chose to put into verse.
Writings
In one source, Diogenes Laërtius speaks of Philolaus composing one book, but elsewhere he speaks of three books, as do Aulus Gellius and Iamblichus. It might have been one treatise divided into three books. Plato is said to have procured a copy of his book. Later, it was claimed that Plato composed much of his Timaeus based upon the book by Philolaus.
One of the works of Philolaus was called On Nature. It seems to be the same work that Stobaeus calls On the World and from which he has preserved a series of passages. Other writers refer to a work entitled Bacchae, which may have been another name for the same work, and which may originate from Arignote. However, it has been mentioned that Proclus describes the Bacchae as a book for teaching theology by means of mathematics.
According to Charles Peter Mason in Sir William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1870, p. 305):
Additionally, Charles Peter Mason noted (p. 304):
Historians from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Chapter Philolaus' Book: Genuine Fragments and Testimonia, noted the following:
Cosmology
The book by Philolaus begins with the following:
Robert Scoon explained Philolaus' universe in 1922:
Stobaeus' account
According to Stobaeus, Philolaus did away with the ideas of fixed direction in space and developed one of the first non-geocentric views of the universe and in his new way of thinking, the universe revolved around a hypothetical astronomical object he called the Central Fire.
In Philolaus's system a sphere of the fixed stars, the five planets, the Sun, Moon, and Earth, all moved around a Central Fire. According to Aristotle, writing in Metaphysics, Philolaus added a tenth unseen body, he called Counter-Earth, as without it there would be only nine revolving bodies, and the Pythagorean number theory required a tenth. However, Greek scholar George Burch asserts his belief that Aristotle was lampooning Philolaus's addition.
The system that Philolaus described predated the idea of spheres by hundreds of years, however. Nearly two-thousand years later, Nicolaus Copernicus would mention in De revolutionibus that Philolaus already knew about the Earth's revolution around a central fire.
It has been pointed out, however, that Stobaeus betrays a tendency to confound the dogmas of the early Ionian philosophers, and in his accounts, he occasionally mixes up Platonism with Pythagoreanism.
Philosophy
Philolaus argued at the foundation of everything is the part played by the ideas of limit and the unlimited. One of the first declarations in the work of Philolaus was that all things in the universe result from a combination of the unlimited and the limiting; for if all things had been unlimited, nothing could have been the object of knowledge. Limiters and unlimiteds are combined in a harmony (harmonia):
See also
Alcmaeon of Croton
Apeiron
Nicomachus
Parmenides
Protrepticus (Aristotle)
Pythagoreans
Notes
References
External links
5th-century BC philosophers
Ancient Greek mathematicians
Ancient Greek physicists
Ancient Greek political refugees
Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)
Presocratic philosophers
Pythagoreans
Pythagoreans of Magna Graecia
Ancient Crotonians
470s BC births
380s BC deaths
5th-century BC mathematicians
4th-century BC mathematicians
|
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] |
242758
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snarl
|
Snarl
|
A snarl is a sound, often a growl or vicious utterance, often accompanied by a facial expression, where the upper lip is raised, and the nostrils widen, generally indicating hate, anger or pain. In addition to humans, other mammals including monkeys, rabbits and dogs snarl, often to warn others of their potential bite. In humans, snarling uses the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle. The threatening vocalizations of snarling are often accompanied by or used synonymously with threatening facial expressions.
The word "snarl" is also used as an onomatopoeia for the threatening noise to which it refers, as in the 'snarl' of a chainsaw. This usage may derive from the common expression describing a dog as "growling and snarling". One literary use of "snarl" to mean a noise is in The Lord of the Rings in the encounter with the barrow-wight: "In the dark there was a snarling noise".
References
Aggression
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial%20expression
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Facial expression
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A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the muscles beneath the skin of the face. According to one set of controversial theories, these movements convey the emotional state of an individual to observers. Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication. They are a primary means of conveying social information between humans, but they also occur in most other mammals and some other animal species. (For a discussion of the controversies on these claims, see Fridlund and Russell & Fernandez Dols.)
Humans can adopt a facial expression voluntarily or involuntarily, and the neural mechanisms responsible for controlling the expression differ in each case. Voluntary facial expressions are often socially conditioned and follow a cortical route in the brain. Conversely, involuntary facial expressions are believed to be innate and follow a subcortical route in the brain.
Facial recognition is often an emotional experience for the brain and the amygdala is highly involved in the recognition process.
The eyes are often viewed as important features of facial expressions. Aspects such as blinking rate can possibly be used to indicate whether a person is nervous or whether he or she is lying. Also, eye contact is considered an important aspect of interpersonal communication. However, there are cultural differences regarding the social propriety of maintaining eye contact or not.
Beyond the accessory nature of facial expressions in spoken communication between people, they play a significant role in communication with sign language. Many phrases in sign language include facial expressions in the display.
There is controversy surrounding the question of whether facial expressions are a worldwide and universal display among humans. Supporters of the Universality Hypothesis claim that many facial expressions are innate and have roots in evolutionary ancestors. Opponents of this view question the accuracy of the studies used to test this claim and instead believe that facial expressions are conditioned and that people view and understand facial expressions in large part from the social situations around them. Moreover, facial expressions have a strong connection with personal psychology. Some psychologists have the ability to discern hidden meaning from a person's facial expression.
A 2020 study on "emotion residue" found that even when study participants attempted to make neutral facial expressions, their faces still retained emotion residue from prior expressions, and these prior expressions were able to be detected by observers.
One experiment investigated the influence of gaze direction and facial expression on face memory. Participants were shown a set of unfamiliar faces with either happy or angry facial expressions, which were either gazing straight ahead or had their gaze averted to one side. Memory for faces that were initially shown with angry expressions was found to be poorer when these faces had averted as opposed to direct gaze, whereas memory for individuals shown with happy faces was unaffected by gaze direction. It is suggested that memory for another individual's face partly depends on an evaluation of the behavioural intention of that individual.
Creation
Facial muscles
Facial expressions are vital to social communication between humans. They are caused by the movement of muscles that connect to the skin and fascia in the face. These muscles move the skin, creating lines and folds and causing the movement of facial features, such as the mouth and eyebrows. These muscles develop from the second pharyngeal arch in the embryo. The temporalis, masseter, and internal and external pterygoid muscles, which are mainly used for chewing, have a minor effect on expression as well. These muscles develop from the first pharyngeal arch.
Neuronal pathways
There are two brain pathways associated with facial expression; the first is voluntary expression. Voluntary expression travels from the primary motor cortex through the pyramidal tract, specifically the corticobulbar projections. The cortex is associated with display rules in emotion, which are social precepts that influence and modify expressions. Cortically related expressions are made consciously.
The second type of expression is emotional. These expressions originate from the extrapyramidal motor system, which involves subcortical nuclei. For this reason, genuine emotions are not associated with the cortex and are often displayed unconsciously. This is demonstrated in infants before the age of two; they display distress, disgust, interest, anger, contempt, surprise, and fear. Infants' displays of these emotions indicate that they are not cortically related. Similarly, blind children also display emotions, proving that they are subconscious rather than learned. Other subcortical facial expressions include the "knit brow" during concentration, raised eyebrows when listening attentively, and short "punctuation" expressions to add emphasis during speech. People can be unaware that they are producing these expressions.
Asymmetries
The lower portions of the face are controlled by the opposite cerebral hemisphere, causing asymmetric facial expression. Because the right hemisphere is more specialised for emotional expression, emotions are more strongly expressed on the left side of the face., particularly for negative emotions. Asymmetries in expression can be seen in chimeric faces (facial portraits made by combining the left and right halves of faces with different expressions) and also in portraits which more often show the left, more emotional side of the face than the right.
Neural mechanisms in face perception
The amygdala plays an important role in facial recognition. Functional imaging studies have found that when shown pictures of faces, there is a large increase in the activity of the amygdala. The amygdala receives visual information from the thalamus via the subcortical pathways. The amygdala may also have a significant role in the recognition of fear and negative emotions. It is believed that the emotion disgust is recognized through activation of the insula and basal ganglia. The recognition of emotion may also utilize the occipitotemporal neocortex, orbitofrontal cortex and right frontoparietal cortices.
Gender and facial cues
More than anything though, what shapes a child's cognitive ability to detect facial expression is being exposed to it from the time of birth. The more an infant is exposed to different faces and expressions, the more able they are to recognize these emotions and then mimic them for themselves. Infants are exposed to an array of emotional expressions from birth, and evidence indicates that they imitate some facial expressions and gestures (e.g., tongue protrusion) as early as the first few days of life. In addition, gender affects the tendency to express, perceive, remember, and forget specific emotions. For instance, angry male faces and happy female faces are more recognizable, compared to happy male faces and angry female faces.
Communication
Eye contact
A person's face, especially their eyes, creates the most obvious and immediate cues that lead to the formation of impressions. This article discusses eyes and facial expressions and the effect they have on interpersonal communication.
A person's eyes reveal much about how they are feeling, or what they are thinking. Blink rate can reveal how nervous or at ease a person may be. Research by Boston College professor Joe Tecce suggests that stress levels are revealed by blink rates. He supports his data with statistics on the relation between the blink rates of presidential candidates and their success in their races. Tecce claims that the faster blinker in the presidential debates has lost every election since 1980. Though Tecce's data is interesting, it is important to recognize that non-verbal communication is multi-channeled, and focusing on only one aspect is reckless. Nervousness can also be measured by examining each candidates' perspiration, eye contact and stiffness.
Within their first year, Infants learn rapidly that the looking behaviors of others convey significant information. Infants prefer to look at faces that engage them in mutual gaze and that, from an early age, healthy babies show enhanced neural processing of direct gaze.
Eye contact is another major aspect of facial communication. Some have hypothesized that this is due to infancy, as humans are one of the few mammals who maintain regular eye contact with their mother while nursing. Eye contact serves a variety of purposes. It regulates conversations, shows interest or involvement, and establishes a connection with others.
But different cultures have different rules for eye contact. Certain Asian cultures can perceive direct eye contact as a way to signal competitiveness, which in many situations may prove to be inappropriate. Others lower their eyes to signal respect, and similarly, eye contact is avoided in Nigeria; however, in western cultures this could be misinterpreted as lacking self-confidence.
Even beyond the idea of eye contact, eyes communicate more data than a person even consciously expresses. Pupil dilation is a significant cue to a level of excitement, pleasure, or attraction. Dilated pupils indicate greater affection or attraction, while constricted pupils send a colder signal.
Sign languages
Facial expression is used in sign languages to convey specific meanings. In American Sign Language (ASL), for instance, raised eyebrows combined with a slightly forward head tilt to indicate that what is being signed is a yes–no question. Lowered eyebrows are used for wh-word questions. Facial expression is also used in sign languages to show adverbs and adjectives such as distance or size: an open mouth, squinted eyes and tilted back head indicate something far while the mouth pulled to one side and the cheek held toward the shoulder indicate something close, and puffed cheeks mean very large. It can also show the manner in which something is done, such as carelessly or routinely. Some of these expressions, also called non-manual signs, are used similarly in different sign languages while others are different from one language to another. For example, the expression used for 'carelessly' in ASL means 'boring or unpleasant' in British Sign Language.
Universality hypothesis
The universality hypothesis is the assumption that certain facial expressions and face-related acts or events are signals of specific emotions (happiness with laughter and smiling, sadness with tears, anger with a clenched jaw, fear with a grimace, (or gurn) surprise with raised eyebrows and wide eyes along with a slight retraction of the ears, and disgust with a wrinkled nose and squinted eyes—emotions which frequently lack the social component of those like shame, pride, jealousy, envy, deference, etc.) and are recognized by people regardless of culture, language, or time. The belief in the evolutionary basis of these kinds of facial expressions can be traced back to Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Reviews of the universality hypothesis have been both supportive and critical. Work in 2013 by Nelson and Russell and Jack et al. has been especially critical.
Support
Ekman's work on facial expressions had its starting point in the work of psychologist Silvan Tomkins. Ekman showed that facial expressions of emotion are not culturally determined, but universal across human cultures.
To demonstrate his universality hypothesis, Ekman ran a test on a group of the South Fore people of New Guinea, a pre-industrial culture that was isolated from the West. The experiment participants were told brief stories about emotional events (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust). After each story, they were asked to select the matching facial expression from an array of three faces. The Fore selected the correct face on 64–90% of trials but had difficulty distinguishing the fear face from the surprise face. Children selected from an array of only two faces, and their results were similar to the adults'. Subsequent cross-cultural studies found similar results.
Criticism
Both sides of this debate agree that the face expresses emotion. The controversy surrounds the uncertainty about what specific emotional information is read from a facial expression. Opponents of the universality hypothesis believe that more general information is pieced together with other contextual information in order to determine how a person feels.
One argument against the evidence presented in support of the universality hypothesis is that the method typically used to demonstrate universality inflates recognition scores. Although each factor may contribute only a small amount to the inflation, combined, they can produce exaggerated scores. The three main factors are the following:
The universality hypothesis focuses on people's abilities to recognize spontaneous facial expressions as they occur naturally. However, the facial expressions used to test this hypothesis are posed. Studies of spontaneous facial expressions are rare and find that participants' recognition of the expressions is lower than that of the corresponding posed expressions.
In most studies, participants are shown more than one facial expression (Ekman recommends six of each expression). However, people judge facial expressions relative to others that they have seen, and participants who judge more than one facial expression have higher recognition rates than those who judge only one.
The response format that is most commonly used in emotion recognition studies is forced choice. In forced choice, for each facial expression, participants are asked to select their response from a short list of emotion labels. The forced choice method determines the emotion attributed to the facial expressions via the labels that are presented. That is, participants will select the best match to the facial expression even if it is not the emotion label they would have provided spontaneously and even if they would not have labeled the expression as an emotion at all.
Evolutionary significance of universality
Darwin argued that the expression of emotions has evolved in humans from animal ancestors, who would have used similar methods of expression. Darwin believed that expressions were unlearned and innate in human nature and were therefore evolutionarily significant for survival. He compiled supporting evidence from his research on different cultures, on infants, and in other animal species. Ekman found that people from different cultures recognized certain facial expressions despite vast cultural differences, and his findings tended to confirm Darwin's initial hypothesis.
Cross-cultural studies had shown that there are similarities in the way emotions are expressed across diverse cultures, but studies have even shown that there are similarities between species in how emotions are expressed. Research has shown that chimpanzees are able to communicate many of the same facial expressions as humans through the complex movements of the facial muscles. In fact, the facial cues were so similar that Ekman's Facial Action Coding System could be applied to the chimps in evaluating their expressions. Of course, differences between the species' physical facial properties, such as white sclera and everted lips in chimps, would mean that some expressions could not be compared.
Similarly, Darwin observed that infants' method of expression for certain emotions was instinctive, as they were able to display emotional expressions they had not themselves yet witnessed. Facial morphology impacts expression recognition in important ways, and therefore, infant facial morphology may also serve some specific communicative function. These similarities in morphology and movement are important for the correct interpretation of an emotion.
Darwin was particularly interested in the functions of facial expression as evolutionarily important for survival. He looked at the functions of facial expression in terms of the utility of expression in the life of the animal and in terms of specific expressions within species. Darwin deduced that some animals communicated feelings of different emotional states with specific facial expressions. He further concluded that this communication was important for the survival of animals in group-dwelling species; the skill to effectively communicate or interpret another animal's feelings and behaviors would be a principal trait in naturally fit species. However, this suggests that solitary species such as orang-utans would not exhibit such expressions.
See also
Affect display
Bell's palsy
Body language
Computer processing of body language
Facial expression capture
Facial expression databases
Facial expression detection
Facial recognition system
Display rules
Emoticon (Facial Expression Markup Language)
Emotion classification
Laughter
Gelotology
Metacommunicative competence
Thought Moments
References
External links
Facial Expressions Resources Page contains links to research concerning facial expressions
Bell's Palsy information site Information for sufferers of facial palsy/facial paralysis
The Umeå University Database of Facial Expressions, October 12, 2012. Journal of Medical Internet Research
The JAFFE Database of Facial Expressions
Facial expression analysis David Matsumoto and Paul Ekman Scholarpedia, 3(5):4237. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.4237
Anatomical simulation
Emotion
|
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242763
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacrusis
|
Anacrusis
|
In poetic and musical meter, and by analogy in publishing, an anacrusis (from , , literally: 'pushing up', plural anacruses) is a brief introduction (not to be confused with a literary or musical introduction, foreword, or with a preface).
It is a set of syllables or notes, or a single syllable or note, which precedes what is considered the first foot of a poetic line (or the first syllable of the first foot) in poetry and the first beat (or the first beat of the first measure) in music that is not its own phrase, section, or line and is not considered part of the line, phrase, or section which came before, if any.
Poetry
In poetry, a set of extrametrical syllables at the beginning of a verse is said to stand in anacrusis ( "pushing up"). "An extrametrical prelude to the verse," or, "extrametrical unstressed syllables preceding the initial lift." The technique is seen in Old English poetry, and in lines of iambic pentameter, the technique applies a variation on the typical pentameter line causing it to appear at first glance as trochaic. Below, the anacrusis in the fourth line of William Blake's poem "The Tyger" (with punctuation modernized) is in italics:
The poem is in trochaic tetrameter, in which the first syllable of each line is expected to be stressed, but the fourth line begins with the additional unstressed syllable "Could".
Music
In music, an anacrusis (also known as a pickup, or fractional pick-up) is a note or sequence of notes, a motif, which precedes the first downbeat in a bar in a musical phrase. "The span from the beginning of a group to the strongest beat in the group." Anacrusis, especially reoccurring anacrusis (anacrusis motif played before every measure or every other measure), "is a common means of weighting the first beat," and thus strengthening or articulating the meter.
The musical term is inferred from the terminology of poetry. Anacruses may involve fine details such as rhythm and phrasing, or may involve wider features such as musical form (such as when used repeatedly).
The anacrusis is a perceived grouping which is context generated in the individual phrasing of a concrete composition. The grouping of one or more antecedent tone events to a perceived phrase gestalt may be rhythmically evoked by their temporal proximity to the phrase's first downbeat (perceived phrase onset).
An anacrusis may also be evoked solely metrically (non-rhythmically ), i. e. tonally, that is, without the downbeat perception enforced by a relative long value.
Although the anacrusis is integrated in a musical phrase gestalt (grouped to it), it is not located in the perceived 'body' of the phrase (which is spanning from its first downbeat to its ending beat), but before the phrase (hence the German term "Auftakt"; literally: "upbeat"). In this respect – in a sequence of phrases – the anacrusis also may be perceived 'between' two phrases, neither being perceived as part of the ending of a former one, nor being located in the following one.
Outside of that the term of the anacrusis is most commonly used where it applies everywhere else 'within' the 'body' of the phrase between the 'head' (first downbeat) and the 'foot' (ending beat) where, by what ever musical means, a grouping is perceived from an upbeat to a downbeat (especially also to the phrases ending beat).
Since an anacrusis "is an incomplete measure that allows the composition[, section, or phrase] to start on a beat other than one," if anacrusis is present, the first bar after the anacrusis is assigned bar number 1, and Western standards for musical notation often include the recommendation that when a piece of music begins with an anacrusis, the notation should omit a corresponding number of beats from the final bar of the piece, or the final bar before a repeat sign, in order to keep the length of the entire piece at a whole number of bars. This final partial measure is the complement. However, an anacrusis may last an entire bar.
Examples
In the song "Happy Birthday to You", the anacrusis forms the Happy and the accent is on the first syllable of Birthday.
In "The Star-Spangled Banner", the word O! in the first line is an anacrusis in the music:
{| style="text-align: center;"
| x || / || x || x || / || x || x || / || x || x || / || ||
|-
|Oh,||say,||can||you||see,||by|| the||dawn's||ear-||ly ||light||. . .
|}
At the beginning of the Beatles' "Yellow Submarine", "In the" is the anacrusis, while "town" falls on the downbeat.
Other fields
In academic publishing, the term is sometimes used in an article to mark an introductory idea standing between the abstract and the introduction proper.
See also
Caesura
Count off
Prosody (music)
Scansion
Tacet
References
Greek words and phrases
Poetic rhythm
Rhythm and meter
|
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242771
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei%20Duvanov
|
Sergei Duvanov
|
Sergei Duvanov (born 1953) is a prominent Kazakhstani journalist who, in 2002, wrote articles that claimed President Nursultan Nazarbayev and several other Kazakh politicians had illicit Swiss bank accounts containing millions of U.S.' dollars. The scandal was labeled "Kazakhgate".
Controversy
In 2001, the U.S. Department of Justice investigated Kazakhgate. Duvanov was arrested in October 2002 at his datcha outside Almaty and accused of raping a 14-year-old girl. The arrest occurred one day before he was going to visit the United States to speak about Kazakhstan's human rights situation. In January, 2003 he was found guilty and sentenced to three and a half years in prison. Among others, the International League for Human Rights (ILHR), a New York-based human right watchdog, condemned the Kazakhstani government's persecution of Sergei Duvanov. On the initiative of its Central Asia Project Manager Peter Zalmayev, ILHR awarded Duvanov (in absentia) its annual human rights award at a ceremony held at the United Nations on December 9, 2002. As of 15 January 2004, he is under a prison regime which allows him to go to work and live at home. However, Duvanov is not allowed to go to public places (a notion undetermined by Kazakh law). Duvanov, and the opposition, claim that the case was politically motivated. On January 15, 2004, Duvanov was released on probation.
See also
Human rights in Kazakhstan
References
1953 births
Living people
Kazakhstani journalists
Kazakhstani prisoners and detainees
Prisoners and detainees of Kazakhstan
|
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] |
242777
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BVD
|
BVD
|
BVD is a brand of men's underwear, which are commonly referred to as "BVDs". The brand was founded in 1876 and named after the three founders of the New York City firm: (Joseph W.) Bradley, (Luther C.) Voorhees, and (Lyman H.) Day (thus "B.V.D."). The BVD brand, originally produced for men and women, in the United States is now produced solely for men by Fruit of the Loom. The BVD brand is also sold in Japan.
History
BVD first manufactured bustles for women. They then became famous for their men's union suits made of heavy knitted fabric. In 1908, that bulky and tight-fitting garment was turned into a new kind of loose-fitting underwear. They went on to introduce a two-piece and the popular union suit, as well as a lightweight waffle-like fabric with the advertising slogan, "Next to Myself I Like BVD Best".
At the beginning of the 1930s, BVD was purchased by the Atlas Underwear company of Piqua, Ohio. During the Great Depression, they were successful in manufacturing swimsuits for men, women and children. They patented their own fabric, Sea Satin, a rayon woven satin backed with latex for stretch. They also used knits of cotton, wool and Rayon, and cellophane. Their swimsuits featured in major fashion magazines and high-fashion stores. Styles included form-fitting maillots as well as full-skirted swimsuits. They offered suits for men with detachable tops. In 1929, Olympic swimmer Johnny Weissmuller, who went on to become the most famous Tarzan in motion pictures, was hired as a model and representative. He was featured at swim shows throughout the country wearing the BVD brand of swimsuits, handing out leaflets and giving autographs.
In 1951, the brand was purchased by Superior Mills. BVD was first to start packaging underwear in plastic bags for the mass market. In the 1960s and 1970s, they started introducing sportops, a pocket T-shirt, and fashionable underwear made of nylon. In 1976, BVD was purchased by Fruit of the Loom. The company filed for bankruptcy in 1999, and was purchased by Berkshire Hathaway in 2001.
In other languages
In certain dialects of Spanish, the term bibidí, pronounced like the English initials, is an eponym for a man's sleeveless underwear T-shirt.
Notes
External links
Underwear brands
Berkshire Hathaway
Companies established in 1876
1876 establishments in New York (state)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture%20in%20the%20United%20States
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Agriculture in the United States
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Agriculture is a major industry in the United States, which is a net exporter of food. As of the 2017 census of agriculture, there were 2.04 million farms, covering an area of , an average of per farm.
Agriculture in the United States is highly mechanized, only one farmer or farming labor are required per square kilometer of farmland in average for agricultural production.
Although agricultural activity occurs in every state in the union, it is particularly concentrated in the Great Plains, a vast expanse of flat, arable land in the center of the nation in the region west of the Great Lakes and east of the Rocky Mountains. The eastern, wetter half is a major corn and soybean producing region known as the Corn Belt, while the western, drier half is known as the Wheat Belt for its high rate of wheat production. The Central Valley of California produces fruits, vegetables, and nuts. The American South has historically been a large producer of cotton, tobacco, and rice, but it has declined in agricultural production over the past century.
The U.S. has led developments in seed improvement, such as hybridization, and in expanding uses for crops from the work of George Washington Carver to bioplastics and biofuels. The mechanization of farming and intensive farming have been major themes in U.S. history, including John Deere's steel plow, Cyrus McCormick's mechanical reaper, Eli Whitney's cotton gin, and the widespread success of the Fordson tractor and the combine harvester. Modern agriculture in the U.S. ranges from hobby farms and small-scale producers to large commercial farms covering thousands of acres of cropland or rangeland.
History
Corn, turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, and sunflower seeds constitute some of the major holdovers from the agricultural endowment of the Americas.
Colonists had more access to land in the colonial United States than they did in Europe. The organization of labor was complex including free persons, slaves and indentured servants depending on the regions where either slaves or poor landless laborers were available to work on family farms.
European agricultural practices greatly affected the New England landscape. Colonists brought livestock over from Europe which caused many changes to the land. Grazing animals required a lot of land and food and the act of grazing itself destroyed native grasses, which were being replaced by European species. New species of weeds were introduced and began to thrive as they were capable of withstanding the grazing of animals, whereas native species could not.
The practices associated with keeping livestock also contributed to the deterioration of the forests and fields. Colonists would cut down the trees and then allow their cattle and livestock to graze freely in the forest and never plant more trees. The animals trampled and tore up the ground so much as to cause long-term destruction and damage.
Soil exhaustion was a huge problem in New England agriculture. Farming with oxen did allow the colonist to farm more land but it increased erosion and decreased soil fertility. This was due to deeper plow cuts in the soil that allowed the soil more contact with oxygen causing nutrient depletion. In grazing fields in New England, the soil was being compacted by the large number of cattle and this did not give the soil enough oxygen to sustain life.
In the United States, farms spread from the colonies westward along with the settlers. In cooler regions, wheat was often the crop of choice when lands were newly settled, leading to a "wheat frontier" that moved westward over the course of years. Also very common in the antebellum Midwest was farming corn while raising hogs, complementing each other especially since it was difficult to get grain to market before the canals and railroads. After the "wheat frontier" had passed through an area, more diversified farms including dairy cattle generally took its place. Warmer regions saw plantings of cotton and herds of beef cattle. In the early colonial south, raising tobacco and cotton was common, especially through the use of slave labor until the Civil War. With an established source for labor, and the development of the cotton gin in 1793, the south was able to maintain an economy based on the production of cotton. By the late 1850s, the south produced one-hundred percent of the 374 million pounds of cotton used in the United States. The rapid growth in cotton production was possible because of the availability of slaves. In the northeast, slaves were used in agriculture until the early 19th century. In the Midwest, slavery was prohibited by the Freedom Ordinance of 1787.
The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the mid-19th century contributed to economic growth in the United States. This development was facilitated by the Morrill Act and the Hatch Act of 1887 which established in each state a land-grant university (with a mission to teach and study agriculture) and a federally funded system of agricultural experiment stations and cooperative extension networks which place extension agents in each state.
Soybeans were not widely cultivated in the United States until the early 1930s, and by 1942 it became the world's largest soybean producer, due in part to World War II and the "need for domestic sources of fats, oils, and meal". Between 1930 and 1942, the United States' share of world soybean production grew from 3% to 47%, and by 1969 it had risen to 76%. By 1973 soybeans were the United States' "number one cash crop, and leading export commodity, ahead of both wheat and corn". Although soybeans developed as the top cash crop, corn also remains as an important commodity. As the basis for "industrial food," corn is found in most modern day items at the grocery store. Aside from items like candy and soda, which contain high fructose corn-syrup, corn is also found in non-edible items like the shining wax on store advertisements.
Significant areas of farmland were abandoned during the Great Depression and incorporated into nascent national forests. Later, "Sodbuster" and "Swampbuster" restrictions written into federal farm programs starting in the 1970s reversed a decades-long trend of habitat destruction that began in 1942 when farmers were encouraged to plant all possible land in support of the war effort. In the United States, federal programs administered through local Soil and Water Conservation Districts provide technical assistance and partial funding to farmers who wish to implement management practices to conserve soil and limit erosion and floods.
Scholarship has shown that farmers in the early United States were open to planting new crops, raising new animals and adopting new innovations as increased agricultural productivity in turn increased the demand for shipping services, containers, credit, storage, and the like.
Although four million farms disappeared in the United States between 1948 and 2015, total output from the farms that remained more than doubled. The number of farms with more than almost doubled between 1987 and 2012, while the number of farms with to fell over the same period by 44%.
Farm productivity increased in the United States from the mid-20th century until the late-20th century when productivity began to stall.
United States agriculture production in 2018
In 2018:
It was by far the largest world producer of maize (392 million tons). The country has been the world leader in maize production for decades and only recently China, with 257.3 million tonnes produced this year, has been approaching North American production;
It was the largest world producer of soy (123.6 million tons), a position that they held for many years, but recently, they have been competing with Brazil for world leadership. Brazil surpassed US soybean production in 2020.;
It was the 4th largest world producer of wheat (51.2 million tons), behind China, India and Russia;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of sugar beet (30 million tons), behind Russia and France (the beet is used to manufacture sugar and ethanol) ;
It was the 10th largest world producer of sugar cane (31.3 million tons) – Cane is also used to manufacture sugar and ethanol;
It was the 5th largest world producer of potato (20.6 million tons), behind China, India, Russia and Ukraine;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of tomatoes (12.6 million tons), behind China and India;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of cotton (11.4 million tons), behind China and India;
It was the 12th largest world producer of rice (10.1 million tons);
It was the largest world producer of sorghum (9.2 million tons);
It was the 3rd largest world producer of grape (6.8 million tons), behind China and Italy;
It was the 4th largest world producer of orange (4.8 million tons), behind Brazil, China and India;
It was the 2nd largest world producer of apple (4.6 million tons), second only to China;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of onion (3.2 million tons), behind China and India;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of peanut (2.4 million tons), behind China and India;
It was the largest world producer of almonds (1.8 million tons);
It was the 2nd largest world producer of strawberry (1.3 million tons), second only to China;
It was the 10th largest world producer of oats (814 thousand tons);
It was the 8th largest world producer of lemon (812 thousand tons);
It was the 3rd largest world producer of pear (730 thousand tons), behind China and Italy;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of green pea (722 thousand tons), behind China and India;
It was the 6th largest world producer of peaches (700 thousand tons);
It was the 2nd largest world producer of walnut (613 thousand tons), second only to China;
It was the 2nd largest world producer of pistachio (447 thousand tons), second only to Iran;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of lentils (381 thousand tons), behind Canada and India;
It was the 2nd largest world producer of spinach (384 thousand tons), second only to China;
It was the 4th largest world producer of plum (368 thousand tons), behind China, Romania and Serbia;
It was the 4th largest world producer of tobacco (241 thousand tons), behind China, Brazil and India;
It was the 2rd largest world producer of lettuce and chicory(3.6 million tons) behind China;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of cauliflower and broccoli (1.2 million tons) behind China and India;
It was the 3rd largest world producer of carrots (1.5 million tons) behind China and Uzbekistan;
It produced 3.3 million tons of barley;
It produced 1.7 million tons of beans;
It produced 1.7 million tons of watermelon;
It produced 1.6 million tons of rapeseed;
It produced 960 thousand tons of sunflower seed;
It produced 804 thousand tons of tangerine;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, such as melon (872 thousand tons), pumpkin (683 thousand tons), grapefruit (558 thousand tons), cranberry (404 thousand tons), cherry (312 thousand tons), blueberry (255 thousand tons), rye (214 thousand tons), olive (138 thousand tons), etc.
Major agricultural products
Tonnes of United States agriculture production, as reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the U.N. in 2003 and 2013 (ranked roughly in order of value):
Other crops appearing in the top 20 at some point in the last 40 years were: tobacco, barley, and oats, and, rarely: peanuts, almonds, and sunflower seeds. Alfalfa and hay would both be in the top ten in 2003 if they were tracked by FAO.
Crops
Value of production
Note alfalfa and hay are not tracked by the FAO and the production of tobacco in the United States has fallen 60% between 1997 and 2003.
Yield
Heavily mechanized, U.S. agriculture has a high yield relative to other countries. As of 2004:
Corn for grain, average of 160.4 bushels harvested per acre (10.07 t/ha)
Soybean for beans, average of 42.5 bushels harvested per acre (2.86 t/ha)
Wheat, average of 43.2 bushels harvested per acre (2.91 t/ha, was 44.2 bu/ac or 2.97 t/ha in 2003)
Livestock
The major livestock industries in the United States:
Dairy cattle
Beef cattle
Pig
Poultry
Seafood
Sheep
Goats, horses, turkeys and bees are also raised, though in lesser quantities. Inventory data is not as readily available as for the major industries. For the three major goat-producing states—Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas—there were 1.2 million goats at the end of 2002. There were 5.3 million horses in the United States at the end of 1998. There were 2.5 million colonies of bees at the end of 2005.
Farm type or majority enterprise type
Farm type is based on which commodities are the majority crops grown on a farm. Nine common types include:
Cash grains includes corn, soybeans and other grains (wheat, oats, barley, sorghum), dry edible beans, peas, and rice.
Tobacco
Cotton
Other field crops includes peanuts, potatoes, sunflowers, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, broomcorn, popcorn, sugar beets, mint, hops, seed crops, hay, silage, forage, etc. Tobacco and cotton can be included here if not in their own separate category.
High-value crops includes fruits, vegetables, melons, tree nuts, greenhouse, nursery crops, and horticultural specialties.
Cattle
Hogs
Dairy
Poultry and eggs
One characteristic of the agricultural industry that sets it apart from others is the number of individuals who are self-employed. Frequently, farmers and ranchers are both the principal operator, the individual responsible for successful management and day-to-day decisions, and the primary laborer for his or her operation. For agricultural workers that sustain an injury, the resultant loss of work has implications on physical health and financial stability.
Governance
Agriculture in the United States is primarily governed by periodically renewed U.S. farm bills. Governance is both a federal and a local responsibility with the United States Department of Agriculture being the federal department responsible. Government aid includes research into crop types and regional suitability as well as many kinds of subsidies, some price supports and loan programs. U.S. farmers are not subject to production quotas and some laws are different for farms compared to other workplaces.
Labor laws prohibiting children in other workplaces provide some exemptions for children working on farms with complete exemptions for children working on their family's farm. Children can also gain permits from vocational training schools or the 4-H club which allow them to do jobs they would otherwise not be permitted to do.
A large part of the U.S. farm workforce is made up of migrant and seasonal workers, many of them recent immigrants from Latin America. Additional laws apply to these workers and their housing which is often provided by the farmer.
Employment
In 1870, almost 50 percent of the U.S. population was employed in agriculture. , less than 2 percent of the population is directly employed in agriculture.
In 2012, there were 3.2 million farmers, ranchers and other agricultural managers and an estimated 757,900 agricultural workers were legally employed in the US. Animal breeders accounted for 11,500 of those workers with the rest categorized as miscellaneous agricultural workers. The median pay was $9.12 per hour or $18,970 per year. In 2009, about 519,000 people under age 20 worked on farms owned by their family. In addition to the youth who lived on family farms, an additional 230,000 youth were employed in agriculture. In 2004, women made up approximately 24% of farmers; that year, there were 580,000 women employed in agriculture, forestry, and fishing.
From 1999 to 2009, roughly 50% of hired crop farmworkers in the U.S. were noncitizens working without legal authorization. Some large farms rely on new immigrants who will work for extremely low wages. The legal status of the worker has been shown to impact the wage received for a job. An agricultural worker with no documentation earns an average of 15% less than one with amnesty or green card. Moreover, it has been found that undocumented workers have decreased mobility in the agricultural industry because they are less able to have high-skill and high-earning jobs (jobs that are similar to their documented counterparts). These first generation immigrants may remain as farm laborers seasonally for ten years. As they age, they grow poorer due to less skills, resources, and education. The United States passed a special provision in 1986 called the Immigration Reform and Control Act under which the Special Agricultural Worker (SAW) program granted amnesty to some agricultural laborers because of the importance of these workers to the industry. Though this slightly improved the lives of some workers, many more live in poverty and without benefits today. For example, though these workers face many occupational hazards, they are not insured nor protected by government provisions such as the Affordable Care Act. Instead, SAWs rely on Community and Migrant Health Centers that are built to serve this population (though these also suffer from lack of funding and healthcare workers).
Occupational safety and health
Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous industries due to the use of chemicals and risk of injury. Farmers are at high risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries (general traumatic injury and musculoskeletal injury), work-related lung diseases, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, chemical-related illnesses, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U.S. (1992–2005). Every day, about 243 agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in permanent impairment. Tractor overturns are the leading cause of agriculture-related fatal injuries, and account for over 90 deaths every year. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends the use of roll over protection structures on tractors to reduce the risk of overturn-related fatal injuries.
Farming is one of the few industries in which families (who often share the work and live on the premises) are also at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Agriculture is the most dangerous industry for young workers, accounting for 42% of all work-related fatalities of young workers in the U.S. between 1992 and 2000. In 2011, 108 youth, less than 20 years of age, died from farm-related injuries. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture were under age 15. For young agricultural workers aged 15–17, the risk of fatal injury is four times the risk for young workers in other workplaces Agricultural work exposes young workers to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at elevations, and work around livestock. The most common causes of fatal farm-related youth injuries involve machinery, motor vehicles, or drowning. Together these three causes comprise more than half of all fatal injuries to youth on U.S. farms. Women in agriculture (including the related industries of forestry and fishing) numbered 556,000 in 2011.
Agriculture in the U.S. makes up approximately 75% of the country's pesticide use. Agricultural workers are at high risk for being exposed to dangerous levels of pesticides, whether or not they are directly working with the chemicals. For example, with issues like pesticide drift, farmworkers are not the only ones exposed to these chemicals; nearby residents come into contact with the pesticides as well. The frequent exposure to these pesticides can have detrimental effects on humans, resulting in adverse health reactions associated with pesticide poisoning. Migrant workers, especially women, are at higher risk for health issues associated with pesticide exposure due to lack of training or appropriate safety precautions. United States agricultural workers experience 10,000 cases or more of physician-diagnosed pesticide poisoning annually.
Research centers
Some U.S. research centers are focused on the topic of health and safety in agricultural practices. These centers not only conduct research on the subject of occupational disease and injury prevention, but also promote agricultural health and safety through educational outreach programs. Most of these groups are funded by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, the US Department of Agriculture, or other state agencies. Centers include:
Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE
Great Plains Center for Agricultural Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA
High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Health and Safety, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
National Children's Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety, Marshfield, WI
Northeast Center for Agricultural and Occupational Health, New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health, Cooperstown, NY
Pacific Northwest Agricultural Safety and Health Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
Southwest Center for Agricultural Health, Injury Prevention and Education, University of Texas, Tyler, TX
Upper Midwest Agricultural Safety and Health Center, a collaboration between the University of Minnesota School of Public Health, Minneapolis, MN, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, MN, Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, MN and the National Farm Medicine Center, Marshfield, WI with Migrant Clinicians Network, Salisbury, MD
Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety, University of California, Davis, CA
Farmer suicide
Environmental issues
Climate change
Demographics
The number of women working in agriculture has risen and the 2002 census of agriculture recorded a 40% increase in the number of female farm workers. Inequality and respect are common issues for these workers, as many have reported that they are not being respected, listened to, or taken seriously due to traditional views of women as housewives and caretakers.
Women may also face resistance when attempting to advance to higher positions. Other issues reported by female farm workers include receiving less pay than their male counterparts and a refusal or reluctance by their employers to offer their female workers the same additional benefits given to male workers such as housing.
As of 2012, there were 44,629 African-American farmers in the United States. The vast majority of African-American farmers were in southern states.
Industry
Historically, farmland has been owned by small property owners, but as of 2017 institutional investors, including foreign corporations, had been purchasing farmland. In 2013 the largest producer of pork, Smithfield Foods, was bought by a company from China.
As of 2017, only about 4% of farms have sales over $1m, but these farms yield two-thirds of total output. Some of these are large farms have grown organically from private family-owned businesses.
Land ownership laws
As of 2019, six states—Hawaii, Iowa, Minnesota, Mississippi, North Dakota, and Oklahoma—have laws banning foreign ownership of farmland. Missouri, Ohio, and Oklahoma are looking to introduce bills banning foreign ownership as of 2019.
The state with the most foreign ownership as of 2019 is Maine, which has 3.1 million acres that are foreign-controlled, followed closely by Texas at 3 million acres. Alabama, at 1.6 million acres, Washington, at 1.5 million acres, and Michigan, at 1.3 million acres, round out the top five, according to the Midwest Center's analysis.
See also
Agribusiness
Beekeeping in the United States
Child nutrition programs
Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms
Fishing industry in the United States
Genetic engineering in the United States
History of agriculture in the United States
Pesticides in the United States
Poultry farming in the United States
Soil in the United States
Farmers' suicides in the United States
List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities
References
Citations
Cited sources
Further reading
Winterbottom, Jo; Huffstutter, P. J. (Feb. 2015). Rent walkouts point to strains in U.S. farm economy, Reuters
External links
United States Department of Agriculture
National Ag Safety Database
North American Guidelines for Children's Agricultural Tasks
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Backus
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Jim Backus
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James Gilmore Backus (February 25, 1913 – July 3, 1989) was an American actor. Among his most famous roles were Thurston Howell III on the 1960s sitcom Gilligan's Island, the father of James Dean's character in Rebel Without a Cause, the voice of the nearsighted cartoon character Mr. Magoo, the rich Hubert Updike III on the radio version of The Alan Young Show, and Joan Davis' character's husband (a domestic court judge) on TV's I Married Joan. He also starred in his own show of one season, The Jim Backus Show, also known as Hot Off the Wire.
An avid golfer, Backus made the 36-hole cut at the 1964 Bing Crosby Pro-Am tournament. He was inducted to the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.
Early life
Backus was born February 25, 1913, in Cleveland, Ohio, and raised in Bratenahl, Ohio, a wealthy village surrounded by greater Cleveland. He was the son of Russell Gould Backus and Daisy Taylor (née Gilmore) Backus. He attended Shaw High School in East Cleveland, Ohio and graduated from University School in Hunting Valley, Ohio.
Career
Acting
Backus was acting on radio as early as 1940, playing the role of millionaire aviator Dexter Hayes on Society Girl on CBS.
He had an extensive career and worked steadily in Hollywood over five decades, often portraying characters with an "upper-crust", New England-like air, much like his best-known role, Thurston Howell III on Gilligan's Island. He appeared in (and narrated) A Dangerous Profession (1949); Deadline – U.S.A. (1951) with Humphrey Bogart; Pat and Mike (1952) with Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn; Rebel Without a Cause (1955); The Pied Piper of Hamelin (1957); and It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963). He also made television appearances on The Beverly Hillbillies (1962).
Backus was the voice of the nearsighted cartoon character Mr. Magoo. Years later, when Backus was a frequent talk show guest, he would recount the time Marilyn Monroe urgently beckoned him into her dressing room. Henny Backus, Jim's wife, recalled the story: "Jim was in the 1952 film Don't Bother to Knock, with Marilyn Monroe. He came home one night during the filming and told me that Miss Monroe in her most seductive breathy voice asked him to meet her in her dressing room. His curiosity got the better of him and he went. Once there, she exclaimed like an excited child, 'Do Mr. Magoo!' And Jim did."
He frequently could be heard on primetime radio programs in the postwar era, including The Jack Benny Program, and he portrayed an exceedingly vain character named Hartley Benson on The Judy Canova Show on the CBS Radio Network, as well as a similar character named Hubert Updike on The Alan Young Show on the NBC Radio Network. He also starred on the short-lived variety program The Jim Backus Show on the ABC Radio Network in 1957 and 1958, when that network changed its name to the American Broadcasting Network (ABN) and tried out a "Live and Lively" format of "Big Time Radio" with orchestras and audiences. Backus costarred in the comedy show I Married Joan from 1952 to 1955, portraying the husband of Joan Davis.
In stark contrast to his usual affluent characters, he guest-starred on The Brady Bunch as an old gold prospector, a role he also played on a Gilligan's Island episode. He also had a role in the final season episode "The Hustler" in which he plays Mike's boss, Mr. Matthews.
Backus appeared on Gilligan's Island for all three seasons of its run, 1964 to 1967, and later in reunion TV films made between 1978 and 1981. By the third and final film, The Harlem Globetrotters on Gilligan's Island, Backus was suffering from Parkinson's disease and his participation was limited to a cameo appearance. Backus also returned as the voice of Mr. Magoo in various revivals between 1964 and 1977, which included The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo and What's New, Mr. Magoo?.
In 1977, Backus appeared in "Never Con a Killer," the pilot for the ABC crime drama The Feather and Father Gang. In 1981, he and his wife Henny appeared in an episode of The Love Boat. In it, he had one line in his four scenes.
Writing and recording
Backus and his wife, Henny Backus, co-wrote several humorous books, including: ...Only When I Laugh, his autobiography, Backus Strikes Back, a memoir, Forgive Us Our Digressions: An Autobiography, and What Are You Doing After the Orgy? — the title taken from a line Backus spoke in the 1965 film John Goldfarb, Please Come Home! He also co-wrote the 1971 family film Mooch Goes to Hollywood, about a dog that tries to become a movie star.
In the late 1950s, he made two novelty 45 rpm records, "Delicious" and "Cave Man". In 1974, a full-length comedy LP album was released on the Doré label under the title The Dirty Old Man, with sketches written by Bob Hudson and Ron Landry, who also appear on the album, along with voice-actress Jane Webb. Backus also played the voice of God in the recording of Truth of Truths, a 1971 rock opera based on the Bible.
Television commercials
Backus acted in several television commercials. As Mr. Magoo, he also helped advertise the General Electric line of products over the years. He was also spokesman for La-Z-Boy furniture during the 1970s. In the late 1980s, he was reunited with former co-star Natalie Schafer in an advertisement for Orville Redenbacher's popcorn. They reprised their roles from Gilligan's Island, but instead of still being shipwrecked, the setting was a luxurious study or den. This would be the final TV appearance for both actors, who were in frail health. They also both appeared on Fox's short lived talk show The Late Show with Ross Shafer, along with the rest of the cast of Gilligan's Island, in 1988.
Death
On July 3, 1989, Backus died in Los Angeles from complications of pneumonia after suffering from Parkinson's disease for many years. He is buried at the southwest corner of Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Westwood, Los Angeles.
Discography
Magoo in Hi-Fi (RCA Victor, 1957) as Mr. Magoo
Delicious! (Jubilee, 1958)
Cave Man (Jubilee, 1958)
Truth of Truths (Oak, 1971) as God
The Dirty Old Man (Doré, 1974)
Mr. Magoo's A Christmas Carol (Wonderwall, 1979) as Mr. Magoo
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Literature on Jim Backus
1913 births
1989 deaths
Male actors from Cleveland
American male film actors
American male radio actors
American male stage actors
American male screenwriters
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
Deaths from pneumonia in California
People with Parkinson's disease
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
University School alumni
20th-century American male actors
People from Bratenahl, Ohio
Screenwriters from Ohio
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Roman%20legions
|
List of Roman legions
|
This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion, primarily focusing on the Principate (early Empire, 27 BC – 284 AD) legions, for which there exists substantial literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence.
When Augustus became sole ruler in 31 BC, he disbanded about half of the over 50 legions then in existence. The remaining 28 legions became the core of the early Imperial army of the Principate (27 BC – AD 284), most lasting over three centuries. Augustus and his immediate successors transformed legions into permanent units, staffed by entirely career soldiers on standard 25-year terms.
During the Dominate period (near the end of the Empire, 284–476), legions were also professional, but are little understood due to scarcity of evidence compared to the Principate. What is clear is that late legions were radically different in size, structure, and tactical role from their predecessors, despite several retaining early period names. This was the result of the military reforms of Emperors Diocletian and Constantine I, and of further developments during the 4th century.
The legions were identified by Roman numerals, though the spelling sometimes differed from the modern "standard". For example, in addition to the spellings "IV", "IX", "XIV", "XVIII" and "XIX", the respective spellings "IIII", "VIIII", "XIIII", "XIIX" and "XVIIII" were commonly used.
Late Republican legions
Until the Marian reforms of 107 BC, the Republican legions were formed by compulsory levy of Roman citizens (who met a minimum property qualification) and raised whenever it was necessary. Usually they were authorized by the Roman Senate, and were later disbanded.
Gaius Marius' reforms transformed legions into standing units, which could remain in being for several years, or even decades. This became necessary to garrison the Republic's now far-flung territories. Legionaries started large-scale recruiting of volunteer soldiers enlisted for a minimum term of six years and a fixed salary, although conscription was still practiced. The property requirements were abolished by Marius, so that the bulk of recruits were henceforth from the landless citizens, who would be most attracted to the paid employment and land offered after their service.
In the last century of the Republic, proconsuls governing frontier provinces became increasingly powerful. Their command of standing legions in distant and arduous military campaigns resulted in the allegiance of those units transferring from the Roman state to themselves. These imperatores (lit: victorious generals, from the title imperator they were hailed with by their troops) frequently fell out with each other and started civil wars to seize control of the state, such as Sulla, Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus, the first Emperor himself). In this context, the imperatores raised many legions that were not authorised by the Senate, sometimes having to use their own resources. As civil wars were resolved, many of these "private" units would be disbanded, only for more to be raised to fight the next civil war. By the time Augustus emerged as sole ruler of Rome in 31 BC, over 50 legions were in existence, many of which were disbanded.
The legions included in the following list had a long enough history to be somehow remarkable. Most of them were levied by Julius Caesar and later included into Octavian's army, some of them were levied by Marc Antony.
Legio I Germanica (Germanic): 48 BC – AD 70 (Revolt of the Batavi), Julius Caesar
Legio II Sabina (Sabine): 43 BC – , early name of the Legio II Augusta
Legio III Cyrenaica (from Cyrene): probably to (at least) the 5th century, Mark Antony
Legio III Gallica (Gallic): around 49 BC to at least early 4th century, Julius Caesar (emblem: bull)
Legio IV Macedonica (Macedonian): 48 BC – AD 70 (renamed by Vespasian), Julius Caesar (emblem: bull, capricorn)
Legio IV Scythica (from Scythia): to at least early 5th century, Mark Antony (emblem: capricorn)
Legio V Alaudae (Larks): 52 BC – AD 70 or 86 (destroyed either during the Batavian rebellion or by the Dacians in first Battle of Tapae), Julius Caesar (emblem: elephant)
Legio VI Ferrata (Ironclad): 52 BC – after 250, Julius Caesar (emblem: bull, she-wolf and Romulus and Remus); twin legion of Legio VI Victrix
Legio VI Victrix (Victorious): 41 BC – after 402, Octavian (emblem: bull)
Legio VII Claudia Pia Fidelis (loyal and faithful to Claudius): 51 BC – 44 BC, Julius Caesar; disbanded and re-formed by Vespasian as Legio VII Gemina
Legio VIII Augusta: 59 BC – 48 BC, Julius Caesar, disbanded and re-enlisted by Augustus as Legio VIII Augusta
Legio IX Hispana Triumphalis (Triumphant): 59 BC – 48 BC, Julius Caesar, disbanded and re-enlisted by Augustus as Legio IX Hispana
Legio X Fretensis (of the sea strait): levied by Augustus in 41–40 BC
Legio X Equestris (Equestrian): before 58 BC – 45 BC, Julius Caesar's personal legion
Legio XI Claudia: 58 BC – 45 BC, Julius Caesar (emblem: Neptune), disbanded, reconstituted by Augustus
Legio XII Victrix (Victorious): 57 BC – AD 45, Julius Caesar
Legio XII Fulminata (Thunderbolt): after being renamed by Augustus, first reconstituted by Lepidus in 43 BC, named by Mark Antony as Legio XII Antiqua (Ancient)
Legio XIII Gemina (Twin): 57 BC – 45 BC: Julius Caesar, later (41 BC) reconstituted by Augustus. The legion that crossed the Rubicon with Caesar on his assault on Rome.
Legio XIV Gemina (Twin): 57 BC – 48 BC: Julius Caesar, destroyed and reconstituted in 53 BC. Reconstituted by Augustus after 41 BC
Legio XVII Classica (Of the Fleet): raised by Mark Antony, disbanded in 31 BC by Octavian following his victory at the Battle of Actium.
Legio XVIII Libyca (from Libya): raised by Mark Antony, disbanded in 31 BC by Octavian following his victory at the Battle of Actium.
Legio XIX: raised by Mark Antony, disbanded in 31 BC by Octavian following his victory at the Battle of Actium.
Legio XX Siciliana: raised by Octavian for the purpose of launching an invasion of Sicily in 36 BC, which at the time was held by Sextus Pompeius.
: 47 BC – 31 BC, Julius Caesar
: 49 BC – 30 BC, Julius Caesar
(Naval): 48 BC – 41 BC, Julius Caesar
Early Empire legions
Codes for Roman provinces in the table:
{|
|AEG||Aegyptus||(Egypt)
|-
|AFR||Africa||(Tunisia/Western Libya)
|-
|AQ||Aquitania||(SW France)
|-
|AR||Arabia Petraea||(Jordan/Sinai)
|-
|BRIT||Britannia||(England/Wales)
|-
|CAP||Cappadocia||(Central/Eastern Turkey)
|-
|DC||Dacia||(Romania/Serbia)
|-
|DLM||Dalmatia||(Bosnia-Herzegovina/Croatia/Montenegro/Kosovo/Serbia)
|-
|GAL||Galatia||(Central Turkey)
|-
|GI||Germania Inferior||(Netherlands/Rhineland)
|-
|GS||Germania Superior||(Alsace-Lorraine/Rhineland)
|-
|HISP||Hispania Tarraconensis||(Central Spain)
|-
|IT||Italia||(Italy)
|-
|JUD||Judaea||(Israel/Palestine)
|-
|MAUR||Mauretania||(Western Maghreb)
|-
|MCD||Macedonia||(Southern Balkans/Greece)
|-
|MI||Moesia Inferior||(Romania/Bulgaria)
|-
|MS||Moesia Superior||(Serbia)
|-
|NR||Noricum||(Austria)
|-
|PAN||Pannonia||(Hungary/Croatia/Slovenia)
|-
|RT||Raetia||(Switzerland/Germany)
|-
|SYR||Syria||(Syria/Lebanon)
|}
Legend
Legion number and title (cognomen)
The numbering of the legions is confusing, since several legions shared the same number with others. Augustus numbered the legions he founded himself from I, but also inherited numbers from his predecessors. Each emperor normally numbered the legions he raised himself starting from I. However, even this practice was not consistently followed. For example, Vespasian kept the same numbers as before for legions he raised from disbanded units. Trajan's first legion was numbered XXX because there were 29 other legions in existence at the time it was raised; but the second Trajanic legion was given the sequential number II. XVII, XVIII and XIX, the numbers of the legions annihilated in the Teutoburg Forest, were never used again. (These three legions are without titles, suggesting that in disgrace their titles may have been deliberately forgotten or left unmentioned.) As a result of this somewhat chaotic evolution, the legion's title became necessary to distinguish between legions with the same number.
Legions often carried several titles, awarded after successive campaigns, normally by the ruling emperor e.g. XII Fulminata was also awarded: paterna (fatherly), victrix (victorious), antiqua (venerable), certa constans (reliable, steadfast) and Galliena (Gallienus '). Pia fidelis (loyal and faithful), fidelis constans and others were titles awarded to several legions, sometimes several times to the same legion. Only the most established, commonly used titles are displayed on this table.
The geographical titles indicate
the country a legion was originally recruited e.g. Italica = from Italy or
peoples the legion has vanquished e.g.Parthica = victorious over the Parthians
Legions bearing the personal name of an emperor, or of his gens (clan) (e.g. Augusta, Flavia) were either founded by that Emperor or awarded the name as a mark of special favour.
The title GEMINA means that two diminished legions have been combined to make one new one.
Main legionary base
This shows the castra (base) where the legion spent the longest period during the Principate. Legions often shared the same base with other legions. Detachments of legions were often seconded for lengthy periods to other bases and provinces, as operational needs demanded.
Emblem
Legions often sported more than one emblem at the same time, and occasionally changed them. Legions raised by Caesar mostly carried a bull emblem originally; those of Augustus mostly a Capricorn
Date disbanded
For legions that are documented into the 4th century and beyond, we do not know when or how they were terminated. For legions disappearing from the record before 284, the reason (certain or likely) is given as:
XX = annihilated in battle
DD = disbanded in disgrace
UF = unknown fate
Castra legionaria
Indicates the bases (castra) and/or provinces where the legion was based during its history, with dates.
Notes
Contains points of note, including explanation of titles and details of a legion's fate.
Province names and borders are assumed throughout the Principate period as at 107, during the rule of Trajan, and after the annexation of Dacia and Arabia Petraea. The map above shows provinces at the end of Trajan's reign, 117. They are the same as in 107, except that Armenia and Mesopotamia have been annexed (they were abandoned soon after Trajan's death); and Pannonia has been split into two (the split occurred ). In reality provincial borders were modified several times between 30 BC and 284: this explains any discrepancy with other sources, as to a legion's location at a particular date.
Late Empire legions
Diocletian reorganized the Roman army, in order to better counter the threat of the Germanic peoples of northern Europe as well as that of the Persians from the East. The army was formed by border and field units.
The border (limitanei) units were to occupy the limes, the structured border fortifications, and were formed by professional soldiers with an inferior training.
The field units were to stay well behind the border, and to move quickly where they were needed, with both offensive and defensive roles. Field units were formed by elite soldiers with high-level training and weapons. They were further divided into:
Scholae: the personal guard of the Emperor, created by Constantine I to replace the Praetorian Guard;
Palatinae: "palace troops" were the highest ranked units, created by Constantine I after he disbanded the Praetorian Guard, it was comprised originally of former guardsmen;
Comitatenses: regular field units, some were newly-formed, others were descended from Early-Empire legions;
Pseudocomitatenses: these were limitanei units diverted into the field army and often kept there; some Early Empire legions became pseudocomitatenses units.
These units usually numbered between 300 and 2,000 soldiers and some of them kept their original numbering schemes. The primary source for the legions of this era is the Notitia Dignitatum, a late 4th-century document containing all the civil and military offices of both halves of the Roman Empire (revised in for the Western Empire).
Legio I
I Armeniaca
I Flavia Constantia (reliable Flavian): comitatensis unit under the command of the Magister militum per Orientis
I Flavia Gallicana Constantia (reliable Flavian legion from Gallia): pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum per Gallias. The legion was founded by Constantius I Chlorus. The legions objective was to protect the Armorican coast and fight the Roman-British usurper, Allectus.
I Flavia Martis (Flavian legion devoted to Mars): pseudocomitatensis. The legion was founded by Constantius Chlorus to fight Allectus. It was stationed in Gaul.
I Flavia Pacis (Flavian legion of peace): comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum
I Flavia Theodosiana: comitatensis.
I Illyricorum (of the Illyrians): stationed at the Camp of Diocletian in Palmyra
I Iovia (devoted to Jupiter): levied by Diocletian, stationed in Scythia Minor
I Isaura Sagittaria (archers from Isauria): pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister militum per Orientis
I Iulia Alpina: pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum in Italy. It is unknown who founded the legion although it was probably Crispus or Constans.
I Martia possibly based near modern Kaiseraugst. The Legion could have had the surname Victrix. The legion was probably founded by Diocletian. It also may have built forts in Valeria.
I Maximiana Thaebanorum (the Thebans of Maximianus): comitatensis unit stationed near Thebes, Egypt, and probably fighting in the battle of Adrianople
I Noricorum (of the Noricans): stationed in Noricum. The legion was probably founded by Diocletian to help defend the Danube.
I Pontica: the legion was founded by Dioceltian to help defend Pontus Polemoniacus. The legion was stationed in Trapezus.
Legio II
II Armeniaca
II Britannica: comitatensis under Magister Peditum
[[Legio II Flavia Constantia|II Flavia Constantia]]: comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum
II Flavia Virtutis: comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum
II Herculia (devoted to Hercules): levied by Diocletian, stationed in Scythia Minor
II Isaura
II Iulia Alpina: pseudocomitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum, in Comes Illyricum command. It was probably founded by Crispus or Constans. Its objective was to defend Alpes Cottiae
II Felix Valentis Thebaeorum: comitatensis
Legio III
III Diocletiana
III Flavia Salutis The Legio III Flacia Salutis was a comitatensis legion of the Late Roman Empire. The legion was raised by either Constantius II or Diocletian. The legion was used to guard North Africa. The Legio III Flavia Salutis was under the command of the Magister Militum in the west.
III Herculea: comitatensis under the command of the Comes Illyricum
III Isaura
III Iulia Alpina: comitatensis under the command of the Magister Peditum command in Italy
Legio IV
IV Italica
IV Martia
IV Parthica
Legio V
V Iovia (maybe the Jovians)
V Parthica
Legio VI
VI Gemella
VI Gallicana
VI Herculia (maybe the Herculians)
VI Hispana
VI Parthica
Legio XII
XII Victrix
See also
List of Roman auxiliary regiments
Roman army
Auxilia
Roman legion
Structural history of the Roman military
Notes
References
Primary sources
Notitia Dignitatum reports the military units and their locations at the beginning of the 5th century.
Secondary sources
Oxford Classical Dictionary
Keppie, Lawrence. The Making of the Roman Army, 1984 pp. 205–215
Stephen Dando-Collins "Legions Of Rome"
External links
Legio X – Legio X Gemina (Equites) – "Viri Clarissimi"
Livius.org: List of Roman legions
A catalogue of Roman legions
Legio V Living History Group in Tennessee
Roman legions from Dacia (KML file)
Roman legionary fortresses
|
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] |
242786
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse%20crop
|
Nurse crop
|
In agriculture, a nurse crop is an annual crop used to assist in establishment of a perennial crop. The widest use of nurse crops is in the establishment of legumaceous plants such as alfalfa, clover, and trefoil. Occasionally nurse crops are used for establishment of perennial grasses.
Nurse crops reduce the incidence of weeds, prevent erosion, and prevent excessive sunlight from reaching tender seedlings. Often the nurse crop can be harvested for grain, straw, hay, or pasture.
Oats are the most common nurse crop, though other annual grains are also. Nurse cropping of tall or dense-canopied plants, may protect more vulnerable species through shading or by providing a wind break.
See also
Companion planting
Multiple cropping
Crops
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker%20Street%20Irregulars
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Baker Street Irregulars
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The Baker Street Irregulars are fictional characters who appear in three Sherlock Holmes stories, specifically two novels and one short story, by Arthur Conan Doyle. They are street boys who are employed by Holmes as intelligence agents. The name has subsequently been adopted by other organizations, most notably a prestigious and exclusive literary society founded in the United States by Christopher Morley in 1934.
Fictional profile
The original Baker Street Irregulars are fictional characters featured in the Sherlock Holmes stories of Arthur Conan Doyle. The group of street urchins is led by a boy called Wiggins. They run errands and track down information for Holmes. According to Holmes, they are able to "go everywhere and hear everything". Holmes also says that they "are as sharp as needles, too; all they want is organisation." In The Sign of the Four, which takes place in 1888, it is shown that Holmes pays them each a shilling per day (), and Holmes offers a guinea prize () as a reward for the one who locates the steam launch that he wants them to find.
The group appears in the first Sherlock Holmes story, the novel A Study in Scarlet (1887), which is set in 1881. When Watson meets the group, he describes them as "half a dozen of the dirtiest and most ragged street Arabs that ever I clapped eyes on". Holmes introduces them as "the Baker Street division of the detective police force". The group enters 221B Baker Street together, but since they upset Holmes's landlady (who is unnamed in this story but later named Mrs. Hudson), Holmes tells them that in future, only their leader Wiggins should report to him. He pays them each a shilling to track down a certain cabman. They find the cabman, Jefferson Hope, successfully. Wiggins brings him to 221B Baker Street where the cabman is apprehended by Holmes.
They also appear in the next novel, The Sign of the Four (1890), set in 1888, in which one of the chapters is titled "The Baker Street Irregulars". In this story, Holmes describes them as "the unofficial force — the Baker Street irregulars". As in A Study in Scarlet, the group enters 221B Baker Street together and Holmes instructs them to only have Wiggins report to him in future. Wiggins receives three shillings and sixpence (which he calls "Three bob and a tanner") from Holmes for expenses in addition to his regular wage. Holmes directs the Baker Street Irregulars to search for a steam launch called the Aurora. However, they do not succeed and Holmes ultimately joins the search by disguising himself as a sailor. Though approximately seven years have passed since A Study in Scarlet, Wiggins is still the leader of the Baker Street Irregulars. He is described as being taller and older than the others, and has an "air of lounging superiority".
One of the group appears in the short story "The Adventure of the Crooked Man" (1893). In the story, Holmes has a member of the group, named Simpson, watch Henry Wood. As Holmes says, "I have one of my Baker Street boys mounting guard over him who would stick to him like a burr, go where he might". Simpson, whom Watson describes as "a small street Arab", briefly appears in the story to report to Holmes.
Though not one of the Baker Street Irregulars, a similar character named Cartwright appears in The Hound of the Baskervilles (1902). Cartwright, who works in a district messenger office, secretly runs errands for Holmes on the moor and keeps him supplied while disguised as a country boy. At one point Watson sees the disguised Cartwright running errands, and describes him as "a small urchin" and a "ragged uncouth figure". Cartwright is described as a "lad of fourteen" in the novel. Another similar character, a pageboy named Billy, assists Holmes in "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone".
According to Daniel Smith in his book The Sherlock Holmes Companion, Holmes was skilled at developing a network of agents who could assist him in any situation, and this network included multiple "outsider" figures such as the Baker Street Irregulars as well as Cartwright, Billy, and former criminal Shinwell Johnson. Smith wrote that this shows that Holmes "realised the value of reliable assistants and was humble enough to look for them in places where others of his status might have never deigned to tread".
Adaptations
Television and film
A BBC television series starring the Irregulars titled The Baker Street Boys aired in 1983.
The Baker Street Irregulars appear in the 1988 film Without a Clue and work for Dr. Watson (Ben Kingsley). There is a running gag in the film whereby they pick the pocket watches of everyone they meet.
The animated sci-fi television series Sherlock Holmes in the 22nd Century (1999–2001) features a trio of children who aid Holmes as the new Baker Street Irregulars, and are even led by a boy named Wiggins.
A BBC television film featuring the group, titled Sherlock Holmes and the Baker Street Irregulars, aired in 2007.
The modern-day series Sherlock re-imagines the Irregulars as a "Homeless Network" devised of the destitute of London, rather than specifically homeless boys. They do however specifically name one of Sherlock's future informers Billy (who attempts to use the nickname 'The Wig').
In the modern-day adaptation Elementary (set in New York), the "Irregulars" are an assortment of experienced adults in certain fields that Holmes calls on for insight when his own knowledge of a subject proves inadequate to the current case. Demonstrated Irregulars include a meteorologist, a mathematician, an expert in Greek literature, and a man with a particularly keen sense of smell.
Netflix announced in 2018 that they were producing The Irregulars in which Sherlock Holmes is portrayed as a drug addict who takes the credit for cases solved by a group of children.
Radio and audio dramas
In "The Adventure of the Innocent Murderess", a 1947 broadcast of The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes starring Tom Conway and Nigel Bruce, the character "Charlie" is a member of the Baker Street Irregulars paid 5 shillings for tips leading to the solution of the crime.
Four actors played the Baker Street Irregulars in a 1963 BBC radio adaptation of The Sign of the Four in the 1952–1969 radio series of Sherlock Holmes adaptations, with another actor, Glyn Dearman, playing Wiggins.
In "The Adventure of the Irregular Client", a 2013 episode of the American radio series The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, Holmes's client is a former member of the Baker Street Irregulars.
A member of the Baker Street Irregulars appears in the Audible audio drama Sherlock Holmes: The Voice of Treason (2020).
Stage
Wiggins and the Irregulars appeared in the 1965 musical Baker Street. In the musical, they perform the songs "Leave It To Us, Guv" and "Roof Space".
The Irregulars perform the song "Anything You Want To Know" in the 1989 musical Sherlock Holmes: The Musical. They also perform three other songs alongside other characters.
Video games
In the video game Sherlock Holmes: Consulting Detective and its two sequels (1991–1993), adapted from the board game of the same name, the Irregulars can be directed by the player to visit people and locations.
Wiggins and the Irregulars assist Holmes in the 1992 video game The Lost Files of Sherlock Holmes: The Case of the Serrated Scalpel and its sequel The Lost Files of Sherlock Holmes: The Case of the Rose Tattoo.
Wiggins and other Baker Street Irregulars assist Holmes in some titles in the Sherlock Holmes video game series by Frogwares, such as the 2004 game Sherlock Holmes: The Case of the Silver Earring.
Board games
The Baker Street Irregulars play a lead role in the series of cooperative board games Sherlock Holmes: Consulting Detective, first published in 1981 with multiple expansions released later. In 2020 the fourth game in the series was released, titled 'The Baker Street Irregulars'. The board game was adapted for the 1991–1993 Sherlock Holmes: Consulting Detective video game series, though the Irregulars do not play a lead role in the video games.
Print
Terrance Dicks wrote a series of children's novels titled The Baker Street Irregulars. The ten books in the series were published between 1978 and 1987.
A series of four graphic novels released in 2011, titled Sherlock Holmes: The Baker Street Irregulars, features the Baker Street Irregulars. The series was written by Tony Lee and illustrated by Dan Boultwood. It was adapted into a play, also titled Sherlock Holmes: The Baker Street Irregulars, by Eric Coble.
The Baker Street Irregulars appear in Anthony Horowitz's 2011 novel The House of Silk.
The Case of the Baker Street Irregular by Robert Newman is a Young Adult novel published in 1978.
The Baker Street Four is a series of French graphic novels by Olivier Legrand and various illustrators published in 2017 and centering around the adventures of three young street urchins and their cat as they become caught up in the cases and lives of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson.
In popular culture
The name was used for the literary society The Baker Street Irregulars founded in 1934 by Christopher Morley.
The Special Operations Executive (SOE), tasked by Winston Churchill to "set Europe ablaze" during World War II, had its headquarters at 64 Baker Street and was often called "the Baker Street Irregulars" after Sherlock Holmes's fictional group.
Hazel Meade's troop of children serve as couriers and lookouts in the "Baker Street Irregulars" during the lunar revolution of Robert A. Heinlein's The Moon is a Harsh Mistress (1966).
The group is mentioned briefly in the 2013 Doctor Who episode "Hide" as the Eleventh Doctor discusses the involvement of Professor Palmer in the Special Operations Executive.
The Baker Street Irregulars are mentioned in Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child's Agent Pendergast novel, White Fire (2013). During the plot of the novel, Agent Pendergast teams up with a fictional member of the group to find a "lost" Sherlock Holmes story entitled "The Adventure of Aspern Hall".
References
Child characters in literature
Child characters in television
Literary characters introduced in 1887
Fictional secret agents and spies
Sherlock Holmes characters
Special Operations Executive
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iain%20Macleod
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Iain Macleod
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Iain Norman Macleod (11 November 1913 – 20 July 1970) was a British Conservative Party politician and government minister.
A playboy and professional bridge player in his twenties, after war service Macleod worked for the Conservative Research Department before entering Parliament in 1950. He was an outstanding orator and debater, and was soon appointed Minister of Health, later serving as Minister of Labour. He served an important term as Secretary of State for the Colonies under Harold Macmillan in the early 1960s, overseeing the independence of many African countries from British rule but earning the enmity of Conservative right-wingers, and the soubriquet that he was "too clever by half".
Macleod was unhappy with the "emergence" of Sir Alec Douglas-Home as party leader and Prime Minister in succession to Macmillan in 1963 (he claimed to have supported Macmillan's deputy Rab Butler, although it is unclear exactly what his recommendation had been). He refused to serve in Home's government, and whilst serving as editor of The Spectator, alleged that the succession had been stitched up by Macmillan and a "magic circle" of Old Etonians.
Macleod did not contest the first ever Conservative Party leadership election in 1965, but endorsed the eventual winner Edward Heath. When the Conservatives returned to power in June 1970, he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in Heath's government, but died suddenly only a month later.
Early life
Iain Macleod was born at Clifford House, Skipton, Yorkshire, on 11 November 1913. His father, Dr. Norman Alexander Macleod, was a well-respected general practitioner in Skipton, with a substantial poor-law practice (providing medical services for those who could not afford to pay); the young Macleod would often accompany his father on his rounds. His parents were from the Isle of Lewis in the Western Isles of Scotland, belonging to the branch of the Macleods of Pabbay and Uig. They moved to Skipton in 1907. Macleod grew up with strong personal and cultural ties to Scotland, as his parents bought in 1917 part of the Leverhulme estate on the Isle of Lewis, where they often used to stay for family holidays.
He was educated at Ermysted's Grammar School in Skipton, followed by four years (beginning in 1923) at St Ninian's Dumfriesshire, followed by five years at the private school Fettes College in Edinburgh. Macleod showed no great academic talent, but did develop an enduring love of literature, especially poetry, which he read and memorised in great quantity. In his final year at school Macleod appears to have blossomed a little, standing for Oswald Mosley's New Party in the mock election in October 1931; he came third, behind the Unionist and Ian Harvey who stood as a Scottish nationalist and came second. He won the School History Prize in his final year.
Cambridge and cards
In 1932, Macleod went up to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he read History. His only recorded speech at the Cambridge Union Society was in his first term against the Ottawa agreement – his biographer comments that although not too much should be made of this, it suggests a lack of sentimental attachment to the Empire. He took no other part in student politics, but spent much of his time reading poetry and playing bridge, both for the University (he helped to found the Cambridge University Bridge Society) and at Crockfords and in the West End. He graduated with a Lower Second in 1935.
A bridge connection with the chairman of the printing company De La Rue earned him a job offer. However, he devoted most of his energies to bridge and, by 1936, was an international bridge player. He was one of the great British bridge players. He won the Gold Cup in 1937, with teammates Maurice Harrison-Gray (Capt), Skid Simon, Jack Marx and Colin Harding.
At a time when average male earnings were around £200 per annum (around £11,000 at 2016 prices) and he was earning around £150 per annum at De La Rue, Macleod sometimes made £100 in a night gambling, but on another occasion had to borrow £100 from his father to pay his debts. Macleod was often too tired to work in the mornings after gambling for much of the night, although he tended to perk up as the day went on; he was popular with colleagues and on at least one occasion mucked in to work overtime for a last-minute order for Chinese banknotes. His biographer comments that he "might have stayed" had he found the work more interesting, but after tolerating him for a number of years De La Rue sacked him in 1938.
In order to placate his father he joined the Inner Temple and went through the motions of studying to become a barrister, but in the late 1930s he was essentially living the life of a playboy off his bridge earnings. He was winning up to £2,500 per annum tax free (around £140,000 at 2016 prices).
He later wrote a book that contains a description of the Acol system of : Bridge is an Easy Game, published in 1952 by Falcon Press, London. He was still earning money from playing and writing newspaper columns about bridge until 1952, when his developing political career became his priority.
War service
Early war
In September 1939, upon the outbreak of the Second World War, Macleod enlisted in the British Army as a private in the Royal Fusiliers. On 20 April 1940, he was commissioned as an officer with the rank of second lieutenant in the Duke of Wellington's Regiment (DWR). He was given the service number of 129352. He was posted to the 2/7th Battalion, DWR, which was then serving as part of the 137th Infantry Brigade of the 46th Infantry Division, a second line Territorial Army (TA) formation, then commanded by Major-General Henry Curtis. Macleod's battalion was sent overseas to France in time to see action in the Battle of France in May, where he was injured in the leg by a flying log when a German armoured car burst through a road block which his men had just erected. He was treated in hospital in Exeter and left with a lifelong slight limp. In later life, besides his limp he suffered pain and reduced mobility from a spinal condition (ankylosing spondylitis).
At the age of 27, Macleod was already considered somewhat too old to be a platoon commander. Once fit for duty again, he served as a staff captain with the 46th Division in Wye, under the Deputy Assistant Adjutant General (DAAG), Captain Dawtry. In 1941, a drunk Macleod almost killed Dawtry, as the latter had retired to bed rather than play stud poker with him. He shot at his door until his revolver ran out of bullets, and then passed out after smashing down the door with a heavy piece of furniture. He demanded an apology the next morning for his refusal to play, although the two men remained friends thereafter. Dawtry later became Chief Clerk of Westminster Council.
Staff College, D-Day and European campaign
Macleod attended Staff College, Camberley, in 1943, and graduated early in February 1944, having for the first time had to test his abilities against other able men and found something of a purpose in life.
As a major, he landed in France on Gold Beach on D-Day on 6 June 1944, as Deputy Assistant Quartermaster-General (DAQMG) of the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, a first line TA formation, under the command of Major-General Douglas Graham. Macleod embarked on 1 June, ready for the invasion which was then postponed from 5 June to 6 June. The 50th Division, a highly experienced veteran formation which had fought in North Africa and Sicily, was tasked with capturing Arromanches, where the Mulberry artificial harbour was to be set up, and by the end of the day patrols had pushed to the outskirts of Bayeux. Macleod spent much of the day touring the beachhead area to check on progress, driving past enemy-held strongpoints, with Lieutenant Colonel "Bertie" Gibb. He later recorded that he had "a patchwork of memories" of D-Day. He could remember what he ate but not when he ate it, or that when he went to load his revolver he found his batman had instead filled his ammunition pouch with boiled sweets. British planners had expected 40% casualties on D-Day, and Macleod later recorded that he himself had fully expected to be killed, but on realising at midnight that he had survived D-Day decided that he would survive the war and see the birth of his second child in October.
Contemporaries began to record him saying that autumn that he planned to enter politics and become prime minister. He continued to serve in France and the Low Countries until November 1944 when the 50th Division was, due to a highly critical shortage of manpower in the British Army at this stage of the war, ordered to return to Yorkshire, to be reconstituted as a training division. Macleod ended the war as a major.
1945 election and final army service
Macleod unsuccessfully contested the Western Isles constituency at the 1945 general election. There was no Conservative Party in the seat, so Macleod advertised an inaugural meeting. He and his father, a lifelong Liberal but an admirer of Winston Churchill, were the only attendees, so Macleod elected his father Association Chairman and he selected his son as Parliamentary candidate, in due course receiving a letter of endorsement from Churchill. Macleod came bottom of the poll, obtaining 2,756 votes out of 13,000. Macleod's father died at the start of 1947, just at the onset of the exceptionally bitter winter.
With the 50th Division now largely disbanded, its HQ was sent to Norway after the end of hostilities in May 1945 as part of Operation Doomsday, supervising the surrender of German forces and repatriation of Allied prisoners. In Norway, Macleod was in charge of setting prices for the country's stock of wine and spirits, much of which had been looted by the Germans from occupied France. In December 1945, he successfully defended a colonel at a court martial, and was tipped for a career at the Bar by the presiding officer. He was demobilised from the British Army in January 1946.
Entry into politics
In 1946, after an interview with David Clarke, Macleod joined the Conservative Parliamentary Secretariat, writing briefing papers for Conservative MPs on Scotland, Labour (employment, in modern parlance) and Health matters.
Macleod was selected as Conservative candidate for Enfield in 1946. Forty-seven applicants were already being considered; through a bridge connection Macleod arranged a meeting with the Enfield Conservative Association chairman and persuaded him to add his cv to the list. After interviews, he reached the final shortlist of four. Macleod came second after making a poor speech to the assembled Association at the selection meeting, but the winning candidate failed to achieve the required 10% majority. Amid accusations of skulduggery—the members had not been told of this requirement in advance and forty of them, the representatives of two branches, walked out in protest—a second meeting was scheduled, at which Macleod performed much better and won handsomely. Throughout both meetings he had been strongly supported by the local Young Conservatives, who could vote on Association matters despite in some cases being not yet old enough to vote for Parliament – the 15-year-old Norman Tebbit was a branch officer for Ponders End (a working class area).
Enfield had been won by the Conservatives several times in the interwar period, but with a 12,000 Labour majority in 1945 was not regarded as an immediate prospect. In 1948, the Parliamentary boundaries were redrawn, and Macleod was unanimously selected for the new and much more winnable Enfield, West, which he would win in February 1950 and hold comfortably throughout his career.
In 1948, the Secretariat merged with the Conservative Research Department under Rab Butler. Macleod was in joint, then sole, charge of Home Affairs. He drafted the Social Services section of the Conservative policy paper The Right Road for Britain (1949).
Along with Enoch Powell, Angus Maude and Reginald Maudling, Macleod was seen as a protégé of Butler at the CRD. David Clarke thought Macleod the least intellectually gifted of the three but later came to think him the most politically gifted. All four men were elected to Parliament in February 1950, and along with Edward Heath who entered Parliament at the same time they became members of the "One Nation" group. Together with Angus Maude Macleod wrote the pamphlet One Nation in 1950, and together with Enoch Powell he wrote The Social Services: Needs and Means which appeared in January 1952.
Macleod and Powell were close friends at this time. He was astonished when the ascetic Powell became engaged. Powell, a much more industrious man, was somewhat jealous of Macleod's promotion at the Research Department, and had difficulty being selected for a winnable seat, so Macleod coached him in interview technique.
Political career
Minister of Health
In October 1951 Churchill again became Prime Minister. Macleod was not offered office but instead became Chairman of the backbench Health and Social Services Committee.
A brilliant Commons performance made his career. On 27 March 1952, having been called fifth in the debate rather than third as originally scheduled, he spoke after former Health Minister Aneurin Bevan. Beginning his speech with the words "I wish to deal closely and with relish with the vulgar, crude and intemperate speech to which the House of Commons has just listened", he attacked Bevan with facts and figures and commented that a health debate without Bevan would be like "Hamlet without the first gravedigger". Churchill, who had been getting up to leave, stayed to listen and was heard to ask the Chief Whip, Patrick Buchan-Hepburn, who the promising young backbencher was. When summoned to 10 Downing Street on 7 May, he claimed to have been half-expecting a reprimand for his refusal to serve a second term as a British representative at the Council of Europe, a job he found boring, but he was instead appointed Minister of Health, which was not a Cabinet position at that time.
Later in 1952, Macleod announced that British clinician Richard Doll had proved the link between smoking and lung cancer. He did so at a press conference throughout which he chain-smoked.
Macleod became a member of White's Club in 1953, and shocked members by sitting up all night to play cards. His friend Enoch Powell was jealous at Macleod's rapid promotion, but offered Macleod the use of a room at his flat when Eve Macleod was seriously ill with polio.
Macleod consolidated rather than reformed the NHS, administered it well and defended it against Treasury attacks on its budget.
Minister of Labour
In the reshuffle of December 1955, Prime Minister Anthony Eden promoted Macleod to the Cabinet as Minister of Labour and National Service. Eden regarded Macleod, still only 42 years old, as a possible future Prime Minister and thought the job would be valuable experience of dealing with trade unions.
Suez crisis
Macleod was not directly involved in the collusion with France and Israel over the Suez Crisis, but although he was unhappy at the turn of events, he did not resign. He never publicly opposed Suez, either at the time or later. He was party to the two crucial Cabinet decisions: the first was the decision on 21 March for a policy of hostility to Nasser, who was seen as a threat to British interests in the Middle East, and of building new alliances with Jordan and Iraq; this led to the withdrawal of American and British financial aid for the Aswan Dam, which in turn triggered Nasser's nationalisation of the Canal. Macleod was also party to the Cabinet decision on 27 July, the day after nationalisation the Canal, that Nasser's action should be opposed on the grounds that the Canal was an international trust and that Britain, if necessary acting alone, should use force as a last resort. Macleod was not a member of the Egypt Committee, and still less was he party to Eden and Lloyd's secret dealings with the French and the Israelis.
Macleod's duties required him to discuss the Suez Crisis with union leaders. In August 1956, he spoke to Vincent Tewson, General Secretary of the TUC, and found him "very "weak-kneed"" and "ill-informed". On 20 August, Macleod and Eden met Tewson, Beard of the Engineers' Union and Geddes of the Postmen's Union, and agreed that the upcoming TUC Conference would back an equivocal resolution by Geddes.
On 25 August, the day after Monckton's "outburst" expressing doubts at the Egypt Committee, Cabinet Secretary Norman Brook sent a note to Eden listing Macleod as among those Cabinet members (the others being Butler, Monckton, Derrick Heathcoat Amory, the Earls of Selkirk and Kilmuir, as well as Heath who, as Chief Whip, attended Cabinet but was not technically a full member) who would want to postpone military action until all other options had been exhausted or until Nasser provided them with a better pretext, whichever came first. There were three unknowns and ten hawks—a narrow Cabinet majority in favour of military action.
On 11 September, at Cabinet, Eden tasked Macleod with finding out if there would be trouble from the unions in the event of military operations in the Eastern Mediterranean. However, Norman Brook advised Macleod to "hold his hand for the moment, as this was not the appropriate time". It is unclear if this initiative came from Brook or was in response to an inquiry from Macleod himself.
Suez: decision to invade
Macleod missed the thinly-attended Cabinet on 18 October, but afterwards was sent Eden's minute that he'd told the French that every effort must be made to stop Israel attacking Jordan, whilst Eden had told Israel that Britain would not come to Egypt's aid. It is not known whether Macleod knew of the secret Protocol of Sèvres. On 23 October, Eden told the Cabinet that there had been secret talks with Israel in Paris.
The Cabinet further considered the use of force on 24 October. On 25 October, Eden told the Cabinet that Israel would attack Egypt after all, but did not tell them about the secret Sèvres Protocol. Cabinet minutes record that Macleod was doubtful about the use of force (as were Monckton and Heathcoat Amory) because of the lack of clear UN authority and the risk of antagonising the USA. However, they did not formally dissent from the Cabinet decision to invade if Israel attacked Egypt (the Cabinet were deceived about the extent to which such an attack had already been secretly agreed – "collusion" – by Eden and Selwyn Lloyd).
At Cabinet on the morning of 30 October, Lloyd reported that the USA was ready to move a motion at the UN condemning Israel, which had attacked Egypt in the Sinai the previous day, as an aggressor. Macleod and Heathcoat Amory approved of Lloyd's suggestion of postponing the attack by 24 hours (in breach, as it happens, of the secret agreement between Britain, France and Israel) in order to bring the Americans on board, although they thought it unlikely to work, but it was not adopted. Macleod was telling others of his dismay that ministers had not been fully informed of the agreement with France and Israel. Either now or at some subsequent meeting Eden apologised to the Cabinet for his reticence "in time of war", causing Macleod to snap "I was not aware that we were at war, Prime Minister!" The Anglo-French ultimatum was on the afternoon of 30 October.
On 2 November, the Cabinet agreed that even in the event of a ceasefire between Egypt and Israel, Anglo-French forces should still seize the Canal in a policing role until UN forces were able to take up the baton (Macleod and Heathcoat Amory were doubtful). By the weekend of 3–4 November, fighting between Israel and Egypt had largely ceased. At Cabinet on Sunday 4 November, the Cabinet decided to go ahead with the landings (but hand over to peacekeeping duties to the UN at some future date, an option which Macleod (and Heathcoat Amory) argued was hardly compatible with use of force). The other options had been to postpone by 24 hours in the hope that Israel and Egypt might accept an Anglo-French occupation (a view supported by Butler, Kilmuir, Heathcote Amory and an "unnamed minister", presumed to be Macleod), or postpone indefinitely on the grounds that Israeli-Egyptian hostilities had already ceased (the view of Salisbury, Monckton and Buchan-Hepburn). Only Monckton had his dissent recorded, the others agreeing to accept the decision of the majority.
Randolph Churchill alleged that Macleod almost resigned on 4 November. Nigel Fisher wrote that this was not so, but that Macleod would have resigned if Butler had done so. Robert Carr, junior minister at the Ministry of Labour, wrote that Macleod had doubts but was not especially morally outraged, and saw no evidence that he planned to resign. William Rees-Mogg claimed that Butler persuaded Macleod not to resign, while a female friend of Macleod's recorded him turning up at her flat, demanding a drink, and declaring that he would have to resign having learned that Eden had deceived the Cabinet.
Suez alienated academics, journalists and other opinion-formers from the Conservative Party. William Rees-Mogg, then a Conservative candidate in the North-East, made a speech urging that Macleod be party leader. David Astor of The Observer, who on 4 November had attacked Eden for "crookedness" in an editorial, wrote to Macleod on 14 November, urging him as a younger minister to seize the party leadership so that collusion could be pinned on Eden and Lloyd, after Edward Boyle had told him that he was not interested and that Monckton was not up to it. Macleod did not reply but showed the letter to Freddie Bishop, head of the Prime Minister's Private Office, and Cabinet Secretary Norman Brook for their comments; Eden, who was on the verge of a breakdown, did not regard the matter as important. On 20 November 1956 the question of collusion was raised in Cabinet, with Eden and Lloyd (who was in New York at a United Nations meeting) both absent; Shepherd believes that it was probably Macleod who raised it. The Cabinet agreed to stick to Lloyd's formula that Britain had not incited the Israeli attack on Egypt.
1958 bus strike
When Eden stepped down as Prime Minister in January 1957, Lord Kilmuir, formally witnessed by Lord Salisbury, took a straw poll of the Cabinet to determine his successor; despite his closeness to Butler, Macleod, along with the overwhelming majority of his colleagues, backed Harold Macmillan, regarding him as a stronger leader.
Macleod had intended at first to be a reforming Minister of Labour – he attempted, in the teeth of resistance from the TUC, to negotiate a Workers' Charter (a throwback to the Industrial Charter of the late 1940s) in return for a Contract of Service. He also hoped to take a tougher line with strikes than his predecessor Walter Monckton, whose explicit remit had been to appease the unions. The unions were beginning to become more militant, under the leadership of Frank Cousins, boss of the TGWU.
Macleod's tenure saw the 1958 London bus strike. Macleod initially accepted his own chief Industrial Commissioner's Investigation into the busmens' case. Macmillan, backed by the Cabinet, insisted on settling a separate railwaymen's strike, despite an arbitration award against them, as it was felt that they had more public sympathy than the busmen. On the bus issue, Macleod was overruled and forced to pick a fight with Frank Cousins on the pretext that they accept an independent arbitration award.
Macmillan had picked a fight shrewdly, as the busmen had no allies amongst the other unions. Ernest Bevin or Arthur Deakin would not have allowed such a strike, but Cousins felt compelled to support it, and Opposition leader Hugh Gaitskell criticised the government in a speech at Glasgow. Gaitskell moved a motion of censure over Macleod's treatment of the strike. Macleod had recently demanded more debates on industrial relations but in his Commons speech of 8 May now criticised the opposition for demanding one. He moved the house to laugh at Gaitskell by quoting the line of "Mr Marx, of whom I am a devoted follower – Groucho, not Karl" "Sir, I never forget a face, but I will make an exception for yours". He then moved on to a blistering attack on Gaitskell, including the declaration that "I cannot conceal the scorn and contempt for the part that the Leader of the Opposition has played in this." He was discreetly congratulated afterwards by the Labour frontbencher Alf Robens. Roy Jenkins in 1993 described his attack on Gaitskell as "high order jugular debating", accusing Gaitskell of weak leadership in appeasing the militants of his own party and attacking him for refusing to endorse the findings of the arbitration tribunal.
Cousins wanted to call out the petrol tanker drivers, in breach of another agreement, but was blocked from doing so by the TUC. The strike ended after seven weeks, and Macmillan dated the government's recovery in the polls from this point. Macleod had acquired a national reputation as a tough figure.
Macleod was on the Steering Committee to decide on political strategy in the runup to the 1959 election, at which the Macmillan government was re-elected.
Colonial Secretary
Macleod was appointed Secretary of State for the Colonies in October 1959. He had never set foot in any of Britain's colonies, but the Hola massacre in Kenya had helped focus his thinking on the inevitable end of Empire. He told Peter Goldman of the Conservative Research Department that he intended to be the last Colonial Secretary, although he later wrote that he "telescoped events rather than creating new ones". He saw Nigeria, British Somaliland, Tanganyika, Sierra Leone, Kuwait and British Cameroon become independent. He made a tour of Sub-Saharan Africa in 1960. He would often find himself in conflict with the more conservative Duncan Sandys, whom Macmillan had appointed Commonwealth Secretary as a counterweight to Macleod. Although Macmillan sympathised with Macleod's aspirations, he was sometimes disturbed at the speed with which he progressed matters, and did not always come down on his side in political disputes.
The state of emergency in Kenya was lifted on 12 January 1960, followed that same month by the Lancaster House Conference, containing Africans and some European delegates, including Macleod's brother Rhoderick, which agreed to a constitution and eventual black majority rule. Jomo Kenyatta was freed in August 1961, and Kenya later became self-governing in June 1963 and fully independent on 12 December 1963.
As the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Macleod attended the Ugandan Constitutional Conference at Lancaster House in 1961 alongside then-Governor of Uganda Sir Frederick Crawford and Ugandan politician A.G. Mehta. The conference resulted in the first Ugandan Constitution, which took effect on 9 October 1962.
In Nyasaland (later Malawi), he pushed for the release of Hastings Banda, contrary to the advice of the Governor and of other politicians. He had to threaten resignation in the Cabinet to get his own way, but won Macmillan round and Banda was released in April 1960 and almost immediately invited to London for talks aimed at bringing about independence. During a visit to Nyasaland in 1960, he is described as having been "gratuitously and grossly offensive, extremely rude and downright unpleasant at a meeting with the Governor, the provincial commissioners and senior police officers". On the following day, according to the same report, he "lost control of himself, shouted at the non-official members of Executive Council and told one of them to 'mind his own bloody business'". Elections were held in August 1961, and by 1962, the British and the Central African Federation cabinets had agreed that Nyasaland should be allowed to secede from the CAF; Banda was formally recognised as Prime Minister on 1 February 1963.
Macleod described his policy over Northern Rhodesia (modern Zambia) as "incredibly devious and tortuous" but "easily the one I am most proud of". Macleod's initial plan for a Legislative Council with an African majority (16 African members to 14 Europeans) was strongly opposed by Sir Roy Welensky, Prime Minister of the Central African Federation. After a long battle in the first half of 1961, and under pressure from cabinet colleagues, Macleod accepted Welensky's proposal for a council of 45 members, 15 of whom would be elected by a largely African electoral roll, 15 by a largely European roll, 14 by both rolls jointly (with a further stipulation that successful candidates had to gain at least 10% of the African votes and 10% of the European ones) and 1 by Asians. Macleod's role in these negotiations attracted damaging and much-remembered criticism of Macleod by the party grandee, the Marquess of Salisbury, who had resigned from a senior position in the Cabinet over Cyprus in 1957. In a speech in the House of Lords on 7 March 1961, Salisbury denounced Macleod as "too clever by half" and accused him of bridge-table trickery. The new constitution, which was equally disliked by both Africans and Europeans, helped to weaken the Central African Federation, which was later wound up by Rab Butler at the Victoria Falls Conference on 5 July 1963.
The burden of hospitality left Macleod seriously out of pocket. However, hospitality helped achieve a deal with Julius Nyerere, Prime Minister of self-governing Tanganyika. Macleod was keen to point to a colony which was able to proceed peacefully to independence. Tanzania, as it was renamed, became fully independent in December 1961.
Macleod had no time to take any interest in the Pacific, South Arabia, or the Mediterranean. He never met the Maltese leader Dom Mintoff. He described his lack of interest in the Caribbean Federation as "my main area of failure". In his final party conference speech as Colonial Secretary, in October 1961, he declared that "I believe quite simply in the brotherhood of man – men of all races, of all colours, of all creeds".
Welensky accused Macleod of a "mixture of cold calculation, sudden gushes of undignified emotion and ignorance of Africa". Historian Wm. Roger Louis wrote that "Macleod was to Africa as Mountbatten had been to India". Vernon Bogdanor has called him the greatest of Britain's colonial secretaries apart from Joseph Chamberlain.
During his period as Colonial Secretary, Macleod ordered the systematic destruction of colonial papers and evidence detailing criminal acts committed during the 1940s and 1950s, for fear that they would fall into the hands of post-independence governments. This was done partly to avoid potential embarrassment to Britain, and partly to protect natives who had cooperated with the British. Many documents related to the brutal suppression of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya.
Books
In 1961, Macleod published a sympathetic biography of former Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, whose reputation then stood at a very low ebb because of recent memories of the Munich Agreement. The book was largely ghostwritten by Peter Goldman, whose own promising political career would be aborted when he lost the Orpington by-election the following year. Macleod was most interested in social policy and had most input into the parts up to 1931, including Chamberlain's time as Lord Mayor of Birmingham and as Minister of Health. It had been intended as a potboiler to earn money for his daughter's social season, and Macleod had been reluctant to read seven boxes of papers from Chamberlain's sister Hilda (Chamberlain's letters to whom are an important primary source); it added little to the portrait painted by his official biographer Keith Feiling.
Macleod used government papers in breach of the "Fifty-year rule" then in operation. Cabinet Secretary Sir Norman Brook persuaded the Prime Minister to demand amendments to conceal the degree of Cabinet involvement in the abdication of King Edward VIII (who was still alive in 1961) and the degree to which the civil servants Horace Wilson and Warren Fisher had demanded that the former King "reorder his private life" afterwards. Former Prime Minister Lord Avon, who cherished his (somewhat exaggerated) reputation as an opponent of "appeasement", complained that such a book by a serving Cabinet Minister might be thought to express official sympathy for Chamberlain's policies. Downing Street had to brief the press that Macleod had written purely in a personal capacity; Shepherd suggests that Macleod's loss of favour with Macmillan, who had also been an opponent of appeasement, was accelerated by this episode. Robert Blake wrote in his review in The Times (26 November 1961) that "when national security is at stake one does not judge a statesman by his successes at slum clearance". Macleod later told Alan Watkins (in "Brief Lives" 1982) "It was a bad book. I made a great mistake in writing it. It made me no money, and it has done me a lot of harm". Watkins conceded that the book "had been grudgingly and meanly reviewed". The book "sold poorly and was soon forgotten".
Macleod contracted to write a second book (due for September 1962, but postponed), called The Last Rung, on leading politicians who had failed to achieve prime ministerial office despite being widely expected to do so. He completed chapters on Austen Chamberlain, Lord Curzon and Lord Halifax, and planned to write a chapter about Rab Butler.
Leader of the House and Party Chairman, 1961–63
In October 1961, to appease Conservative right-wingers and dampen down an area of political controversy, Macmillan replaced Macleod as Colonial Secretary with Reginald Maudling, a much more emollient figure. Macleod replaced his old mentor Rab Butler as Leader of the House of Commons and Chairman of the Conservative Party organisation. There was something of a conflict of interest between these two jobs as the former, which Butler would have liked to retain, required its incumbent to retain good professional relations with the Labour Party so as to keep the Parliamentary timetable running smoothly, whereas the latter required him to play a leading role in partisan campaigning. In order that he could have a salary he was also given the sinecure post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a less prestigious office than the other sinecures of Lord Privy Seal or Lord President of the Council.
Macleod's party chairmanship coincided with Selwyn Lloyd's tight economic policies, and poor by-election results, most notably Orpington in March 1962. He impressed on Macmillan the need for a major reshuffle in 1962, and recommended the dismissal of Selwyn Lloyd from the Exchequer although he did not have in mind anything as drastic as the "Night of the Long Knives" in which Macmillan sacked a third of his Cabinet. With the political scandals of 1962–63 (Vassall, Profumo) the Conservatives sank ever lower in the opinion polls.
Conservative leadership contest, 1963
Harold Macmillan resigned as Prime Minister in October 1963. Despite Macleod's ability, as a result of his difficult term as Party Chairman, and memories of his time as Colonial Secretary, he was not a realistic candidate for the succession.
Macleod believed that the Earl of Home (later Sir Alec Douglas-Home after he had disclaimed his peerage) had behaved with less than complete honesty. He had initially appeared to rule himself out and had offered to help sample Cabinet opinion, before announcing his own candidacy. Macleod did not initially take Home's candidacy seriously, and did not realise the degree to which Macmillan was promoting it. When first told by his PPS Reginald Bennett that Home might be a candidate for the succession, Macleod snapped "Don't talk nonsense" and "absolute rot; it's not a possibility." Macleod gave his usual excellent conference speech at Blackpool on 11 October, unlike Maudling and Butler, who damaged their leadership chances by giving poor speeches, but Home's leadership bandwagon grew despite a mediocre but rapturously received speech.
When the results of the "customary processes" became known on 17 October (the "key day" as Macleod later called it), Macleod was, along with Enoch Powell, Lord Hailsham and Reginald Maudling, angered at the supposed choice of Home. Macleod thought the new Prime Minister should be a "moderniser", with views on the liberal wing of the party, and in the House of Commons. They attempted in vain to persuade Butler, Macmillan's deputy (who Macleod had assumed would succeed him) not to serve in any Home cabinet, in the hope that this would prevent Home from forming a government. Macleod and Powell eventually refused to serve under Home as Prime Minister. He wrote of Enoch Powell's decision not to serve "One does not expect to have many people with one in the last ditch".
Lord Dilhorne, who had polled the Cabinet for their preferences, had listed Macleod as "voting" for Home. Some have seen this as a mistake, others as evidence that the consultation process was heavily rigged (i.e. that anybody who expressed the slightest willingness to serve under Home as a compromise if necessary was listed as "supporting" him). Macmillan's official biographer Alistair Horne believed that Macleod's description of 17 October as "the key day" is evidence that he "changed his mind", having not previously had a particularly firm opinion. Macmillan's view was "well, you know … Macleod was a Highlander!" Others (e.g. Macmillan's biographer D. R. Thorpe) have suggested that Macleod actually did express a tactical preference for Home, in the hope of bringing about a deadlock in which he would enjoy bargaining power, or perhaps even become Prime Minister himself, and that his subsequent anger was a result of guilt that he had helped to bring about a Home "victory".
Butler himself observed that "Macleod was very shifty, much more so than you think". Nigel Lawson, later to succeed Macleod as editor of The Spectator, believed Macleod was "too clever by three quarters". "His petulant refusal to serve under Home and the extended explanation he gave for it both deprived the government of its most effective political street fighter and undermined the new prime minister's legitimacy" (The Daily Telegraph, 3 October 2004). However, Lord Aldington, David Eccles, Sir Michael Fraser and Eve Macleod all rejected this interpretation of Macleod's actions. Ian Gilmour argues that Macleod's subsequent refusal to serve under Home makes it "inconceivable" that he had voted for him.
Macleod's daughter Diana nearly died from appendicitis in October 1963, and it has been suggested that this may have affected his judgement. Nigel Fisher believed that Macleod had "some inner sourness" in 1963, attributable only in part to his daughter's serious illness, and largely to the fact that he himself was not being considered as a candidate. Roy Jenkins concurs.
Had he become Prime Minister, Butler had planned to make Macleod Chancellor of the Exchequer and had discussed the names of economists who could be asked to advise. Butler later wrote "I cannot help thinking that a man who always held all the bridge scores in his head, who seemed to know all the numbers, and played Vingt-et-un so successfully would have been useful".
The Spectator
Ian Gilmour appointed him editor of The Spectator. He wrote his own weekly column under the pseudonym of "Quoodle" and also sometimes wrote signed articles complaining about what the ODNB describes as his "pet hates" such as Harold Wilson or the BBC. He tolerated a range of political opinions amongst his journalists, including Alan Watkins.
On 17 January 1964 Macleod published a candid account of the 1963 party leadership contest, claiming that it was a conspiracy by an Etonian "magic circle". Macleod's article was written as a review of a book by Randolph Churchill, which he described as "Mr Macmillan's trailer for the screenplay of his memoirs". In his posthumously published book The Art of Memory (April 1982) Butler wrote that "every word" of the "Spectator" article "is true". Ian Gilmour also suggests that Dilhorne's refusal to speak out against Macleod in January 1964, when Macleod's credibility was at a low ebb, is strong evidence that Dilhorne knew his figures to be suspect.
Macmillan's biographer D. R. Thorpe does not accept Macleod's analysis, arguing that Home was well ahead of Butler in Cabinet preferences if Dilhorne's official figures are to be believed (although he accepts that Edward Boyle's preference was misrecorded as being for Home rather than Butler), and also criticises Macleod for only taking the preferences of the Cabinet into account, not those of junior ministers and backbenchers who were also polled.
After the Spectator article Macleod was censured by 15 votes to 14 (with 7 abstentions) by his local Conservative Association Executive Committee, but survived a No Confidence vote by 29 votes to 7. Peregrine Worsthorne attacked him as a social climber who had done his best to climb into the class at which he now sneered (e.g. by becoming a member of White's Club), but his biographer comments that a Conservative politician of that era had little option but to play the game by those social rules, and that Macleod had regarded himself as "commander class" since his time at Staff College during the war. Colleagues "cut" Macleod in the House of Commons after the article and the affair permanently damaged his chances of becoming leader. Macmillan later advised Home, if asked why the Conservatives could not find a Prime Minister in the Commons and had had to appoint a Lord, to retort that "The Spectator" could not find an editor from amongst the journalists' profession and had instead had to appoint Iain Macleod.
On the twentieth anniversary of D-Day Macleod wrote a Spectator article about his experiences (5 June 1964).
Macleod also became a non-executive director of Lombards Bank, which allowed him a chauffeur-driven car, which he needed as his spinal disability—he was increasingly unable to move his back or neck—meant that he was no longer able to drive. Roy Jenkins recalled him arriving at Parliament and stepping out of his large car "like a discontented gnome" stepping out a "golden coach".
Shadow Chancellor
Macleod returned to the shadow cabinet under Home after the 1964 election. His remit of opposing steel nationalisation came to naught as given his tiny majority Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson did not proceed with this measure. Macleod's speech opposing steel nationalisation had been trailed as his comeback to frontline politics, but in the event was a damp squib. Nigel Fisher wrote that it was the only really bad speech of his career. Macleod did not contest the first ever Conservative Party leadership election in 1965, but backed Edward Heath, whom he did not particularly like but thought would be a better leader than Maudling. He expected to have received 40–45 votes had he stood.
The coinage of the word "stagflation" is attributed to him. Speaking in the House of Commons on 17 November 1965, he said: "We now have the worst of both worlds — not just inflation on the one side or stagnation on the other, but both of them together. We have a sort of 'stagflation' situation. And history, in modern terms, is indeed being made."
Macleod opposed the death penalty and supported legalisation of abortion and homosexuality; this did not help his acceptance by the more right-wing elements of his own party at the time. Macleod established good personal relations with several of his Labour opposite numbers, including both Bevan and James Callaghan, even though he clashed with Callaghan numerous times at the despatch box while serving as Shadow Chancellor in the 1960s (by contrast, he did not get on with Callaghan's successor as Chancellor, Roy Jenkins, considering him vain and arrogant).
As Shadow Chancellor he concentrated on tax reform. Jenkins, Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time, wrote that he was never intimidated by him, and that Macleod concentrated on opposition rather than constructive proposals. Macleod planned to abolish Selective Employment Tax and to cut personal income tax, but not to increase indirect taxes, trusting that economic growth would make up the shortfall in revenue. He proposed a national lottery then opposed Jenkins when he proposed one; on another occasion he required Conservative MPs, to the irritation of some of them, to walk out of a select committee meeting in protest. Jenkins later recorded that Macleod was not "an amiable "shadow" ... no doubt he was in pain ... Perhaps he also had a premonition that time was running out for him."
As Shadow Chancellor in 1967 Iain Macleod helped to found the homeless charity Crisis. In 1968 Macleod defied a decision of the Shadow Cabinet by voting against the Labour Government's Commonwealth Immigration Bill, believing it to be a breach of promises made by the Conservative Government to the Kenyan Asians. He fell out with his former friend Enoch Powell over the latter's 1968 Rivers of Blood speech, after which Macleod refused to speak to Powell again. Macleod's subsequent dealings with him were, Powell said, as if he was a pariah though Macleod 'knew what I said was not motivated by what is crudely called racialism, but he behaved as if he did not know'. Powell's speech generated huge public support and Macleod was horrified at the open racism of many of the members of the public who wrote to him on the topic, likening them to the disgusting creatures which are revealed when one overturns a stone.
During this period Macleod was noted for his attacks on Wilson. He used to refer to Wilson as "the little man" even though Wilson was actually slightly taller than him. Some of Wilson's entourage used to refer to Macleod as "the poison dwarf" but Wilson had, in the words of Macleod's biographer, a "wary respect" for him. In the late 1960s he attacked Wilson in a public speech for accusing the Conservatives of being unpatriotic. He called Wilson "a man whose vision is limited to tomorrow's headline" and, in an oft-quoted line, that whereas President Kennedy had called himself "an idealist without illusions" Wilson was "an illusionist without ideals".
On 14 May 1970, in the House of Commons just before the General Election, when Wilson claimed that Conservative transport policies might result in an increase in children's road deaths (Labour had recently introduced the Breathalyzer), he attacked him for trying to make political capital from such a topic, and was rebuked by the Speaker for shouting abuse (the exact words are not recorded in Hansard, according to another MP he shouted "swine!") at Wilson across the despatch box.
Chancellor of the Exchequer
On 20 June 1970, two days after the Conservative Party's unexpected election victory, Macleod was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer by the new Prime Minister, Heath. Despite being in pain, he made his one and only major speech on the economy as chancellor on 7 July 1970. In the speech Macleod bemoaned the high level of inflation and, at the same time, the highest level of unemployment since 1940. Later that day he was rushed to hospital with what was thought at first to be appendicitis, but was in fact a pelvic diverticulum. He was discharged 11 days later; yet at 10.30 pm on 20 July, while in 11 Downing Street, he suffered a massive heart attack and died at 11.35 pm.
There seems little doubt that Macleod's wartime injury had combined with his smoking and overwork to shorten his life. Newspaper boss Cecil King (writing in The Cecil King Diary 1970–1974) insisted that Macleod had been stricken during the 1960s by terminal cancer which had begun to affect his spine. However, Macleod's own doctor, a Dr Forster, said there was no evidence that Macleod was suffering from cancer at the time of his death. At the subsequent by-election, Macleod was succeeded by Cecil Parkinson.
Macleod relied on Peter Walker for advice; Walker described him as not "at ease on economics". He planned to hold down nationalised industry prices in an attempt to control inflation. Macleod bequeathed his successors a detailed plan for tax reform, much of which was put into action. He also left behind him an outline budget which some observers found surprisingly hard-line in its proposals for control of public spending. This included the proposal to abolish free school milk in primary schools, which new Education Secretary and future Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher was able to partially reverse, reaching the compromise of only applying the cut to older primary school children; even so, she would come to be known as "Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher".
His death was a blow to the Heath government. Robert Carr described him as "our trumpeter … any government needs a great trumpeter." Edmund Dell wrote: "His death was a tragedy for the Conservative Party and possibly for the country. He was a man of considerable intellectual brilliance and one of the finest debaters in the House of Commons. He was the first professional gambler to become Chancellor…" His successor Anthony Barber was much less of a political heavyweight and Heath was able to dictate economic policy.
His opponent, Roy Jenkins, believed that he would not have been a great chancellor – with youthful memories of the unemployment of the 1930s and adult experience of the lower levels of the postwar era Macleod thought unemployment higher than 300,000 was too high, and so would have had trouble adjusting to the new economic realities of the 1970s – but still would have been a better chancellor than Barber. He was already ill and old for his years, so would probably not have succeeded Heath as party leader, but might have prevented Thatcher from doing so.
Oratory, personality and political views
Many Conservative politicians of generations following Macleod recalled him as a highly effective speaker. His bald head and piercing gaze gave him a striking physical presence, and he was one of the most powerful platform speakers of his generation, in the league of Churchill or Aneurin Bevan. He was also a superb negotiator with a grasp of detail. Never one to suffer fools, by middle age his disability made him very short-tempered and impatient with people.
His political opponent Roy Jenkins later wrote that Macleod seemed to prefer to focus his attacks on more moderate Labour figures who might dispute the ownership of the centre ground with him. He wrote that Macleod had "some quality of self-destructiveness in him". He wrote that there was a "calculated coldness" about his partisan attacks. Jenkins wrote that Macleod had "a darting crossword-puzzle mind fortified by a phenomenal memory" adding that "I am not convinced that he was a particularly nice man, but he had insight and insolence". Jenkins likens him to Benjamin Disraeli or to George Canning, who by attracting the admiration of a clique of younger men left a legend out of all proportion to their actual achievements.
He commented about Labour parliamentarians under Hugh Gaitskell (opposition leader 1955–63) that, when offered their choice of weapons, they invariably chose boomerangs. It is said that Macleod was the only Conservative debater whom Harold Wilson, Gaitskell's successor as Labour leader, was afraid of. Wilson declared "they'll never have the sense to choose him [as leader]." He compared Wilson to a kipper, which has two faces. John Major specifically cited Macleod's example on taking office.
Macleod believed that his political views were a mixture of those of his Liberal father and Conservative mother. He almost always called himself a "Tory" rather than a "Conservative". He believed in equality of opportunity rather than of outcome, and wrote that his ideal was "to see that men had an equal chance to make themselves unequal".
He is credited with inventing the term "the nanny state".
Family
Macleod met Evelyn Hester Mason, née Blois, (1915–1999) in September 1939 whilst he was waiting to be called up for army service and she interviewed him for a job as an ambulance driver. After her first husband was killed in the war, they married on 25 January 1941. The Macleods had a son and a daughter, Torquil and Diana, who were born in 1942 and 1944 respectively. They had a somewhat stormy marriage in which they retained a strong bond despite Macleod conducting a number of what his biographer describes as "romances" with other women (he quotes love letters written by Macleod but does not specifically say they went as far as sexual affairs). As was common for MPs' wives of the era, Eve looked after constituency matters whilst her husband concentrated on his career at Westminster.
Evelyn Macleod was struck down in June 1952 with meningitis and polio, but subsequently managed to walk again with the aid of sticks and worked hard to support her husband's career. After her husband's death she accepted a peerage in 1971 and took her seat in the House of Lords as Baroness Macleod of Borve. Macleod's daughter Diana Heimann was a UK Independence Party candidate at Banbury in the 2005 general election.
Macleod is buried in the churchyard of Gargrave Church in North Yorkshire, near his mother who had died seven weeks earlier.
His estate was valued for probate at £18,201 (around £250,000 at 2016 prices).
References
Sources
The Macleods – The Genealogy of a Clan, Section Four by Alick Morrison, M.A., by Associated Clan Macleod Societies, Edinburgh, 1974
The MacLeods – The Genealogy of a Clan, Section Four by The Late Major Loudoun Hector Davenport MacLeod, RM, 1988
Grigg Lloyd George: War Leader (Allen Lane, London, 2002)
, essay on Macleod written by David Goldsworthy.
External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945
"The tragic loss of Iain Macleod", Douglas Hurd, Total Politics, 21 February 2013
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1913 births
1970 deaths
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
Anglo-Scots
British Army personnel of World War II
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Military personnel from Yorkshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theda%20Bara
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Theda Bara
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Theda Bara ( ; born Theodosia Burr Goodman; July 29, 1885 – April 7, 1955) was an American silent film and stage actress.
Bara was one of the more popular actresses of the silent era and one of cinema's early sex symbols. Her femme fatale roles earned her the nickname "The Vamp" (short for vampire, here meaning a seductive woman), later fueling the rising popularity in "vamp" roles based in exoticism and sexual domination. The studios promoted a fictitious persona for Bara as an Egyptian-born woman interested in the occult. Bara made more than 40 films between 1914 and 1926, but most are now lost, having perished in the 1937 Fox vault fire. After her marriage to Charles Brabin in 1921, she made two more feature films and then retired from acting in 1926; she never appeared in a sound film.
Early life
Bara was born Theodosia Burr Goodman on July 29, 1885 in the Avondale section of Cincinnati, Ohio. She was named after the daughter of US Vice President Aaron Burr. Her father was Bernard Goodman (1853–1936), a prosperous Jewish tailor from Poland. Her mother, Pauline Louise Françoise ( de Coppett; 1861–1957), was born in Switzerland. Bernard and Pauline married in 1882. Theda had two younger siblings: Marque (1888–1954) and Esther (1897–1965), who also became a film actress, under the screen name, Lori Bara.
Bara attended Walnut Hills High School, graduating in 1903. After attending the University of Cincinnati for two years, she worked mainly in local theater productions, but did explore other projects. After moving to New York City in 1908, she made her Broadway debut the same year in The Devil.
Career
Most of Bara's early films were shot along the East Coast, where the film industry was centered at that time, primarily at Fox Studios in Fort Lee, New Jersey.
Bara lived with her family in New York City during this time. The rise of Hollywood as the center of the American film industry forced her to relocate to Los Angeles to film the epic Cleopatra (1917), which became one of her biggest hits. No prints of Cleopatra are known to exist today, but numerous photographs of Bara in costume as the Queen of the Nile have survived.
Bara was the Fox studio's biggest star between 1915 and 1919, but tired of being typecast as a vamp, she allowed her five-year contract with the company to expire. Her final Fox film was The Lure of Ambition (1919). In 1920, she turned briefly to the stage, appearing on Broadway in The Blue Flame. Bara's fame drew large crowds to the theater, but her acting was savaged by critics.
Her career suffered without Fox Studios' support, and she did not make another film until The Unchastened Woman (1925) for Chadwick Pictures. She retired after making only one more film, the short comedy Madame Mystery (1926), directed by Stan Laurel for Hal Roach; in this, Bara parodied her vamp image.
At the height of her fame, Bara earned $4,000 per week (the equivalent of over $56,000 per week in 2017 adjusted dollars). Her better-known roles were as the "vamp", although she attempted to avoid typecasting by playing wholesome heroines in films such as Under Two Flags and Her Double Life. She appeared as Juliet in a version of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Although Bara took her craft seriously, she was too successful as an exotic "wanton woman" to develop a more versatile career.
Image and name
The origin of Bara's stage name is disputed. The Guinness Book of Movie Facts and Feats says it came from director Frank Powell, who learned Theda had a relative named Baranger, and that Theda was a childhood nickname. In promoting the 1917 film Cleopatra, Fox Studio publicists noted that the name was an anagram of Arab death, and her press agents, to enhance her exotic appeal to moviegoers, falsely promoted the young Ohio native as "the daughter of an Arab sheik and a French woman, born in the Sahara". In 1917, the Goodman family legally changed its surname to Bara.
Persona
Bara was known for wearing very revealing costumes in her films. Such outfits were banned from Hollywood films after the Production Code (a.k.a. the Hays Code) started in 1930 under Will H. Hays and then rigorously enforced beginning in mid-1934 by Joseph Breen. It was popular at that time to promote an actress as mysterious, with an exotic background. The studios promoted Bara with a massive publicity campaign, billing her as the Egyptian-born daughter of a French actress and an Italian sculptor. They claimed she had spent her early years in the Sahara desert under the shadow of the Sphinx, then moved to France to become a stage actress. (In fact, Bara never had been to Egypt, and her time in France amounted to just a few months.)
A 2016 book by Joan Craig and Beverly F. Stout chronicles many personal, first-hand accounts of the lives of Bara and her husband Charles Brabin.
Marriage and retirement
Bara married British-born American film director Charles Brabin in 1921. They honeymooned at The Pines Hotel in Digby, Nova Scotia, Canada, and later purchased a property down the coast from Digby at Harbourville, Nova Scotia, overlooking the Bay of Fundy, eventually building a summer home they called Baranook. They had no children. Bara resided in a villa-style home in Cincinnati, which served as the "honors villa" at Xavier University. Demolition of the home began in July 2011.
In 1936, she appeared on Lux Radio Theatre during a broadcast version of The Thin Man with William Powell and Myrna Loy. She did not appear in the play but instead announced her plans to make a movie comeback, which never materialized. She appeared on radio again in 1939 as a guest on Texaco Star Theatre.
In 1949, producer Buddy DeSylva and Columbia Pictures expressed interest in making a movie of Bara's life, to star Betty Hutton, but the project never materialized.
Death
On April 7, 1955, after a lengthy stay at California Lutheran Hospital in Los Angeles, Bara died of stomach cancer. She was survived by her husband, her mother, and her younger sister, Lori. She was interred as Theda Bara Brabin at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.
Legacy
Bara often is cited as the first sex symbol of the film era.
For her contributions to the film industry, Bara received a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960. Her star is located at 6307 Hollywood Boulevard.
Bara never appeared in a sound film, lost or otherwise. A 1937 fire at
Fox's nitrate film storage vaults in New Jersey destroyed most of that studio's silent films. Bara made more than 40 films between 1914 and 1926, but complete prints of only six still exist: The Stain (1914), A Fool There Was (1915), East Lynne (1916), The Unchastened Woman (1925), and two short comedies for Hal Roach.
In addition to these, a few of her films remain in fragments, including Cleopatra (just a few seconds of footage), a clip thought to be from The Soul of Buddha, and a few other unidentified clips featured in the documentary Theda Bara et William Fox (2001). Most of the clips can be seen in the documentary The Woman with the Hungry Eyes (2006). As to vamping, critics stated that her portrayal of calculating, cold-hearted women was morally instructive to men. Bara responded by saying "I will continue doing vampires as long as people sin." Additional footage has been found which shows her behind the scenes on a picture. While the hairstyle has led some to theorize that this may be from The Lure of Ambition, this has not been confirmed. Small fragments from Salome were discovered in 2021 by an intern at Filmoteca Española.
In 1994, she was honored with her image on a U.S. postage stamp designed by caricaturist Al Hirschfeld. The Fort Lee Film Commission dedicated Main Street and Linwood Avenue in Fort Lee, New Jersey, as "Theda Bara Way" in May 2006 to honor Bara, who made many of her films at the Fox Studio on Linwood and Main.
Over a period of several years, filmmaker and film historian Phillip Dye reconstructed Cleopatra on video. Titled Lost Cleopatra, the full-length feature was created by editing together production-still picture montages combined with the surviving film clip. The script was based on the original scenario, with modifications derived from research into censorship reports, reviews of the film, and synopses from period magazines. Dye screened the film at the Hollywood Heritage Museum on February 8, 2017.
Filmography
Cultural references
Bara is referenced in the 1921 Bert Kalmar/Harry Ruby song "Rebecca Came Back from Mecca" as well as their 1922 "Sheik From Avenue B," sung by Fanny Brice.
Bara was one of three actresses (Pola Negri and Mae Murray were the others) whose eyes were combined to form the Chicago International Film Festival's logo, a stark, black and white close up of the composite eyes set as repeated frames in a strip of film.
The International Times logo is a black-and-white image of Theda Bara. The founders' intention had been to use an image of actress Clara Bow, 1920s "It girl", but a picture of Theda Bara was used by accident, and once deployed, not changed.
In June 1996, two biographies of Bara were released: Ron Genini's Theda Bara: A Biography (McFarland) and Eve Golden's Vamp (Emprise). In October 2005 TimeLine Films of Culver City premiered the film biography Theda Bara: The Woman with the Hungry Eyes.
Bara has been the subject of several works of fiction, including In Theda Bara's Tent by Diana Altman, The Director's Cut: A Theda Bara Mystery by Christopher DiGrazia, and the play Theda Bara and the Frontier Rabbi by Bob Johnston.
Bara appears as a character in the books Vampyres of Hollywood and Love Bites by Adrienne Barbeau, and in Coldheart Canyon: A Hollywood Ghost Story by Clive Barker.
In season 2, episode 1 of The Lucy Show, Vivian Bagley and Lucy argue over who should play Cleopatra in an upcoming play; Lucy states "I've seen the movie twelve times!" and Vivian quips "She means the one with Theda Bara".
A photo of Bara as Cleopatra is the album artwork for The Lumineers record Cleopatra released in 2016.
In May 2016, a memoir titled Theda Bara, My Mentor, Under the Wings of Hollywood's First Femme Fatale, by Joan Craig with Beverly Stout, was released. Young Joan, in the companionship of Bara during the 1940s and 1950s, includes tales of Bara's husband, Charles Brabin, friends Marion Davies, Clark Gable, Victor Fleming, and other stars of the past.
In season 2, episode 7 of the television series Downton Abbey, butler Carson describes the newly designed bathrooms at a nearby estate as "like something out of a film with Theda Bara".
In the book Queen of the Flowers, a Phryne Fisher mystery by Kerry Greenwood, a reference is made to "a reply straight from the last Theda Bara movie" (Constable Publishers, London, p.236).
Theda Withel, a main character in Moving Pictures by Terry Pratchett, is reference to and is loosely based on Theda Bara.
Notes
References
Further reading
Shakespeare on Silent Film: An Excellent Dumb Discourse by Judith Buchanan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Chapter 6. .
Famous Juliets by Jerome Hart, in Motion Picture Classic, March 1923.
A Million and One Nights by Terry Ramsaye. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1926.
External links
Excerpt from Golden's biography Vamp
Biography at monash.edu.au
Theda Bara photo gallery NY Public Library Billy Rose collection
"Theda Bara", entry in Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia
The 1917 review of Tiger Woman starring Theda Bara from The Atlanta Georgian
The Ex-Vampire by Theda Bara Vanity Fair Magazine, October, 1919
1885 births
1955 deaths
20th-century American actresses
20th Century Fox contract players
Actresses from Cincinnati
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Swiss descent
American radio actresses
American silent film actresses
American stage actresses
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from stomach cancer
University of Cincinnati alumni
Jewish American actresses
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20defunct%20and%20relocated%20National%20Hockey%20League%20teams
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List of defunct and relocated National Hockey League teams
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The National Hockey League (NHL) is a professional men's ice hockey league, founded in 1917. The NHL Board of Governors review and approve the relocation of any member club. Each team appoints an individual or individuals to represent their team on the Board of Governors. A majority vote is needed for relocation of a club. Clubs are considered permanently relocated when moved out of their respective home territories, which includes the city that they were located in, plus 50 miles from the city's corporate limits.
Under the constitution of the NHL, membership is on a partnership basis, each partner holding a franchise from the League for the operation of a hockey club in its designated city. The franchise can out-live teams located in different cities. For example, the Kansas City Scouts, Colorado Rockies, and New Jersey Devils are one franchise. A franchise's history includes the records of competition won in different cities, as differently-named teams. Naming and team logos and designs are registered with the league. Two current teams use the names of previous franchises – the Ottawa Senators and Winnipeg Jets. These franchises do not include the history of the previous franchises, but have used the original franchises' logos and jersey designs. The league considers the history of the current Ottawa Senators to not include the original Senators; the Jets' franchise history includes the Atlanta Thrashers' history, not the first Winnipeg Jets (now the Arizona Coyotes).
There are 19 defunct and relocated NHL teams. The Montreal Wanderers, original Ottawa Senators, and the Quebec Bulldogs had played in the NHA before joining the NHL; Quebec City joined the NHL two years later as the Athletics. The Pittsburgh Pirates played in the U.S. Amateur Hockey Association as the Pittsburgh Yellow Jackets before joining the NHL in 1925. The first NHL team to disband was the Montreal Wanderers, citing the lack of available players due to World War I. The first team to relocate was the Athletics, who relocated to Hamilton, Ontario, to become the Hamilton Tigers. The NHL president at the time, Frank Calder, stripped the franchise from owner Mike Quinn and sold it to a Hamilton-based company. Three franchises became defunct due to the Great Depression: the Philadelphia Quakers, the St. Louis Eagles, and the Montreal Maroons. During their time in the NHL, the Senators and Maroons both won the Stanley Cup championship multiple times, with four and two respectively. The Brooklyn Americans was the last team to become defunct in the NHL. The franchise was struggling financially and, due to the lack of players because of World War II, was suspended prior to the . The franchise formally ceased in 1946. The Americans' departure reduced the number of teams to six. This began what became known as the Original Six era of the NHL.
The Original Six era ended when the NHL expanded twofold in 1967. Two teams from the expansion—the California Golden Seals and the Minnesota North Stars—relocated to other cities. The Golden Seals moved to Cleveland after nine seasons in the San Francisco Bay Area to become the Cleveland Barons; this was the first time in four decades the NHL approved a franchise relocation. Two years later, after failed overtures towards merging with the Washington Capitals and the Vancouver Canucks, the Barons merged with the North Stars. The Barons are the only NHL team to merge operations with another one. The North Stars relocated to Dallas in 1993 to become the Stars.
After six additional expansion teams, the merger of the Cleveland Barons with the Minnesota North Stars, and the NHL–WHA merger, the league had expanded to 21 teams by 1979. Three of the four teams from the NHL–WHA merger relocated to other cities: the Quebec Nordiques, the original Winnipeg Jets, and the Hartford Whalers. The Nordiques became the Colorado Avalanche in 1995, while the Winnipeg Jets became the Phoenix Coyotes in 1996 and rebranded as the Arizona Coyotes in 2014, with the Hartford Whalers moving to North Carolina and becoming the Carolina Hurricanes in 1997. The Winnipeg Jets identity was revived in 2011, when a Winnipeg-based company received approval from the league to purchase the struggling Atlanta Thrashers and relocate them to Winnipeg for the . Out of the seven active relocated franchises in the NHL, two have not yet won the Stanley Cup championship: the Coyotes and the Jets (both teams have also never been to the Stanley Cup Finals).
Most of the metropolitan areas that have hosted relocated or defunct teams have been given another NHL team. Montreal, Quebec City and Atlanta all have two defunct or relocated teams with the Wanderers and Maroons, the Athletics and Nordiques, and the Flames and Thrashers, respectively. Philadelphia (Philadelphia Flyers), Pittsburgh (Pittsburgh Penguins), and St. Louis (St. Louis Blues) gained teams during the 1967 expansion. After losing the Americans, two more teams have been added into the New York metropolitan area: the New York Islanders in 1972 and the New Jersey Devils in 1982. Other former host-metropolitan areas of NHL teams that have been given another team include: San Francisco Bay Area (San Jose Sharks in 1991), Ottawa (current Ottawa Senators in 1992), Denver (Colorado Avalanche in 1995), Minneapolis – St. Paul (Minnesota Wild in 2000) and Winnipeg (current Jets in 2011).
Defunct and relocated teams
Notes
This team was not affiliated with the Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball (MLB).
This team is not affiliated with the present-day Ottawa Senators.
The team was formerly known as the New York Americans (1925–1941), and was not affiliated with the Rangers, the Islanders, or the Devils. In addition, the Devils relocated from East Rutherford to Newark in 2007, while the Islanders relocated from Uniondale to Brooklyn in 2015 and returned on a part-time basis to Uniondale in 2018. However, the Devils and the Islanders have never relocated out of the New York metropolitan area.
The team was formerly known as the California Seals (1967), Oakland Seals (1967–1970), and Bay Area Seals (1970).
This team was not affiliated with the Colorado Rockies of MLB.
This team is not affiliated with the present-day Winnipeg Jets.
The Wanderers played four games during the before becoming defunct; a further two games were defaulted before the club folded.
The Senators were on hiatus during the due to financial problems.
The 2004–05 season was cancelled due to the season lockout.
Map of defunct and relocated teams
Timeline
See also
History of the National Hockey League
History of organizational changes in the NHL
Potential National Hockey League expansion
References
Further reading
External links
Defunct teams
National Hockey League
National Hockey League
National Hockey League
National Hockey League
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[
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Trinidad%20and%20Tobago
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Music of Trinidad and Tobago
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The music of Trinidad and Tobago is best known for its calypso music, soca music, chutney music, and steelpan. Calypso's internationally noted performances in the 1950s from native artists such as Lord Melody, Lord Kitchener and Mighty Sparrow. The art form was most popularised at that time by Harry Belafonte. Along with folk songs and African- and Indian-based classical forms, cross-cultural interactions have produced other indigenous forms of music including soca, rapso, parang, chutney, and other derivative and fusion styles. There are also local communities which practice and experiment with international classical and pop music, often fusing them with local steelpan instruments.
MusicTT was established in 2014 to facilitate the business development and export activity of the music industry in Trinidad and Tobago.
History
The Cedula of Population of 1783 laid the foundation and growth of the population of Trinidad. The island's Spanish possessors contributed little towards advancements, with El Dorado the focus; Trinidad's geographical location made it the center of that focus. Following the Cedula, French planters (accompanied by their slaves, free coloreds and mulattos) from the French Antilles of Martinique, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Dominica migrated to the Trinidad. This exodus was encouraged due to the French Revolution. The Spanish also gave many incentives to lure settlers to the island, including exemption from taxes for 10 years and land grants in accordance to the terms set out in the Cedula. These new immigrants established local communities of Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin, Cascade, Carenage and Laventille. Trinidad's population jumped from less than 1,400 in 1777, to over 15,000 by the end of 1789. In 1797, Trinidad became a British crown colony, with a French-speaking population.
Carnival had arrived with the French. Indentured laborers and slaves, who could not take part in Carnival, formed their own, parallel celebration, canboulay, which became the precursor for the Trinidad & Tobago Carnival, and has played an important role in the development of Trinidad's culture.
Official and elite unease over carnival revelry (which was considered violent and unruly) grew during the next few decades, and in 1883 drumming was banned in an attempt to clean up Carnival. This injunction came after a serious disturbance during the 1881 Carnival, known as the Canboulay Riots. Canboulays were processions during carnival that commemorated the harvesting of burnt cane fields during slavery, a process so labor-intensive that it had often involved forced marches of slaves from neighboring plantations to more efficiently harvest the cane (once the field is burned, the cane requires immediate harvesting, or it spoils). These canboulay processions were popular, and often incorporated kalenda. The government's attempt to ban the processions in 1881 resulted in open riots between Afro-Creole revelers and police, a turn of events that, not surprisingly, caused deep resentment within Trinidadian society toward the government's use of power. The open resistance of Afro-Creole revelers, of course, redoubled concerns among government officials over this potential threat to public order and led to an alternative strategy—the banning of drumming—in 1883. To make sure that the point got across, stick-fighting itself was banned in 1884. An ingenious substitute for the drums and sticks, called tamboo bamboo, was introduced in the 1890s.
Tamboo-bamboo bands consist of three different instruments (each cut from bamboo): boom, foulé, and cutter. The boom serves as the bass instrument, is usually about five feet long, and is played by stamping it on the ground. The foulé, a higher-pitched instrument, consists of two pieces of bamboo, each about a foot long, and is played by striking these pieces end to end. The cutter, the highest-pitched instrument in the ensemble, is made from a thinner piece of bamboo (of varying length) and is struck with a stick. These three types of instruments combined to beat out rhythms that accompanied the chantwells and were a staple of carnival celebrations for many years. They were gradually rendered obsolete by the steel band.
The 1930s saw contests between tents become a standard part of Carnival, and in 1939, Growling Tiger was crowned the first calypso monarch of Trinidad (for his song, "The Labor Situation in Trinidad"). Carnival festivities split into two kinds of venues during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, occupying both the street and more performance-oriented calypso tents. Both of these spaces, however, were the preserve of the lower class and of Afro-Creoles. Calypsonians were considered potentially dangerous by elites and government officials because they commanded large followings and could sway public opinion with their songs. The streets were also carefully monitored, setting up an atmosphere within which calypso and Carnival were embraced by the lower class and kept at a distance by elites. The Afro-Creole middle class, moreover, working toward upward social mobility and thus concerned with aligning itself with the elite, also attempted to distance itself from Carnival and calypso.
Beginning in 1845, major influxes of indentured immigrants from India and other parts of the world dramatically changed the ethnic composition of the islands. These indentured servants brought their own folk music, primarily from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, to the creole mix, resulting in chutney music. In addition to Indians, Syrians, Portuguese, Chinese and Africans came to the islands in waves between 1845 and 1917, and even after.
Folk traditions
Recorded in the hills of Trinidad, here is a fascinating juxtaposition of three music and music / dance practices of non-urban dwellers derived from African roots. Bamboo-Tamboo evolved out of the ban which European colonizers imposed on drumming: dry, hollow bamboo poles were cut to varying lengths to produce different pitches when thumped theground. These bamboo instruments are used to accompany or speak about calinda (stick fighting). Belair (bélé) is a dance of older women accompanied by drums and shakers
Bélé
In the late 18th century when the French plantation owners and their Creole slaves came to Trinidad and Tobago, they brought with them a life style of "joie de vivre" to their plantations. At that time, the French held many balls at the Great Houses where they enjoyed doing many of the courtly dances of Europe.
The house slaves, in their moments of leisure, took the dance to the field slaves and mimicked the dance of their masters. The slaves who worked in or around these houses quickly copied the style and dress. They showed off by doing ceremonious bows, making grand entrances, sweeping movements, graceful and gentle gliding steps which imitated the elegance of the French. The rhythmic quality of the bélé drums added spicy and yet subtle sensuality to the movements. There are more than 14 types of bélé dances including the Grand bélé and Congo bélé, with each performed to its own rhythms and chants.
Tamboo-Bamboo
Stick fighting and African percussion music were banned in 1881 from Trinidad Carnival, in response to the Canboulay Riots. They were replaced by bamboo sticks "Tamboo-Bamboo" (originally Tambour Bamboo) beaten together, which were themselves banned in turn. Tamboo-Bamboo evolved out of the ban which European colonizers imposed on drumming: dry, hollow bamboo poles were cut to varying lengths to produce different pitches when thumped against the ground. In 1937 they reappeared, transformed as an orchestra of frying pans, dustbin lids and oil drums. These steelpans or pans are now a major part of the Trinidadian music.
The first instruments developed in the evolution of steelpan were Tamboo-Bamboos, tunable sticks made of bamboo wood. Tamboo-Bamboo bands also included percussion of a (gin) bottle and spoon. By the mid-1930s, bits of metal percussion were being used in the tamboo bamboo bands.
Kaiso
Kaiso is a type of music popular in Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, St. Lucia and Dominica. It originated from West African call and response songs, and later evolved into calypso music.
Kaiso music has its origins in West African call and response songs (particularly in present-day Nigeria) which were brought over by the slaves who (in the early history of the art form) used them to sing about their masters and ways to gain their freedom. The people would also gather in "kaiso" tents where a griot or lead singer would lead them in song. Many early kaisos were sung in French Creole by a "chantwell". Kaiso songs are generally narrative in form and often have a cleverly concealed political subtext.
After Emancipation of slavery, the chantwell would sing call-and-response chants called lavways, lionizing and cheering on champion stickfighters. This form of music gradually evolved into the modern day calypso.
Calypso
Calypso music grew together with Carnival. The music drew upon the West African Kaiso and French/European influences, and arose as a means of communication among the enslaved Africans. Kaiso is still used today as a synonym for calypso in Trindad and some other islands, often by traditionalists, and is also used as a cry of encouragement for a performer, similar to bravo or olé. Highly rhythmic and harmonic vocals characterized the music, which was most often sung in a French Creole and led by a griot. As calypso developed, the role of the griot (originally a similar traveling musician in West Africa) became known as a chantuelle, and eventually, calypsonian. Calypso was popularized after the abolition of slavery and the ensuing growth of the Carnival festivals in the 1830s.
Modern calypso, however, began in the 19th century, a fusion of disparate elements ranging from the masquerade song lavway, French Creole belair and the stick fighting chantwell. Calypso's early rise was closely connected with the adoption of Carnival by Trinidadian slaves, including canboulay drumming and the music masquerade processions. The French brought Masquerade Balls to Trinidad which were mimicked by ex-slaves after Abolition of Slavery, and calypso competitions at Carnival grew in popularity, especially after the abolition of slavery in 1834.
Calypso drew upon African and French influences, and became the voice of the people. It allowed the masses to challenge the actions of the unelected Governor and Legislative Council, and the elected town councils of Port of Spain and San Fernando. As English replaced patois (French Creole) as the dominant language, calypso migrated into English, and in so doing it attracted more attention from the radio stations and government. Calypso continued to play an important role in political expression, and also served to document the history of Trinidad and Tobago.
Early performers
Early chantwells such as Hannibal, Norman Le Blanc, Mighty Panther and Boadicea made names for themselves by criticizing the colonial government. In 1912, calypso was recorded for the first time and the following decade saw the arrival of calypso tent. During Carnival, calypsonians competed for awards like the Carnival Road March, National Calypso Monarch, Calypso Queen, Junior Monarch and Extempo Monarch in contests called picong, when two performers trade bawdy and irreverent jibes at each other, and referencing the day's events. Soon, stars such as Lord Invader and Roaring Lion grew in stature (the 1930s Golden Age of Calypso) and became more closely aligned with the independence movement. Some songs were banned or censored by the British colonial government, and calypso became a method of underground communication and spreading anti-British information.
These early popular performers led the way for calypso's mainstreaming with artists including Lord Kitchener, Harry Belafonte and Mighty Sparrow. Belafonte, a Jamaican-American singing in American English, was by far the most popular internationally during this wave (with his Calypso album, Belafonte was the first artist to sell a million copies), but his music was also criticized for watering down the sound of calypso.
1947 saw Lord Kitchener and Killer forming the renegade calypso tent Young Brigade. The term Young Brigade soon came to refer to a specific group of calypsonians that used fictional narratives and humor with new, more dance-able rhythms. Kitchener was by far the most popular of the Young Brigade calypsonians, and he helped popularize calypso in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. Mighty Sparrow's first hit was Jean and Dinah, celebrating the departure of American military forces from Trinidad; the song launched a new generation of politically active calypso music, which soon became associated with the People's National Movement. Roaring Lion was also a major part of this vanguard in calypso music, and he became known for a traditionalist style that he maintained throughout his career.
During the 1970s, calypso's popularity waned throughout the world, including the Caribbean. Derivatives include an uptempo version of Calypso music called soca, and a hip-hop-influenced style called rapso both became popular in Trinidad and other islands. Soca was by the more influential in terms of international sales, since rapso's crossover appeal to mainstream tastes has been extremely limited. Old-time calypsonians and purists, however, preferred rapso's continuation of the lyrical ambidexterity that helped make calypso the world-famous, innovative art form it has become; many criticized soca's perceived watering-down of calypso, including veteran calypsonians such as Chalkdust, who asked: "Are we to put water in the brandy, singing just two or three words [that mainstream audiences] can understand and dance to?" Indo-Trinidadians began popularising chutney music during the same time period. In the mid-1970s, artists like Sundar Popo made the music mainstream.
Soca
The "father" of soca was a Trinidadian man named Garfield Blackman who rose to fame as "Lord Shorty" with his 1964 hit "Cloak and Dagger" and took on the name "Ras Shorty I" in the early 1980s. He started out writing songs and performing in the calypso genre. A prolific musician, composer and innovator, Shorty experimented with fusing calypso and elements of Indo-Caribbean music for nearly a decade from 1965 before unleashing "the soul of calypso", soca music by the early 1970s.
Shorty was the first to define his music as "soca" during 1975 when his hit song “Endless Vibrations” was causing major musical waves on radio stations and at parties and clubs not just throughout his native T&T but also in far off metropolitan cities like New York, Toronto and London. Soca was originally spelled Sokah which stands for the “Soul of Calypso” with the “kah” part being taken from the first letter in the Sanskrit alphabet and representing the Power of movement as well as the East Indian rhythmic influence that helped to inspire the new soca beat. Shorty stated in a number of interviews that the idea for the new soca beat started with the rhythmic fusion of Calypso rhythms with East Indian rhythms that he used in his hit "Indrani" recorded in 1972. The soca beat was solidified as the popular new beat that most of the T&T Calypso musicians would start adopting by the time Shorty had recorded his big crossover hit “Endless Vibrations” in 1974.
Shorty also recorded a mid-year album in 1975 called “Love In The Caribbean” that contains a number of crossover soca tracks before setting off on an album distribution and promotion tour. During his 1975 “Love In The Caribbean” album promotion and distribution tour Shorty pass thru the isle of Dominica on his way back to Trinidad and saw Dominica's top band Exile One perform at the Fort Young Hotel. Shorty was inspired to compose and record a Soca and Cadence-lypso fusion track called “E Pete” or “Ou Petit” which can be viewed as the first of its kind in that particular Soca style. Shorty sought and got help with the Creole lyrics he used in the chorus of his “E Pete” song by consulting with Dominica's 1969 Calypso King, Lord Tokyo, and two creole lyricists, Chris Seraphine and Pat Aaron while he was in Dominica. The song “E Pete” thus contains genuine Creole lyrics in the chorus like "Ou dee moin ou petit Shorty" (meaning "you told me you are small Shorty"), and is a combination of Soca, Calypso, Cadence-lypso and Creole.
Shorty's 1974 Endless Vibrations and Soul of Calypso brought Soca to regional and international attention and fame and helped to solidify the rapidly growing Soca Movement led by Shorty.
Soca developed in the early 1970s and grew in popularity in the late 1970s. Soca's development as a musical genre included its early fusion of calypso with Indian musical instruments, particularly the dholak, tabla and dhantal, as demonstrated in Lord Shorty's classic compositions "Ïndrani", "Kalo Gee Bull Bull" and "Shanti Om".
Soca has grown since its inception to incorporate elements of funk, soul, disco, zouk and other dance music genres, and continues to blend in contemporary music styles and trends. Soca has also been experimented with in Bollywood films, Bhangra, in new Punjabi pop, and in disco music in the United States.
Rapso
Rapso arose as Black Power and Pan-Africanist thought spread in Trinidad. Lancelot Layne is said to have invented the genre with his 1971 hit "Blow Away", while Cheryl Byron brought rapso to calypso tents in 1976. The term rapso first appeared in 1980 on Busting Out, an album by Brother Resistance and his Network Riddum Band. Rapso has become one of the most prevalent expressions of music on Trinidad itself, but is largely absorbed into calypso during Carnival celebrations and contests. The 1990s saw a more politically and spiritually-conscious form of rapso, which has been infused with soul and reggae music, as well as native J'ouvert, an early introduction to Carnival which consists of percussionists using makeshift materials to hammer out a beat. The trio band 3 Canal, and the artist Ataklan, are among the most popular modern proponents.
Extempo
Extempo, or extempo calypso, or calypso war, is a lyrically improvised (freestyled) form of calypso. An annual competition is held at the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival for the title of Extempo Monarch. The art form was first recorded in the 1940s in Trinidad.
Brass bands
Starting in 1986, David Rudder popularized the brass band in Carnival competitions. Brass bands had long been a part of Trinidad's cultural heritage, but Rudder helped inspire the founding of the Caribbean Brass Festival in 1991.
Steel-pan and steel bands
One of the most significant contributions of Trinidad and Tobago to the world of music was the invention of the steelpan. This instrument is the only acoustic instrument that was invented in the 20th century. The pan evolved from music which the island slaves created for the carnival festivities. The first steel-pans were made from oil drums. The players would beat on the end of the oil drum with bamboo to produce music and found that the areas of the drum that were hit the most frequently developed a higher pitch. From this discovery the players learned that they could change the pitch of the drum to create different notes.
The steel-pan is created by hammering a 55-gallon drum to produce the full chromatic range of scale notes. After the drum is hammered into the shape of a concave bowl, individual notes are grooved out into the bowl of the drum. The traditional steel-pan was hammered out by hand, but with the instrument gaining popularity and worldwide demand, manufacturers have experimented with more efficient methods including Spinforming, Flowforming, Aquaforming and Marforming. A typical pan contains 2½ octaves, with each note being a hammered out groove in the pan that produces a distinct note.
Steel-pan originates from low-income communities and was at first associated with violence and lawlessness. The upper class looked on steel-pan players with disdain until Dr. Eric Williams, leader of People's National Movement and the man known as father of the nation, increased the acceptance of steel-pan in the mainstream music scene by encouraging corporations to sponsor steel bands, giving the bands more respectability in society. Today, steel-pan is the national instrument of Trinidad and Tobago and is used worldwide. In 2013 Ancel Bhagwandeen was awarded by the Prime minister's Awards for Scientific Ingenuity for developing and producing the World's first tenor pan stick that is sound sensitive and displays light colours in sync with playing the steel pan. It is the first modernization of the pan stick in decades.
Parang
In Trinidad and Tobago the Latin American-derived seasonal Christmas music called Parang is about more than just Christmas carols. Parang is about general merrymaking and festivities around Christmas time and the food, dancing and music is all a part of the parang. The singers of parang visit the homes of family and friends and sing Christmas-themed songs in Spanish accompanied by instruments, usually the guitar, venezuelan cuatro, maracas (known as chac-chacs on the islands), mandolin, bandolin, violin, bandola and sometimes the cello. Parang is mostly performed during the Christmas season but is also used at other festivals throughout the year, including the Santa Rosa Festival, the velorio del cruz, and the Sebucan festival. Parang includes both religious and non-religious songs and melodies set against the parang instrumentation. Parang festivities typically involve dancing and there are two primary dance styles, the slower castillian waltz and a quicker gavilan style.
Chutney music
Indians arrived in Trinidad and Tobago on May 30, 1845 as indentured laborers on the sugarcane, cocoa, and rice plantations, to fill the labor void left by the abolition of slavery. The island's growing Indian population developed the musical style of chutney. This musical form based on Indian rhythms was named chutney because it is hot music, its use of double entendres and fast and repetitive rhythms make its listeners want to dance. Chutney uses a mixture of East Indian classical music, East Indian folk music, bhajans and ghazals (bhajans and ghazals are religious songs), Western and African instruments, and usually the Indian musical instruments: harmonium, dholak, tabla, dhantal, manjira, tassa, and sometimes the bulbul tarang to accompany its fast-paced soca or calypso beats. Sundar Popo was one of the first who pioneered in this music. Chutney music is a mixture of Indian tunes influenced by calypso and soca rhythms, and it has been blended with many of the other varieties of music on the island. Artists like Apache Waria and Terry Gajraj pioneered ragga chutney. Chutney has also developed into chutney-bhangra, chutney-hip-hop, soca-bhangra and bhangra-wine.
As chutney music's popularity grows, people are becoming more aware of the mixture of cultures present in Trinidad and Tobago. Many of the chutney artists that are known within West Indian culture are from Trinidad. Sundar Popo was a pioneer of chutney music, famous for first blending chutney with calypso and soca and increasing the popularity of the genre. The instruments used in chutney were those that were approved for women to play, making chutney becoming viewed as a woman's music genre. Since then, chutney has grown from a woman's genre into a leading player of the pop music scene with both men and women participating in nationwide competitions. Chutney music is a reflection on the culture of Trinidad and Tobago, its blending of Indian, Western and African elements is a representation of the backgrounds that are mixed together to form the culture of Trinidad and Tobago.
Pop, rock and alternative music
Trinidad and Tobago has an underground pop, rock and heavy metal scene with many small shows being held throughout the year. The largest of such shows are the annual Pop Music Awards held at the Tsunami nightclub in Chaguaramas and the Samaan Tree Rock Festival in Aranguez.
Western classical
There is a long tradition of western classical music, both instrumental and choral, dating back to the colonial era under the British. The Trinidad & Tobago Music Festival is a primary showcase for these art forms. Choral groups, steelband and traditional western orchestras, smaller ensembles, music schools and programmes, and others stage shows at venues around the country, particularly at the Queen's Hall in Port of Spain; the University of the West Indies (St. Augustine Campus); Central Bank Auditorium; Simon Bolivar auditorium; churches and cathedrals; and at the new National Academy for the Performing Arts (NAPA), which was opened in 2009 but closed down in 2014 for renovations. Popular proponents of the Western Classical form include the St Augustine Chamber Orchestra/Trinidad and Tobago Youth Philharmonic (the largest symphony orchestra and largest youth orchestra in the English-speaking Caribbean), Marionettes Chorale (the first choir to blend choral voices with the steelpan), Eastern Performing Arts Fraternity and Eastern Youth Chorale, Lydian Singers, UWI Festival Arts Chorale; the National Philharmonic and the National Steel Symphony Orchestra, and the Classical Music Development Foundation, among others.
Hindustani classical
Historically, the indentured laborers who came from India brought with them the form of authentic Indian Classical Music. A form of local Indo-Trinidad classical music was later created. However, organisations were able to keep the pure classical form alive. Bharatiya Vidya Sansthaan, under the guidance of Prof. Hari Shankara Adesh, was the first institution to provide courses in the authentic classical artform of India.
Prof. Rajesh Kelkar (from historic Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda), went to remote villages of Trinidad and taught classical and devotional music with missionary zeal.
MusicTT
The government has identified the music industry as one of three pioneering sectors that are pivotal to long-term economic sustainability because of dropping prices of oil and gas, Trinidad and Tobago's main export. For this reason, MusicTT was established in 2014 as a subsidiary of CreativeTT. MusicTT’s mandate is "to stimulate and facilitate the business development and export activity of the music industry in Trinidad and Tobago to generate national wealth."
References
Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis
Scher, P. W. "Preservation, Carnival and the State in Trinidad". 2002. Anthropology Quarterly, Vol. 75, No 3. pp. 453–484.
Ho, Christine G. T. "Popular Culture and the Aestheticization of Politics: Hegemonic Struggle and Postcolonial Nationalism in the Trinidad Carnival". 2000. Transforming Anthropology. Vol. 9, Number 1, pp. 3–18.
Waithe, Desmond and Worrell Frank C. 2002. "The Development of the Steel Band in Trinidad and Tobago". Malloy Endowment Supported Lecture.
Lewis, W. (1993), "Mechanising the manufacture of the steel pan musical instrument". The Journal of Professional Engineers of Trinidad and Tobago, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 35–41.
Lewis, W and Ameerali, A. 2010. "Experimental Investigations into Manufacturing Processes Used to Produce Musical Steel Drums". The West Indian Journal of Engineering. Vol. 32.
Hansen, U., Rossing, T. D., Mannettc, E., and George, K. (1995), "The Caribbean Steel Pan; Tuning and Mode Studies", MRS Bulletin, March, pp. 44–46.
Taylor, Daphne Pawan. 1977. Parang of Trinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: National Cultural Council of Trinidad and Tobago.
Ingram, Amanda K. 2002. What is Parang? Wesleyan University.
TIDCO. 1996. Arts & Entertainment Directory 1996. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Tourism & Industrial Development Company of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd.
Constance, Zeno Obi. 1991. Tassa, Chutney & Soca: The East Indian Contribution to the Calypso. Trinidad: Jordan's Printing Service.
Moodie-Kublalsingh, Sylvia. 1994. The Cocoa Panyols of Trinidad: An Oral Record. London: British Academic Press.
De Ledesma, Charles, and Georgia Popplewell. "Put Water in the Brandy?" 2000. In Broughton, Simon, and Mark Ellingham, with James McConnachie and Orla Duane (eds), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp. 507–26. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Ramnarine, Tina K. "The Caribbean's Hot Hindi Sound". 2000. In Broughton, Simon, and Mark Ellingham, with James McConnachie and Orla Duane (eds), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp. 527–30. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
See also
List of calypsos with sociopolitical influences
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] |
242812
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haileybury
|
Haileybury
|
Haileybury may refer to:
Australia
Haileybury (Melbourne), a school in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Canada
Haileybury, Ontario, part of Temiskaming Shores, a city in Ontario
Haileybury School of Mines, a school of Northern College, Ontario
Kazakhstan
Haileybury Almaty, an independent school in Almaty, an offshoot of Haileybury College (UK)
Haileybury Astana, an independent school in Nur-Sultan (formerly Astana), an offshoot of Haileybury College (UK)
United Kingdom
East India Company College, Haileybury, Hertfordshire, England (1806–1858) was the training establishment for the Honourable East India Company
Haileybury College, opened in 1862 on the site of the East India Company College
Haileybury and Imperial Service College, formed by the 1942 merger of Haileybury College and Imperial Service College
Lambrook Haileybury, a prep school in Berkshire
See also
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikeout
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Strikeout
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In baseball or softball, a strikeout (or strike-out) occurs when a batter accrues three strikes during a time at bat. It usually means the batter is out. A strikeout is a statistic recorded for both pitchers and batters, and is denoted by K in scorekeeping and statistics. A "strikeout looking" — in which the batter does not swing and the third strike is called by the umpire — is usually denoted by a ꓘ.
Although a strikeout suggests that the pitcher dominated the batter, the free-swinging style that generates home runs also leaves batters susceptible to striking out. Some of the greatest home run hitters of all time—such as Alex Rodriguez, Reggie Jackson, and Jim Thome—were notorious for striking out.
Rules and jargon
A pitched ball is ruled a ball by the umpire if the batter did not swing at it and, in that umpire's judgement, it does not pass through the strike zone. Any pitch at which the batter swings unsuccessfully or, that in that umpire's judgement passes through the strike zone, is ruled a strike. Each ball and strike affects the count, which is incremented for each pitched ball with the exception of a foul ball on any count with two strikes. That is, a third strike may only occur by the batter swinging and missing at a pitched ball, or the pitched ball being ruled a strike by the umpire with no swing by the batter. A pitched ball that is struck by the batter with the bat on any count, and is not a foul ball or foul tip, is in play. A batter may also strike out by bunting, even if the ball is hit into foul territory.
A pitcher receives credit for (and a batter is charged with) a strikeout on any third strike, but a batter is out only if one of the following is true:
The third strike is pitched and caught in flight by the catcher (including foul tips);
On any third strike, if a baserunner is on first and there are zero or one outs;
The third strike is bunted foul and is not caught by a fielder.
Thus, it is possible for a batter to strike out, but still become a runner and reach base safely if the catcher is unable to catch the third strike cleanly, and he then does not either tag out the batter or force him out at first base. In Japan, this is called , or "swing and escape". In Major League Baseball, it is known as an uncaught third strike. When this happens, a strikeout is recorded for both the pitcher and the batter, but no out is recorded. Because of this, a pitcher may occasionally be able to record more than three strikeouts in one inning.
It is also possible for a strikeout to result in a fielder's choice. With the bases loaded and two strikes with two outs, the catcher drops the ball or catches it on the bounce. The batter-runner is obliged to run for first base and other base-runners are obliged to attempt to advance one base. Should the catcher field the ball and step on home plate before the runner from third base can score, then the runner from third base is forced out.
In baseball scorekeeping, a swinging strikeout is recorded as a K, or a K-S. A strikeout looking (where the batter does not swing at a pitch that the umpire then calls strike three) is often scored with a backwards K (ꓘ), and sometimes as a K-L, CK, or Kc (the 'c' for 'called' strike). In terms of game play, swinging and looking strikeouts are exactly equivalent; the difference in notation is simply to record this aspect of the time at bat. Despite the scorekeeping custom of using "K" for strikeout, "SO" is the official abbreviation used by Major League Baseball.
"K" is still commonly used by fans and enthusiasts for purposes other than official record-keeping. One baseball ritual involves fans attaching a succession of small "K" signs to the nearest railing, one added for every strikeout notched by the home team's pitcher, following a tradition started by New York Mets fans in honor of "Dr. K", Dwight Gooden. The "K" may be placed backwards (ꓘ) in cases where the batter strikes out looking, just as it would appear on a scorecard. Virtually every televised display of a high-strikeout major league game will include a shot of a fan's strikeout display, and if the pitcher continues to strike out batters, the display may be shown following every strikeout.
The use of "K" for a strikeout was invented by Henry Chadwick, a newspaper journalist who is widely credited as the originator of the box score and the baseball scorecard. As is true in much of baseball, both the box score and scorecard remain largely unchanged to this day. Chadwick decided to use "K", the last letter in "struck", since the letter "S" was used for "sacrifice". Chadwick was responsible for several other scorekeeping conventions, including the use of numbers to designate player positions.
Those unaware of Chadwick's contributions have speculated that "K" was derived from the last name of 19th century pitcher Matt Kilroy. If not for the evidence supporting Chadwick's earlier use of "K", this explanation would be reasonable. Kilroy raised the prominence of the strikeout, setting an all-time single-season record of 513 strikeouts in 1886, only two years after overhand pitching was permitted. His record, however, is limited to its era since the pitcher's mound was only from the batter during that season. It was moved to its current distance of 60'6" in 1893. The modern record (1901–present) is 383 strikeouts, held by Nolan Ryan, one better than Sandy Koufax's 382.
For 55 years, Walter Johnson held the career strikeout record, at 3,508. That record fell in 1982 to Nolan Ryan, who was then passed by Steve Carlton, before Ryan took the career strikeout record for good at 5,714.
History
Early rules stated that "three balls being struck at and missed and the last one caught, is a hand-out; if not caught is considered fair, and the striker bound to run." The modern rule has changed very little. The addition of the called strike came in 1858.
In 1880, the rules were changed to specify that a third strike had to be caught on the fly. A later adjustment to the dropped third strike rule specified that a batter is automatically out when there are fewer than two out and a runner on first base. In 1887, the number of strikes for an out was changed to four, but it was promptly changed back to three the next season.
The rule that a third strike (only) must be caught originates in the concept that a third strike is not an automatic out, but rather puts the ball in play. The rule was described at least as early as Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths' 1793 book Gymnastik für die Jugend (Gymnastics for Youth), and has remained in effect since. After the third strike, the ball being in play, the batter (now a runner) must be put out. This is almost always done immediately the strike is made, by the catcher (putouts on strikeouts are still credited to the catcher), but if the ball is not caught on the fly by the catcher, the batter/runner must be put out by the same means as any other runner who puts a ball in play which is not caught on the fly – by soaking (hitting the runner with a ball thrown by a fielder, now long obsolete), or by being tagged out, or by leaving the baseline, or by force out at first base.
Slang
A swinging strikeout is often called a whiff, while a batter who is struck out by a fastball is often said to have been blown away. A batter who strikes out on a swung third strike is said to have fanned (as in a fanning motion), whereas if he takes a called third strike it is called a punchout (describing the plate umpire's dramatic punching motion on a called third strike). However, sometimes these words are used as general synonyms for a strikeout, irrespective of whether it was swinging or looking. The announcer Ernie Harwell called a batter who took a called third strike, usually on the other team, "out for excessive window-shopping" or having "stood like the house by the side of the road".
On a called third strike, it is said that the batter was caught looking, or that he looked at a strike. Typically, a called third strike can be somewhat more embarrassing for a batter, as it shows that he was either fooled by the pitcher or, even worse, had a moment of hesitation.
For example, Carlos Beltrán was caught looking at strike 3 to end the 2006 NLCS, and the season, for the New York Mets. Sports commentators have also been known to refer to it as browsing if the batter did not move his bat at all.
A pitcher is said to strike out the side when he retires all three batters in a half-inning by striking them out. This term is also used when all three outs were caused by strike outs, regardless of how other batters in the inning fared. If a pitcher strikes out three batters on nine pitches, he is said to have pitched an immaculate inning. A batter that takes the third strike looking, especially on a breaking pitch like a slider or a curveball that appears to be out of the strike zone but drops in before he can get the bat off his shoulders, can be said to have been frozen.
In slang, when a batter strikes out three times in a game, he is said to have completed a hat trick. If he strikes out four times, it is called a golden sombrero. He receives a platinum sombrero if he strikes out five times, and this dishonor is also known as the Olympic Rings.
Striking out six times is a rare occurrence, which in the history of major league play has only occurred in games that went to extra innings, with Sam Horn of the Baltimore Orioles being one of the few to do this. The slugger's then-teammate, pitcher Mike Flanagan, told reporters after that 1991 event that six strikeouts would thereafter be known as a Horn. He added that if anyone ever strikes out seven times in one game, it will be a Horn of Plenty.
Some pitchers who specialize in strikeouts have acquired nicknames including the letter "K". Dwight Gooden was known as "Doctor K" (back-referencing basketball star Julius Erving a.k.a. "Dr. J"). Francisco Rodríguez is known as "K-Rod". Roger Clemens has taken the "K" name to an extreme by naming his four sons Koby, Kory, Kacy, and Kody. Tim Lincecum is nicknamed "The Say 'K' Kid", referencing former Giants player Willie Mays who was called "The Say Hey Kid". Daisuke Matsuzaka is known as "Dice-K", a term which was used as a pronunciation guide for his name when he first arrived in MLB.
Hall of Fame strikeout artist Sandy Koufax of the Los Angeles Dodgers coincidentally has a last name starting with "K", and in his call of the pitcher's perfect game in 1965, Dodgers announcer Vin Scully commented that Koufax's name "will always remind you of strikeouts".
More than three strikeouts in an inning
If a third strike is not caught cleanly by the catcher, it is still recorded as a strikeout for both the pitcher and the batter, but the batter becomes a runner and the play is still alive. (This is not true when first base is occupied and there are fewer than two outs; see Uncaught third strike.) The runner may take first base unless the defense tags or throws him out. Therefore, a pitcher can achieve more than three strikeouts in one standard half-inning.
Prior to 1960, the event occurred only seven times. The first Major League player to be credited with the feat was Ed "Cannonball" Crane of the New York Giants on October 4, 1888. It has occurred in Major League Baseball 76 times. Chuck Finley accomplished the feat on May 12 and August 15, 1999, with the Anaheim Angels and again on April 16, 2000, with the Cleveland Indians. Pete Richert of the Los Angeles Dodgers is the only pitcher to do it in his MLB debut (April 12, 1962, against the Cincinnati Reds). Steve Delabar struck out four men in the 10th inning, and recorded the win in a 3–2 victory over the Chicago White Sox on August 13, 2012, making him the first pitcher in major league history to record four strikeouts in an extra inning.
For a list of pitchers who have achieved more than three strikeouts in an inning, including the most recent pitcher to do so, see List of Major League Baseball single-inning strikeout leaders.
Five strikeouts in one inning have never occurred in a regulation Major League Baseball game. They have occurred at least six times at the minor league level. John Perkovitsh of Wisconsin Rapids did so against Oshkosh in a Wisconsin State League game on May 17, 1946, while Ron Necciai of Bristol in the Appalachian League accomplished the feat against Johnson City on May 17, 1952. Kelly Wunsch of the Beloit Brewers fanned five in the third inning on April 15, 1994. Mike Schultz of the Lancaster JetHawks struck out five batters in one inning on July 16, 2004, and Garrett Bauer of the Rockford RiverHawks struck out five batters in one inning on July 1, 2008. Most recently, Malcolm Van Buren of the Burlington Royals struck out five in the seventh inning of a game on July 31, 2019. That this has never happened in Major League play reflects the rarity of a pitcher getting a strikeout with an uncaught third strike, but also that,
a second uncaught third strike happens with two outs, whether or not a runner is on first base and that the batter safely reaches first base, or
that with fewer than two outs, the first baserunner, who reached base on an uncaught third strike, must have scored or be on a base other than first before another strikeout with a dropped 3rd strike can occur. Alternately, one or two normal strikeouts must be recorded before the second runner can possibly reach first base on a dropped 3rd strike; only when the second batter-runner reaches base can the 5th strikeout be completed.
Houston Astros pitcher Joe Niekro struck out five Minnesota Twins batters in the first inning of an exhibition spring training game on April 7, 1976, in New Orleans. Niekro's catcher, Cliff Johnson, was charged with five passed balls in the inning. Exhibition games are not recorded in official statistics.
Records
Pitchers
Career total
The top 20 Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders (active players in bold) (since 1901):
Nolan Ryan – 5,714
Randy Johnson – 4,875
Roger Clemens – 4,672
Steve Carlton – 4,136
Bert Blyleven – 3,701
Tom Seaver – 3,640
Don Sutton – 3,574
Gaylord Perry – 3,534
Walter Johnson – 3,509
Greg Maddux – 3,371
Phil Niekro – 3,342
Ferguson Jenkins – 3,192
Pedro Martínez – 3,154
Bob Gibson – 3,117
Curt Schilling – 3,116
CC Sabathia – 3,093
John Smoltz – 3,084
Max Scherzer – 3,020
Justin Verlander – 3,013
Jim Bunning – 2,855
Active pitchers with over 2,000 strikeouts (as of October 3, 2021):
Max Scherzer – 3,020
Justin Verlander – 3,013
Zack Greinke – 2,809
Clayton Kershaw – 2,670
Cole Hamels – 2,560
Jon Lester – 2,488
Chris Sale – 2,059
David Price - 2,039
Strikeouts per 9 innings
The top 10 Major League Baseball career strikeout-per-nine innings leaders (since 1900, minimum 1,000 IP):
Robbie Ray – 11.21
Chris Sale – 11.08
Yu Darvish – 11.07
Jacob deGrom – 10.73
Max Scherzer – 10.71
Randy Johnson – 10.60
Stephen Strasburg – 10.55
Gerrit Cole – 10.38
Kerry Wood – 10.31
Aaron Nola – 10.07
The top 5 Major League Baseball single-season strikeout-per-nine innings leaders (since 1900, minimum 1.0 IP per team game):
Shane Bieber, 2020 – 14.19
Gerrit Cole, 2019 – 13.81
Jacob deGrom, 2020 – 13.76
Randy Johnson, 2001 – 13.40
Pedro Martínez, 1999 – 13.20
Season
The top 10 Major League Baseball single-season strikeout totals (since 1900):
The top 10 Major League Baseball single-season strikeout totals (all time):
Game
Progression of major league strikeout record for one nine-inning game, regular season (partial listing):
18 – Dupee Shaw, Boston Reds (UA), July 19, 1884. Matched by:
Henry Porter, Milwaukee Brewers (UA), October 3, 1884.
Modern era:
16 – Rube Waddell, July 29, 1908
18 – Bob Feller, October 2, 1938. Matched by:
Sandy Koufax, August 31, 1959
Koufax again, April 24, 1962
Don Wilson, July 14, 1968
Ron Guidry, June 17, 1978.
19 – Steve Carlton, September 15, 1969. Matched by:
Tom Seaver, April 22, 1970
Nolan Ryan, August 12, 1974.
David Cone, October 16, 1991
20 – Roger Clemens, April 29, 1986. Matched by:
Clemens again, September 18, 1996
Kerry Wood, May 6, 1998
Randy Johnson, May 8, 2001 (the first nine innings of an extra-inning game)
Max Scherzer, May 11, 2016
Note: Tom Cheney struck out 21 batters overall, in a 16-inning game, September 12, 1962. He had 13 strikeouts through the first nine innings.
Progression of strikeout record, World Series game:
10 – 1903 (first modern Series), Game 1, Deacon Phillippe
11 – 1903, Game 2, Bill Dinneen
12 – 1906, Game 3, Ed Walsh
13 – 1929, Game 1, Howard Ehmke
14 – 1953, Game 3, Carl Erskine
15 – 1963, Game 1, Sandy Koufax
17 – 1968, Game 1, Bob Gibson
Progression of major league strikeout record for a relief pitcher, regular season (partial listing):
15 – Walter Johnson, July 25, 1915
16 – Randy Johnson, July 18, 2001
Batters
Career
The top 15 Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders (as of October 3, 2021):
Reggie Jackson – 2,597
Jim Thome – 2,548
Adam Dunn – 2,379
Sammy Sosa – 2,306
Alex Rodriguez – 2,287
Andrés Galarraga – 2,003
Justin Upton - 1,948
José Canseco – 1,942
Willie Stargell – 1,936
Miguel Cabrera – 1,930
Mark Reynolds – 1,927
Curtis Granderson – 1,916
Mike Cameron – 1,901
Mike Schmidt – 1,883
Fred McGriff – 1,882
Active batters with over 1,400 K's (as of October 3, 2021):
Justin Upton – 1,948
Miguel Cabrera – 1,930
Chris Davis – 1,852
Nelson Cruz – 1,751
Matt Kemp – 1,641
Giancarlo Stanton - 1,559
Evan Longoria – 1,540
Joey Votto – 1,481
Edwin Encarnación – 1,426
Andrew McCutchen - 1,418
Season
Single-season strikeout records (batters):
Game (teams combined)
Progression of record for total strikeouts by both teams in one game (partial listing):
33 – San Francisco Giants at Philadelphia Phillies (14 innings), June 22, 1958. Matched by:
33 – Washington Senators at Cleveland Indians (19 innings), June 14, 1963
36 – San Francisco Giants at New York Mets (23 innings), May 31, 1964
43 – California Angels at Oakland Athletics (20 innings), July 9, 1971
48 – New York Yankees at Chicago Cubs (18 innings), May 7, 2017
See also
Baseball statistics
List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball single-game strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball pitchers who have thrown an immaculate inning
References
External links
Career Leaders and Records for Strikeouts (batters)
Career Leaders and Records for Strikeouts (pitchers)
Four Strikeouts in 1 Inning
Baseball pitching
Pitching statistics
Batting statistics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma%20mater
|
Alma mater
|
Alma mater (; pl. [rarely used] ) is an allegorical Latin phrase currently used to identify a school, college, or university that one formerly attended. The phrase is variously translated as "nourishing mother", "nursing mother", or "fostering mother", suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to her students.
Before its current use, alma mater was an honorific title for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. Later, in Catholicism, it became a title of the Virgin Mary.
The term entered academic use when the University of Bologna adopted the motto Alma Mater Studiorum ("nurturing mother of studies"), to celebrate the university's historic status as the oldest and longest continuously operating university in the world.
The term is related to alumnus, literally meaning a "nursling" or "one who is nourished", that frequently is used for a graduate.
Etymology
Although alma (nourishing) was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. In the Oxford Latin Dictionary, the phrase is attributed to Lucretius in his, De rerum natura, where he used the term as an epithet to describe an earth goddess:
Denique caelesti sumus omnes semine oriundi
omnibus ille idem pater est, unde alma liquentis
umoris guttas mater cum terra recepit (2.991–93)
We are all sprung from that celestial seed,
all of us have same father, from whom earth,
the nourishing mother, receives drops of liquid moisture
After the fall of Rome, the term came into Christian liturgical usage in association with the Virgin Mary. "Alma Redemptoris Mater" is a well-known eleventh century antiphon devoted to Mary.
The earliest documented use of the term to refer to a university in an English-speaking country is in 1600, when the University of Cambridge printer, John Legate, began using an emblem for the university press. The first-known appearance of the device is on the title-page of a book by William Perkins, A Golden Chain, where the Latin phrase Alma Mater Cantabrigia ("nourishing mother Cambridge") is inscribed on a pedestal bearing a nude, lactating woman wearing a mural crown.
In English etymological reference works, often the first university-related usage is cited as 1710, when an academic mother figure is mentioned in a remembrance of Henry More by Richard Ward.
Special use
Many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The Latin name of the University of Bologna, (nourishing mother of studies), refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. Other European universities, such as the Alma Mater Lipsiensis in Leipzig, Germany, or Alma Mater Jagiellonica, Poland, have used the expression similarly in conjunction with geographical or foundational characteristics. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, an international university founded by the European Academy of Sciences and Arts in 2010, uses the term as its official name.
In the United States, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the "Alma Mater of the Nation" because of its ties to the founding of the country.
At Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the main student government is known as the Alma Mater Society.
Monuments
The ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant (e.g., at the Palatine Hill in Rome).
Modern sculptures of Alma Mater are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, most notably, the a bronze statue of Alma Mater by Daniel Chester French situated on the steps of Columbia University's Low Library; the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign also has an Alma Mater statue that was created by Lorado Taft. An altarpiece mural in Yale University's Sterling Memorial Library, painted in 1932 by Eugene Savage, depicts the Alma Mater as a bearer of light and truth, standing in the midst of the personified arts and sciences.
There is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba, which was based on the one at Columbia. The statue was cast in 1919 by Mario Korbel, with Feliciana Villalón Wilson as the inspiration for Alma Mater. It was installed in its current location in 1927, at the direction of architect Raul Otero.
References
External links
Alma Mater Europaea website
School terminology
Latin words and phrases
Academic terminology
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Diary%20of%20Anne%20Frank%20%281959%20film%29
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The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)
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The Diary of Anne Frank is a 1959 film based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1955 play of the same name, which was in turn based on the posthumously published diary of Anne Frank, a Jewish girl who lived in hiding with her family during World War II. It was directed by George Stevens, with a screenplay by Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett, is the first film version of both the play and the original story, and features three members of the original Broadway cast.
All Frank's writings to her diary were addressed as "Dear Kitty". It was published after the end of the war by her father, Otto Frank (played in the film by Joseph Schildkraut, also Jewish). All of his family members had been killed by the Nazis. The film was shot on a sound stage duplicate of the factory in Los Angeles, while exteriors were filmed at the actual building in Amsterdam.
The film was positively received by critics and is often considered the best film adaptation of Anne Frank's Diary. It currently holds a 78% critics rating on Rotten Tomatoes. It won three Academy Awards in 1960, including Best Supporting Actress for Shelley Winters. Shelley later donated her Oscar to the Anne Frank Museum. In 2006, it was honored as the eighteenth most inspiring American film on the list AFI's 100 Years…100 Cheers.
Plot
In 1945, as a truckload of war survivors stops in front of an Amsterdam factory at the end of World War II, Otto Frank (Joseph Schildkraut) gets out and walks inside. After climbing the stairs to a deserted garret, Otto finds a girl's discarded glove and sobs, then is joined and comforted by Miep Gies (Dodie Heath) and Mr. Kraler (Douglas Spencer), office workers who shielded him from the Nazis. After stating that he is now all alone, Otto begins to search for the diary written by his youngest daughter, Anne. Miep promptly retrieves it for him and he receives solace reading the words written by Anne three years earlier.
The action moves back to July 1942, and Anne (Millie Perkins) begins by chronicling the restrictions placed upon Jews that drove the Franks into hiding over the spice factory. Sharing the Franks' hiding place are the Van Daans (Lou Jacobi and Shelley Winters) and their teenage son, Peter (Richard Beymer). Kraler, who works in the office below, and Miep, his assistant, have arranged the hideaway and warn the families that they must maintain strict silence during daylight hours while the workers are there. On the first day, the minutes drag by in silence. After work, Kraler delivers food and a box for Anne compiled by Otto, which contains her beloved photos of movie stars and a blank diary. In the first pages of the diary, she describes the strangeness of never being able to go outside or breathe fresh air. She states that everybody is good at heart.
As the months pass, Anne's irrepressible energy reasserts itself and she constantly teases Peter, whose only attachment is to his cat, Moushie. Isolated from the world outside, Otto schools Anne and her sister, Margot (Diane Baker), as the sounds of sirens and bombers frequently fill the air. Mrs. Van Daan passes the time by recounting fond memories of her youth and stroking her one remaining possession, the fur coat given to her by her father. The strain of confinement causes the Van Daans to argue and pits the strong-willed Anne against her mother, Edith Frank (Gusti Huber). One day, Kraler brings a radio to the attic, providing the families with ears onto the world. Soon after, he asks them to take in another person, a Jewish dentist named Albert Dussell (Ed Wynn). When Van Daan complains that the addition will diminish their food supply, Dussell recounts the dire conditions outside, in which Jews suddenly disappear and are shipped to concentration camps. When Dussell confirms the disappearance of many of their friends, the families' hopes are dimmed.
One night, Anne dreams of seeing one of her friends in a concentration camp and wakes up screaming. In October 1942, news comes of the Allied landing in Africa but the bombing of Amsterdam intensifies, fraying the refugees' already ragged nerves. During Hanukkah, Margot longingly recalls past celebrations and Anne produces little presents for everyone. When Van Daan abruptly announces that Peter must get rid of Moucshi because he consumes too much food, Anne protests. Their argument is cut short when they hear a prowler break in the front door and the room falls silent. Peter then sends an object crashing to the floor while trying to catch Moushie, and the startled thief grabs a typewriter and flees. A watchman notices the break-in and summons two police officers, who search the premises, shining their flashlights onto the bookcase that conceals the attic entrance. The families wait in terror until Moushie knocks a plate from the table and mews, reassuring the officers that the noise was caused by a common cat. After they leave, Otto, hoping to foster faith and courage, leads everyone in a Hanukkah song.
In January 1944, Anne, on the threshold of womanhood, begins to attract Peter's attention. When Miep brings the group a cake, Dussell and Van Daan bicker over the size of their portions and Van Daan asks Miep to sell Petronella's fur coat so that he can buy cigarettes. After Kraler warns that one of his employees asked for a raise and implied that something strange is going on in the attic, Dussell dourly comments that it is just a matter of time before they are discovered. Anne, distraught, blames the adults for the war which has destroyed all sense of hope and ideals. When she storms out of the room, Peter follows and comforts her. Later, Anne confides her dreams of becoming a writer and Peter voices frustration about his inability to join the war effort. In April 1944, amid talk of liberation, the Franks watch helplessly as more Jews are marched through the streets. Tensions mount, and when Van Daan tries to steal some bread from the others, Edith denounces him and orders him to leave. As Dussell and Mrs. Van Daan quarrel over food, word comes over the radio of the Normandy invasion and Mr. Van Daan breaks into tears of shame. Heartened by the news, everyone apologizes for their harsh words, and Anne dreams of being back in school by the fall.
By July 1944, the invasion has bogged down and Kraler is hospitalized with ulcers. Upon hearing that the police have found the stolen typewriter, Anne writes that her diary provides her with a way to go on living after her death. After the Van Daans begin to quarrel once more, Peter declares that he cannot tolerate the situation and Anne soothes him by reminding him of the goodness of those who have come to their aid. Their conversation is interrupted by the sirens of an approaching police truck. As Anne and Peter bravely stand arm in arm, certain of their impending arrest, they passionately kiss. As the German uniformed police break down the bookcase entrance to the hideout, Otto declares they no longer have to live in fear, but can go forward in hope.
The film returns to 1945 as Otto tells Miep and Kraler that on his long journey home after his release from the concentration camp he learned how Edith, Margot, the Van Daans, and Dussell perished, but always held out hope that perhaps Anne had somehow survived. He sadly reveals that only the previous day in Rotterdam he met a woman who had been in Bergen-Belsen with Anne and confirmed her death. He then glances at Anne's diary and reads, "In spite of everything, I still believe that people are really good at heart," and reflects upon her unshakeable optimism.
Cast
Millie Perkins as Anne Frank
Joseph Schildkraut as Otto Frank (reprising his stage role)
Shelley Winters as Petronella Van Daan
Richard Beymer as Peter Van Daan
Gusti Huber as Edith Frank (reprising her stage role)
Lou Jacobi as Hans Van Daan (reprising his stage role)
Diane Baker as Margot Frank
Douglas Spencer as Kraler
Dodie Heath as Miep Gies (credited as Dody Heath)
Ed Wynn as Albert Dussell
Orangey as Mouschi
Otto Frank wrote to Audrey Hepburn, asking her if she would play the part of his daughter Anne. He told Hepburn that his daughter would have been honoured to have such a famous Hollywood actress play her on film, and he also noted the striking resemblance that existed between Anne and Hepburn when she was an adolescent. She was initially interested in the role, and her name appears on the back cover of copies of the diary printed and sold to promote the "upcoming film".
During the casting period, Hepburn ultimately wrote back declining the offer, saying she felt she was too old, and lacked the skills to portray Anne. She said she was greatly honoured to have been given the choice, and noted the similarity between her own war experience and that of the Franks and the others in the annex. Hepburn and Anne were born within a month of each other, and both spent their adolescences in Nazi-occupied Holland. Hepburn was replaced by American newcomer Millie Perkins.
Production
The film is an adaptation of the successful Broadway play based on Anne Frank's diary, which was first published in English in 1952. At the time of the film's production, the book had already sold millions of copies around the world.
According to a 1955 article published on the Daily Variety, Garson Kanin, who had staged the Broadway play, and Milton Sperlin from Warner Bros. had intended to acquire the film rights, but ultimately they were sold to Buddy Adler of Twentieth Century Fox. Originally, William Wyler was in talks to direct before George Stevens signed on as producer and director.
Principal photography took place in Amsterdam from 5 March to 11 August 1958, with additional scenes shot in November. George Stevens initially resisted the idea of shooting the film in CinemaScope because he thought that this format would not convey the claustrophobic effect he wanted to reproduce. When Spyros Skouras, president of Twentieth Century Fox, insisted on CinemaScope, Stevens and cinematographer William C. Mellor decided to reduce the space by limiting the action to the center of the screen. Mellor further developed the look of the film by using fluorescent tubes, filters and gas rather than traditional studio lighting.
Premiere
The film premiered March 18, 1959, at the Palace Theatre in New York City.
Reception
Critical reception
The film was mostly positively received by critics and is considered the best film adaptation of Anne Frank's Diary. It currently holds an 80% critics rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on twenty reviews.
The film holds a 59% on Metacritic, indicating mixed to positive reviews.
Accolades
The American Film Institute included the film as No. 18 in its list of the most inspiring movies, AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers.
In 1975, Shelley Winters donated her Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress statuette to the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam where it is on display.
Home media
The film was first released on DVD on February 3, 2004. The special features included some of the following; "The Diary of Anne Frank: Echoes From the Past" featurette, a press conference with director George Stevens, MovieTone news announcing public appearances by Millie Perkins, a screen test, and an audio commentary by Millie Perkins and George Stevens Jr, the director's son.
A fiftieth-anniversary edition of the film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 16, 2009, three months after its actual release anniversary, in commemoration of what would have been Anne Frank's 80th birthday. It included seven major new featurettes: three cast interviews, a behind-the scenes look at the score, two short documentaries about George Stevens' memories from the war and the history of the diary, and a perspective piece on the film's legacy by Thomas Rothman.
The Blu-ray was released only a month before Tony van Renterghem died on July 19, 2009. Renterghem, a Dutch cinematographer and technical, historical and script adviser who worked with Stevens for many years, consulted on both the play and the film. While his work was almost entirely behind the scenes, his knowledge helped in putting together the historical featurettes.
See also
List of American films of 1959
List of Holocaust films
References
External links
1959 films
1950s biographical drama films
20th Century Fox films
American films
American biographical drama films
American black-and-white films
English-language films
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Academy Award-winning performance
Films based on biographies
Films based on multiple works
Films about Anne Frank
Films directed by George Stevens
Films set in the 1940s
Films set in the Netherlands
Films set in Germany
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Films set in Amsterdam
Films scored by Alfred Newman
Holocaust films
Films based on diaries
Films based on adaptations
1959 drama films
Films shot in Amsterdam
Films shot in Los Angeles
CinemaScope films
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] |
242825
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haileybury%20and%20Imperial%20Service%20College
|
Haileybury and Imperial Service College
|
Haileybury is an independent school near Hertford in England. It is a member of the Rugby Group and though originally a major boys' public school in the Victorian era, it is now co-educational, enrolling pupils at 11+, 13+ and 16+ stages of education. Over 880 pupils attend Haileybury, of whom more than 550 board.
History
The previous institution at Haileybury was the East India College (EIC), the training establishment founded in 1806 for administrators of the Honourable East India Company. The EIC was initially based at Hertford Castle, but substantial grounds in Hertford Heath were acquired for future development. William Wilkins, the architect of Downing College, Cambridge, and the National Gallery in London, was appointed principal architect. The buildings compose four ranges which enclose an area known as Quad, the second-largest academic quadrangle in Britain after Christ Church, Oxford. In the wake of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the East India Company was nationalised, and its College closed in January 1858. In 1862, a public school opened on the site that retained many connections with the EIC, with Royal Charter being received in 1864. Many of the houses were named after Old Boys or Principals of the EIC, and Haileybury's primary purpose during the second half of the 19th century was to provide soldiers and administrators for the British Empire, in particular, British India.
The Chapel dome was added by Sir Arthur Blomfield and completed in 1877. Further Victorian additions were designed by Sir John William Simpson. The Memorial Hall, the school's dining hall, was opened by the future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, and acts as a monument to former pupils who gave their lives in the First World War. During the past 40 years, its use has been extended to commemorate deaths of OHs in all military conflicts.
The dining hall contains one of the largest unsupported domes in Europe. Until the 1990s, the entire school of over 700 pupils dined there at a single sitting, all brought to silence for grace by the beating of a massive brass howitzer shell, captured from a German gun emplacement during the First World War and then converted into a gong. A gilded plaster boss in the centre of this dome represents an oak tree being struck by lightning. Known as Little Lightning Oak, this decoration represents the massive oak tree that stands on the lawn in front of Terrace, the promenade visible in this photograph. This tree was struck by lightning and, all but destroyed, re-sprouted.
As well as the wooden tablets surrounding the exterior of the dining hall, there are other memorials to the school's 1,436 war casualties. In memory of Haileyburians who died in the Boer War, a war memorial obelisk, of Portland stone with bronze decorations, was erected on the main axis of the school's entrance front in 1903; it was designed by former pupil, Sir Reginald Blomfield. Also designed by Sir Reginald is the memorial on Terrace, originally built to commemorate those lost in the First World War; it was unveiled by Sir General Sir Alexander Godley on 7 July 1923. Known as the Cross of Sacrifice, this simple stone structure serves as a prototype for war memorials found in every Commonwealth War Cemetery and other war memorials around the world.
Seventeen former pupils of Haileybury and its antecedents have received the Victoria Cross, and three the George Cross. Amongst public schools whose pupils have been awarded the Victoria Cross, Haileybury is in the top three, alongside Eton and Harrow.
In 1942, Haileybury and the Imperial Service College (which had itself subsumed the United Services College) merged to become Haileybury and Imperial Service College, now often referred to simply as Haileybury.
In the late 20th century, reforming headmaster David Jewell took charge of Haileybury, bringing it out of its post-Cold War austerity. Stuart Westley, Master of Haileybury until July 2009, was responsible for making the school fully co-educational.
Rankings
In 2019, 38% of Haileybury pupils scored A*/A for their A Levels examination. 65% of students scored A*/A for their GCSE examination while IB students scored an average of 36.4 points.
Present day
Haileybury serves as a co-educational school for 11- to 18-year-olds. The six boys' houses consist of Bartle Frere, Batten, Edmonstone, Kipling, Thomason, and Trevelyan. These former boys' houses have been converted into girls' houses: Colvin, Lawrence, Melvill, Allenby, Alban's and Hailey. There is also a boarding house for the Lower School (Years 7 and 8) called Highfield. The Ayckbourn Theatre functions as a modern auditorium with a fully equipped stage and back-stage. In 1997, the college chapel organ was re-built by the German organ builder Klais.
Model United Nations
Haileybury hosts its own Model United Nations Conference every year, for over a thousand pupils, making it largest MUN conference in the UK. The conference is typically held the weekend before the Easter holiday.
Related schools
Haileybury Almaty
In 2006/2007, Haileybury advised on the building of a Haileybury in Almaty, Kazakhstan where all English GCSEs are taught and the curriculum is taught similarly under the guidance of Haileybury. The school, opened in September 2008, is known as Haileybury Almaty.
The pupils are made up mostly of Kazakhstan citizens. They are all required to speak English. The academic year 2010–11 saw the first batch of pupils pass their IGCSE exams. Since August 2011, Haileybury Almaty has opened a 6th form. In 2016, 11 pupils graduated from the 6th form with one getting admission to Trinity College, Cambridge University, and 6 securing places in University College, London (UCL). A second school, in the Kazakhstan capital Nur-Sultan, was opened in September 2011.
Haileybury Astana
Following the foundation of Haileybury Almaty, a sister school was opened in 2008 in Nur-Sultan, the capital city of Kazakhstan. Haileybury Astana provides education for boys and girls from the two to eighteen years of age and introduced the IB and joined CIS and NEASC under the leadership of Headmaster John Coles. It is an IB World School and started running the International Primary Curriculum (IPC) at the same time. The school passed its first successful COBIS inspection in 2018 where the school was rated as having top international practice in 17 out of 19 areas.
The School has grown rapidly since it was opened by the President of Kazakhstan. In 2017, the new IB Centre was opened by the Minister of Education. By 2020, the school had close to 650 pupils.
Haileybury Turnford
In September 2015, Turnford School in Turnford, Hertfordshire converted to academy status and was renamed Haileybury Turnford. Haileybury acts as the main sponsor of the school, and this is the first state-funded school to have links with Haileybury.
Notable former pupils
Past pupils are known as Old Haileyburians.
For details of notable alumni, see List of people educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College.
References
External links
Haileybury web site
1862 establishments in England
Arthur Blomfield buildings
Boarding schools in Hertfordshire
Educational institutions established in 1862
Independent schools in Hertfordshire
International Baccalaureate schools in England
Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
Racquets venues
Schools cricket
Schools with a Royal Charter
Church of England independent schools in the Diocese of St Albans
Gardens by Humphry Repton
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Sweden
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Music of Sweden
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The Music of Sweden shares roots with its neighboring countries in Scandinavia, as well as Eastern Europe, including polka, schottische, waltz, polska and mazurka. The Swedish fiddle and nyckelharpa are among the most common Swedish folk instruments. The instrumental genre is the biggest one in Sweden. In the 1960s, Swedish youth sparked a roots revival in Swedish folk culture. Many joined Spelmanslag (folk musicians' clubs) and performed on mainstream radio and TV. They focused on instrumental polska music, with vocals and influences from other traditional genres becoming more prominent since the 1990s. By 1970, the "dansband" culture also began.
Swedish music has also included more modern and pop influences. On a per capita basis, Sweden is one of the world's most successful exporters of popular music. Its most famous export is ABBA, one of the best-selling pop groups of all time. Sweden has also historically dominated the Scandinavian music scene, with Danes and Norwegians listening to music in Swedish rather than the other way around. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Scandinavian death metal bands became very popular with the international heavy metal community.
Sweden's most famous classic troubadour was Carl Michael Bellman (1740-1795). Later examples include Evert Taube, Cornelis Vreeswijk, Fred Åkerström, and Povel Ramel.
Traditional
Swedish folk songs are dominated by ballads and kulning; the latter was originally used as a cow-herding call and is traditionally sung by women. Ballad stories descend from skillingtryck printed songs from the 19th century. Modern bands like Folk och Rackare, Hedningarna and Garmarna incorporated folk songs into their repertoire.
Swedish folk instruments
The fiddle is perhaps the most characteristic and original instrument of the Swedish folk tradition. It had arrived by the 17th century, and became widespread until 19th century religious fundamentalism preached that most forms of music were sinful and ungodly. Despite the oppression, several fiddlers achieved a reputation for their virtuosity, including Jämtland's Lapp-Nils, Bingsjö's Pekkos Per and Malung's Lejsme-Per Larsson. None of these musicians were ever recorded; the first major fiddler to be recorded was Hjort Anders Olsson. Other early fiddlers of the 20th century included Nils Agenmark and Päkkos Gustaf. There is an extensive traditional repertoire of fiddle tunes, in forms such as the 3/4 polska and the 4/4 gånglåt. One type fiddle peculiar to Sweden is the låtfiol, a fiddle with two sympathetic strings, similar to the Norwegian Hardanger fiddle
The nyckelharpa (keyed fiddle) is similar to both a fiddle and a hurdy-gurdy, and is known from Sweden since at least 1350, when it was carved on a gate in a church in Gotland. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the nyckelharpa was known throughout Sweden, Denmark and particularly in the province of Uppland. The latter has long been a stronghold for nyckelharpa music, including through the 60s revival, which drew on musicians like Byss-Calle from Älvkarleby. The instrument played at this time was not the same as that used today; August Bohlin and Eric Sahlström made changes to the instrument that made it a chromatic and straight, more violin-like instrument. In spite of these innovations, the nyckelharpa's popularity declined until the 1960s roots revival. The nyckelharpa was a prominent part of several revival groups later in the century, especially Väsen and Hedningarna.
The Swedish bagpipes (säckpipa) has been part of a long-running folk tradition, passed down orally until the death of Gudmunds Nils Larsson in 1949. Later revivalists such as Per Gudmundson added a tuning slide and revitalized the instrument.
Accordions and harmonicas were an integral part of Swedish folk music from the beginning of the 20th century, when they contributed to the gammeldans genre. The most famous Swedish accordionist is undoubtedly Kalle Jularbo, who was famous throughout the early 20th century. Later, the accordion fell out of favour within the roots revival, and did not return until the very end of the 1970s.
Roots revival
In the 1960s, Swedish jazz musicians like Jan Johansson used folk influences in their work, resulting in an early 1970s series of music festivals in Stockholm. The Swedish Music Movement reflected a popular trend towards jazz- and rock-oriented folk music, featuring many performers who brought a new vitality to Swedish folk.
Classical
The father of Swedish classical music is often claimed to be Johan Helmich Roman (1694-1758). His most famous work is the Drottningholm Music. Another influential composer is Carl Michael Bellman, whose patron was the king Gustav III of Sweden. Bellmans' songs are often about drinking, prostitution and every-day love troubles. He was a virtuoso improviser, and his songs, in the collections Fredmans epistlar and Fredmans sånger, are widely performed in Europe in different translations. Joseph Martin Kraus (1756-1792) had a life span very similar to that of Mozart, who lived between 1756 and 1792. Kraus was an innovative composer, with a music filled with finesse and bold contrasts. His harmonic language was very personal, although his ability to develop motives never reached the level of the viennese composers such as Mozart or Haydn. In the early romantic era, Franz Berwald (1796-1868) was the most prominent of the Swedish composers. His music was almost ignored during his lifetime, and he made his living as an orthopedic surgeon. He has gained most of his recognition after his death, and composers such as Atterberg and Wilhelm Stenhammar worked hard to raise interest in Berwalds' music.
Wilhelm Stenhammar (1871-1927) was one of the later national romantic composers. He owned a reputation as one of the finest pianist of his time. He studied some years in Berlin, where he came in contact with the German high romanticism, such as Bruckner and Wagner, which influenced him a lot when he wrote his two symphonies. He also wrote six string quartets, a respectable amount of piano music and one opera, Tyrfing, treating on a Norse mythological subject. Another national romantic composer who was also a conductor and violinist, was Hugo Alfvén (1872-1960). His orchestration is bright and colorful, reminiscent of that of Richard Strauss, although the harmonic language differs a lot. Some of his works, such as the Swedish rhapsodies, are program music, which means music with an underlying program that is meant to be evoked in the listeners mind. Alfvén appears as a character in the film The passion of Marie.
Important composers in the early 1900s are Hilding Rosenberg, Kurt Atterberg, Ture Rangström. The best-known opera singers were the 19th century soprano Jenny Lind and the 20th century tenor Jussi Björling, who had great success abroad as a tenor. Also sopranos Christina Nilsson, Birgit Nilsson, and tenor Nicolai Gedda, baritone Håkan Hagegård and the contemporary soprano Miah Persson and mezzo-sopranos Anne Sofie von Otter and Katarina Karnéus have become known in the world of opera. Evert Taube, Povel Ramel, Cornelis Vreeswijk, Fred Akerstrom are all popular modern troubadours, considered to be classics in Swedish music. Sweden also has a prominent choral music tradition, deriving in part from the cultural importance of Swedish folk songs.
Choral
Sweden has a long tradition of professional and amateur choir singing. A large percentage of the Swedes sing in amateur choirs in various styles. The choirs of Sweden are among the best in the world, with the Radio Choir, owned by Sveriges Radio (Swedish public radio) being one of the world's top professional classical choirs. Lunds Studentsångförening (LSS) and Orphei Drängar (OD) are two world-class male choirs singing both in Swedish and other languages. The choir leader Eric Ericson started his career as chief conductor of OD in the 1950s.
Modern
Jazz
Well-known jazz names include: Alice Babs, who worked with Duke Ellington for many years starting in 1963, Arne Domnerus, who has recorded albums with James Moody, Art Farmer and Clifford Brown, Bengt Hallberg, Bobo Stenson, Esbjörn Svensson Trio, composer and jazz musician Georg Riedel, Georg Wadenius, best-selling jazz musician Jan Johansson, the jazz duo Koop, Lars Gullin, the multi-instrumentalist and composer Magnus Lindgren, singer and actress Monica Zetterlund, Nils Landgren, Putte Wickman, Rolf Ericson, guitar virtuoso Ulf Wakenius, and Åke Hasselgård. In addition, American jazz trumpeter Don Cherry was based in Sweden for much of his later life.
Pop
Sweden is one of the world's biggest exporters of music relative to the size of its economy. The most famous Swedish popular music act of all time is ABBA, composed of members Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Benny Andersson and Anni-Frid Lyngstad. After winning the Eurovision Song Contest 1974, ABBA grew to become the dominant pop band of the 70s and early 80s. Their sales figures are disputed but claims have been made of 380 million records around the world, making them the second-most successful group ever after The Beatles. ABBA continues to sell around one million records a year worldwide. ABBA-members Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus have been very successful in musical theatre, with their international hit Mamma Mia!, as well as Chess, and Kristina från Duvemåla, which was a huge success in Sweden. The female members also pursued solo careers after the breakup. Agnetha Fältskog has scored various hits as a solo artist, with her 2013 album 'A' selling up to 1.5 million copies worldwide.
ABBA marked the beginning of an era in which Swedish pop music gained international prominence, a position it still maintains today. Excluding the UK, Sweden is the European nation with the most number-one hits on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100: as of 2019, seven songs has reached the #1 position. The first one was a 1974 cover version of "Hooked on a Feeling", performed by Blue Swede, followed by ABBA's "Dancing Queen" in 1977. Roxette had no less than four number-one hits between 1989 and 1991: "The Look", "Listen to Your Heart", "It Must Have Been Love" and "Joyride", and in 1994 Ace of Base reached the top with their hit "The Sign".
Since the 1990s, Sweden's influence on the international pop music scene has been most evident via a number of its heavyweight songwriters and producers. Cheiron Studios, spearheaded by Denniz Pop and his protégé Max Martin, helped Ace of Base become an international success, and then went on to creating some of the biggest hits of Britney Spears, Backstreet Boys, NSYNC, Westlife, and later Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Taylor Swift and The Weeknd, to name just a few. Denniz Pop died from cancer in 1998 and Cheiron Studios was closed two years later, but Martin remains a superstar in the industry - only Paul McCartney and John Lennon have written more #1 Billboard hits than Max Martin. Other prominent producers who were part of Cheiron include Carl Falk, Rami Yacoub, Kristian Lundin, Per Magnusson and Andreas Carlsson. In Cheiron's and Max Martin's wake a number of successful producers have also emerged in later years, including Shellback, Bloodshy & Avant and Moroccan-Swedish RedOne.
The success of Swedish popular music is also evident in the Eurovision Song Contest. The contest attracts great interest and the Swedish contestant is selected through Melodifestivalen, a series of qualifiers which is Sweden's most popular TV show. Since ABBA's win in 1974, Sweden has won the Eurovision Song Contest five more times: in 1984 with Herreys, in 1991 with Carola Häggkvist, in 1999 with Charlotte Nilsson, in 2012 with Loreen and most recently in 2015 with Måns Zelmerlöw. With these six wins, Sweden is the country with the second-highest number of Eurovision victories - Ireland has one more.
Some of the most successful post-ABBA popular music artists from Sweden are Europe, Roxette, Madleen Kane, Agnes, Ace of Base, Kent, Carola Häggkvist, Army of Lovers, Neneh and Eagle-Eye Cherry, Leila K, Robyn, A*Teens, Nanne Grönvall, The Cardigans, Bodies Without Organs, Andreas Johnson, Alcazar, and September. A number of renowned rock and pop-oriented artists have come out of the country in recent years, including Eskobar, bob hund, Clawfinger, The Sounds, The Hives, Hardcore Superstar, Millencolin, Sahara Hotnights, The Hellacopters, The Ark, Infinite Mass, Mando Diao, Looptroop Rockers and José González. The Knife and Jens Lekman have both received significant underground acclaim in recent years. Such has been the success of music abroad that clubs specializing in Swedish music have sprung up in major cities like Berlin, Barcelona and London. Swedish chart toppers Kent are also often regarded as a pop band based on the variety of sounds found on their various albums.
Some Swedish easy listening/contemporary groups and artists who are not as well known internationally, but are recognized in Sweden, include Gyllene Tider, Peter Jöback, Lill-Babs Svensson, Marie Fredriksson, Laleh, Per Gessle, Ted Gärdestad, Helen Sjöholm, Charlotte Perrelli, Loreen, Sanna Nielsen, Lena Philipsson and Patrik Isaksson. Scandinavia is considered the bubblegum dance capital of the world. Many bubblegum dance artists emerged from Sweden, including Smile.dk, made famous by the videogame Dance Dance Revolution.
Hip hop
While jazz, blues and soul have been around for a long time in Sweden, hip hop is a more recent addition. Swedish hip hop emerged in the first half of the 1980s and crossed into the mainstream a decade later. Artists that achieved mainstream popularity in the early 1990s include Just D, Infinite Mass and The Latin Kings. In the late 1990s there was a second breakthrough and artists like Petter, Ken Ring, Thomas Rusiak, Timbuktu and Looptroop Rockers became well-known. More recent acts worth mentioning are Promoe, Roffe Ruff, Snook, Ison & Fille, Maskinen, Million Stylez, Rebstar, Adam Tensta, and Drain Gang. Swing hip hop jazz also has made a mark with the band Movits! as a frontrunner.
Rock
While rock is not as widespread in Sweden as pop or metal are, there are some very interesting acts. In the 1980s, Swedish rock band Europe reached international success. The 1990s saw the rise of Kent, who became the most popular Swedish rock band in Scandinavia until they disbanded in 2016.
Reggae
Reggae is also a major part of modern Swedish music. An early pioneer of Swedish reggae was Peps Persson, who Bob Marley once said was the only white man with reggae in his blood. Since then, more has happened. The Uppsala group Labyrint is widely spread with their musical mix of rap and reggae called förortsreggae. Swedish music producers Soundism are behind Swedish reggae artists Kapten Röd, Papa Dee, Million Stylez, and Chilly & Leafy (and more), also records with international artist such as Junior Ketlly, Lady Saw, and Buju Banton.
Punk rock
The most prominent and important Swedish punk rock band is Ebba Grön (1977–1982) headed by Joakim Thåström. Thåström also had two other bands called Imperiet and Peace, Love & Pitbulls but they were very pop influenced and never became anywhere near as popular as Ebba Grön. However, Thåström is still big in Sweden, now as a solo artist.
Sweden is also home to several influential emo and hardcore punk bands, such as Fireside, Last Days Of April, Satanic Surfers, Kelly 8 and landmark post-hardcore band Refused. More aggressive early hardcore punk bands include Asta Kask, Charta 77, Mob 47, Anti Cimex, Totalitär, Homy Hogs, T.S.T, Headcleaners, and The Shitlickers. Some later influential bands of the aggressive sort are for example Disfear, Driller Killer, Wolfbrigade, Loudpipes, Warvictims, Bombshell Rocks, and Raised Fist.
Heavy metal
Sweden (along with Scandinavia at large) is known for its large number of heavy metal bands, so much so that this phenomenon has attracted scholarly analysis. Sweden is second only to neighboring Finland in heavy metal bands per capita.
Swedish musicians were instrumental in the creation of melodic death metal, also known as Gothenburg metal, particularly the bands In Flames, At the Gates, and Dark Tranquility. These bands later developed their style further, adding new influences and inspiring other acts like the American melodic metalcore bands. Bathory is credited for helping create black metal, a style that became popular in Norway, as well as pioneering Viking metal, and deceased black metal icon Per Yngve Ohlin was from Sweden. Dissection is also noted for their large influence on Swedish black metal, in particular melodic black metal. The country is also well known for death metal, progressive, doom and power metal bands. Stockholm band Candlemass is one of the first and most influential doom metal bands, starting in 1984.
Yngwie J. Malmsteen is one of the fathers of neo-classical metal. Meshuggah is an avant-garde metal band which developed djent from the late 80s and 90s. Opeth is regarded as one of the most influential and innovative metal bands, crossing melodic death metal and progressive rock between the 90s and the 2000s. Passenger is considered the swan song of the nu metal scene in the early 2000s.
Famous other bands include Pain of Salvation, Entombed, Dismember, Hypocrisy, Amon Amarth, Arch Enemy, Soilwork, Freak Kitchen, Sabaton and more.
Some of the prominent metal acts are:
Successful progressive/psychedelic acts are for example Bo Hansson, Dungen, Anekdoten, Morte Macabre, Opeth and Paatos. Finland and neighboring Norway are also crucial centers of controversial rock music genres, including black metal, death metal, and techno-rock movements since the 1980s and 1990s.
Progressive and jazz-rock music
Sweden is also known in some circles for its progressive and jazz-rock musicians, particularly for virtuoso-led acts including Andromeda, Anekdoten, Änglagård, Arbete och Fritid, Björn J:son Lindh, Bo Kaspers Orkester, Janne Schaffer, Kaipa, Landberk, Samla Mammas Manna, Opeth, The Flower Kings, and Beardfish. One of the most unusual progressive music artists in Sweden has been avant-garde songstress iamamiwhoami.
Progg
During the 1970s, the progg (not to be confused with progressive rock) movement gained popularity. Progg, originally an abbreviation of "progressiv musik" ("progressive music"), was an umbrella term for much of the alternative music of this era. Some of those artists were progressive in a musical sense, such as Bo Hansson, Samla Mammas Manna and Träd, Gräs och Stenar. Others were progressive mainly in a political (usually left-wing) and lyrical sense, such as Nationalteatern, Blå Tåget and Hoola Bandoola Band.
Electronic music
Electronic music in Sweden has been heavily influenced by German electronic music. The EDM act Swedish House Mafia, comprises of Steve Angello, Sebastian Ingrosso and Axwell, has topped house music charts and DJ top 10s around the world. In 2011, Avicii (real name Tim Bergling) was voted the 6th best DJ in the world in the Top 100 DJ poll. Other similar artists of note are John Dahlbäck, Manse, Eric Prydz, Nause, Albin Myers, the duo Dada Life, Galantis, Adrian Lux, Basshunter, Otto Knows, Alesso, Rebecca & Fiona, Cazzette, Jakob Liedholm, Sebjak, AronChupa, Icona Pop, Will & Dan, Brohug and Tjernberg.
Singer and producer Robyn has long been one of Sweden's most prominent electropop acts. In the synth world, the band S.P.O.C.K has been active since the late 1980s. Secretive duo The Knife was highly rated among critics, and Sally Shapiro, is the pseudonym of producer Johan Agebjörn and a Swedish singer.
In the mid to late 2000s Swedish-language Eurodance & Eurotrance dance music became internationally popular. In 2005, Basshunter became popular with his eurotrance dance songs, based on long standing themes set in mid to late 2000s computer centric culture. Little Dragon and Alcazar are also Swedish.
There are many techno producers from Sweden, though they are often better known internationally than within Sweden. There is even a special Swedish subgenre of techno, the best-known producer within this genre being Adam Beyer, head of the Drumcode label with notable artists such as Cari Lekebusch, Joel Mull, Henrik B, etc.
In addition, Sweden is one of the leading countries in the world when it comes to chiptunes, or bitpop. Chip music is music made to run on old game consoles and specialized PCs, like the Amiga, Commodore 64, or Game Boy.
Other notable acts include Slagsmålsklubben, Crazy Q, Coma, Covox, Goto80, Maktone, Random, Wintergatan, Zabutom, The Knife, Zeigeist and Machinae Supremacy.
Elektronmusikstudion (EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art. The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.
See also
List of Swedes in music
Royal Swedish Academy of Music
Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra
Swedish Federation of Young Musicians
Culture of Sweden
Sweden in the Eurovision Song Contest
References
External links
Sweden.se/music — Sweden's official music room – A music player with contemporary Swedish music
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242832
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Number (disambiguation)
|
A number describes quantity and assesses multitude.
Number and numbers may also refer to:
Mathematics and language
Grammatical number, a morphological grammatical category indicating the quantity of referents
Nominal number, a label to identify an item uniquely
Number theory, a mathematical discipline
Numbering scheme, a method of assigning numbers to items
Numeral system, a writing system for expressing numbers
Numeral (linguistics), words or phrases that describe a numerical quantity
Number sign a "#"
Literature
Book of Numbers, part of the Torah; the fourth book of the Bible
Number (magazine), a Japanese sports magazine
Numbers (magazine), a literary magazine published in Cambridge, England
Numbers: The Universal Language, a 1996 illustrated book by Denis Guedj
Entertainment
"Numbers" (Lost), an episode of Lost
The Numbers (Lost), the numbers 4, 8, 15, 16, 23, 42 in Lost
Numbers (Nanoha), a group of characters in Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha StrikerS
Numbers (TV series) (stylised as Numb3rs), an American TV series
The Numbers (website), a website that tracks box office revenue and film sales
Numbers monsters, a set of cards in Yu-Gi-Oh! Zexal
Numbers, a play by Kieron Barry
Numbers, a character in the Dick Tracy franchise
A Number, a 2002 play by the English playwright Caryl Churchill
Numbers, a historic nightclub in the Montrose neighborhood of Houston, Texas
The Number (film), a 2017 South African film
Music
Number (music)
Number opera, an opera consisting of individual musical numbers
Numbers (American band), an American indie rock/electronic group
The Numbers Band, an American rock group
The Numbers (band), an Australian rock group
Numbers (record label), a Scottish record label
Albums
Numbers (Cat Stevens album) (1975)
Numbers (Rufus album) (1979)
Numbers (The Briggs album) (2003)
Numbers (Days Difference album) (2007)
Number(s) (Woe, Is Me album) (2010)
Numbers (MellowHype album) (2012)
Songs
"Numbers" (Kraftwerk song), from the 1981 album Computer World
"Numbers", a song by Soft Cell from their 1983 album The Art of Falling Apart
"Numbers", a song by Basshunter from his 2009 album Bass Generation
"Numbers", a song by Skepta featuring Pharrell Williams from the album Konnichiwa
"The Numbers", a song by Radiohead from their 2016 album A Moon Shaped Pool
"Numbers", a song by Melanie Martinez from her 2020 deluxe album K-12
"Numbers", a song by Weezer from their 2021 album OK Human
People with the name
Ronald Numbers (born 1942), an American professor and historian of science
Other uses
Numbers (spreadsheet), a spreadsheet application developed by Apple as part of its iWork suite
Number (periodicals), a number to indicate a particular issue of a periodical
Number (sports), a number assigned to an athlete
Telephone number or number
Numbers game, a gambling scheme common in poor U.S. urban neighborhoods
Numbers station, a spy radio station
The Numbers Gang, a prison gang in South Africa
Preferred number or preferred value in industrial design
Describing something having greater numbness
, or My Number in Japan, is a 12-digit ID number that has been issued to all citizens and residents of Japan since late 2015.
See also
:Category: Numbers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscarine
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Muscarine
|
Muscarine, L-(+)-muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in Inocybe and Clitocybe species, such as the deadly C. dealbata. Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena have also been found to contain levels of muscarine which can be dangerous if ingested. Muscarine has been found in harmless trace amounts in Boletus, Hygrocybe, Lactarius and Russula. Trace concentrations of muscarine are also found in Amanita muscaria, though the pharmacologically more relevant compound from this mushroom is the Z-drug-like alkaloid muscimol. A. muscaria fruitbodies contain a variable dose of muscarine, usually around 0.0003% fresh weight. This is very low and toxicity symptoms occur very rarely. Inocybe and Clitocybe contain muscarine concentrations up to 1.6%.
Muscarine is a nonselective agonist of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.
History
The name muscarine derives from that of Amanita muscaria, from which it was first isolated, by German chemists Oswald Schmiedeberg and Richard Koppe at the University of Dorpat, who reported their findings in 1869. The mushroom’s specific name in turn comes from the Latin musca for fly because the mushroom was often used to attract and catch flies, hence its common name, “fly agaric.”
Muscarine was the first parasympathomimetic substance ever studied and causes profound activation of the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system that may end in circulatory collapse and death. Being a quaternary ammonium salt, muscarine is less completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract than tertiary amines, and it does not cross the blood-brain barrier.
Muscarinic agonists activate muscarinic receptors while nicotinic agonists activate nicotine receptors. Both are direct-acting cholinomimetics; they produce their effects by binding to and activating cholinergic receptors.
Final proof of the structure was given by Franz Jellinek and colleagues in 1957 with the help of X-ray diffraction analysis; Jellinek further described the three-dimensional structure of the molecule using muscarine chloride. These new findings set into motion research on the pharmacology of muscarine and muscarine-like substances that are structurally related to acetylcholine.
Structure and reactivity
Muscarine mimics the function of the natural neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the muscarinic part of the cholinergic nervous system, despite the less flexible structure due to the five-membered ring in the molecular skeleton. With the exception of the double bonded oxygen, all of the acetylcholine structure is present in the right bottom side of muscarine (see Figure 3 below for comparison of both structures).
There are two mirror forms of muscarine, named: 2S-muscarine and 2R-muscarine.
Efficient synthesis of (+)-muscarine
The scheme below represents a very efficient way of the synthesis of (+)-muscarine according to the scientists Chan and Li in the Canadian journal of Chemistry in 1992.
S-(−)-Ethyl lactate (2)(Figure 4) is converted into the 2,6-dichlorobenzyl ether (3). Diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL) reduction of the 2,6-dichlorobenzyl ether gives the aldehyde (4). Treatment of the crude aldehyde with allyl bromide and zinc powder in water with NH4Cl as catalyst resulted in an anti:syn mixture of 5a and 5b. Treatment of 5a with iodine in CH3CN at 0 °C gives the cyclized product 6a. Finally treatment of 6a with excess trimethylamine in ethanol gave (+)-muscarine (2S,4R,5S). A similar reaction sequence with 5b gave (+)-epimuscarine (7).
Other Syntheses
It can be synthesized in various ways from completely different substances, particularly from 2,5-dimethyl-3-carboxymethyl flurane.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Muscarine mimics the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine by agonising muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. These receptors were named after muscarine, to differentiate them from the other acetylcholine receptors (nicotinic receptors), which are comparatively unresponsive to muscarine. There are 5 different types of muscarinic receptors; M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5. Most tissues express a mixture of subtypes.
The M2 and M3 subtypes mediate muscarinic responses at peripheral autonomic tissues. M1 and M4 subtypes are more abundant in brain and autonomic ganglia.
The odd numbered receptors, M1, M3 and M5, interact with Gq proteins to stimulate phosphoinositide hydrolysis and the release of intracellular calcium. Conversely, the even numbered receptors, M2 and M4, interact with Gi proteins to inhibit adenylyl cyclase, which results in a decrease of intracellular concentration of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).
Most agonists for muscarine receptors are not selective for subtypes.
Muscarinic receptors also signal via other pathways, for instance via G beta-gamma complex modulation of potassium channels. This allows muscarine to modulate cellular excitability via the membrane potential.
Metabolism
A paucity of research exists on the metabolism of muscarine in the human body, suggesting this compound is not metabolized by humans. Though there has been extensive research in the field of acetylcholine metabolism by acetylcholinesterase, muscarine is not metabolized by this enzyme, partly explaining the compound's potential toxicity. Muscarine is readily soluble in water. The most likely way for muscarine to leave the blood is via renal clearance; it will eventually leave the body in urine.
Medical uses
Muscarinic agonists are used as drugs in treating glaucoma, postoperative ileus, congenital megacolon, urinary retention and xerostomia. Muscarine is contraindicated in people with diseases that make them susceptible to parasympathetic stimulation, people who have asthma or COPD, or people who have peptic ulcer disease. Also people with an obstruction in the gastrointestinal or urinary tract are not prescribed muscarine because it will aggravate the obstruction, causing pressure to build up that may lead to perforation.
Efficacy
As muscarine works on the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, the best comparison can be made with acetylcholine, which normally works on this receptor. Pure muscarine compared to pure acetylcholine is stated in most cases to be more potent, its action is always slower but longer lasting than acetylcholine. A possible explanation for this long-lasting behavior might be that muscarine does not get hydrolyzed by acetylcholinesterase in the synaptic cleft.
Toxicology
Muscarine poisoning is characterized by miosis, blurred vision, increased salivation, excessive sweating, lacrimation, bronchial secretions, bronchoconstriction, bradycardia, abdominal cramping, increased gastric acid secretion, diarrhea and polyuria. If muscarine reaches the brain it can cause tremor, convulsions and hypothermia.
Cardiac ventricles contain muscarinic receptors that mediate a decrease in the force of contractions leading to a lower blood pressure. If muscarine is administered intravenously, muscarine can trigger acute circulatory failure with cardiac arrest.
The symptoms of intoxication with mushrooms rich in muscarine, especially Inocybe, are very typical:
The symptoms start early, after one-quarter to two hours, with headache, nausea, vomiting, and constriction of the pharynx. Then salivation, lacrimation, and diffuse perspiration set in, combined with miosis, disturbed accommodation, and reduced vision. Gastric and small bowel colic leads to diarrhea, and there is a painful urge for urination. Bronchoconstriction leads to asthmatic attacks and severe dyspnea, and bradycardia combined with marked hypotension and vasodilation results in circulatory shock. Death after 8 to 9 hours has been reported in about 5% of the cases, but can be avoided completely by prompt administration of IV or IM anticholinergic drugs.
Antidote
Antimuscarinics such as atropine can be used as an antidote to muscarine. Atropine is, like muscarine, an alkaloid but unlike muscarine is an antagonist of the muscarinic receptors. Hence, it inhibits the effects of acetylcholine.
Muscarinic antagonists dilate the pupil and relax the ciliary muscle, are used in treatment of inflammatory uveitis and is associated with glaucoma. They are also used to treat urinary incontinence and diseases characterized by bowel hypermotility such as irritable bowel syndrome.
Muscarinic antagonists are often called parasympatholytics because they have the same effect as agents that block postganglionic parasympathetic nerves.
References
External links
Treatment of muscarine poisoning
Psychoactive Amanitas on Erowid
Muscarinic agonists
Mycotoxins
Quaternary ammonium compounds
Alkaloids
|
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Music of Finland
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The music of Finland can be roughly divided into categories of folk music, classical and contemporary art music, and contemporary popular music.
The folk music of Finland belongs to a broader musical tradition, that has been common amongst Balto-Finnic people, sung in the so-called Kalevala metre. Though folk songs of the old variety became progressively rarer in western Finland, they remained common in eastern parts of the country, mainly Karelia. After publication of Kalevala, this type of singing started to gain more popularity again. In the west of the country, more mainstream Nordic folk music traditions prevail. The Sami people of northern Finland have their own musical traditions, collectively Sami music. Finnish folk music has undergone a roots revival in the recent decades, and has also become a part of popular music.
In the field of classical and contemporary art music, Finland has produced a proportionally exceptional number of musicians and composers.
Contemporary popular music includes a renowned heavy metal scene like other Nordic countries, as well as a number of prominent rock and pop bands, jazz musicians, hip hop performers and makers of dance music. There is also a Schlager scene with bandstand dancing where the local variety of tango is also popular.
Folk music
There are two major traditions of folk music in Finland, namely, music of the Kalevala form, and Nordic folk music or pelimanni music (North Germanic spelman, "player of music"). The former is considered the older one. Its most important form is called runonlaulanta ("poem singing", or chanting) which is traditionally performed in a trochaic tetrametre using only the first five notes on a scale. Making use of alliteration, this type of singing was used to tell stories about heroes like Väinämöinen, Lemminkäinen, and Kullervo. The songs were memorised, not written down, and performed by a soloist, or by a soloist and a chorus in antiphony (see: Kalevala). The Vantaa Chamber Choir is an example of a choir that sings such poems in modern arrangements.
Pelimanni music is the Finnish version of the Nordic folk dance music, and it is tonal. It came to Finland from Central Europe via Scandinavia, starting in the 17th century, and in the 19th century, it replaced the Kalevalaic tradition. Pelimanni music was generally played on the fiddle and clarinet. Later, the harmonium and various types of accordions were also used. Common dances in the pelimanni traditions include: polka, mazurka, schottische, quadrille, waltz, and minuet.
A form of rhyming sleighride singing called rekilaulu also became popular in the 17th century. Despite opposition from most of the churches in Finland, rekilaulu remained popular and is today a common element in pop songs. Since the 1920s, several popular Finnish performers have used rekilaulu as an integral part of their repertoire. Early pioneers in this field of pop rekilaulu included Arthur Kylander, while Erkki Rankaviita, Kuunkuiskaajat, and Pinnin Pojat have kept the tradition alive.
Early in the 20th century, the region of Kaustinen became a center of innovation for pelimanni music. Friiti Ojala and Antti Järvelä were fiddlers of the period. Konsta Jylhä and the other members of Purpuripelimannit (formed in 1946) became perhaps the most influential group of this classical period. Well-known Finnish folk music groups of today in the Kaustinen tradition include JPP, Frigg (although part Norwegian), and Troka. A group more focused on the earlier Kalevala singing traditions and the kantele is Värttinä. Another important folk musician of today is the accordionist Maria Kalaniemi.
Common instruments today also include trumpets, horns and whistle. Important musical virtuosos are Leena Joutsenlahti, Teppo Repo and Virpi Forsberg. More traditional Finnish instruments include the kantele, which is a chordophone, and was used in the Kalevala by the hero Väinämöinen. More primitive instruments like the jouhikko (a bowed lyre) and the säkkipilli (Finnish bagpipe) had fallen into disuse, but are now finding new popularity in a folk revival.
In the 20th century, influences from modern music and dances such as jazz and foxtrot led to distinctively Finnish forms of dance music, such as humppa and jenkka.
Sami music
The Sami of northern Finland, Sweden, and Norway are known for highly spiritual songs called joik, reminiscent of a few types of Native American singing. The same word sometimes refers to lavlu or vuelie songs, though this is technically incorrect. The hip hop artist Amoc is noted for rapping in Inari Sami, a Sami language from the area of Inari.
Classical and art music
Classical music
In the 18th century, public concerts were established in Turku and Erik Tulindberg wrote six very famous string quartets. After Russia's 1809 annexation of Finland, the cities of Viipuri and Helsinki became cultural centers and opera became very popular. The first Finnish opera was written by the German composer Fredrik Pacius in 1852. Pacius also wrote Maamme/Vårt land (Our Land), Finland's national anthem and founded Akademiska Sångföreningen in year 1838, the oldest still active choir in Finland.
In 1874, the Society for Culture and Education (Kansanvalistusseura) was founded in order to provide opportunities for artistic expression, beginning with the Jyväskylä festival in 1881. The festival, organized on Estonian roots, still exists today. In 1883, the Helsinki University Chorus (Ylioppilaskunnan Laulajat) was founded as one of the few Finnish-language choirs in the mostly Swedish-speaking scene. The same year conductor Robert Kajanus founded what is known as the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra and Martin Wegelius founded what is now known as the Sibelius Academy.
In the 1890s, Finnish nationalism based on the Kalevala spread, and Jean Sibelius became famous for his vocal symphony Kullervo. He soon received a grant to study poetry singers in Karelia and continued his rise as the first prominent Finnish musician. In 1899 he composed Finlandia, which played its important role in Finland gaining independence. He remains one of Finland's most popular national figures and is a symbol of the nation.
Alongside Sibelius, the national romanticism sprouted a number of composers who all contributed in the formation of a distinct Finnish style of music. Heino Kaski was a composer of small chamber music pieces, Erkki Melartin's vast output includes six symphonies, Yrjö Kilpinen composed a vast number of solo songs, as well as Leevi Madetoja, Toivo Kuula. The 1930s saw composers like Uuno Klami and Yrjö Kilpinen rise to popularity. Kilpinen's approach was somewhat nationalistic, whereas Klami had Karelian influences while also leaning towards French models.
Finland has a very lively classical music scene. Composers are accompanied by a large number of great conductors such as Mikko Franck, Esa-Pekka Salonen (also a notable composer), Jukka-Pekka Saraste, Osmo Vänskä, Susanna Mälkki, Leif Segerstam and Sakari Oramo OBE. Many Finnish singers and instrumentalists have also achieved international success. Among them are the opera singers Martti Talvela, Karita Mattila, Matti Salminen, Soile Isokoski and Topi Lehtipuu, the pianists Ralf Gothoni, Olli Mustonen and Paavali Jumppanen, as well as the clarinettist Kari Kriikku and the violinist Pekka Kuusisto. Practically all prominent Finnish musicians perform both classical and contemporary art music, the old and new music are not separated from each other.
The opening of the new Finnish National Opera in 1993 and the new Helsingin Musiikkitalo in 2011 strengthened the position of classical and art music in the national infrastructure. The orchestra network in Finland might be proportionally the densest in the world, with the 30 member orchestras of the Association of Finnish Symphony Orchestras.
Opera
Aino Ackté and other prominent opera singers founded the Finnish Opera in 1911. Ackté also began a festival in Savonlinna the following year; this was the precursor of the Savonlinna Opera Festival, which was started in the 1960s, shortly before the new Finnish opera became famous in the 1970s. Leevi Madetoja's 1924 Pohjalaisia, an operatic allegory about Russian oppression during the previous decades, became popular during the 1920s. At roughly the same time, Aarre Merikanto composed the opera Juha to the libretto by Aino Ackté, who rejected it and asked Leevi Madetoja to compose another version instead; Merikanto's Juha was first performed after the composers death in 1958, and is nowadays widely regarded as an underrated masterwork.
Aulis Sallinen started a new wave of Finnish opera in the 1970s with The Horseman and The Red Line. The Red Line was soon recognized all over the globe with numerous reproductions in a.o. Moscow, London and New York City. Along with Sallinen's stage works, Joonas Kokkonen's opera The Last Temptations contributed heavily to the new rise of the Finnish opera music. More recent major operas by Finnish composers include among others Kaija Saariaho's L'Amour de loin and Adriana mater as well as Olli Kortekangas's Isän tyttö ("Daddy's Girl").
Contemporary art music
The first wave of post-classical music in Finland came about in the 1920s with young modernists Aarre Merikanto, Väinö Raitio and Sulho Ranta. However, this movement was tamed by the growing nationalistic tendency in the arts before the Second World War. In the 1940s, Erik Bergman and Joonas Kokkonen gained popularity and added important technical innovations to Finnish music. A new generation of Finnish composers turned into modernism, like Einojuhani Rautavaara and Usko Meriläinen, while the neoclassical style had its voice in the music of Einar Englund. The 1950s saw an increase in international attention on Finnish music and soon helped modernize Finnish composing.
The forming of the Ears Open! society in 1977 turned out to be the major change in the Finnish art music. From its circles there emerged a few composers and musicians who achieved worldwide success, like the conductor-composer Esa-Pekka Salonen, and the composers Eero Hämeenniemi, Kaija Saariaho, Magnus Lindberg and Jouni Kaipainen. The early Ears Open! society followed keenly the Central European modernism along the lines of Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen, but also showed a lot of interest towards the post-war Polish School composers like Witold Lutoslawski. Ears Open! was followed by the forming of Avanti! Chamber Orchestra in 1983, which offered a fine platform for composers and instrumentalists to introduce new works and stylistic flows in Finland.
In the 21st century, the modernist movement has waned somewhat, but is still represented by composers like Veli-Matti Puumala and Lotta Wennäkoski. Juhani Nuorvala is a rare minimalist, whereas Osmo Tapio Räihälä and Sebastian Fagerlund are leaning more towards post-modernism.
Even performing of contemporary art music blossoms in Finland, with specialized groups like Uusinta Chamber Ensemble and Zagros. The most important stages for contemporary art music are the established festivals Time of Music in Viitasaari, Musica nova Helsinki and Tampere Biennale, as well as the Klang Concert Series in Helsinki.
Popular music
Iskelmä
Iskelmä (coined directly from the German word Schlager, meaning hit) is a traditional Finnish word for a light popular song. Georg Malmstén started his career in the 1930s. After World War II and pre-rock music era, such names as Olavi Virta or Tapio Rautavaara, for example, were among the most popular male singing stars in Finland, and Toivo Kärki and Reino Helismaa most popular songwriters. Such foreign musical genres as tango would find their domestic audience as their Finnish appropriations. Laila Kinnunen, Carola, Annikki Tähti, Brita Koivunen and Vieno Kekkonen were some of the most acclaimed Finnish chanteuses of this time period. From the late 1960s, Irwin Goodman ( Antti Hammarberg), combining iskelmä and protest songs, would gain popularity with the humorous tunes penned by Vexi Salmi, who would become one of the most laborious writer of lyrics also for other Finnish artists. Juha "Watt" Vainio was another popular songwriter, known not only for Finnish renditions of many international hits but also for his own songs and being a performer in his own right. In the 1970s, hugely successful "Finnhits" compilation records of various artists would continue in the iskelmä tradition. Also rural-flavoured humppa would prove to be a successful variation of iskelmä, later on parodied by the band Eläkeläiset. Other popular Finnish iskelmä singers are among all Katri Helena, Danny (a.k.a. Ilkka Lipsanen), Fredi, Eino Grön, Erkki Junkkarinen, Frederik (a.k.a. Ilkka Sysimetsä), Marion Rung, Tapani Kansa, Kirka (a.k.a. Kirill Babitzin), Matti ja Teppo, Jari Sillanpää, and Kikka Sirén. The annual Eurovision Song Contest has been avidly followed in Finland and eagerly participated by the singers voted to the contest by national juries, and were finally successful in 2006 with the melodic heavy rock band Lordi.
Like Finnish music in general, iskelmä is written mostly in minor, although to this rule there are many exceptions. The melodies have a distinguishable Finnish "flavour" that is somewhat related to Russian and Italian melodies and harmonies although Scandinavian and Anglo-American influence can also be heard.
Iskelmä music is mostly and essentially dance music, and it is mostly if not solely performed on dancing stages and halls spread around the country. The best known and perhaps most beloved and respected though not most performed or danced genre of dances is the tango. A clear indication of this is, that the annual Finnish contest for iskelmä artists is named as "Tangomarkkinat" meaning "The Tango Marketplace"; many of the superstars of contemporary iskelmä have won this competition and it is major spectacle in Finland, even to some extent comparable with the San Remo festival in Italy.
Iskelmä is typically non-urban music and its greatest popularity is situated to the countryside and smaller cities.
Traditionally accordion has been the major instrument in iskelmä music and it is still played, but has in most cases been replaced by guitar, electric piano and synthesizer. These, with drums, electric bass and occasional use of saxophone form the basic instrumentation of iskelmä.
Rock music
Rock arrived in Finland in the 1950s. Founded in the 1960s, Love Records was one of the first domestic record labels dedicated to Finnish rock music, even though the label's roster also included jazz and political songs. During the late 1960s, Blues Section, a group inspired by Jimi Hendrix and The Who gained the reputation of being "the first Finnish band of international quality". Another band that gained some reputation was Apollo that had the later great jazz-drummer Edward Vesala as a band member. During these early days of Finnish rock the music didn't have much typical Finnish "flavour" and in the case of most bands, the activity was restricted in performing music made by international superstars. The aforementioned Blues Section later developed into internationally acknowledged "superband" Wigwam, had an English singer Jim Pembroke, who also wrote the lyrics and many of the melodies/harmonies of their songs. In the early days of the band there however were also songs with Finnish lyrics written by Jukka Gustafsson such as the classical Luulosairas.
During the 1970s, progressive rock groups Wigwam and Tasavallan Presidentti received critical acclaim in the United Kingdom, but fame evaded them. Pekka Streng was one of the great early pioneers of Finnish rock music with his very personal progressive folkrock and Finnish lyrics with a spiritual content. In the 2000s, there was a Streng-renaissance and one of his songs even became an international club hit. A hard-rock group called Hurriganes was popular in Sweden as well as in Finland, but not further afield. Hector, Juice Leskinen, Dave Lindholm and many other successful artists of the 1970s sang their lyrics in Finnish, a trend that has continued to this day. During the 1970s the genre of "suomirock" were born through the pioneering work of artists such as mentioned above.
Suomirock is a word that literally means Finnish rock music. However, its true meaning is a more specific one, meaning rock/pop music with Finnish lyrics. As a genre and a name it really started its life in the 1980s following the punk movement. It means rock/pop music, that is not only imitating international trends or otherwise having international sound and English lyrics, but a form of rock-music, that is recognizably Finnish and have Finnish lyrics. A more and more general and recent term is "suomipop". The boundaries between what is considered "rock" and "pop" have become quite blurred and arbitrary, and largely dependent upon personal preference. As it is also to some extent with rock / pop and iskelmä. Traditionally in iskelmä-music the artists themselves with few exceptions did not write their songs or lyrics, but in the rock scene the singer/songwriter aspect of the artist was considered important. It still is, but in the 2000s it is more and more typical that new performers such as Idols songcontest winner Ari Koivunen perform even heavy rock in the manner, that used to be typical only in iskelmä-scene.
The punk movement arrived in Finland in 1977 and had a great influence on the Finnish youth culture, Pelle Miljoona being the most famous Finnish punk singer. Terveet Kädet also started the hardcore punk-wave in Finland. Another popular band, Eppu Normaali, also started during this time period, (later to change its style from punk to rock / pop). At the same time, Finland also had a massive Ted movement of Elvis and rockabilly fans, later parodied by Finnish lo-fi punk band Liimanarina.
In the 1980s, most favoured artists were punkish Dingo and heavy-hearted Yö, both singing their lyrics in Finnish. In the underground, Ismo Alanko, considered by many as the foremost Finnish rock lyricist, gained a legendary status with his punkish groups Hassisen Kone and Sielun Veljet. Kauko Röyhkä was another literate underground icon, leaning musically towards Velvet Underground. The 1980s showed short international fame for punk style glam rock band Hanoi Rocks. Hanoi Rocks have been cited as an influence by major bands such as Guns N' Roses. Smack and Peer Günt were other successful Finnish bands of same style. Heavy metal was very popular in Finland during the 1980s, producing groups like Stone, the latter being a fondly remembered speed metal act. Hardcore punk is also popular in Finland, including bands such as Endstand, Abduktio, I Walk the Line, and Lighthouse Project.
In the early 1990s Finnish rock parody group the Leningrad Cowboys, a re-grouped international rock comedy band that grew out of the Finnish comedy band Sleepy Sleepers, whose members were used as actors in Aki Kaurismäki's comedy film Leningrad Cowboys Go America, achieved Central European touring success and performed live at the MTV Music Awards in New York City in 1994, together with the full Red Army Choir, performing "Sweet Home Alabama". This was the biggest TV audience of any Finnish music artist ever. Leningrad Cowboys were famous for outrageous outfits including ridiculous rock-a-billy hairdos and ultra-pointed shoes. The band was not able to develop that visibility into more U.S. success but remained popular in parts of Europe.
Though Finnish bands tend to write their lyrics in English as to leave their music open to countries outside of native Finnish boundaries, in the 1990s bands such as Apulanta, Miljoonasade, Ultra Bra and the shamanic art-punk group CMX had found their share of success with Finnish lyrics. The hard-to-define electronic country garage rock group 22 Pistepirkko got excellent reviews in the Finnish rock press and has reached some kind of a cult status in Central Europe. Some other notable Finnish cult rock groups of this era are the psychedelic, Hendrixian Kingston Wall that went in their late period far into psychedelia taking influence from shamanism and some of some genres of electronic dance music, and equally psychedelic but gothic, gloomy, and heavy Mana Mana.
A band to enjoy recent commercial success is The Rasmus. After eleven years together and several domestic releases, the band finally captured Europe. Their Dead Letters album sold 1.5 million units worldwide and garnered them eight gold and five platinum album designations. The single "In the Shadows" placed on Top 10 charts in eleven countries and was the most played video on MTV Europe for 2005. The Helsinki natives released their follow up album, Hide From The Sun, domestically in 2005. The album has a U.S. release date of 10.10.2006. To promote the album's U.S. release, the band has toured with the Welsh band Lostprophets, a band that has gained a great deal of success in both Europe and the United States. The new album Black Roses is set to be released on September. The album was produced by Desmond Child and the first single is called Livin' in a World Without You. This album was released worldwide on September 29. The single livin in a world without you was released on 10 September 2008.
Heavy metal
Finland is known for its many heavy metal acts, including many from the death metal, black metal, doom metal, folk metal, power metal, and symphonic metal subgenres.
Finland hosts a doom metal scene more focused on the depressive mood of the genre, evoking an intense grieving feeling. The bands play with very slow tempos and melodic tones, creating an atmosphere of darkness and melancholia. This scene was kick-started by the band Rigor Mortis (which, due to an older US band with the same name, changed their name to Spiritus Mortis), which originated in 1987. Notable bands include Reverend Bizarre, Minotauri, Dolorian, Shape of Despair, Thergothon, Skepticism and Unholy.
In the later 1990s the symphonic metal group Apocalyptica played Metallica cover songs as cello quartettos and sold half a million records worldwide. The recently retired Timo Rautiainen & Trio Niskalaukaus were one of Finland's most popular metal acts in the early 2000s, having risen from the ashes of late 1980s – early 1990s cult band Lyijykomppania. Children's power metal band Hevisaurus have also become popular, mostly in their native country.
Several Finnish metal bands have attained considerable worldwide success within the underground metal scene. Some remarkable examples of such bands are Stratovarius and Sonata Arctica, highly renowned as one of the top power metal bands of the world, and Children of Bodom, with their creative combination of power metal and melodic death metal.
Nightwish is considered a pioneer of symphonic metal that incorporates power metal as well as gothic metal in its music and had Tarja Turunen, a classical singing soprano, as its vocalist until 2005. The band has received platinum and gold certifications for its albums sales in many countries and is the third best selling Finnish artist. The band has also been nominated for several awards and amongst the ones it has won 11 Emma-gala awards, the Echo award, the Mtv Europe music award, the World music award and the Metal Storm award. In 2000 the band participated in the Finnish qualification for the Eurovision Song Contest and ended in the second place.
Kotiteollisuus is undoubtedly one of the most popular bands in Finland, having produced one platinum and several gold-selling albums and winning Emma-awards in 2003 and 2005 for best metal record (Helvetistä itään) and best DVD (Kotiteollisuus DVD) respectively.
Most recently, the Finnish hard rock band Lordi won the 2006 Eurovision Song Contest with a record 292 points, giving Finland its first ever victory. The song they used was "Hard Rock Hallelujah" and they celebrated this with a free concert in Market Square in Helsinki, Finland, on 26 May 2006.
From the beginning of 2000, HIM reached greater sales and more international success than any other band to ever come from Finland. Going gold with their first official American release Dark Light. Several Finnish bands have followed the lead of that band. Entwine, Lullacry, and Poisonblack are just a few Finnish bands of these genres.
Other well-known metal bands are Amorphis, Beherit, Impaled Nazarene, Turisas and Ensiferum.
Hip-hop
Finland also has its share of hip-hop bands as during the late 1990s to early 2000s, the Finnish hip-hop scene has gained strength. Dating back from growing underground culture one of the first Finnish Hip Hop records with lyrics in English was recorded at Vernissa (C) Manus / (P) Johanna Kustannus 1991 by Damn The Band. Later Finland has Nuera with MC's Skem (Henry Kaprali) & Dream (Petri Laurila) from Tampere region. Nueras first release is dated to 1992. Same guys, together with DJ K2 were also behind a hip-hop based radio show on YleX. The first popular hip-hop band to break the taboo of making rap lyrics in Finnish (rapping in Finnish was not regarded as serious business because the first artists to do this in the early 1990s such as Raptori, Nikke T and Pääkköset were humorous project and were popular mostly among children) was Fintelligens arguably one of the most successful hip hop bands in Finland. Let's not forget about Ceebrolistics, their first cassette single Sping was released in 1995 their lyrics has been both in Finnish and English. Few other important very popular but underground acts were MC Taakibörsta, Notkea Rotta and Paleface just to mention a few from the same era.
Today rap music is one of the major genres of Finnish pop-music and there are many artists, who have reached wide popularity. Still it can be said, that rap-scene is primarily an underground-movement. But even independent artists such as ASA with often very political and critical lyrics are quite popular. ASA's "leijonaa mä metsästän"-album was the third on Finnish albumchart in 2005. Finnish rap-artists, such as Paleface with English lyrics have not attained international success. An exception to this is /breakbeat-/electro-/ hiphop-band Bomfunk MC's, who with their MC Raymond Ebanks became popular in Central Europe, as they had the most sold European hit single of 2000, "Freestyler" along with trance music act Darude's international hit "Sandstorm".
Pop music
In the 1990s, a popular new trend was so-called Eurodance music and this style also had Finnish followers, many of which however are today quite forgotten. A couple of bands also wrote their lyrics in English, but didn't make it on the international music market. To mention few artists, there were Hausmylly, Aikakone and Movetron.
Some contemporary Pop/Rock singers, such as Maija Vilkkumaa, Sanni Kurkisuo, Jenni Vartiainen, nelli matula, Anssi Kela, Irina, Chisu, Anna Puu, Anna Eriksson, Hanna Pakarinen and Antti Tuisku, and pop rock groups such as Scandinavian Music Group, and PMMP, are very popular in Finland and they all primarily sing in Finnish, which may contribute to their relatively low profile internationally. Poets of the Fall is an example of a long-term Finnish pop/rock band singing in English.
Since the late 1990s and early 2000s, female artists have taken a more visible role in the Finnish pop music scene, not only as performers, but also songwriters. A talented singer-songwriter Chisu writing Finnish lyrics for instance is a good example of this phenomenon with a couple of her songs, that can very well be considered classics beside the songs of Eppu Normaali, Tuomari Nurmio and others in the future.
A number of iskelmä, rock- and popsongs have attained a status of a classic, the standard for the status being, that many have had some connection with the song and it is not a "hit of today". Although the differences between "pop", "rock" and "iskelmä" are remarkable in social signification – stereotypically "iskelmä" being music for people of greater age and countryside, "rock" and "pop" that of youth and people living in cities – the boundaries between the popular music "genres" are in reality rather vague. This seems to be true especially in a small number of popular songs that are performed over and over again in original form, or rearranged into new musical idioms and dialects.
Contemporary folk music
In the 2000s, an underground-movement of new Finnish folk music came out. Artists such as Joose Keskitalo, Kuusumun Profeetta, Paavoharju and others have brought something new into the Finnish music scene although wider popularity has not reached them. Despite their lyrics written in Finnish these bands have also attained international recognition, even cult-following. Also very well known artists with a status of a "classic", J. Karjalainen and Pauli Hanhiniemi have in their contemporary production gone to the direction of folk-music although this music has in spite of being recognized by critics, been left unnoticed by the larger public.
Another new phenomenon of 2000s, beside that of the very popular rap- and the underground folk-scenes, is "suomireggae". With their Finnish lyrics with moral and spiritual content these artists such as Soul-Captain Band, Kapteeni Ä-ni, Jukka Poika and Raappana have also reached not just a cult following but also wider popularity.
The underground scenes of various genres are very lively in Finland at the moment and a lot of bands and artists defy the genre-limits. A good example is very popular Finnish underground rap artist ASA (formerly known as MC Avain), who has used folk-artists as the accompanying band. Of bands such as Profeetta ja UMU it is very hard to say, what genre they represent.
Electronic music
In the field of electronic music, Jori Hulkkonen, as well as Jimi Tenor and Pan Sonic, have had underground success worldwide for a decade. In the sphere of trance Finland has given birth to internationally renowned DJs such as DJ Orkidea, Alex Kunnari, DJ Proteus, JS16, Super8 & Tab, Yotto, and Paavo Siljamäki. Other notable Finnish artists are Mesak, Imatran Voima, Mr Velcro Fastener, EODEM, Luomo a.k.a. Vladislav Delay, Brothomstates, Lackluster, Pan Sonic, Op:l Bastards and Ovuca. Some of the best-known electronic music labels are among all Sähkö Recordings, Kahvi Records, Dum Records (run by Kimmo Rapatti a.k.a. Mono Junk) and Jyväskylä's Rikos Records. The indisputable pioneer of Finnish electronic music is Erkki Kurenniemi who built his legendary DIMI synthesizers in the late 1960s and early 1970s. There's also the Finnish underground psy trance culture, which is mostly active in the Helsinki metropolitan area. The Finnish style (suomisaundi) of psy trance music is known worldwide and has notable fan audiences abroad, for example in Japan and Russia. Main characters in Finnish psy trance are artists such as Mullet Mohawk, Texas Faggott and Squaremeat. By far the most popular Finnish electronica artist is Darude (Ville Virtanen), who gained international success with his chart-topping single "Sandstorm", and the following hit album "Before the Storm." His music is a combination of hard house and progressive trance. The Finnish Hard Dance scene has also gained some following, primarily due to Helsinki-based DJ Proteus winning the title of Best DJ at The Hard Dance Awards in 2004 and 2005. Finland also has a popular and internationally recognised Freeform hardcore scene, with the FINRG label enjoying large success in the UK, Australia, and more recently Canada and the United States.
In experimental electronica, noise and ambient electronic music, Finland is represented by artists like Petri Kuljuntausta, Pink Twins, Ihokas, Rihmasto, Nemesis, Niko Skorpio, Dystopia, Ozone Player, Winterplanet, Corporate 09, Moya81, Outer Space Alliance.
Jazz
Jazz came to Finland in connection with the visit of American immigrants in 1926. One of the first Finnish jazz bands was Dallapé which is still active to this day. Klaus Salmi, Eugen Malmstén, Erik Lindström, Toivo Kärki, Ossi Aalto and Kauko Viitamäki are some of the first professional Finnish jazz musicians. Jazz bands were mainly doing dance gigs so the music had to be suitable for dancing. Popular genres were accordion jazz, ragtime, swing, jazz schlager and waltz.
The first decades of Finnish jazz music were strongly based on imitating foreign role models until the 1960s when a new generation of jazz musicians started to create more original music by combining American tradition and Finnish folk music influences. This group of talented and well trained musicians included Esa Pethman, Heikki Sarmanto, Eero Koivistoinen and Henrik Otto Donner. Edward Vesala's and Paroni Paakkunainen's Soulset band managed to succeed in international contests and festivals. The first Finnish jazz festival, Pori Jazz, was organized for the first time in 1966.
In the 1970s, Finnish jazz musicians began to mix jazz, funk and progressive rock in their music. Pekka Pöyry, Sakari Kukko, Pekka Pohjola, Jukka Tolonen and Olli Ahvenlahti were some of the most famous Finnish jazz musicians in the 1970s. Sakari Kukko's Piirpauke played jazz music which was heavily influenced by Finnish folk music and progressive rock. The music of Wigwam and Tasavallan Presidentti is usually regarded as progressive rock but it also had elements of jazz fusion. Live concerts often included long improvised solos by highly talented virtuosist. The UMO Jazz Orchestra was founded in 1975 which gave an opportunity to many Finnish jazz musicians to earn their living by playing jazz.
In the 1980s and 1990s, more talented, educated and professional jazz musicians got into jazz scene and Finnish jazz became more internationally recognized than ever. Jukka Linkola, Jukka Perko and Tapani Rinne with his Rinneradio made music combined by many different musical styles. Iiro Rantala, Rami Eskelinen and Eerik Siikasaari founded Trio Töykeät in 1988 and the band attained worldwide interest. Other important jazz musicians from this era are Severi Pyysalo, Lenni-Kalle Taipale, Verneri Pohjola, Markus Ketola and Anna-Mari Kähärä to name a few. Martti “Mape” Lappalainen founded Espoo Big Band and April Jazz festival in the 1980s.
After the 1990s, Finnish jazz has evolved further into many different musical directions and even samplers were used to create more unique sounds. The Five Corners Quintet, U-Street All Stars and Quintessence played nu-jazz with electronic and pop influences. Oddarrang, Dalindéo, Mopo, Teemu Viinikainen, Timo Lassy, Jukka Eskola, Manuel Dunkel and Mikko Innanen represent the present and future of Finnish jazz music. Today there are well over 200 professional jazz musicians in Finland.
Revival in the modern age
While a return to folk and socially active music was occurring in the United States, United Kingdom and elsewhere across the world, the Finnish roots revival began in the 1960s. The Ilmajoki Music Festival and Kaustinen Folk Music Festival, quickly became musical centers for the country and helped revitalize traditional Finnish folk music in a roots revival. The Runosong was revitalized by a new generation of performers, including Reijo Kela, Kimmo Pohjonen and Heikki Laitinen, who created the Kalevala performance art piece.
The International Folk Music Festival, established in 1968 in Kaustinen, was a major event in the popularization of Finnish folk. The 1970s saw further revival of Finnish folk music, including artists like Konsta Jylhä, JPP and Värttinä. Jylhä and his Purppuripelimannit band did the most to popular the scene in Finland.
In more recent years, some non-Sami artists, including Enigma and Jan Garbarek, have used joik and other Sami styles in their music, while Marie Boine of Norway is probably the most internationally famous Sami star. 1996's critically acclaimed Suden Aika by Tellu Turkka saw a further return of runosong to the Finnish music scene.
The Finnish bagpipe, the säkkipilli, though previously extinct, is also being revived by folk musicians such as Petri Prauda.
Popular opera
Since the 1960s, the Lahti Symphony Orchestra's reputation as one of the most important Scandinavian orchestras was cemented by conductor Osmo Vänskä; this helped to cause a boom in opera's popularity during the 1980s, while the form was increasingly seen as archaic elsewhere. the Savonlinna Opera Festival reopened in 1967.
Martti Talvela, Karita Mattila and Jorma Hynninen have become international opera stars, while composers like Kalevi Aho, Olli Kortekangas, Paavo Heininen, Aulis Sallinen, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Atso Almila and Ilkka Kuusisto have written successful operas, with Rautavaara especially achieving international success.
Military music
The military bands are a part of the Finnish Defence Forces. There is a total of
thirteen military bands in Finland. They are relatively small in size, but are often
reinforced with other local professional wind players.
Kaartin Soittokunta (The Guards' Band), Helsinki. 40 musicians + 2 conductors.
Panssarisoittokunta (The Armour Band), Hämeenlinna. 20 mus. + 1 cond.
Laivaston Soittokunta (The Navy Band), Turku. 20 mus. + 1 cond.
Ilmavoimien Soittokunta (The Air Force Band), Jyväskylä. 20 mus. + 1 cond.
Savon Sotilassoittokunta (The Band of Savo), Mikkeli. 20 mus. + 1 cond.
Oulun Sotilassoittokunta (The Military Band of Oulu), Oulu. 20 mus. + 1 cond.
Rakuunasoittokunta (The Dragoons Band), Lappeenranta. 14 mus. + 1 cond.
Pohjanmaan Sotilassoittokunta (The Osthrobothnian Military Band), Vaasa. 14 mus. + 1 cond.
Satakunnan Sotilassoittokunta (The Satakunta Military Band); Niinisalo. 14 mus. + 1 cond.
Karjalan Sotilassoittokunta (The Karelian Military Band); Kontioranta. 14 mus. + 1 cond.
Kainuun Sotilassoittokunta (The Kainuu Military Band); Kajaani. 14 mus. + 1 cond.
Lapin Sotilassoittokunta (The Military Band of Lapland); Rovaniemi. 14 mus. + 1 cond.
These are all fully professional orchestras with occasional support from
conscripts: In addition; there is a large military band consisting only
of conscripts with professional conductors called The Conscript Band of
the Finnish Defence Forces. Its strength is about 60-70 musicians, it
operates in Lahti and is concentrated on making marching shows and
large-scale concerts.
Further listening
A 3-CD box set entitled Beginner's Guide to Scandinavia was released by Nascente/Demon Music Group in May 2011. It was the first time that the various genres of Scandinavian music – pop, folk, jazz and experimental – had been combined on one album. Finnish artists featured include Värttinä, Kimmo Pohjonen, Maria Kalaniemi, Vuokko Hovatta, Sanna Kurki-Suonio, Islaja and Wimme.
Biggest radio stations
Yle, The Finnish state broadcasting corporation
Yle Radio 1
Yle Radio Suomi
YleX
Yle X3M
Yle Vega
Commercial
NRJ Group
Loop
Radio Rock
Radio Aalto
Radio Nova
Groove FM
Radio Suomipop
Radio Helsinki
The Voice
See also
List of Finnish singers
List of Finnish musicians
List of Finnish jazz musicians
List of years in Finnish music
Culture of Finland
Scandinavian death metal
Sami music
Provinssirock
Pori Jazz Festival
April Jazz Festival
References
Other sources
Henriksson, Juha. "Suomalaisen jazzin vuosisata" Viitattu 27.5.2014.
Henriksson, Juha. "A short history of Finnish jazz" Viitattu 27.5.2014.
Cronshaw, Andrew. "New Runes". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 91–102. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Further reading
Subrenat, Jean-Jacques. Listen, there's music from the forest; a brief presentation of the Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival ().
External links
Finnish Music Information Center
pHinnWeb: Finnish electronic music
Rockdata: Finnish Music Scene
Jazz Finland
Songs of Finland – A Collection of Finnish Popular Music on CD.
Kaamos – A webzine dedicated to Finnish metal and rock.
50 Alltime greatest finnish albums – a selection of Finnish popular music albums by professional critics
Finland longs for happier songs – An Article about Finnish Popular Music
Finnish culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Walston
|
Ray Walston
|
Herman Raymond Walston (November 2, 1914 – January 1, 2001) was an American actor and comedian, well known as the title character on My Favorite Martian. His major film, television, and stage roles included Luther Billis (South Pacific), Mr. Applegate (Damn Yankees), J. J. Singleton (The Sting), Poopdeck Pappy (Popeye), Mr. Hand (Fast Times at Ridgemont High), Candy (Of Mice and Men), Glen Bateman (The Stand), and Judge Henry Bone (Picket Fences). He also played one of the miners in Paint Your Wagon with Lee Marvin and Clint Eastwood.
Early life
Walston was born on November 2, 1914, in Laurel, Mississippi, the second son and youngest of three children born to lumberjack Harry Norman Walston and Mittie (née Kimball) Walston. He had an older sister, Carrie, and an older brother, Earl. His family moved from Mississippi to New Orleans, Louisiana, around 1925.
He started acting at an early age, beginning his tenure as a spear carrier rounding out productions at many New Orleans theaters. He mostly played small roles with stock companies, where he not only starred in traveling shows, but also worked at a movie theater, selling tickets and cleaning the stage floors. His family moved to Dallas, Texas, where he joined a repertory theater company under Margo Jones in 1938. He stayed at the Houston Civic Theater six years, "averaging 12 roles a year."
Career
Stage work
Walston was popular with Margo Jones' team of actors before he traveled to Cleveland, Ohio, where he spent three years with the Cleveland Play House. He then traveled to New York City, where he made his Broadway debut in a 1945 production of Maurice Evans's The G.I. Hamlet. Three years later, Walston became one of the first members admitted to the newly formed Actors Studio.
In 1949, he appeared in the short-lived play Mrs. Gibbons' Boys, directed by George Abbott, who later cast him as Satan (who bore the name "Mr. Applegate") in the 1955 musical Damn Yankees opposite Gwen Verdon as his sexy aide Lola. The chemistry between the two was such that they both garnered critical success and won awards for their roles. After a decade in New York theater, he won a Tony Award.
He starred as Luther Billis in the 1951 London production of South Pacific. He reprised that role in the 1958 film adaptation. He and Juanita Hall (as Bloody Mary) were the only cast members to appear in both the stage and movie versions. Additional Broadway credits included The Front Page, Summer and Smoke, King Richard III, Wish You Were Here, and House of Flowers. In 1957, actress and producer Katharine Cornell placed him in a role on Broadway in Robert E. Sherwood's Pulitzer Prize winning play about the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, There Shall Be No Night. The play was adapted for television for a Hallmark Hall of Fame production. He had a prominent role in the Rodgers & Hammerstein musical Me and Juliet, portraying the stage manager of the musical-within-the-musical, but his character did not participate in any of the musical numbers.
Early film and television work
Walston reprised his role in the 1958 film version of Damn Yankees. His other films included Kiss Them for Me, South Pacific, Say One for Me, Tall Story, Portrait in Black, The Apartment, Convicts 4, Wives and Lovers, Who's Minding the Store?, Kiss Me, Stupid, Caprice, Paint Your Wagon, The Sting, Silver Streak, and Get a Clue. Walston landed one of the three leading roles in Billy Wilder's comic farce Kiss Me, Stupid opposite Dean Martin and Kim Novak because, after six weeks of filming, Peter Sellers had to withdraw from the cast due to a heart attack.
He narrated many United States Department of Defense and Atomic Energy Commission (now United States Department of Energy) films about nuclear experiments, including the Operation Hardtack I nuclear test film series of 1958. He guest starred on numerous television programs, including The Shirley Temple Show, The Americans, and a television version of Going My Way.
My Favorite Martian
Walston achieved his greatest success as the title character (Uncle Martin) on My Favorite Martian from 1963 to 1966, alongside co-star Bill Bixby. The two immediately became close friends. The show was a top ten hit in its first season,still in the top 30 in its second, dropping to 45th in its third and final season. The success of My Favorite Martian typecast Walston and he had difficulty finding serious roles after the show's cancellation. He returned to character actor status in the 1970s and 1980s, and guest starred in such series as Custer, The Wild Wild West, Love, American Style, The Rookies, Mission: Impossible, Ellery Queen, The Six Million Dollar Man, Little House on the Prairie, and The Incredible Hulk, again with Bixby, in which Walston played Jasper the Magician in an episode called "My Favorite Magician".
Television comeback
From 1980 to 1992, Walston starred in 14 films, including Galaxy of Terror and Fast Times at Ridgemont High (as well as the 1986 television adaptation) as Mr. Hand. In a 1999 interview, Walston said that he was happy and relieved that when he walked down the street, young fans shouted at him "Mr. Hand" because he had finally torn away from his Martian role. In 1984, Walston played a judge on an episode of Night Court. Six years later, he made a guest appearance on an episode of L.A. Law. He later was hired for the role of Judge Henry Bone on Picket Fences; the character was originally a recurring role, but Walston proved to be so popular the character was later upgraded to a starring role.
In 1985, Walston made a brief appearance in the opening credits of Steven Spielberg's series Amazing Stories, as a caveman acting out a story for his tribe.
He appeared in Star Trek: The Next Generation as Boothby, head groundskeeper at Starfleet Academy in San Francisco, and reprised the role twice on Star Trek: Voyager.
In 1988, he guest starred in an episode of the popular horror-fantasy show Friday the 13th: the Series, as a bitter, elderly comic-book artist who uses a demonically cursed comic book to transform himself into a killer robot and murder his erstwhile enemies. In 1992, Walston played the role of Candy in the big-screen remake of John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men with Gary Sinise and John Malkovich. He would work alongside Sinise again two years later in the miniseries adaptation of Stephen King's The Stand.
Walston was nominated three times for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for his work on Picket Fences, winning twice, in 1995 and 1996. CBS cancelled the show after four seasons in 1996. Walston made a guest appearance in an episode of Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman entitled "Remember Me", in which he portrayed the father of Jake Slicker, who was stricken with Alzheimer's disease.
Later years
In 1994, Walston was diagnosed with lupus and as a result, his career began winding down. He appeared in an AT&T long distance TV commercial in 1995, in which his dialogue implied he was Uncle Martin from Mars, looking for good rates to talk to fellow Martians living in the United States.
Walston played Grandfather Walter Addams in Addams Family Reunion (1998). The next year, he appeared in the film remake of his hit series, My Favorite Martian (1999) in the role of Armitan. He appeared in the Touched by an Angel episode, "The Face on the Barroom Floor", which aired on October 15, 2000.
Walston made a cameo in the 7th Heaven episode, "One Hundred", which aired on January 29, 2001, 28 days after his death. His final film role was in the independent film Early Bird Special, which was released later that year.
Personal life and death
Walston married Ruth Calvert on November 3, 1943. The couple had one daughter, Katharine Ann.
On January 1, 2001, Walston died at age 86 at his home in Beverly Hills, California, six years after being diagnosed with lupus. He was cremated and the ashes given to his daughter.
Partial filmography
1957: Kiss Them for Me as Lt. (j.g.) McCann
1958: South Pacific as Luther Billis
1958: Damn Yankees! as Mr. Applegate
1959: Say One for Me as Phil Stanley
1960: Tall Story as Professor Leo Sullivan
1960: The Apartment as Joe Dobisch
1960: Portrait in Black as Cobb
1961: The Americans as Whit Bristow
1962: Convicts 4 as Iggy
1963: Wives and Lovers as Wylie Driberg
1963-66: My Favorite Martian (TV series) as The Martian
1963: Who's Minding the Store? as Mr. Quimby
1964: Kiss Me, Stupid as Orville
1967: Caprice as Stuart Clancy
1969: Paint Your Wagon as Mad Jack Duncan
1970: Math Country as Lionel Hardway
1972: The Paul Lynde Show as Mr. Temura
1973: The Sting as J.J. Singleton
1976: Silver Streak as Mr. Whiney
1976: The Six Million Dollar Man as Horton Budge
1977: The Happy Hooker Goes to Washington as Senator Sturges
1978: The Love Boat as a cruise ship passenger
1979: Institute for Revenge as Frank Anders
1979: Buck Rogers in the 25th Century as Roderick Zale
1979: Cliffhangers (11 episodes subtitled Stop Susan Williams) as Bob Richards
1979: Starsky and Hutch (S4,Ep15) as Tommy Reese
1979: The Incredible Hulk (1978 TV series) (S3,Ep5) as Jasper the Magician
1979: Little House on the Prairie (S6, Ep9 The King is Dead) as Jimmy Hart
1980: Popeye as Poopdeck Pappy
1981: Galaxy of Terror as Kore
1982: O'Hara's Wife as Walter Tatum
1982: Fast Times at Ridgemont High as Mr. Hand
1982: Hart to Hart (TV series) as Elliott Laurence
1983: Private School as Chauncey
1984: Gimme a Break! as Andy
1984: The Jerk, Too as Diesel
1984: Santa Barbara as Mr. Bottoms
1984: Night Court (TV series) as Judge Martin A. Landis
1984: Johnny Dangerously as Vendor
1985: Amazing Stories (TV series)
1985: O.C. and Stiggs as Gramps
1985: Silver Spoons (TV series) as Uncle Harry
1986: The Mouse and the Motorcycle as Matt
1986: Rad as Burton Timmer
1987: From the Hip as 1st Judge
1988: Friday the 13th: The Series (TV series) as Jay Star
1988: Paramedics as Heart Attack Victim
1988: Blood Relations as Charles McLeod
1988: Saturday the 14th Strikes Back as Gramps Baxter
1989: I Know My First Name Is Steven (TV movie) as Bob Augustine
1989: A Man of Passion as Basilio
1989: Oro Fino as Sacacorchos
1990: Ski Patrol as Pops
1990: L.A. Law as Gus Nivens
1990: Angel of Death as Prison Librarian Jenkins
1991: Blood Salvage as Mr. Stone
1991: Popcorn as Dr. Mnesyne
1991: Dream On (TV Series) (Season 2 Episode 12: "The Charlotte Letter") as Father Augustine
1991: Ralph S. Mouse as Matt
1992: Star Trek: The Next Generation as Boothby
1992: Eerie, Indiana (episode "The Loyal Order of Corn") as Ned
1992: The Player as Ray Walston
1992: Of Mice and Men as Candy
1992: The Commish (Season 2 Episode 5: The Witches of Eastbridge) as Burt Hagstone
1992: Space Case as Bert
1992-96: Picket Fences (TV series) as Judge Henry Bone
1994: The Stand as Glen Bateman
1996: Project ALF as Motel Manager
1996: House Arrest as Chief Rocco
1997: Get a Clue as Sandy McSouthers, Barney Northrup, Julian R. Eastman and Sam Westing
1998-99: Star Trek: Voyager (TV series) as a member of Species 8472 disguised as Boothby
1998: Addams Family Reunion as Walter Addams
1999: My Favorite Martian as Armitan
1999: Swing Vote as Justice Clore Cawley
2000: Touched By An Angel (TV series) as Benjamin Clay
2001: Early Bird Special as Pappy
2001: 7th Heaven (TV series) as Sgt. Millard Holmes (final television appearance)
References
External links
Ray Walston Papers at the Harry Ransom Center
1914 births
2001 deaths
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male television actors
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Tony Award winners
Vee-Jay Records artists
Deaths from lupus
People from Laurel, Mississippi
Male actors from New Orleans
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American male singers
People with lupus
|
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] |
242843
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geranium%20%C3%97%20magnificum
|
Geranium × magnificum
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Geranium × magnificum, the purple cranesbill, is a species of hardy flowering herbaceous perennial plant in the genus Geranium, family Geraniaceae. The multiplication symbol × indicates that it is the result of hybridisation, in this case between Geranium platypetalum and Geranium ibericum. Growing into a clump high and broad, it has the decorative, deeply-lobed leaves typical of the genus Geranium. Violet-blue flowers with darker veins are borne relatively briefly in early summer. Extremely hardy, to below , it is suitable for cultivation throughout all temperate regions. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
References
magnificum
Hybrid plants
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20is%20a%20rose%20is%20a%20rose%20is%20a%20rose
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Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose
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The sentence "Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose" was written by Gertrude Stein as part of the 1913 poem "Sacred Emily", which appeared in the 1922 book Geography and Plays. In that poem, the first "Rose" is the name of a person. Stein later used variations on the sentence in other writings, and "A rose is a rose is a rose" is among her most famous quotations, often interpreted as meaning "things are what they are", a statement of the law of identity, "A is A". In Stein's view, the sentence expresses the fact that simply using the name of a thing already invokes the imagery and emotions associated with it, an idea also intensively discussed in the problem of universals debate where Peter Abelard and others used the rose as an example concept. As the quotation diffused through her own writing, and the culture at large, Stein once remarked, "Now listen! I'm no fool. I know that in daily life we don't go around saying 'is a ... is a ... is a ...' Yes, I'm no fool; but I think that in that line the rose is red for the first time in English poetry for a hundred years." (Four in America).
She herself said to an audience at Oxford University that the statement referred to the fact that when the Romantics used the word "rose", it had a direct relationship to an actual rose. For later periods in literature this would no longer be true. The eras following Romanticism, notably the modern era, use the word rose to refer to the actual rose, yet they also imply, through the use of the word, the archetypical elements of the romantic era.
Mentions of "rose" in "Sacred Emily"
The following lines appear at widely separated places in "Sacred Emily":
It is rose in hen.
Jack Rose Jack Rose.
Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose.
Versions by Gertrude Stein
"Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose." ("Sacred Emily", Geography and Plays)
"Do we suppose that all she knows is that a rose is a rose is a rose is a rose." (Operas and Plays)
"... she would carve on the tree Rose is a Rose is a Rose is a Rose is a Rose until it went all the way around." (The World is Round)
"A rose tree may be a rose tree may be a rosy rose tree if watered." (Alphabets and Birthdays)
"Indeed a rose is a rose makes a pretty plate...." (Stanzas in Meditation)
"When I said.
A rose is a rose is a rose is a rose.
And then later made that into a ring I made poetry and what did I do I caressed completely caressed and addressed a noun." (Lectures in America)
"Civilization begins with a rose. A rose is a rose is a rose is a rose. It continues with blooming and it fastens clearly upon excellent examples." (As Fine as Melanctha)
"Lifting belly can please me because it is an occupation I enjoy.
Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose.
In print on top." (Bee Time Vine)
Variations by others
"A rose is a rose is a rose" and its variants have been contrasted with Shakespeare's "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet".
The sentence was heavily promoted by Stein's life partner Alice B. Toklas; for example, she sold plates with the sentence going all the way around.
It is told that Picasso answered to somebody asking the meaning of his paintings: "Go in the garden and ask the rose its meaning."
Robert Frost alludes to Stein's sentence in his poem "The Rose Family", from the 1929 collection West-Running Brook.
"Evidente y secreto, como el diamante, como el agua, como el desnudo, como la rosa" (Juan Ramón Jiménez, Madrid: Sánchez Cuesta, 1929)
The sentence was parodied by Ernest Hemingway after a brief time in Paris seeking editorial suggestions for his writing: "a stone is a stein is a rock is a boulder is a pebble." This also appears in his 1940 novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, in which there is yet another parody: "a rose is a rose is an onion." After a (perhaps bitter) falling out, the sentence becomes, "a bitch is a bitch is a bitch is a bitch."
The sentence appears in the 1952 musical film Singin' in the Rain, in the musical number "Moses Supposes". While parodying a dialogue coach, the characters of Don Lockwood and Cosmo Brown sing: "...A Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose is / A rose is what Moses supposes his toes is / Couldn't be a lily or a taffy daphi dilli / It's gotta be a rose cuz it rhymes with mose!"
The sentence appears in the 1952 Charlie Chaplin film Limelight. Chaplin's character expresses it as "The meaning of anything is merely other words for the same thing. After all, a rose is a rose is a rose. That's not bad. It should be quoted."
Aldous Huxley paraphrases the quotation in his 1954 book The Doors of Perception, writing "A rose is a rose is a rose. But these chair legs were chair legs were St. Michael and all angels." In his 1958 book, Brave New World Revisited, Huxley also referenced the quotation, writing, "An apple is an apple is an apple, whereas the moon is the moon is the moon."
William Carlos Williams in a poem "The Pink Locust", appearing in his 1955 collection Journey to Love, quotes "a rose is a rose/ is a rose" as emblematic of the poet's self-deprecation in relation to life. Williams regards the phrase as a slogan of poetic tautology, denying the value of the creative act: the poet feels impotent and recognizes in her art merely a banal repetition of the words we use every day to represent the unrepresentable richness of the natural world. But the following lines of the poem offer an alternative view, one which Williams re-affirmed throughout his career: "A rose is a rose/ and the poem equals it/ if it be well made."
In the 1960 Broadway musical Bye Bye Birdie (and its 1963 film adaptation), the character of Albert Peterson refers to the saying in the song "Rosie", in which he sings, "Oh, I once heard a poem that goes / A rose is a rose is a rose / But I don't agree / Take it from me / There's one rose sweeter than any that grows!"
In 1968, the Portuguese artist João Vieira (1934–2009) painted the oil on canvas Uma Rosa É [A Rose Is], a work later (1971) reproduced on the cover of Colóquio Artes, # 1, a prestigious cultural magazine issued by Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon.
In 1973 avant rock band Henry Cow sings "But a rose is a rose is a rose" on "Nine Funerals of the Citizen King".
UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said in 1981 that "A crime is a crime is a crime" in reference to the actions of members of the IRA. The sentence has been used by other speakers as well, with the intended meaning of "no matter what you call it, criminal violence is criminal, and illegal."
In the 1978 film The Magic of Lassie, Robert and Richard Sherman penned the song, "A Rose Is Not a Rose".
"A Rose Is Not A Rose" is a song written by Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman for the 1978 motion picture musical The Magic of Lassie and performed by Pat Boone.
Irving Stettner in his poem Singing: "A rose is a rose/ is a rose", as Gertrude/ Stein once said,/ and when i sing/ yes, i'm a red rose/ like anything!"
"Una rosa es una rosa es una rosa", the Spanish translation of Stein's verse, is the chorus of a song by the Spanish pop music group Mecano that appeared on their 1991 album, Aidalai. The pop-flamenco song tells the story of a man in love with a woman who by turns hurts and soothes him.
Bret Easton Ellis sent up the sentence in his 1991 novel American Psycho, as narrator Patrick Bateman utters, "a Rolls is a Rolls is a Rolls" during one of his frequent materialist stream-of-consciousness tirades.
A Rose Is Still a Rose was the title of a 1998 album by soul singer Aretha Franklin and a song from the album by Franklin and Lauryn Hill. The song, written by Hill, also contains the refrain, "What I am is what I am."
In the liner notes to the 1999 The Magnetic Fields album 69 Love Songs, frontman Stephin Merritt credited the sentence as an inspiration for the songs "The Things We Did and Didn't Do" and "The Flowers She Sent and the Flowers She Said She Sent".
Idlewild, a Scottish rock band, wrote a song called "Roseability", which appeared on their 2000 album 100 Broken Windows. The song mentions Stein at the end of the chorus—"and Gertrude Stein said that's enough"—and features large portraits of Stein in the background of the music video.
The sentence is quoted by David Lodge in his 2001 novel, Thinks ..., in the context of a debate between the fictional characters of Arthur Messenger (a cognitive scientist) and Helen Reed (a novelist).
James Tenney made a skillful if short setting of "Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose" as a canon dedicated to Philip Corner, beginning with an "a" on an upbeat rhythm and continuing so that each repetition shuffles the words, e.g. "a/rose is a rose/is a rose is/a rose is a/rose."
Mordecai Richler in his novel Barney's Version ridicules the stupidity of court speeches when the prosecutor ends his opening speech with "murder is murder is murder."
Jeanette Winterson wrote in her novel Written on the Body: "Sometimes a breast is a breast is a breast."
"La rosa es una rosa es una rosa" is used in Fernando del Paso's Sonetos con lugares comunes.
A song by Poe (Anne Danielewski), "A rose is a rose", states "a rose is a rose is a rose is a rose said my good friend Gertrude Stein."
The computer game Carmen Sandiego features a villain humorously named Rosa Zarrosas-Arroz.
Jeff Smith in the issue 13 of the Bone series, Fone Bone's love poems begin with "a rose is a rose is a rose".
William Burroughs wrote a linguistic variant: "the word for word is word."
The Italian rock band Long Hair in Three Stages use the variant "Rain is rain is rain is..." in a song called "Nothing" and then the original version by Stein, "A rose is a rose is a rose..." in a song called "Rose".
In the late-1980s, an American public service announcement featured a message regarding identical alcohol content in three alcoholic drinks—a beer, a mixed drink, and a shot of whiskey—with the sentence "A drink is a drink is a drink."
In the "Misleader" seventeenth episode of the first season of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, the character Detective Munch says, "a rape is a rape is a rape", implying that the bizarre nature of the rape he was investigating did not change the fact that a rape had occurred and that rape is still illegal.
In the English radio series My Word!, Frank Muir was called on to explain the origin of the sentence. His explanation: Nero and Cicero had rose gardens next to each other. The tender of Nero's garden had a mishap and destroyed a whole row of roses. So he sneaked over to Cicero's garden, stole a row from there and replaced the ones missing in his master's garden. However, they were white, while the ones in Nero's garden were pink or "rose-colored". When Nero saw this he wrote a note to the gardener: "Our roses are rose. Is a row Cicero's?" He has also rendered it as "Arrows sees Harrow's Ciceros" in a spin-off book You Can't Have Your Kayak and Heat It.
Julio Cortázar wrote in his novel Rayuela "A es A, a rose is a rose is a rose, April is the cruellest month, cada cosa en su lugar y un lugar para cada rosa es una rosa es una rosa..."
Stephen King refers to "A rose is a rose is a rose..." in his popular fantasy series The Dark Tower.
Helge Schneider shortens this sentence in German (title: "Eine Rose ist eine Rose ist", Album: 29 sehr sehr gute Erzählungen)
South African bank Nedbank advertises with the slogan "A bank isn't a bank isn't a bank."
Jonathan Safran Foer uses an altercation of the line "A rose is not a rose is not a rose!" and “A bullet’s a bullet’s a bullet!” in his 2003 book Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close.
In the 2005 House M.D. episode "Three Stories", Dr. House gives a lecture on diagnosing leg pain, and states that "Leg is a leg is a leg", whoever the patient.
Massachusetts hardcore-punk act Bane uses the motif, "a lie is a lie is a lie is a lie" in "Her Lucky Pretty Eyes", from their 1999 record It All Comes Down to This.
Georg Friedrich alias "Schorsch" says in Michael Glawogger's 2009 film Contact High as he drives backwards because of seeing a Polish police car that "Bulln san Bulln san Bulln", which means that "Cops are cops are cops".
In the 2010 movie Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, Stephen Stills says: "A gig is a gig is a gig is a gig."
Philip Jose Farmer had his character Omar Runic say "That a rose is a rose is a" in an extemporaneous poem he recites in the 1967 novella Riders of the Purple Wage.
In the 1968 film Where Eagles Dare Major Smith, played by Richard Burton, says "... but what the hell, a hole is a hole is a hole, as they say".
Vinícius de Moraes, at "Rancho das Flores": "Que uma rosa não é só uma flor Uma rosa é uma rosa, é uma rosa É a mulher rescendendo de amor". (A rose is not only a flower, a rose is a rose, and a rose is a woman exhaling of love.—not precise translation)
In Tales of Symphonia: Dawn of the New World, Marta Lualdi says "A thief is a thief is a thief!".
In the 2011 Supernatural episode "The Man Who Would Be King", the character Crowley laments "a whore is a whore is a whore" to Castiel.
In the novel Double Feature: Attack of the Soul-Sucking Brain Zombies/Bride of the Soul-Sucking Brain Zombies by Brent Hartinger, Russel says: "Zombie guts are zombie guts are zombie guts" to Min and Gunnar.
In Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 Issue 8, Peter Quill says "a save is a save is a... save." to Abigail Brand when they are unexpectedly saved by Angela during their brief captivity at the Peak.
In Laura Lemay's book Teach Yourself Java in 21 Days, the difference between upper and lowercase variable names is illustrated by, "A 'rose' is not a 'Rose' is not a 'ROSE'."
Richard Dennis wrote in "The Whizkid of Futures Trading" (Business Week, December 6, 1982, p. 102): "'A trend is a trend is a trend', Gertrude Stein would have said if she were a trader...".
Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau has stated, "A Canadian is a Canadian is a Canadian."
Former Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chretien said, "A proof is a proof is a proof."
In the 2016 Blindspot episode "Cease Forcing Enemy", Ashley Johnson as Patterson talks Jaimie Alexander in landing a plane saying "A plane, is a plane, is a plane".
In Tell Me Three Things by Julie Buxbaum the main character thinks "Ethan is Ethan is Ethan," an nth number of times.
The title of Reto Geiser's book about Architectures and Collaborations of Johnston Marklee is House is a house is a house is a house is a house.
In his 2016 Tony Award acceptance speech for his musical Hamilton, Lin-Manuel Miranda stated "love is love is love is love is love is love is love is love" in reference to the Orlando shooting at a gay club the night before.
In the pilot episode of the HBO series Westworld (2016) the android character Peter Abernathy (Louis Herthum) utters the phrase to Ford (Anthony Hopkins) after malfunctioning.
In "Body Parts" (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), the Rule of Acquisition No. 17: "A contract is a contract is a contract (but only between Ferengi)."
In Rupi Kaur's The Sun and Her Flowers: "a friend or a lover a loss is a loss is a loss"
Visual artist Roni Horn, in th rose prblm (2017), refers to the subject.
Abstract artist, Shane Guffogg, created a series partly inspired by this phrase titled, A Rose is a Rose is a Rose, in 2019 using oils on canvas.
In the 1977 episode of M*A*S*H, "Margaret's Marriage", Hawkeye says "An affair is an affair is an affair".
See also
Alliteration
Law of identity
Proof by assertion
Rhetorical device
Rule of three (writing)
References
External links
Text of "Sacred Emily"
BestInfoHub
FAMOUS QUOTES
Techpuzz
Quotations from literature
American poetry
Identity (philosophy)
Rhetorical techniques
Gertrude Stein
1910s neologisms
|
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242845
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Featherston
|
Joseph Featherston
|
Joseph Featherston or Featherstone (July 22, 1843 – July 17, 1913) was a notable Canadian Liberal Party politician, livestock advocate and farmer.
His career consisted of being a farmer and thoroughbred dealer in Toronto Township. He was President of the Dominion Live Stock Association in 1887 and 1st Vice President of the Dominion Live Stock Insurance Company from 1887 – 1888. He also served as President of the Canadian Swine Breeders Association from 1890 – 1891. He served as a Councillor, Deputy Reeve and Reeve before entering Federal politics.
He was chosen as a Liberal Candidate in Peel County to contest the general election for the House of Commons in 1891 against the sitting Conservative member William Armstrong McCulla. Featherston won that election with a 54 majority, in what has been described as a "keen and exciting contest." That election was declared void; a by-election which was held on February 11, 1892 gave Featherston a majority of 133.
The next election Featherston participated in was against A. F. Campbell, publisher of the Brampton Conservator. Featherston triumphed by a majority of 466, or 1891 to 1425. This marked the first time any Peel candidate won by a margin of over 100. Featherston's streak ended in 1900, to Richard Blain.
External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
1843 births
1913 deaths
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampang%20province
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Lampang province
|
Lampang (, ; Northern Thai: ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat), lies in upper northern Thailand. The old name of Lampang was Khelang Nakhon.
Geography
Lampang is in the broad river valley of the Wang River, surrounded by mountains. In Mae Mo District lignite is found and mined in open pits. To the north of the province is the high Doi Luang.
Within the province are Chae Son and Doi Khun Tan National Parks in the Khun Tan Range, as well as Tham Pha Thai, Doi Luang National Park, and the Huai Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve in the Phi Pan Nam Range. The total forest area is or 70 percent of provincial area.
History
Lampang is an ancient city of more than 1,300 years. It is mentioned in various legends in 11 different names; namely Kukkudnakhon, Lampakappanakhon, Srinakhonchai, Nakhon Vieng Kok Wua, Vieng Din, Kelang Nakhon, Nakhon Lampang Kam Kelang, Arlampang, Muang Lakorn, and Muang Nakhon Lampang.
Lampang was built in 680. According in Yonok historical record, a hermit named Suphrom Ruesi built a town for Prince Anantayot, son of Queen Jamadevi of Haripunchai’s Lamphun. The town was first named Kelang Nakhon and then changed into Nakhon Lampang.
In Yonok Chiang Saen period, Nakhon Lampang was governed by Khmer. It was later colonized by Burma and Chiang Mai in the period of King Thonburi about 250 years ago. Later, Lord Thipchang of Lampang has fought for Lamapng independence and established himself as Phraya Sulavalue Chaisongkram, King of Lampang in 1732.
In 1764 Prince Kaewfa, son of Lord Thipchang governed Lampang and was the first ancestor of Na Lampang, Na Lamphun and Na Chiang Mai family. Prince Boonyawat Vongmanit was the last ruler of Lampang.
Lampang was announced as a province in Thailand in 1892 in the reign of King Rama V.
Transport
The city is an important highway hub, with a four lane highway link to Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai, as well as a major highway to Phrae and the eastern Lanna provinces. Lampang is roughly a 1.5 hour bus ride to Chiang Mai. Lampang is a stop for the Chiang Mai-bound train, approximately 10 hours from Bangkok.
Lampang Airport is served by Bangkok Airways (three flights daily to Suvarnabhumi Airport) and Nok air (four flights daily to Don Mueang) (Oct 2015).
Health
The main hospital of Lampang is Lampang Hospital, operated by the Ministry of Public Health.
Tourism
Lampang province is not visited by many tourists, only about 900,000 per year, most of them passing through. In early 2019, the provincial governor rolled out a program called "Lampang: Dream Destination" to raise the number of visitors to two million within two years.
Economy
Lampang is known for the production of ceramic goods and its mining operations. A great deal of ball clay, china stone, and lignite are extracted from the surrounding mountains.
There are more than 200 ceramic factories in and around Mueang Lampang District. Most are small- to medium-sized operations producing novelties (plant pots, dolls), tableware, and building materials (tiles, railings).
The largest coal fired power plant in Southeast Asia is in Mae Mo District near the lignite mining area. The plant uses lignite as fuel. The largest concrete plant is also north of Mueang Lampang. This is also powered by lignite. Limestone is another abundant rock mined in Lampang.
Agriculturally, the province produces rice and pineapples.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a white rooster inside the entrance to the Phra That Lampang Luang Temple. According to local legend, Buddha visited the province. The god Indra worried that the people would not wake up by themselves to show respect to Buddha, and therefore woke them by transforming himself into a white rooster.
The provincial flower is the Heliconia (Heliconia sp.), and the provincial tree is the Indian Elm (Holoptelea integrifolia). According to the legend, this tree was planted in the temple during Buddha's visit.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 13 districts (amphoes). These are further divided into 100 subdistricts (tambons) and 855 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Lampang Provincial Administration Organisation () and 42 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Lampang has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Khelang Nakhon, Lom Raet and Phichai have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 38 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 60 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Gallery
References
External links
Province page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand
Golden Jubilee Network province guide
Lampang provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp
Provinces of Thailand
1892 establishments in Siam
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242847
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Coyne%20%28politician%29
|
John Coyne (politician)
|
John Coyne (July 21, 1836 – November 16, 1873) was a Canadian barrister, and Peel County's first representative in the Ontario Legislature.
A native of Toronto Township, the son of Mr. and Mrs. Edward Coyne, he received his education in Brampton at Brampton Public School. He was educated as a lawyer, and called to the Bar of Upper Canada in 1864. Coyne also served as reeve of Brampton.
Entering provincial politics in 1867, as a Conservative, he beat out Liberal candidate Robert Smith by just 46 votes (1118 to 1072). The number 1118 had a strange, but merely coincidental, attraction to him, as proved by the next election in 1871. Posed against Chinguacousy's T. O. Bowles, he won again with 1118 votes, against 1059 Liberal nods.
Coyne married Mary Catherine Scott, the youngest daughter of Brampton resident John Scott, in October 1867.
He died due to a short illness in 1873, after serving only two years of his second term.
External links
The Canadian parliamentary companion and annual register, 1873, HJ Morgan
The Canadian parliamentary companion and annual register, 1874, HJ Morgan
1836 births
1873 deaths
People from Brampton
Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario MPPs
Pre-Confederation Ontario people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian%20Poetry
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Georgian Poetry
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Georgian Poetry refers to a series of anthologies showcasing the work of a school of English poetry that established itself during the early years of the reign of King George V of the United Kingdom.
The Georgian poets were, by the strictest definition, those whose works appeared in a series of five anthologies named Georgian Poetry, published by Harold Monro and edited by Edward Marsh, the first volume of which contained poems written in 1911 and 1912. The group included Edmund Blunden, Rupert Brooke, Robert Graves, D. H. Lawrence, Walter de la Mare, Siegfried Sassoon and John Drinkwater. It was not until the final two volumes that the decision was taken to include female poets.
History
The period of publication was sandwiched between the Victorian era, with its strict classicism, and Modernism, with its strident rejection of pure aestheticism. The common features of the poems in these publications were romanticism, sentimentality and hedonism. Later critics have attempted to revise the definition of the term as a description of poetic style, thereby including some new names or excluding some old ones. W. H. Davies, a contemporary, is sometimes included within the grouping, although his "innocent style" differs markedly from that of the others.
In the 1930s, Henry Newbolt "estimated there were still at least 1000 active poets" in England, and that "the vast majority would be recognisably 'Georgian'".
Edward Marsh was the general editor of the series and the centre of the circle of Georgian poets, which included Rupert Brooke. It has been suggested that Brooke himself took a hand in some of the editorial choices.
The idea for an anthology began as a joke, when Marsh, Duncan Grant and George Mallory decided, one evening in 1912 to publish a parody of the many small poetry books that were appearing at the time. After some discussion it was decided to pursue the idea in all seriousness. Marsh and Brooke approached the poet and bookseller Harold Monro who had recently opened The Poetry Bookshop at 35 Devonshire Street, in Bloomsbury, London. He agreed to publish the book in return for a half share of the profits.
After the third volume, Marsh decided that it was time to include a female poet. His choice was Fredegond Shove, although other associates suggested Edith Sitwell, Charlotte Mew and Rose Macaulay. He included four poems from Shove's recent first collection, Dreams and Journeys (1918), including among them "The New Soul", a quasi-mystical approach to a religious subject that went on to attract the notice of critics. The final volume contained seven poems from the fifth collection of Vita Sackville-West, Orchard and Vineyard (1921).
Subsequent to the final anthology of five, further collections appeared, edited by J. C. Squire, which were probably intended to take on the mantle. The subsequent fate of the Georgian poets (inevitably known as the Squirearchy) then became an aspect of the critical debate surrounding modernist poetry, as marked by the publication of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land at just that time. The Georgian poets became something of a by-word for conservatism, but at the time of the early anthologies they saw themselves as modern (if not modernist) and progressive. The most important figures, in literary terms, would now be considered D. H. Lawrence and Robert Graves: neither of them 'typical'.
Georgian Poetry 1911-12 (1912)
Lascelles Abercrombie - Gordon Bottomley - Rupert Brooke - G. K. Chesterton - W. H. Davies - Walter de la Mare - John Drinkwater - James Elroy Flecker - W. W. Gibson - D. H. Lawrence - John Masefield - Harold Monro - T. Sturge Moore - Ronald Ross - Edmund Beale Sargant - James Stephens - R. C. Trevelyan
Georgian Poetry 1913-15 (1915)
Lascelles Abercrombie - Gordon Bottomley - Rupert Brooke - W. H. Davies - Walter de la Mare - John Drinkwater - J. E. Flecker - W. W. Gibson - Ralph Hodgson - D. H. Lawrence - F. Ledwidge - John Masefield - Harold Monro - James Stephens
Georgian Poetry 1916-17 (1917)
Herbert Asquith - Maurice Baring - Gordon Bottomley - W. H. Davies - Walter de la Mare - John Drinkwater - John Freeman - W. W. Gibson - Robert Graves - Ralph Hodgson - John Masefield - Harold Monro - Robert Nichols - Isaac Rosenberg - Siegfried Sassoon - J. C. Squire - James Stephens - W. J. Turner
Georgian Poetry 1918-19 (1919)
Lascelles Abercrombie - Gordon Bottomley - Francis Brett Young - W. H. Davies - Walter de la Mare - John Drinkwater - John Freeman - W. W. Gibson - Robert Graves - D. H. Lawrence - Harold Monro - Thomas Moult - Robert Nichols - J. D. C. Pellow - Siegfried Sassoon - Edward Shanks - Fredegond Shove - J. C. Squire - W. J. Turner
Georgian Poetry 1920-22 (1922)
Lascelles Abercrombie - Martin Armstrong - Edmund Blunden - Francis Brett Young - W. H. Davies - Walter de la Mare - John Drinkwater - John Freeman - W. W. Gibson - Robert Graves - Richard Hughes - William Kerr - D. H. Lawrence - Harold Monro - Robert Nichols - J. D. C. Pellow - Frank Prewett - Peter Quennell - Vita Sackville-West - Edward Shanks - J. C. Squire
See also
1912 in poetry
1915 in poetry
1917 in poetry
1919 in poetry
1922 in poetry
English poetry
List of poetry anthologies
Books
Georgian Revolt: Rise and Fall of a Poetic Ideal, 1910-22 by Robert H Ross
References
External links
Elizabeth Whitcomb Houghton Collection
Online at Project Gutenberg:
Georgian Poetry 1911-12
Georgian Poetry 1913-15
Georgian Poetry 1916-17
Georgian Poetry 1918-19
Georgian Poetry 1920-22
1912 poetry books
1915 poetry books
1917 poetry books
1919 poetry books
1922 poetry books
English poetry anthologies
20th-century British literature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futures%20contract
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Futures contract
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In finance, a futures contract (sometimes called futures) is a standardized legal agreement to buy or sell something at a predetermined price at a specified time in the future, between parties not known to each other. The asset transacted is usually a commodity or financial instrument. The predetermined price the parties agree to buy and sell the asset for is known as the forward price. The specified time in the future—which is when delivery and payment occur—is known as the delivery date. Because it is a function of an underlying asset, a futures contract is a derivative product.
Contracts are negotiated at futures exchanges, which act as a marketplace between buyers and sellers. The buyer of a contract is said to be the long position holder and the selling party is said to be the short position holder. As both parties risk their counter-party walking away if the price goes against them, the contract may involve both parties lodging a margin of the value of the contract with a mutually trusted third party. For example, in gold futures trading, the margin varies between 2% and 20% depending on the volatility of the spot market.
A stock future is a cash-settled futures contract on the value of a particular stock market index. Stock futures are one of the high risk trading instruments in the market. Stock market index futures are also used as indicators to determine market sentiment.
The first futures contracts were negotiated for agricultural commodities, and later futures contracts were negotiated for natural resources such as oil. Financial futures were introduced in 1972, and in recent decades, currency futures, interest rate futures, stock market index futures, and cryptocurrency perpetual futures have played an increasingly large role in the overall futures markets. Even organ futures have been proposed to increase the supply of transplant organs.
The original use of futures contracts was to mitigate the risk of price or exchange rate movements by allowing parties to fix prices or rates in advance for future transactions. This could be advantageous when (for example) a party expects to receive payment in foreign currency in the future and wishes to guard against an unfavorable movement of the currency in the interval before payment is received.
However, futures contracts also offer opportunities for speculation in that a trader who predicts that the price of an asset will move in a particular direction can contract to buy or sell it in the future at a price which (if the prediction is correct) will yield a profit. In particular, if the speculator is able to profit, then the underlying commodity that the speculator traded would have been saved during a time of surplus and sold during a time of need, offering the consumers of the commodity a more favorable distribution of commodity over time.
Origin
The Dutch pioneered several financial instruments and helped lay the foundations of the modern financial system. In Europe, formal futures markets appeared in the Dutch Republic during the 17th century. Among the most notable of these early futures contracts were the tulip futures that developed during the height of the Dutch Tulipmania in 1636. The Dōjima Rice Exchange, first established in 1697 in Osaka, is considered by some to be the first futures exchange market, to meet the needs of samurai who—being paid in rice—needed a stable conversion to coin after a series of bad harvests.
The Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) listed the first-ever standardized 'exchange traded' forward contracts in 1864, which were called futures contracts. This contract was based on grain trading, and started a trend that saw contracts created on a number of different commodities as well as a number of futures exchanges set up in countries around the world. By 1875 cotton futures were being traded in Bombay in India and within a few years this had expanded to futures on edible oilseeds complex, raw jute and jute goods and bullion. In the 1930s two thirds of all futures was in wheat.
The 1972 creation of the International Monetary Market (IMM) by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange was the world's first financial futures exchange, and launched currency futures. In 1976, the IMM added interest rate futures on US treasury bills, and in 1982 they added stock market index futures.
Risk mitigation
Although futures contracts are oriented towards a future time point, their main purpose is to mitigate the risk of default by either party in the intervening period. In this vein, the futures exchange requires both parties to put up initial cash, or a performance bond, known as the margin. Margins, sometimes set as a percentage of the value of the futures contract, must be maintained throughout the life of the contract to guarantee the agreement, as over this time the price of the contract can vary as a function of supply and demand, causing one side of the exchange to lose money at the expense of the other.
To mitigate the risk of default, the product is marked to market on a daily basis where the difference between the initial agreed-upon price and the actual daily futures price is re-evaluated daily. This is sometimes known as the variation margin, where the futures exchange will draw money out of the losing party's margin account and put it into that of the other party, ensuring the correct loss or profit is reflected daily. If the margin account goes below a certain value set by the exchange, then a margin call is made and the account owner must replenish the margin account.
On the delivery date, the amount exchanged is not the specified price on the contract but the spot value, since any gain or loss has already been previously settled by marking to market.
Margin
To minimize counterparty risk to traders, trades executed on regulated futures exchanges are guaranteed by a clearing house. The clearing house becomes the buyer to each seller, and the seller to each buyer, so that in the event of a counterparty default the clearer assumes the risk of loss. This enables traders to transact without performing due diligence on their counterparty.
Margin requirements are waived or reduced in some cases for hedgers who have physical ownership of the covered commodity or spread traders who have offsetting contracts balancing the position.
Clearing margin are financial safeguards to ensure that companies or corporations perform on their customers' open futures and options contracts. Clearing margins are distinct from customer margins that individual buyers and sellers of futures and options contracts are required to deposit with brokers.
Customer margin Within the futures industry, financial guarantees required of both buyers and sellers of futures contracts and sellers of options contracts to ensure fulfillment of contract obligations. Futures Commission Merchants are responsible for overseeing customer margin accounts. Margins are determined on the basis of market risk and contract value. Also referred to as performance bond margin.
Initial margin is the equity required to initiate a futures position. This is a type of performance bond. The maximum exposure is not limited to the amount of the initial margin, however, the initial margin requirement is calculated based on the maximum estimated change in contract value within a trading day. The initial margin is set by the exchange.
If a position involves an exchange-traded product, the amount or percentage of the initial margin is set by the exchange concerned.
In case of loss or if the value of the initial margin is being eroded, the broker will make a margin call in order to restore the amount of initial margin available. Often referred to as “variation margin”, margin called, for this reason, is usually done on a daily basis, however, in times of high volatility, a broker can make a margin call intra-day.
Margin calls are usually expected to be paid and received on the same day. If not, the broker has the right to close sufficient positions to meet the amount called by way of margin. After the position is closed out the client is liable for any resulting deficit in the client's account.
Some U.S. exchanges also use the term “maintenance margin”, which in effect defines how much the value of the initial margin can reduce before a margin call is made. However, most non-US brokers only use the term “initial margin” and “variation margin”.
The Initial Margin requirement is established by the Futures exchange, in contrast to other securities' Initial Margin (which is set by the Federal Reserve in the U.S. Markets).
A futures account is marked to market daily. If the margin drops below the margin maintenance requirement established by the exchange listing the futures, a margin call will be issued to bring the account back up to the required level.
Maintenance margin A set minimum margin per outstanding futures contract that a customer must maintain in their margin account.
Margin-equity ratio is a term used by speculators, representing the amount of their trading capital that is being held as margin at any particular time. The low margin requirements of futures results in substantial leverage of the investment. However, the exchanges require a minimum amount that varies depending on the contract and the trader. The broker may set the requirement higher, but may not set it lower. A trader, of course, can set it above that, if he does not want to be subject to margin calls.
Performance bond margin The amount of money deposited by both a buyer and seller of a futures contract or an options seller to ensure the performance of the term of the contract. Margin in commodities is not a payment of equity or down payment on the commodity itself, but rather it is a security deposit.
Return on margin (ROM) is often used to judge performance because it represents the gain or loss compared to the exchange's perceived risk as reflected in the required margin. ROM may be calculated (realized return) / (initial margin). The Annualized ROM is equal to (ROM+1)(year/trade_duration)-1. For example, if a trader earns 10% on margin in two months, that would be about 77% annualized.
Settlement − physical versus cash-settled futures
Settlement is the act of consummating the contract, and can be done in one of two ways, as specified per type of futures contract:
Physical delivery − the amount specified of the underlying asset of the contract is delivered by the seller of the contract to the exchange, and by the exchange to the buyers of the contract. Physical delivery is common with commodities and bonds. In practice, it occurs only on a minority of contracts. Most are canceled out by purchasing a covering position—that is, buying a contract to cancel out an earlier sale (covering a short), or selling a contract to liquidate an earlier purchase (covering a long). The Nymex crude futures contract uses this method of settlement upon expiration
Cash settlement − a cash payment is made based on the underlying reference rate, such as a short-term interest rate index such as 90 Day T-Bills, or the closing value of a stock market index. The parties settle by paying/receiving the loss/gain related to the contract in cash when the contract expires. Cash settled futures are those that, as a practical matter, could not be settled by delivery of the referenced item—for example, it would be impossible to deliver an index. A futures contract might also opt to settle against an index based on trade in a related spot market. ICE Brent futures use this method.
Expiry (or Expiration in the U.S.) is the time and the day that a particular delivery month of a futures contract stops trading, as well as the final settlement price for that contract. For many equity index futures and interest rate futures as well as for most equity (index) options, this happens on the third Friday of certain trading months. On this day the back month futures contract becomes the front-month futures contract. For example, for most CME and CBOT contracts, at the expiration of the December contract, the March futures become the nearest contract. During a short period (perhaps 30 minutes) the underlying cash price and the futures prices sometimes struggle to converge. At this moment the futures and the underlying assets are extremely liquid and any disparity between an index and an underlying asset is quickly traded by arbitrageurs. At this moment also, the increase in volume is caused by traders rolling over positions to the next contract or, in the case of equity index futures, purchasing underlying components of those indexes to hedge against current index positions. On the expiry date, a European equity arbitrage trading desk in London or Frankfurt will see positions expire in as many as eight major markets almost every half an hour.
Pricing
When the deliverable asset exists in plentiful supply or may be freely created, then the price of a futures contract is determined via arbitrage arguments. This is typical for stock index futures, treasury bond futures, and futures on physical commodities when they are in supply (e.g. agricultural crops after the harvest). However, when the deliverable commodity is not in plentiful supply or when it does not yet exist — for example on crops before the harvest or on Eurodollar Futures or Federal funds rate futures (in which the supposed underlying instrument is to be created upon the delivery date) — the futures price cannot be fixed by arbitrage. In this scenario, there is only one force setting the price, which is simple supply and demand for the asset in the future, as expressed by supply and demand for the futures contract.
Arbitrage arguments
Arbitrage arguments ("rational pricing") apply when the deliverable asset exists in plentiful supply or may be freely created. Here, the forward price represents the expected future value of the underlying discounted at the risk-free rate—as any deviation from the theoretical price will afford investors a riskless profit opportunity and should be arbitraged away. We define the forward price to be the strike K such that the contract has 0 value at the present time. Assuming interest rates are constant the forward price of the futures is equal to the forward price of the forward contract with the same strike and maturity. It is also the same if the underlying asset is uncorrelated with interest rates. Otherwise, the difference between the forward price on the futures (futures price) and the forward price on the asset, is proportional to the covariance between the underlying asset price and interest rates. For example, a futures contract on a zero-coupon bond will have a futures price lower than the forward price. This is called the futures "convexity correction".
Thus, assuming constant rates, for a simple, non-dividend paying asset, the value of the futures/forward price, F(t,T), will be found by compounding the present value S(t) at time t to maturity T by the rate of risk-free return r.
or, with continuous compounding
This relationship may be modified for storage costs u, dividend or income yields q, and convenience yields y. Storage costs are costs involved in storing a commodity to sell at the futures price. Investors selling the asset at the spot price to arbitrage a futures price earns the storage costs they would have paid to store the asset to sell at the futures price. Convenience yields are benefits of holding an asset for sale at the futures price beyond the cash received from the sale. Such benefits could include the ability to meet unexpected demand, or the ability to use the asset as an input in production. Investors pay or give up the convenience yield when selling at the spot price because they give up these benefits. Such a relationship can be summarized as:
The convenience yield is not easily observable or measured, so y is often calculated, when r and u are known, as the extraneous yield paid by investors selling at spot to arbitrage the futures price. Dividend or income yields q are more easily observed or estimated, and can be incorporated in the same way:
In a perfect market, the relationship between futures and spot prices depends only on the above variables; in practice, there are various market imperfections (transaction costs, differential borrowing, and lending rates, restrictions on short selling) that prevent complete arbitrage. Thus, the futures price in fact varies within arbitrage boundaries around the theoretical price.
Pricing via expectation
When the deliverable commodity is not in plentiful supply (or when it does not yet exist) rational pricing cannot be applied, as the arbitrage mechanism is not applicable. Here the price of the futures is determined by today's supply and demand for the underlying asset in the future.
In an efficient market, supply and demand would be expected to balance out at a futures price that represents the present value of an unbiased expectation of the price of the asset at the delivery date. This relationship can be represented as::
By contrast, in a shallow and illiquid market, or in a market in which large quantities of the deliverable asset have been deliberately withheld from market participants (an illegal action known as cornering the market), the market clearing price for the futures may still represent the balance between supply and demand but the relationship between this price and the expected future price of the asset can break down.
Relationship between arbitrage arguments and expectation
The expectation-based relationship will also hold in a no-arbitrage setting when we take expectations with respect to the risk-neutral probability. In other words: a futures price is a martingale with respect to the risk-neutral probability. With this pricing rule, a speculator is expected to break even when the futures market fairly prices the deliverable commodity.
Contango, backwardation, normal and inverted markets
The situation where the price of a commodity for future delivery is higher than the expected spot price is known as contango. Markets are said to be normal when futures prices are above the current spot price and far-dated futures are priced above near-dated futures. The reverse, where the price of a commodity for future delivery is lower than the expected spot price is known as backwardation. Similarly, markets are said to be inverted when futures prices are below the current spot price and far-dated futures are priced below near-dated futures.
Futures contracts and exchanges
Contract
There are many different kinds of futures contracts, reflecting the many different kinds of "tradable" assets about which the contract may be based such as commodities, securities (such as single-stock futures), currencies or intangibles such as interest rates and indexes. For information on futures markets in specific underlying commodity markets, follow the links. For a list of tradable commodities futures contracts, see List of traded commodities. See also the futures exchange article.
Foreign exchange market – see Currency future
Money market – see Interest rate future
Bond market – see Interest rate future
Equity market - see Stock market index future and Single-stock futures
Commodity market
Cryptocurrencies – see Perpetual futures
Trading on commodities began in Japan in the 18th century with the trading of rice and silk, and similarly in Holland with tulip bulbs. Trading in the US began in the mid 19th century when central grain markets were established and a marketplace was created for farmers to bring their commodities and sell them either for immediate delivery (also called spot or cash market) or for forward delivery. These forward contracts were private contracts between buyers and sellers and became the forerunner to today's exchange-traded futures contracts. Although contract trading began with traditional commodities such as grains, meat, and livestock, exchange trading has expanded to include metals, energy, currency and currency indexes, equities and equity indexes, government interest rates, and private interest rates.
Exchanges
Contracts on financial instruments were introduced in the 1970s by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) and these instruments became hugely successful and quickly overtook commodities futures in terms of trading volume and global accessibility to the markets. This innovation led to the introduction of many new futures exchanges worldwide, such as the London International Financial Futures Exchange in 1982 (now Euronext. liffe), Deutsche Terminbörse (now Eurex) and the Tokyo Commodity Exchange (TOCOM). Today, there are more than 90 futures and futures options exchanges worldwide trading to include:
CME Group (CBOT and CME) -- Currencies, Various Interest Rate derivatives (including US Bonds); Agriculture (Corn, Soybeans, Soy Products, Wheat, Pork, Cattle, Butter, Milk); Indices (Dow Jones Industrial Average, NASDAQ Composite, S&P 500, etc.); Metals (Gold, Silver). NYMEX (CME Group) - energy and metals: crude oil, gasoline, heating oil, natural gas, coal, propane, gold, silver, platinum, copper, aluminum and palladium.
Dubai Mercantile Exchange (DME) - most notably Oman Crude, Dubai Platts, and Singapore Fuel Oil.
Intercontinental Exchange (ICE Futures Europe) - formerly the International Petroleum Exchange trades energy including crude oil, heating oil, gas oil (diesel), refined petroleum products, electric power, coal, natural gas, and emissions
NYSE Euronext - which absorbed Euronext into which London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange or LIFFE (pronounced 'LIFE') was merged. (LIFFE had taken over London Commodities Exchange ("LCE") in 1996)- softs: grains and meats. Inactive market in Baltic Exchange shipping. Index futures include EURIBOR, FTSE 100, CAC 40, AEX index.
Eurex - part of Deutsche Börse, also operates the Swiss Options and Financial Futures Exchange (SOFFEX) and the European Energy Exchange (EEX)
South African Futures Exchange - SAFEX
Sydney Futures Exchange
Tokyo Commodity Exchange TOCOM
Tokyo Financial Exchange - TFX - (Euroyen Futures, OverNight CallRate Futures, SpotNext RepoRate Futures)
Osaka Exchange OSE (JGB Futures, TOPIX Futures, Nikkei Futures, RNP Futures)
London Metal Exchange - metals: copper, aluminium, lead, zinc, nickel, tin and steel
Intercontinental Exchange (ICE Futures U.S.) - formerly New York Board of Trade - softs: cocoa, coffee, cotton, orange juice, sugar
JFX Jakarta Futures Exchange
Montreal Exchange (MX) (owned by the TMX Group) also known in French as Bourse De Montreal: Interest Rate and Cash Derivatives: Canadian 90 Days Bankers' Acceptance Futures, Canadian government bond futures, S&P/TSX 60 Index Futures, and various other Index Futures
Korea Exchange - KRX
Singapore Exchange - SGX - into which merged Singapore International Monetary Exchange (SIMEX)
ROFEX - Rosario (Argentina) Futures Exchange
NCDEX - National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange, India
National Stock Exchange of India - National Stock Exchange, India - the largest derivates exchange in terms of number of contracts
EverMarkets Exchange (EMX) - slated for launch in late 2018 - global currencies, equities, commodities and cryptocurrencies
FEX Global - Financial and Energy Exchange of Australia
Dalian Commodity Exchange (DCE) - primarily agricultural and industrial products
Shanghai Futures Exchange (SHFE) - primarily serves metal and foodstuff commodity markets
Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange (ZCE) - primarily agricultural products and petrochemicals
China Financial Futures Exchange (CFFEX) - primarily index futures and currencies
Codes
Most futures contract codes are five characters. The first two characters identify the contract type, the third character identifies the month and the last two characters identify the year.
On CME Group markets, third (month) futures contract codes are:
January = F
February = G
March = H
April = J
May = K
June = M
July = N
August = Q
September = U
October = V
November = X
December = Z
Example: CLX14 is a Crude Oil (CL), November (X) 2014 (14) contract.
Futures contracts users
Futures traders are traditionally placed in one of two groups: hedgers, who have an interest in the underlying asset (which could include an intangible such as an index or interest rate) and are seeking to hedge out the risk of price changes; and speculators, who seek to make a profit by predicting market moves and opening a derivative contract related to the asset "on paper", while they have no practical use for or intent to actually take or make delivery of the underlying asset. In other words, the investor is seeking exposure to the asset in a long futures or the opposite effect via a short futures contract.
Hedgers
Hedgers typically include producers and consumers of a commodity or the owner of an asset or assets subject to certain influences such as an interest rate.
For example, in traditional commodity markets, farmers often sell futures contracts for the crops and livestock they produce to guarantee a certain price, making it easier for them to plan. Similarly, livestock producers often purchase futures to cover their feed costs, so that they can plan on a fixed cost for feed. In modern (financial) markets, "producers" of interest rate swaps or equity derivative products will use financial futures or equity index futures to reduce or remove the risk on the swap.
Those that buy or sell commodity futures need to be careful. If a company buys contracts hedging against price increases, but in fact, the market price of the commodity is substantially lower at the time of delivery, they could find themselves disastrously non-competitive (for example see: VeraSun Energy).
Investment fund managers at the portfolio and the fund sponsor level can use financial asset futures to manage portfolio interest rate risk, or duration, without making cash purchases or sales using bond futures. Invest firms that receive capital calls or capital inflows in a different currency than their base currency could use currency futures to hedge the currency risk of that inflow in the future.
Speculators
Speculators typically fall into three categories: position traders, day traders, and swing traders (swing trading), though many hybrid types and unique styles exist. With many investors pouring into the futures markets in recent years controversy has risen about whether speculators are responsible for increased volatility in commodities like oil, and experts are divided on the matter.
An example that has both hedge and speculative notions involves a mutual fund or separately managed account whose investment objective is to track the performance of a stock index such as the S&P 500 stock index. The portfolio manager often "equitizes" unintended cash holdings or cash inflows in an easy and cost-effective manner by investing in (opening long) S&P 500 stock index futures. This gains the portfolio exposure to the index which is consistent with the fund or account investment objective without having to buy an appropriate proportion of each of the individual 500 stocks just yet. This also preserves balanced diversification, maintains a higher degree of the percent of assets invested in the market and helps reduce tracking error in the performance of the fund/account. When it is economically feasible (an efficient amount of shares of every individual position within the fund or account can be purchased), the portfolio manager can close the contract and make purchases of each individual stock.
The social utility of futures markets is considered to be mainly in the transfer of risk, and increased liquidity between traders with different risk and time preferences, from a hedger to a speculator, for example.
Options on futures
In many cases, options are traded on futures, sometimes called simply "futures options". A put is the option to sell a futures contract, and a call is the option to buy a futures contract. For both, the option strike price is the specified futures price at which the futures is traded if the option is exercised. Futures are often used since they are delta one instruments. Calls and options on futures may be priced similarly to those on traded assets by using an extension of the Black-Scholes formula, namely the Black model. For options on futures, where the premium is not due until unwound, the positions are commonly referred to as a fution, as they act like options, however, they settle like futures.
Investors can either take on the role of option seller (or "writer") or the option buyer. Option sellers are generally seen as taking on more risk because they are contractually obligated to take the opposite futures position if the buyer of the option exercises their right to the futures position specified in the option. The price of an option is determined by supply and demand principles and consists of the option premium, or the price paid to the option seller for offering the option and taking on risk.
Futures contract regulations
All futures transactions in the United States are regulated by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), an independent agency of the United States government. The commission has the right to hand out fines and other punishments for an individual or company who breaks any rules. Although by law the commission regulates all transactions, each exchange can have its own rule, and under contract can fine companies for different things or extend the fine that the CFTC hands out.
The CFTC publishes weekly reports containing details of the open interest of market participants for each market segment that has more than 20 participants. These reports are released every Friday (including data from the previous Tuesday) and contain data on open interest split by reportable and non-reportable open interest as well as commercial and non-commercial open interest. This type of report is referred to as the 'Commitments of Traders Report', COT-Report, or simply COTR.
Definition of a futures contract
Following Björk we give a definition of a futures contract. We describe a futures contract with delivery of item J at the time T:
There exists in the market a quoted price F(t,T), which is known as the futures price at time t for delivery of J at time T.
The price of entering a futures contract is equal to zero.
During any time interval , the holder receives the amount . (this reflects instantaneous marking to market)
At time T, the holder pays F(T,T) and is entitled to receive J. Note that F(T,T) should be the spot price of J at time T.
Futures versus forwards
A closely related contract is a forward contract. A forward is like a futures in that it specifies the exchange of goods for a specified price at a specified future date. However, a forward is not traded on an exchange and thus does not have the interim partial payments due to marking to market.
While futures and forward contracts are both contracts to deliver an asset on a future date at a prearranged price, they are different in two main respects:
Futures are exchange-traded, while forwards are traded over-the-counter.
Thus futures are standardized and face an exchange, while forwards are customized and face a non-exchange counterparty.
Futures are margined, while forwards are not.
Thus futures have significantly less credit risk, and have different funding.
Forwards have credit risk, but futures do not because a clearing house guarantees against default risk by taking both sides of the trade and marking to market their positions every night.
Forwards are basically unregulated, while futures contracts are regulated at the federal government level.
The Futures Industry Association (FIA) estimates that 6.97 billion futures contracts were traded in 2007, an increase of nearly 32% over the 2006 figure.
Exchange versus OTC
Futures are always traded on an exchange, whereas forwards always trade over-the-counter, or can simply be a signed contract between two parties. Therefore:
Futures are highly standardized, being exchange-traded, whereas forwards can be unique, being over-the-counter.
In the case of physical delivery, the forward contract specifies to whom to make the delivery. The counterparty for delivery on a futures contract is chosen by the clearing house.
Exchange for Related Position
A variety of trades have developed that involve an exchange of a futures contract for either a over-the-counter, physical commodity, or cash asset position that meets certain criteria such as scale and correspondence to the underlying commodity risk. The Commodity Futures Trading Commission has fined brokers for violations of their regulations for these types of trades.
Margining
Futures are margined daily to the daily spot price of a forward with the same agreed-upon delivery price and the underlying asset (based on mark to market).
Forwards do not have a standard. More typical would be for the parties to agree to true up, for example, every quarter. The fact that forwards are not margined daily means that, due to movements in the price of the underlying asset, a large differential can build up between the forward's delivery price and the settlement price, and in any event, an unrealized gain (loss) can build up.
Again, this differs from futures which get 'trued-up' typically daily by a comparison of the market value of the futures to the collateral securing the contract to keep it in line with the brokerage margin requirements. This true-ing up occurs by the "loss" party providing additional collateral; so if the buyer of the contract incurs a drop in value, the shortfall or variation margin would typically be shored up by the investor wiring or depositing additional cash in the brokerage account.
In a forward though, the spread in exchange rates is not trued up regularly but, rather, it builds up as unrealized gain (loss) depending on which side of the trade being discussed. This means that entire unrealized gain (loss) becomes realized at the time of delivery (or as what typically occurs, the time the contract is closed prior to expiration)—assuming the parties must transact at the underlying currency's spot price to facilitate receipt/delivery.
The result is that forwards have higher credit risk than futures, and that funding is charged differently.
The situation for forwards, however, where no daily true-up takes place, in turn, creates credit risk for forwards, but not so much for futures. Simply put, the risk of a forward contract is that the supplier will be unable to deliver the referenced asset, or that the buyer will be unable to pay for it on the delivery date or the date at which the opening party closes the contract.
The margining of futures eliminates much of this credit risk by forcing the holders to update daily to the price of an equivalent forward purchased that day. This means that there will usually be very little additional money due on the final day to settle the futures contract: only the final day's gain or loss, not the gain or loss over the life of the contract.
In addition, the daily futures-settlement failure risk is borne by an exchange, rather than an individual party, further limiting credit risk in futures.
Example:
Consider a futures contract with a $100 (8h 21m) (8h 21m) price: Let's say that on day 50, a futures contract with a $100 (8h 21m) (8h 21m) delivery price (on the same underlying asset as the future) costs $88 (7h 20m) (7h 20m). On day 51, that futures contract costs $90 (7h 30m) (7h 30m). This means that the "mark-to-market" calculation would require the holder of one side of the futures to pay $2 (0h 10m) (0h 10m) on day 51 to track the changes of the forward price ("post $2 (0h 10m) (0h 10m) of margin"). This money goes, via margin accounts, to the holder of the other side of the future. That is the loss party wires cash to the other party.
A forward-holder, however, may pay nothing until settlement on the final day, potentially building up a large balance; this may be reflected in the mark by an allowance for credit risk. So, except for tiny effects of convexity bias (due to earning or paying interest on margin), futures and forwards with equal delivery prices result in the same total loss or gain, but holders of futures experience that loss/gain in daily increments which track the forward's daily price changes, while the forward's spot price converges to the settlement price. Thus, while under mark to market accounting, for both assets the gain or loss accrues over the holding period; for a futures this gain or loss is realized daily, while for a forward contract the gain or loss remains unrealized until expiry.
With an exchange-traded future, the clearing-house interposes itself on every trade. Thus there is no risk of counterparty default. The only risk is that the clearing house defaults (e.g. become bankrupt), which is considered very unlikely.
See also
1256 Contract
Commodity Exchange Act
Contract for future sale
Freight derivatives
Fuel price risk management
Grain Futures Act
List of finance topics
List of traded commodities
London Metal Exchange
Oil-storage trade
Onion Futures Act
Perpetual futures
Prediction market
Seasonal spread trading
U.S. Futures exchanges and regulators
Chicago Board of Trade, now part of CME Group
Chicago Mercantile Exchange, now part of CME Group
Commodity Futures Trading Commission
National Futures Association
Kansas City Board of Trade
New York Board of Trade now ICE
New York Mercantile Exchange, now part of CME Group
Minneapolis Grain Exchange
Notes
References
Further reading
The National Futures Association (2006). An Educational Guide to Trading Futures and Options on Futures. Chicago, Illinois.
External links
Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Financial Markets Group
Derivatives (finance)
Margin policy
Futures markets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Charles%20L%C3%A9onard%20de%20Sismondi
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Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi
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Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi (also known as Jean Charles Leonard Simonde de Sismondi) (; 9 May 1773 – 25 June 1842), whose real name was Simonde, was a Swiss historian and political economist, who is best known for his works on French and Italian history, and his economic ideas. His Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, ou de la richesse dans ses rapports avec la population (1819) represents the first liberal critique of laissez-faire economics. He was one of the pioneering advocates of unemployment insurance, sickness benefits, a progressive tax, regulation of working hours, and a pension scheme. He was also the first to coin the term proletariat to refer to the working class created under capitalism, and his discussion of mieux value anticipates the concept of surplus value. According to Gareth Stedman Jones, "much of what Sismondi wrote became part of the standard repertoire of socialist criticism of modern industry," earning him critical commentary in the Communist Manifesto.
Early life
His paternal family seem to have borne the name Simonde, at least from the time when they migrated from Dauphiné to Switzerland at the revocation of the edict of Nantes. It was not till after Sismondi had become an author that, observing the identity of his family arms with those of the once flourishing Pisan house of the Sismondi and finding that some members of that house had migrated to France, he assumed the connection without further proof and called himself Sismondi.
The Simondes, however, were themselves citizens of Geneva of the upper class, and possessed both rank and property, though the father was also a village pastor. His uncle by marriage was the prominent pastor Jacob Vernes, a friend of Voltaire and Rousseau.
The future historian was well educated, but his family wished him to devote himself to commerce rather than literature, and he became a banker's clerk in Lyon. Then the Revolution broke out, and as it affected Geneva, the Simonde family took refuge in England where they stayed for eighteen months (1793–1794). Disliking—it is said—the climate, they returned to Geneva, but found the state of affairs still unfavourable; there is even a legend that the head of the family was reduced to selling milk himself in the town. The greater part of the family property was sold, and with the proceeds they emigrated to Italy, bought a small farm in Pescia near Lucca and Pistoia, and set to work to cultivate it themselves.
Sismondi worked hard there, with both his hands and mind, and his experiences gave him the material of his first book, Tableau de l'agriculture toscane, which, after returning to Geneva, he published there in 1801. At a young age, Sismondi had read The Wealth of Nations and became strongly attached to Smith's theories. He apparently published his first work on the subject of political economy, De la richesse commerciale ou principes de l'economie politique appliqué à la legislation du commerce (1803) to explain and popularize Smith's doctrine, but following this Sismondi spent a considerable amount of time dedicated to historical research. He again turned his attention to political economy around 1818 when he was commissioned to write an entry on "Political Economy" for the Edinburgh Encyclopædia. This was just following a serious economic downturn after the outbreak of the first major crisis in 1815.
Economic thought
As an economist, Sismondi represented a humanitarian protest against the dominant orthodoxy of his time. In his 1803 book, he followed Adam Smith; but in his principal subsequent economic work, Nouveaux principes d'économie politique (1819), he insisted on the fact that economic science studied the means of increasing wealth too much, and the use of wealth for producing happiness, too little. For the science of economics, his most important contribution was probably his discovery of economic cycles. In refutation of other thinkers at the time (notably J. B. Say and David Ricardo), Sismondi challenged the idea that economic equilibrium leading to full employment would be immediately and spontaneously achieved. He wrote, "Let us beware of this dangerous theory of equilibrium which is supposed to be automatically established. A certain kind of equilibrium, it is true, is reestablished in the long run, but it is after a frightful amount of suffering." Although his thinking is characterized as "petty-bourgeois Socialism" in the Communist Manifesto, Sismondi was not a socialist. Nonetheless, in protesting against laissez faire and invoking the state "to regulate the progress of wealth," he was an interesting precursor of the German Historical school of economics.
Focuses of his work are central to the idea of taking particular economic situations and analyzing them in the situational setting of history from which one is drawing data or insight.
Sismondi is known for the study of economic crises rooting from “the social ramifications of the economic system rather than on its structure.” His interpretations put him before Marx, in semi-defining the bourgeoisie and proletariat division in society. Key to his philosophy, Sismondi saw these class divisions to coincide with crises in the economy and didn't see extreme social reform as the answer, but rather moderate versions that allowed for technological advances to be slowed for the economy to catch up, via limiting production and the limitation of what he referred to as “the prevailing glorification of free competition”, all while, most importantly, allowing individuals to retain private property and any revenues generated from it.
His theory may more precisely be classed as one of periodic crises, rather than cycles per se. and as such is the earliest theorist of systemic crisis theory. His theory was adapted by Charles Dunoyer, who introduces the notion of cycling between two phases, thus giving a modern form of economic cycle.
As important was his role as an economist; Sismondi was renowned as a historian. He commonly applied economic thought and historical settings to explain the irrationality of past economic events.
Sismondi also contributed a great deal to economics with his thoughts on aggregate demand. Observing the capitalist industrial system in England, Sismondi saw that unchecked competition both resulted in producers all increasing individual production (because of lack of knowledge of other producers' production) this was then seen as forcing employers to cut prices, which they did by sacrificing workers' wages. This yielded overproduction and underconsumption; with most of England's workforce suffering from depressed wages, workers were then unable to afford the goods they had produced, and underconsumption of goods then followed. Sismondi believed that by increasing the wages of laborers they would have more buying power, be able to buy the national output and thus increase demand.
In his book On Classical Economics, Thomas Sowell devotes a chapter to Sismondi, arguing that he was a neglected pioneer.
Italian history
Meanwhile, he began to compile his great Histoire des républiques italiennes du Moyen Âge, and was introduced to Madame de Staël. He became part of her Coppet group, he was invited or commanded—for Madame de Stael was of chief political importance—to form one of the suite with which the future Corinne made the journey to Italy, which contributed to Corinne itself during the years 1804–1805. Sismondi was not altogether at ease here, and he particularly disliked Schlegel who was also a participant. But during this journey he met the Countess of Albany, widow of Charles Edward, who all her life was gifted with a singular ability to attract the affection of men of letters. Sismondi's platonic relationship with her was close and lasted long, and they produced much valuable and interesting correspondence.
In 1807 appeared the first volumes of the above-mentioned book about the Italian republics, which, though his essay in political economy had brought him some reputation and the offer of a Russian professorship, first made Sismondi a prominent man among European men of letters. The completion of this book, which extended to sixteen volumes, occupied him, though by no means entirely, for the next eleven years. He lived at first in Geneva where he delivered some interesting lectures about the literature of southern Europe, which were continued from time to time and finally published. He held an official position: secretary of the chamber of commerce for the then department of Leman.
French history
Sismondi lived in Paris from 1813 until the Restoration, supporting Napoleon Bonaparte and meeting him once. Upon completing his book on Italian history, in 1818 he began his Histoire des Français, published in 29 volumes over 23 years. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "His untiring industry enabled him to compile many other books, but it is on these two that his fame mainly rests. The former displays his qualities in the most favourable light, and has been least injuriously affected by subsequent writings and investigations. But the latter, as a careful and accurate sketch on a grand scale, has now been superseded. Sainte-Beuve has, with benevolent sarcasm, surnamed the author "the Rollin of French History," and the praise and the blame implied in the comparison are both perfectly well deserved".
Later life
In April 1819 Sismondi married a Welshwoman, Jessie Allen (1777–1853), whose sister, Catherine Allen, was the wife of Sir James Mackintosh and another sister, Elizabeth Allen, was the wife of Josiah Wedgwood II and mother of Emma Wedgwood. This marriage appears to have been a very happy one.
In 1826 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
After spending the last years of his life in Geneva preparing new editions of his writings, finishing his study of the French, and serving as a member of the Geneva Assembly, speaking for freedom with order, he died in 1842 of stomach cancer.
Other works
Besides the works mentioned above Sismondi produced many others, never working less than eight hours a day for many years. The most important ones are: Littérature du midi de l'Europe [Literature of Southern Europe] (1813), a historical novel entitled Julia Severa ou l'an 492 (1822), Histoire de la renaissance de la liberté en Italie (1832), Histoire de la chute de l'Empire romain (1835), Précis de l'histoire des Français, an abridgment of his own book (1839), and several others, mainly political pamphlets.
Sismondi's journals and his correspondence with Channing, with the countess of Albany and with others have been published mainly by Mlle Mongolfier (Paris, 1843) and M. de Saint-René Taillandier (Paris, 1863). The latter work serves as the main text of two admirable Lundis of Sainte-Beuve (September 1863), republished in the Nouveaux Lundis, vol. VI.
Historiographical position and political stance
He was a historian whose economic ideas passed through different phases. The acceptance of free trade principles in De la richesse commerciale was abandoned in favour of a critical posture towards free trade and industrialisation. Nouveaux principes d'économie politique attacked wealth accumulation both as an end in itself, and for its detrimental effect on the poor. He indicated contradictions of capitalism. He criticized the harsh conditions endured by the workers from the standpoint of a liberal republican. He was also a passionate opponent of slavery. Adolphe Blanqui said of him: "No writer has shown a sympathy more notable and more touching for the working classes." Jean-Baptiste Say referred to Sismondi as "that enlightened author, ingenious, eloquent and selfless."
His critique was noticed by Malthus, David Ricardo and J. S. Mill, who called his writing "sprightly, and frequently eloquent." While a young man at Edinburgh, Thomas Carlyle translated Sismondi's article on "Political Economy" for David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia. Sismondi subsequently influenced Carlyle's views on "the dismal science." Sismondi's Italian histories were read and esteemed by Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Stendhal.
Sismondi influenced many major socialist thinkers including Karl Marx, Rosa Luxemburg, and Robert Owen. Marx thought Sismondi embodied the critique of the "bourgeois science of economics." In his notes, Marx excerpted various aspects of his analysis. Marx was particularly fond of Sismondi's statement that "The Roman proletariat lived almost exclusively at the expense of society. One could almost say that modern society lives at the expense of the proletariat, from the share which it deducts from the reward of his labor." Henryk Grossman argued that Sismondi was a significant methodological and theoretical predecessor of Marx, particularly by identifying the contradiction between use-value and exchange-value as fundamental to capitalism. In 1897,Vladimir Lenin wrote an article refuting Sismondi's work. Lenin said,"
The contributor to Russkoye Bogatstvo states at the very outset that no writer has been "so wrongly appraised" as Sismondi, who, he alleges, has been "unjustly" represented, now as a reactionary, then as a utopian. The very opposite is true. Precisely this appraisal of Sismondi is quite correct.
In 1913, Rosa Luxemburg wrote a critique of Sismondi in The Accumulation of Capital.
The historian Jerzy Jedlicki writes:
All sorts of labels were pinned on this humanist from Geneva who lived in the period of the beginnings of industrial capitalism: he was regarded as a reactionary and a radical, a petty-bourgeois socialist and a romanticist. But when we read his work a hundred and fifty years later, we discover in him a precursor of the democratized, corrective liberalism of the twentieth century and also, in spite of all the defects of his economic theory, a precursor of concepts for the development of overpopulated countries with a low national income. Sismondi’s thought, unfettered by doctrine, has stood the test of time, something which cannot be said of many of his contemporaries.
Main publications
Tableau de l'agriculture toscane (1801)
De la richesse commerciale (1803)
The History of the Italian Republics in the Middle Ages (Histoire des républiques italiennes du Moyen Âge) (16 vols.) (1807–18). His most important historical work, on Italy's republican past, which became an inspiration to 19th-century Italian nationalists.
De l'intérêt de la France à l'égard de la traite des nègres (1814)
Examen de la Constitution française (1815)
Political Economy (1815)
Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, ou de la richesse dans ses rapports avec la population (1819)
Histoire des Français (1821–1844)
Les colonies des anciens comparées à celles des modernes (1837)
Études de sciences sociales (1837)
Études sur l'économie politique (1837)
Précis de l'histoire des Français (1839)
(1857)
References
Further reading
Henryk Grossman [2017] Simonde de Sismondi and His Economic Theories (A New Interpretation of His Thought) orig. in French [1924] Warsaw, English translation in Henryk Grossman [2017] Capitalism’s Contradictions: Studies in Economic Theory before and after Marx Ed. Rick Kuhn (Trans. Birchall, Kuhn, O’Callaghan) Haymarket, Chicago.
Mazzei, Umberto (2018). Sismondi, précurseur ignoré de Marx, Slatkine, Genève.
External links
1773 births
1842 deaths
18th century in Geneva
Economists from the Republic of Geneva
Genevan scholars
People from Geneva
Swiss historians
Swiss male writers
Swiss economists
Swiss Protestants
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
19th-century Swiss writers
19th-century economists
19th-century historians
19th-century male writers
Coppet group
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kai%20Winding
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Kai Winding
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Kai Chresten Winding (; May 18, 1922 – May 6, 1983) was a Danish-born American trombonist and jazz composer. He is known for his collaborations with trombonist J. J. Johnson.
Biography
Winding was born in Aarhus, Denmark. His father, Ove Winding was a naturalized U.S. citizen, thus Kai, his mother and sisters, though born abroad were already U.S. citizens. In September 1934, his mother, Jenny Winding, moved Kai and his two sisters, Ann and Alice. Kai graduated in 1940 from Stuyvesant High School in New York City and that same year began his career as a professional trombonist with Shorty Allen's band. Subsequently, he played with Sonny Dunham and Alvino Rey, until he entered the United States Coast Guard during World War II.
After the war, Winding was a member of Benny Goodman's orchestra, then Stan Kenton's. He participated in Birth of the Cool sessions in 1949, appearing on four of the twelve tracks, while J. J. Johnson appeared on the other eight, having participated on the other two sessions.
In 1954, at the urging of producer Ozzie Cadena, Winding began a long association with Johnson, recording trombone duets for Savoy Records, then Columbia. He experimented with instruments in brass ensembles. The album Jay & Kai + 6 (1956) featured a trombone octet and the trombonium. He composed and arranged many of the works he and Johnson recorded.
During the 1960s, Winding began an association with Verve Records and producer Creed Taylor. He released the first version of "Time Is On My Side" in 1963 before it was recorded by Irma Thomas and The Rolling Stones. His best selling recording from this period is "More," the theme from the movie Mondo Cane. Arranged and conducted by Claus Ogerman, "More" featured what is probably the first appearance of the French electronic music instrument the ondioline on an American recording. Although Winding was credited with playing the ondioline, guitarist Vinnie Bell, who worked on the session, claimed that it was played by Jean-Jacques Perrey, a pioneer of electronic music. Winding experimented with ensembles again, recorded solo albums, and one album of country music with the Anita Kerr Singers. He followed Creed Taylor to A&M/CTI and made more albums with J. J. Johnson. He was a member of the all-star jazz group Giants of Jazz in 1971.
His son, Jai Winding, is a keyboardist who has worked as a session musician, writer and producer in Los Angeles.
Kai Winding died of a brain tumor in New York City in 1983.
Discography
As leader/co-leader
Loaded (1945)
Kai Winding All Stars (Roost, 1949–51 [1952])
Arrangements by Gerry Mulligan (1951)
Brass Fever (1956)
Trombone Panorama (Columbia, 1956)
The Trombone Sound (Columbia, 1956)
The Axidentals with the Kai Winding Trombones (ABC-Paramount, 1958)
The Swingin' States (Columbia, 1958)
Dance to the City Beat (Columbia, 1959)
The Incredible Kai Winding Trombones (Impulse!, 1960)
Kai Olé (Verve, 1961)
Brand New Swinging Together Again (1961)
Suspense Themes in Jazz (Verve, 1962)
The Great Kai Winding Sound (1962)
Soul Surfin' (Verve, 1963) featuring Kenny Burrell – also released as !!!More!!!
Solo (Verve, 1963)
Kai Winding (Verve, 1963)
That's Where It Is (SESAC, 1963)
Mondo Cane No. 2 (Verve, 1964)
Modern Country (Verve, 1965)
Rainy Day (Verve, 1965)
The In Instrumentals (Verve, 1965)
Dirty Dog (Verve, 1966)
More Brass (Verve, 1966)
Penny Lane & Time (Verve, 1967)
Danish Blue (1974)
Caravan (Glendale, 1977)
Jazz Showcase (1977)
Lionel Hampton Presents Kai Winding (1977)
Duo Bones (Red, 1979) with Dino Piana
Giant Bones '80 (Sonet, 1980) with Curtis Fuller
Bone Appétit (Black & Blue, 1980) with Curtis Fuller
Trombone Summit (MPS, 1981) with Albert Mangelsdorff, Bill Watrous, Jiggs Whigham
In Cleveland 1957 (1994)
With J. J. Johnson
The Four Trombones: The Debut Recordings (1953)
An Afternoon at Birdland (RCA, 1954)
Dec. 3, 1954 (Prestige, 1954)
Jay & Kai (Savoy, 1952–54 [1955])
K + J.J. (Bethlehem, 1955)
Trombone for Two (Columbia, 1955)
Trombone by Three (Prestige, 1949 [1956])
Jay and Kai + 6 (Columbia, 1956)
Dave Brubeck and Jay & Kai at Newport (Columbia, 1956)
Jay and Kai (Columbia, 1956)
The Great Kai & J. J. (Impulse!, 1960)
Israel (A&M/CTI, 1968)
Betwixt & Between (A&M/CTI, 1968)
Stonebone (A&M/CTI [Japan], 1969)
As sideman
With Quincy Jones
1963 Quincy Jones Plays Hip Hits (Mercury, 1963)
1965 Quincy Plays for Pussycats (Mercury, 1959-65 [1965])
1969 Walking in Space
1976 I Heard That!
With Stan Kenton
Stan Kenton's Milestones (Capitol, 1943–47 [1950])
Stan Kenton Classics (Capitol, 1944–47 [1952])
Artistry in Rhythm (Capitol, 1946)
Encores (Capitol, 1947)
The Kenton Era (Capitol, 1940–54, [1955])
With King Pleasure
1954 King Pleasure Sings/Annie Ross Sings
1954 The Original Moody's Mood
1955 King Pleasure
With Pete Rugolo
Rugolomania (Columbia, 1955)
New Sounds by Pete Rugolo (Harmony, 1954–55, [1957])
With Zoot Sims
1949 The Brothers
1952 Zoot Sims All Stars
1962 Good Old Zoot
With Sarah Vaughan
1955 In the Land of Hi-Fi
1957 The George Gershwin Songbook, Vol. 1
1958 The Rodgers & Hart Songbook
1965 Viva! Vaughan
With others
1950 Carnegie Hall X-Mas '49, Charlie Parker
1950 Chubby Jackson All Star Big Band, Chubby Jackson
1951 The George Wallington Trio, George Wallington
1954 Oscar Pettiford Sextet, Oscar Pettiford
1955 This Is Chris, Chris Connor
1955 Jumping with Ventura, Charlie Ventura
1956 Drummer Man, Gene Krupa
1957 Chris, Chris Connor
1957 Birth of the Cool, Miles Davis
1957 The Beat of My Heart, Tony Bennett
1959 Plays Gerry Mulligan Arrangements, Gene Krupa
1962 I Wanna Be Loved, Dinah Washington
1962 Rhythm Is My Business, Ella Fitzgerald
1962 Cabin in the Sky, Curtis Fuller
1963 Any Number Can Win, Jimmy Smith
1963 Broadway, Gerry Mulligan
1964 New Fantasy, Lalo Schifrin
1965 Jazz Dialogue , Modern Jazz Quartet
1965 The Shadow of Your Smile, Astrud Gilberto
1967 Prezervation, Stan Getz
1968 Summertime, Paul Desmond
1969 Chubby Jackson Sextet and Big Band, Chubby Jackson
1971 The Giants of Jazz with Art Blakey, Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk
1972 Strictly Bebop, Dizzy Gillespie
1973 The Art of the Modern Jazz Quartet, Modern Jazz Quartet
1975 Chase the Clouds Away, Chuck Mangione
1977 Featured with the Tadd Dameron Band, Fats Navarro
1978 Children of Sanchez, Chuck Mangione
1979 Giant Bones, Curtis Fuller
1979 The New Mel Lewis Quintet Live, Mel Lewis
Notes
References
External links
The Incredible Kai Winding at Trombone Page of the World
1922 births
1983 deaths
People from Aarhus
Danish emigrants to the United States
Stuyvesant High School alumni
United States Coast Guard personnel of World War II
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American jazz trombonists
Male trombonists
Columbia Records artists
Savoy Records artists
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
20th-century trombonists
20th-century American male musicians
Deaths from brain tumor
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
The Giants of Jazz members
Bebop trombonists
20th-century jazz composers
|
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] |
242862
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMCS%20Victoria%20%28SSK%20876%29
|
HMCS Victoria (SSK 876)
|
HMCS Victoria is a long-range hunter-killer (SSK) submarine of the Royal Canadian Navy, the lead ship of her class. She is named after the city of Victoria, British Columbia. She was purchased from the Royal Navy, and is the former HMS Unseen (S41). The class was also renamed from the Upholder class.
Design
As built the Upholder/Victoria class was designed as a replacement for the for use as hunter-killer and training subs. The submarines, which have a single-skinned, teardrop-shaped hull, displace surfaced and submerged. They are long overall with a beam of and a draught of .
The submarines are powered by a one shaft diesel-electric system. They are equipped with two Paxman Valenta 1600 RPS SZ diesel engines each driving a GEC electric alternator with two 120-cell chloride batteries. The batteries have a 90-hour endurance at . The ship is propelled by a GEC dual armature electric motor turning a seven-blade fixed pitch propeller. They have a diesel capacity. This gives the subs a maximum speed of on the surface and submerged. They have a range of at and at snorting depth. The class has a reported dive depth of over .
The Upholder/Victoria class are armed with six torpedo tubes. In British service, the submarines were equipped with 14 Tigerfish Mk 24 Mod 2 torpedoes and four UGM-84 Sub-Harpoon missiles. They could also be adapted for use as a minelayer. The submarines have Type 1007 radar and Type 2040, Type 2019, Type 2007 and Type 2046 sonar installed. The hull is fitted with elastomeric acoustic tiles to reduce acoustic signature. In British service the vessels had a complement of seven officers and 40 ratings.
Refits and Canadian alterations
During the refit for Canadian service, the Sub-Harpoon and mine capabilities were removed and the submarines were equipped with the Lockheed Martin Librascope Submarine fire-control system (SFCS) to meet the operational requirements of the Canadian Navy. Components from the fire control system of the Oberon-class submarines were installed. This gave the submarines the ability to fire the Gould Mk 48 Mod 4 torpedo. In 2014, the Government of Canada purchased 12 upgrade kits that will allow the submarines to fire the Mk 48 Mod 7AT torpedoes.
These radar and sonar systems were later upgraded with the installation of the BAE Type 2007 array and the Type 2046 towed array. The Canadian Towed Array Sonar (CANTASS) has been integrated into the towed sonar suite. The Upholder-class submarines were equipped with the CK035 electro-optical search periscope and the CH085 optronic attack periscope, originally supplied by Pilkington Optronics. After the Canadian refit, the submarines were equipped with Canadian communication equipment and electronic support measures (ESM). This included two SSE decoy launchers and the AR 900 ESM.
Construction and career
The submarine's keel was laid down as HMS Unseen at Cammell Laird's Birkenhead yard on 12 August 1987. The submarine was launched on 14 November 1989 and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 20 July 1991. Unseen was decommissioned on 6 April 1994, and placed in reserve in June.
Transfer and Canadian service
Looking to discontinue the operation of diesel-electric boats, the British government offered to sell Unseen and her sister submarines to Canada in 1993. The offer was accepted in 1998. The four boats were leased to the Canadians for US$427 million, plus US$98 million for upgrades and alteration to Canadian standards.
Unseen was the first to be reactivated, and was due to enter service in May 2000. However, problems were discovered with the piping welds on all four submarines, which delayed the reactivation. Unseen was handed over to the Canadian Navy on 6 October 2000 and departed for Canada on 9 October. For the majority of the transit across the Atlantic, the submarine travelled submerged, arriving on 23 October. The submarine was commissioned into Maritime Command as Victoria at Halifax, Nova Scotia on 2 December 2000.
Damage
On arrival in Halifax, Victoria was placed into dockyard hands for a refit. This was originally scheduled to take six months, but was not completed until 2003. In April 2002, while in drydock, a dent was discovered in the hull below the waterline. This contributed to the delayed refit. Victoria was then transferred to Esquimalt, British Columbia, becoming the first Canadian submarine stationed in the Pacific since the 1974 decommissioning of . The submarine was in and out of dock during 2004 and 2005, culminating in a planned two-year repair program in late 2005.
Quoting a CBC News report from May 2006:
Navy technicians caused "catastrophic damage" to one of Canada's trouble-plagued submarines two years ago, says a Halifax newspaper report that cited military documents.
The technicians blew out the electrical system when they hooked up HMCS Victoria to a modern electrical generator, the Halifax Chronicle-Herald reported Saturday.
"Attempts to use a DC [direct current] feed … caused catastrophic damage to certain onboard filters and power supply units," the Chronicle-Herald reported, quoting recently released military documents about the incident, which occurred in British Columbia.
The navy is now spending about $200,000 to buy old electrical equipment that mirrors the original equipment found on the submarine.
Recent events
Between 2000 and 2010, Victoria had only been at sea for 115 days; and was expected to re-enter service in mid-2011, after six years in drydock.
As of March 2011, repairs were still ongoing. As of 23 April 2011, the submarine was reported to be out of drydock and going through trials. On 5 December 2011, Victoria departed Esquimalt Harbour to conduct sea trials and crew training. Victoria arrived at Bangor Naval Base Kitsap-Bangor for deperming (degaussing or the erasure of magnetism) on 13 December 2011, returning to Esquimalt on 16 December.
On 16 March 2012, Victoria fired her first exercise torpedo since beginning her refit. While participating in RIMPAC 2012 exercises, Victoria successfully fired a Mark 48 torpedo on 17 July 2012 striking and sinking the discarded USNS Concord. Victoria was declared fully operational in 2012.
Victoria participated in Operation Caribbe in 2013. In July 2014, Victoria sailed to Hawaii to participate in RIMPAC exercises.
In late 2016, it was announced that all four submarines would reach the end of their service life before 2025 without a large-scale upgrade and refit program. The SELEX (Submarine Life Extension) program was introduced as a result. SELEX will upgrade the outer and inner hulls of the submarines, extending their service life into the early 2030s. SELEX will also upgrade and/or replace the submarines' engines, power systems, propulsion systems, sonar system, countermeasures, communications systems and warfare suite. The program is expected to cost anywhere from CAD$1.5 billion to CAD$3 billion, the latter of which is only slightly less than the estimated cost of replacing the fleet with new submarines.
To deal with the ongoing battery issues aboard sister boat Chicoutimi that began in May 2017, the main battery was transferred from Victoria to Chicoutimi.
References
Sources
External links
HMCS Victoria
Submarines of the Royal Canadian Navy
Fleet of the Royal Canadian Navy
Ships built on the River Mersey
Upholder/Victoria-class submarines
1989 ships
Canadian submarine accidents
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Sacheverell
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William Sacheverell
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William Sacheverell (1638 – 9 October 1691) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons in two periods between 1670 and 1691.
Life
Sacheverell was the son of Henry Sacheverell, a country gentleman, by his wife Joyce Mansfield. His family had been prominent in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire since the 12th century; William inherited large estates from his father. He was admitted to Gray's Inn in 1667, and in 1670 he was elected Member of Parliament for Derbyshire. He immediately gained a prominent position in the party hostile to the Court, and before he had been in the House of Commons for six months, he proposed a resolution that all "popish recusants" should be removed from military commands; the motion, enlarged so as to include civil employment, was carried without a division on 28 February 1672–1673. This resolution was the forerunner of the Test Act, in the preparation of which Sacheverell took an active part, and which caused the breakup of the cabal.
Sacheverell took part in nearly every debate in the House of Commons, and was recognized as one of the most able leaders of the opposition or "Country Party". He strongly opposed the king's alliance with France, advocating a league with the Dutch and the refusal of supplies until the demands of the Commons should be complied with. Sacheverell took a special interest in the navy and spoke in many debates on this question. In 1677 he carried an address to the king calling upon him to conclude an alliance with the United Provinces against Louis XIV of France, and when the Speaker adjourned the House by Charles's order Sacheverell made an eloquent protest, asserting the right of the House itself to decide the question of its adjournment. When parliament met early in 1678 assurances were received from Charles that he had arranged the treaties demanded by the Commons; but Sacheverell boldly questioned the king's good faith, and warned the Commons that they were being deceived. When the secret treaty with France became known, confirming Sacheverell's insight, he called for the disbandment of the forces and advocated the refusal of further supplies for military purposes; and in June 1678 he resolutely opposed Lord Danby's proposal to grant £300,000 per annum to Charles II for life. Jean Barillon mentions Sacheverell among the Whig leaders who accepted bribes from Louis XIV, but the evidence against him is not conclusive.
When Titus Oates began his "revelations" in 1678, Sacheverell was among those who most firmly believed in the existence of a Popish Plot. He was one of the most active investigators of the affair, and one of the managers of the impeachment of the five Catholic peers. He also acted for a time as chairman of the secret committee of the Commons, and drew up the report on the examination of the Jesuit Coleman, secretary to Mary of Modena, the Duchess of York. He was a member of the committee that drafted the articles of impeachment against Danby in 1678, and was appointed one of the managers of the Commons; and in 1679, when the impeachment, interrupted by the dissolution of parliament, was resumed in the new parliament, he spoke strongly against the validity of Danby's plea of pardon by the king.
The allegations in Sacheverell's report on the examination of Coleman prompted the country party to demand the exclusion of James, Duke of York, from the succession to the throne, the first suggestion of the famous Exclusion Bill being made by Sacheverell on 4 November 1678 in a debate--"the greatest that ever was in Parliament," as it was pronounced by contemporaries—raised by Lord Russell with the object of removing the duke from the King's Council. He vigorously promoted the bill in the House of Commons and opposed granting supplies until it should pass. When Charles offered an alternative scheme (1679) for limiting the powers of a Catholic sovereign, Sacheverell made a great speech in which he pointed out the insufficiency of the king's terms for securing the object desired by the Whigs. In the conflict between the Petitioners and the Abhorrers he supported the former, and on 27 October 1680 brought forward a motion asserting the right of petitioning the king to summon parliament, and proposed the impeachment of Chief Justice North as the author of the proclamation against tumultuous petitioning. Sacheverell was one of the managers on behalf of the Commons at the trial of Lord Stafford in Westminster Hall; but took no further part in public affairs till after the elections of March 1681, when he was returned unopposed for Derbyshire. He was prosecuted for riot in connection with the surrender of the charter of Nottingham in 1682, and tried before George Jeffreys, who fined him 500 marks.
At the general election following the death of Charles II in 1685 Sacheverell lost his seat, and for the next four years he lived in retirement on his estates. In the Convention Parliament summoned by William III in 1689, he sat for Heytesbury. He spoke in favour of a radical resettlement of the constitution, and served on a committee, of which Somers was chairman, for drawing up a new constitution in the form of the Declaration of Right; he was one of the representatives of the Commons in their conference with the peers on the question of declaring the throne vacant. William III appointed Sacheverell a lord of the admiralty, but he resigned the office after a few months. He procured the omission of Lord Jeffreys's name from the Act of Indemnity.
In 1690 Sacheverell moved a famous amendment to the Corporation Bill, proposing the addition of a clause for disqualifying for office for seven years municipal functionaries who had surrendered their charters to the Crown. A celebrated debate on this question took place in the House of Commons in January 1690; but the evident intention of the Whigs to perpetuate their own ascendancy by tampering with the franchise contributed largely to the Tory reaction which resulted in the defeat of the Whigs in the elections of that year. Sacheverell was elected member for Nottinghamshire; but be died before taking his seat.
In the judgment of Speaker Onslow, Sacheverell was the "ablest parliament man" of the reign of Charles II. He was one of the earliest English parliamentary orators; his speeches greatly impressed his contemporaries, and in a later generation, as Thomas Macaulay observes, they were "a favourite theme of old men who lived to see the conflicts of Robert Walpole and William Pulteney. Though his fame has become dimmed in comparison with that of Shaftesbury, Russell and Sidney, he was equally conspicuous in the parliamentary proceedings of Charles II's reign, and left a more permanent mark than any of them on the constitutional changes of the period."
Family
Sacheverell was twice married. His first wife was Mary, daughter of William Staunton of Staunton; and his second was Jane, daughter of Sir John Newton. His eldest son, Robert, represented the borough of Nottingham in six parliaments. The family became extinct in the male line in 1724.
References
Bibliography
Many of Sacheverell's speeches are reported in Anchitell Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, 1667–1694 (10 vols., 1769).
Sir John Reresby, Memoirs, 1634–1689, edited by J. J. Cartwright. (1875);
Roger North, Autobiography, edited by Augustus Jessopp (1887);
Lives of the Right Hon. F. North, Baron Guilford, etc. (3 vols., London, 1826);
The Hatton Correspondence, edited by E. M. Thompson for the Camden Society (2 vols., 1878);
Laurence Eachard, History of England 5 vols., 1707–1718).
1638 births
1691 deaths
Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for constituencies in Derbyshire
Lords of the Admiralty
English MPs 1661–1679
English MPs 1679
English MPs 1680–1681
English MPs 1681
English MPs 1689–1690
English MPs 1690–1695
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242864
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo%20Buono%20Jr.
|
Angelo Buono Jr.
|
Angelo Anthony Buono Jr. (October 5, 1934 – September 21, 2002) was an American serial killer, kidnapper and rapist who, together with his adopted cousin Kenneth Bianchi, were known as the Hillside Stranglers. Buono and Bianchi were convicted of killing ten young women in Los Angeles, California, between October 1977 and February 1978.
Early life
Angelo Buono was born on October 5, 1934, in Rochester, New York, to first-generation Italian emigrants from San Buono. Buono had developed an extensive criminal history, ranging from failure to pay child support, grand theft auto, assault and rape. In 1975, when Buono was 41 years old, he came into contact with his adopted cousin, Kenneth Bianchi. A self-described "ladies man", Buono persuaded Bianchi to join him in prostituting two women he had been holding as virtual prisoners.
Murders
In October 1977, Buono and Bianchi began killing women. Cruising around Los Angeles, California, in Buono's car and using fake badges, the two men persuaded their victims that they were undercover police officers. They would then order the victims into Bianchi's Cadillac, which they claimed was an unmarked police car, and drive to Buono's home to torture and murder them. The women and girls ranged in age from 12 to 28. The victims were:
Yolanda Washington, age 19 – October 17, 1977
Judith Lynn Miller, age 15 – October 31, 1977
Lissa Kastin, age 21 – November 5, 1977
Jane King, age 28 – November 9, 1977
Dolores Cepeda, age 12 – November 13, 1977
Sonja Johnson, age 14 – November 13, 1977
Kristina Weckler, age 20 – November 20, 1977
Lauren Wagner, age 18 – November 28, 1977
Kimberely Martin, age 17 – December 9, 1977
Cindy Lee Hudspeth, age 20 – February 16, 1978
Both Buono and Bianchi would sexually abuse their victims before strangling them. They experimented with other methods of killing, such as lethal injection, electric shock, and carbon monoxide poisoning. Even while committing the murders, Bianchi applied for a job with the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and had even been taken for several rides with police officers while they were searching for the Hillside Strangler (who until Buono and Bianchi's capture was assumed to be a lone individual).
Shortly after they botched their would-be eleventh murder, Bianchi revealed to Buono he had participated in LAPD police ride-alongs and that he was currently being questioned about the Hillside Strangler case. Buono flew into a rage and threatened to kill Bianchi if he did not move to Bellingham, Washington. In May 1978, Bianchi moved to Bellingham.
Trial
The legal case against Buono was based largely upon Bianchi's testimony. Deciding that Bianchi was an unreliable and uncooperative witness, the case's original prosecutors from District Attorney John Van de Kamp's office moved to dismiss all charges against Buono and set him free. The presiding judge, Ronald M. George, refused to release Buono and reassigned the case to California Attorney General George Deukmejian's office.
Buono's trial would become the longest in American legal history, lasting from November 1981 until November 1983. During the trial, Bianchi, in exchange for a lighter sentence, testified against Buono. The jury convicted Buono on nine counts of murder and sentenced him to life imprisonment, with Judge George commenting that he felt a death sentence would have been the appropriate punishment.
Prison sentence, death and aftermath
In 1986, Buono married Christine Kizuka, a mother of three and a supervisor at the California State Employment Development Department. He died of a heart attack in September 2002. His body was cremated.
In 2007, Buono's grandson, Christopher Buono, committed suicide shortly after shooting his grandmother, Mary Castillo, in the head. Castillo was at one time married to Buono, and had five children with him, including Chris' father. Chris Buono was unaware of his grandfather's true identity until 2005.
Media
In the 1989 film The Case of the Hillside Stranglers, Buono was portrayed by actor Dennis Farina. In the 2004 film The Hillside Strangler, Buono was portrayed by actor Nicholas Turturro and in Rampage: The Hillside Strangler Murders (2006), he was played by Tomas Arana.
See also
List of serial killers in the United States
List of serial killers by number of victims
References
External links
Crime Library's story on the Hillside Stranglers
1934 births
2002 deaths
1977 murders in the United States
American serial killers
Male serial killers
Violence against women in the United States
American people convicted of rape
American people convicted of murder
People from Rochester, New York
American people of Italian descent
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by California
American murderers of children
American people who died in prison custody
Prisoners who died in California detention
American people convicted of assault
People convicted of murder by California
20th-century American criminals
Serial killers who died in prison custody
Crime in California
Criminals from California
Criminals from New York (state)
Criminals from Los Angeles
American people convicted of theft
American male criminals
American rapists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine%20Watteau
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Antoine Watteau
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Jean-Antoine Watteau (, , ; baptised October 10, 1684died July 18, 1721) was a French painter and draughtsman whose brief career spurred the revival of interest in colour and movement, as seen in the tradition of Correggio and Rubens. He revitalized the waning Baroque style, shifting it to the less severe, more naturalistic, less formally classical, Rococo. Watteau is credited with inventing the genre of fêtes galantes, scenes of bucolic and idyllic charm, suffused with a theatrical air. Some of his best known subjects were drawn from the world of Italian comedy and ballet.
Early life and training
Jean-Antoine Watteau was born in October 1684 in Valenciennes, once an important town in the County of Hainaut which became sequently part of the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands until its secession to France following the Franco-Dutch War. He was the second of four sons born to Jean-Philippe Watteau (1660–1720) and Michelle Lardenois (1653–1727), and was presumed to be of Walloon descent. The Watteaus were a quite well-to-do family, although Jean-Philippe, a roofer in second generation, was said to be given to brawling. Showing an early interest in painting, Jean-Antoine may have been apprenticed to Jacques-Albert Gérin, a local painter, and his first artistic subjects were charlatans selling quack remedies on the streets of Valenciennes. Watteau left for Paris in 1702. After a period spent as a scene-painter, and in poor health, he found employment in a workshop at Pont Notre-Dame, making copies of popular genre paintings in the Flemish and Dutch tradition; it was in that period that he developed his characteristic sketchlike technique.
His drawings attracted the attention of the painter Claude Gillot, and by 1705 he was employed as an assistant to Gillot, whose work, influenced by those of Francesco Primaticcio and the school of Fontainebleau, represented a reaction against the turgid official art of Louis XIV's reign. In Gillot's studio Watteau became acquainted with the characters of the commedia dell'arte (which moved onto the théâtre de la foire following the Comédie-Italienne departure in 1697), a favorite subject of Gillot's that would become one of Watteau's lifelong passions.
After a quarrel with Gillot, Watteau moved to the workshop of Claude Audran III, an interior decorator, under whose influence he began to make drawings admired for their consummate elegance. Audran was the curator of the Palais du Luxembourg, and from him Watteau acquired his knowledge of decorative art and ornamental design. At the palace, Watteau was able to see the magnificent series of canvases painted by Peter Paul Rubens for Queen Marie de Medici. The Flemish painter would become one of his major influences, together with the Venetian masters that he would later study in the collection of his patron and friend, the banker Pierre Crozat.
During this period Watteau painted The Departing Regiment, the first picture in his second and more personal manner, showing influence of Rubens, and the first of a long series of camp pictures. He showed the painting to Audran, who made light of it, and advised him not to waste his time and gifts on such subjects. Watteau determined to leave him, advancing as excuse his desire to return to Valenciennes. He found a purchaser, at the modest price of 60 livres, in a man called Sirois, the father-in-law of his later friend and patron Edme-François Gersaint, and was thus enabled to return to the home of his childhood. In Valenciennes he painted a number of the small camp-pieces, notably the Camp-Fire, which was again bought by Sirois, the price this time being raised to 200 livres.
Later career
In 1709, Watteau tried to obtain a one-year stay in Rome by winning the Prix de Rome from the Academy, but managed only to get awarded with the second prize. In 1712 he tried again and was persuaded by Charles de La Fosse that he had nothing to learn from going to Rome; thanks to Fosse he was accepted as an associate member of the Academy in 1712 and a full member in 1717. He took those five years to deliver the required "reception piece", but it was one of his masterpieces: the Pilgrimage to Cythera, also called the Embarkation for Cythera.
Watteau then went to live with the collector Pierre Crozat, who eventually on his death in 1740 left around 400 paintings and 19,000 drawings by the masters. Thus Watteau was able to spend even more time becoming familiar with the works of Rubens and the Venetian masters.
He lacked aristocratic patrons; his buyers were bourgeois such as bankers and dealers. Among his most famous paintings, beside the two versions of the Pilgrimage to Cythera, one in the Louvre, the other in the Schloss Charlottenburg, Berlin, are Pierrot (long identified as "Gilles"), Fêtes venitiennes, Love in the Italian Theater, Love in the French Theater, "Voulez-vous triompher des belles?" and Mezzetin. The subject of his hallmark painting, Pierrot (Gilles), is an actor in a white satin costume who stands isolated from his four companions, staring ahead with an enigmatic expression on his face.
Watteau's final masterpiece, the Shop-sign of Gersaint, exits the pastoral forest locale for a mundane urban set of encounters. Painted at Watteau's own insistence, "in eight days, working only in the mornings ... in order to warm up his fingers", this sign for the shop in Paris of the paintings dealer Edme François Gersaint is effectively the final curtain of Watteau's theatre. It has been compared with Las Meninas as a meditation on art and illusion. The scene is an art gallery where the façade has magically vanished, and the gallery and street in the canvas are fused into one contiguous drama.
Watteau alarmed his friends by a carelessness about his future and financial security, as if foreseeing he would not live for long. In fact he had been sickly and physically fragile since childhood. In 1720, he travelled to London, England, to consult Dr. Richard Mead, one of the most fashionable physicians of his time and an admirer of Watteau's work. However, London's damp and smoky air offset any benefits of Dr. Mead's wholesome food and medicines. Watteau returned to France, spending six months with Gersaint, and then spent his last few months on the estate of his patron, Abbé Haranger, where he died in 1721, perhaps from tuberculous laryngitis, at the age of 36. The Abbé said Watteau was semi-conscious and mute during his final days, clutching a paint brush and painting imaginary paintings in the air.
His nephew, Louis Joseph Watteau, son of Antoine's brother Noël Joseph Watteau (1689–1756), and grand nephew, François-Louis-Joseph Watteau, son of Louis, followed Antoine into painting.
Critical assessment and legacy
Little known during his lifetime beyond a small circle of his devotees, Watteau "was mentioned but seldom in contemporary art criticism and then usually reprovingly". Sir Michael Levey once noted that Watteau "created, unwittingly, the concept of the individualistic artist loyal to himself, and himself alone". If his immediate followers, Lancret and Pater, would depict the unabashed frillery of aristocratic romantic pursuits, Watteau in a few masterpieces anticipates an art about art, the world of art as seen through the eyes of an artist. In contrast to the Rococo whimsicality and licentiousness cultivated by Boucher and Fragonard in the later part of Louis XV's reign, Watteau's theatrical panache is usually tinged with a note of sympathy, wistfulness, and sadness at the transience of love and other earthly delights. Famously, the Victorian essayist Walter Pater wrote of Watteau: "He was always a seeker after something in the world, that is there in no satisfying measure, or not at all."
Watteau was a prolific draftsman. His drawings, typically executed in trois crayons technique, were collected and admired even by those, such as count de Caylus or Gersaint, who found fault with his paintings. In 1726 and 1728, Jean de Jullienne published suites of etchings after Watteau's drawings, and in 1735 he published a series of engravings after his paintings, The Recueil Jullienne. The quality of the reproductions, using a mixture of engraving and etching following the practice of the Rubens engravers, varied according to the skill of the people employed by Jullienne, but was often very high. Such a comprehensive record was hitherto unparalleled. This helped disseminate his influence round Europe and into the decorative arts.
Watteau's influence on the arts (not only painting, but the decorative arts, costume, film, poetry, music) was more extensive than that of almost any other 18th-century artist. The Watteau dress, a long, sacklike dress with loose pleats hanging from the shoulder at the back, similar to those worn by many of the women in his paintings, is named after him. According to Konody's critical assessment in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, in part, "in his treatment of the landscape background and of the atmospheric surroundings of the figures can be found the germs of Impressionism". His influence on later generations of painters may have been less apparent in France than in England, where J.M.W. Turner was among his admirers. A revived vogue for Watteau began in England during the British Regency, and was later encapsulated by the Goncourt brothers in France (Edmond de Goncourt having published a in 1875) and the World of Art union in Russia.
In 1984 Watteau societies were created in Paris, by Jean Ferré, and London, by Dr. Selby Whittingham. A major exhibition in Paris, Washington and Berlin commemorated the 1984 tercentenary of his birth. Since 2000 a Watteau centre has been established at Valenciennes by Professor Chris Rauseo. A catalogue raisonné of Watteau's drawings has been compiled by Pierre Rosenberg and Louis-Antoine Prat, replacing the one by Sir Karl Parker and Jacques Mathey; similar projects on his paintings are undertaken by Alan Wintermute and Martin Eidelberg, respectively.
Gallery
Notes
References
Bibliography
Dacier, Émile; Vuaflart, Albert; Herold, Jacques (1921–1929). Jean de Julienne et les graveurs de Watteau au XVIII-e siècle (in French). Paris: M. Rousseau. Volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4 available via the Heidelberg University Library repository
The Watteau Society Bulletin, London.
Martin Eidelberg, watteauandhiscircle.org
External links
Alphabetical list of accepted paintings and copies at A Watteau Abecedario
The Rococo and Watteau
www.Jean-Antoine-Watteau.org 89 works by Antoine Watteau
Watteau paintings at the Web Gallery of Art
Works by Watteau in the collection of the Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum
The Watteau Abecedario http://watteau-abecedario.org/default.htm
1684 births
1721 deaths
People from Valenciennes
Rococo painters
Prix de Rome for painting
18th-century French painters
French male painters
People of the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans
People of the Ancien Régime
Mythological painters
18th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Members of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture
Tuberculosis deaths in France
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] |
242868
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exp
|
Exp
|
Exp may stand for:
Exponential function, in mathematics
Expiry date of organic compounds like food or medicines
Experience points, in role-playing games
EXPTIME, a complexity class in computing
Ford EXP, a car manufactured in the 1980s
Exp (band), an Italian group in the 1990s
"EXP" (song), a song by The Jimi Hendrix Experience from the album Axis: Bold as Love
EXP (calculator key), to enter numbers in scientific or engineering notation
See also
Exponential map (disambiguation)
|
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242869
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20Bianchi
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Kenneth Bianchi
|
Kenneth Alessio Bianchi (born May 22, 1951) is an American serial killer, kidnapper, and rapist. He is known for the 1977-79 Hillside Strangler murders committed with his cousin Angelo Buono Jr., as well as for murdering two more women in Washington by himself. Bianchi is currently serving a sentence of life imprisonment in Washington State Penitentiary for these crimes.
Bianchi was also at one time a suspect in the alphabet murders, three unsolved murders in his home city of Rochester, New York, from 1971 to 1973.
Early life
Kenneth Bianchi was born on May 22, 1951, in Rochester, New York, to an alcoholic prostitute who gave him up for adoption two weeks after he was born. He was adopted in August 1951 by Nicholas Bianchi and his wife Frances Scioliono-Bianchi, and was their only child.
Bianchi was deeply troubled from a young age, with his adoptive mother describing him as "a compulsive liar" from the time he could talk. He would often fall into inattentive, trance-like daydreams where his eyes would roll back into his head. From these symptoms, a physician diagnosed the five-year-old Bianchi with petit mal seizures. He was also frequently given physical examinations by doctors because of an involuntary urination problem, causing him a great deal of humiliation.
Bianchi had many behavioral problems and was prone to fits of anger. Frances responded by taking him to a psychiatrist multiple times, with Bianchi being diagnosed with a passive-aggressive personality disorder at the age of ten. Bianchi's IQ was measured at 116 at the age of eleven, but, despite having above-average intelligence, he was an underachiever and was moved twice from schools because he failed to get along with teachers. Frances described him as "lazy" and his teachers claimed that he was working below his capacity.
After Bianchi's adoptive father died suddenly from pneumonia in 1964, the teenaged Bianchi refused to cry or show any other signs of grief. After her husband's death, Frances had to work while her son attended high school and was known for keeping him home from school for long periods of time. Shortly after Bianchi graduated from Gates-Chili High School in 1970, he married his high school sweetheart. The union ended after eight months. Supposedly, she left him without an explanation.
As an adult, Bianchi dropped out of college after one semester and drifted through a series of menial jobs, finally ending up as a security guard at a jewelry store. This gave him the opportunity to steal valuables, which he often gave to girlfriends or prostitutes to buy their loyalty. Because of his many petty thefts, Bianchi was constantly on the move.
The alphabet murders occurred in and around Rochester from 1971 to 1973. Three young girls (Carmen Colón, Wanda Walkowicz, and Michelle Maenza) were kidnapped, sexually assaulted and murdered. Bianchi was never formally charged in these crimes, but he was a suspect because he worked as an ice cream vendor near two of the murder scenes and drove a car similar to a suspicious vehicle spotted near one of the abduction sites. Bianchi has denied any responsibility for these murders.
Bianchi moved to Los Angeles, California, in 1976 and started spending time with his older cousin (and Frances's nephew), Angelo Buono, who impressed Bianchi with his fancy clothes, jewelry, and talent for getting any woman he wanted and "putting them in their place." Before long, they worked together as pimps and, by late 1977, they had escalated to what would become known as the "Hillside Strangler" murders. Bianchi and Buono had raped and murdered ten young women and girls by the time they were arrested in early 1979.
Murders
Bianchi and Buono would usually cruise around Los Angeles in Buono's car and use fake badges to persuade women that they were undercover police officers. Their victims were women and girls aged 12 to 28 from various walks of life. They would then order the victims into Buono's car, which they claimed was an unmarked police car, and drive them to Buono's home to torture and murder them. The victims were:
Both men would sexually abuse their victims before strangling them. They experimented with other methods of killing, such as lethal injection, electric shock, and carbon monoxide poisoning. Even while committing the murders, Bianchi applied for a job with the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and had even been taken for several rides with police officers while they were searching for the Hillside Strangler.
On January 11, 1979, working as a security guard, Bianchi lured two female students into a house he was guarding. The women were 22-year-old Karen Mandic and 27-year-old Diane Wilder, both students at Western Washington University. Bianchi forced Mandic down the stairs in front of him and then strangled her. He murdered Wilder in a similar fashion. Without help from his partner, Bianchi left many clues and police apprehended him the next day. A California driver's license and a routine background check linked him to the addresses of two Strangler victims.
Shortly after Bianchi committed the eleventh and twelfth murders, he revealed to Buono that he'd gone on LAPD police ride-alongs, and that he was currently being questioned about the Strangler case. Buono flew into a rage and threatened to kill Bianchi if he did not move to Bellingham, Washington, which he did in May 1978.
Following his arrest, Bianchi admitted that in 1977 he and Buono, while posing as police officers, stopped a young woman called Catharine Lorre with the intention of abducting and killing her, but released her after learning she was the daughter of actor Peter Lorre. Only after the men were arrested did Catharine learn of their identities.
Trial
At his trial, Bianchi pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity, claiming that another personality, one "Steve Walker", had committed the crimes. It was believed he had recently seen the film "Sybil," about a woman suffering from multiple personalities triggered by childhood abuse. He convinced a few expert psychiatrists that he indeed suffered from multiple personality disorder, but investigators brought in their own psychiatrists, mainly Martin Orne. When Orne mentioned to Bianchi that in genuine cases of the disorder, there tend to be three or more personalities, Bianchi promptly created another alias, "Billy". Orne proved that Bianchi lied about having multiple personalities to avoid being prosecuted, and tested Bianchi by introducing him to his lawyer, who was not present. Bianchi interacted with the imaginary lawyer. Orne then brought in his real lawyer, flustering Bianchi, who claimed that the imaginary lawyer had vanished. Prior to his actual lawyer's appearance, Bianchi even leaned over to shake the hand of the imaginary one; an action which is referred to as "tactile hallucinations" that experts explained is an event that rarely, if ever, happens during hypnosis nor other types of neurological-event triggered hallucination. Dr. Orne had never once seen a true "tactile hallucination" in his career, suggesting that this was a complete fabrication. He eventually pleaded guilty in order to avoid the death penalty in Washington State.
Eventually, investigators discovered that the name "Steven Walker" came from a student whose identity Bianchi had previously attempted to steal for the purpose of fraudulently practicing psychology. Police also found a small library of books in Bianchi's home on topics of modern psychology, further indicating his ability to fake the disorder. Once his claims were subjected to this scrutiny, Bianchi eventually admitted that he had been faking the disorder. He was eventually diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder with sexual sadism.
In an attempt to obtain a reduced sentence, Bianchi agreed to testify against Buono. However, in giving his testimony, Bianchi made every effort to be as uncooperative and self-contradictory as possible, apparently hoping to avert Buono's conviction. In the end, Bianchi's efforts were unsuccessful, as Buono was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment.
In 1980, Bianchi began a relationship with Veronica Compton, a woman he had met while in prison. During his trial, she testified for the defense, telling the jury a false, vague tale about the crimes in an attempt to exculpate Bianchi. She also admitted to wanting to buy a mortuary with another convicted murderer for the purpose of necrophilia. She was later convicted and imprisoned for attempting to strangle a woman she had lured to a motel in an attempt to convince authorities that the Hillside Strangler was still on the loose. Bianchi allegedly had given her some semen during a prison visit to plant on the planned victim to make it look like a rape/murder committed by the Strangler.
In 1992, Bianchi sued Catherine Yronwode for US$8.5 million for having an image of his face depicted on a trading card; he claimed his face was his trademark. The judge dismissed the case after ruling that, if Bianchi had been using his face as a trademark when he was killing women, he would not have tried to hide it from the police.
Bianchi is serving his sentence at Washington State Penitentiary in Walla Walla, Washington. He was denied parole on August 18, 2010, by a state board in Sacramento. He will be eligible to apply for parole again in 2025.
See also
List of serial killers in the United States
List of serial killers by number of victims
References
Further reading
The Mind of a Murderer, Parts 1 and 2 (1985), PBS documentary
1951 births
Living people
1977 murders in the United States
American serial killers
Violence against women in the United States
Male serial killers
American rapists
American adoptees
American people convicted of murder
American murderers of children
People from Rochester, New York
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Washington (state)
People convicted of murder by Washington (state)
People with antisocial personality disorder
20th-century American criminals
Criminals from New York (state)
Criminals from Los Angeles
American male criminals
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Pulteney%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Bath
|
William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath
|
William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, (22 March 16847 July 1764) was a British Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1707 to 1742, when he was created the first Earl of Bath by King George II.
Bath is sometimes stated to have been First Lord of the Treasury and British prime minister, for the shortest term ever (two days) in 1746, although most modern sources reckon that he cannot be considered to have held the office.
Background and early career
The son of William Pulteney by his first wife, Mary Floyd, he was born in March 1684 into an old Leicestershire family. He was educated at Westminster School and at Christ Church, Oxford, matriculating on 31 October 1700. He acquired extensive classical knowledge, and on leaving Oxford made the usual tour on the continent. In 1705, he was brought into parliament by Henry Guy (former secretary of the Treasury) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon. This seat was held by him without a break until 1734.
Throughout the reign of Queen Anne William Pulteney played a prominent part in the struggles of the Whigs, and was involved in the prosecution of Henry Sacheverell. When the victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to the Tower of London in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of Commons and with the leading Whigs visited him in prison.
Ministerial offices
Pulteney was secretary of war from 1714 to 1717 in the first ministry of George I, and was on the committee of secrecy on the Treaty of Utrecht, formed in April 1715. Two years later, on 6 July 1716, he became one of the privy council. When Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and Walpole resigned, they were followed in their retirement by Pulteney.
The crash of the South Sea Company restored Walpole to the highest position, but all he offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer was rejected, but in May 1723 Pulteney agreed to accept the lucrative but insignificant post of Cofferer of the Household. However, when he found himself neglected, he opposed the proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil list, and in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure.
He was one of the original backers of the Royal Academy of Music, establishing a London opera company which commissioned numerous works from Handel, Bononcini and others.
Patriot Whigs
From the day of his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph, Pulteney remained in opposition, forming the Patriot Whigs, a group of fellow Whigs who felt that Walpole was corrupt and tyrannical. Walpole's attempt's 1730 at conciliation with the offer of Townshend's place and of a peerage was spurned. Pulteney's resentment was not confined to his speeches in parliament. With Bolingbroke he started, in December 1726, a periodical called The Craftsman, and in its pages the minister was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey published an attack on the Craftsman, and Pulteney, either openly or behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the attack. Whether the question at issue was the civil list, the excise, the income of the Prince of Wales, or the state of domestic affairs, Pulteney was ready with a pamphlet, and the minister or one of his friends came out with a reply. For his "Proper reply to a late scurrilous libel" (Craftsman, 1731), an answer to "Sedition and defamation displayed," he was challenged to a duel by Lord Hervey; for another, "An answer to one part of an infamous libel entitled remarks on the Craftsman's indication of his two honourable patrons," he was in July 1731 struck off the roll of privy councillors and dismissed from the commission of the peace in several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior to Bolingbroke alone among the antagonists of Walpole, but in parliament, from which Bolingbroke was excluded, he excelled. When the sinking fund was appropriated in 1733 he led the denunciation; when the excise scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its lowest depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory. Walpole managed to avoid the fall of his ministry. Bolingbroke withdrew to France on the suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposition was weakened by the dissensions of the leaders.
From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the peerage, Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this election the minister's assailants made little progress in their attack, but in 1738 the troubles with Spain supplied them with the opportunity which they desired. Walpole long argued for peace, but he was feebly supported by his own cabinet, and the frenzy of the people for war knew no bounds. In an evil moment for his own reputation he consented to remain in office and to gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739, a new parliament was summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the divisions on the election petitions the ministry of Walpole collapsed.
The task of forming the new administration was after some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who offered the post of First Lord of the Treasury (Prime Minister) to the Earl of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in the cabinet and a peerage, still hoping to retain his supremacy in the ministry. This made him unpopular, and his influence dwindled to nothing.
Horace Walpole asserts that when Pulteney wished to withdraw from the peerage it was forced upon him by the king, and another chronicler of the times records that when Walpole and Pulteney met in the House of Lords, the one as Earl of Orford, the other as Earl of Bath, the remark was made by Orford: "Here we are, my lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England." On 14 July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of Heydon, Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Somerset, and Earl of Bath. On 20 February he had been restored to his rank in the privy council. At Wilmington's death in 1743 he made application to the king for the post of First Lord of the Treasury, only to find that it had been conferred on Henry Pelham.
Prime minister
On 10 February 1746, Pelham's administration resigned en masse, and the king turned to Bath to form an alternative ministry. He accepted the seals of office and made nominations to the most senior posts, but it quickly became clear that he did not have enough support to form a viable government, and after "48 hours, three quarters, seven minutes, and eleven seconds" he abandoned the attempt, forcing the king to accept Pelham's terms for resuming office. As the office of Prime Minister did not then officially exist, it is a matter of controversy whether Bath should be considered to have been Prime Minister by virtue of his two-day ministry.
Bath's failed attempt to form a government brought him much ridicule. Horace Walpole recorded the joke that "Granville and Bath were met going about the streets, calling 'Odd Man', as the hackney chairmen do when they want a partner", and a contemporary pamphlet satirically praised him for "the most wise and honest of all administrations, the minister having ... never transacted one rash thing; and, what is more marvellous, left as much money in the T[reasur]y as he found in it."
Death and legacy
An occasional pamphlet and an infrequent speech were afterwards the sole fruits of Bath's talents. His praises whilst in retirement have been sung by two bishops, Zachary Pearce and Thomas Newton. In 1762, two years before his death, he served as treasurer of the Salop Infirmary in Shrewsbury. He was buried on 17 July 1764, in his own vault in Islip chapel, Westminster Abbey. The monument erected is by the sculptor Joseph Wilton.
He married on 27 December 1714 Anna Maria, daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isleworth, commissary general to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the day (Notes and Queries, 3rd S. iI. 40 2-403, ~ 490). Anna Maria was the aunt of Rev. Dr. John Lockman, Canon of Windsor. She died on 14 September 1758, and their only son William Pulteney died unmarried at Madrid on 12 February 1763. Pulteney's vast fortune passed in 1767 to Frances, wife of William Johnstone and daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel Pulteney, a bitter antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken the name of Pulteney.
Of business he was never fond, and the loss in 1734 of his trusted friend John Merrill, who had supplied the qualities which he lacked, was lamented by him in a letter to Jonathan Swift.
The town of Poultney, Vermont and the Poultney River were named for him.
Cabinet of Lord Bath
Bibliography
William Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole (1816), and of Henry Pelham (1829)
John Morley, Walpole (1889)
Walter Sichel, Bolingbroke (1901–1902)
Archibald Ballantyne, Carteret (1887)
Eng. Hist. Rev. iv. 749-753
and the general political memoirs of the time.
References
Attribution:
Bibliography
External links
William Pulteney at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
1684 births
1764 deaths
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
British MPs 1707–1708
British MPs 1708–1710
British MPs 1710–1713
British MPs 1713–1715
British MPs 1715–1722
British MPs 1722–1727
British MPs 1727–1734
British MPs 1734–1741
British MPs 1741–1747
British duellists
Earls of Bath
Peers of Great Britain created by George II
Lord-Lieutenants of the East Riding of Yorkshire
Lord-Lieutenants of Shropshire
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
Pulteney, William
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
People educated at Westminster School, London
People expelled from the Privy Council of Great Britain
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Hedon
Members of the Parliament of England for Hedon
|
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242872
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hana%20Mandl%C3%ADkov%C3%A1
|
Hana Mandlíková
|
Hana Mandlíková (born 19 February 1962) is a former professional tennis player from Czechoslovakia who later obtained Australian citizenship. During her career, she won four Grand Slam singles titles: the 1980 Australian Open, 1981 French Open, 1985 US Open, and the 1987 Australian Open. She was also the runner-up at four Grand Slam singles events, including the Wimbledon finals of 1981 and 1986, and won one Grand Slam women's doubles title, at the 1989 US Open with Martina Navratilova. Inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1994, she is considered one of the greatest tennis players of all time.
Mandlikova had a career-high singles ranking of No. 3, and was ranked in the world's Top 50 for 12 consecutive seasons (1978–89), including seven in the Top 10. She led Czechoslovakia to three consecutive Fed Cup titles from 1983–1985, and was only the third woman to win Grand Slam titles on grass, clay, and hard courts, joining Chris Evert and Martina Navratilova. She defeated both Evert and Navratilova on consecutive days to accomplish this feat at the 1985 US Open. She retired in 1990, and went on to coach Jana Novotná to the 1998 Wimbledon singles title and a career-high ranking of No. 2. She also served as the Czech Republic's Olympic and Fed Cup coach until 1996.
Personal life
Born in Prague, Mandlíková is the daughter of Vilém Mandlík, who was an Olympic 200-meter semifinalist for Czechoslovakia in 1956. She married Czech born - Australian restaurateur Jan Sedlak in Prague in 1986; the couple divorced two years later, shortly after Mandlikova obtained Australian citizenship. In May 2001, she gave birth to twins Mark Vilém and Elizabeth Hana. Their father was a friend who was to have no role in their upbringing. Mandlikova is raising her two children with her partner, Sydney Biller, in Bradenton, Florida. Both children are tennis players.
Career
Junior
Mandlíková first came to the tennis world's attention as a junior player. In 1978, the International Tennis Federation launched the world junior rankings, and Mandlíková became the first female world No. 1 junior player.
Professional
Mandlíková captured her first Grand Slam singles title at the Australian Open in 1980, defeating Wendy Turnbull in straight sets in the final. Her second came a year later at the French Open with straight-sets wins over Chris Evert in the semifinals and West German Sylvia Hanika in the final. Mandlíková was also the runner-up at the US Open in 1980 and 1982 and at Wimbledon in 1981, losing in all three finals to Evert. From the US Open 1980 through to Wimbledon 1981, she made four consecutive Grand Slam singles finals. Mandlikova ended Chris Evert's 72 match-win streak on clay at the 1981 French Open.
In 1983, Mandlíková led Czechoslovakia to the first of three consecutive Fed Cup titles. The following year, she defeated Martina Navratilova in three sets in the final at Oakland, California, ending Navratilova's 54-match winning streak, two short of tying the record held by Evert at the time. Navratilova then embarked on a 74-match winning streak, a record that still stands.
In 1985, Mandlíková became the first woman since Tracy Austin to beat both Evert and Navratilova in the same tournament when she beat the top-seeded Evert in the semifinals and then the second-seeded Navratilova in the three-set final at the US Open. This win made her only the third woman, after Evert and Navratilova, to win Grand Slam titles on grass, clay and hard courts. Since then, only three other women have achieved this feat: Steffi Graf, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova. The following year, Mandlíková teamed with Turnbull to win the women's doubles title at the WTA Tour Championships. In doing so, they defeated the top two teams of the time, Navratilova and Pam Shriver in the semifinals and Claudia Kohde-Kilsch and Helena Suková in the final. Mandlíková and Turnbull were also runners-up to Navratilova and Shriver at Wimbledon and the US Open in 1986. Mandlíková also lost in the Wimbledon singles final that year to Navratilova. Another high point of Mandlíková's summer that year was a win over Steffi Graf in the quarterfinals of the French Open. Graf had won four titles that season on clay with victories over Mandlíková, Evert, Navratilova, Kohde Kilsch, and Gabriela Sabatini, and held a match point in the second set of their quarterfinal before Mandlíková stopped another win streak, as Graf had won her previous 23 matches that year.
In 1987, Mandlíková won her fourth and final Grand Slam singles title when she beat Navratilova in straight sets in the final of the Australian Open. With this victory, she once again ended a Navratilova win streak, this time after 56 matches.
Mandlikova attained Australian citizenship in 1988, and her last consistent performance in a Grand Slam event was at the 1988 Australian Open, where, as the defending champion, she reached the quarterfinals before losing to eventual champion Steffi Graf. 1988 also saw her divorced from Sedlak. Her injury problems saw her year-end ranking for 1988 drop to 29, her lowest since 1978. She ended the 1989 season ranked 14 in the world. Mandlíková and Navratilova teamed in 1989 to win the US Open women's doubles title, defeating Shriver and Mary Joe Fernández in the final.
She retired from the professional tennis tour in 1990 at age 28, having won 27 singles and 19 doubles titles. Since retiring from the tour, she has become a successful tennis coach. She coached Jana Novotná for nine years (1990–99), and during this time Novotná, won Wimbledon and reached the world No. 2 ranking. Mandlíková also was captain of the Czech Republic's Fed Cup team.
Mandlíková is one of 13 women during the open era to have reached the singles final of all four Grand Slam tournaments. She is one of seven women who have won Grand Slam singles titles on clay, grass, and hard courts, with the others being Graf, Navratilova, Evert, Serena Williams, Sharapova and Ash Barty.
During her professional career, Mandlíková was coached by former tennis player Betty Stöve. Mandlíková was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1994 and received the Hall of Fame ring in 2017.
Grand Slam performance timelines
Singles
Doubles
See also
Performance timelines for all female tennis players who reached at least one Grand Slam final
References
External links
1962 births
Living people
Australian female tennis players
Australian Open (tennis) champions
Australian people of Czech descent
Australian tennis coaches
Czech female tennis players
Czechoslovak emigrants to Australia
Czechoslovak female tennis players
French Open champions
Hopman Cup competitors
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
LGBT sportspeople from Australia
LGBT people from Czechoslovakia
Naturalised tennis players of Australia
Sportspeople from the Gold Coast, Queensland
Sportspeople from Prague
Tennis people from Queensland
US Open (tennis) champions
Lesbian sportswomen
LGBT tennis players
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles
French Open junior champions
|
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242876
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Coxe%20%28historian%29
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William Coxe (historian)
|
William Coxe (8 June 1828) was an English historian and priest who served as a travelling companion and tutor to nobility from 1771 to 1786. He wrote numerous historical works and travel chronicles. Ordained a deacon in 1771, he served as a rector and then archdeacon of Bemerton near Salisbury from 1786 until his death.
Biography
William Coxe was born on in Dover Street, Piccadilly, London, the eldest son of William Coxe (c. 17101760), a physician to the king's household, and his wife, Martha, daughter of Paul D'Aranda. He was the older brother of the writer and poet Peter Coxe (c. 1753–1844), who wrote the poem "Social Day". Following his father's death in 1760, his mother married John Christopher Smith, who was Handel's amanuensis.
Educated at Marylebone Grammar School (1753–54) and then at Eton College (1754–64), Coxe matriculated to King's College, Cambridge at Easter 1765. He received his BA in 1769, and his MA in 1772. From 1768 to 1771, he was a fellow of King's College. Coxe was ordained a deacon in London on 21 December 1771 and a priest on 15 March 1772.
Coxe travelled throughout Europe as a tutor and travelling companion to various noblemen and gentlemen, including Lord Herbert, son of the Earl of Pembroke; and Samuel Whitbread of the brewing family. He wrote prodigious and detailed accounts of his travels with Lord Herbert around the Swiss and French Alps, which were subsequently published.
In 1786 he was appointed vicar of Kingston upon Thames, and in 1788 rector of Fugglestone St Peter-with-Bemerton, Wiltshire. He also held the rectory of Stourton, Wiltshire from 1801 to 1811 and that of Fovant from 1811 until his death. In 1791 he was made prebendary of Salisbury, and in 1804 Archdeacon of Wilts until his death twenty-four years later at age 80. He died on 8 June 1828 in Bemerton, and was buried in the chancel of St Peter's Church at Fugglestone St Peter.
In 1803, Coxe married Eleanora, daughter of William Shairp, consul-general for Russia, and widow of Thomas Yeldham of St Petersburg.
Works
In addition to his travel writing, during his long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied in literary work. His publications included:
References
Citations
External links
William Coxe at the Open Library
Travels in Switzerland by William Coxe at Viatimages
Travels in Switzerland by William Coxe at wdl.org
1747 births
1828 deaths
English historians
Writers from London
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
People educated at Eton College
Archdeacons of Wilts
Fellows of the Royal Society
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20nuclear%20weapons
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History of nuclear weapons
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Nuclear weapons possess enormous destructive power from nuclear fission or combined fission and fusion reactions. Building on scientific breakthroughs made during the 1930s, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and free France collaborated during World War II, in what was called the Manhattan Project, to build a fission weapon, also known as an atomic bomb. In August 1945, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were conducted by the United States against Japan at the close of that war, standing to date as the only use of nuclear weapons in hostilities. The Soviet Union started development shortly after with their own atomic bomb project, and not long after, both countries were developing even more powerful fusion weapons known as hydrogen bombs. Britain and France built their own systems in the 1950s, and the list of states with nuclear weapons has gradually grown larger in the decades since.
Physics and politics in the 1930s and 1940s
In the first decades of the 20th century, physics was revolutionized with developments in the understanding of the nature of atoms. In 1898, Pierre and Marie Curie discovered that pitchblende, an ore of uranium, contained a substance—which they named radium—that emitted large amounts of radioactivity. Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy identified that atoms were breaking down and turning into different elements. Hopes were raised among scientists and laymen that the elements around us could contain tremendous amounts of unseen energy, waiting to be harnessed.
H. G. Wells was inspired to write about atomic weapons in a 1914 novel, The World Set Free, which appeared shortly before the First World War. In a 1924 article, Winston Churchill speculated about the possible military implications: "Might not a bomb no bigger than an orange be found to possess a secret power to destroy a whole block of buildings—nay to concentrate the force of a thousand tons of cordite and blast a township at a stroke?"
In January 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany and suppressed Jewish scientists. Like many others Leó Szilárd fled to London where in 1934, he patented the idea of a nuclear chain reaction via neutrons. The patent also introduced the term critical mass to describe the minimum amount of material required to sustain the chain reaction and its potential to cause an explosion (British patent 630,726). The patent was not about an atomic bomb per se, as the possibility of chain reaction was still very speculative. Szilard subsequently assigned the patent to the British Admiralty so that it could be covered by the Official Secrets Act. In a very real sense, Szilárd was the father of the atomic bomb academically. The 1934 military secret patent of Szilard was clearly ahead of the time. The neutron inducted nuclear chain reactions and power from that reactions, and the possibility of the nuclear explosion from these reactions, and the rudimentary mechanics of such a power plant was five years before the public discovery of nuclear fission, and 8 years before Szilard and his friend Enrico Fermi demonstrated a working reactor with uranium at the university of Chicago in 1942. When he coined the neutron inducted chain reaction, he was not sure about the usage of the perfect element or isotope yet, despite he mentioned correctly the uranium and thorium too, finally he stressed mistakenly the idea of berylium.
In 1934, Szilard joined with Enrico Fermi in patenting the world's first working nuclear reactor.
In Paris in 1934, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered that artificial radioactivity could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with alpha particles; in Italy Enrico Fermi reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons.
In December 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann reported that they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons. Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch correctly interpreted these results as being due to the splitting of the uranium atom. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on January 13, 1939. They gave the process the name "fission" because of its similarity to the splitting of a cell into two new cells. Even before it was published, news of Meitner's and Frisch's interpretation crossed the Atlantic.
After learning about the German fission in 1939, Szilard concluded that uranium would be the element which can realize his 1933 idea about nuclear chain reaction.
Scientists at Columbia University decided to replicate the experiment and on January 25, 1939, conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States in the basement of Pupin Hall. The following year, they identified the active component of uranium as being the rare isotope uranium-235.
Between 1939 and 1940, Joliot-Curie's team applied for a patent family covering different use cases of atomic energy, one (case III, in patent FR 971,324 - Perfectionnements aux charges explosives, meaning Improvements in Explosive Charges) being the first official document explicitly mentioning a nuclear explosion as a purpose, including for war. This patent was applied for on May 4, 1939, but only granted in 1950, being withheld by French authorities in the meantime.
Uranium appears in nature primarily in two isotopes: uranium-238 and uranium-235. When the nucleus of uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission, releasing energy and, on average, 2.5 neutrons. Because uranium-235 releases more neutrons than it absorbs, it can support a chain reaction and so is described as fissile. Uranium-238, on the other hand, is not fissile as it does not normally undergo fission when it absorbs a neutron.
By the start of the war in September 1939, many scientists likely to be persecuted by the Nazis had already escaped. Physicists on both sides were well aware of the possibility of utilizing nuclear fission as a weapon, but no one was quite sure how it could be engineered. In August 1939, concerned that Germany might have its own project to develop fission-based weapons, Albert Einstein signed a letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the threat.
Roosevelt responded by setting up the Uranium Committee under Lyman James Briggs but, with little initial funding ($6,000), progress was slow. It was not until the U.S. entered the war in December 1941 that Washington decided to commit the necessary resources to a top-secret high priority bomb project.
Organized research first began in Britain and Canada as part of the Tube Alloys project: the world's first nuclear weapons project. The Maud Committee was set up following the work of Frisch and Rudolf Peierls who calculated uranium-235's critical mass and found it to be much smaller than previously thought which meant that a deliverable bomb should be possible. In the February 1940 Frisch–Peierls memorandum they stated that: "The energy liberated in the explosion of such a super-bomb...will, for an instant, produce a temperature comparable to that of the interior of the sun. The blast from such an explosion would destroy life in a wide area. The size of this area is difficult to estimate, but it will probably cover the centre of a big city."
Edgar Sengier, a director of Shinkolobwe Mine in the Congo which produced by far the highest quality uranium ore in the world, had become aware of uranium's possible use in a bomb. In late 1940, fearing that it might be seized by the Germans, he shipped the mine's entire stockpile of ore to a warehouse in New York.
For 18 months British research outpaced the American but by mid-1942, it became apparent that the industrial effort required was beyond Britain's already stretched wartime economy. In September 1942, General Leslie Groves was appointed to lead the U.S. project which became known as the Manhattan Project. Two of his first acts were to obtain authorization to assign the highest priority AAA rating on necessary procurements, and to order the purchase of all 1,250 tons of the Shinkolobwe ore. The Tube Alloys project was quickly overtaken by the U.S. effort and after Roosevelt and Churchill signed the Quebec Agreement in 1943, it was relocated and amalgamated into the Manhattan Project.
From Los Alamos to Hiroshima
The beginning of the American research about nuclear weapons (The Manhattan Project) started with the Einstein–Szilárd letter.
With a scientific team led by J. Robert Oppenheimer, the Manhattan project brought together some of the top scientific minds of the day, including many exiles from Europe, with the production power of American industry for the goal of producing fission-based explosive devices before Germany. Britain and the U.S. agreed to pool their resources and information for the project, but the other Allied power, the Soviet Union (USSR), was not informed. The U.S. made a tremendous investment in the project which at the time was the second largest industrial enterprise ever seen, spread across more than 30 sites in the U.S. and Canada. Scientific development was centralized in a secret laboratory at Los Alamos.
For a fission weapon to operate, there must be sufficient fissile material to support a chain reaction, a critical mass. To separate the fissile uranium-235 isotope from the non-fissile uranium-238, two methods were developed which took advantage of the fact that uranium-238 has a slightly greater atomic mass: electromagnetic separation and gaseous diffusion. Another secret site was erected at rural Oak Ridge, Tennessee, for the large-scale production and purification of the rare isotope, which required considerable investment. At the time, K-25, one of the Oak Ridge facilities, was the world's largest factory under one roof. The Oak Ridge site employed tens of thousands of people at its peak, most of whom had no idea what they were working on.
Although uranium-238 cannot be used for the initial stage of an atomic bomb, when it absorbs a neutron, it becomes uranium-239 which decays into neptunium-239, and finally the relatively stable plutonium-239, which is fissile like uranium-235. After Fermi achieved the world's first sustained and controlled nuclear chain reaction with the creation of the first atomic pile, massive reactors were secretly constructed at what is now known as the Hanford Site to transform uranium-238 into plutonium for a bomb.
The simplest form of nuclear weapon is a gun-type fission weapon, where a sub-critical mass would be shot at another sub-critical mass. The result would be a super-critical mass and an uncontrolled chain reaction that would create the desired explosion. The weapons envisaged in 1942 were the two gun-type weapons, Little Boy (uranium) and Thin Man (plutonium), and the Fat Man plutonium implosion bomb.
In early 1943 Oppenheimer determined that two projects should proceed forwards: the Thin Man project (plutonium gun) and the Fat Man project (plutonium implosion). The plutonium gun was to receive the bulk of the research effort, as it was the project with the most uncertainty involved. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could then be adapted from it.
In December 1943 the British mission of 19 scientists arrived in Los Alamos. Hans Bethe became head of the Theoretical Division.
In April 1944 it was found by Emilio Segrè that the plutonium-239 produced by the Hanford reactors had too high a level of background neutron radiation, and underwent spontaneous fission to a very small extent, due to the unexpected presence of plutonium-240 impurities. If such plutonium were used in a gun-type design, the chain reaction would start in the split second before the critical mass was fully assembled, blowing the weapon apart with a much lower yield than expected, in what is known as a fizzle.
As a result, development of Fat Man was given high priority. Chemical explosives were used to implode a sub-critical sphere of plutonium, thus increasing its density and making it into a critical mass. The difficulties with implosion centered on the problem of making the chemical explosives deliver a perfectly uniform shock wave upon the plutonium sphere— if it were even slightly asymmetric, the weapon would fizzle. This problem was solved by the use of explosive lenses which would focus the blast waves inside the imploding sphere, akin to the way in which an optical lens focuses light rays.
After D-Day, General Groves ordered a team of scientists to follow eastward-moving victorious Allied troops into Europe to assess the status of the German nuclear program (and to prevent the westward-moving Soviets from gaining any materials or scientific manpower). They concluded that, while Germany had an atomic bomb program headed by Werner Heisenberg, the government had not made a significant investment in the project, and it had been nowhere near success. Similarly, Japan's efforts at developing a nuclear weapon were starved of resources. The Japanese navy lost interest when a committee led by Yoshio Nishina concluded in 1943 that "it would probably be difficult even for the United States to realize the application of atomic power during the war".
Historians claim to have found a rough schematic showing a Nazi nuclear bomb. In March 1945, a German scientific team was directed by the physicist Kurt Diebner to develop a primitive nuclear device in Ohrdruf, Thuringia. Last ditch research was conducted in an experimental nuclear reactor at Haigerloch.
Decision to drop the bomb
On April 12, after Roosevelt's death, Vice President Harry S. Truman assumed the presidency. At the time of the unconditional surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945, the Manhattan Project was still months away from producing a working weapon.
Because of the difficulties in making a working plutonium bomb, it was decided that there should be a test of the weapon. On July 16, 1945, in the desert north of Alamogordo, New Mexico, the first nuclear test took place, code-named "Trinity", using a device nicknamed "the gadget." The test, a plutonium implosion-type device, released energy equivalent to 22 kilotons of TNT, far more powerful than any weapon ever used before. The news of the test's success was rushed to Truman at the Potsdam Conference, where Churchill was briefed and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin was informed of the new weapon. On July 26, the Potsdam Declaration was issued containing an ultimatum for Japan: either surrender or suffer "complete and utter destruction", although nuclear weapons were not mentioned.
After hearing arguments from scientists and military officers over the possible use of nuclear weapons against Japan (though some recommended using them as demonstrations in unpopulated areas, most recommended using them against built up targets, a euphemistic term for populated cities), Truman ordered the use of the weapons on Japanese cities, hoping it would send a strong message that would end in the capitulation of the Japanese leadership, and avoid a lengthy invasion of the islands. Truman and his Secretary of State James F. Byrnes were also intent on ending the Pacific war before the Soviets could enter it, given that Roosevelt had promised Stalin control of Manchuria if he joined the invasion. On May 10–11, 1945, the Target Committee at Los Alamos, led by Oppenheimer, recommended Kyoto, Hiroshima, Yokohama, and Kokura as possible targets. Concerns about Kyoto's cultural heritage led to it being replaced by Nagasaki. In late July and early August 1945 a series of leaflets were dropped over several Japanese cities warning them of an imminent destructive attack (though not mentioning nuclear bombs). Evidence suggests that these leaflets were never dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or were dropped too late. Although a testimony does contradict this.
On August 6, 1945, a uranium-based weapon, Little Boy, was detonated above the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and three days later, a plutonium-based weapon, Fat Man, was detonated above the Japanese city of Nagasaki. To date, Hiroshima and Nagasaki remain the only two instances of nuclear weapons being used in combat. The atomic raids killed at least one hundred thousand Japanese civilians and military personnel outright, with the heat, radiation, and blast effects.
Many tens of thousands would later die of radiation sickness and related cancers. Truman promised a "rain of ruin" if Japan did not surrender immediately, threatening to systematically eliminate their ability to wage war. On August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan's surrender.
Soviet atomic bomb project
The Soviet Union was not invited to share in the new weapons developed by the United States and the other Allies. During the war, information had been pouring in from a number of volunteer spies involved with the Manhattan Project (known in Soviet cables under the code-name of Enormoz), and the Soviet nuclear physicist Igor Kurchatov was carefully watching the Allied weapons development. It came as no surprise to Stalin when Truman had informed him at the Potsdam conference that he had a "powerful new weapon." Truman was shocked at Stalin's lack of interest. Stalin was nonetheless outraged by the situation, more by the Americans' guarded monopoly of the bomb than the weapon itself. Some historians share the assessment that Truman immediately authorized nuclear weapons as a "negotiating tool" in the early Cold War. In alarm at this monopoly, the Soviets urgently undertook their own atomic program.
The Soviet spies in the U.S. project were all volunteers and none were Soviet citizens. One of the most valuable, Klaus Fuchs, was a German émigré theoretical physicist who had been part of the early British nuclear efforts and the UK mission to Los Alamos. Fuchs had been intimately involved in the development of the implosion weapon, and passed on detailed cross-sections of the Trinity device to his Soviet contacts. Other Los Alamos spies—none of whom knew each other—included Theodore Hall and David Greenglass. The information was kept but not acted upon, as the Soviet Union was still too busy fighting the war in Europe to devote resources to this new project.
In the years immediately after World War II, the issue of who should control atomic weapons became a major international point of contention. Many of the Los Alamos scientists who had built the bomb began to call for "international control of atomic energy," often calling for either control by transnational organizations or the purposeful distribution of weapons information to all superpowers, but due to a deep distrust of the intentions of the Soviet Union, both in postwar Europe and in general, the policy-makers of the United States worked to maintain the American nuclear monopoly.
A half-hearted plan for international control was proposed at the newly formed United Nations by Bernard Baruch (The Baruch Plan), but it was clear both to American commentators—and to the Soviets—that it was an attempt primarily to stymie Soviet nuclear efforts. The Soviets vetoed the plan, effectively ending any immediate postwar negotiations on atomic energy, and made overtures towards banning the use of atomic weapons in general.
The Soviets had put their full industrial might and manpower into the development of their own atomic weapons. The initial problem for the Soviets was primarily one of resources—they had not scouted out uranium resources in the Soviet Union and the U.S. had made deals to monopolise the largest known (and high purity) reserves in the Belgian Congo. The USSR used penal labour to mine the old deposits in Czechoslovakia—now an area under their control—and searched for other domestic deposits (which were eventually found).
Two days after the bombing of Nagasaki, the U.S. government released an official technical history of the Manhattan Project, authored by Princeton physicist Henry DeWolf Smyth, known colloquially as the Smyth Report. The sanitized summary of the wartime effort focused primarily on the production facilities and scale of investment, written in part to justify the wartime expenditure to the American public.
The Soviet program, under the suspicious watch of former NKVD chief Lavrenty Beria (a participant and victor in Stalin's Great Purge of the 1930s), would use the Report as a blueprint, seeking to duplicate as much as possible the American effort. The "secret cities" used for the Soviet equivalents of Hanford and Oak Ridge literally vanished from the maps for decades to come.
At the Soviet equivalent of Los Alamos, Arzamas-16, physicist Yuli Khariton led the scientific effort to develop the weapon. Beria distrusted his scientists, however, and he distrusted the carefully collected espionage information. As such, Beria assigned multiple teams of scientists to the same task without informing each team of the other's existence. If they arrived at different conclusions, Beria would bring them together for the first time and have them debate with their newfound counterparts. Beria used the espionage information as a way to double-check the progress of his scientists, and in his effort for duplication of the American project even rejected more efficient bomb designs in favor of ones that more closely mimicked the tried-and-true Fat Man bomb used by the U.S. against Nagasaki.
On August 29, 1949, the effort brought its results, when the USSR successfully tested its first fission bomb, dubbed "Joe-1" by the U.S. The news of the first Soviet bomb was announced to the world first by the United States, which had detected atmospheric radioactive traces generated from its test site in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic.
The loss of the American monopoly on nuclear weapons marked the first tit-for-tat of the nuclear arms race.
American developments after World War II
With the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, the U.S. Congress established the civilian Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to take over the development of nuclear weapons from the military, and to develop nuclear power. The AEC made use of many private companies in processing uranium and thorium and in other urgent tasks related to the development of bombs. Many of these companies had very lax safety measures and employees were sometimes exposed to radiation levels far above what was allowed then or now. (In 1974, the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) of the Army Corps of Engineers was set up to deal with contaminated sites left over from these operations.)
The Atomic Energy Act also established the United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, which had broad legislative and executive oversight jurisdiction over nuclear matters and became one of the powerful congressional committees in U.S. history. Its two early chairmen, Senator Brien McMahon and Senator Bourke Hickenlooper, both pushed for increased production of nuclear materials and a resultant increase in the American atomic stockpile. The size of that stockpile, which had been low in the immediate postwar years, was a closely guarded secret. Indeed, within the U.S. government, including the Departments of State and Defense, there was considerable confusion over who actually knew the size of the stockpile, and some people chose not to know for fear they might disclose the number accidentally.
The first thermonuclear weapons
The notion of using a fission weapon to ignite a process of nuclear fusion can be dated back to September 1941, when it was first proposed by Enrico Fermi to his colleague Edward Teller during a discussion at Columbia University. At the first major theoretical conference on the development of an atomic bomb hosted by J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley in the summer of 1942, Teller directed the majority of the discussion towards this idea of a "Super" bomb.
It was thought at the time that a fission weapon would be quite simple to develop and that perhaps work on a hydrogen bomb (thermonuclear weapon) would be possible to complete before the end of the Second World War. However, in reality the problem of a regular atomic bomb was large enough to preoccupy the scientists for the next few years, much less the more speculative "Super" bomb. Only Teller continued working on the project—against the will of project leaders Oppenheimer and Hans Bethe.
The Joe-1 atomic bomb test by the Soviet Union that took place in August 1949 came earlier than expected by Americans, and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with development of the far more powerful Super.
After the atomic bombings of Japan, many scientists at Los Alamos rebelled against the notion of creating a weapon thousands of times more powerful than the first atomic bombs. For the scientists the question was in part technical—the weapon design was still quite uncertain and unworkable—and in part moral: such a weapon, they argued, could only be used against large civilian populations, and could thus only be used as a weapon of genocide.
Many scientists, such as Bethe, urged that the United States should not develop such weapons and set an example towards the Soviet Union. Promoters of the weapon, including Teller, Ernest Lawrence, and Luis Alvarez, argued that such a development was inevitable, and to deny such protection to the people of the United States—especially when the Soviet Union was likely to create such a weapon themselves—was itself an immoral and unwise act.
Oppenheimer, who was now head of the General Advisory Committee of the successor to the Manhattan Project, the Atomic Energy Commission, presided over a recommendation against the development of the weapon. The reasons were in part because the success of the technology seemed limited at the time (and not worth the investment of resources to confirm whether this was so), and because Oppenheimer believed that the atomic forces of the United States would be more effective if they consisted of many large fission weapons (of which multiple bombs could be dropped on the same targets) rather than the large and unwieldy super bombs, for which there was a relatively limited number of targets of sufficient size to warrant such a development.
What is more, if such weapons were developed by both superpowers, they would be more effective against the U.S. than against the USSR, as the U.S. had far more regions of dense industrial and civilian activity as targets for large weapons than the Soviet Union.
In the end, President Truman made the final decision, looking for a proper response to the first Soviet atomic bomb test in 1949. On January 31, 1950, Truman announced a crash program to develop the hydrogen (fusion) bomb. At this point, however, the exact mechanism was still not known: the classical hydrogen bomb, whereby the heat of the fission bomb would be used to ignite the fusion material, seemed highly unworkable. However, an insight by Los Alamos mathematician Stanislaw Ulam showed that the fission bomb and the fusion fuel could be in separate parts of the bomb, and that radiation of the fission bomb could first work in a way to compress the fusion material before igniting it.
Teller pushed the notion further, and used the results of the boosted-fission "George" test (a boosted-fission device using a small amount of fusion fuel to boost the yield of a fission bomb) to confirm the fusion of heavy hydrogen elements before preparing for their first true multi-stage, Teller-Ulam hydrogen bomb test. Many scientists, initially against the weapon, such as Oppenheimer and Bethe, changed their previous opinions, seeing the development as being unstoppable.
The first fusion bomb was tested by the United States in Operation Ivy on November 1, 1952, on Elugelab Island in the Enewetak (or Eniwetok) Atoll of the Marshall Islands, code-named "Mike." Mike used liquid deuterium as its fusion fuel and a large fission weapon as its trigger. The device was a prototype design and not a deliverable weapon: standing over 20 ft (6 m) high and weighing at least 140,000 lb (64 t) (its refrigeration equipment added an additional as well), it could not have been dropped from even the largest planes.
Its explosion yielded energy equivalent to 10.4 megatons of TNT—over 450 times the power of the bomb dropped onto Nagasaki— and obliterated Elugelab, leaving an underwater crater 6240 ft (1.9 km) wide and 164 ft (50 m) deep where the island had once been. Truman had initially tried to create a media blackout about the test—hoping it would not become an issue in the upcoming presidential election—but on January 7, 1953, Truman announced the development of the hydrogen bomb to the world as hints and speculations of it were already beginning to emerge in the press.
Not to be outdone, the Soviet Union exploded its first thermonuclear device, designed by the physicist Andrei Sakharov, on August 12, 1953, labeled "Joe-4" by the West. This created concern within the U.S. government and military, because, unlike Mike, the Soviet device was a deliverable weapon, which the U.S. did not yet have. This first device though was arguably not a true hydrogen bomb, and could only reach explosive yields in the hundreds of kilotons (never reaching the megaton range of a staged weapon). Still, it was a powerful propaganda tool for the Soviet Union, and the technical differences were fairly oblique to the American public and politicians.
Following the Mike blast by less than a year, Joe-4 seemed to validate claims that the bombs were inevitable and vindicate those who had supported the development of the fusion program. Coming during the height of McCarthyism, the effect was pronounced on the security hearings in early 1954, which revoked former Los Alamos director Robert Oppenheimer's security clearance on the grounds that he was unreliable, had not supported the American hydrogen bomb program, and had made long-standing left-wing ties in the 1930s. Edward Teller participated in the hearing as the only major scientist to testify against Oppenheimer, resulting in his virtual expulsion from the physics community.
On March 1, 1954, the U.S. detonated its first practical thermonuclear weapon (which used isotopes of lithium as its fusion fuel), known as the "Shrimp" device of the Castle Bravo test, at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. The device yielded 15 megatons, more than twice its expected yield, and became the worst radiological disaster in U.S. history. The combination of the unexpectedly large blast and poor weather conditions caused a cloud of radioactive nuclear fallout to contaminate over . 239 Marshall Island natives and 28 Americans were exposed to significant amounts of radiation, resulting in elevated levels of cancer and birth defects in the years to come.
The crew of the Japanese tuna-fishing boat Lucky Dragon 5, who had been fishing just outside the exclusion zone, returned to port suffering from radiation sickness and skin burns; one crew member was terminally ill. Efforts were made to recover the cargo of contaminated fish but at least two large tuna were probably sold and eaten. A further 75 tons of tuna caught between March and December were found to be unfit for human consumption. When the crew member died and the full results of the contamination were made public by the U.S., Japanese concerns were reignited about the hazards of radiation.
The hydrogen bomb age had a profound effect on the thoughts of nuclear war in the popular and military mind. With only fission bombs, nuclear war was something that possibly could be limited. Dropped by planes and only able to destroy the most built up areas of major cities, it was possible for many to look at fission bombs as a technological extension of large-scale conventional bombing—such as the extensive firebombing of German and Japanese cities during World War II. Proponents brushed aside as grave exaggeration claims that such weapons could lead to worldwide death or harm.
Even in the decades before fission weapons, there had been speculation about the possibility for human beings to end all life on the planet, either by accident or purposeful maliciousness—but technology had not provided the capacity for such action. The great power of hydrogen bombs made worldwide annihilation possible.
The Castle Bravo incident itself raised a number of questions about the survivability of a nuclear war. Government scientists in both the U.S. and the USSR had insisted that fusion weapons, unlike fission weapons, were cleaner, as fusion reactions did not produce the dangerously radioactive by-products of fission reactions. While technically true, this hid a more gruesome point: the last stage of a multi-staged hydrogen bomb often used the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions to induce fissioning in a jacket of natural uranium, and provided around half of the yield of the device itself.
This fission stage made fusion weapons considerably more dirty than they were made out to be. This was evident in the towering cloud of deadly fallout that followed the Bravo test. When the Soviet Union tested its first megaton device in 1955, the possibility of a limited nuclear war seemed even more remote in the public and political mind. Even cities and countries that were not direct targets would suffer fallout contamination. Extremely harmful fission products would disperse via normal weather patterns and embed in soil and water around the planet.
Speculation began to run towards what fallout and dust from a full-scale nuclear exchange would do to the world as a whole, rather than just cities and countries directly involved. In this way, the fate of the world was now tied to the fate of the bomb-wielding superpowers.
Deterrence and brinkmanship
Throughout the 1950s and the early 1960s the U.S. and the USSR both endeavored, in a tit-for-tat approach, to prevent the other power from acquiring nuclear supremacy. This had massive political and cultural effects during the Cold War.
As one instance of this mindset, in the early 1950s it was proposed to drop a nuclear bomb on the Moon as a globally visible demonstration of American weaponry.
The first atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively, were large, custom-made devices, requiring highly trained personnel for their arming and deployment. They could be dropped only from the largest bomber planes—at the time the B-29 Superfortress—and each plane could only carry a single bomb in its hold.
The first hydrogen bombs were similarly massive and complicated. This ratio of one plane to one bomb was still fairly impressive in comparison with conventional, non-nuclear weapons, but against other nuclear-armed countries it was considered a grave danger.
In the immediate postwar years, the U.S. expended much effort on making the bombs "G.I.-proof"—capable of being used and deployed by members of the U.S. Army, rather than Nobel Prize–winning scientists. In the 1950s, the U.S. undertook a nuclear testing program to improve the nuclear arsenal.
Starting in 1951, the Nevada Test Site (in the Nevada desert) became the primary location for all U.S. nuclear testing (in the USSR, Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan served a similar role). Tests were divided into two primary categories: "weapons related" (verifying that a new weapon worked or looking at exactly how it worked) and "weapons effects" (looking at how weapons behaved under various conditions or how structures behaved when subjected to weapons).
In the beginning, almost all nuclear tests were either atmospheric (conducted above ground, in the atmosphere) or underwater (such as some of the tests done in the Marshall Islands). Testing was used as a sign of both national and technological strength, but also raised questions about the safety of the tests, which released nuclear fallout into the atmosphere (most dramatically with the Castle Bravo test in 1954, but in more limited amounts with almost all atmospheric nuclear testing).
Because testing was seen as a sign of technological development (the ability to design usable weapons without some form of testing was considered dubious), halts on testing were often called for as stand-ins for halts in the nuclear arms race itself, and many prominent scientists and statesmen lobbied for a ban on nuclear testing. In 1958, the U.S., USSR, and the United Kingdom (a new nuclear power) declared a temporary testing moratorium for both political and health reasons, but by 1961 the Soviet Union had broken the moratorium and both the USSR and the U.S. began testing with great frequency.
As a show of political strength, the Soviet Union tested the largest-ever nuclear weapon in October 1961, the massive Tsar Bomba, which was tested in a reduced state with a yield of around 50 megatons—in its full state it was estimated to have been around 100 Mt. The weapon was largely impractical for actual military use, but was hot enough to induce third-degree burns at a distance of 62 mi (100 km) away. In its full, dirty, design it would have increased the amount of worldwide fallout since 1945 by 25%.
In 1963, all nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground tests.
Most tests were considerably more modest, and worked for direct technical purposes as well as their potential political overtones. Weapons improvements took on two primary forms. One was an increase in efficiency and power, and within only a few years fission bombs were developed that were many times more powerful than the ones created during World War II. The other was a program of miniaturization, reducing the size of the nuclear weapons.
Smaller bombs meant that bombers could carry more of them, and also that they could be carried on the new generation of rockets in development in the 1950s and 1960s. U.S. rocket science received a large boost in the postwar years, largely with the help of engineers acquired from the Nazi rocketry program. These included scientists such as Wernher von Braun, who had helped design the V-2 rockets the Nazis launched across the English Channel. An American program, Project Paperclip, had endeavored to move German scientists into American hands (and away from Soviet hands) and put them to work for the U.S.
Weapons improvement
Early nuclear armed rockets—such as the MGR-1 Honest John, first deployed by the U.S. in 1953—were surface-to-surface missiles with relatively short ranges (around 15 mi/25 km maximum) and yields around twice the size of the first fission weapons. The limited range meant they could only be used in certain types of military situations. U.S. rockets could not, for example, threaten Moscow with an immediate strike, and could only be used as tactical weapons (that is, for small-scale military situations).
Strategic weapons—weapons that could threaten an entire country—relied, for the time being, on long-range bombers that could penetrate deep into enemy territory. In the U.S., this requirement led, in 1946, to creation of the Strategic Air Command—a system of bombers headed by General Curtis LeMay (who previously presided over the firebombing of Japan during WWII). In operations like Chrome Dome, SAC kept nuclear-armed planes in the air 24 hours a day, ready for an order to attack Moscow.
These technological possibilities enabled nuclear strategy to develop a logic considerably different from previous military thinking. Because the threat of nuclear warfare was so awful, it was first thought that it might make any war of the future impossible. President Dwight D. Eisenhower's doctrine of "massive retaliation" in the early years of the Cold War was a message to the USSR, saying that if the Red Army attempted to invade the parts of Europe not given to the Eastern bloc during the Potsdam Conference (such as West Germany), nuclear weapons would be used against the Soviet troops and potentially the Soviet leaders.
With the development of more rapid-response technologies (such as rockets and long-range bombers), this policy began to shift. If the Soviet Union also had nuclear weapons and a policy of "massive retaliation" was carried out, it was reasoned, then any Soviet forces not killed in the initial attack, or launched while the attack was ongoing, would be able to serve their own form of nuclear retaliation against the U.S. Recognizing that this was an undesirable outcome, military officers and game theorists at the RAND think tank developed a nuclear warfare strategy that was eventually called Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
MAD divided potential nuclear war into two stages: first strike and second strike. First strike meant the first use of nuclear weapons by one nuclear-equipped nation against another nuclear-equipped nation. If the attacking nation did not prevent the attacked nation from a nuclear response, the attacked nation would respond with a second strike against the attacking nation. In this situation, whether the U.S. first attacked the USSR or the USSR first attacked the U.S., the result would be that both nations would be damaged to the point of utter social collapse.
According to game theory, because starting a nuclear war was suicidal, no logical country would shoot first. However, if a country could launch a first strike that utterly destroyed the target country's ability to respond, that might give that country the confidence to initiate a nuclear war. The object of a country operating by the MAD doctrine is to deny the opposing country this first strike capability.
MAD played on two seemingly opposed modes of thought: cold logic and emotional fear. The English phrase MAD was often known by, "nuclear deterrence," was translated by the French as "dissuasion," and "terrorization" by the Soviets. This apparent paradox of nuclear war was summed up by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill as "the worse things get, the better they are"—the greater the threat of mutual destruction, the safer the world would be.
This philosophy made a number of technological and political demands on participating nations. For one thing, it said that it should always be assumed that an enemy nation may be trying to acquire first strike capability, which must always be avoided. In American politics this translated into demands to avoid "bomber gaps" and "missile gaps" where the Soviet Union could potentially outshoot the Americans. It also encouraged the production of thousands of nuclear weapons by both the U.S. and the USSR, far more than needed to simply destroy the major civilian and military infrastructures of the opposing country. These policies and strategies were satirized in the 1964 Stanley Kubrick film Dr. Strangelove, in which the Soviets, unable to keep up with the US's first strike capability, instead plan for MAD by building a Doomsday Machine, and thus, after a (literally) mad US General orders a nuclear attack on the USSR, the end of the world is brought about.
The policy also encouraged the development of the first early warning systems. Conventional war, even at its fastest, was fought over days and weeks. With long-range bombers, from the start of a nuclear attack to its conclusion was mere hours. Rockets could reduce a conflict to minutes. Planners reasoned that conventional command and control systems could not adequately react to a nuclear attack, so great lengths were taken to develop computer systems that could look for enemy attacks and direct rapid responses.
The U.S. poured massive funding into development of SAGE, a system that could track and intercept enemy bomber aircraft using information from remote radar stations. It was the first computer system to feature real-time processing, multiplexing, and display devices. It was the first general computing machine, and a direct predecessor of modern computers.
Emergence of the anti-nuclear movement
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the end of World War II quickly followed the 1945 Trinity nuclear test, and the Little Boy device was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people. Subsequently, the world's nuclear weapons stockpiles grew.
Operation Crossroads was a series of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean in the summer of 1946. Its purpose was to test the effect of nuclear weapons on naval ships. To prepare the Bikini atoll for the nuclear tests, Bikini's native residents were evicted from their homes and resettled on smaller, uninhabited islands where they were unable to sustain themselves.
National leaders debated the impact of nuclear weapons on domestic and foreign policy. Also involved in the debate about nuclear weapons policy was the scientific community, through professional associations such as the Federation of Atomic Scientists and the Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs. Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when a Hydrogen bomb test in the Pacific contaminated the crew of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon. One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later. The incident caused widespread concern around the world and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries". The anti-nuclear weapons movement grew rapidly because for many people the atomic bomb "encapsulated the very worst direction in which society was moving".
Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs". Japanese opposition to the Pacific nuclear weapons tests was widespread, and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons". The Russell–Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955, by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including Albert Einstein, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist Cyrus S. Eaton offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, held in July 1957.
In the United Kingdom, the first Aldermaston March organised by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament took place at Easter 1958, when several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment close to Aldermaston in Berkshire, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches.
In 1959, a letter in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping radioactive waste in the sea 19 kilometres from Boston. On November 1, 1961, at the height of the Cold War, about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace marched in 60 cities in the United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons. It was the largest national women's peace protest of the 20th century.
In 1958, Linus Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with the petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear-weapon testing. The "Baby Tooth Survey," headed by Dr Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass. Public pressure and the research results subsequently led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev.
Cuban Missile Crisis
Bombers and short-range rockets were not reliable: planes could be shot down, and earlier nuclear missiles could cover only a limited range— for example, the first Soviet rockets' range limited them to targets in Europe. However, by the 1960s, both the United States and the Soviet Union had developed intercontinental ballistic missiles, which could be launched from extremely remote areas far away from their target. They had also developed submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which had less range but could be launched from submarines very close to the target without any radar warning. This made any national protection from nuclear missiles increasingly impractical.
The military realities made for a precarious diplomatic situation. The international politics of brinkmanship led leaders to exclaim their willingness to participate in a nuclear war rather than concede any advantage to their opponents, feeding public fears that their generation may be the last. Civil defense programs undertaken by both superpowers, exemplified by the construction of fallout shelters and urging civilians about the survivability of nuclear war, did little to ease public concerns.
The climax of brinksmanship came in early 1962, when an American U-2 spy plane photographed a series of launch sites for medium-range ballistic missiles being constructed on the island of Cuba, just off the coast of the southern United States, beginning what became known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. The U.S. administration of John F. Kennedy concluded that the Soviet Union, then led by Nikita Khrushchev, was planning to station Soviet nuclear missiles on the island (as a response to placing US Jupiter MRBMs in Italy and Turkey), which was under the control of communist Fidel Castro. On October 22, Kennedy announced the discoveries in a televised address. He announced a naval blockade around Cuba that would turn back Soviet nuclear shipments, and warned that the military was prepared "for any eventualities." The missiles had 2,400 mile (4,000 km) range, and would allow the Soviet Union to quickly destroy many major American cities on the Eastern Seaboard if a nuclear war began.
The leaders of the two superpowers stood nose to nose, seemingly poised over the beginnings of a third world war. Khrushchev's ambitions for putting the weapons on the island were motivated in part by the fact that the U.S. had stationed similar weapons in Britain, Italy, and nearby Turkey, and had previously attempted to sponsor an invasion of Cuba the year before in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. On October 26, Khrushchev sent a message to Kennedy offering to withdraw all missiles if Kennedy committed to a policy of no future invasions of Cuba. Khrushchev worded the threat of assured destruction eloquently:
"You and I should not now pull on the ends of the rope in which you have tied a knot of war, because the harder you and I pull, the tighter the knot will become. And a time may come when this knot is tied so tight that the person who tied it is no longer capable of untying it, and then the knot will have to be cut. What that would mean I need not explain to you, because you yourself understand perfectly what dreaded forces our two countries possess."
A day later, however, the Soviets sent another message, this time demanding that the U.S. remove its missiles from Turkey before any missiles were withdrawn from Cuba. On the same day, a U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba and another almost intercepted over the Soviet Union, as Soviet merchant ships neared the quarantine zone. Kennedy responded by accepting the first deal publicly, and sending his brother Robert to the Soviet embassy to accept the second deal privately. On October 28, the Soviet ships stopped at the quarantine line and, after some hesitation, turned back towards the Soviet Union. Khrushchev announced that he had ordered the removal of all missiles in Cuba, and U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk was moved to comment, "We went eyeball to eyeball, and the other fellow just blinked."
The Crisis was later seen as the closest the U.S. and the USSR ever came to nuclear war and had been narrowly averted by last-minute compromise by both superpowers. Fears of communication difficulties led to the installment of the first hotline, a direct link between the superpowers that allowed them to more easily discuss future military activities and political maneuverings. It had been made clear that missiles, bombers, submarines, and computerized firing systems made escalating any situation to Armageddon far more easy than anybody desired.
After stepping so close to the brink, both the U.S. and the USSR worked to reduce their nuclear tensions in the years immediately following. The most immediate culmination of this work was the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, in which the U.S. and USSR agreed to no longer test nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. Testing underground continued, allowing for further weapons development, but the worldwide fallout risks were purposefully reduced, and the era of using massive nuclear tests as a form of saber rattling ended.
In December 1979, NATO decided to deploy cruise and Pershing II missiles in Western Europe in response to Soviet deployment of intermediate range mobile missiles, and in the early 1980s, a "dangerous Soviet-US nuclear confrontation" arose. In New York on June 12, 1982, one million people gathered to protest about nuclear weapons, and to support the second UN Special Session on Disarmament. As the nuclear abolitionist movement grew, there were many protests at the Nevada Test Site. For example, on February 6, 1987, nearly 2,000 demonstrators, including six members of Congress, protested against nuclear weapons testing and more than 400 people were arrested. Four of the significant groups organizing this renewal of anti-nuclear activism were Greenpeace, The American Peace Test, The Western Shoshone, and Nevada Desert Experience.
There have been at least four major false alarms, the most recent in 1995, that resulted in the activation of nuclear attack early warning protocols. They include the accidental loading of a training tape into the American early-warning computers; a computer chip failure that appeared to show a random number of attacking missiles; a rare alignment of the Sun, the U.S. missile fields and a Soviet early-warning satellite that caused it to confuse high-altitude clouds with missile launches; the launch of a Norwegian research rocket resulted in President Yeltsin activating his nuclear briefcase for the first time.
Initial proliferation
In the fifties and sixties, three more countries joined the "nuclear club." The United Kingdom had been an integral part of the Manhattan Project following the Quebec Agreement in 1943. The passing of the McMahon Act by the United States in 1946 unilaterally broke this partnership and prevented the passage of any further information to the United Kingdom. The British Government, under Clement Attlee, determined that a British Bomb was essential. Because of British involvement in the Manhattan Project, Britain had extensive knowledge in some areas, but not in others.
An improved version of 'Fat Man' was developed, and on 26 February 1952, Prime Minister Winston Churchill announced that the United Kingdom also had an atomic bomb and a successful test took place on 3 October 1952. At first these were free-fall bombs, intended for use by the V Force of jet bombers. A Vickers Valiant dropped the first UK nuclear weapon on 11 October 1956 at Maralinga, South Australia. Later came a missile, Blue Steel, intended for carriage by the V Force bombers, and then the Blue Streak medium-range ballistic missile (later canceled). Anglo-American cooperation on nuclear weapons was restored by the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement. As a result of this and the Polaris Sales Agreement, the United Kingdom has bought United States designs for submarine missiles and fitted its own warheads. It retains full independent control over the use of the missiles. It no longer possesses any free-fall bombs.
France had been heavily involved in nuclear research before World War II through the work of the Joliot-Curies. This was discontinued after the war because of the instability of the Fourth Republic and lack of finances. However, in the 1950s, France launched a civil nuclear research program, which produced plutonium as a byproduct.
In 1956, France formed a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy and a development program for delivery vehicles. With the return of Charles de Gaulle to the French presidency in 1958, final decisions to build a bomb were made, which led to a successful test in 1960. Since then, France has developed and maintained its own nuclear deterrent independent of NATO.
In 1951, China and the Soviet Union signed an agreement whereby China supplied uranium ore in exchange for technical assistance in producing nuclear weapons. In 1953, China established a research program under the guise of civilian nuclear energy. Throughout the 1950s the Soviet Union provided large amounts of equipment. But as the relations between the two countries worsened the Soviets reduced the amount of assistance and, in 1959, refused to donate a bomb for copying purposes. Despite this, the Chinese made rapid progress. Chinese first gained possession of nuclear weapons in 1964, making it the fifth country to have them. It tested its first atomic bomb at Lop Nur on October 16, 1964 (Project 596); and tested a nuclear missile on October 25, 1966; and tested a thermonuclear (hydrogen) bomb (Test No. 6) on June 14, 1967. China ultimately conducted a total of 45 nuclear tests; although the country has never become a signatory to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, it conducted its last nuclear test in 1996. In the 1980s, China's nuclear weapons program was a source of nuclear proliferation, as China transferred its CHIC-4 technology to Pakistan. China became a party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as a nuclear weapon state in 1992, and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in 2004. As of 2017, the number of Chinese warheads is thought to be in the low hundreds, The Atomic Heritage Foundation notes a 2018 estimate of approximately 260 nuclear warheads, including between 50 and 60 ICBMs and four nuclear submarines. China declared a policy of "no first use" in 1964, the only nuclear weapons state to announce such a policy; this declaration has no effect on its capabilities and there are no diplomatic means of verifying or enforcing this declaration.
Cold War
After World War II, the balance of power between the Eastern and Western blocs and the fear of global destruction prevented the further military use of atomic bombs. This fear was even a central part of Cold War strategy, referred to as the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction. So important was this balance to international political stability that a treaty, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (or ABM treaty), was signed by the U.S. and the USSR in 1972 to curtail the development of defenses against nuclear weapons and the ballistic missiles that carry them. This doctrine resulted in a large increase in the number of nuclear weapons, as each side sought to ensure it possessed the firepower to destroy the opposition in all possible scenarios.
Early delivery systems for nuclear devices were primarily bombers like the United States B-29 Superfortress and Convair B-36, and later the B-52 Stratofortress. Ballistic missile systems, based on Wernher von Braun's World War II designs (specifically the V-2 rocket), were developed by both United States and Soviet Union teams (in the case of the U.S., effort was directed by the German scientists and engineers although the Soviet Union also made extensive use of captured German scientists, engineers, and technical data).
These systems were used to launch satellites, such as Sputnik, and to propel the Space Race, but they were primarily developed to create Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that could deliver nuclear weapons anywhere on the globe. Development of these systems continued throughout the Cold War—though plans and treaties, beginning with the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), restricted deployment of these systems until, after the fall of the Soviet Union, system development essentially halted, and many weapons were disabled and destroyed. On January 27, 1967, more than 60 nations signed the Outer Space Treaty, banning nuclear weapons in space.
There have been a number of potential nuclear disasters. Following air accidents U.S. nuclear weapons have been lost near Atlantic City, New Jersey (1957); Savannah, Georgia (1958) (see Tybee Bomb); Goldsboro, North Carolina (1961); off the coast of Okinawa (1965); in the sea near Palomares, Spain (1966) (see 1966 Palomares B-52 crash); and near Thule, Greenland (1968) (see 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash). Most of the lost weapons were recovered, the Spanish device after three months' effort by the DSV Alvin and DSV Aluminaut. Investigative journalist Eric Schlosser discovered that at least 700 "significant" accidents and incidents involving 1,250 nuclear weapons were recorded in the United States between 1950 and 1968.
The Soviet Union was less forthcoming about such incidents, but the environmental group Greenpeace believes that there are around forty non-U.S. nuclear devices that have been lost and not recovered, compared to eleven lost by America, mostly in submarine disasters. The U.S. has tried to recover Soviet devices, notably in the 1974 Project Azorian using the specialist salvage vessel Hughes Glomar Explorer to raise a Soviet submarine. After news leaked out about this boondoggle, the CIA would coin a favorite phrase for refusing to disclose sensitive information, called glomarization: We can neither confirm nor deny the existence of the information requested but, hypothetically, if such data were to exist, the subject matter would be classified, and could not be disclosed.
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 essentially ended the Cold War. However, the end of the Cold War failed to end the threat of nuclear weapon use, although global fears of nuclear war reduced substantially. In a major move of symbolic de-escalation, Boris Yeltsin, on January 26, 1992, announced that Russia planned to stop targeting United States cities with nuclear weapons.
Cost
The designing, testing, producing, deploying, and defending against nuclear weapons is one of the largest expenditures for the nations which possess nuclear weapons. In the United States during the Cold War years, between "one quarter to one third of all military spending since World War II [was] devoted to nuclear weapons and their infrastructure."
According to a retrospective Brookings Institution study published in 1998 by the Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Committee (formed in 1993 by the W. Alton Jones Foundation), the total expenditures for U.S. nuclear weapons from 1940 to 1998 was $5.5 trillion in 1996 Dollars.
For comparison, the total public debt at the end of fiscal year 1998 was $5,478,189,000,000 in 1998 Dollars or $5.3 trillion in 1996 Dollars. The entire public debt in 1998 was therefore equal to the cost of research, development, and deployment of U.S. nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons-related programs during the Cold War.
Second nuclear age
The second nuclear age can be regarded as proliferation of nuclear weapons among lesser powers and for reasons other than the American-Soviet-Chinese rivalry.
India embarked relatively early on a program aimed at nuclear weapons capability, but apparently accelerated this after the Sino-Indian War of 1962. India's first atomic-test explosion was in 1974 with Smiling Buddha, which it described as a "peaceful nuclear explosion."
After the collapse of Eastern Military High Command and the disintegration of Pakistan as a result of the 1971 Winter war, Bhutto of Pakistan launched scientific research on nuclear weapons. The Indian test caused Pakistan to spur its programme, and the ISI conducted successful espionage operations in the Netherlands, while also developing the programme indigenously. India tested fission and perhaps fusion devices in 1998, and Pakistan successfully tested fission devices that same year, raising concerns that they would use nuclear weapons on each other.
All of the former Soviet bloc countries with nuclear weapons (Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan) transferred their warheads to Russia by 1996.
South Africa also had an active program to develop uranium-based nuclear weapons, but dismantled its nuclear weapon program in the 1990s. Experts do not believe it actually tested such a weapon, though it later claimed it constructed several crude devices that it eventually dismantled. In the late 1970s American spy satellites detected a "brief, intense, double flash of light near the southern tip of Africa." Known as the Vela Incident, it was speculated to have been a South African or possibly Israeli nuclear weapons test, though some feel that it may have been caused by natural events or a detector malfunction.
Israel is widely believed to possess an arsenal of up to several hundred nuclear warheads, but this has never been officially confirmed or denied (though the existence of their Dimona nuclear facility was confirmed by Mordechai Vanunu in 1986). Several key US scientists involved in the American bomb making program, clandestinely helped the Israelis and thus played an important role in nuclear proliferation. One was Edward Teller, among others.
In January 2004, Dr A. Q. Khan of Pakistan's programme confessed to having been a key mover in "proliferation activities", seen as part of an international proliferation network of materials, knowledge, and machines from Pakistan to Libya, Iran, and North Korea.
North Korea announced in 2003 that it had several nuclear explosives. The first claimed detonation was the 2006 North Korean nuclear test, conducted on October 9, 2006. On May 25, 2009, North Korea continued nuclear testing, violating United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718. A third test was conducted on 13 February 2013, two tests were conducted in 2016 in January and September, followed by test a year later in September 2017.
As part of the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances in 1994, the country of Ukraine surrendered its nuclear arsenal, left over from the USSR, in part on the promise that its borders would remain respected if it did so. In 2022 during the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis, Russian President Vladimir Putin, as he had lightly done in the past, alleged that Ukraine was on the path to receiving nuclear weapons. According to Putin, there was a "real danger" that Western allies could help supply Ukraine, which appeared to be on the path to joining NATO, with nuclear arms. Critics labelled Putin's claims as "conspiracy theories" designed to build a case for an invasion of Ukraine.
See also
International Day against Nuclear Tests
List of nuclear weapons
List of nuclear weapons tests
National Response Scenario Number One
Nuclear weapon design
Project-706
Psychic numbing#Nuclear denial disorder
Ranged weapon
The Bomb
Timeline of nuclear weapons development
Weapon of mass destruction
Notes
References
McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (New York: Random House, 1988).
Burns, Richard Dean and Joseph M. Siracusa. A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics (2013) table of contents
Rhodes, Richard Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race (2007)
The first nuclear programs
Gregg Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2002).
David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy 1939–1956 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).
Rhodes, Richard, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).
Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
Henry DeWolf Smyth, Atomic Energy for Military Purposes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945). (Smyth Report)
Mark Walker, German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
Ken Young and Warner R. Schilling, Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2019).
Nuclear weapons and energy in culture
Spencer Weart, Nuclear Fear: A History of Images, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); The Rise of Nuclear Fear, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).
Nuclear arsenals and capabilities
Chuck Hansen, U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History, (Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988).
Chuck Hansen, The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945, (Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995).
Stephen Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U. S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940 (Brookings Institution Press, 1998).
Second nuclear age
Colin S. Gray, The Second Nuclear Age, (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999),
Paul Bracken, The Second Nuclear Age, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2000,
Further reading
"Presidency in the Nuclear Age", conference and forum at the JFK Library, Boston, October 12, 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race", and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency".
Schlosser, Eric. (2013). Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety. Penguin Press. .
External links
Timeline of atomic age events
Federation of American Scientists – Worldwide Nuclear Forces Guide
The Genesis of the Atomic Bomb -
Nuclear Weapons Archive – includes the nuclear weapon histories of many countries
NDRC Nuclear Notebook: Nuclear pursuits – "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists". Comparative table of the histories and arsenals of the five NPT-designated nuclear powers as of 1993.
NuclearFiles.org Timeline- from Atomic Discovery to the 2000s (decade)
NuclearFiles.org A comprehensive history of nuclear weapons, including Pre, During, and Post Cold War
Nevada Desert Experience Nevada Desert Experience
Ariel E. Levite, "Heading for the Fourth Nuclear Age", Proliferation Papers, Paris, Ifri, Winter 2009
The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States) – located in Albuquerque, New Mexico; a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum
Time-Lapse Map of All 2053 Nuclear Explosions on Planet Earth (7 Countries, 1945 – 1998) – Video (14:25).
History of Nuclear Proliferation For more on the history of nuclear proliferation see the Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project website.
Various documents about the US nuclear weapons history
Nuclear warfare
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242884
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treffle%20Berthlaume
|
Treffle Berthlaume
|
Treffle Berthlaume (June 13, 1803 – October 22, 1884) was a sculptor. He was born in Havre-St. Pierre, Quebec, Canada, to father Jean-Paul, a carpenter of modest means, and mother Brigitte (née de Panne). The youngest of six, and the only boy, Treffle was the only Berthlaume child to receive a formal education at Baie-Comeau High School until the age of 15, whereupon he began training in his father's craft.
Perhaps best remembered for his contribution towards church carvings, Berthlaume and acquaintance François Baillairgé (1759–1852) produced the Barbeau Cross, now displayed at the Church of Saint Jean on the Island of Orleans in Quebec. For this, and other achievements, Treffle Berthlaume was commemorated on the Canadian 32-cent stamp in 1984, after his death one hundred years earlier.
References
External links
Quebec Wood Sculptures
1803 births
1884 deaths
Canadian sculptors
Artists from Quebec
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20the%20Dominican%20Republic
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Music of the Dominican Republic
|
The music of the Dominican Republic is primarily influenced by West African, European, and native Taino influences. The Dominican Republic is mainly known for its merengue and bachata music, both of which are the most popular forms of music in the Dominican Republic, and have been exported around the world.
Dominican music
Merengue
Merengue is a musical genre native to the Dominican Republic. It has a moderate to a very fast 2/4 rhythm played on güira (metal scraper) and the double-headed tambora. The accordion is also common. Traditional, accordion-based merengue is usually termed merengue típico and is still played by living accordionists like Francisco Ulloa, Fefita la Grande, El Ciego de Nagua, and Rafaelito Román. More modern merengues incorporate electric instruments and influences from salsa, and rock and roll. Choruses are often sung in a call and response form by two or three back-up singers, or more traditionally, by the musicians playing tambora or güira. Beginning in the 1960s, dancing became a part of the singers' work with Johnny Ventura's Combo Show format, and is now a staple of many of the genre's biggest stars. Lyrically, irony and double entendres are common
Merengue continued to be limited in popularity to the lower classes, especially in the Cibao area, in the early 20th century. Artists like Juan F. García, Juan Espínola and Julio Alberto Hernández tried to move merengue into the mainstream, but failed, largely due to social prejudices. Some success occurred after nationalistic feelings arose among the Cibao elite who resented the U.S. occupation of the country from 1916 to 1924. Legend has it that at this time the faster (merengue típico cibaeño) was slowed down to accommodate American soldiers who couldn't dance the difficult steps of the merengue; this mid-tempo version was called pambiche. Major mainstream acceptance started with Rafael Trujillo's rise to power in the early 1930s.
Dictator Rafael Trujillo, who seized the presidency of the Dominican Republic in 1930, helped merengue to become a national symbol of the island up until his assassination in 1961. Being that he was of humble origins, he had been barred from elite social clubs. He was therefore resentful of these elite sophisticates and began promoting the Cibao-style merengue, forcing all social classes to participate in the low-class dance. At Trujillo's command, virtually all musical groups had to compose merengues praising Trujillo's dictatorship, its guidelines and actions of his party. Trujillo even made it mandatory for urban dance bands to include merengue in their repertoire. Also, piano and brass instruments were added in merengue-oriented big bands, a trend towards upward mobility popularizing by Luis Alberti's group in Santiago de los Caballeros. On the other hand, merengue that continued to use an accordion became known (rather disrespectfully) as perico ripiao (ripped parrot). It was because of all this that merengue became and still is the Dominican Republic's national music and dance.
In the 1960s, a new group of artists (most famously Johnny Ventura) incorporated American R&B and rock and roll influences, along with Cuban salsa music. The instrumentation changed, with accordion replaced with electric guitars or synthesizers, or occasionally sampled, and the saxophone's role totally redefined. In spite of the changes, merengue remained the most popular form of music in the Dominican Republic. Ventura, for example, was so adulated that he became a massively popular and influential politician on his return from a time in the United States, and was seen as a national symbol.
The 1980s saw increasing Dominican emigration to Europe and the United States, especially to New York City and Miami. Merengue came with them, bringing images of glitzy pop singers and idols. At the same time, Juan Luis Guerra slowed down the merengue rhythm, and added more lyrical depth and entrenched social commentary. He also incorporated bachata and Western musical influences with albums like 1990's critically acclaimed Bachata Rosa.
Música Congos del Espíritu Santo
Salves
Salve is a call-and-response type of singing that uses güira, panderos, palos (see next section) and other African instruments. Salves are highly ceremonial and are used in pilgrimages and at parties dedicated to voodoo saints. Salve is a ritual inspired by religion and music with roots in both African and Hispanic cultures. Salve is related to palo that is played in a lot of the same contexts and rhythm, but with different instruments. The name comes from the Salve Regina, a catholic psalm, and many still sing a sacred, a cappella salve that preserves the medieval modes of old Spanish hymns. The ecstatic salve played at religious parties however, is all about percussion – featuring large numbers of tambourines playing interlocking rhythms and a melodic drum called the balsie, whose player alters the pitch by applying pressure with his foot. Salve may be played in fewer parts of the country but it's one of the best-known sounds, largely because it's the sound of choice in Villa Mella, a poor suburb of the capital often thought of as the epicenter of Afro-Dominican traditions. The salve group of Enerolisa Nuñez, from Villa Mella, is one of the most widely listened to - thanks to her inclusion in merengue-star Kinito Méndez's salve-merengue fusion album A Palo Limpio as well as an excellent recording of her group by the Bayahonda Cultural Foundation.
Palo
Palo, also known as Atabales is a Dominican sacred music that can be found throughout the island. The drum and human voice are the principal instruments. Palo is played at religious ceremonies - usually coinciding with saint's days - as well as for secular parties and special occasions. Its roots are in the Congo region of central-west Africa, but it is mixed with European influences in the melodies. Palos are related to Dominican folk Catholicism, which includes a pantheon of deities/saints (here termed misterios) much like those found in the Afro-American syncretic religious traditions of Cuba, Brazil, Haiti, and elsewhere. Palos are usually associated with the lower class, black and mixed populations. They can be seen in different regions of Dominican Republic, but with variations.
Palo music is played on long drums termed palos. The word palos means trees, and therefore all Dominican palos drums are instruments made from hollowed out logs. The head of the drum is made of cowhide and it is attached to the log portion with hoops and pegs in the Eastern region, or with nails in the Southwest. There is a master drum (palo mayor) which is the large, wide drum played with slimmer drums (alcahuetes) alongside: two in the East or three elsewhere. Palos are usually played with guiras, which are metal scrapers. They may also be played with maracas, or a little stick used to hit the master drum, called the catá. The Dominican region in which the palos are played determines the form, the number of the instruments, and how they are played.
Palos are associated with the Dominican brotherhoods called cofradías. Originally, the brotherhoods were composed solely of males. As time progressed, females and family inheritance maintained the brotherhoods’ sanctity. Each brotherhood is devoted to a particular saint. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the brotherhood is to honor the saint with a festival. Historically, cofradías were established on principals similar to those of the Mediterranean guild-based societies and those founded by Africans that inhabited southern Spain. Through colonization and the slave trade, these traditions were brought to the Dominican Republic. However, the cofradías are not limited to the Dominican Republic, they are found in other parts of the Americas as well, where they may be adapted to Native-American folk Catholicism, particularly in Mexico and Central America.
Palo music is generally played at festivals honoring saints (velaciones) or during other religious events. The configuration of instruments present depends on the region in which these events take place. Palo drums are played with the hands, held between the legs, and tied to the palero's waist by a rope. The three paleros each play a distinct beat on their palos, which ultimately blend together. These rhythms vary depending on the region as well. For example, in the East, the "palo corrido" rhythm is popular, while in San Cristóbal, one may be more likely to find the "palo abajo" rhythm. While they play their drums, one of the paleros simultaneously sings verses of a song. The surrounding audience often invokes spirits of ancestors or saints, and it is not unusual to encounter participants becoming possessed at these events.
Bachata
Bachata is a style of music that inhabitants of shantytowns call their own to own, meaning they call it theirs before anyone else gets it. Though this may seem like a negative connotation, one should remember that bachata has been widely accepted through many, though not all, classes of Dominican society. Bachata evolved from bolero, a Pan-American style said to have originated in Cuba. The guitars (lead, rhythm, and bass) are the principal instruments in bachata. They are accompanied by the bongo and güira
The Dominican bourgeoisie at first dismissed bachata as worthless and it was therefore given the name bachata, meaning a rowdy lower-class fiesta (party). Until fairly recently, bachata was informally banned from Dominican radio and television. Despite this, bachata flourished and has now gained wide acceptance, not only in the Dominican Republic, but worldwide. One of the most popular bands making bachata music was the former band Aventura, which split in 2011, but came back for a new album in 2019
Popular music
Dominican rock
Dominican rock is also popular among younger and older crowds of the Dominican Republic. Dominican rock is influenced by British and American rock, but also has its own sense of unique style. The rock scene in the Dominican Republic has been very vibrant in recent years, spanning many genres of rock such as pop rock, reggae/rock, punk, metal. Dominican rock had started its scene in the early 1980s, when Luis Días & Transporte Urbano, (who is considered to be the father of Dominican rock), came onto the scene and created this genre. Since then, there have been hundreds of Dominican rock bands, with the most successful being Toque Profundo, Cahobazul, Guaitiao, Tabu Tek, Al-Jadaqui Tribu del Sol, Joe Blandino, Edwin Amorfy, Vicente Garcia, Álex Ferreira, Top 40, TKR, Poket, La Siembra, La Reforma and others. Rita Indiana y los Misterios are a musical group known for their blend of traditional merengue music with rock. Bocatabu, Dronk, Futuros Divorciados and 42-01 are new Dominican rock groups who are also on the rise.
There are also several underground Metal concerts occurring occasionally mainly in the cities of Santo Domingo and Santiago, where teenagers and young adults usually not satisfied with the other genres express themselves.
Hip hop
Hip hop is a cultural movement developed in New York City in the 1970s primarily by African Americans and Afro-Latinos. Since first emerging in The Bronx and Harlem, the lifestyle of hip hop culture has today spread around the world. One of the places hip hop spread to was the Dominican Republic. The four historic elements of hip hop are: MCing (rapping), DJing, urban inspired art/tagging (graffiti), and b-boying (or breakdancing). The most known extended elements are beatboxing, hip hop fashion, and hip hop slang. All these elements have been carried on into the Dominican Republic since the mid 80s by young immigrants who returned to their mother land, usually from Puerto Rico, New York, Boston and Florida. Dominican hip hop started to gain national popularity in the years 2006 and 2007.
Dembow and Reggaeton
Reggaeton came to the Dominican Republic from Puerto Rico in the 90's. Dominican reggaeton is called by its original name dem-bow. Dembow uses old reggae and reggaeton beats from mainly Jamaica, Panama, and Puerto Rico. The dem-bow is utilized making the dem-dow rhythm faster and louder. Dominican recording artists include Black Point, Messiah El Artista, Monkey Black, Mozart La Para, Makleen, Juancho and Reychesta of Tres Coronas, Sensato del Patio, El Alfa, Chimbala and Don Miguelo.
Art music
Jazz
The most renowned exponent is Michel Camilo.
Classical music
Conservatorio Nacional de Música is the academy of music of the Dominican Republic. It was founded by José de Jesús Ravelo (Don Chuchú), one of the main Dominican composers.
References
Bibliography
Larrazábal Blanco, Carlos. 1967. "Los negros y la esclavitud en Santo Domingo". Santo Domingo: Postigo. Colección "Pensamiento Dominicano," No. 35.
Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis
Davis, Martha Ellen. "Afro-Dominican Religious Brotherhoods: Structure, Ritual, and Music." 1976. Ph.D. dissertation in anthropology, University of Illinois
Díaz Díaz, Edgardo. 2008. “Danza antillana, conjuntos militares, nacionalismo musical e identidad dominicana: retomando los pasos perdidos del merengue.” Latin American Music Review 29(2): 229–259.
Manuel, Peter, Kenneth M. Bilby, and Michael D. Largey. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995.
Harvey, Sean and Sue Steward. "Merengue Attacks". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 414–420. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
External links
www.iasorecords.com - Dominican Music, articles, music & video clips - bachata, merengue, Afro-Dominican, and more.
www.BachataRadio.com - Bachata, Merengue y mas! Musica en Demanda y en Vivo, Listen to the Music of the Dominican Republic.
All about Merengue Típico / Perico Ripiao
Popular Afro-Dominican Group in the United States
https://listindiario.com/elnorte/2018/07/27/525954/anuncian-detalles-de-cibao-sonic-fest
Dominican styles of music
|
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] |
242892
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican%20music
|
Dominican music
|
Dominican music may refer to:
Music of the Dominican Republic
Music of Dominica
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizoaffective%20disorder
|
Schizoaffective disorder
|
Schizoaffective disorder (SZA, SZD or SAD) is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal thought processes and an unstable mood. The diagnosis is made when the person has symptoms of both schizophrenia (usually psychosis) and a mood disorder—either bipolar disorder or depression. The main criterion for a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is the presence of psychotic symptoms for at least two weeks without any mood symptoms present. Schizoaffective disorder can often be misdiagnosed when the correct diagnosis may be psychotic depression, psychotic bipolar disorder, schizophreniform disorder, or schizophrenia. It is imperative for providers to accurately diagnose patients, as treatment and prognosis differ greatly for each of these diagnoses.
There are two types of schizoaffective disorder: the bipolar type, which is distinguished by symptoms of mania, hypomania, or mixed episode; and the depressive type, which is distinguished by symptoms of depression only. Common symptoms of the disorder include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech and thinking. Auditory hallucinations, or "hearing voices", are most common. The onset of symptoms usually begins in young adulthood. On a ranking scale of symptom progression of mental health issues relating to the schizophrenic spectrum, a mood disorder would be the first diagnosis; as symptoms progress it would then be diagnosed as schizoaffective disorder, and if symptoms progress even more it would then be diagnosed as schizophrenia, with other disorders included on the ranking as well depending on symptoms. A mood disorder would be the less severe diagnoses, while schizophrenia would be the more severe diagnosis with schizoaffective disorder being a bridge between the two disorders. Schizoaffective disorder and other disorders on the schizophrenic spectrum are evaluated as a psychotic disorder in the DSM-V, so the line between psychotic or not psychotic begins at a mood disorder, as being considered not psychotic, and schizoaffective disorder along with other disorders of the schizophrenia spectrum, as being considered psychotic. A mood disorder is not in the schizophrenic spectrum.
Genetics (researched in the field of genomics); problems with neural circuits; chronic early, and chronic or short-term current environmental stress appear to be important causal factors. No single isolated organic cause has been found, but extensive evidence exists for abnormalities in the metabolism of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), dopamine, and glutamic acid in people with schizophrenia, psychotic mood disorders, and schizoaffective disorder. People with schizoaffective disorder are likely to have co-occurring conditions, including anxiety disorders and substance use disorders.
The mainstay of current treatment is antipsychotic medication combined with mood stabilizer medication or antidepressant medication, or both. There is growing concern by some researchers that antidepressants may increase psychosis, mania, and long-term mood episode cycling in the disorder. When there is risk to self or others, usually early in treatment, hospitalization may be necessary. Psychiatric rehabilitation, psychotherapy, and vocational rehabilitation are very important for recovery of higher psychosocial function. As a group, people with schizoaffective disorder that were diagnosed using DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria (which have since been updated) have a better outcome, but have variable individual psychosocial functional outcomes compared to people with mood disorders, from worse to the same. Outcomes for people with DSM-5 diagnosed schizoaffective disorder depend on data from prospective cohort studies, which have not been completed yet. The DSM-5 diagnosis was updated because DSM-IV criteria resulted in overuse of the diagnosis; that is, DSM-IV criteria led to many patients being misdiagnosed with the disorder. DSM-IV prevalence estimates were less than one percent of the population, in the range of 0.5–0.8 percent; newer DSM-5 prevalence estimates are not yet available.
Signs and symptoms
Schizoaffective disorder is defined by mood disorder-free psychosis in the context of a long-term psychotic and mood disorder. Psychosis must meet criterion A for schizophrenia which may include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking and speech or behavior and negative symptoms. Both delusions and hallucinations are classic symptoms of psychosis. Delusions are false beliefs which are strongly held despite evidence to the contrary. Beliefs should not be considered delusional if they are in keeping with cultural beliefs. Delusional beliefs may or may not reflect mood symptoms (for example, someone experiencing depression may or may not experience delusions of guilt). Hallucinations are disturbances in perception involving any of the five senses, although auditory hallucinations (or "hearing voices") are the most common. Negative symptoms include alogia (lack of speech), blunted affect (reduced intensity of outward emotional expression), avolition (lack of motivation), and anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure). Negative symptoms can be more lasting and more debilitating than positive symptoms of psychosis.
Mood symptoms are of mania, hypomania, mixed episode, or depression, and tend to be episodic rather than continuous. A mixed episode represents a combination of symptoms of mania and depression at the same time. Symptoms of mania include elevated or irritable mood, grandiosity (inflated self-esteem), agitation, risk-taking behavior, decreased need for sleep, poor concentration, rapid speech, and racing thoughts. Symptoms of depression include low mood, apathy, changes in appetite or weight, disturbances in sleep, changes in motor activity, fatigue, guilt or feelings of worthlessness, and suicidal thinking.
DSM-5 states that if a patient only experiences psychotic symptoms during a mood episode, their diagnosis is Mood Disorder with Psychotic Features and not Schizophrenia or Schizoaffective Disorder. If the patient experiences psychotic symptoms without mood symptoms for longer than a two-week period, their diagnosis is either Schizophrenia or Schizoaffective Disorder. If mood disorder episodes are present for the majority and residual course of the illness and up until the diagnosis, the patient can be diagnosed with Schizoaffective Disorder.
Causes
A combination of genetic and environmental factors are believed to play a role in the development of schizoaffective disorder.
Viewed broadly then, biological and environmental factors interact with a person's genes in ways which may increase or decrease the risk for developing schizoaffective disorder; exactly how this happens (the biological mechanism) is not yet known. Schizophrenia spectrum disorders, of which schizoaffective disorder is a part, have been increasingly linked to advanced paternal age at the time of conception, a known cause of genetic mutations. The physiology of people diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder appears to be similar, but not identical, to that of those diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; however, human neurophysiological function in normal brain and mental disorder syndromes is not fully understood.
Substance use disorder
A clear causal connection between substance use and psychotic spectrum disorders, including schizoaffective disorder, has been difficult to prove. In the specific case of cannabis (marijuana), however, evidence supports a link between earlier onset of psychotic illness and cannabis use. The more often cannabis is used, particularly in early adolescence, the more likely a person is to develop a psychotic illness, with frequent use being correlated with double the risk of psychosis and schizoaffective disorder. A 2009 Yale review stated that in individuals with an established psychotic disorder, cannabinoids can exacerbate symptoms, trigger relapse, and have negative consequences on the course of the illness. While cannabis use is accepted as a contributory cause of schizoaffective disorder by many, it remains controversial, since not all young people who use cannabis later develop psychosis, but those who do use cannabis have an increased odds ratio of about 3. Certain drugs can imitate symptoms of schizophrenia (which we know has similar symptoms to schizoaffective disorder). This is important to note when including that substance-induced psychosis should be ruled out when diagnosing patients so that patients are not misdiagnosed.
Diagnosis
Psychosis as a symptom of a psychiatric disorder is first and foremost a diagnosis of exclusion. So a new-onset episode of psychosis cannot be considered to be a symptom of a psychiatric disorder until other relevant and known medical causes of psychosis are excluded, or ruled out. Many clinicians improperly perform, or entirely miss this step, introducing avoidable diagnostic error and misdiagnosis.
An initial assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination. Although no biological laboratory tests exist which confirm schizoaffective disorder, biological tests should be performed to exclude psychosis associated with or caused by substance use, medications, toxins or poisons, surgical complications, or other medical illnesses. Since non-medical mental health practitioners are not trained to exclude medical causes of psychosis, people experiencing psychosis should be referred to an emergency department or hospital.
Delirium should be ruled out, which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness, indicating other underlying factors which includes medical illnesses. Excluding medical illnesses associated with psychosis is performed by using blood tests to measure:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone to exclude hypo- or hyperthyroidism,
Basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance,
Full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease, and
Serology to exclude syphilis or HIV infection.
Other investigations which may be performed include:
EEG to exclude epilepsy, and an
MRI or CT scan of the head to exclude brain lesions.
Blood tests are not usually repeated for relapse in people with an established diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder, unless there is a specific medical indication. These may include serum BSL if olanzapine has previously been prescribed, thyroid function if lithium has previously been taken to rule out hypothyroidism, liver function tests if chlorpromazine has been prescribed, CPK levels to exclude neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and a urinalysis and serum toxicology screening if substance use is suspected. Assessment and treatment may be done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to self or others.
Because psychosis may be precipitated or exacerbated by common classes of psychiatric medications, such as antidepressants, ADHD stimulant medications, and sleep medications, prescribed medication-induced psychosis should be ruled out, particularly for first-episode psychosis. This is an essential step to reduce diagnostic error and to evaluate potential medication sources of further patient harm. Regarding prescribed medication sources of patient harm, Yale School of Medicine Professor of Psychiatry Malcolm B. Bowers, Jr, MD wrote:
Illicit drugs aren't the only ones that precipitate psychosis or mania—prescribed drugs can too, and in particular, some psychiatric drugs. We investigated this and found that about 1 in 12 psychotic or manic patients in an inpatient psychiatric facility are there due to antidepressant-induced psychosis or mania. That's unfortunate for the field [of psychiatry] and disastrous for some of our patients.
Substance-induced psychosis should also be ruled out. Both substance- and medication-induced psychosis can be excluded to a high level of certainty while the person is psychotic, typically in an emergency department, using both a
Broad spectrum urine toxicology screening, and a
Full serum toxicology screening (of the blood).
Some dietary supplements may also induce psychosis or mania, but cannot be ruled out with laboratory tests. So a psychotic person's family, partner, or friends should be asked whether he or she is currently taking any dietary supplements.
Common mistakes made when diagnosing psychotic patients include:
Not properly excluding delirium,
Missing a toxic psychosis by not screening for substances and medications,
Not appreciating medical abnormalities (e.g., vital signs),
Not obtaining a medical history and family history,
Indiscriminate screening without an organizing framework,
Not asking family or others about dietary supplements,
Premature diagnostic closure, and
Not revisiting or questioning the initial diagnostic impression of primary psychiatric disorder.
Only after these relevant and known causes of psychosis have been ruled out can a psychiatric differential diagnosis be made. A mental health clinician will incorporate family history, observation of a psychotic person's behavior while the person is experiencing active symptoms, to begin a psychiatric differential diagnosis. Diagnosis also includes self-reported experiences, as well as behavioral abnormalities reported by family members, friends, or significant others. Mistakes in this stage include:
Not screening for dissociative disorders. Dissociative identity disorder and psychotic symptoms in schizoaffective disorder have considerable overlap, yet a different overall treatment approach.
DSM-5 criteria
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing schizoaffective disorder are from the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5.
The DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder definition was plagued by problems of being inconsistently (or unreliably) used on patients; when the diagnosis is made, it does not stay with most patients over time, and it has questionable diagnostic validity (that is, it does not describe a distinct disorder, nor predict any particular outcome). These problems have been slightly reduced (or "modestly improved") in the DSM-5 according to Carpenter.
When psychotic symptoms are confined to an episode of mania or depression (with or without mixed features), the diagnosis is that of a “psychotic” mood disorder, namely either psychotic bipolar disorder or psychotic major depression. Only when psychotic states persist in a sustained fashion for two weeks or longer without concurrent affective symptoms is the diagnosis schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder or schizophrenia.
The second cardinal guideline in the DSM-5 diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is one of timeframe.
DSM-5 requires two episodes of psychosis (whereas DSM-IV needed only one) to qualify for the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis. As such, it is no longer an "episode diagnosis." The new schizoaffective framework looks at the time from "the [first episode of] psychosis up to the current episode [of psychosis], rather than only defining a single episode with [co-occurring] psychotic and mood syndromes." Specifically, one of the episodes of psychosis must last a minimum of two weeks without mood disorder symptoms, but the person may be mildly to moderately depressed while psychotic. The other period of psychosis "requires the overlap of mood [disorder] symptoms with psychotic symptoms to be conspicuous" and last for a greater portion of the disorder.
These two changes are intended by the DSM-5 workgroup to accomplish two goals:
Increase the diagnosis' consistency (or reliability) when it is used;
Significantly decrease the overall use of the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis.
If the schizoaffective diagnosis is used less often, other diagnoses (like psychotic mood disorders and schizophrenia) are likely to be used more often; but this is hypothetical until real-world data arrive. Validity problems with the diagnosis remain and await further work in the fields of psychiatric genetics, neuroimaging, and cognitive science that includes the overlapping fields of cognitive, affective, and social neuroscience, which may change the way schizoaffective disorder is conceptualized and defined in future versions of the DSM and ICD.
Types
One of two types of schizoaffective disorder may be noted in a diagnosis based on the mood component of the disorder:
Bipolar type, when the disturbance includes manic episodes, hypomania, or mixed episodes—major depressive episodes also typically occur;
Depressive type, when the disturbance includes major depressive episodes exclusively—that is, without manic, hypomanic, or mixed episodes.
Problems with DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder
The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV criteria for schizoaffective disorder persisted for 19 years (1994–2013). Clinicians adequately trained in diagnosis used the schizoaffective diagnosis too often, largely because the criteria were poorly defined, ambiguous, and hard to use (or poorly operationalized). Poorly trained clinicians used the diagnosis without making necessary exclusions of common causes of psychosis, including some prescribed psychiatric medications. Specialty books written by experts on schizoaffective disorder have existed for over eight years before DSM-5 describing the overuse of the diagnosis.
Carpenter and the DSM-5 schizoaffective disorders workgroup analyzed data made available to them in 2009, and reported in May 2013 that:
a recent review of psychotic disorders from large private insurance and Medicare databases in the U.S. found that the diagnosis of DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder was used for about a third of cases with non-affective psychotic disorders. Hence, this unreliable and poorly defined diagnosis is clearly overused.
As stated above, the DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder diagnosis is very inconsistently used or unreliable. A diagnosis is unreliable when several different mental health professionals observing the same individual make different diagnoses excessively. Even when a structured DSM-IV diagnostic interview and best estimate procedures were made by experts in the field that included information from family informants and prior clinical records, reliability was still poor for the DSM-IV schizoaffective diagnosis.
The DSM-IV schizoaffective diagnosis is not stable over time either. An initial diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder during time spent at a psychiatric inpatient facility was stable at 6-month and 24-month follow ups for only 36% of patients. By comparison, diagnostic stability was 92% for schizophrenia, 83% for bipolar disorder and 74% for major depression. Most patients diagnosed with DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder are later diagnosed with a different disorder, and that disorder is more stable over time than the DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder diagnosis.
In April 2009, Carpenter and the DSM-5 schizoaffective disorder workgroup reported that they were "developing new criteria for schizoaffective disorder to improve reliability and face validity," and were "determining whether the dimensional assessment of mood [would] justify a recommendation to drop schizoaffective disorder as a diagnostic category." Speaking to an audience at the May 2009 annual conference of the American Psychiatric Association, Carpenter said:
We had hoped to get rid of schizoaffective [disorder] as a diagnostic category [in the DSM-5] because we don't think it's [a] valid [scientific entity] and we don't think it's reliable. On the other hand, we think it's absolutely indispensable to clinical practice.
A major reason why DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder was indispensable to clinical practice is because it offered clinicians a diagnosis for patients with psychosis in the context of mood disorder whose clinical picture, at the time diagnosed, appeared different from DSM-IV "schizophrenia" or "mood disorder with psychotic features".
But DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder carries an unnecessarily worse prognosis than a "mood disorder with psychotic features" diagnosis, because long-term data revealed that a significant proportion of DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder patients had 15-year outcomes indistinguishable from patients with mood disorders with or without psychotic features, even though the clinical picture at the time of first diagnosis looked different from both schizophrenia and mood disorders.
These problems with the DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder definition result in most people the diagnosis is used on being misdiagnosed; furthermore, outcome studies done 10 years after the diagnosis was released showed that the group of patients defined by the DSM-IV and ICD-10 schizoaffective diagnosis had significantly better outcomes than predicted, so the diagnosis carries a misleading and unnecessarily poor prognosis. The DSM-IV criteria for schizoaffective disorder will continue to be used on U.S. board examinations in psychiatry through the end of 2014; established practitioners may continue to use the problematic DSM-IV definition much further into the future also.
DSM-5 research directions
The new schizoaffective disorder criteria continue to have questionable diagnostic validity. Questionable diagnostic validity does not doubt that people with symptoms of psychosis and mood disorder need treatment—psychosis and mood disorder must be treated. Instead, questionable diagnostic validity means there are unresolved problems with the way the DSM-5 categorizes and defines schizoaffective disorder.
A core concept in modern psychiatry since DSM-III was released in 1980, is the categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia, known as the Kraepelinian dichotomy. Emil Kraepelin introduced the idea that schizophrenia was separate from mood disorders after observing patients with symptoms of psychosis and mood disorder, over a century ago, in 1898. This was a time before genetics were known and before any treatments existed for mental illness. The Kraepelinian dichotomy was not used for DSM-I and DSM-II because both manuals were influenced by the dominant psychodynamic psychiatry of the time, but the designers of DSM-III wanted to use more scientific and biological definitions. Consequently, they looked to psychiatry's history and decided to use the Kraepelinian dichotomy as a foundation for the classification system.
The Kraepelinian dichotomy continues to be used in DSM-5 despite having been challenged by data from modern psychiatric genetics for over eight years, and there is now evidence of a significant overlap in the genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. According to this genetic evidence, the Kraepelinian categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia at the foundation of the current classification and diagnostic system is a mistaken false dichotomy.
The dichotomy at the foundation of the current system forms the basis for a convoluted schizoaffective disorder definition in DSM-IV that resulted in excessive misdiagnosis. Real life schizoaffective disorder patients have significant and enduring symptoms that bridge what are incorrectly assumed to be categorically separate disorders, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. People with psychotic depression, bipolar disorder with a history of psychosis, and schizophrenia with mood symptoms also have symptoms that bridge psychosis and mood disorders. The categorical diagnostic manuals do not reflect reality in their separation of psychosis (via the schizophrenia diagnosis) from mood disorder, nor do they currently emphasize the actual overlap found in real-life patients. Thus, they are likely to continue to introduce either-or conceptual and diagnostic error, by way of confirmation bias into clinicians' mindsets, hindering accurate assessment and treatment.
The new definition continues the lack of parsimony of the old definition. Simpler, clearer, and more usable definitions of the diagnosis were supported by certain members of the DSM-5 workgroup (see next paragraph); these were debated but deemed premature, because more "research [is] needed to establish a new classification system of equal or greater validity" to the existing system. Because of DSM-5's continuing problematic categorical foundation, schizoaffective disorder's conceptual and diagnostic validity remains doubtful. After enough research is completed and data exists, future diagnostic advances will need to either eliminate and replace, or soften and bridge, the hard categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia; most likely using a spectrum or dimensional approach to diagnosis.
More parsimonious definitions than the current one were considered by Carpenter and the DSM-5 workgroup:
One option for the DSM-5 would have been to remove the schizoaffective disorder category and to add affective [or mood] symptoms [that is, mania, hypomania, mixed episode, or depression] as a dimension to schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder or to define a single category for the co-occurrence of psychosis and mood symptoms. This option was extensively debated but ultimately deemed to be premature in the absence of sufficient clinical and theoretical validating data justifying such a … reconceptualization. Additionally, there appeared to be no practical way to introduce affect [or mood] dimensions covering the entire course of illness, that would capture the current concept of periods of psychosis related and unrelated to mood episodes.
The field of psychiatry has begun to question its assumptions and analyze its data in order to merge closer with evidence-based medicine. The removal of the "episode diagnosis", and the addition of two episodes of psychosis, as qualifications for the DSM-5 schizoaffective diagnosis, may improve the diagnosis' consistency over DSM-IV for research purposes, where diagnostic criteria are by necessity followed exactingly. But the new definition remains long, unwieldy, and perhaps still not very useful for community clinicians—with two psychoses, one for two weeks minimum and without mood disorder (but the person can be mildly or moderately depressed) and the other with significant mood disorder and psychosis lasting for most of the time, and with lasting mood symptoms for most of the residual portion of the illness. Community clinicians used the previous definition "for about a third of cases with non-affective psychotic disorders." Non-affective psychotic disorders are, by definition, not schizoaffective disorder. For clinicians to make such sizeable errors of misdiagnosis may imply systemic problems with the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis itself. Already, at least one expert believes the new schizoaffective definition has not gone far enough to solve the previous definition's problems.
From a scientific standpoint, modern clinical psychiatry is still a very young, underdeveloped medical specialty because its target organ, the human brain, is not yet well understood. The human brain's neural circuits, for example, are just beginning to be mapped by modern neuroscience in the Human Connectome Project and CLARITY. Clinical psychiatry, furthermore, has begun to understand and acknowledge its current limitations—but further steps by the field are required to significantly reduce misdiagnosis and patient harm; this is crucial both for responsible patient care and to retain public trust. Looking forward, a paradigm shift is needed in psychiatric research to address unanswered questions about schizoaffective disorder. The dimensional Research Domain Criteria project currently being developed by the U.S. National Institutes of Mental Health, may be the specific problem solving framework psychiatry needs to develop a more scientifically mature understanding of schizoaffective disorder as well as all other mental disorders.
Treatment
The primary treatment of schizoaffective disorder is medication, with improved outcomes using combined long-term psychological and social supports. Hospitalization may occur for severe episodes either voluntarily or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntarily. Long-term hospitalization is uncommon since deinstitutionalization started in the 1950s, although it still occurs. Community support services including drop-in centers, visits by members of a community mental health team, supported employment and support groups are common. Evidence indicates that regular exercise has a positive effect on the physical and mental health of those with schizoaffective disorder.
Participating in internet forums is sometimes used by people with schizoaffective disorder in addition to outpatient medication treatment.
Therapy
Skillfully delivered psychosocial treatments are perhaps the most important component of pushing for and encouraging improved overall functioning in schizoaffective disorder. Supportive psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are both helpful. Intensive case management (ICM) has been shown to reduce hospitalizations, improve adherence to treatment, and improve social functioning. With ICM, clients are assigned a case manager responsible for coordination of care and assisting clients to access supports to address needs in multiple areas related to well-being, including housing.
High quality psychosocial or psychiatric rehabilitation is very important for recovery from schizoaffective disorder. Psychiatric or psychosocial rehabilitation focuses on solving community integration problems such as obtaining and keeping housing and increasing involvement in positive social groups. It also focuses on improving and increasing activities of daily living; increasing daily healthy habits (such as normalizing sleep-wake cycles; increasing early morning natural light exposure; increasing moderate exercise [such as 2030 minutes of moderate to brisk early morning to pre-afternoon walking daily, in order to help normalize circadian rhythms]; helping individuals understand the specific benefits of healthy food choices; increasing stress-reduction activities such as yoga, tai chi, or meditation); and decreasing unhealthy behaviors (such as substance use and smoking); thereby significantly improving quality of life. High quality psychiatric rehabilitation may also focus on vocational rehabilitation including preparing the client for volunteer, part-time paid work, returning to school for further education, job skills training for full-time flexible or supported employment, and other client self-improvement efforts. Core principles of effective psychiatric rehabilitation must include providing hope when the client lacks it, respect for the client wherever they are in the recovery process, empowering the client, teaching the client wellness planning, and emphasizing the importance for the client to develop social support networks. A long-term goal of psychiatric and vocational rehabilitation is that the client learn and actively engage in active stress management while in education or employment, while receiving treatment.
Psychiatric rehabilitation consists of eight main areas:
Psychiatric (symptom reduction and management)
Health and Medical (maintaining consistency of care)
Housing (safe environments)
Basic living skills (hygiene, meals [including increasing healthy food intake and reducing processed food intake], safety, planning and chores)
Social (relationships, family boundaries, communication and integration of client into the community)
Education and vocation (coping skills, motivation and suitable goals chosen by client)
Finance (personal budget)
Community and legal (resources)
Medication
Antipsychotic medication is usually required both for acute treatment and the prevention of relapse. There is no single antipsychotic of choice in treating schizoaffective disorder, but atypical antipsychotics should be considered because they have mood-stabilizing activity. Paliperidone is an antipsychotic with FDA approval for the treatment of schizoaffective disorder. Antipsychotics should be used at the minimum dose necessary to control symptoms. Potential side effects include extrapyramidal symptoms, including tremor, muscle stiffness, and restlessness or akathisia. Atypical antipsychotics carry a risk of metabolic syndrome, including weight gain, increased blood sugar, and increased blood cholesterol, so regular monitoring of weight and blood work should be carried out. Some atypical antipsychotics, such as ziprasidone and aripiprazole, are associated with less risk than others, such as olanzapine. Medication choice is based on how effectively it reduces symptoms, how few side effects it causes, and cost.
In people with treatment-refractory psychosis, a clozapine trial should be considered. Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic that is recognized as being particularly effective when other antipsychotic agents have failed. Clozapine should also be considered in people with chronic and persistent suicidal thinking and behaviour, as it has been shown to reduce the risk of suicide in patients with schizoaffective disorder and a history of suicidality. Between 0.5 and 2% of patients taking clozapine may develop a life-threatening complication called agranulocytosis, which is a significant drop in a type of white blood cell. Because of this risk, people taking clozapine must have regular monitoring of blood cell counts.
The management of the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder is similar to the treatment of bipolar disorder, with the goal of preventing mood episodes and cycling. Lithium or anticonvulsant mood stabilizers such as valproic acid, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine are prescribed in combination with an antipsychotic.
For depression, if an antidepressant is prescribed, extra attentiveness must be given by the prescribing clinician due its risk for long-term mood cycle acceleration (that is, inducing more frequent episodes of depression per unit of time) and prescribed medication-induced psychosis or mania. For individuals who show emerging psychosis, mania, mixed episode symptoms, or mood cycle acceleration, switching to an antipsychotic plus lithium or lamotrigine is preferable to antidepressants.
For individuals who experience anxiety, anti-anxiety medications can be used, usually on a short-term basis. Benzodiazepines, including lorazepam, clonazepam and diazepam, are types of anti-anxiety medications. Care must be taken when prescribing benzodiazepines due to the risk of the person developing tolerance and dependence.
Electroconvulsive therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be considered for patients with schizoaffective disorder experiencing severe depression or severe psychotic symptoms that have not responded to treatment with antipsychotics.
Epidemiology
Schizoaffective disorder is estimated to occur in 0.3 to 0.8 percent of people at some point in their life. 30% of cases occur between the ages of 25 and 35. It is more common in women than men; however, this is because of the high concentration of women in the depressive subcategory, whereas the bipolar subtype has a roughly even gender distribution.
History
The term schizoaffective psychosis was introduced by the American psychiatrist Jacob Kasanin in 1933 to describe an episodic psychotic illness with predominant affective symptoms, that was thought at the time to be a good-prognosis schizophrenia. Kasanin's concept of the illness was influenced by the psychoanalytic teachings of Adolf Meyer and Kasanin postulated that schizoaffective psychosis was caused by "emotional conflicts" of a "mainly sexual nature" and that psychoanalysis "would help prevent the recurrence of such attacks." He based his description on a case study of nine individuals.
Other psychiatrists, before and after Kasanin, have made scientific observations of schizoaffective disorder based on assumptions of a biological and genetic cause of the illness. In 1863, German psychiatrist Karl Kahlbaum (18281899) described schizoaffective disorders as a separate group in his vesania typica circularis. Kahlbaum distinguished between cross-sectional and longitudinal observations. (Cross-sectional refers to observation of a single, specific episode of the illness, for example, one episode of psychotic depression; while longitudinal refers to long-term observation of many distinct episodes [similar or different] often occurring over the span of years.) In 1920, psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (18561926), the founder of contemporary scientific psychiatry, observed a "great number" of cases that had characteristics of both groups of psychoses that he originally posited were two distinct and separate illnesses, dementia praecox (now called schizophrenia) and manic depressive insanity (now called bipolar disorders [plural since there are more than one type of bipolar disorder] and recurrent depression).
Kraepelin acknowledged that "there are many overlaps in this area," that is, the area between schizophrenia and mood disorders. In 1959, psychiatrist Kurt Schneider (18871967) began to further refine conceptualizations of the different forms that schizoaffective disorders can take since he observed "concurrent and sequential types". (The concurrent type of illness he referred to is a longitudinal course of illness with episodes of mood disorder and psychosis occurring predominantly at the same time [now called psychotic mood disorders or affective psychosis]; while his sequential type refers to a longitudinal course predominantly marked by alternating mood and psychotic episodes.) Schneider described schizoaffective disorders as "cases in-between" the traditional Kraepelinian dichotomy of schizophrenia and mood disorders.
The historical clinical observation that schizoaffective disorder is an overlap of schizophrenia and mood disorders is explained by genes for both illnesses being present in individuals with schizoaffective disorder; specifically, recent research shows that schizophrenia and mood disorders share common genes and polygenic variations.
Schizoaffective disorder was included as a subtype of schizophrenia in DSM-I and DSM-II, though research showed a schizophrenic cluster of symptoms in individuals with a family history of mood disorders whose illness course, other symptoms and treatment outcome were otherwise more akin to bipolar disorder than to schizophrenia. DSM-III placed schizoaffective disorder in "Psychotic Disorders Not Otherwise Specified" before being formally recognized in DSM-III-R. DSM-III-R included its own diagnostic criteria as well as the subtypes, bipolar and depressive. In DSM-IV, published in 1994, schizoaffective disorders belonged to the category "Other Psychotic Disorders" and included almost the same criteria and the same subtypes of illness as DSM-III-R, with the addition of mixed bipolar symptomatology.
DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR (published in 2000) criteria for schizoaffective disorder were poorly defined and poorly operationalized. These ambiguous and unreliable criteria lasted 19 years and led clinicians to significantly overuse the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis. Patients commonly diagnosed with DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder showed a clinical picture at time of diagnosis that appeared different from schizophrenia or psychotic mood disorders using DSM-IV criteria, but who as a group, were longitudinally determined to have outcomes indistinguishable from those with mood disorders with or without psychotic features. A poor prognosis was assumed to apply to these patients by most clinicians, and this poor prognosis was harmful to many patients. The poor prognosis for DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder was not based on patient outcomes research, but was caused by poorly defined criteria interacting with clinical tradition and belief; clinician enculturation with unscientific assumptions from the diagnosis' history (discussed above), including the invalid Kraepelinian dichotomy; and by clinicians being unfamiliar with the scientific limitations of the diagnostic and classification system.
The DSM-5 schizoaffective disorder workgroup analyzed all of the available research evidence on schizoaffective disorder, and concluded that "presenting symptoms of psychosis have little validity in determining diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment response." Given our understanding of overlapping genetics in bipolar disorders, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia, as well as the overlap in treatments for these disorders; but given the lack of specificity of presenting symptoms for determining diagnosis, prognosis or treatment response in these psychotic illness syndromes, the limits of our knowledge are clearer: Presenting symptoms of psychosis describe only presenting symptoms to be treated, and not much more. Schizoaffective disorder was changed to a longitudinal or life course diagnosis in DSM-5 for this reason.
Research
Evidence is lacking about schizoaffective disorder's (likely multiple) causes and mechanisms (knowing these leads to specific and consistently effective treatments), and about how exactly mood episodes and psychosis are related (knowing this may lead to a simpler, clearer, and more usable behavioral definition of the disorder; as well as a better diagnostic system). Whether schizoaffective disorder is a variant of schizophrenia (as in DSM-5 and ICD-10 classification systems), a variant of bipolar disorder, or part of a dimensional continuum between psychotic depression, bipolar disorders and schizophrenia is currently being investigated.
Research into the assessment and treatment of schizoaffective disorder will rely less on DSM and ICD criteria as time progresses, and more on the dimensional Research Domain Criteria currently being developed by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The Research Domain Criteria initiative, led by Bruce Cuthbert of NIMH, is the inspiration for the Roadmap for Mental Health Research in Europe (ROAMER). The purpose of the Research Domain Criteria initiative is to address the marked variability and overlap within and among the disorder categories, and to foster development of more effective assessment and treatment for each individual patient. Over the coming decades, advances resulting from the Research Domain Criteria in the U.S. and ROAMER in Europe will be incorporated into future versions of the DSM and ICD, with the hope of eventually leading to personalized mental health of greater diagnostic accuracy and with more targeted and useful treatments, including biomedical, psychosocial, and possibly preventive approaches.
References
Further reading
External links
Bipolar spectrum
Mood disorders
Schizophrenia
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242905
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer%20Republic
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Khmer Republic
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The Khmer Republic (, ; ) was a pro-United States military-led republican government of Cambodia that was formally declared on 9 October 1970. Politically, the Khmer Republic was headed by General Lon Nol, then prime minister, and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak that took power in the 18 March 1970 coup against Prince Norodom Sihanouk, then the country's chief of state.
The main causes of the coup were Norodom Sihanouk's toleration of the North Vietnamese activity within Cambodia's borders, allowing heavily armed Vietnamese communist outfits de facto control over vast areas of eastern Cambodia. Another important factor was the dire state of the Cambodian economy, an indirect result of Sihanouk's policies of pursuing neutrality.
With the removal of Sihanouk, the existing Kingdom of Cambodia became a republic, officially removing Sisowath Kossamak. The character of the new regime was far-right and militaristic; most significantly, it ended Sihanouk's period of covert co-operation with the North Vietnamese regime and the Viet Cong, and aligned Cambodia with South Vietnam in the ongoing Second Indochina War. The Khmer Republic was opposed within the Cambodian borders by the National United Front of Kampuchea (Front uni national de Kampuchéa, FUNK), a relatively broad alliance between Sihanouk, his supporters, and the Communist Party of Kampuchea.
The insurgency itself was conducted by the CPNLAF, the Cambodian People's National Liberation Armed Forces: they were backed by both the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front (NLF, better known as the Viet Cong), who occupied parts of Cambodia as part of their ongoing war with the South Vietnamese government.
Despite the large quantities of military and financial aid from the United States, its Khmer National Armed Forces (Forces armées nationales khmères, or FANK) was poorly trained and unable to defeat either the CPNLAF or the Vietnamese forces of the PAVN and NLF. The Republic eventually fell on 17 April 1975, when the Khmer Rouge took Phnom Penh and briefly restored the Kingdom of Cambodia before renaming itself Democratic Kampuchea in January 1976.
Political history
Coup
Sihanouk himself claimed that the coup was the result of an alliance between his longstanding enemy, the exiled right-wing nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh, the politician Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak (depicted by Sihanouk as a disgruntled rival claimant to the Cambodian throne) and the CIA, who wished to install a more US-friendly regime. There is in fact little if any evidence of CIA involvement in the coup, although it seems that sections of the US military establishment – notably the Army Special Forces – may have had some involvement in terms of offering support and training to the plotters after being approached by Lon Nol.
While Sihanouk was out of the country on a trip to France, anti-Vietnamese rioting took place in Phnom Penh, during which the North Vietnamese and NLF embassies were sacked. It seems likely that this rioting was at least tolerated, and possibly actively organised, by Lon Nol, the Prime Minister, and his deputy Prince Sirik Matak. On 12 March, the prime minister closed the port of Sihanoukville – through which weapons were being smuggled to the NLF – to the North Vietnamese and issued an impossible ultimatum to them. All PAVN/NLF forces were to withdraw from Cambodian soil within 72 hours (on 15 March) or face military action.
Despite these actions, which directly contradicted Sihanouk's policy of partial tolerance of North Vietnamese activity, it appears that Lon Nol himself had great personal reluctance to depose the Head of State: he initially may merely have wanted Sihanouk to apply more pressure to the North Vietnamese. He initially refused to commit to the plan; to convince him, Sirik Matak – who appears to have had a coup in mind from the start – played him a tape-recorded press conference from Paris, in which Sihanouk threatened to execute them both on his return to Phnom Penh. However, the Prime Minister remained uncertain, with the result that Sirik Matak, accompanied by three army officers, compelled a weeping Lon Nol to sign the necessary documents at gunpoint.
A vote was taken in the National Assembly on 18 March under the direction of In Tam, in which Sihanouk was stripped of his power: Lon Nol assumed the powers of the Head of State on an emergency basis. On 28 and 29 March there were large-scale popular demonstrations in favour of Sihanouk in several provincial cities, but Lon Nol's forces suppressed them with great brutality, causing several hundred deaths. Lon Nol's brother Lon Nil was among a number of government officials who were murdered by demonstrators.
Foreign regimes were initially uncertain as to the level of support to give to the new government. The North Vietnamese continued to hold talks with Lon Nol regarding the reinstatement of the cancelled trade agreement, though subsequent events meant that these were soon to come to an end.
Declaration of the Khmer Republic and the formation of FANK
The most significant immediate effect of the coup was the Cambodian Campaign of April–July 1970, in which the South Vietnamese army (ARVN), backed by US troops, entered eastern Cambodia to attack North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces operating there. Despite this assault, many of the communist forces escaped westward, deeper into Cambodia, or to the rural areas of the north-east, where they would provide support for the insurgency against Lon Nol.
Lon Nol's immediate reaction was to condemn the action as a violation of Cambodian territory. He later informed Alexander Haig that his country had been placed in serious danger as a result. When Haig told him that American ground forces would not be used to assist the Cambodian army, and that (in accordance with the Nixon Doctrine) a programme of aid would be given instead, Lon Nol openly wept.
On 9 October Sihanouk was condemned to death in absentia by a military court; his mother, Queen Kossamak – the symbolic representative of the monarchy under Sihanouk's regime – was placed under house arrest, and his wife Monique was sentenced to life imprisonment. The new regime simultaneously declared the Khmer Republic, and a new constitution was eventually to be adopted in 1972. Sihanouk, in the meantime, had formed GRUNK, a Beijing-based government-in-exile incorporating the communists and dedicated to the Republic's overthrow; he declared Lon Nol to be a "complete idiot" and characterised Sirik Matak as "nasty, perfidious, a lousy bastard".
The relatively small royal army, which at the time of the coup had around 35,000 troops (in accordance with Sihanouk's stated policy of neutrality), was greatly expanded. Reorganising as FANK, the republican army had grown to around 150,000 men as early as the end of 1970, mainly through voluntary enlistment as Lon Nol sought to capitalise on a wave of anti-Vietnamese sentiment. The US also implemented its programme of structured military aid and assistance in training, and flew in several thousand Khmer Serei and Khmer Kampuchea Krom militia, trained in South Vietnamese bases. The Joint Chiefs insisted on massive expansion of FANK to over 200,000 men, despite concerns at the severe negative effect this would have on Cambodia's economy, while the Military Equipment Delivery Team, led by General Theodore C. Mataxis, demanded the 'Americanisation' of the army's French-influenced internal structures, in spite of the chaos this caused in the supply chain.
Despite the US aid, FANK (commanded by General Sosthène Fernandez) was seriously handicapped by corruption, particularly by officers claiming salaries for non-existent troops, and military incompetence. Although one of the FANK commanders – the former rebel Prince Norodom Chantaraingsey, who was coaxed out of military retirement by Lon Nol to raise FANK's 13th Brigade – was to have considerable success in 'pacifying' the area around the strategic Highway 4 and the Kirirom Plateau, the majority of its generals had little military experience or ability. The large-scale FANK offensives against the Vietnamese, Operations Chenla I and II, ended in heavy defeat despite the conspicuous bravery of the individual Cambodian infantrymen.
As well as fighting the Cambodian Civil War against the pro-Sihanouk and communist insurgents and the North Vietnamese, the Khmer Republic faced considerable internal problems. Sihanouk's domination of political life during the 1950s and 60s meant that there were few confident or experienced Cambodian politicians. Almost from the start, the Republic was plagued by many of the same political divisions and infighting that had marked Sihanouk's regime; primary among these was a damaging power struggle between Lon Nol and Sirik Matak. Sirik Matak had been acting Prime Minister during the Republic's first year, when Lon Nol's health had been extremely poor, but had engendered considerable resentment due to his administrative style and royal connections; there was also growing frustration amongst young, urban Cambodians at the continued corruption and inefficiency of the regime.
On Lon Nol's return from hospital in Hawaii in April 1971, he instigated a cabinet crisis by resigning, providing a means to dissolve the government, with the probable encouragement of his brother Lon Non (a figure of considerable influence, especially with the military). After much political squabbling, a new cabinet was formed, though Sirik Matak continued as acting premier with the title of "Prime Minister-Delegate". On 16 October 1971, Lon Nol took action to strip the National Assembly of legislative power, and ordered it to write a new constitution, claiming that these actions were necessary to prevent anarchy; this provoked a protest by In Tam and 400 Buddhist monks.
1972: Removal of Sirik Matak
By March 1972, Lon Nol and his brother had managed to drive Sirik Matak from power. After Sirik Matak had sacked Keo An, a dissident academic, Lon Non organised a series of vocal student demonstrations against him calling for his removal. Sirik Matak resigned, and (ostensibly for his 'protection') was placed under effective house arrest. Lon Nol used the crisis to oust the Head of State, Cheng Heng, and took over the role himself, appointing the veteran anti-Sihanouk nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister. Thanh, leader of the Khmer Serei, had recruited FANK reinforcements amongst the Khmer Krom of southern Vietnam, and the loyalty he commanded amongst these comparatively elite, US-trained troops meant that his support for the Republic's fragile government remained essential.
Later that year, Lon Nol announced he would hold presidential elections, and was surprised when In Tam and Keo An – the latter a reputed Sihanoukist – not only announced that they would run, but then refused to withdraw. The elections, despite an inevitable victory for Lon Nol, revealed considerable dissatisfaction with the government even though they had been rigged in Lon Nol's favour: had they been fair, it is likely that In Tam would have won. The affair prompted In Tam to suggest that the Americans could now "stew in Lon Nol's juice".
The political situation continued to unravel throughout 1972: both opposition parties (In Tam's Democratic Party and Sirik Matak's Republican Party) refused to contest the elections to the National Assembly held in September, leading to a sweeping victory for Lon Non's Socio-Republican Party (Sangkum Sathéaranak Râth). There were a growing number of terrorist attacks in the capital, one of which was directed at Son Ngoc Thanh. Thanh – whose last political act was to ban Sirik Matak's newspaper – was then forced to resign, going back into South Vietnamese exile, and was replaced by the moderate leftist Hang Thun Hak.
While the Khmer Republic's government was being weakened by infighting, North Vietnamese forces – who had previously carried out much of the fighting against FANK, as in Operation Chenla I and II – gradually and deliberately scaled back their presence within Cambodian borders, leaving mainly logistical and support staff. Their place was taken by native Cambodian communist forces of the CPNLAF, which had been greatly increased when Sihanouk gave his support to the insurgency, rural Cambodians remaining overwhelmingly pro-Sihanouk.
1973: Ceasefire and the suspension of the National Assembly
The Paris Peace Accords of early 1973 seemed to offer a temporary respite from the civil war; Lon Nol declared a unilateral ceasefire, despite FANK's very weak position on the ground. There were in fact a few contacts between some of the more moderate elements of the Khmer Rouge communists – notably Hou Yuon – and the Republic. The North Vietnamese pressured the Cambodian communists to accept the terms of the peace accords; their interests lay more in keeping the war active at a low level (tying down South Vietnamese troops in the process) than in an outright victory for the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge leadership, however, remained intransigent.
The fighting resumed on the night of 7 February 1973, when communist forces attacked the FANK perimeter around the besieged city of Kompong Thom. By April, the Republic regime was in general disarray, with FANK troops refusing to fight and looting their own capital, and the CPNLAF advancing in many areas of the country. In response, the US finally threatened to cut off all aid unless Lon Nol acted to broaden the power base and support of the government – specifically, to reinstate the US ally Sirik Matak – and reduce the influence of his brother Lon Non.
Accordingly, on 24 April, Lon Nol announced that the National Assembly would be suspended, and that a Political Council formed of himself, Sirik Matak, Cheng Heng, and In Tam, would effectively rule by decree. The CPNLAF advance on Phnom Penh was eventually halted by American bombing, which caused horrific casualty levels amongst the communist troops. Some commentators state that the experience is likely to have contributed to the brutality shown by the Khmer Rouge cadres in later events.
1974: Fall of Oudong
By early 1974, the Political Council had been sidelined, and Lon Nol was once again ruling alone. The military situation, in the meantime, was deteriorating further. Communist forces came within shelling distance of Phnom Penh, and captured the former royal capital of Oudong in March: they 'evacuated' its population – shooting government officials and teachers – and destroyed or burnt much of the town. There was a brief improvement as the year progressed, however, as FANK retook Oudong, and was able to secure supply routes through Lake Tonle Sap.
End of the regime
Despite this, the Khmer Republic did not survive the 1975 dry season offensive. The communist forces had by this point surrounded the capital, whose population had been vastly increased by refugees from the fighting; Lon Nol, who was extremely superstitious, ordered that consecrated sand be spread around the city from helicopters to protect it. Though FANK was by this time fighting with extreme tenacity, and the Khmer Rouge soldiers were suffering from poor morale, malaria, and even higher rates of casualties than FANK, fresh supplies of arms and ammunition from China gave them the impetus to overrun the Republic's remaining outposts.
Proposed peace negotiations repeatedly stalled as Sihanouk refused to deal with Lon Nol directly, requesting his removal as a precondition. A plan proposed by Étienne Manac'h, the French Ambassador to China, in which Sihanouk would return to Cambodia as the head of a national unity government (leading to the likely immediate defection of a large proportion of the Khmer Rouge's peasant soldiers), failed to materialise.
On 1 April 1975, Lon Nol resigned and fled the country into exile: FANK almost immediately disintegrated. While Sirik Matak, Long Boret, Lon Non and several other politicians remained in the capital in an attempt to negotiate a ceasefire, the Khmer Rouge finally entered the city on 17 April. Within a few days they had executed many representatives of the old regime, and the Khmer Republic had effectively come to an end. During its brief existence it had received almost exactly one million dollars of US military and economic aid a day.
The final area held by the Republic in any form was the Preah Vihear Temple in the Dângrêk Mountains, which FANK forces still occupied in late April 1975. It was finally taken by the Khmer Rouge on 22 May that year.
See also
Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK)
Cambodian Civil War
Khmer Republic at the 1972 Summer Olympics
References
External links
National anthem of the Khmer Republic
Lon Nol- The Khmer Republic
République Khmère 1970-1975 (07/15)
République Khmère 1970-1975 (15/15)
Former countries in Cambodian history
Former polities of the Cold War
Former polities of the Indochina Wars
Former republics
1970s in Cambodia
Cambodian Civil War
Republicanism in Cambodia
States and territories established in 1970
States and territories disestablished in 1975
1970 establishments in Cambodia
1975 disestablishments in Cambodia
20th century in Cambodia
Former countries in Southeast Asia
Military dictatorships
Short-lived governments and regimes
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20India%20Company%20College
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East India Company College
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The East India Company College, or East India College, was an educational establishment situated at Hailey, Hertfordshire, nineteen miles north of London, founded in 1806 to train "writers" (administrators) for the Honourable East India Company (HEIC). It provided general and vocational education for young gentlemen of sixteen to eighteen years old, who were nominated by the Company's directors to writerships in its overseas civil service. The college's counterpart for the training of officers for the company's Presidency armies was Addiscombe Military Seminary, Surrey.
The HEIC was nationalised and the college closed in 1858, becoming a public school with continuing ties to the former college. The college buildings survive and are now occupied by the public school's successor, Haileybury and Imperial Service College, an independent school.
History
Charles Grant, Chairman of the British East India Company and a Member of Parliament (MP), was closely involved in the foundation of the college. It was first located in Hertford Castle but it was evident that a purpose-built seat of learning would be more suitable and in October 1805 the company purchased an estate just outside Hertford Heath for the sum of £5,930 for this objective. The foundation stone of the new buildings were laid on 12 May 1806. The buildings cost the East India Company £92,000 at the time of their erection to the designs of the architect William Wilkins (who later designed the National Gallery in London). The grounds were landscaped by Humphry Repton, his most notable work here being the terraced area to the front of Wilkins' main range and ponds to the west of this. Repton submitted his final account for work undertaken here just eight days before a carriage accident which left him crippled. The new buildings were occupied by students in 1809.
The East India Company had been incorporated in 1600 as a commercial entity. For two hundred years its administrators had been recruited, largely by patronage, to oversee commercial transactions in Asia. By 1800 they had become the de facto government for millions of people in those areas, but without much training for the role. The college was intended to address these shortcomings. In fifty years it trained over two thousand so-called "writers" to administer the Indian subcontinent.
The curriculum was wide, detailed, and targeted to the career responsibilities. It included political economy, history, mathematics, natural philosophy, classics, law and humanity and philology. Languages included Arabic, Urdu (Hindustani), Bengali, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu and Persian. Among the tutors were some of the finest minds of the day, many from Oxford and Cambridge, with lavish annual salaries as much as £500.
The college was customarily referred to as "Haileybury" in contemporary accounts, debates in the House of Lords and the House of Commons and by the administrators of the East India Company and the Colonial Civil Service. From 1839 the College had a journal known as the Haileybury Observer.
The East India Company itself was seen as too powerful. There was pressure for meritocracy to replace recruitment by patronage. Graduates of universities in Great Britain should have the chance to serve in India, without needing to pass through the college. In 1855, Parliament passed an act "to relieve the East India Company from the obligation to maintain the College at Haileybury". King's College, London, hosted the first open competitive examinations for appointment to the Indian Civil Service.
Closure and later use of buildings
In the aftermath of the Indian Mutiny of 1857, and in anticipation of the winding-up of the affairs of the East India Company itself, the college was closed in January 1858. This left the puzzle of what to do with the imposing buildings. For a brief period, they became a military depot for troops destined for India, and during this interregnum the college's Master, Henry Melvill, and Registrar, the Reverend James William Lucas Heaviside, continued to live in their residences on the site and oversaw the maintenance of the buildings. In 1861, the estate was sold at public auction, when it was bought by the British Land Company for £15,000.
A Hertford publisher, Stephen Austin, who had been the official printer to the East India Company’s College and had thus become one of the leading printers of books in various Oriental languages, led a campaign to ensure the buildings were returned to some sort of academic purpose, and in 1862 the site reopened as the public school Haileybury College. This was formally constituted by a royal charter dated 30 August 1864. During the Victorian era, the difference between the two periods of education on the site was referred to as "Old Haileybury" and "New Haileybury".
In its early years, the new Haileybury College retained close links to those involved in colonial administration, and in 1942 it merged with the struggling Imperial Service College to become Haileybury and Imperial Service College.
Administrators
Principals
The college had four principals:
1806–1815: Samuel Henley
1815–1837: Joseph Batten
1837–1843: Charles Webb Le Bas
1844–1858: Henry Melvill, afterwards Canon of St. Paul's
Deans
The position of dean was filled by one of the professors:
1813: William Dealtry, MA
1814–1838: Charles Webb Le Bas, MA
1838–1850: James Amiraux Jeremie (Professor of Classics)
1850–1857: W. E. Buckley
Registrars
The position of registrar was filled by one of the professors:
1813: William Dealtry
1814–1816: Bewick Bridge
1816–1830: Edward Lewton
1831–1834: Henry George Keene
1834–1837: James Michael
1838–1857: Fred Smith
Professors
Languages
Alexander Hamilton taught Sanskrit and Bengali (1806–18).
Charles Stewart taught Hindustani (Urdu) and Persian (1806–).
Graves Chamney Haughton (1817–27) FRS previously of Fort William College, Calcutta, taught Hindustani, Persian, Arabic, Bengali and Sanskrit.
Francis Johnson taught Sanskrit, Bengali and Telugu (1824–55).
Mirza Muhammed Ibrahim, a Persian, held a permanent appointment as a professor of Arabic and Persian (1826–44)
Monier Monier-Williams taught Sanskrit, Bengali and Telugu (1844–58).
Edward Backhouse Eastwick was Professor of Hindustani, Hindi and Marathi (1845–57).
Major J. W. J.Ouseley, Professor of Persian and Arabic (previously Professor of the Arabic and Persian Languages in the College of Fort-William, Calcutta) (1844–57)
Law
Edward Christian (1806–18)
James Mackintosh was Professor of Law and General Politics 1818–24.
William Empson, was Professor of Law (1824–52).
John Farley Leith QC (1872–80), later Member of Parliament for Aberdeen
Political Economy
Thomas Malthus taught from 1805–34.
Richard Jones was Professor of History and Political Economy (1834–55).
The Rt Hon Sir James Stephen also taught political economy (1855–57)
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy
William Dealtry was Professor of Mathematics 1806–13. He had been Second Wrangler in 1796.
Bewick Bridge (1767–1833) was Professor of Mathematics 1806–16.
Charles Webb Le Bas (1813–37)
Charles Babbage applied unsuccessfully for a job in 1816.
Henry Walter (1816–30)
William Sturgeon lectured on science in 1824.
Frederick Smith (1831–50) of Peterhouse, Cambridge
J. W. L. Heaviside (1838–57) previously of Trinity College, and then Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he graduated Second Wrangler and a Smith's Prize winner in 1830, and tutored until he moved to Haileybury.
Classical and General Literature
Edward Lewton (1806–30)
Joseph Hallett Batten (1806–15)
James Amiraux Jeremie (also Dean) (1830–50), elected in 1850 Regius Professor of Divinity at Cambridge.
W.E.Buckley (1850–57) previously tutor and fellow at Brasenose College, Oxford and Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford (1844–50), and a member and subsequently vice-president of the Roxburghe Club.
Other
Henry George Keene, who served at the Battle of Seringapatam with the first Lord Harris (his uncle), and whose American wife, though she came of a New England family, was related to Lord Cornwallis. His son became a Fellow of the University of Calcutta and a prolific writer.
Horace Hayman Wilson, Examiner in Sanskrit (1837–57)
Assistants in the Oriental Department included Maulavi Abdal Aly (1809–12), Maulavi Mirza Khedel (1809–19), The Revd. Robert Anderson (1820–25), and David Shea (1826–36). Moonshy Ghoolam Hyder and Thomas Medland taught oriental writing.
Notable alumni
Sir Edward Colebrooke, 4th Baronet
John Russell Colvin
Ashley Eden
Henry Bartle Frere
John Peter Grant
Sir John Lawrence
James Thomason
Charles Merivale
Monier Monier-Williams
John Muir (indologist)
Sir William Muir
Richard Paternoster
Charles Pelham Villiers
Sir Richard Temple, 1st Baronet
Charles Trevelyan
Charles John Wingfield
Allan Octavian Hume
References
Further reading
External links
Death record of Joseph Batten
Persian Professor in Britain: Mirza Muhammed Ibrahim at the East India Company's College, 1826–1844 by Michael H. Fisher
1806 establishments in England
Defunct schools in Hertfordshire
British East India Company
History of Hertfordshire
Properties of the East India Company
Educational institutions established in 1806
Educational institutions disestablished in 1858
1850s disestablishments in England
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Nicklaus
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Jack Nicklaus
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Jack William Nicklaus (born January 21, 1940), nicknamed The Golden Bear, is an American retired professional golfer and golf course designer. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest golfers of all time. He won 117 professional tournaments in his career. Over a quarter-century, he won a record 18 major championships, three more than second-placed Tiger Woods. Nicklaus focused on the major championships—the Masters Tournament, U.S. Open, Open Championship and PGA Championship—and played a selective schedule of regular PGA Tour events. He competed in 164 major tournaments, more than any other player, and finished with 73 PGA Tour victories, third behind Sam Snead (82) and Woods (82).
Nicklaus won the U.S. Amateur in 1959 and 1961 and finished second in the 1960 U.S. Open, two shots behind Arnold Palmer. Nicklaus turned professional at age 21 toward the end of 1961. He earned his first professional victory at the 1962 U.S. Open, defeating Palmer by three shots in a next-day 18-hole playoff and launching a rivalry between golf superstars. In 1966, Nicklaus became the first player to win the Masters Tournament two years running; he also won The Open Championship, becoming at age 26 the youngest player to win all four golf majors. He won another Open Championship in 1970.
Between 1971 and 1980, he won nine more major championships, overtook Bobby Jones's record of 13 majors, and became the first player to complete double and triple career grand slams. He won the 1986 Masters, his 18th and final major championship at age 46, the tournament's oldest winner. Nicklaus joined the Senior PGA Tour (now known as the PGA Tour Champions) when he became eligible in January 1990, and by April 1996 had won 10 tournaments, including eight major championships despite playing a very limited schedule. He continued to play at least some of the four regular Tour majors until 2005 when he made his final appearances at the Masters Tournament and The Open Championship.
Today, Nicklaus heads Nicklaus Design, one of the world's largest golf course design and construction companies. Nicklaus runs an event on the PGA Tour, the Memorial Tournament, named after the annual honoring it bestows to individuals associated with the game of golf.
Nicklaus's books vary from instructional to autobiographical, with his Golf My Way considered one of the best instructional golf books of all time; the video of the same name is the best-selling golf instructional to date.
Early life and amateur golf pursuits
Nicklaus was born on January 21, 1940, in Columbus, Ohio and grew up in the suburb of Upper Arlington. He is of German descent, the son of Helen (Schoener) and Charlie Nicklaus, a pharmacist who ran several businesses named Nicklaus Drug Store. Charlie was a skilled all-round athlete who had played football for the Ohio State Buckeyes and had gone on to play semi-professional football under an assumed name for the Portsmouth Spartans (who later became the NFL's Detroit Lions). Charlie had also been a scratch golfer and local tennis champion in his youth. Charlie Nicklaus died of pancreatic cancer at age fifty six.
Nicklaus attended Upper Arlington High School, whose nickname and mascot are coincidentally the Golden Bears. In Nicklaus's senior year, he was an honorable mention All-Ohio selection in basketball as a shooting guard, and he received some recruiting interest from college basketball programs, including Ohio State. During his youth, he also competed successfully in football, baseball, tennis, and track and field.
Nicklaus took up golf at the age of 10, scoring a 51 at Scioto Country Club for his first nine holes ever played. Charlie Nicklaus had joined Scioto that same year, returning to golf to help heal a volleyball injury. He was coached at Scioto by club pro Jack Grout, a Texas-developed contemporary of golf greats Byron Nelson and Ben Hogan; Grout had played quite successfully on the PGA Tour and would become Nicklaus's lifelong golf instructor. Nicklaus overcame a mild case of polio as a 13-year-old.
Nicklaus won the first of five straight Ohio State Junior titles at the age of 12. At 13, he broke 70 at Scioto Country Club for the first time, and became that year's youngest qualifier into the U.S. Junior Amateur, where he survived three match-play rounds. He had earned a handicap of +3 at age 13, the lowest in the Columbus area. Nicklaus won the Tri-State High School Championship (Ohio/Kentucky/Indiana) at the age of 14 with a round of 68, and also recorded his first hole-in-one in tournament play the same year. At 15, Nicklaus shot a 66 at Scioto Country Club, which was the amateur course record, and qualified for his first U.S. Amateur. He won the Ohio Open in 1956 at age 16, highlighted by a phenomenal third round of 64, competing against professionals. In all, Nicklaus won 27 events in the Ohio area from age 10 to age 17.
In 1957, Nicklaus won the International Jaycee Junior Golf Tournament, having lost the previous year in a playoff. Nicklaus also competed in his first of 44 consecutive U.S. Opens that year, but missed the cut. In 1958 at age 18, he competed in his first PGA Tour event, the Rubber City Open, at Akron, Ohio, tying for 12th place after being just one out of the lead at the 36-hole mark, and made the cut in the U.S. Open, tying for 41st place. Nicklaus also won two Trans-Mississippi Amateurs – in 1958 at Prairie Dunes Country Club and 1959 at Woodhill Country Club, with final match victories of 9 & 8 and 3 & 2, respectively. Also in 1959, Nicklaus won the North and South Amateur at Pinehurst, North Carolina and competed in three additional PGA Tour events, with his best finish being another 12th place showing at the Buick Open.
While attending Ohio State, he won the U.S. Amateur twice (1959, 1961), and an NCAA Championship (1961). In the 1959 U.S. Amateur, Nicklaus defeated two-time winner and defending champion Charles Coe 1-up in the final 36-hole match when he birdied the 18th hole. This was significant not only because of Coe's proven ability as a player, but also because Nicklaus became the then-youngest champion in the modern era, second only to Robert A. Gardner, who won in 1909. In 1961, Nicklaus became the first player to win the individual title at the NCAA Championship and the U.S. Amateur in the same year. He was followed by Phil Mickelson (1990), Tiger Woods (1996), Ryan Moore (2004), and Bryson DeChambeau (2015). Nicklaus also won the NCAA Big Ten Conference Championship that year with a 72-hole aggregate of 283, while earlier claiming the Western Amateur in New Orleans. In his second and last U.S. Amateur win in 1961, Nicklaus convincingly defeated Dudley Wysong 8 & 6 at Pebble Beach in the 36-hole championship match. For the week, Nicklaus was 20 strokes under par, including 34 birdies and two eagles.
At the 1960 U.S. Open, twenty-year-old Nicklaus shot a two-under-par 282, finishing in second place two strokes behind winner Arnold Palmer. This score remained the lowest ever by an amateur in the U.S. Open, until Viktor Hovland beat the record in 2019. Nicklaus played the final 36 holes with Ben Hogan, who later remarked that he had just played 36 holes with a kid who should have won by 10 shots. During the final 36 holes, Nicklaus was two-under-par; he had shot every round of the tournament at or below par and was the only entrant to do so. Nicklaus had led by two shots with six holes to play. In 1960, Nicklaus also tied for 13th in the Masters Tournament. He tied for fourth in the 1961 U.S. Open, three shots behind champion Gene Littler, having played the final 54 holes one under par. Each of these three major championship finishes designated Nicklaus as low amateur. However, Nicklaus's one-under-par 287 tied for seventh in the 1961 Masters Tournament, and was second that year only to Charles Coe's low amateur placing, when he tied for second with Arnold Palmer at seven-under-par 281, one shot behind champion Gary Player.
Nicklaus represented the United States against Great Britain and Ireland on winning Walker Cup teams in both 1959 and 1961, decisively winning both of his matches in each contest. On the 1959 trip to Britain, he also made his only attempt at the British Amateur, the world's oldest international amateur event, at Royal St George's Golf Club, losing 4 & 3 in the quarterfinal round to fellow-American, Bill Hyndman. He was also a member of the victorious 1960 U.S. Eisenhower Trophy team, winning the unofficial individual title by 13 shots over teammate Deane Beman with a four-round score of 269, a record which still stands; this score was 18 shots lower than Ben Hogan's earlier U.S. Open aggregate of 287 at the same site (which had, however, been scored under much tougher conditions). For three straight years (1959–1961), Nicklaus was named the world's top amateur golfer by Golf Digest magazine.
College studies and marriage
Nicklaus attended Ohio State from 1957 to 1961. He majored in pre-pharmacy and had good grades in his first three years; he intended to follow his father into pharmacy after graduation. As his amateur golf achievements mounted, Nicklaus changed his mind on his career path; he switched programs to study insurance. At that stage, he planned to remain an amateur golfer and earn his living by selling insurance. For a time, he worked in the insurance field while he also attended college. He married Barbara Bash (b. 1940), who was a nursing student at Ohio State, in July 1960, and their first of five children, Jack Jr., was born in September 1961. The following month, Nicklaus was intent on becoming the first amateur to win the Masters. In early November, he changed his mind and announced that he was turning professional in order to support his family. He wound up a few course hours short of graduating from college. In a goodwill gesture, Ohio State granted him an honorary doctorate in 1972.
PGA Tour career
Professional breakthrough: 1962–1963
Nicklaus officially turned professional in late 1961 and began his career on the PGA Tour the following year. He had previously debated the idea of remaining an amateur in order to further emulate his idol, Bobby Jones. However, Nicklaus realized that in order to be regarded as the best, he would have to compete in greater frequency against the best. Shortly after turning professional, Nicklaus's future agent, Mark McCormack, was interviewed by Melbourne Age writer Don Lawrence, who inquired about the American golf scene. When McCormack described Nicklaus, Lawrence referred to the "large, strong, and blond" player as "the Golden Bear", a nickname that would become synonymous with Nicklaus throughout his professional life. However, another possible origination of the name derives from the high school that Nicklaus attended in Upper Arlington, Ohio, which uses the mascot the Golden Bears for its sports teams. As mentioned above, Nicklaus played on several Golden Bears athletic teams, including captaining its 1956 state-champion golf squad, suggesting that McCormack may have adopted the name through Nicklaus's high school affiliation. Regardless, by 1963, the nickname had stuck.
Nicklaus won his first PGA tournament in his 17th start. He and Arnold Palmer were tied for the lead at 1962 U.S. Open at Oakmont after Rounds 3 and 4 were played on Saturday. Nicklaus won the Sunday 18-hole playoff and earned $17,500 ($15,000 plus the $2,500 playoff bonus)—far behind Gary Woodland's $2,250,000 check for the 2019 U.S. Open—for his efforts. The galleries were more vocal in their support for Palmer—who had grown up in nearby Latrobe—but Nicklaus won the playoff by three shots (71 to 74). In 90 holes, Nicklaus had only one three-putt green. The U.S. Open victory made Nicklaus the reigning U.S. Open and U.S. Amateur champion. This major championship win was also his first PGA Tour win. In addition, Nicklaus (22) was the youngest U.S. Open champion since Bobby Jones won at age 21 in 1923, and remained the youngest winner until Jordan Spieth won the 2015 U.S. Open at age 21. (John McDermott is still the youngest winner of the U.S. Open at age 19 in 1911). The U.S. Open win thrust Nicklaus into the national spotlight, and he was featured on the cover of Time magazine. This was also the beginning of the Nicklaus-Palmer rivalry, which attracted viewers to golf on television.
By the end of 1962, Nicklaus had won two more tournaments, which were back-to-back in the Seattle Open and Portland Open. In addition, he tied for third in his first appearance in the PGA Championship. Nicklaus completed the year with over $60,000 () in prize money, made 26 of 26 cuts with 16 top-10 finishes, placed third on the PGA Tour money list, and was named Rookie of the Year. He also won the inaugural staging of the World Series of Golf, a select-field event for the year's major champions, and collected another $50,000 () in unofficial money for that win.
In 1963, Nicklaus won two of the four majors—the Masters and the PGA Championship. These victories made him the then-youngest winner of the Masters and third-youngest winner of the PGA Championship, and each win came in just his second year as a professional. Along with three other wins including the Tournament of Champions, he placed second to Arnold Palmer on the PGA Tour money list with just over $100,000 (). He also teamed with Palmer to win the Canada Cup (now the World Cup of Golf) in France, representing the United States (this event was shortened to 63 holes due to heavy fog). Nicklaus also finished as low individual scorer for that event.
Business success
Nicklaus's meteoric rise to fame immediately after turning professional enabled opportunities for him to earn significant endorsement income. These business opportunities were facilitated by Mark McCormack, who also managed Palmer and Gary Player. Golf was growing rapidly in popularity and media coverage during the early 1960s, led by the performances of these three star players. This association was the start of the agency that became known as International Management Group, and IMG, after building a base in golf management, eventually expanded into other sports. The Palmer-Nicklaus-Player rivalry developed into the so-called "Big Three" of Golf. In the early 1960s, McCormack set up a series of televised golf matches around the world among the three stars, known as Big Three Golf. In the early 1970s, Nicklaus left IMG to set up his own management agency, Golden Bear Inc. Nicklaus also signed a contract with Eastern Airlines. He could be seen on TV saying, "If you play golf, Eastern is your airline."
Continued excellence: 1964–1967
Despite winning no majors in 1964 (he had three runner-up finishes), Nicklaus led the PGA Tour money list for the first time in his career by a slim margin of $81.13 over Palmer. At The Open Championship at St Andrews, Nicklaus set a new record for the lowest score in the final 36 holes with 66–68 in high winds (the first time in the championship's history that 70 had been broken in each of the last two rounds). This was not enough, however, to win the event; Nicklaus placed second to Tony Lema. Nicklaus also set a record for the lowest final-round score in the PGA Championship with a 64 (since broken by Brad Faxon in 1995 with a 63), but fell three shots short of champion Bobby Nichols and his record-setting score of 271. In 31 official worldwide events in 1964, Nicklaus achieved six victories, seven runners-up, placed in the top five 21 times, the top-10 21 times, and had only one missed cut. Nicklaus and Palmer also defended their team title at the World Cup in Hawaii, with Nicklaus again finishing as low individual scorer.
When Nicklaus won the Masters in 1965 and 1966, he became the tournament's first back-to-back winner and the youngest two-time and three-time winner. He broke Ben Hogan's 72-hole scoring record of 274 in 1953 when he compiled a new aggregate of 271 in the 1965 Masters. This record was tied by Raymond Floyd in 1976 and lasted until Tiger Woods shot 270 in 1997, which was a 72-hole record that was subsequently tied by Jordan Spieth in 2015. When Woods and Spieth shot 270, the scores were achieved with significantly improved golf equipment on essentially the same-length golf course over which Nicklaus and Floyd shot 271. During the 1965 tournament, Nicklaus hit 62 of 72 greens in regulation and had 123 putts, inclusive of just one three-putt green. This was good enough to win by nine shots over Arnold Palmer and Gary Player; this margin of victory was a tournament record that would last for 32 years until Woods won by 12 shots in 1997. The week's performance was highlighted by a third-round 64 that consisted of eight birdies and no bogeys. It was of this round that Nicklaus said, "I had never before and have never since played quite as fine a complete round of golf in a major championship as I did in the third round of the 1965 Masters." This round tied Lloyd Mangrum's record set at Augusta National in 1940 and remained in place until Nick Price shot 63 during the third round in 1986. It was at this time that Bobby Jones stated Nicklaus played a game with which he was unfamiliar; Jones called Nicklaus's result "the greatest performance in all of golfing history".
After Nicklaus's record performance at Augusta National in 1965, the course underwent some minor changes to make it tougher. These modifications and the difficult weather in the 1966 tournament did not deter Nicklaus. He successfully defended his title with an even-par aggregate of 288, 17 shots higher. He won in an 18-hole playoff over Gay Brewer (Brewer had three-putted the 18th green to force the playoff but he redeemed himself the following year by winning the tournament) and Tommy Jacobs by shooting a two-under-par 70. Nicklaus led the PGA Tour money list again in 1965 by a healthy margin over Tony Lema. Nicklaus and Lema formed the U.S. team for the World Cup, held in Madrid, Spain, but could not defend the title, as South Africa won. In all, Nicklaus competed in 28 official worldwide events in 1965, accumulating five victories, seven runners-up, 19 top-5 finishes, 23 top-10 finishes, and zero missed cuts.
In 1966, Nicklaus also won The Open Championship at Muirfield in Scotland under difficult weather conditions; he used his driver just 17 times because of very heavy rough. This was the only major he had failed to win up to that point. This win made him the youngest player, age 26 (his fifth year on Tour), and the only one after Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, and Gary Player (until Tiger Woods at age 24 in 2000, also during his fifth year on Tour) to win all four major championships, now known as the Career Grand Slam. Nicklaus eventually accomplished the double career grand slam in 1971 and the triple career grand slam in 1978, winning all four majors two and three times, respectively. Nicklaus was part of another title for the U.S. in the World Cup in Japan. Nicklaus concluded 1966 playing 22 official worldwide events, with four victories, four runners-up, 14 top-5 finishes, 16 top-10 finishes, and zero missed cuts.
In 1967, Nicklaus won the U.S. Open for a second time. The tournament was held at Baltusrol, and he broke Hogan's 72-hole record by one shot with a 275 when he birdied the par 5 18th hole. During the four rounds, Nicklaus hit 61 of 72 greens in regulation. Nicklaus finished this record win with a dramatic 238-yard 1-iron shot, uphill into a breeze and light rain, to the 72nd green (an approximate 260-yard equivalent) and holing out a birdie putt to close out a final nine of 30 and final round of 65 to shoot 275, four shots better than runner-up Arnold Palmer. Nicklaus and Palmer were the only two players to break par for the week. Sports Illustrated ran a cover photo of Nicklaus throwing his leg high in the air with the headline, "Nicklaus Breaks the Open Record". He also finished runner up in The Open Championship and third in the PGA Championship, one shot out of a playoff between Don January and Don Massengale. In 1967, Nicklaus led the PGA Tour money list for the third time. Later that year, Nicklaus and Palmer teamed up for a 13-shot wire-to-wire World Cup victory in Mexico City. Nicklaus competed in 24 official worldwide events in 1967, with five victories, four runners-up, 14 top-5 finishes, 16 top-10 finishes, and one missed cut. For most of his professional career, Nicklaus employed Angelo Argea as his caddie.
Career downturn (1968–1970)
After Nicklaus won the 1967 U.S. Open in record-breaking fashion, he did not win another major championship until the 1970 Open Championship at the Old Course at St Andrews. Moreover, his highest finish on the Tour money list for the years 1968–70 was second; his lowest was fourth, his worst ranking on the list since turning professional. However, his fourth-place ranking in 1970 would have been elevated to second if The Open Championship winnings were included during that period in the official PGA Tour money list, as they are today. Nicklaus finished runner-up in both the 1968 U.S. Open (to new rival Lee Trevino) and the 1968 Open Championship (to old rival Gary Player).
Nicklaus made his inaugural appearance in the 1969 Ryder Cup at age 29; eligibility rules at the time required a minimum five-year PGA Tour membership before points could be counted for team qualification; rules have been relaxed significantly since. In the 1969 Ryder Cup, the entire competition came down to the anchor singles match between Nicklaus and Tony Jacklin. At the par-5 17th hole with Nicklaus leading by the score of 1 up, Jacklin made a eagle putt to square the match. With the entire competition outcome riding on this match, Nicklaus made a five-foot par putt on the last hole before controversially conceding Jacklin's par putt, ensuring that this game, and the overall match, ended in a tie. Afterwards United States team Captain Sam Snead said "This is the greatest golf match you have ever seen in England."
During this period, Nicklaus's physical condition declined somewhat; he put on some excess weight, which affected his stamina. Following the Ryder Cup, he significantly improved his condition in the fall of 1969 by losing in one month, and his game started to return to top form. In February 1970, Nicklaus's father, Charlie Nicklaus, died of pancreatic cancer at age 56. Five months after this, Nicklaus won the 1970 Open Championship under difficult scoring conditions in Scotland where the wind howled up to 56 MPH, defeating fellow American Doug Sanders in an 18-hole playoff round in emotional fashion. On the 18th hole of the playoff, Nicklaus drove about 380 yards, through the par-4 green with a three-wood, and was forced to pitch back to the hole. His eagle pitch finished approximately eight feet short of the hole. Nicklaus threw his putter into the air after sinking the winning putt, as he was thrilled to have won the Open at the home of golf, St Andrews. He describes this period in his life:
I was playing good golf, but it really wasn't that big a deal to me one way or the other. And then my father died and I sort of realized that he had certainly lived his life through my golf game. I really hadn't probably given him the best of that. So I sort of got myself back to work. So '70 was an emotional one for me from that standpoint. ... It was a big boost.
Nicklaus also went on to capture the Piccadilly World Match Play Championship in 1970 with a 2 & 1 win over Lee Trevino in the championship match. In all for the year, Nicklaus competed in 23 official worldwide events, won four, placed in the top-5 10 times, and the top-10 in 14.
Although Nicklaus's performance had declined somewhat during this period, he was still ranked as the #1 player in the world, for 10 straight years, beginning in 1968, on the McCormack's World Golf Rankings, which were introduced that year by sports agent Mark McCormack. These rankings, the first attempt to take into account results from professional tours around the world, were not official during that era, but they eventually evolved into the current Official World Golf Ranking, starting in 1986.
Resurgence (1971–1977)
With his win in the 1971 PGA Championship, Nicklaus became the first golfer to win all four majors twice. In this championship, Nicklaus was the only player to break 70 consecutively in the first two rounds under windy conditions; he finished at seven-under-par 281. Nicklaus finished second twice and fifth in the remaining three major championships for the year. While he finished tied for second in the Masters with Johnny Miller, Nicklaus made a big enough impression on a young Nick Faldo (watching on TV in England) in order for Faldo to take up the game seriously.
By the end of 1971, Nicklaus had won four additional PGA tournaments including the Tournament of Champions by eight shots and the National Team Championship with Arnold Palmer by six shots. With $244,490 in official PGA Tour earnings, Nicklaus established a new single-season money record during the year. Nicklaus also claimed his third World Cup individual title in 1971, with help from a 63 in the third round. He also won the team competition with partner Lee Trevino by 12 shots. The year 1971 brought Nicklaus a victory in the Australian Dunlop International as well, punctuated by a course record 62 (his career-low score in competition; one of three) in the second round. For the record, Nicklaus played in 23 official worldwide events in 1971, won eight, had 17 top-5 finishes, 20 top-10 finishes, and compiled a 5–1–0 record in that year's Ryder Cup competition.
Nicklaus won the first two major championships of 1972 by three shots each in wire-to-wire fashion. He won the Masters and the U.S. Open, creating talk of a calendar-year Grand Slam. Nicklaus opened with a four-under-par 68 at Augusta National and never looked back. He was the only player under par for the week as he and the field battled difficult scoring conditions. In the U.S. Open at Pebble Beach again under severe scoring conditions, Nicklaus struck a one-iron on the 218-yard par-three 17th hole during the final round into a stiff, gusty ocean breeze that hit the flagstick and ended up three inches from the cup. The U.S. Open was Nicklaus's 13th career major and tied him with Bobby Jones for career majors (although a different group of tournaments had been considered majors in Jones's time). This victory was also Nicklaus's 11th professional major, tying him with Walter Hagen, and made him the first player to win the U.S. Amateur and U.S. Open championships on the same golf course.
During the 1972 PGA Tour season, Nicklaus won seven tournaments and was runner-up in three events. However, Nicklaus did not win the Grand Slam that year, as Lee Trevino repeated as the Open Championship winner (Nicklaus finished second, one shot behind), and Gary Player prevailed in the PGA Championship. Nicklaus closed out this remarkable year with a second of three consecutive Walt Disney World Golf Classic victories by shooting a 21-under-par 267 to win by nine shots. He concluded 1972 by competing in 20 official worldwide events winning seven, placing second in four, and compiling 15 top-10 finishes.
Bobby Jones's record of majors was soon broken when Nicklaus won the PGA Championship in August 1973 by four shots over Bruce Crampton for his 12th professional major (surpassing Hagen's mark of 11) and 14th overall when using the old-style configuration of Jones's day. In that year he won another six tournaments. When he won the 1973 Ohio King's Island Open, he became the first PGA Tour player to win a Tour event on a course that he designed himself. The PGA Player of the Year was awarded to Nicklaus for the third time, and the second year in a row. Nicklaus was also the first player to win over $300,000.00 in official money for a single season in 1972 at $320,542; he eclipsed that threshold again the following year with $308,362. The former total was $106,137 more than runner-up Lee Trevino. The latter total for the year 1973 catapulted Nicklaus over the $2 million career PGA Tour earnings mark, making him the first player to reach that milestone. Nicklaus teamed with Johnny Miller for another team title in the World Cup of Golf, held in Spain. For the year, Nicklaus competed in 20 official worldwide events and claimed seven victories, 14 top-five finishes, 17 top-10s, and compiled a 4–1–1 record in that year's Ryder Cup competition.
Nicklaus's failure to win a major in 1974 was somewhat offset when he won the inaugural Tournament Players Championship and was named one of the 13 original inductees into the World Golf Hall of Fame. Nicklaus said this honor was a "nice memento" after a "disappointing season". Although he had no major championship victories in 1974, Nicklaus still achieved four top-10 finishes in the four events, three of which were in the top four, and placed second on the official money list behind Johnny Miller. While less than a stellar year, Nicklaus was able to claim two victories and 13 top-10 finishes in 20 official worldwide events.
Nicklaus started off well in 1975: he won the Doral-Eastern Open, the Sea Pines Heritage Classic, and the Masters in consecutive starts. His Masters win was his fifth, a record he was to break eleven years later. In this tournament, Nicklaus's birdie putt on the 16th hole of the final round was a key in his victory over Tom Weiskopf and Johnny Miller in a riveting final-round battle. He also won the PGA Championship in August at Firestone Country Club by two shots over Bruce Crampton for his fourth win. Having won the Masters and PGA Championship, Nicklaus missed a playoff for the U.S. Open by two shots and a playoff for Open Championship by one shot. His performance in 1975 resulted in his being named PGA Player of the Year for the fourth time, tying Ben Hogan, and he was also named ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year. Nicklaus also captured his fourth Australian Open during the year. The year 1975 yielded Nicklaus six wins, 12 top-5 finishes, and 16 top-10 finishes in 18 official worldwide events.
Nicklaus placed first on the PGA Tour money list again in 1976, despite competing in only 16 events, winning just two (Tournament Players Championship and World Series of Golf) – neither of them majors – and playing what he called "hang-back-and-hope golf". The 1976 Tournament Players Championship saw Nicklaus set a championship record of 19-under-par 269 for his second win in this event which remained in place until Greg Norman's 24-under-par 264 assault in 1994. He also won the PGA Player of the Year award for a record fifth time. Between 1972 and 1976 the only time he failed to win this award was 1974. The year 1976 also concluded an official streak of 105 consecutive cuts made on the PGA Tour (ending at the World Open), which began for Nicklaus in 1970. At the time this streak was second only to Byron Nelson's record of 113.
The following year, 1977, was also majorless for Nicklaus, but he did achieve four top-10 finishes in the four events inclusive of two second and one third-place finish – this being one shot out of the PGA Championship playoff between Lanny Wadkins and Gene Littler. Despite a brilliant final round 66 at the Masters, he finished second by two shots to Tom Watson. But his subsequent second-place finish behind Watson at the Open Championship at Turnberry created headlines around the world. In a one-on-one battle dubbed the "Duel in the Sun", Nicklaus shot 65–66 in the final two rounds, only to be beaten by Watson, who scored 65-65. This event marked the first time 270 was broken in a major championship, and the third-place finisher Hubert Green scored 279. Nicklaus would later say:
There are those in golf who would argue into next month that the final two rounds of the 1977 British Open were the greatest head-to-head golf match ever played. Not having been around for the first five hundred or so years of the game, I'm not qualified to speak on such matters. What's for sure, however, is that it was the most thrilling one-on-one battle of my career.
In 1977, Nicklaus won his 63rd tour event, passing Ben Hogan to take second place on the career wins list, behind only Sam Snead (subsequently Hogan's official career PGA Tour victory total was put at 64, including his 1953 Open Championship which was retroactively deemed an official PGA Tour event). He also became the first player to amass over $3 million in official PGA Tour earnings. The year also saw Nicklaus win for the first time his own Memorial Tournament, where he described the victory as the most emotional moment of his entire career, and nearly decided to retire from competitive golf.
Proposes Ryder Cup modifications
During the 1977 Ryder Cup at Royal Lytham & St Annes, Nicklaus approached the PGA of Great Britain about the urgency to improve the competitive level of the contest. The issue had been discussed earlier the same day by both past PGA of America President Henry Poe and British PGA President Lord Derby. Nicklaus pitched his ideas, adding: "It is vital to widen the selection procedures if the Ryder Cup is to continue to enjoy its past prestige." The changes in team selection procedure were approved by descendants of the Samuel Ryder family, along with The PGA of America. The major change was expanding selection procedures to include players from the European Tournament Players' Division, and "that European Members be entitled to play on the team". This meant that professional players on the European Tournament Players' Division, the forerunner to the European Tour we have today, from continental Europe would be eligible to play in the Ryder Cup.
Achieves triple career grand slam (1978)
When Nicklaus won the 1978 Open Championship at St. Andrews, he became the only player to win each major championship three times. This record was tied by Tiger Woods when he won the 2008 U.S. Open. Nicklaus and Woods are the only two players to win three "Career Grand Slams". Nicklaus considered his performance in the 1978 Open as the finest four days of tee-to-green golf he had ever produced, and was most proud that the win came at St. Andrews, his favorite place to play golf. The victory was also his most emotional to date.
Nicklaus won three other tournaments on the PGA Tour in 1978. One of those wins came in the Jackie Gleason-Inverrary Classic, where he played the final 36 holes 13 under par and scored five consecutive birdies over the closing holes in the final round. He also won his third Tournament Players Championship in difficult weather conditions; he had won three of the first five stagings of that tournament, and he remains the championship's only three-time winner. He was named Sportsman of the Year by Sports Illustrated. The year 1978 also marked Nicklaus's sixth and final Australian Open victory.
Short slump and revamping
In 1979, Nicklaus suffered a lapse of form and did not win a tournament. This was the first year in his professional career in which he failed to win a PGA Tour event. He had only one runner-up finish, plus a tied-for-second with Ben Crenshaw behind 22-year-old Seve Ballesteros at The Open Championship. He would not win another tournament until June 1980. Previously, Nicklaus won at least one PGA Tour tournament per year (a record he shares with Arnold Palmer), and a minimum of two tournaments per year for 17 consecutive years, and this is another PGA Tour record.
During the offseason, Nicklaus addressed two problems that had hurt his performance. His lifelong teacher Jack Grout noticed that he had become much too upright with his full swing, which caused a steep, oblique approach into the ball, compared with a more direct hit; this was corrected by slightly flattening his backswing. Then Nicklaus's short game, never a career strength, was further developed with the help of Phil Rodgers, a friend for more than 20 years, and earlier PGA Tour rival, who had become a fine coach. Rodgers lived for a time at the Nicklaus home while this work was going on.
Wins fourth U.S. Open, fifth PGA Championship (1980)
In 1980, Nicklaus recorded only four top-10 finishes in 14 events, but two of these were record-setting victories in majors (the U.S. Open and the PGA Championship); the other two were a tie for fourth in The Open Championship and a runner-up finish in the Doral-Eastern Open to Raymond Floyd via his chip-in birdie on the second hole of a sudden-death playoff.
Nicklaus set a new scoring record for the 1980 U.S. Open with an aggregate of 272, eclipsing his earlier record of 275 from 1967 over the same golf course. That record, while since having been tied by three other players, stood until Rory McIlroy's 268 in winning the 2011 U.S. Open. This was Nicklaus's second major win at Baltusrol Golf Club. Nicklaus opened with a record-tying 63 in round one and fought off his playing partner of all four rounds, 1978 Colgate World Match Play Championship winner, Isao Aoki. Entering the final round, Aoki had caught Nicklaus after three consecutive rounds of 68, but over the course of the last day, Nicklaus pulled away by two shots. Each player birdied the final two holes for a dramatic finish. Aoki's aggregate of 274 was the lowest score for a U.S. Open runner-up. Nicklaus's win was his fourth and final victory in the championship, tying him with Willie Anderson, Bobby Jones, and Ben Hogan. Nicklaus referred to this win as "by far the most emotional and warmest reaction to any of my wins in my own country".
In the 1980 PGA Championship, Nicklaus set another record when he won the tournament by seven shots over Andy Bean at the Oak Hill Country Club; the win was largely due to exceptional putting. Nicklaus shot an even-par 70 in the first round. This was followed by three successive rounds in the 60s over the difficult course, and he was the only player to break par for 72 holes. For the week, the field averaged 74.60 strokes while Nicklaus averaged 68.50. This was Nicklaus's fifth and final victory in the PGA Championship, which elevated him to record-holder for the most wins in the stroke-play era, and which tied him with Walter Hagen for the most wins overall, since Hagen's victories were all during the match-play era. Nicklaus's seven-shot winning margin remained the largest for the stroke-play version of the championship until Rory McIlroy's 2012 victory. This victory also made Nicklaus the only player since Gene Sarazen in 1922 and Ben Hogan in 1948 to win the U.S. Open and PGA Championship the same year (subsequently equaled by Tiger Woods in 2000 and Brooks Koepka in 2018).
1981–1985
Between 1981 and 1985, Nicklaus accumulated seven more top-10 placements in major championships, including three runner-up performances. He won only twice on the PGA Tour during this period, the Colonial National Invitation in 1982 and his own Memorial Tournament in 1984 for the second time, defeating Andy Bean in a sudden-death playoff to become the tournament's first two-time champion.
In 1983, Nicklaus closed out the PGA Championship and World Series of Golf with brilliant final rounds in the mid-60s, and passed many players to move into contention, but finished runner-up in each to Player of the Year Hal Sutton and Nick Price, respectively, who dominated the tournaments from start to finish. Despite not winning a PGA Tour event in 1983, Nicklaus finished 10th on the PGA Tour money list, and passed a significant milestone by becoming the first player to eclipse the $4 million level in career earnings.
In 1985, Nicklaus finished second to Curtis Strange in the Canadian Open, which marked his seventh and final second-place finish in that tournament; this is a record for that event. These seven runner-up finishes came over the course of 21 events—or one second-place finish for every three tournaments played—and does not include a third-place finish in 1983, one shot out of the playoff between John Cook and Johnny Miller.
During the five-year period between 1981 and 1985, the Ryder Cup matches provided Nicklaus with two bright spots. He completed his competition as a player in style by contributing a perfect 4–0–0 record (inclusive of a 5 & 3 anchor singles match win over Eamonn Darcy) in 1981, and captained the United States team in 1983 to a one-point win over Europe.
Wins sixth Masters at age 46 (1986)
In 1986, Nicklaus capped his victories in major championships by winning his sixth Masters title under challenging circumstances; he posted a six-under-par 30 on the back nine for a final round of seven-under-par 65. At the 17th hole, Nicklaus hit his second shot to within and rolled it in for birdie; he raised his putter in celebration and completed an eagle-birdie-birdie run. Nicklaus made a solid par-4 at the 72nd hole, and waited for the succeeding players, several of whom (Tom Kite, Greg Norman) were still in contention, to fall short. Nicklaus played the final ten holes seven under par, with six birdies and an eagle. At age 46, Nicklaus became the oldest Masters winner in history, a record that still stands. On the feat, sports columnist Thomas Boswell remarked,
Some things cannot possibly happen, because they are both too improbable and too perfect. The U.S. hockey team cannot beat the Russians in the 1980 Olympics. Jack Nicklaus cannot shoot 65 to win The Masters at age 46. Nothing else comes immediately to mind.
This victory was his 18th and final major title.
This victory was to be his last in his long career on the PGA Tour, and was described at the time by noted golf historian and writer Herbert Warren Wind as "nothing less than the most important accomplishment in golf since Bobby Jones's Grand Slam in 1930".
Author Ken Bowden wrote after the win:
There have been prettier swingers of the club than Jack Nicklaus. There may have been better ball-strikers than Jack Nicklaus. There have definitely been better short-game exponents than Jack Nicklaus. Other golfers have putted as well as Jack Nicklaus. There may have been golfers as dedicated and fiercely competitive as Jack Nicklaus. But no individual has been able to develop, combine and sustain all of the complex physical skills and the immense mental and emotional resources the game demands at its highest level as well as Jack Nicklaus has for as long as he has.
At the 1998 Masters, Nicklaus was 58 when he tied for sixth place despite being hampered by an ever-increasing painful left hip. Nicklaus's five-under-par 283 is the lowest 72-hole score in the Masters by a player older than fifty.
During the course of a 25-year span (1962–1986), Nicklaus won 18 major championships and finished second 18 times (excluding the second-place finish at the 1960 U.S. Open as an amateur). He also placed third nine times and fourth seven times in this span and was one stroke out of a playoff on five of those occasions (1963 Open Championship, 1967 PGA Championship, 1975 Open Championship, 1977 PGA Championship, and 1979 Masters Tournament). His total span of 73 top-10 finishes over 39 years (1960–1998) is a record in total number as well as longevity among the four major championships and encompassed his tenure from an amateur through the majority of his Champions Tour career.
Senior golf career
Nicklaus became eligible to join the Senior PGA Tour, now known as PGA Tour Champions, when he turned 50 in January 1990, at which point he declared, "I'm never satisfied. Trouble is, I want to play like me—and I can't play like me anymore." He then quickly won in his first start on the Tour, The Tradition, also a Senior Tour major championship. Nicklaus would go on to win another three Traditions—the final two in succession—while the most anyone else has won is two.
Later in the year, Nicklaus won the Senior Players Championship by six shots over Lee Trevino for his second win of the year, and also his second major of the year by shooting a record 27-under-par 261. The next year, in 1991, Nicklaus won three of the five events he started in, those being the U.S. Senior Open at Oakland Hills by firing a 65 in a playoff against Chi-Chi Rodríguez and his fine round of 69, the PGA Seniors Championship and The Tradition for the second year straight. These, again, were all majors on the senior circuit.
Nicklaus has won all the senior majors with the exception of the Senior Open Championship (also known as the Senior British Open). However, he never played in that event until after he turned 60, and it was only elevated to a major in 2003. After a winless year in 1992, Nicklaus came back to win the U.S. Senior Open for the second time in 1993 by one shot over Tom Weiskopf. Also in that year he teamed up with Chi-Chi Rodríguez and Raymond Floyd to win the Wendy's 3-Tour Challenge for the Senior PGA Tour team.
In 1994, Nicklaus won the Senior PGA Tour's version of the Mercedes Championship for his only win of the year. The Tradition was his again in 1995, in a year where he made the top 10 in all of the seven tournaments he entered in. His 100th career win came the next year, when he won the Tradition for the fourth time, and second time in succession. He made a double eagle in the final round. Nicklaus closed the final 36 holes with back-to-back seven-under-par rounds of 65 to shoot a 16-under-par 272 and win by three shots over Hale Irwin. This was to be his last win on the Senior PGA Tour, and the last official win of his career.
Close of playing career
In 2000, Nicklaus played in his 44th and final U.S. Open. He shot 73-82 and missed the cut at Pebble Beach Golf Links. This was the same tournament where Tiger Woods won his first Open when he outclassed the nearest competitors by a 15-shot margin. During the tournament, after defending champion Payne Stewart had died in an airplane crash the previous October, Nicklaus was given Stewart's place in the traditional opening pairings alongside the Open Championship winner (Paul Lawrie) and the U.S. Amateur winner (David Gossett), and Nicklaus asked for a moment of silence in Stewart's honor before his opening tee shot.
Later in the year, he was paired with Woods and Vijay Singh in his final PGA Championship, where he missed the cut by one shot only a few days after the death of his 91-year-old mother. In both tournaments, Nicklaus provided last-minute heroics by reaching the par-5 18th in two shots in the U.S. Open and nearly holing his wedge shot for eagle at the par-5 18th in the PGA Championship.
Nicklaus played without much preparation in the 2005 Masters, which was a month after the drowning death of his 17-month-old grandson Jake (child of his son Steve) on March 1, 2005. In a written statement, Nicklaus said that it was impossible to put into words the devastation of his family. Nicklaus later spoke emotionally about the tragedy. He said: "It's been an overwhelmingly difficult and trying time for my entire family. The loss of our precious 17-month-old grandson Jake was devastating." Nicklaus and his son Steve played golf as therapy for their grief following Jake's death. After days of playing, Steve suggested his father return to The Masters. He made that his last appearance in the tournament.
Later in 2005, Nicklaus finished his professional career at The Open Championship played at St Andrews on July 15. On St Andrews, Nicklaus stated:
I'm very sentimental and the place gets to me every time I go there. In May I walked around and welled up with hardly anyone watching me. St Andrews was always where I wanted to finish my major career.
Nicklaus turned 65 in January that year, which was the last year he could enter The Open Championship as an exempt player. He played with Luke Donald and Tom Watson in his final round. After hitting his tee shot off the 18th tee in the second round, Nicklaus received a ten-minute standing ovation from the crowd. On the eighteenth fairway, he gave his final farewell to professional golf while standing on the iconic Swilcan Bridge. Soon afterwards, Nicklaus ended his career with a birdie, holing a 15-foot birdie putt on the 18th green. Nicklaus missed the 36-hole cut with a score of +3 (147).
The last competitive tournament in which Nicklaus played in the United States was the Champions Tour's Bayer Advantage Classic in Overland Park, Kansas, on June 13, 2005.
On April 8, 2015, Nicklaus hit his first-ever hole-in-one at the Augusta National Golf Club at the age of 75 when participating in the Masters' Par 3 Contest, albeit on the Par 3 Course, while playing with Gary Player and Ben Crenshaw. He hit 20 holes-in-one in professional tournament play at other venues over his career.
Off-the-course activities
Golf course design
Nicklaus devotes much of his time to golf course design and operates one of the largest golf design practices in the world. In the mid-1960s, Pete Dye initially requested Nicklaus's opinion in the architecture process of The Golf Club in suburban Columbus, Ohio, and the input increased from that point forward. Nicklaus considered golf course design another facet of the game that kept him involved and offered a challenge. His first design, Harbour Town Golf Links, co-credited with Dye, was opened for play in 1969. The nine-hole, par-3 golf course of Cheeca Resort & Spa was also designed by Nicklaus in the 1960s. A subsequent early, yet more prominent design was Muirfield Village Golf Club in Dublin, OH which opened in 1974 and has hosted the Memorial Tournament since its inception in 1976. This course has also hosted the 1987 Ryder Cup, the 1998 Solheim Cup matches and the 2013 President's Cup. For the first few years, all of his projects were co-designs with either Pete Dye or Desmond Muirhead, who were two of the leading golf course architects of that era.
His first solo design, Glen Abbey Golf Course in Oakville, Ontario, opened for play in 1976. This course served as the host site for the Canadian Open for many years, the first being in 1977. The oldest golf club in the U.S, Saint Andrew's Golf Club in New York, was redesigned by Nicklaus in 1983. In 2000, the King & Bear opened in St. Augustine, Florida, as a joint collaboration between Nicklaus and Arnold Palmer. In 2006, the Concession Golf Club opened in Sarasota, Florida, as a joint collaboration between him and Tony Jacklin, to commemorate their historic Ryder Cup singles match in 1969.
Nicklaus is in partnership with his four sons and his son-in-law through their company, Nicklaus Design. The company had 299 courses open for play at the end of 2005, which was nearly 1% of all the courses in the world (In 2005 Golf Digest calculated that there were nearly 32,000 golf courses in the world, approximately half of them in the United States.). While the majority of Nicklaus-designed courses are located in the United States, the company has designed golf courses in Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Europe, and Mexico. For 2009, Nicklaus Design had 12 courses in Golf Digests "75 Best Golf Resorts in North America". Past and present Senior Design Associates with Nicklaus Design include Chris Cochran, Chet Williams and Dave Heatwole.
Writings and media
Nicklaus has written several golf instructional books, an autobiography (My Story), a book on his golf course design methods and philosophy, and has produced several golf videos. The writer Ken Bowden often assisted him with this work. His book Golf My Way is one of the all-time classics of golf instruction, and has been reissued several times since the initial printing in 1974. Nicklaus has also written golf instructional columns for Golf Magazine and for Golf Digest magazine, with which he is currently associated. He also appeared as a television analyst and commentator with ABC Sports on golf broadcasts. Several of the books have been reissued, sometimes under different titles, and My Story as a special high-quality limited edition for the 2000 Memorial Tournament.
Golf computer games
Between 1988 and 1998, Nicklaus also gave his name to promote the successful Jack Nicklaus computer game series published by Accolade. Several of the golf courses he designed were incorporated into the series' various incarnations. In addition, Jack Nicklaus 6: Golden Bear Challenge by Activision was published in 1999.
Other interests
Nicklaus continues to manage the Memorial Tournament, which he founded in his home state of Ohio. The event is played at Muirfield Village, a course that he co-designed with Desmond Muirhead and opened in 1974. The course was officially dedicated on Memorial Day, May 27, 1974, with an exhibition match between Nicklaus and Tom Weiskopf. Nicklaus scored a six-under-par 66, which stood as the course record until 1979. The forerunner to this tournament, the Columbus Pro-Am was held on the course where he first learned to play the game of golf, Scioto Country Club, from 1966 through 1975, then the inaugural Memorial Tournament was held at Muirfield Village in 1976. The tournament has become one of the more prestigious events on the PGA Tour.
Each year, the tournament selects one or more individuals as honorees who have made a significant impact on the game. The inaugural tournament in 1976 paid tribute to the late Bobby Jones, while the 25th edition in 2000 honored Nicklaus. The honoree is selected by the Captain's Club, a group that acts independently of the tournament organization but also advises on player invitations and the general conduct of the event. Members of the Captain's Club have included Peter Alliss, Peggy Kirk Bell, Sean Connery, Arnold Palmer, and Gary Player among others.
The Memorial Tournament continues the PGA Tour's philanthropic focus through its relationships with Central Ohio charities. The most significant of which is its relationship with Nationwide Children's Hospital since 1976. The Memorial Tournament has raised more than $5.7 million to support the programs and services at Nationwide Children's Hospital in those 30-plus years. In 2005 the Memorial made a pledge that will elevate its level of giving to more than $11 million in the coming years.
Nicklaus and his wife Barbara serve as honorary chairman and active chairwoman of the Nicklaus Children's Health Care Foundation in North Palm Beach, Florida. The foundation provides valuable programs and services free of charge to more than 4,000 hospitalized children and their families through Child Life programs, the Pediatric Oncology Support Team, and the Safe Kids program. The Nicklauses established "The Jake", a pro-am golf tournament played annually at The Bear's Club in Jupiter, Florida in honor of their 17-month-old grandson who drowned in a hot tub in 2005. It has become the foundation's chief fundraiser. Players such as Robert Allenby, Raymond Floyd, Tom Watson, Ian Baker-Finch, Ernie Els, Jay Haas, Johnny Miller and Gary Player have participated.
Nicklaus and retired General John Shalikashvili, who served as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1993 to 1997, are serving as honorary chairs for the American Lake Veterans Golf Course capital campaign in Tacoma, Washington. The $4.5 million campaign in 2009 was established to complete the nation's only golf course designed for the rehabilitation of wounded and disabled veterans. The existing nine-hole course is operated, maintained, and managed by 160 volunteers. Funds are needed to add nine new holes and other improvements. A two-day event was held at Bighorn Golf Club at Palm Desert, California featuring Nicklaus, who is donating his design services for the "Nicklaus Nine". In announcing his donation of services, Nicklaus said, "I was moved to see the amazing efforts at American Lake Veterans Golf Course where our wounded warriors learn to play golf with the help of an incredible army of volunteers." Monies raised during the campaign will be used to construct the new holes, complete the construction of the Rehabilitation and Learning Center, make improvements to the original holes to enhance accessibility, upgrade the maintenance facilities and restrooms, and help underwrite operational costs.
Nicklaus owns Nicklaus Golf Equipment, which he founded in 1992. Nicklaus Golf Equipment manufactures equipment in three brands: Golden Bear, Jack Nicklaus Signature, and Nicklaus Premium. These brands are designed to target golfers at different stages of golfing ability.
He is known for giving advice to younger golfers. One notable example came in 1984, when a teenage Canadian golfer who had previously met Nicklaus at an exhibition wrote him for career advice. The young golfer was right-handed but played left-handed; although he was showing considerable promise as a left-hander, he had been told that he might be an even better player if he switched to right-handed play. He wrote to Nicklaus asking for advice; Nicklaus replied advising him not to change if he was comfortable playing left-handed. The young Canadian, Mike Weir, decided to stay with left-handed play, and eventually became a Masters champion. He still keeps Nicklaus's letter framed in his home.
Nicklaus lends his name and likeness to a line of flavored lemonades from Arizona Beverage Company, the same company that sells the Arnold Palmer line of lemonade/iced tea blends.
In 2010, Nicklaus partnered with Terlato Wines to produce a collection of three Napa Valley wines: Jack Nicklaus Private Reserve (a red blend), Cabernet Sauvignon and Private Reserve White (a white blend). In 2012, Golden Bear Reserve, a Bordeaux-style red blend, was released to mark the 50th anniversary of Jack Nicklaus's first major championship victory, the 1962 U.S. Open.
Playing style
During his prime, Nicklaus was consistently among the longest and straightest hitters on the PGA Tour. In 1963, he won the long-drive contest at the PGA Championship with a belt of 341 yards, 17 inches (312 meters), a record that lasted more than 20 years. He preferred the fade (left-to-right shape) for his ball flight, since this allowed the ball to stop quickly on hard and fast greens. His fades could reach long par fours and par fives in two shots. Nicklaus considers his longest drive in competition to be during the final round of the 1964 Masters on the 15th hole, where he had less than 160 yards left to the 500-yard par five. He hit an eight-iron slightly over the green for his second shot.
Nicklaus debuted as a young pro who hit the ball very high. Later, he could also hit lower-trajectory shots as needed. He also developed a right-to-left controlled draw.
In 1968, IBM kept PGA Tour statistics. Nicklaus led two categories for the season: he had an average driving distance of 275 yards, and hit 75 percent of greens in regulation; both marks were significantly ahead of his rivals.
Even though official PGA Tour statistics were not kept until 1980, Nicklaus was consistently the leader in greens hit in regulation through that year, displaying great command of the long and middle irons. Indeed, Nicklaus remained in the top six of this category through 1985 – far past his best playing years. Nicklaus also finished 10th in driving distance and 13th in driving accuracy in 1980 at age 40, which equated to a "Total Driving" composite of 23 – a statistical level not attained since, by a comfortable margin. Nicklaus led this category through 1982. One key to Nicklaus's ball-striking ability and overall power was his exceptional swing tempo. Of this Tom Watson referred to it as Nicklaus's greatest strength in its ability to remain smooth. This proved an asset, especially under pressure, which allowed him to obtain great distance control with his irons.
Nicklaus was also known for his course management skills. He would plan to hit each full shot to the optimal position, to best set up his next shot, usually aiming for level lies and clear approach lines, while favoring his preferred shot shapes. He would often hold back on power to achieve this, but had a power advantage over most rivals through the set, so that he could hit a 3-wood or 1-iron from the tee with increased accuracy to avoid trouble, with sufficient length to keep up with the drivers hit by most rivals. An exceptional example of this came in the final round of the 1966 Open Championship at Muirfield, on the 17th hole, a 530-yard par 5 hole. Nicklaus needed a birdie, but the hole was framed by tall fescue rough, and was playing downwind with very firm turf conditions. He used a 3-iron from the tee and hit the shot 290 yards, then hit a 5-iron 240 yards onto the green, two-putted for birdie, and parred the final hole to win the title.
Nicklaus was the first player to chart and document yardages on the course on a consistent, planned basis. For most of his career, he was not known for his skill on touch shots with the wedges, so he would often play to avoid wedge shots that needed less-than-full swings. Gary Player stated that Nicklaus had "the greatest mind the game has ever known".
Nicklaus was not known for being an outstanding putter, but he was often able to make the important putts when they were needed. Nicklaus's putting was highly regarded by his rivals. He was also known as a conservative player at times; he went for broke only when it was necessary. This was especially apparent on the greens, where he would often choose to be less aggressive and make sure of an easy two-putt. Nicklaus spoke about this in his autobiography. "I was a fine two-putter, but sometimes too defensive—too concerned about three-putting—to go for putts that I probably should have gone for."
Awards and recognition
After Nicklaus's first year on the PGA Tour in 1962, he received the PGA Tour Rookie of the Year award. As well as receiving the PGA Tour Player of the Year five times and topping the PGA Tour money list eight times, he has also attained the Bob Jones Award and the Payne Stewart Award, among others.
Nicklaus was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in the inaugural class of 1974 and the Canadian Golf Hall of Fame in 1995. His likeness was featured on a special commemorative issue five-pound note issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland, making him the first living person outside the Royal Family to appear on a British banknote. In 1999 he was on the six man short list for the BBC's Sports Personality of the Century.
In 2001, Nicklaus was honored with the "Lombardi Award of Excellence" from the Vince Lombardi Cancer Foundation. The award was created to honor Coach Lombardi's legacy, and is awarded annually to an individual who exemplifies the spirit of the Coach.
There is a Jack Nicklaus Museum on the campus of The Ohio State University in his home town of Columbus. The museum was opened in 2002 and is a state-of-the-art, facility offering a comprehensive view of Nicklaus's life and career in and out of golf as well as exhibits celebrating the history and legends of the game.
Nicklaus had the rare privilege of "dotting the 'i'" of "Script Ohio", the signature formation of the Ohio State University Marching Band, at the Ohio State homecoming game on October 28, 2006, when the Buckeyes played Minnesota; this is considered the greatest honor that can be bestowed on a non-band member. Nicklaus was the fifth non-band member to receive this award. Other recipients include Bob Hope and Woody Hayes. While at Ohio State University, Nicklaus became a member of the Fraternity of Phi Gamma Delta.
Along with Annika Sörenstam, Nicklaus was named a Global Ambassador for the International Golf Federation in 2008 and was instrumental in bringing golf to the Olympics for the 2016 and 2020 Games. Golf was last an Olympic sport at the 1904 Games in St. Louis, Missouri when the United States and Canada were the only two competing countries. The International Olympic Committee approved the inclusion by a vote of 63–27, with two abstentions.
Nicklaus joined Arnold Palmer as an honorary starter for the 2010 Masters. Nicklaus became the eighth honorary starter since the tradition began in 1963 when Nicklaus won his first green jacket. The Big Three were once again reunited in Augusta for the 2012 Masters Tournament as Gary Player joined Palmer and Nicklaus to kick off the 76th renewal of the major tournament.
Nicklaus, through his global reach in design and development, as well as the worldwide marketing and licensing of his golf and lifestyle brand, is atop Golf Inc. magazine's coveted list of the "Most Powerful People in Golf" for a record-extending sixth consecutive year. He is the only golf industry figure who has ever been named to the No. 1 spot for more than three years. Nicklaus topped the 2009 worldwide list of 35 individuals who were selected by a panel of editors for their ability to influence and impact the business of golf, be it the development of courses and communities, the operation of courses, the equipment used by golfers, or the rules and regulations of the game. Golf Inc. wrote that while the Golden Bear's reign at No. 1 is unprecedented, "the fact is that he keeps adding to his legend, at the design table and in the business world. Despite a worldwide course development slowdown, Nicklaus's design firm has over 40 courses in development around the globe...And he remains perhaps golf's most respected spokesperson on a wide range of issues."
On May 19, 2014, the United States House of Representatives voted to pass , a bill that would award Nicklaus the Congressional Gold Medal "in recognition of his service to the nation in promoting excellence and good sportsmanship". The bill says that Nicklaus's "magnetic personality and unfailing sense of kindness and thoughtfulness have endeared him to millions throughout the world". Congressman Thomas Massie objected to a voice vote, and demanded a roll call vote. He then tried to rally opposition to the measure, but the vote passed easily over Massie's objection: 371–10.
Career achievements
Nicklaus holds the record for PGA major championships with a total 18; Tiger Woods is in second place with 15. Nicklaus has the third most PGA Tour victories with 73, behind Sam Snead (82) and Woods (82). Nicklaus also holds the record for the most wins at the Masters with six, and The Players Championship with three. He played on six Ryder Cup teams, captained the team twice and the Presidents Cup team four times, and topped the PGA Tour money list and scoring average eight times each. For 24 straight seasons, from 1960 to 1983 inclusive, he made at least one top ten finish in a major championship, and this is a record.PGA Tour wins (73)European Tour wins (9)PGA Tour of Australasia wins (3)Other wins (24)Senior PGA Tour wins (10)Other senior wins (7)'''
Major championships
Wins (18)
1Defeated Palmer in 18-hole playoff; Nicklaus (71), Palmer (74).
2Defeated Jacobs (2nd) & Brewer (3rd) in 18-hole playoff; Nicklaus (70), Jacobs (72), Brewer (78). 1st, 2nd and 3rd prizes awarded in this playoff.
3Defeated Sanders in 18-hole playoff; Nicklaus (72), Sanders (73).
Results timeline
LA = Low amateur
CUT = missed the half-way cut
WD = withdrew
"T" indicates a tie for a place.
Summary
Most consecutive cuts made – 39 (1969 Masters – 1978 Open)
Longest streak of top-10s – 13 (1973 Masters – 1976 Masters)
At the Open Championship,1966–80, Nicklaus finished 15 consecutive years in the top-6. Specifically 1st (3), 2nd (6), 3rd (2), 4th (2), 5th (1), 6th (1).
At the Masters, 1970–79, Nicklaus finished 10 consecutive years in the top-8. Specifically 1st (2), 2nd (2), 3rd (2), 4th (2), 7th (1), 8th (1).
The Players Championship
Wins (3)
Results timeline
CUT = missed the halfway cut
"T" indicates a tie for a place.
Senior major championships
Wins (8)
1Defeated Rodríguez in 18-hole playoff; Nicklaus, (65), Rodríguez (69).
2Deafeated Aoki with a birdie on the third extra playoff hole.
Results timeline
CUT = missed the half-way cut
WD = withdrew
"T" indicates a tie for a place.Note: The Senior British Open was not a Champions Tour major until 2003.''
Summary of performances
Starts – 50
Cuts made – 46 (cut once, withdrew 3 times)
Wins – 8
Second place finishes – 5
Top-three finishes – 15
Top-five finishes – 18
Top-10 finishes – 30
Longest streak of top-10s – 10
See also
Career Grand Slam Champions
List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins
List of men's major championships winning golfers
List of golfers with most PGA Tour Champions wins
List of golfers with most Champions Tour major championship wins
List of golfers with most wins in one PGA Tour event
List of golfers with most European Tour wins
List of golf courses designed by Jack Nicklaus
People on Scottish banknotes
Notes and references
External links
1940 births
Living people
American male golfers
American people of German descent
American philanthropists
BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Golf course architects
Golf writers and broadcasters
Golfers from Columbus, Ohio
Golfers from Florida
Men's Career Grand Slam champion golfers
Ohio State Buckeyes men's golfers
People from North Palm Beach, Florida
People from Upper Arlington, Ohio
People with polio
PGA Tour Champions golfers
PGA Tour golfers
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Ryder Cup competitors for the United States
Winners of men's major golf championships
Winners of senior major golf championships
World Golf Hall of Fame inductees
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20nobility
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Swedish nobility
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The Swedish nobility () has historically been a legally and/or socially privileged class in Sweden, and part of the so-called frälse (a derivation from Old Swedish meaning free neck). The archaic term for nobility, frälse, also included the clergy, a classification defined by tax exemptions and representation in the diet (the Riksdag). Today the nobility does not maintain its former privileges although family names, titles and coats of arms are still protected. The Swedish nobility consists of both "introduced" and "unintroduced" nobility, where the latter has not been formally "introduced" at the House of Nobility (Riddarhuset). The House of Nobility still maintains a fee for male members over the age of 18 for upkeep on pertinent buildings in Stockholm.
Belonging to the nobility in present-day Sweden may still carry some informal social privileges, and be of certain social and historical significance particularly among some groups. Sweden has, however, long been a modern democratic society and meritocratic practices are supposed to govern all appointments to state offices by law. No special privileges, in taxation or otherwise, are therefore given to any Swedish citizen based on family origins, the exceptions being the monarch and other members of the Royal Family. However, also this role is today, according to the instrument of government, ceremonial.
In 1902, Sven Hedin became the last person, other than members of the Royal Family, to be ennobled in Sweden. Since 1974, the monarch is only permitted to confer titles of nobility on members of the Royal Family. As of 2004 there were about 619 existing noble families in Sweden, with about 28,000 members. They are classified as counts (46 families), barons (124 families) and untitled nobility (449 families).
Until 2003 the nobility was regulated by a government statute, but in that year the statute was lifted so that governmental sanction and legal regulation of the nobility was discontinued. The House of Nobility is now a private institution, run as any private corporation under civil commercial law, and is owned by its members. Today, the only privilege of the nobility is the right to use a helm with an open visor in their coats of arms, this according to a 1762 royal act; commoners using open visors or "noblemen's shield" (Adelig Sköld) are subjected to a fine. When an association called Ofrälse och löske mäns samfund för bruk af öppne hjälmar (Commoners' and vagabonds' society for the use of open visors) petitioned the Swedish government for amnesty (Swedish: abolition) in regards to violations of the 1762 act, the petition was not tried nor granted. The Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden ruled, in 2013, that, since no one has the right to amnesty, the government's decision did not concern anyone's civil rights according to the European Convention on Human Rights, and could thus not be examined by the court.
Organization
Swedish nobility is organized into three classes according to a scheme introduced in riddarhusordningen (Standing orders of the House of Knights) 1626
the Class of Lords (), comprising counts (greve) and barons (friherre, baron), two titles introduced in 1561 by Erik XIV;
the Class of Knights (), untitled descendants of Swedish Privy Councillors and since 1778 the 300 oldest families in the Class of Esquire as well as the "commander families", who are of the descendants of commanders of Swedish royal orders;
the Class of Esquires (), other untitled nobles.
The two last classes contains the so-called untitled nobility (). The division into classes has roots in the Middle Ages when the nobility frälse was divided into lords in the Privy Council, knights and esquires.
Until 1719 the three classes voted separately, but in the Age of Liberty all classes were voting together with one vote for each family head (). This made the vast majority of the untitled nobility in power, for example officers and civil servants were represented.
In 1778 Gustav III restored the classes and class voting and at the same time he reformed the Class of Knights. Originally this class only contained family descendants of Privy Councillors and was the smallest class of the three classes. But Gustav III also introduced in this class the 300 oldest families in the Class of Esquire and also the "commander families", who are of the descendants of commanders of the Order of the Northern Star and the Order of the Sword. No more commander families were introduced in the House of Knights after 1809, and thereafter also the class voting was abolished and the nobility was then voting as during the Age of Liberty.
A Swedish duke (hertig) has almost always been of royal status and counted as such. An exception in medieval times was Benedict, Duke of Halland. Two men were also created princes (furstar) in the 18th century: Fredrik Vilhelm von Hessenstein and Vilhelm Putbus but neither were introduced.
Following the elevation of a commoner into nobility by the Swedish monarch, the new nobleman had to seek introduction in order to be a fully recognised member of the House of Nobility (Riddarhuset), a term that also refers to its function as a chamber in the Riksdag of the Estates, the Swedish Parliament. In 1866 the Nobility was formally separated from government and incorporated as a separate institution, governed by statutes handed down by the monarch (from 1975: the government). This last link to the government and state was abolished in 2003. The Palace of the Nobility served as official representation for the nobility and was regulated by the Swedish government, but this regulation ceased completely in 2003, as have the privileges. The membership roster is published every three years.
Medieval nobility: Frälse
The institution of Swedish (and Finnish) nobility dates back to 1280, when it was stated by King Magnus III in the Decree of Alsnö that magnates who could afford to contribute a mounted soldier to the cavalry were to be exempted from tax - at least from ordinary taxes - just as the clergy already had been. The archaic Swedish term for nobility, frälse, also included the clergy with respect to their exemption from tax. Generally, the nobility grew from wealthier or more powerful members of the peasantry, those who were capable of assigning work or wealth to provide the requisite cavalrymen.
The background for this was that the old system of a leiðangr fleet and a king constantly on travel through the realm (between the estates of Uppsala öd) had by this time become outmoded. The crown's court and castles were now to be financed through taxes on land.
Soon it was agreed that the king should govern the realm in cooperation with a Privy Council (or Royal Council), in which the bishops and the most distinguished magnates (i.e. the most prominent contributors to the army) participated. When critical decisions were necessary, the whole frälse was summoned to the diets.
Swedish nobility had no hereditary fiefs. In the case where a noble was granted a castle belonging to the crown, his heirs couldn't later claim their ancestors' civil or military rights. The lands of the magnates who constituted the medieval nobility were their own and not "on lease" from a feudal king. If they by their own means or exploitation of peasants built a castle and financed troops, then the castle was theirs, but the troops were expected to serve as a part of the army of the realm. In Sweden, there never existed serfdom. Hence, nobility was basically a class of well-off citizens, not owners of other human beings. In the Middle Ages and much of the modern age, nobles and other wealthy men were landowners, as well as lords of villeins and servants. Members of the nobility utilized their economic power and sometimes also other powers to have small-farm owners sell their lands to manor lords, so landowning centralized gradually more in the hands of the noble class.
For extended periods, the commander of Viborg at the Novgorod/Russian front did, in practice, function as a margrave, keeping all the crown's income from the fief to use for the defense of the realm's eastern border. But despite heavy German influence during the medieval period, the elaborate German system with titles such as Lantgraf, Reichsgraf, Burggraf and Pfalzgraf was never applied in Sweden.
Ancient nobility
Swedish ancient nobility () is the term used for families whose de facto status as nobility was formalised by the Ordinance of Alsnö in 1280.
These noble families have no original patents of nobility, the first known being from 1360. The somewhat loose cut-off date or rather rule of thumb for what constitutes ancient Swedish nobility is therefore set to during mid 14th century but no later than 1400.
Some Swedish ancient families are still extant at the Swedish House of Nobility or the Finnish House of Nobility; some have been further elevated from Class of Esquires to Class of Knights or to titled nobility (count or baron). In 1778 all ancient noble families in the Class of Esquires were elevated to the Class of Knights.
Some ancient noble families:
Aspenäs
Banér
Bese
Bielke (extant, Sweden's second oldest noble family)
Björn
Bååt
Bonde (extant)
Carpelan (extant)
Eka
Hiort af Ornäs (extant)
Hård af Segerstad (extant)
Jägerhorn af Spurila (extant)
Leijonhufvud (extant)
Lilliehöök (extant)
Natt och Dag (extant, Sweden's oldest noble family)
Oxenstierna (extant)
Porse
Posse (extant)
Ribbing (extant)
Rosenstråle
Sparre (extant)
Stenbock (extant)
Trolle (extant)
Örnsparre
Nobility after 1561
At the coronation of Eric XIV in 1561, Swedish nobility became formally hereditary for the first time upon the creation of the higher titles of Count (greve) and Baron (friherre). The House of Knights was organized in 1626. The grounds for introduction into this chamber became either birth into an "ancient" noble family or ennoblement by the sovereign. Consequently, genealogy flourished.
The Lord High Chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna, was the architect of the Instrument of Government of 1634, which laid the foundation of modern Sweden. It guaranteed that all government appointments were to be filled by candidates from the nobility, a move which helped mobilize support for, rather than opposition to, a centralized national government.
Due to the many wars fought by Sweden, the crown needed some means of rewarding its officers, and since the royal coffers were not without end, ennoblement and grants of land were useful substitutes for cash payments. During the 17th century, the number of noble families grew by a factor of five. In less than a century, the nobility's share of Swedish land ownership rose from 16% to over 60%, which led to considerably lower tax revenue for the crown. The "Reduction" of 1655 and 1680, however, brought land back into the crown's possession.
Historically all members of a noble family were generally titled. If the family was of the rank of a Count or a Baron, all members received that title as well. However, following the new Instrument of Government from 1809, a change was made more in line with the British system so that, for later nobility, only the head of the family would hold the title (if there is one). There are a few families where these systems overlap such that the vast majority are nobles pre-1809 without title, while the heads of the families have been elevated to count or baron after 1809. The vast majority of noble families are still of the old kind where all members are regarded as nobles.
No hereditary title of nobility has been granted since 1902, when explorer Sven Hedin was ennobled by the King (that honor was hereditary, but he left no heirs). Since 1975 the Swedish monarch and government no longer have the right to ennoble or to confer knighthoods and orders on Swedes. Titles are still given to members of the Swedish royal house where princes and princesses are made non-hereditary dukes or duchesses of selected provinces, but these are honorary titles within that house, not titles of nobility.
Unintroduced nobility
Being "introduced" at the House of Nobility meant that the body confirmed the status of a family as Swedish nobility. Even when a family was ennobled by the Swedish monarch, it still had to seek introduction at the House of Nobility to achieve such status. Introduction, however, was not necessary for being considered noble, based on other factors (see list below), whereas only the introduced families had a legally privileged position. Unintroduced families still could use their titles, if they had any, and noble elements and styles in their coats of arms. There has never been legislation in Sweden preventing anyone from purporting to belong to nobility. The recognition of such noble status in society was of a social, not a legal, nature, as has all Swedish nobility become since it was separated from the government more recently.
Sweden has had a significant number of unintroduced noble families (as of 2010 comprising 99 living families and around 450 individuals), several of which have been historically prominent. The families fall into four groups:
Foreign nobility, being families of foreign origin (particularly German/Baltic, but also other nationalities) which had noble status in a different country than Sweden, and which partially or wholly live in Sweden. This group is the largest.
Families of Swedish origin which were granted noble status and/or titles by a foreign country (for example, members of the royal House of Bernadotte have been granted Belgian and Luxembourgish princely and comital titles).
Families which have been ennobled by the Swedish monarch, but which have not been introduced at the House of Nobility. This group is small.
Armigerous families of foreign origin which have traditionally been included in the various directories of unintroduced nobility, but whose original noble status has not been proven. They are included in Swedish unintroduced nobility for traditional reasons, such as having been considered noble in Sweden for an extended period of time. This group is also small.
Three successive almanach series of unintroduced nobility have been published; the first in 1886, the second in 1912, and the third in 1935; it came out most recently in 2010. An association of unintroduced nobility, Sveriges Ointroducerade Adels Förening, private club with no official standing, was founded in 1911. Several branches of the House of Bernadotte have chosen to become members of this association, as a result of members of the royal family being denied the use of Swedish titles upon marrying non-royals, but being granted foreign (Luxembourgish or Belgian) titles. Carl Johan Bernadotte was chairman of the association for many years.
Titles of high nobility
Introduced
According to the Nordisk Familjebok:
The first counts and barons, created in 1561 by Eric XIV:
Svante Sture of Hörningsholm, 1562 count of Vestervik and later also Stegeholm
Peder Joakimsson Brahe of Rydboholm, 1562 count of Visingsborg
Göstaff Johansson of Haga, 1562 count of Bogesund (originally Enköping)
Stenbock Gustaf Olofsson, baron of Torpa
Leijonhufvud Sten Eriksson, baron of Grevsnes
Grip Birger Nilsson, baron of Vines
Oxenstierna Gabriel Kristersson, baron of Mörby
Lars Fleming, baron of Arvasalo (in Finland)
Gera Karl Holgersson, baron of Björkvik
Gera Göran Holgersson, baron of Ållonö
Horn af Åminne Klas Kristersson, baron of Joensuu (in Finland)
Stenbock Erik Gustafsson, baron of Torpa (younger son of Gustaf Olofsson)
John III granted the first baronial titles accompanied by territorial grants (earlier titles elevated the family's hereditary estate to comital or baronial status):
Öresten and Kronobäck to Erik Gustafsson of Torpa
Lundholm to Nils Göransson Gyllenstierna, new baron
Viikki (in Finland) to Klas Eriksson Fleming, new baron
Läckö to Hogenskild Bielke, new baron
Ekholmen to Pontus De la Gardie, new baron
Kungs-Lena to Olof Gustafsson Stenbock (elder son and heir of Gustaf Olofsson)
county of Raseborg (in Finland) to baron Sten Eriksson of Grevsnes' widow Countess Ebba Lilliehöök and heirs in 1571
Charles IX created only one:
barony of Nynäs (in Finland) to Abraham Leijonhufvud
(he made Svante Bielke and Nils Bielke barons without grant of entailed lands)
Gustav II Adolf granted:
county of Läckö to Jacob De la Gardie
county of Pärnu (in northern Livonia, now Estonia) to Franz Bernhard von Thurn (son of Jindřich Matyáš Thurn)
barony of Kimito (in Finland) to Axel Oxenstierna
barony of Bergkvara to Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm
barony of Tuutarhovi (in Ingria) to Johan Skytte
barony of Orreholm to Jakob Vilhelmsson Spens
Christina granted:
county of Södermöre to Axel Oxenstierna
county of Vasaborg (in Finland) to Gustav Gustavsson, her illegitimate half-brother
county of Ortala to Lennart Torstenson
county of Kuressaare (later exchanged for Pärnu) to Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie
county of Sortavala (in Finland) to Johan Adam Banér
county of Björneborg (Pori) (in Finland) to Gustav Horn
county of Vestervik and Stegeholm to Hans Kristofer von Königsmark
county of Korsholm and Vasa (in Finland) to Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna
county of Bogesund to Fredrik Stenbock
county of Salmi and Suistamo pogosta (in Finland) to Carl Gustaf Wrangel
county of Kruunupori (in Finland) to Ture Oxenstierna
county of Nyborg (in Finland) to Arvid Wittenberg
county of Karleborg (in Finland) to Klas Tott
county of Liljenborg to Axel Lillie
county of Mariestad to Lars Kagg
county of Skeninge to Robert Douglas
county of Skövde to Kristofer Karl von Schlippenbach
county of Enköping to Antonius von Steinberg
barony of Vibyholm to Gustav Gustavsson, her illegitimate half-brother
barony of Virestad to Lennart Torstensson
barony of Kronoberg to Peder Sparre
barony of Korpo (in Finland) to Nils Bielke
barony of Härlunda to Seved Bååt
barony of Kajaani (in Finland) to Per Brahe
barony of Örneholma (in Finland) to Johan Adler-Salvius
barony of Liperi (in Finland) pogosta to Hermann Fleming
barony of Oulu (in Finland) to Erik Gyllenstierna
barony of Kitee (in Finland) pogosta to Axel Lillie
barony of Loimijoki (in Finland) to Arvid Wittenberg
barony of Limingo (in Finland) to Matias Soop
barony of Marienburg to Gustav Horn af Marienborg and certain of his relatives
barony of Vöyripori (in Finland) to Carl Gustaf Paijkull
barony of Tohmajärvi (in Finland) pogosta to Lars Kagg
barony of Kokkola (in Finland) to Gustav Banér
barony of Sund to Erik Ryning
barony of Laihia (in Finland) to Karl Bonde
barony of Pyhäjoki (in Finland) to Klas Hansson Bjelkenstjerna
barony of Iijoki (in Finland) to Åke Axelsson Tott
barony of Ikalapori (in Finland) to Schering Rosenhane
barony of Hailuoto (in Finland) to Bernt Taube
barony of Hedensund (then Arnäs) to Knut Posse
barony of Vinberg to Gustaf Adolf Leijonhudvud
barony of Lindeberg to Carl Gustav Wrangel and his brothers
barony of Lindeborg to Lorentz von der Linde
barony of Willenbruch and Harzefeld to Pierre Bidal
barony of Ludenhof (Luua, now in Palamuse Parish, Estonia) to Hans Wrangel
barony of Eksjö to Reinhold Liewen
barony of Elfkarleby to Mårten Leijonhufvud
barony of Gudhem to Lauri Cruus
baron of Skälby to Robert Douglas
barony of Koivisto (in Finland) to Hans Wachtmeister
barony of Lempäälä (in Finland) to Johan Kurck
barony of Wetter-Rosenthal to Adolf Friedrich Wetter,
barony of Närpes (in Finland) to Jakob and Anders Lilliehöök,
barony of Elimäki (in Finland) to Kasper and Karl Henrik Wrede af Elimä,
barony of Lais to Erik Fleming,
Charles X Gustav granted:
county of Sölvesborg to Corfitz Ulfeldt
(Lars Kagg, then Carl Gustav Wrangel, obtained the county of Sölvesborg in exchanges)
baron of Örneholma (in Finland) to P. Wuertz
barony of Kastell ladugården to Rutger von Ascheberg
Charles XI granted:
county of Börringe to Gustav Carlsson, his out-of-wedlock half-brother
Unintroduced
The following titled families of high nobility are included in Kalender öfver i Sverige lefvande ointroducerad adel (1886–1899), Sveriges ointroducerade adels kalender (1912–1944), and/or Kalender över Ointroducerad adels förening (1935–), which are directories of the living (at the time of publication) unintroduced noble families resident in Sweden. Five of these families have titles as Princes, Dukes or Marquis, the others as Counts and Barons. Most unintroduced noble families, however, are untitled, similar to the introduced families. Some of these families, or their titled branches, have since become extinct.
Princes
Bernadotte (Belgian princely title awarded to Prince Carl Bernadotte)
Cantacuzino (Romanian princely family)
Dukes
D'Otrante (Napoleonic nobility)
Marquis
Joussineau de Tourdonnet (French nobility)
Lagergren (Papal/Italian nobility)
Counts
Bernadotte of Wisborg (Luxembourgish title awarded to various members of the House of Bernadotte)
Crapon de Caprona
Fouché d'Otrante (Napoleonic nobility)
von der Groeben (German nobility)
von Hallwyl (Swiss nobility)
Joussineau de Tourdonnet (French nobility)
Lagergren (Papal/Italian nobility)
Landberg
Moltke (German/Danish nobility)
Moltke-Hvitfeldt (German/Danish nobility)
de Paus (Papal/Italian nobility)
von Platen zu Hallermund (German nobility)
Révay (Hungarian nobility)
Rewentlow (Danish/German nobility)
Stolberg (German nobility)
Tolstoy (Russian nobility)
von Trampe (German nobility)
Barons
von Bonsdorff (Finnish nobility)
von Bredow (German nobility)
von Buddenbrock
von Buxhoeveden
Cronstedt
von Grothusen
von Gussich
von Leithner
von Mecklenburg
von der Osten-Sacken
von der Pahlen (Russian nobility)
von Rosen (Hoch-Rosen)
Rosenørn-Lehn (Danish nobility)
von Strauss
von Wangenheim
de Wendel (Portuguese nobility)
Peerage and families
List of Swedish noble families
Duchies in Sweden
Duke of Estonia
Duke of Finland
Duke of Halland
Swedish Royal Family
Surnames
Surnames in Sweden can be traced to the 15th century, when they were first used by the Gentry (Frälse), i.e., priests and nobles. The names of these were usually in Swedish, Latin, German or Greek. The adoption of Latin names was first used by the Catholic clergy in the 15th century. The given name was preceded by Herr (Sir), followed by a Latinized form of patronymic names.
Starting from the time of the Reformation, a common naming practice among the clergy was to use the Latinized form of their birthplace (e.g. Laurentius Petri Gothus, from Östergötland). Later merchants and other social groups discarded the formerly used family names (such as patronymic surnames). Instead they adopted high-sounding Latin surnames. Another subsequent practice was the use of the Greek language, with the ending of -ander (the Greek word for man). The use of surnames was still quite uncommon in the 17th century among the nobility and the educated class. Furthermore, the concept of hereditary surnames was also limited to a few families.
When a family was ennobled, it was usually given a name—just as with lordships of England and other Western European countries. This was a period which produced a myriad of two-word Swedish-language family names for the nobility (very favored prefixes were Adler-, "eagle"; Ehren-, "honor"; Silfver-, "silver"; and Gyllen-, "golden"). The regular difference with Britain was that it became the new surname of the whole house, and the old surname was dropped altogether.
Privileges
The noble estates are not abolished in Sweden, but their privileged position has been weakened step by step since 1680. The nobility's political privileges were practically abolished by the reformation of the Riksdag of the Estates in 1866, and the last rights of precedence to certain governmental offices were removed in the 1920s. By then the last tax exemption privileges had also been abolished. However, some minor privileges remained until 2003, including the right to be beheaded by sword, when the law granting these noble privileges was completely abolished and the government no longer has the right to call the heads of families to be assembled in session.
The prerogatives of nobility today are limited to protection of noble titles and certain elements and styles used in their coats of arms (this according to a 1762 act): a helm with an open visor, a coronet showing rank, a medallion and the use of supporters. Modern Swedish law makes no distinctions on the basis of nobility.
Crowns and coronets of rank
Exceptional cases
Outside Sweden, Saint Bridget (1303-1373) became known as the Princess of Nericia, which appears to have been a noble, rather than a royal title, since she was not the daughter of a king.
Gallery
References
External links
The House of Nobility - Official site
Law on Privileges for the Nobility (1723) - at Wikisource (in Swedish)
Constitution for the House of Knights (1866) - at Wikisource (in Swedish)
A Who's Who of the Swedish Aristocracy
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] |
242917
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alinghi
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Alinghi
|
Alinghi is the syndicate set up by Ernesto Bertarelli, racing under the colors of the Société Nautique de Genève, to challenge for the America's Cup, as well as other competitions. Bertarelli had raced several smaller yachts named Alinghi previously, but 2003 was his first attempt at the America's Cup. Alinghi challenged for and won the 2003 America's Cup in Auckland New Zealand and successfully defended it at the 2007 America's Cup in Valencia, Spain. Alinghi lost the America's Cup to the Golden Gate Yacht Club and their team BMW Oracle Racing in a Deed of Gift match in Valencia, Spain in February 2010.
For the 2003 event, Team New Zealand as the holder of the America's Cup, in consultation with Prada, the Challenger of Record, removed the nationality rule that stipulated that all of the crew members must be nationals of the challenging syndicate.
Alinghi took full advantage of this rule change and hired many of the world's top America's Cup sailors particularly from New Zealand. New Zealanders saw the defection of key members of Team New Zealand to Alinghi as an act of disloyalty to their home countryunderstandable against a background of strong nationwide public support for Team New Zealand that they saw as representing their country rather than just representing the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron.
After a series of discussions with Team New Zealand it was announced that they would compete in the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series in 2009.
In July 2010, it appeared that the team was being disbanded and would not compete in future America's Cups. On 26 November 2010, Alinghi formally confirmed that it would not participate in the 2013 America's Cup.
In December 2021 Ernesto Bertarelli and Société Nautique de Genève announced the launch of the new Alinghi Red Bull Racing to compete in the 37th America's Cup. Two-time Olympic champion Hans Peter Steinacher will serve as skipper.
America's Cup
2003 challenge
Coinciding with the change in the nationality rules concerning the crew and in order to maximize the chances of success, Alinghi hired Russell Coutts, the successful skipper and helmsman of Team New Zealand. Coutts had already won the America's Cup for New Zealand in 1995 and successfully defended for New Zealand in 2000. Along with Coutts came several other important Kiwi sailors, including Team New Zealand tactician Brad Butterworth. Grant Simmer, another America's Cup veteran, joined as managing director and head of design. Bertarelli, the syndicate's president, served as navigator during the racing.
Apart from New Zealand, the Alinghi team consisted of members from Germany, the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, France, Italy, Spain, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Portugal, Turkey, Ireland, the UK (from Scotland and Wales), Belgium, South Africa, Australia, Uruguay, Argentina, Denmark, Ecuador, and Switzerland.
The Alinghi boats for the 2003 challenge, SUI-64 (the race boat) and the SUI-75, were developed specifically for the race by the Alinghi team in close collaboration with the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. Alinghi also had a test yacht from the 2000 America's cup, SUI-59 (formerly called Fast 2000).
Alinghi raced to a 5–0 victory against Team New Zealand on 2 March 2003, winning the America's Cup.
They guaranteed themselves a further stake in the history books by becoming the first team since the inaugural race in 1851 to return the Auld Mug to Europe and for being the first team to win the Cup on its first attempt.
Alinghi's stated vision was "to win the America's Cup, while earning respect and recognition as a world class sports team as well as sharing our passion".
Due to this victory, Team Alinghi received one of the highest honors in sport, the Olympic Cup in 2004. The Coupe Olympique is an award given annually by the International Olympic Committee.
2007 defense
Team Alinghi fired its skipper Russell Coutts on 27 April 2004. Immediately beforehand, Alinghi (via America's Cup Management) changed the America's Cup Rules to prevent any team members from moving between teams until the completion of the 2007 America's Cup. Alinghi, as the then current holders of the America's Cup, were fully entitled to change the rule. Nine months later the conflict was ended with a short statement.
The sailing team was extended again and was led for the 2007 campaign by Brad Butterworth, Alinghi's tactician and vice-president. Butterworth was highly experienced in America's Cup racing having sailed aboard the winning boat in the three previous competitions. Butterworth's team had many world-class sailors including Peter Holmberg, Ed Baird, Juan Vila, Jordi Calafat, Warwick Fleury, Simon Daubney, and Murray Jones. Jochen Schümann, winner of four Olympic medals, was the sports director for the sailing team.
Alinghi participated in all Louis Vuitton Acts, along with the 11 challengers from nine nations, before defending the America's Cup during the Match Race in June 2007. UBS, and BT Infonet renewed their commitment to the team as Main Partners for the next four years, along with Audemars Piguet, SGS, Nespresso, MSC Cruises, WISeKey and North Sails as co sponsors. Alinghi's first America's Cup defeat came on 24 June 2007 when they were defeated by Emirates Team New Zealand in the second race of the 2007 America's Cup off Valencia.
After a series of close races between the seemingly closely matched competitors, Alinghi won their final race against Emirates Team New Zealand on 3 July 2007, defending the America's Cup with five wins to Team New Zealand's two.
2010 defense
America's Cup Management announced on 5 July 2007 that the protocol for the 2010 America's Cup had been agreed between the defending yacht club, Société Nautique de Genève of Switzerland, and the Challenger of Record, the Club Náutico Español de Vela of Spain. However this arrangement did not survive a legal challenge from BMW Oracle Racing, who successfully argued that Club Náutico Español de Vela was not a valid Challenger of Record due to non-compliance with the terms of the America's Cup Deed of Gift.
Swiss based companies WISeKey and Hublot were the two primary sponsors of Alinghi's 2010 defense.
After extensive court action, Golden Gate Yacht Club (whose team is BMW Oracle Racing) was declared Challenger of Record and sailed against Alinghi in a Deed of Gift match in February 2010 at Valencia, Spain. The competing boats, Alinghi 5 and USA 17, were both 90-foot multihulls. USA 17s rigid wing sail provided a decisive advantage and Golden Gate Yacht Club won the 2010 America's Cup two races to none.
D35 Trophy, Bol d'Or, Extreme Sailing Series, GC32 Racing Tour
Bol d'Or
Decision 35 Trophy
Alinghi has also competed in the Extreme Sailing Series (winning it four times) andin the GC32 Racing Tour (winning it one time) and was GC32 World Champion in 2019.
References
External links
Alinghi RedBull official site
Alinghi official site
Alinghi official art site
International America's Cup Class
UBS
2000 establishments in Switzerland
Alinghi
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Cross
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George Cross
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The George Cross (GC) is the highest award bestowed by the British government for non-operational gallantry or gallantry not in the presence of an enemy. In the UK honours system, the George Cross is equal in stature to the Victoria Cross, the highest military gallantry award. This has been the case since the introduction of the award in 1940. It is awarded "for acts of the greatest heroism or for most conspicuous courage in circumstance of extreme danger", not in the presence of the enemy, to members of the British armed forces and to British civilians. Posthumous awards have been allowed since it was instituted. It was previously awarded to residents of Commonwealth countries (and in one case to Malta, a colony which subsequently became a Commonwealth country), most of which have since established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians including police, emergency services and merchant seamen. Many of the awards have been personally presented by the British monarch to recipients or, in the case of posthumous awards, to next of kin. These investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace.
Creation
The George Cross was instituted on 24 September 1940 by King George VI. At this time, shortly after the climax of the Battle of Britain and during the third week of the Blitz, there was a strong desire to reward the many acts of civilian courage. The existing awards open to civilians were not judged suitable to meet the new situation, therefore it was decided that the George Cross and the George Medal would be instituted to recognise both civilian gallantry in the face of enemy action and brave deeds more generally.
Announcing the new award, the King said:
The medal was designed by Percy Metcalfe. The Warrant for the GC (along with that of the George Medal), dated 24 September 1940, was published in The London Gazette on 31 January 1941.
The King in his speech announcing the new award, stated that it would rank next to the Victoria Cross. This was second on the Order of Wear, much higher than the then existing awards for bravery not in the presence of the enemy, the highest being the two-class Albert Medal (AM); and the lowest being the single class Empire Gallantry Medal (EGM). In a substitution of awards unprecedented in the history of British decorations, holders of the EGM were required to exchange their insignia for the GC, most receiving their replacement GC at a formal investiture. The four honorary EGM awards to foreigners were not exchanged and could therefore continue to be worn. In 1971, surviving recipients of the Albert Medal and the Edward Medal (EM) became George Cross recipients, but unlike the EGM exchange of insignia, they had the option of retaining their original insignia. Of the 64 holders of the Albert Medal and 68 holders of the Edward Medal eligible to exchange, 49 and 59 respectively took up the option.
Award
The GC, which may be awarded posthumously, is granted in recognition of:
{{quote|acts of the greatest heroism or of the most conspicuous courage in circumstances of extreme danger.}}
The award is for civilians but also for military personnel whose actions would not normally be eligible to receive military awards, such as gallantry not in the face of the enemy. The Warrant states:
In June 1941 the specification of the ribbon width was amended to one and a half inches.
Bars can be awarded for further acts of bravery meriting the GC, although none have yet been awarded. In common with the Victoria Cross, in undress uniform or on occasions when the medal ribbon alone is worn, a miniature replica of the cross is affixed to the centre of the ribbon, a distinction peculiar to these two premier awards for bravery. In the event of a second award, a second replica would be worn on the ribbon.<ref> eighthly</ref>
Recipients are entitled to the postnominal letters GC.
All original individual GC awards are published in The London Gazette.
George Cross Committee
The George Cross Committee of the Cabinet Office considers cases of military and civilian gallantry. The Committee has no formal terms of reference.
Recipients
Since its inception in 1940, the GC has been awarded 409 times, 394 to men, 12 to women, one award to the Island of Malta, one to the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and one to the National Health Service. About half the recipients have been civilians. There have been 163 original awards including those to Malta and RUC, including 106 made before 1947. There have been 245 exchange awards, 112 to Empire Gallantry Medal recipients, 65 to Albert Medal recipients and 68 to Edward Medal recipients. Of the 161 individuals who received original awards, 86 have been posthumous. In addition, there were four posthumous recipients of the Empire Gallantry Medal whose awards were gazetted after the start of the Second World War and whose awards were also exchanged for the GC. All the other exchange recipients were living as of the date of the decisions for the exchanges.
Collective awards
The George Cross has been awarded to the island of Malta, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), and the National Health Service (NHS) of the United Kingdom.
Malta
The GC was awarded to the island of Malta in a letter dated 15 April 1942 from King George VI to the island's Governor Lieutenant-General Sir William Dobbie:
The Governor answered:
The cross and the messages are today in the War Museum in Fort Saint Elmo, Valletta. The fortitude of the population under sustained enemy air raids, and a naval blockade which almost saw them starved into submission, won widespread admiration in Britain and other Allied nations. Eric Grove argued on the BBC in 2017 that the George Cross was awarded as a propaganda gesture and consequently ‘the island of Malta could not be allowed to fall as Singapore had done. Indeed the North African campaign was being fought in 1942 as much to sustain Malta as vice versa.’
The George Cross was incorporated into the Flag of Malta in 1943 and, since independence in 1964, remains on the flag.
Royal Ulster Constabulary
The GC was awarded to the RUC in 1999 by Queen Elizabeth II following the advice of the first Blair ministry. The citation published by Buckingham Palace on 23 November 1999 stated:
The RUC was controversial before and during the Troubles; typically, Irish nationalists saw it as pro-unionist, while unionists had solidarity with the hundreds of RUC officers killed by republican paramilitaries. As part of the Northern Ireland peace process an Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland produced the "Patten Report" in September 1999, which recommended structural changes and renaming the RUC the "Police Service of Northern Ireland" (PSNI). The subsequent GC award was interpreted by some as a compensation or sop to unionists and RUC supporters for accepting the substantive changes; the UK government denied this. The Queen presented the George Cross on 12 April 2000 in a ceremony at Hillsborough Castle, County Down attended by the senior RUC officers; the cross was accepted by PC Paul Slaine, who had lost both legs in a 1992 IRA attack.
The Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000 gave effect to much of the Patten Report, with "the Police Service of Northern Ireland (incorporating the Royal Ulster Constabulary)" established on 4 November 2001. The pre-2001 RUC is often retrospectively referred to by sympathisers as "RUC GC"; the 2000 act established a registered charity "to be known as 'The Royal Ulster Constabulary GC Foundation' for the purpose of marking the sacrifices and honouring the achievements of the Royal Ulster Constabulary"; other instances include the names of the RUC GC Widows' Association, RUC GC Historical Society, and RUCGC–PSNI Benevolent Fund.
National Health Service
On 5 July 2021, on the 73rd anniversary of the founding of the NHS of the UK, Queen Elizabeth II announced in a personal handwritten message that the four NHS organisations of the United Kingdom would be awarded the George Cross. It was reported that the award was recommended by the Prime Minister, Boris Johnson. The conferral of the award followed an 18 month period in which the health service has been at the forefront of the fight against the coronavirus pandemic in the UK.
The message read:
"It is with great pleasure, on behalf of a grateful nation, that I award the George Cross to the National Health Services of the United Kingdom. This award recognises all NHS staff, past and present, across all disciplines and all four nations. Over more than seven decades, and especially in recent times, you have supported the people of our country with courage, compassion and dedication, demonstrating the highest standards of public service. You have our enduring thanks and heartfelt appreciation. Elizabeth R."
Awards to Commonwealth citizens
Canada
There have been 10 GCs awarded to Canadians including those by substitution for awards superseded by the GC. The recipients comprised nine men and one woman. The GC is no longer awarded to Canadians by the Queen of Canada, who awards the Canadian Cross of Valour instead.
Australia
The George Cross was awarded to 22 Australians, 11 to the Australian forces and 11 to civilians. It is the highest decoration of the Australian Honours System after the British Victoria Cross and the Victoria Cross for Australia. Although Australia established the Cross of Valour within the Australian Honours System in 1975 'for acts of the most conspicuous courage in circumstances of extreme peril' it was not until 1992 that Australia officially ceased recommending British honours. During the period 1975 to 1992, the last George Cross to an Australian was awarded in 1978.
Of the 22 awards, 14 were direct awards and eight were Empire Gallantry Medal (two) and Albert Medal (six) exchange awards. Four awards were to officers of the Royal Australian Naval Volunteer Reserve who served in the extremely dangerous role of mine disposal during the Second World War. Privates Benjamin Gower Hardy and Ralph Jones were posthumously awarded the George Cross for manning a Vickers machine gun during the Cowra breakout, a mass escape by Japanese prisoners of war in central New South Wales on 5 August 1944. Hardy and Jones disabled the weapon and denied its use to the escaping prisoners before they were overwhelmed and killed by the escapees. Courage of a different sort was displayed by two prisoners of war who endured terrible suffering. Captain Lionel Colin Matthews was eventually executed by his captors for building a resistance network in British North Borneo in the Second World War, while Private Horace William Madden, captured in Korea in 1951, died of privations while assisting fellow prisoners and openly resisting enemy efforts to force him to collaborate. The last Australian to be awarded the GC (in 1978) was Constable Michael Kenneth Pratt of the Victoria Police, Melbourne, for arresting two armed bank robbers in June 1976.
A memorial to Australian recipients, George Cross Park, was opened in Canberra, the Australian capital, on 4 April 2001 by the Governor General of Australia, Sir William Deane.
New Zealand
In 1999, the New Zealand Cross replaced the role of the George Cross. Up until then, the last George Cross awarded to a New Zealander, and a civilian, was posthumously awarded to Sgt Stewart Guthrie of the New Zealand Police for his actions and bravery during the Aramoana massacre.
Annuity
Holders of the Victoria Cross or the George Cross are entitled to an annuity, the amount of which is determined by the awarding government. , the annuity paid by the British government is £10,000 per year. In Canada under the Gallantry Awards Order, members of the Canadian Forces, or people who joined the British forces before 31 March 1949 while domiciled in Canada or Newfoundland, receive $3,000 per year. Australia has been responsible for the payment of both the Victoria Cross Allowance and the George Cross annuity since the 1940s. The Victoria Cross Allowance which includes both the Victoria Cross for Australia and the British Victoria Cross is included in s.103 of the Veterans' Entitlement Act and is presently $A4,447 per year. Although there is not a statutory instrument for the payment of the George Cross annuity, both annuities for the Australian Cross of Valour and George Cross match the Victoria Cross Allowance payment.
Restriction of use
Since 1943, in accordance with the George Cross (Restriction of Use) Ordinance, it is unlawful in Malta to use the George Cross, an imitation of it or the words George Cross for the purposes of trade or business without the Prime Minister's authorisation.
George Cross in fiction
The fictional detective inspector William E. "Jack" Frost in the novels of R. D. Wingfield and television series A Touch Of Frost is a recipient of the George Cross, which sometimes serves as a plot element in allowing him to get away with actions that would otherwise have landed him in trouble. The character tends to experience survivor guilt whenever his George Cross is brought to mind.
Charles (Karl, Graf von) Dennim, the protagonist in Geoffrey Household's 1960 thriller Watcher in the Shadows, was awarded the George Cross for espionage work during the Second World War, including undercover service as a Gestapo officer at the Buchenwald concentration camp. He refused to accept the award on the basis that "one does not defile a decoration".
Ray Davies makes reference to George Cross recipients in the Kinks song "The Village Green Preservation Society" with the lyric "God save the George Cross and all those who were awarded them". The words "and all those who were awarded them" are, in fact, the only lyrics in the entire song that are not harmonized.
Hugh Grant's character, Alexander Waverly, in The Man From U.N.C.L.E. (2015) is a recipient of the George Cross.
Alex O'Loughlin's character Steve McGarrett and Scott Caan's character Danny Williams in the Hawaii Five-0 episode "No Ke Ali'i' Wahine A Me Ka Aina" (2016) are recipients of the George Cross for stopping a terrorist attack against Europe.
See also
British and Commonwealth orders and decorations
:Category:Recipients of the George Cross
List of George Cross recipients
List of living recipients of the George Cross
George Medal
Cross of St. George, a Russian award
St. George's cross, the flag of England
Flag of Malta, a flag bearing the cross
Soham rail disaster – 2 June 1944
The Victoria Cross and George Cross Association
Elizabeth Cross
PDSA Gold Medal – seen as the animal equivalent of the GC
Notes
Bibliography
Abbott, PE and Tamplin, JMA, British Gallantry Awards, (1981), Nimrod Dix and Co
Bisset, I., The George Cross, MacGibbon & Kee (1961)
Duckers, P., British Gallantry Awards 1855–2000, (2001), Shire Publications
Hebblethwaite, M., George Cross Encyclopaedia, (2021)
Hissey, Terry, Come if Ye Dare: The Civil Defence George Crosses, (2008), Civil Defence Assn
Mussell, J. (Editor), (2016), Medal Yearbook 2017, (Token Publishing Ltd: Devon)
Smyth, Sir John, The Story of the George Cross, Arthur Baker Ltd. (1968)
Stanistreet, A., 'Gainst All Disaster, Picton Publishing Ltd. (1986)
The Register of the George Cross, This England, 2nd Edition (1990)
George Cross (Restriction of Use) Ordinance, Government of Malta, (1943)
External links
Official Victoria Cross & George Cross Association website
Marion Hebblethwaits's listing and books on the George Cross
New Zealand Defence Force – Medal information page
Search recommendations for the George Cross on The UK National Archives' website.
Canadian World War II recipients
Ceremonial Secretariat – Types of Bravery Award
Royal Engineers Museum: George Crosses awarded to Royal Engineers (Bomb Disposal)
BBC On This Day 1942: Malta gets George Cross for bravery
George Cross at Sea in World War 2, including Naval bomb Disposal
Soham Rail Disaster 2 June 1944
GC winners from The Times obituaries
George Cross recipients from the county of Essex
"Stolen from Himachal, George Cross to go under hammer in UK". The Times of India. 26 November 2009.
Awards established in 1940
1940 establishments in the United Kingdom
Civil awards and decorations of Australia
Civil awards and decorations of the United Kingdom
Courage awards
Decorations of the Merchant Navy
National symbols of Malta
Saint George and the Dragon
George VI
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Haiti
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Music of Haiti
|
The music of Haiti combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled on this Caribbean island. It reflects French, African rhythms, Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from rara parading music, twoubadou ballads, mini-jazz rock bands, rasin movement, hip hop Creòle, the wildly popular compas, and méringue as its basic rhythm. Haiti hadn't had a recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially. One of the most current popular Haitian artists is Wyclef Jean. His music is somewhat hip hop mixed with worldbeat. Haitian music is influenced mostly by European colonial ties and African migration (through slavery). In the case of European colonization, musical influence has derived primarily from the French.
One of Haiti's musical traditions is known to outsiders simply as compas. But in the former non-standardized Haitian Creole, Haitians identify it variously as compa, conpa, and konpa-dirék. Regardless of its various spellings, compas refers to a complex, ever-changing music genre that fuses African rhythms, European ballroom dancing, and Haitian bourgeois aesthetics. The word may have derived from the Spanish compás, which relates to the musical rhythm of the "beat" or "pulse." One of the most distinctive features of Haitian compas music is the steady, pulsing drum beat, which makes it easy to dance to.
Haïti Chérie is a traditional patriotic and most recognizable song of Haiti that was written and composed by Dr. Othello Bayard de Cayes and was initially called Souvenir d'Haïti. It represents the pride Haitian people feel for their country and culture. Within the Haitian community, at home and abroad, it is widely considered as a second national anthem to La Dessalinienne and the song has recorded several different versions.
Folk music
Kontradans
Méringue
Méringue is a guitar-based style historically connected to merengue but without the use of the accordion. The blend of African and European cultures has created popular dance music, music played on simple acoustic instruments. Méringue has lost popularity to kompa.
Rara
Rara music is a Lenten processional music with strong ties to the Vodou religious tradition. It has often been confused with Haitian Carnival, since both celebrations involve large groups of dancing revelers in the streets. Rara is performed between Ash Wednesday (the day after Carnival ends) until Easter Sunday (or Easter Monday in some parts of Haiti.) Rara bands roam the streets performing religious ceremonies as part of their ritual obligations to the "loa" or spirits of Haitian Vodou. Guédé, a spirit associated with death and sexuality, is an important spiritual presence in Rara celebrations and often possesses a houngan (male Vodou priest) or mambo (female Vodou priest) before the band begins its procession, blessing the participants and wishing them safe travels for their nightly sojourns.
Twoubadou
Twoubadou is a form of music played by peripatetic troubadours playing some combination of acoustic, guitar, beat box and accordion instruments singing ballads of Haitian, French or Caribbean origin. It is in some ways similar to Son Cubano from Cuba as a result of Haitian migrant laborers who went to work on Cuban sugar plantations at the turn of the 20th century. Musicians perform at the Port-au-Prince International Airport and also at bars and restaurants in Pétion-Ville.
Popular music
Compas / Konpa
Compas, short for compas direct, is the modern méringue (mereng in creole) that was popularized in the mid-1950s by the sax and guitar player Nemours Jean-Baptiste. His méringue soon became popular throughout the Antilles, especially in Martinique and Guadeloupe. Webert Sicot and Nemours Jean-Baptiste became the two leaders in the group. Sicot then left and formed a new group and an intense rivalry developed, though they remained good friends. To differentiate himself from Nemours, Sicot called his modern méringue, cadence rampa.
In Creole, it is spelled as konpa dirèk or simply konpa. It is commonly spelled as it is pronounced as kompa.
Mini-jazz
Mini-jazz was formed in the mid-'60s characterized by the rock bands formula of two guitars, one bass, drum-conga-cowbell, some use an alto sax or a full horn section, others use a keyboard, accordion or lead guitar. However, all these small jazz or bands had their guitars with sophisticated styles. The 1970s were dominated by mini-jazz, which still used a variant of the méringue style. One of the mini-jazz groups, Tabou Combo, became the most popular ensemble of Haiti. From Haiti the mini-jazz formula replicated in the French Antilles in the 1970s.
Haitian rock (rock kreyòl)
Haitian rock originated as rock n roll in Haiti in the early 1960s, performed by rock bands called yeye bands. These were short-lived when they added compas direct to their repertoire and called the result mini-jazz. Today, Haitian rock is an alternative rock music with a blend of Caribbean flavor that was first introduced to Haiti by Yohann Doré. Splash were a popular Haitian rock band of the 1990s.
Mizik rasin
Starting in the late 1970s (with discontent surrounding the increasing opulence of the Duvalier dictatorship), youth from Port-au-Prince (and to a lesser extent Cap-Haïtien and other urban areas) began experimenting with new types of life. François Duvalier's appropriation of Vodou images as a terror technique, the increase in U.S. assembly and large-scale export agriculture, the popularity of disco, and Jean-Claude Duvalier's appreciation of kompa and chanson française disillusioned many youth and love.
To question the dictatorship's notion of "the Haitian nation" (and thus the dictatorship itself), several men began trying a new way of living, embodied in the Sanba Movement. They drew inspiration from the global movements such as Black power and Hippies, along with a major influence from Reggea superstar Bob Marley and extensively from rural life in Haiti. The Sanba dressed in the traditional blue denim (karoko) of peasants, eschewed the commercialized and processed life offered by global capitalism, and celebrated the values of communal living. Later, they adopted matted hair similar to Jamaicandreadlocks, but identified the style as something that existed in Haiti with the term cheve simbi, referring to water spirits.
The most well-known of these artists were Sanba Zao (Louis Leslie Marcellin), Ayizan (Harry Sanon), Azouke (Gregory Sanon), Aboudja (Ronald Derencourt), Kebyesou Danle (Jean Raymond) and Chico (Yves Boyer). They formed a band called Sanba yo and later, Gwoup Sa. Later still, other musicians like Lolo (Theodore Beaubrun), Papa Bonga, and Eddy François joined the trend. This was the modern precursor to what would become mizik rasin. One of these groups recorded a song in the 1980s for a UNICEF campaign for vaccination, which is included on the LP Konbit!.
In the 1990s, commercial success came to the musical genre that came to be known as mizik rasin, or roots music. Musicians like Boukman Eksperyans, and Boukan Ginen, and to a lesser extent RAM, incorporated reggae, rock and funk rhythms into traditional forms and instrumentation, including rara, music from kanaval, or traditional spiritual music from the rural hamlets called lakous, like Lakou Souvnans, Lakou Badjo, Lakou Soukri, or Lakou Dereyal. Though initially the people involved followed the ways of the Sanba Movement, eventually this began to fade. Increased political and economic pressures saw many of these people emigrate (to the U.S. and Canada, primarily). Both those who stayed and those who traveled between countries began adding more non-Haitian (strictly speaking) elements and implemented a more commercial sound to earn more money and a wider audience.
RAM recorded a traditional Vodou folk song in Haïti called "Fèy". In Haitian Creole, "fèy" means "leaf", and the lyrics of the song describe a leaf falling from a tree.
Zouk or zouk-love
The Haitian cadence and its compas has been dominating the Antilles music scene since its introduction in the late 1950s. Compas direct is a modern méringue popularized in 1955 by the Nemours Jean-Baptiste, a Haitian saxophone and guitar player, which was appropriated by the Antilleans who labeled their version cadence-lypso and later, zouk or zouk-love.
The original zouk was zouk béton, a fast tempo jump up carnival style of music originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, was popularized by the French Antilles Kassav' in the 1980s. However it was too fast, and the style lost ground in the 1980s due to the strong presence of kadans or compas, the main music of the French Antilles. The problem is that musicians from Martinique and Guadeloupe have wrongly labeled compas as zouk or zouk love, creating a sense of confusion in Africa, Cape Verde, Angola, Brazil, Portugal and other places. Haitian musicians taught Antilleans how to play compas, and it is from them that zouk's rhythms derive in origin, which some credit is due in its creation. In all account, Haitian musicians describe zouk musicians as first rate, because they are now part of the forefront of the musical scene.
Today, zouk-love (the current zouk) is the French Antilles cadence or compas, characterized by a slow, soft and sexual rhythm.
Haitian hip hop (rap kreyòl)
The local homegrown Haitian hip hop movement is rising in popularity in Haiti and other Haitian communities. It is becoming more and more popular with Haitian youth, often communicating social and political topics as well as materialism. Kompa as well as other popular local music beats are used frequently with urban sounds. Recent years have seen a rise in popularity for Haitian Hip-Hop artists such as Barikad Crew and Jimmy O. Other Haitian hip hop artists have yet to evolve.
Spiritual music
Haitian gospel music
Haitian Vodou drumming
Music education and mentoring
BLUME Haiti (Building Leaders Using Music Education) is an American NGO that trains teachers of classical music in Haiti and partners with other organizations to provide training in instrument repair. It has reached approximately 5,000 students. It partners with Luthiers Sans Frontieres UK among others.
Carrefour Collaborative, an NGO based in Chicago, promotes and produces Underground music and musicians in Haiti by providing high end audio recording equipment, video production help and mentors. The goal is exposure to American audiences. Gaetville, an MC who also does Hip hop and Dance Hall music, was the first musician they produced.
El Sistemia - a Venezuelan method of teaching classical music, started in Haiti in 2012 with the encouragement of former president of Haiti Michael Martelly - a former singer.
Music institutions and festivals
The Haitian Carnival is an important part of the Haitian culture. It is also significant for Haitian musicians as an opportunity to showcase their talents and expand their audience by performing for Carnival crowds.
Ten days after the 2010 earthquake, the "Hope for Haiti Now" telethon event was launched in the United States, effectively taking over the mediasphere and reaching hundreds of millions of households and viewers. It focused on appealing to the viewing public's empathy for the survivors of the disaster, allowing ordinary citizens to help in a collective relief effort by contributing money donations to NGOs providing Humanitarian aid to earthquake survivors. The telethon attracted support through a variety of celebrity musical performances and staged calls for empathy, using digital social networks to disseminate its appeal to the moral responsibility of the viewer-consumers. It offered the possibility for viewers to text donations on cell phones, and raised a reported $58 million by the day after its launch. The form of this fundraising effort emphasizes and aligns with the power of music and singing in Haitian society. Quake survivors used the embodied technique of singing to orient themselves in the face of sudden and violent rupture.
See also
Haitian art
Haitian culture
Haitian mythology
Haitian Vodou drumming
Afro-Caribbean music
References
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Haiti 2000. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis
Steward, Sue and Sean Harvey. "Compass Points". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 421–429. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
External links
Haitian music community
Oral Histories of Haitian Diaspora - Musicians Included
Experience Haitian music on Mizikpam Internet Radio Accessed May 18, 2010
BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): Music of Haiti - part 1. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): Music of Haiti - part 2. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Report on haitian industry of music Accessed Oktober 14, 2018.
Afro-Caribbean music
|
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Skywalker family
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The Skywalker family is a fictional legendary family in the Star Wars franchise. Within the series' fictional universe, the Skywalkers are presented as a bloodline with strong inherent capabilities related to the Force. Luke Skywalker, his twin sister Princess Leia Organa, and their father Darth Vader are central characters in the original Star Wars film trilogy. Darth Vader, in his previous identity as Anakin Skywalker, is the lead character in the prequel film trilogy; his mother Shmi is a minor character in the first and second films respectively. Leia and Han Solo’s son, Ben Solo, is a central antagonist in the sequel film trilogy as Kylo Ren. Shmi, Han, and Padmé are the only members who are not Force-sensitive.
History
In terms of the series' internal chronology, the Skywalkers first appeared in the 1999 film Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. In this film, Jedi Knight Qui-Gon Jinn discovers Shmi Skywalker and her son Anakin as slaves on the planet Tatooine. Shmi informs Qui-Gon that Anakin has no father, leading Qui-Gon to suggest that Anakin is a product of midi-chlorians (Force-imparting microorganisms). As the film progresses, Anakin leaves Tatooine to begin his Jedi training. Later, in a comic, Anakin's father is implied to be Palpatine.
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002) reveals that, in Anakin's absence, Shmi has married Cliegg Lars, becoming the stepmother of Owen. Shmi later dies. Owen tells Anakin they are stepbrothers and later marries Beru Whitesun. Anakin secretly marries Naboo Senator Padmé Amidala at the end of the film.
In Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005), Padme dies giving birth to twins, Luke and Leia. Luke is raised by Beru and Owen Lars on Tatooine. Leia is raised by Senator Bail Organa and Queen Breha Organa on Alderaan. Anakin, who has since become the Sith Lord Darth Vader, is unaware of his children's birth. The twins soon became part of the Rebel Alliance following the deaths of their adoptive families at the hands of the Empire. Neither of the twins know of their relation until the events of Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi (1983).
The Solo family is part of the Skywalker family. In the 2018 spin-off film Solo: A Star Wars Story (set between Episode III and 1977's Episode IV – A New Hope), orphan Han Solo steals to survive on the planet Corellia. The last-name "Solo" is given to him by an Imperial Officer in his application to join the Imperial Flight Academy. Since the last-name of Han's father is unknown, Han would be the first Solo. Han would later be involved in the war against the Empire, forming a romantic relationship with Leia. Eventually, Han, Anakin (who has now reformed), Luke, and Leia succeeded in putting in end to the Empire's reign of terror, but this came at a cost of Anakin's life. In the 2015 film Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens, it is revealed that Han had a son named Ben with Leia. The family breaks apart following Ben's descent into the dark side as Kylo Ren, with Leia and Han separating. Luke is not revealed to have any children.
By the end of Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019), the Skywalker bloodline has died out, as Han is killed by Kylo Ren after he tries to convince him to return to the light side, Luke sacrifices himself to save the Resistance from the First Order, Leia dies to bring her son back to the light side, and Ben Solo dies to save Rey. Later, Rey adopts "Skywalker" as her surname to honor the Skywalker family and continue their legacy while cutting ties with her Palpatine lineage, making her the last known person to carry this surname. Since then, the Skywalkers have become legendary and famous throughout galactic history and for restoring peace to the galaxy.
Family tree
Members
Shmi Skywalker-Lars
Shmi Skywalker (portrayed by Pernilla August) is the mother of Anakin Skywalker, the mother-in-law of Padmé Amidala, the paternal grandmother of Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa, the grandmother-in-law of Han Solo, and the maternal great-grandmother of Ben Solo. She appears in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace and Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones.
Shmi was captured by pirates as a child alongside her parents, and was sold to the Hutts. In a bet, Gardulla the Hutt lost Shmi to Watto.
In The Phantom Menace, she and her son are introduced as slaves of junk merchant Watto on the desert world Tatooine. Unlike her son, she is not Force-sensitive. She welcomes Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson) into their home, and tells him that Anakin (Jake Lloyd) has no father; she simply became pregnant with him. In spite of her poverty, Shmi tries to give Anakin a good home in the slave quarter of Mos Espa. Qui-Gon helps Anakin win his freedom, but cannot get Shmi out of slavery. She allows Anakin to leave with Qui-Gon, assuring her heartbroken son that they will meet again.
In Attack of the Clones, Anakin (Hayden Christensen), now a young adult Jedi apprentice, senses through the Force that she is in pain. He travels to Tatooine to find her, and, upon arriving, learns that she had been freed by and married to moisture farmer Cliegg Lars (Jack Thompson), but had recently been abducted by Tusken Raiders. He finds her inside one of their encampments, but it's too late—beaten and tortured beyond help, she dies in his arms. Heartbroken and enraged by the loss of his mother, Anakin slaughters every single Tusken in the camp, including the women and children. Shmi's death ignites a strong anger in Anakin, and sets him on the path to becoming Darth Vader. Anakin later brings Shmi's body back to the Lars' homestead where she is given a burial.
Anakin Skywalker
Anakin Skywalker is the son of Shmi Skywalker, born without a father through the Force. He is the secret husband of Padmé Amidala, the father of Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa, the father-in-law of Han Solo, and the maternal grandfather of Ben Solo. Anakin is discovered on Tatooine by Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn who is sure that the boy is the "Chosen One" of Jedi Prophecy, who will bring balance to the Force. After the death of Qui-Gon, he becomes the Padawan of Obi-Wan Kenobi. He also forms a close bond with Padmé Amidala, the young senator of Naboo. The newly elected Chancellor of the Galactic Republic, Palpatine, also befriends Anakin, promising to watch the boy's progress "with great interest" and advise him. Torn between his loyalty to the Jedi and his drive for power, Anakin succumbs to temptation and becomes Darth Vader. As Vader, Anakin spends the following decades serving under Palpatine's Galactic Empire until reuniting with his son, Luke, redeeming himself by defeating his master to protect him (therefore, fulfilling his role as the Chosen One) while sacrificing himself in the process and becoming one with the Force.
Anakin is portrayed by Jake Lloyd in The Phantom Menace (1999) and Hayden Christensen in Attack of the Clones (2002) and Revenge of the Sith (2005).
Padmé Amidala
Padmé Amidala (portrayed by Natalie Portman) is the secret wife of Anakin Skywalker, the mother of Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa, the daughter-in-law of Shmi Skywalker, the mother-in-law of Han Solo, and the maternal grandmother of Ben Solo. She served as Queen of Naboo, and later as a Senator for her planet. She does not use the Force like most members of the Skywalker family. Her closest friend in the Senate was Senator Bail Organa. She reconnected and fell in love with Anakin Skywalker after he was assigned to protect her from an assassination attempt, and secretly married him shortly after the Battle of Geonosis. Three years later, she reveals to Anakin that she is pregnant and plans to raise their child on Naboo. She realizes that Anakin has started to have nightmares of her dying in childbirth and assures him that it was just a dream and that it won't happen. After Anakin turned to the dark side and massacred the Jedi at the Jedi Temple, she was told by Anakin that the Jedi had taken over the Republic. Obi-Wan arrives and asks Padmé about her husband's whereabouts and informs her that he has turned to the dark side. Padmé accuses Obi-Wan of lying and doesn't believe that Anakin would kill younglings. Obi-Wan states that Anakin is the father of Padmé's child and sets off to find him. Padmé tracks Anakin, now Darth Vader, to Mustafar and tries to persuade him to abandon the dark side, but Vader refuses and force chokes her unconscious when Obi-Wan arrives. Padmé gives birth to her children shortly after the first Empire Day, whom she calls Luke and Leia. Padmé tells Obi-Wan that she believes there is still good left in Vader, before passing away. During her funeral, her body was altered to make her appear still pregnant. Obi-Wan and Yoda decided to separate the children in order to keep them hidden from Darth Vader.
Luke Skywalker
Luke Skywalker (portrayed by Mark Hamill) is the brother of Leia Organa, the brother-in-law of Han Solo, the uncle of Ben Solo, the son of Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala, and the grandson of Shmi Skywalker. He is taken in by his uncle and aunt, Owen and Beru Lars, after the death of Padmé and Anakin's fall to the dark side. He is Force-sensitive and skilled with a lightsaber. In Return of the Jedi, a dying Yoda confirms to Luke, that Darth Vader (previously Anakin Skywalker) is actually his father, despite Luke's belief that Vader's claim to fatherhood in The Empire Strikes Back was a ruse to pull Luke to the dark side. He also finds out from Obi-Wan's Force Ghost that Princess Leia Organa is his sister. In The Force Awakens, as the last known Jedi, Luke is in hiding after failing to prevent his nephew and apprentice Ben Solo (now Kylo Ren) from turning to the dark side to join Supreme Leader Snoke and has cut himself off from the Force. In The Last Jedi, a young scavenger named Rey has located Luke and tries to convince him to show her the ways of the Force, but he refuses. After knowing the death of Han Solo, he trains Rey about how to use the Force and to become a Jedi. Luke reveals to Rey that he sensed the dark side in Ben and was scared for him, but Ben retaliated by using the Force to collapse the hut, burying him underneath. When he refuses to help Rey turn Ben back to the light, Luke plans to burn the Jedi Library tree and is greeted by Yoda, who convinces him to help Rey and not to mourn his failure of losing Ben to Snoke. On the planet Crait, Luke appears with his old lightsaber and duels Ben, who tries to attack Luke, but he dodges them. Luke tries to reason with Ben and then disappears, revealing that he was still on the island and that Ben was dueling a Force projection of him. Luke falls to the ground and gets up, and afterwards dies after disappearing, becoming one with the Force
Leia Organa-Skywalker
Leia Amidala Skywalker (portrayed by Carrie Fisher) is the wife of Han Solo, the mother of Ben Solo, the sister of Luke Skywalker, the daughter of Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala, and the granddaughter of Shmi Skywalker, raised by Bail and Breha Organa of Alderaan. At age 19, she is the Princess of Alderaan, and is captured by Darth Vader while in the Tantive IV blockade runner on a so-called "diplomatic mission". Leia is shown to be Force-sensitive. In The Empire Strikes Back, Leia professes her love for Han Solo when he is put into carbonite stasis, although it is originally Han and Luke who compete for her affections. In Return of the Jedi, planning to feed Luke, Han, and Chewbacca to the flesh eating Sarlacc, Jabba the Hutt is instead strangled to death by Leia by a chain he has on her. She later becomes involved in the Battle of Endor. In the years that follow, she becomes General Organa, the leader of the Resistance, a military organization unofficially backed by the New Republic to counter the First Order. She married Han Solo and had a son named Ben Solo, later Kylo Ren, whose turning to the dark side separated the couple before the events of The Force Awakens. Leia has been on a search to find her missing brother Luke and find a way to save her son from the dark side. She dies spending her energy trying to reach Ben, which helps him come back to the light side. Her body later disappears and she becomes one with the Force.
Han Solo
Han Solo (portrayed by Harrison Ford) is the husband of Leia Organa, the brother-in-law of Luke Skywalker, the father of Ben Solo, the son-in-law of Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala, and the grandson-in-law of Shmi Skywalker. Like Shmi and Padmé, he is not Force-sensitive. The anthology film Solo: A Star Wars Story reveals that Han Solo's father constructed ships on the planet Corellia, where Han was born. The name of Han's father is not known. Han's surname, Solo, was not his birth name, with Han being given his Solo surname by an imperial officer right before Han joined the imperial flight academy, which he would leave three years after. Han Solo's first film appearance however was in 1977's Star Wars: A New Hope where he is played by Harrison Ford. He and his Wookiee co-pilot and best friend, Chewbacca, are initially hired to transport Luke Skywalker and Obi-Wan Kenobi. Han and Chewbacca later become involved in the Rebel Alliance and are committed to its cause. Over the course of the franchise, Han becomes a military leader for the Alliance, falling in love with and marrying Leia Organa, with whom he has a son named Ben. He is killed by Ben, who has become Kylo Ren, after failing to convince his son to turn from the dark side.
Ben Solo
Ben Solo (portrayed by Adam Driver) is the son of Leia Organa and Han Solo, the nephew of Luke Skywalker, the grandson of Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala, and the great-grandson of Shmi Skywalker. He initially trains to be a Jedi under his uncle, Luke. Soon, Luke suspects Ben has been influenced by Snoke, and ignites his lightsaber because of instinct in an attempt to kill Ben in his sleep to prevent him from causing destruction. But when he thinks about killing Ben, Ben wakes up and this causes Ben to fall to the dark side. Ben becomes Kylo Ren, working for the First Order and working under the influence of Snoke. He also forms an uneasy alliance with General Hux. Ren is obsessed with the legacy of his grandfather, the Sith Lord Darth Vader, and aspires to finish what Vader started: the elimination of the Jedi. He stabs Han Solo, his father, in the heart but spares his mother when ordered to destroy her ship. Ben becoming Kylo Ren also caused Han and Leia to break up, with neither of them able to stop loving their son. Luke confronts him and also disappears trying to stop Ben's actions. Kylo also meets Rey, a strong Force-sensitive with whom he has a connection called 'dyad in the Force', and he develops a romantic relationship with her despite the two being enemies at first. After his mother's death, Rey saves his life and admits to him she does want to join him as Ben Solo; he then sees a vision of his father and decides to come back to the light side, becoming Ben Solo again. Later, he sacrifices himself to bring Rey back to life, and shares a kiss with her before vanishing into the Force as the last of the Skywalker bloodline.
Rey
Rey (portrayed by Daisy Ridley) is the granddaughter of Emperor Palpatine, her father being a non-identical clone of the Emperor. As a child, Rey was hidden by her parents on the planet Jakku to save her from Palpatine. Years later, Rey meets Kylo Ren, with whom she has a connection in the Force, in which they are referred to as a 'Force dyad', and she develops a romantic relationship with him despite the two being enemies at first. She also becomes the last Jedi apprentice of Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa. At the end of The Rise of Skywalker, Rey adopts "Skywalker" as her surname (having considered the Skywalkers her true family) despite not being part of the Skywalker bloodline; until then, she had been mononymous. With the deaths of everyone in Anakin's bloodline, she is currently the only living person known to bear the Skywalker name.
Extended family of the Skywalkers
Padmé Amidala's family
Lars family (Anakin’s step-father, step-brother, and Luke's adoptive family)
Organa family (Leia's adoptive family)
Legends
The following characters are exclusive to what is now retroactively known as the Legends brand since April 2014, and non-canonical to any and all Star Wars material produced under the ownership of the Walt Disney Company. With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.
Following the events of the original film trilogy, Leia and Han marry and have children, and Luke does likewise several years after they do. The Skywalker bloodline branches from Luke and Leia's descendants, but only Luke's side continues to carry the Skywalker name.
Leia and Han marry in The Courtship of Princess Leia (1994) by Dave Wolverton. Leia is pregnant with twins in Timothy Zahn's Heir to the Empire (1991) and they are born in Zahn's The Last Command (1993). Han and Leia have another child by the time of the Jedi Academy trilogy (1994) by Kevin J. Anderson, by which time Leia has become the Chief of State of the New Republic. All three of the Solo children become Jedi Knights under the tutelage of their maternal uncle Luke Skywalker. The Solo children were ranked as the 16th top Star Wars heroes, according to IGN in 2008.
Having refounded the Jedi Order and trained several new Jedi including Leia, Luke eventually marries an enemy-turned-ally Mara Jade, and they have a son named Ben, who was voted the 40th top Star Wars character by IGN and the 6th top Star Wars Expanded Universe character by UGO Networks.
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Mara Jade
Mara Jade was created by Timothy Zahn as an antagonist for Heir to the Empire (1991), and she and Luke marry several years later in the comic miniseries Union (1999-2000). She joins his restored Jedi Order, and they have a son, Ben Skywalker, in the middle of the New Jedi Order series (1999-2003).
Jaina Solo
Jaina Solo is the eldest child of Han Solo and Leia Organa Solo, created by Timothy Zahn for the Thrawn trilogy of Star Wars expanded universe novels. Leia is pregnant with twins in Heir to the Empire (1991) and Jaina and her brother Jacen are born in The Last Command (1993). She has appeared in various novels and the Champions of the Force set for the Star Wars Miniatures game.
Jaina, named after Han's mother, is born five minutes before her brother Jacen in the Thrawn trilogy (1991–93), set about five years after Return of the Jedi. The twins, and eventually their younger brother, live at various safe havens for their first few years under the protection of Leia's handmaiden Winter. The twins play a small role in Kevin J. Anderson's Jedi Academy trilogy (1994). In Champions of the Force (1994), Jaina helps her brother defend their unconscious uncle from the spirit of Sith Lord Exar Kun. In Vonda McIntyre's The Crystal Star (1994), Jaina is kidnapped and used in a plot, along with her siblings, to take advantage of their Force powers. In the Corellian trilogy (1994), Jaina is again kidnapped but escapes. Jaina becomes a major character in Young Jedi Knights (1995) as Jaina and Jacen begin their Jedi training.
Throughout the New Jedi Order series (1999–2003), Jaina pursues a life separate from her twin brother and becomes Mara Jade Skywalker's apprentice. Jaina progresses quickly as a Jedi and a pilot, eventually joining Rogue Squadron. She also develops a romantic relationship with Jagged Fel. She briefly becomes the apprentice of fallen Jedi Kyp Durron. Jaina's understanding and manipulation of Yuuzhan Vong technology causes them to associate her with their trickster goddess. She is present at the conclusion of the war with the Yuuzhan Vong. Walter Jon Williams, author of Destiny's Way (2002), noted that the plot concerning Jaina's love life caused some frantic rewrites. Elaine Cunningham, author of the Dark Journey, commented that the story of the 2002 novel is a personal one focusing on a difficult time in Jaina's life.
In The Joiner King (2005), Jaina and the Jedi Zekk are joined in the Killik hive. Jacen tricks them into attacking a Chiss base to provoke a war between the Chiss and the Killiks; Jaina, furious, vows that she will never fly with Jacen again. In the Legacy of the Force series (2006–08), Jacen throws Jaina out of the Galactic Alliance when she refuses to follow his order to destroy a crippled ship. She senses at this time a growing darkness in her twin. In Betrayal (2006), Jacen falls to the dark side of the Force, and Jaina realizes her duty as the "Sword of the Jedi" requires her to stop him. She turns to Boba Fett to train her. In Invincible (2008), Jaina duels and kills Jacen.
In the Fate of the Jedi series (2009–12), Jaina is promoted to Jedi Master by Luke Skywalker, and marries Jagged Fel. Her and Jagged's descendants include Emperor Roan Fel and his daughter Marasiah Fel in the Legacy series (2006–14), set nearly 140 years after Return of the Jedi.
In 2017, Hasbro released a 6" Jaina figure as a part of its Black Series line.
Jacen Solo
Jacen Solo is the elder son of Han Solo and Leia Organa, introduced in utero in the 1994 Star Wars expanded universe novel Heir to the Empire, and born and named in The Last Command. He is a major character in several Star Wars novels, particularly as the protagonist of The New Jedi Order series and later as the antagonist of the Legacy of the Force series, in which he becomes known as Darth Caedus.
IGN listed Jacen as #17 on their list of the top 100 Star Wars heroes, saying that he had a more "profound effect" than any other Solo children on the Star Wars setting. Jesse Schedeen, writing for IGN, also listed him as #5 in a reader-inspired list of top Star Wars villains, and named the character's murder of Mara Jade as his "defining moment of villainy". UGO.com listed Jacen as their top Star Wars expanded universe character, calling him "one of the most fearsome—and most tragic—villains in the Star Wars universe".
Anakin Solo
Anakin Solo is the youngest child born to Han Solo and Princess Leia, and the younger brother of Jacen and Jaina Solo. Anakin is named after his maternal grandfather, Anakin Skywalker, and, like his namesake, is a talented pilot who is prodigiously gifted both in the Force and mechanical engineering.
Anakin appears as an infant and toddler in many Star Wars novels such as the Jedi Academy trilogy (1994). Anakin and his siblings play central roles in other novels such as The Crystal Star (1994), the Corellian trilogy (1995) and The New Rebellion (1996). Anakin's birth is featured in Tom Veitch's Dark Empire II comic book miniseries (May 1995). He is first referred to as Han Solo, Jr. by his father, but Leia corrects him, having named the baby after her biological father, Anakin Skywalker, as a reminder of hope. However, Anakin still fears the name and his grandfather's legacy.
On October 1, 1995, Nancy Richardson started the Junior Jedi Knights series with The Golden Globe starring Anakin and his best friend Tahiri Veila. Anakin is now an eleven-year-old child starting his training at the Jedi Academy on Yavin 4. Richardson continued Anakin's adventures in the following two novels, Lyric's World and Promises, before Rebecca Moesta finished the series with Anakin's Quest, Vader's Fortress, and Kenobi's Blade, starting in 1996. Anakin appears in the Young Jedi Knights series by Kevin J. Anderson and Rebecca Moesta, which follows the adventures of Anakin's siblings, Jacen and Jaina.
In 1999, the first novel of the New Jedi Order series was published, entitled Vector Prime by R.A. Salvatore. Anakin is now a teenager, who often spends time alone thinking about the role of the Force, and would get into arguments with his brother Jacen on the ways of a Jedi and the Force. Anakin studies as a Jedi under his uncle, Luke Skywalker, who still sees his nephew as being too young and reckless.<ref name="Conquest">Keyes, G. New Jedi Order: Edge of Victory I: Conquest. Del Rey, April 2001. </ref> In the novel's climax, his father's copilot and best friend, Chewbacca, dies saving Anakin's life.
Anakin plays major roles in Dark Tide: Onslaught and Dark Tide: Ruin by Michael A. Stackpole published 1 February 2000 and 1 June 2000, respectively, and is the main focus of the books Edge of Victory: Conquest and Edge of Victory: Rebirth by Greg Keyes published April 1, 2001 and August 1, 2001, respectively.
In the 2001 novel Star by Star by Troy Denning, Anakin leads a team of Jedi to take out a dangerous enemy, resulting in his death. Writers of the New Jedi Order storyline revealed in a question-and-answer section of the paperback edition of The Unifying Force published on August 3, 2004 that Anakin was supposed to be the hero of the story and lead the Jedi Order, but this was changed due to the release of the Star Wars prequel films, in which the hero was also named Anakin. Instead, he dies in battle at the conclusion of the novel.
Even after his death, Anakin Solo has been mentioned several times in most following novels, including a possible appearance in Traitor by Matthew Stover, as a droid in Betrayal by Aaron Allston as Anakin Sal-Solo, and in Backlash, where he appeared to his maternal uncle Luke Skywalker and to Luke's son, Ben Skywalker by Aaron Allston.
Anakin is portrayed in the earlier books as being a genius and a loner, but is haunted by his name. In Lyric's World, it is revealed that he loves to take computers apart and put them back together and sees it as a puzzle. He would also have dreams of Emperor Palpatine and Darth Vader trying to persuade him to fall to the dark side of the Force; Anakin overcomes this fear in Anakin's Quest, in which he confronts himself.
Ben Skywalker
Luke Skywalker and Mara Jade Skywalker's son. Named after Obi-Wan "Ben" Kenobi, Jedi Knight. Former student of Jacen Solo, his cousin. He inherits his mother's red hair and his father's blue eyes. He is born during the New Jedi Order series (1999-2003). In Fate of the Jedi: Outcast, he voluntarily accompanies his father into exile. He proves himself as both a fighter and as an investigator to carry on his father's name. His love interest is Vestara Khai, formerly a Sith apprentice, then a Jedi apprentice. The character was voted the 40th top Star Wars character by IGN and the 6th top Star Wars Expanded Universe character by UGO Networks.
Allana Djo Solo
Allana Djo Solo is the daughter of Jacen Solo and Tenel Ka Djo, Jacen's fellow trainee at Luke's Jedi Academy. She is born during the Dark Nest trilogy of novels. In the Legacy of the Force series, Jacen becomes Darth Caedus partly to protect Allana from a dark fate which he foresees. Her death is faked and she is adopted by her grandparents under the false identity of "Amelia", a supposed war orphan. She lives and travels with them during the following series Fate of the Jedi. By the end of that series, her Jedi training is about to begin.
Roan and Marasiah Fel
In the Star Wars: Legacy comic series, set over 120 years after the original trilogy, some of Leia's descendants have since become the ruling dynasty of a reformed, more benevolent Empire. The first volume (2006-2010) recounts their struggles against a new Sith Order. Emperor Roan Fel is Leia's great-grandson, Jaina Solo's grandson and the head of the Imperial Knights (who split from the Jedi refounded by Luke, but are still opposed to the dark side). Marasiah Fel is his daughter and an imperial Knight herself. They oppose the new Sith Order who have taken over most of the galaxy, and ally with Cade Skywalker and the surviving Jedi and Republic forces in order to fight them.
Nat Skywalker
Nat Skywalker is a former Jedi Master in Star Wars: Legacy, a grandson of Ben Skywalker, older brother of Kol Skywalker and the uncle of Cade Skywalker. He took the name Bantha Rawk upon leaving the Jedi and works as a mechanic.
Kol Skywalker
Kol Skywalker is a character in Star Wars: Legacy. A Jedi Master, he is the younger brother of Nat Skywalker and a grandson of Ben Skywalker (they share the same red hair color, and has green eyes like Ben's mother Mara Jade), he is the father of Cade Skywalker.
Ania Solo
The second volume of Star Wars: Legacy (2013-2014) follows Ania Solo, the great-granddaughter of Leia and granddaughter of Jacen Solo. She is a junkyard trader who is embroiled in the continuing conflict between the new Sith and the Republic-Imperial alliance.
Cade Skywalker
Cade Skywalker is the descendant of Anakin Skywalker, Luke Skywalker, Mara Jade Skywalker and Ben Skywalker, the son of Kol Skywalker and the nephew of Nat Skywalker. He is a protagonist of the Star Wars: Legacy comic book series from Dark Horse, which takes place 125 years after Return of the Jedi. Cade has completely abandoned the Jedi way after an attack by the New Sith Order on the Jedi Academy on Ossus. Despite this, he still encounters other Jedi, as well as the ghost of his ancestor Luke Skywalker, and ultimately reclaims his heritage to fight the Sith. The character was voted the 84th top Star Wars'' character by IGN.
References
External links
A listing for "Union" at the Comic Book DataBase.
Characters created by George Lucas
Fictional families
Fictional family trees
Fictional elements introduced in 1999
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] |
242929
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow%20Jones
|
Dow Jones
|
Dow Jones is a combination of the names of business partners Charles Dow and Edward Jones.
Dow Jones & Company
Dow, Jones and Charles Bergstresser founded Dow Jones & Company in 1882. That company eventually became a subsidiary of News Corp, and publishes The Wall Street Journal among other publications.
Stock market indices
In 2010, 90% of the Dow Jones Indexes subsidiary was sold to the CME Group. Since 2012, S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC — a joint venture between S&P Global, the CME Group, and News Corp — produces, maintains, licenses, and markets stock market indices.
Among these indices are:
Dow Jones Industrial Average, one of the most widely utilized indices of the US stock market, measuring the stock performance of 30 large companies
Dow Jones Transportation Average, the oldest stock index in use
Dow Jones Utility Average, tracking the performance of 15 prominent U.S. utility companies
Dow Jones Global Indexes, a family of international equity indexes
Dow Jones Composite Average, tracking 65 prominent companies
Dow Jones Global Titans 50
See also:
S&P 500
Sustainability indices
The Dow Jones Sustainability Indices (DJSI), launched in 1999, are a family of indices evaluating the sustainability performance of thousands of companies.
See also
Dow Jones and the Industrials, an American music band 1979–1981
S&P Dow Jones Indices
|
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